4.... LIBRARY This is to certify that the thesis entitled TOWARD A THEORY OF THE FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM FOR THE CHURCH presented by _Darold D. Boyd has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph.D Department of Secondary degree in Education & Curriculum L Q 325% Major professor Date February 25, 1981 0-7 639 \IulinimjiulmuLuxgiulsuiuxw “ OVERDUE FINES: 25¢ per day per item RETURNING LIBRARY MATERIALS: Place in book return to remove charge from circulation records @Copyright 1981 by DAROLD D. BOYD FOUNDATIC in; Depa 1'th TOWARD A THEORY of the FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM FOR THE CHURCH By Darold D . Boyd A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Secondary Education and Curriculum 1981 ’ Foundatio m. , . me GEE-'8 40373.81 “VIN ‘- ‘:_ hat-'1“: ~Yn~ul A 4 --\J. x, ‘VARAa q E. 3' an vwbcu ab 3 :Ta‘.‘ ‘ Ho- .cb, ‘\ Iv )51‘ ‘ I 67/ a 52—57 ABSTRACT Toward A Theory Of The Foundations Of Curriculum For The Church By Damfid D. Boyd The developmental functions of the church are approached from the perspective of practical social science, especially as emerging from curriculum theory. An empirical basis is proposed as a way to postulate appropriate functions and outputs of the church as an institution committed to spir- itual development, and hence to the whole of human develop— ment. By building upon the language and logic of educational theory the present research seeks to do three things: First, it seeks a new concept of curriculum for the church which will enable decision-makers to generate new Ways of describing what the church can appropriately do in terms of function and outputs. Second, it inquires into the fields of sociology, Psychology, and philosophy to identify and describe those essential variables and relationships which enable decision— makers to develop a more holistic View of what the curricular functions of the church might properly be. Third, the research suggests a set of develOpmental tasks for the church. These developmental tasks provide a basis for developi church programs. Each of the < iifferent level 0 stitutes a ratio: activities in whi if it is to be ef basis for developing particular models and guidelines for church programs. Each of the above research objectives represents a different level of curriculum theory. The research con- stitutes a rationale for determining the specific kinds of activities in which the church might properly be engaged if it is to be effective in facilitating the whole of human development. Reviews of the literature of both school and church are presented and critiqued. The language and logic of education (school) is found to provide an analytic model for church. Reviews of the psychological, sociological, and theo~ logical education and development literature are presented and critiqued. Five foundations of curriculum for the Church are identified and presented. Three major theses are taken in the present research. First, the church both in relational and sacramental exper— iences is a developmental context. All aspects of the church are educative in the normative sense. In this view, there is nothing the church does which lies outside the domain of education. The whole church is educative by definition. Therefore, everything the church does can be evaluated from a curricular perspective, not just the "edu— cative" segments of the church. Support is p as an organismic vast resources of the perceived and Second, deci- possession of a x for the developing as a learwén a... tc-.;\4 - 3' o . II \ A...::“ N “~n‘.l I ‘ ~49“ 8-0:32182: :7“ a ‘9 u».;{lt;es cf 55 “me preserx er lUA‘ “‘ ~r1tage o n ',_ . £1-51 bJ_Or1~na1 mg as larger Cultu‘ Third! the ‘ :ossessmn 0.: a 'e < 113‘; in ' t in What Eva}, MEre imprm Support is presented for conceptualizing the church as an organismic and charismatic community in which the vast resources of the church are enabled to be applied to the perceived and postulated needs of people. Second, decision—makers in the church are in possession of a View of man that can serve as the basis for the development of a philosophy of education, a method- ology, and an approach to the construction of the church as a learning environment. An environmental approach to human development serves as the basis for disciplining the activities of the church to its reason for being, for giving appropriate structure to essential educative organizations as the preserver and transmitter of the cultural and spir— itual heritage of the Christian community, as an instrument for transforming both the institutions of the church and the larger culture, and for individual development. Third, the church is inherently a moral system in possession of a counter-culture base. This base is in harmony with an ecological (interactional) concept of church which necessitates a dynamic role in culture. It is not a question of whether or not church affects culture, but in what way and toward what end. Mere improvements in the church's educative activities are an insufficient condition for making the church into an effective force for the whole of human development. The People of God need to reconceptualize the nature, aims, and function of the < organize resource :endations are me and empirical exg 1: me research. function of the church to logically and more consistently organize resources to facilitate human development. Recom- mendations are made for further theoretical, philosophical and empirical exploitation and extension of ideas presented in the research. 'TO r- -b . ". s Karen's .' Iva ". ob ”a \ “I‘- Ll-A‘ 6 d Ste H“ «a now] buy. 1 V ' ~ .1. AA. w..v. ‘3“; “v" t c ‘Avo .V'r . DEDICATION TO KAREN, CHERYL AND STEPHEN It was Karen's idea to get this degree. Her faithful support, hard work, and loving companionship have made it possible. Cheryl and Stephen have taught me much about human develop- ment. Their enthusiasm for life and fun have brought much joy. ii Grateful apprecie rfiMrs. Myron F. Their life-long c ;eo: le. SPECIAL ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Grateful appreciation is extended to my parents, Bishop and Mrs. Myron F. Boyd, for their whole—hearted support. Their life—long commitment to increasing the effective- ness of the church has contributed immeasurably to a like awakening within myself. Their investment in me has con- tributed to the constant enlargement of my own perspective of the world and what God is doing for and through his people. r- .inportan (t ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS An important aspect of any dissertation is the reason for it. The stated purpose of a dissertation is only a partial explanation. The reason for the present research is best explained as an attempt to combine my own personal growth with a meaningful concern for the real world of people. Thus, the language of theology, psychology, and sociology have served as a focus for both self exploration and the exploration of the broader human condition in a meaningful context. Emerging from the research are personal and social values that have been developing over a period of several years. Two major value themes have appeared. There is the desire to construct intellectually satisfying conceptual maps of the human condition and potential. There is also the developing awareness that faith and justice cannot be separated, that the healthy personality can emerge only as one engages in the task of improving the quality of life for all persons. Throughout this process, several persons have provided help and resources. Dr. Ted W. Ward has served as advisor, chairperson of my doctoral committee, teacher, mentor, pro— fessional colleague, and friend. His continuous support, constructive criticism, and high expectations have both iv guided and inspi given many hours Other menbe nan, Dr. John Po pful by forci -‘r" ‘ ‘ ,‘ "so ' I . gut-3-1 1n5:; r: 7‘ A ‘ w.;-;ue..Ce (1:0. '3 ‘LJ (D (’0 ,_. O 3 O I f f ) (D '1 «,5 '-‘ v- the manuscri no have been SL Of +1 ‘ .nis researc'r guided and inspired my efforts. His wife, Margaret, has given many hours editing the manuscript. Other members of my committee are Dr. Charles A. Black- man, Dr. John Powell, and Dr. Donald Melcer. Each has been helpful by forcing me to work through numerous questions, conflicts, and views. Debra Quackenbush has served as a most effective secre— tary. The quality of her work has been a source of much confidence and encouragement. Her husband, John, has cheerfully put up with inconveniences related to the com- pletion of the research. Dr. James and Della Blackburn have helped to mobilize essential resources in order to meet deadlines. Carolyn Boyd Martin typed early Versions of the manuscript. There are many friends in four churches who have been supportive in many ways throughout the period of this research. Dr. Howard and Pauline Hoffman, Jack Esterline, Ellen Kingsley, and Lloyd Ganton are represen— tative of the many persons in the Spring Arbor Free Methodist Church whose inspiring creativity played a major part in launching me upon this adventure. Their personal commit— ment and professional competence have been of immeasurable value. Grateful appreciation is also due to the many per- sons in the Shepardsville, Price, and Dimondale United Methodist Churches who have been supportive along the way. CHAPTER ONE: In TI' Purpose of the Rese Need Statement . I ‘ a . N O 2 "A Seen .0: .. a: “I: VD; "A 1P“ f‘n .- Y :HL‘vGL&'v.. \. \r a - .. AGES I“: COR: ‘.F\ - I ‘1 -A a... - Area “I C. - NU.“- ' ‘- 7" .r“ q“: Vat-11.-»cl A -\‘ «an. :AY « h I N" ‘ch “ - AI \, fiv- :Vv V‘ -\ ‘Jet-L \ '5. -“4’ :_y o. . '1 “can?“ be "‘ . Y‘ 2 ‘e t.”" “u Organization, Plan .. : “14 a; mutation 5!: The -. i'H— $.1t n --'1 5—1 TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW OF THE RESEARCH . . . . . Purpose of the Research . . . . . . . . . . . . NeedStatement................... Need for a definition of the parameters of education for the church . . . . . . . . . . . Need for consistent responses to basic curriculuar problems . . . . . . . . . Need for an integration of the outcomes of empirical and theological inquiry . . . . . Need for a common language by which to identify, prescribe, and evaluate all the appropriate functions and outputs of the church . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Parameters of Education for the Church: A Conceptual Comparison . . . . . . . . . . . 12 14 Organization, Plan and Content of the Research . Foundation Model—Building . . . . . . . . . The Thematic Question . . . . . . . . . The Foundations Question . . . . . . . . * The first set of criteria (Huebner) * The second set of criteria (A Convergence Model) . . . . . . . * Three levels of curriculum theory (Macdonald * The organization and sequence of Key Assumption Key Concepts the research . Vi 21 22 23 Educati Curricu Curricu Church Summary . . . . CHAPTER TWO: F' FF Dwayne Huebner c.-— n; ---c-o- ".‘ u. ---~.y\— y- -1 _ He ‘01.; 1"" - -.. :x ‘5 V.‘ _ :ranework as 'I fi‘ 3 A x" “1519 Al ‘0: I!” H‘ 'N . rne Regulreme 1 -‘n: ‘ K .‘I .Y {as ‘ '1‘ ‘ ‘39 DEVELOCDE ~ | FD‘T‘IY’Shv-u.‘ .. ~“ -~. ‘. w . H “Cult, 7‘ Education . Curriculum Curricular Foundations Church Summary . . . . CHAPTER TWO: Dwayne Huebner FOUNDATIONS FOR THE FROM THE LITERATURE . 0 RESEARCH ‘ The Effect of Language on Educational Thought . 31 33 The Role of Language in Developing a Value Framework as the Basis for Selection Between Viable Alternatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Requirements of Language in Providing an Empirical Basis for any Movement . . . . . . The Developmental Requirements for a Learning Environment . . . . . . . . . . . Need for Dialectical Relationships . . . . Need for a Concept of Curriculum as Environmental Design . . . The Three Tasks of the Curriculum Theorist . To articulate the structure of what it means to be in the world through language and environmental forms To control the forms he creates To continually subject created forms to constructive criticism . . . . . . . History as a Resource for Developing Educative Environments - - . - - Sources of Environmental Components . . . Relationship Between Language and Environment Practice as 3 Practice as D The Nature of James B. Macdonalc fitnne Greene . . u'illiam Pinar Th Process ihe an The or Toward Practice as Human Event . . . . . . . . . . . Practice as Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Nature of Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . James B. Macdonaki. . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . .. The Functional Role of Curriculum Theory . . . . . The Central Concern of Curriculum Theory Maxine Greene . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . Two Perceptions of Curriculum . . . . . . . . . . . Structure of socially prescribed knowledge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Series of possibilities for persons concerned with making sense of their own life world . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Critics of Consciousness Viewpoint . . . . . . . . Focus on developing cognitive structures commensurate with one's own understanding and experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Learning involves disclosure, reconstruction, and generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . WHHam thr .. . . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. Three Stages of the Reconceptualization Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The application of tradition . . . . . . . . The critics of tradition . . . . . . . . . Toward synthesis and potentiality . . . . . H. Richard Niebuhr . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . .. . The Goal of Theological Education . . . . . . . . . The Functional Requirements to Achieving the Goal viii 51 52 53 55 56 58 63 64 64 64 65 66 66 68 69 69 69 7O 71 72 72 mitatioe9 FE Proposa‘ls for SummarY ' ' CHAPTER THREE‘ Introduction The Nature of the ‘ .d a ' ’7' Tina: the “at: 51 n) (‘1 r" :J‘ (D ( r K 1 anat tne 35‘”’ lThe Nature and Air ”Ian Can Become . m 'N .ne .IOCESS Develo: Limiter h iuat Man Can A Heal‘ Limitations Facing Theological Education . . . . . . Proposals for Implementation and Evaluation . . . . Summary......................... CHAPTER THREE: IDENTIFICATION OF THE STRUCTURES . . . . . . . . . . Introduction.................... The Nature of the Church: A Normative Description . . What the Church Is . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Persons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Community . . . . . . . . . . . . Charisma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . What the Church Aims to Do: Reconciliation What the Church Does: A Responsibility Model . . The Nature and Aim of Human Development: What ManCanBecome................. The Process of Human Development . The Orthogenetic Principle Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Development, Structure, and Function . Development: The Setting Aside of Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . What Man Can Become . . . . . . A Healthy Personality: Gordon Allport A Perceptual View: Arthur Combs A Social—Psychological View: John Dewey . A Biblical—Anthropological View: Hans Walter Wolff , . , . _ . . . . . . . ix 73 73 74 83 83 85 88 88 89 89 91 92 96 97 98 99 101 103 113 125 145 The Nature of Socie Healthy Fanil Psychological t“ -' V»... g < . , ‘ ‘ “a an- - . H “"-IL\.A..: The Na: V3" 264 ”u. “a“ -he Pie The Pro RECOVe: fl 1 vomit}: 1 \ V. . an $33; ‘ ‘\ 0* bean ‘fi‘ & The Nature of Society: A Systemic Approach . . . . . . . . Healthy Families: Basic Context for Psychological Health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . An Energy Transforming System . . . . . . . . . . Family Behavior: An Ecological Systemic Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . How Healthy Families Function: Aim of Family Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Family: A Subsystem Within Society . . . Healthy Communities: Basic Context for Family and Individual Health . u . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Nature of a Community . . . . . . . . . . Man and Community . . . . . . The Place of Community Within Culture . . . . . . The Problem of Leadership . . . . . . . Recovering the Sense of an Integrated Community . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . An Approach to a Solution to the Problem of Community . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Aim of Community Design and Development . . . The Nature of School: A Normative Description Education as Preserver and Transmitter of the Cultural Heritage . . . . . . . . Education as an Instrument for Transforming Culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Education for Individual Development Summary.... CHAPTER FOUR: DISCIPLINING OF STRUCTURES TOAIMS................. Centrality of Learner Needs and Purposes . . . . . . . . . X 157 161 162 164 167 177 178 180 195 202 205 209 210 The DQVCIOpi: curriculum 3‘ Indivi< ‘0‘0. ..u-. ‘: Summary The Socialization P Socializatio: De-edur Need fr Reform The Developing Learner—-A Guide to Curriculum Development . . . . . . . . . . . Individual Uniqueness . . . . . . . . Developmental Tasks . . . . . . . . . Individual Rates of Development . . . Internal Sources of Motivation . . . . Holistic Patterns of Development . . . The Learning Process--A Guide to Curriculum Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Learner Goals and Purposes . . . . . . Transfer of Learning . . . . . . . . . Active, Dynamic Learners . . . . . . . Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Socialization Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . Socialization and School Reform . . . . . . De—education of the Adult Community . Need for Reform Needs Essential Criteria Reform Variables . . . . . . . . . . . Toward Renewal of the Socialization Process Objectives of Socialization . . . . . Master Plan for Socialization . . . . The Utility of Schooling . . . . . . . . . . The Meaning of Utility . . . . . . . . Needed: An Achievement Floor for the Church Reassessing the Uses of Schooling . . . . . . Shortcomings of Current Curricula . . . . . xi 211 213 216 216 219 219 221 Diversi Gross, Gross, unmrnrnvr: c Ar Conclusions Recommendations Embgue BuuocRAPHy AN Diversity and Fragmentation . . Gross, Immediate Experience . Gross, Overt, Behavior Roles . Neglect in Dealing With Values Replicative and Applicative Uses of Schooling De-Emphasis of the Role of Verbal Behavior Four Uses of Schooling . Associative Use of Schooling . Replicative Use of Schooling Applicative Use of Schooling Interpretive Use of Schooling . o . . 0 Summary....... CHAPTER FIVE: AND EPILOGUE . . . Conclusions . . . . . . . . Recommendations . . . . . . Epilogue . . . . . . BIBLIOGRAPHY AND GENERAL REFERENCES 0 o CONCLUSIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS 253 254 255 255 256 259 261 265 269 271 289 291 293 Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 LIST OF FIGURES Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure I—a N L») A U1 0 The Structure of the Research The Central Issues in Snyder's Theology of the Church. . . . . . . . . The Relation of Jesus to the Father The Relation of Jesus to Men. The Church as an Institution Committed to the Whole of Human Development . . . xiii 21 87 94 94 .280 INTRODU The purpos rudimentary sta In this sense c tion. The deve approached from especially as e basis is propos and outputs of spiritual devel development. By building “‘er the press it seeks a new c “ill enable dec j \ l. Tchurchll is de .lzed comImmity CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW OF THE RESEARCH The purpose of the present research is to develop a rudimentary statement of curriculum theory for the church. In this sense church is taken to be an educating institu— tion. The developmental functions of the church are approached from the perspective of practical social science, especially as emerging from curriculum theory. An empirical basis is proposed as a way to postulate appropriate functions and outputs of the church as an institution committed to spiritual development, and hence to the whole of human development. By building upon the language and logic of educational First theory the present research seeks to do three things: it seeks a new concept of curriculum for the church which will enable decision—makers to generate new ways of de— "Church" is defined throughout the present research as "the organ— ized community of God's people." Snyder (1977) says this community is called to serve God by living together in Christian community in a way that witnesses to the character and values of the Kingdom of God. This community acts as God's agent in mission. This mission is to bring all things under the Lordship of Jesus Christ (p.12). The emphasis of the present research on the word "community" is singular. That is, it does not refer to a building or denomination but to the corporate 'body of Christ.‘ That which characterizes the church (in its normative sense) is not a particular form (such as local church or denomination) by means of which it expresses itself, bUt, by its flexibility in the selection of useful forms (institu- tional) through which it seeks to accomplish its reason for being. scribing what functions and of sociology, tify and descri ships which en View of what t properly be. T a set of develo mental tasks pr and guidelines Each objec level of curric of the research Specific kinds PIOPEIIY be eng the moral, soci deVelopment of A Signific Forkner, McKim, exerciSe for SC meYer has done °°mparab1e stat. \ 1' Shane Hi detail. scribing what the church can appropriately do in terms of functions and outputs. Second, it inquires into the fields of sociology, psychology, philosophy, and theology to iden— tify and describe those essential variables and relation— ships which enable decision-makers to develop a more holistic View of what the curricular functions of the church might properly be. Third, the outcomes of the research may suggest a set of developmental tasks for the church. These develop- mental tasks provide a basis for developing particular models and guidelines for church educative processes. Each objective of the research represents a different Taken altogether, the outcomes level of curriculum theory. rationale for determining the of the research constitute a in which the church might specific kinds of activities to be effective in facilitating properly be engaged if it is spiritual and intellectual the moral, social, physical, development of people. A significant contribution was made by Stratemeyer, Forkner, McKim, and Passow (1957) in performing such an exercise for school curriculum. Building upon what Strate- meyer has done for school, the present research develops a comparable statement of curriculum theory for the church. K...— 1. Chapter Two discusses these three levels of curriculum theory in detail. As an inst ment of people institution. A and biblical co itual and intel a curriculum. The presen be made into a social change i quate to its es is designed. C fication of the that brings toge disciplinary dat findings that ha heeded theory mu 1°9ically integr Situation in the Tent of how the data of empirica any ”WY of th MUST be OPGrati b61119 translate OI being uSGd f Need Statement As an institution concerned globally with the develop- ment of people and society, the church is an educating institution. At the very least, considering its historical and biblical commitment to moral, social, physical, spir- itual and intellectual development it can be said to have a curriculum. The present research hypothesizes that the church could be made into a more effective force for individual and social change if it possesses a conceptual foundation ade— quate to its essential nature and the purpose for which it is designed. Consequently, there is a need for the identi- fication of the foundations of curriculum for the church that brings together the most relevant and useful of the disciplinary data, theories, philosophies, and empirical findings that have or may have relevance to this field. The needed theory must be both philosophically sound and psycho— logically integrated and justifiable. And since it is education in the context of church it must include a treat- ment of how the issues of faith and grace mesh with the data of empirical science in the area of education. Finally, any theory of the foundations of curriculum for the church must be operationally efficacious. It must be capable of being translated into curricular technology, and capable of being used for staff and instructional development. NEED FOR A DEFI EDUCATION FOR Church ed practical prob their particul professional e of the values and issues of e concerned with psychology to p as church colle and local churc eral learning e are the limitat.‘ several others? The lack or development may Which occur in c 311d researchers 0f the problem Often without a the parameters Decision-m 3M1 re-orient t mi in order t tribute to the NEED FOR A DEFINITION OF THE PARAMETERS OF EDUCATION FOR THE CHURCH Church educators are frequently in need of help with practical problems related to the role and influence of their particular institutions. Both professional and para— professional educators are concerned with the application of the values of the Christian community to the problems and issues of everyday living. Educators in the church are concerned with the development and application of a learning psychology to particular kinds of church institutions (such as church colleges, seminaries, graduate schools of theology, and local churches). How should the structures of the sev- eral learning environments be similar or different? What are the limitations imposed on each institution by the several others? The lack of a comprehensive theory for curricular development may be the cause of much of the dysfunctionalities which occur in church educative processes. A few scholars and researchers have endeavored to deal with certain aspects of the problem (Niebuhr, 1957) but their work has proceeded often without any systematic theory which carefully defines -the parameters of education in the context of the church. Decision—makers in the church are forced to re-evaluate and re—orient their goals, organizations, methods, and staf- fing in order to create the kinds of resources which con— tribute to the development of human resources which can cope effectively wit urban life, ecc confusion and j distribution of racism, conflic economic system confronted by t church is to be development . NEED FOR CONSIS' TO BASIC CURRIC There is a ricular problems lmconsciously ma ences they provi experiences is d the aims of the the available re differences. To provide the church, ther cular problems a rationale for ma Il957,Pp.6-21) 1 “list consider it effectively with the complexities of life. The problems of urban life, ecology and pollution, population control, moral confusion and indifference, tremendous inequities in the distribution of wealth and other material and social resources, racism, conflict and war, crisis of government, elitist economic system——these among countless other problems must be confronted by the total education system of the church if the church is to be effective in the business of nurturing human development. NEED FOR CONSISTENT RESPONSES TO BASIC CURRICULAR PROBLEMS There is a need for consistent responses to basic cur- ricular problems in the church. Educators consciously or unconsciously make decisions regarding the kinds of experi— ences they provide for people. The quality of learning experiences is derived from the choices which are made about the aims of the institutions, the needs of the learners, the available resources, and the provision for individual differences. To provide efficacious experiences for all persons in the church, there is a need to re-examine the basic curri— cular problems and issues which may provide an effective rationale for making educational choices. Stratemeyer (l957,pp.6-21) identifies several questions which educators must consider in terms of their application to school. The — present researc inquires into 1 to the church:1 1 . Wh go 2 To 1e 3 H0! 4 Hon 5 In pr: 6 How 7 How NEED FOR AN INTE THEOLOGICAL INQI FOR THE SEVERAL The present Ship between emp They both deal w their outcomes m. Christian a: G0d has revealed The one is a spi. \— 1- These seven que Questions three present research, building upon what Stratemeyer has said, inquires into the application of the following questions to the church:1 1. What is the role of the church in achieving educational goals? 2. Toward what knowledge, understandings, and skills should learning experiences in the church be guided? 3. How shall the curriculum be organized? 4. How shall curricular experiences be guided? 5. In what ways should a curriculum be differentiated to provide for all learners? 6. How shall learner growth and development be evaluated? 7. How can continual curriculum improvement be assured? NEED FOR AN HTTEGRATNON OF THE OUTCOMES OF EMPHUCAL AND THEOLOGICAL INQUIRY 50 AS TO PROVIDE A MORE EMPIRICAL BASIS FOR THE SEVERAL EDUCATNVE PROCESSES OF THE CHURCH The present research assumes an interdependent relation- ship between empirical and theological processes of inquiry. They both deal with the same universe and the integration of their outcomes may enhance the development of both. Christian and biblical theology present the view that God has revealed himself through the Word and through Nature. The one is a spiritual revelation and the other is a natural E 1. These seven questions are adapted from Stratemeyer (1957). Questions three and four are borrowed directly. revelation. Si are fundamental itual and natur Empirical revelation and h empiricism. The and organize the osophy represent for empirical in 0f being able to are capable of v. arSIlllllents from “I deuce ICronbach .- require that the able proposition lust be able to i“(wiry and the into the Concept lnqllirI’ in such teleological 0rd text“a1 criticis LIDD to the human n that the view If I‘m revelation. Since both empirical and theological processes are fundamental human pursuits, man inquires into both spir- itual and natural revelation. Empirical processes need the perspective of biblical revelation and biblical theology needs the perspective of empiricism. The function of empiricism is to examine nature and organize the outcomes. Sociology, psychology, and phil— osophy represent three rudimentary and human reference points for empirical inquiry. The logic of empiricism is the logic of being able to analyze the meaning of words so that they are capable of verifying empirical referents. It replaces arguments from "a priori" principles with an appeal to evi- dence (Cronbach and Suppes,1969,p.124). Empirical processes require that the researcher refuse to talk about nonverifi— able propositions. When doing empiricism, the researcher must be able to discriminate between the empirical mode of inquiry and the theological mode of inquiry which inquiries into the concept of God and organizes the outcomes of inquiry in such a way that enables it to give purpose and teleological ordering to the scientific data. By means of textual criticism, inquiry proceeds to elucidate those con— cepts and principles which may be timeless in their applica— tion to the human situation. Christian and biblical theology present the view that the Spirit of God reveals the things Of God. The outcom into language s of scientific d Both biblic Head of the pers Vulnerable to cr Provincialism. all 0f nature. Secrets of the n ““St become. Th Kierkegaard (194 “TI nature. The process Md theOlogical IeSponses to curl efllplricel basis 1 The outcomes of each mode of inquiry are formulated into language systems, the one of theology, and the other of scientific disciplines. Ramm (l955,p.35) says: ...with the help of theology the vast system which science creates for us takes on meaning and we see it from a credible perspective. It has a personal, meaningful, valuational core. Human life with its hopes, joys, tragedies, aspirations, civilizations, intellectual and artistic achievements is now the very center of the universe. Both biblical theology and empirical processes are in need of the perspective of the other because they are both vulnerable to criticism as a result of their tendency toward provincialism. Biblical revelation insists that God created all of nature. The more empirical processes reveal the secrets of the natural order, the larger our idea of God must become. This View contrasts sharply with that of Kierkegaard (1943 who affirms the disunity between grace and nature. The process of integrating the outcomes of empirical and theological inquiry may provide for more consistent responses to curriculum issues. The result would be a more empirical basis for the educative processes of the church. NEED FOR A Go vascular, AND of curriculum t empirical found do in terms of curriculum theo 1amIllage for 51:. Hacdonald, 1975 articulates wha i1'lplications fo Because th a curriculum. 1 language and log "39ml to develc 30. leadership n eff its "educati from the whole. \M 1' The definition of Beauchamp ( statement whic Educative cont It includes a lates the goal been selected geishable from and why of edu Ithe subject ma NEED FOR A COMMON LANGUAGE BY WHICH TO IDENTIFY, PRESCRIBE,IAND EVALUATE APPROPRIATE FUNCTTONS AND OUTPUTS OF THE CHURCH The present research builds upon the language and logic of curriculum theory as one effective way of developing the empirical foundation for what the church might appropriately do in terms of functions and outputs. Recent studies in curriculum theory provide the beginnings of an effective language for such an empirical foundation (Pinar, 1975; Macdonald, 1975; Huebner, 1975; Greene, 1975). Chapter Two articulates what these writers say and underscores their implications for the present research. Because the church is an educating institution, it has a curriculum.1 Because it has a curriculum, the sort of language and logic used in curriculum for school can be useful to develop curriculum theory for the church. Even so, leadership within the church has historically divided off its "educational" components as if they were separable from the whole. One hears of curriculum for Christian l. The definition of "curriculum" used in the presentresearch is that of Beauchamp (1972) who defines curriculum as a philosophical statement which specifies what ought to be taught in a particular educative context with a justification for why it should be taught. It includes a statement of design—~a curriculum plan—-that articu— lates the goals of the institution and the subject matter that has been selected for the achievement of goals. Curriculum is distin— guishable from instruction in that curriculum relates to the what and why of educative institutions and instruction relates to how the subject matter should be taught. edmation and (training of t but rarely of c The concep is a broad one. person when he tian community is not somethin particular prog influence syste everlizhing that Den-formal cont pens to an indiv °E the church wi is dealing with Crisis, realizin finding meaning them into a comp this sense, is a This spirit We to be sure b definition of th iIlich individual E"Illiose of faci 1 10 education and curriculum for the theological education (training of the "professional leadership" of the church) but rarely of curriculum for the church. The concept of curriculum set forth in the research is a broad one. That is, everything that happens to the person when he is under the direct influence of the Chris— tian community is the curriculum. In this sense, curriculum is not something which is designed and purchased for a particular program or class. Curriculum is the total influence system of the Christian community. It includes everything that takes place both in the institutional and non-formal contexts of the church. Everything that hap- pens to an individual when he is under the direct influence of the church will affect the way he sees himself when he is dealing with problems, making decisions, coping with crisis, realizing his potential, utilizing his creativity, finding meaning from life's experiences and incorporating them into a comprehensive belief system. Religion, in this sense, is an integrating process. This spiritual definition of curriculum is a broad One to be sure but it is functional. Consider this partial definition of the church: The church is a community in which individuals develop and it is organized for the Purpose of facilitating their development. Viewed fro: language and lor church because 1 the church, bot] is a developmenI effect of an edi on the integrit} enables must be giving attentim tions those who are able to dis sistent relatio the institution SUMMARY Inasmuch a: Truence between (both in the la. local churches , may be diagnose and development clarify the con The partic reSearch is add T0 the extent t °f judgment abo 11 Viewed from this perspective, it is useful to use the language and logic of education as a way of looking at the church because education has to do with development and, the church, both in relational and sacramental experiences, is a developmental context. The integrity and substantial effect of an educative institution depends in large measure on the integrity of its curriculum. What it provides or enables must be disciplined to its reason for being. By giving attention to curriculum theory and curriculum founda— tions those who are responsible for an educational institution are able to discern, evaluate and develop an ever more con— sistent relationship between the purpose and the outcome of the institution. SUMMARY Inasmuch as certain dysfunctionalities (such as incon- gruence between intentions and operations) of the church (both in the larger denominational sense and in terms of local churches, church colleges, and other church programs) may be diagnosed and corrected through curriculum analysis and development, there is a need for a serious effort to clarify the concept of curriculum for the church. The particular aspect of this need to which the research is addressed is the matter of curriculum foundations. To the extent that a curriculum is well-founded, its bases Of judgment about what should be taught (and, to some extent, how it and clearly def not just what 5 cern for what I be provided for and intellectua The P Education church. In po' is available w' 1976). But his around and dele PIOVincial Sect Shaver, 1956; E Thus, the VeIOpmental) qt function 0f the (fenwshipl ar devalopmental c Consider t \\ 1. The Reman Cat tional Struc‘ SPECific €3.81 12 extent, how it should be taught) are precisely identified and clearly defined. In reference to the church, it is not just what should be taught, but a more holistic c0n- cern for what resources, experiences, and facilities should be provided for the moral, spiritual, social, physical, and intellectual development of people. The Parameters Of Educafion For The Church: A Conceptum ComparBon Educational philosophy questions are not new to the church. In point of fact, excellent educational philosophy is available within the church (Clemmons, 1958; Richards, 1976). But historically and classically, the church turns around and delegates educational issues and matters to a provincial sector of the church (National Council, 1955; Shaver, 1956; Butt, 1957; Wyckoff, 1961). Thus, the church tends not to ask its educational (de— Velopmental) questions as if they pertained to the whole function of the church. The church both in relational (fellowship) and sacramental (worship) experiences is a developmental context. Consider the Roman Catholic Church.1 Pius XI, in his encyclical letter, "The Christian Education of Youth" \— l. The Roman Catholic Church for example, denotes one organiza— tional structure of church denomination. As such it is one specific case of church as used in the research. {Divini Illus Hagi. tion of the nat education, the ; the end and obj: a few central pa Its Nat in prep in orde Has cre true ed man's 1 Impact Provide us in t alone i Broad st m Spiritu. demestit l. The underlying l3 (Divini Illus Magistri, 1936) provides a well—balanced explana- tion of the nature of education, the division of rights in education, the subject and environment of education, and the end and object of Christian education. Following are a few central passages of this authoritative statement: Its Nature: Since education consists essentially in preparing man for what he must do here below, in order to attain the sublime end for which he was created, it is clear that there can be no true education which is not wholly directed to man's last end... Impact of Revelation: In the present order of providence, since God has revealed Himself to us in the Person of His Only Begotten Son, who alone is "the way, the truth and the life," there can be no ideally perfect education which is not Christian education. The Common Goal: The proper and immediate end of Christian education is to cooperate with divine grace in forming the true and perfect Christian, that is, to form Christ Himself in those regener— ated by baptism... The Results: The true Christian, product of Christian education, is the supernatural man who thinks, judges and acts constantly and consis- tently in accordance with right reason illumined by the supernatural light of the example and teaching of Christ. Broad Scope: Christian education takes in the whole aggregate of human life, physical and spiritual, intellectual and moral, individual, domestic and social... \__ 1- The underlying portion is added for organizational purposes. normative sense If educati all aspects of lies outside t educative by t riculum of the 'Educative" par The Orgal The organi from a review 0 The contributio Greene (1975), framework with‘ Hay Chapter Tw Supernatural Perfects the Natural: (Christian education takes in the whole aggregate of human life) not just with a View of reducing it in any way but in order to elevate, regulate and perfect it, in accordance with the example and teaching of Christ (Catholic Church, 1936). The phrase "Christian education takes in the whole aggregate of human life..." is particularly important. Would it not be justifiable to say that on the basis of this statement all aspects of the church are educative in the normative sense? If education in the context of the church includes all aspects of human life, there can be nothing else which lies outside the domain of education. The whole church is educative by that definition. On that basis the whole cur- riculum of the church ought to be analyzed, not just the "educative" parts of the church. The Organization, Plan, and Content of the Research The organization and sequence of the study proceed from a review of current thinking in curriculum theory. The contributions of Huebner (1968, 1975), Macdonald (1975), Greene (1975), and Niebuhr (l957), provide an effective framework within which the study proceeds to clearly identify and define the essential elements and relation— In this ships of a rudimentary curriculum for the church. Way Chapter Two provides an effective basis for the study. FOUNDATION ”0” The mod81' three and four: Dravi curri churc Two dissimi be explored thrO reasoning: The Thematic Questi research implemel Will be derived acurriculum. '1‘] normative study 1 One assumpt: 15 not church am fulfill its foun advocate, they w 15 FOUNDATION MODEL BUILDING The model-building process is the focus of chapters three and four. Following is the thesis: Drawing from foundational sources a rudimentary curriculum theory can be developed for the church. Two dissimilar but related research questions are to be explored through philosophical analysis and inductive reasoning: 1. Can substantial theory be derived from con— ceptualizing the church as having a curriculum? What are the contributions of particular foundational sources to curriculum for the church? The'Themafic Quesfion. The thematic question underlying the research implementations is whether or not substantial theory will be derived from conceptualizing the church as having a curriculum. The answer will be sought through a careful normative study of the analogy between school and church. One assumption is central to the present study. School is not church and church is not school; but if each were to fulfill its foundations in ways its normative descriptions advocate, they would be much more alike. 1. Both seek excellence in the sense of being true to their foundations. A between school a that Substantial and 1091c Of edu theory, may pro church. The Foundations Q with the Contri The PmcesS 0 f ship between th t foundatiOn (Mes repres l6 2. Both seek the fullest development of the learner. 3. Both seek to effect the fullest possible understanding of the real world. 4. Both seek to structure the learning environ- ment in ways that maximize human development. 5. Both seek to convey a system of values-~the one of a democratic society and the other of a Christian community and through the Christian community to permeate the larger society with fundamental principles of corporate life. While school and church possess their common elements, they also possess important differences. School derives its aims from the society. Church derives its aims from biblical theology. Clearly acknowledging the differences between school and church, the present research recogniZes that substantial similarities exist. Thus, the language and logic of education, and particularly of curriculum theory, may provide an effective way of looking at the church. Therundaflons Quesfion. The foundations question has to do with the contribution of particular foundational sources to the process of developing an incrasingly consistent relation- ship between the purpose and the outcomes of the institution. What foundations for curriculum can be determined in sociology (Sources representing the formal study of human relation— ships)? in ps study of human senting man's reasons of all the formal stu psychology, so In order to de most useful to criteria for m Huebner (l tory paradigms hold useful exp in psychology (sources representing the formal ships)? study of human behavior)? in philosophy (sources repre- senting man's efforts to think out the ultimate causes and reasons of all things)? in theology (sources representing the formal study of God and God's revelation)?l The model—building process is the heart of the present study. The sources available to the church from a study of psychology, sociology, philosophy, and theology are infinite. In order to determine which of the available resources are most useful to the church, the study seeks appropriate criteria for meaningful selection. Huebner (1968), argues the necessity of new explana— tory paradigms for education, "disclosure models" which hold useful exploratory possibilities (1968,p.3l). Two elements can be derived from what Huebner says that are useful criteria in the model-building process. 1. Identification of Structures: What is known? What are the known aims? 2. Disciplining structures to aims: What ought to be done? How ought we to do it? \— Curriculum foundations are those rudimentary elements of knowledge which provide a rationale by which curriculum decisions are made. There are three foci of rudiments: society, persons, and values. Foundational fields are those disciplines such as history, psy— chology, sociology, and anthropology, through which we are enabled to understand society and persons. Philosophy and theology are the tools for making value decisions. These two elem second set of process is thr What is k important beca That is known functions of ob aims. The natu social creature The model- c"Wergence mod Church, and sec if church is to TleVelopInent . The resear sollrces so as t and his develOp the nature of s der'l‘Ied from Ho The resear 0f the three le Hhedonald. A c ellaluate the 15 of talking abor These two elements comprise the first set of criteria. The second set of criteria to be utilized in the model-building process is three—fold: The Nature of Man The Nature of Church The Nature of Society What is known about man and the way he develops is important because the church is an educating institution. What is known about church is important because the functions of church must be disciplined to its nature and aims. The nature of society is important because man is a social creature. The model—building process provides an integrative or convergence model in which what is known concerning man, church, and society holds useful implications for church if church is to be an effective facilitator of human development. The research proceeds to inquire into the foundational sources so as to test what is known about the nature of man and his development, the nature and aims of the church, and the nature of society, against the two disclosure models derived from Huebner (1968). The research proceeds to satisfy the criteria for each Of the three levels of curriculum theory identified by Macdonald. A conceptual schema is provided with which to evaluate the language of the church and to develop new ways Of talking about the church. In so doing, the research satisfies the c of curriculum Because t gence model in holds implicat' criteria for t focuses upon t riculum. By pr development, an satisfies the c theory. Chapter Th What do we know nature of the c moiety? Chaptl iZational struc 11°" ou‘Tht we to man and society for what ought Five Presents t derived from th Me 0f the chu rape“ t0 func Sims of the st awailable resor ences, and the l9 satisfies the criteria for the third, and deepest level of curriculum theory. Because the research provides an integrative or conver— gence model in which what is known about man and society holds implications for church, the research satisfies the criteria for the second level of curriculum theory which focuses upon the variables and their relationships in cur— riculum. By providing a framework for applied curriculum development, and by providing evaluational tools the research satisfies the criteria for the first level of curriculum theory. Chapter Three proceeds to identify the structures. What do we know and what are the known aims concerning the nature of the church, the nature of man, and the nature of society? Chapter Four focuses on how to discipline organ— izational structures to aims. What ought to be done and how ought we to do it? Drawing from what is known about man and society, particular implications can be identified for what ought to be done in the context of church. Chapter Five presents the conclusion and recommendations which are derived from the foundation model—building process. The role of the church in contemporary society is analyzed with respect to functions and Outputs. The particular conclu— Sions of the study focus on the needs of the learners, the available resources, the provision for individual differ- ences, and the quality of learning situations. A set of developmental t decisions rega properly do in spiritual, and almost every c have been sele have significa Figure On structure of t 20 developmental tasks are presented as a basis for making decisions regarding the sorts of things the church might properly do in facilitating the moral, social, physical, spiritual, and intellectual development of people. In almost every case the particular sources used in the research have been selected because their work has been recognized to have significant influence on curriculum thinking. Figure One is a diagram outlining the particular structure of the research: MAN CHURCH SOCIETY LL 21 Figure I The Structure of the Research WHAT ARE THE STRUCTURES ? What is Known? What are the Aims? DISCIPLINING OF STRUCTURES TO AIMS What Ought to be Done? How Ought it to be Done? The Nature and Aim of The Developing Individual T‘ MAN Human Development ——Guide to Developing the Learning Environment 1 The Nature, Aims and Conclusions CHURCH Function __> Recommendations of the Church Epilogue J Importance of Socialization The Nature of to Soc1al Solidarity SOCIETY Healthy Families, Communities , and Schools Formal Learning as Facilitator not Supplanter of Socialization KEY ASSUMPTIOt One assuml Present resear' hith school - in ways tneir r be very much 31C This analc The great dance like characteri takes the View exemplifying ir are assumed to Whereas tt of L PEOpTe and s ittion. Consid L LO"103511, socia d evelOpment, tt 22 KEY ASSUMPTION One assumption is central to an understanding of the present research. It has to do with the comparison of church with school. Since church, school and learning are all de— velopmental concepts and since their aspects are essentially parallel (in terms of needs, content, and relationship) a substantial parallel or com- parison exists. The church is not a school and the school is not a church. But, if they were each to fulfill their foundations in ways their normative descriptions advocate, they would be very much more alike. This analogy is assumed only at the normative level. The great danger of making the church conform to school— like characteristics must be avoided. The research simply takes the View that few schools or churches come close to exemplifying in practice what their normative standards are assumed to be. Whereas the church is concerned with the development of PeOple and society, the church is an educative insti- tution. Considering its historical and biblical commitment to moral, social, physical, spiritual, and intellectual develOpment, the church can be said to possess a curriculum. KEY CONCEPTS Four key C! are drawn from ' frequently poss is that of chur W. Frank activity of 505 tion "is the us excellences or to the family as learning, pract In another learning 0" eaTlCatecT parser. Curri w- The technical term curriculum us ec‘ 9&16-22). Be“ C 3. L91“ m and has ca t 23 KEY CONCEPTS Four key concepts undergird the present research. Three are drawn from the field of education where particular terms frequently possess a variety of meanings. The fourth concept is that of church. Educafion. Frankena (1965) explains that education is the activity of fostering or transmitting excellences. Educa- tion "is the use of certain kinds of methods to foster excellences or desirable dispositions—-namely those belonging to the family which include teaching, instruction, training, learning, practice, and the like." In another sense, education is I'the acquisition by learning of desirable dispositions or excellences.” The educated person is one who possesses ”excellent dispositions." Curflcuhun. The word "curriculum" is the most critical technical term in the present study. The definition of curriculum used in the research is that of Beauchamp (1972, pp.l6—22). Beauchamp recognizes the varied uses of the term and has carefully differentiated among them. He uses the term curriculum in three ways to refer to l. a "curriculum," 2. a "curriculum system” and 3. ”curriculum as a field of study." First, a < instructional } which sets fort choosing what < tional context Beauchamp decision-maker: Basic State (subj selec may b but 9 admin tute SeCOnd I a tionally Cal 1e 24 First, a curriculum is a document or plan upon which instructional procedures are based. It is a rationale which sets forth those reasons which are the basis for choosing what ought to be taught in a particular educa— tional context. Beauchamp points out that the primary question facing decision—makers in education concerns what ought to be taught. Responses to this question are the basis for defining the subject matter of a given educational context. A partial justification for what ought to be taught can be derived from determining why a specified subject matter is important. Conventionally, the why question is answered in the form of objectives. How the subject matter is taught is a question of instruction, and as such is not a primary problem for the curriculum theorist. What happens as a result of instruction is another primary question. It has evaluation for its focus and is of concern to both curriculum and instruction. Beauchamp (1972,p.l9) says: Basically, a curriculum plan should include a statement of goals for the school and the content (subject matter, if you please) that has been selected for the achievement of the goals. There may be other ingredients added to the curriculum, but goals and content in accordance with the administrative organization of the school consti— tute the basic dimension of curriculum design. Second, a curriculum system refers to what is conven- tionally called curriculum planning, curriculum implementa— First, a < instructional 1 which sets fori choosing what < tional context. Beauchamp decision-makers taught, Respox defining the 51 APartial just: derived from de important. Coy in the form of taught is a qua primary Probler h aresult Of Ithas EValuat; curriculum and Basic; State; (subj, Select may be but 9( admin: tute 1 Second I a tional 1y Cal 24 First, a curriculum is a document or plan upon which instructional procedures are based. It is a rationale which sets forth those reasons which are the basis for choosing what ought to be taught in a particular educa- tional context. Beauchamp points out that the primary question facing decision—makers in education concerns what ought to be taught. Responses to this question are the basis for defining the subject matter of a given educational context. A partial justification for what ought to be taught can be derived from determining why a specified subject matter is important. Conventionally, the why question is answered in the form of objectives. How the subject matter is taught is a question of instruction, and as such is not a primary problem for the curriculum theorist. What happens as a result of instruction is another primary question. It has evaluation for its focus and is of COncern to both curriculum and instruction. Beauchamp (l972,p.l9) says: Basically, a curriculum plan should include a statement of goals for the school and the content (subject matter, if you please) that has been selected for the achievement of the goals. There may be other ingredients added to the curriculum, but goals and content in accordance with the administrative organization of the school consti— tute the basic dimension of curriculum design. Second, a curri :em refers to what is conven- lly called cur inning, curriculum implementa-~ the s of the syst Third, c encompasses ( 511d (3) the r plain curricu task of the er and otherwise with design a] Taba (194 Curriculum en‘ altogether, t in education deSign of edu 1. 25 tion, and curriculum appraisal. These are the processes of curriculum engineering. Beauchamp says: In order for curricula to be created, implemented in schools, and appraised, it is necessary for curriculum workers to establish some means of engineering those decisions within the schools. This I call a curriculum system. The fundamental processes of a curriculum system are the choice of the arena in which curriculum decisions are to be made; the selection of personnel to work within the system; the selection, ordering, and execution of working procedures for appraising and revising the curriculum. The primary output of a curriculum system is, of course, a curriculum (l972,p.l9). Third, curriculum as a field of study or inquiry, encompasses (1) curriculum design, (2) curriculum engineering, and (3) the research and theory—building necessary to ex- plain curriculum design and curriculum engineering. The task of the curriculum theorist is to identify, classify, and otherwise explain the varied sets of events associated with design and engineering. Taba (l962,p.6) identifies five foci around which curriculum engineering statements are developed. Taken altogether, these interdependent statements enable leaders in education to make responsible decisions regarding the design of educative (learning) environments. 1. The general aims from which the objectives of specific learning environments are to be derived. 2. The major categories or subject areas from which the content of instruction is derived. 3. The types of learning experiences which facilitate the implementation of both content and the understanding of that content. Beauchamp (1971 and instructio which educator objectives (en second, he mus plishing those the selection instruction h When he is can the instructio accomplished , making. The c' is really a dj Curriculum Foun Curriculi 0f knowledge V decisions are society , pers 26 4. The procedures by which evaluation can be made concerning the content to be learned and the effectiveness of the curriculum in attaining the desired ends. 5. The criteria for establishing an over—all pattern of what the curriculum is to be. Cremin (l978,pp.l3-l4) is in essential agreement with Beauchamp (1972) when he distinguishes between curriculum and instruction. Cremin identifies two kinds of decisions which educators must make. First, he must decide what the objectives (ends) of the instructional system should be, and second, he must decide on the procedures (means)for accom— plishing those objectives. When an educator is engaged in the selection of objectives for a particular segment of instruction he is engaged in curriculum decision-making. When he is concerned with the selection or evaluation of the instructional schemes by which those goals are to be accomplished, he is engaged in instructional decision— making. The distinction betWeen curriculum and instruction is really a distinction between ends and means. Curflcuhnn Foundafions. Curriculum foundations are those rudimentary elements Of knowledge which provide a rationale by which curriculum decisions are made. There are three foci of rudiments: society, persons, and values. Foundatio history, psych which we are e Philosophy and decisions. One ident tions of a par or goals of th modify the rel tional sources It is fea of curriculum overriding goa activities. T goals are deri Social Demand Church. to all person Second, it re Particular re “Church " 27 Foundational fields are those disciplines such as history, psychology, sociology, and anthropology, through which we are enabled to understand society and persons. Philosophy and theology are the tools for making value decisions. One identifies and specifies the curriculum founda- tions of a particular institution by referring to the aims or goals of that institution. It is the goal or aims which modify the relative importance of the different founda- tional sources. It is feasible to identify and specify the foundations of curriculum for the church because church possesses those overriding goals which provide guidance for its several activities. There are several sources from which these goals are derived: Divine Revelation, Heritage—Tradition, Social Demands, and the Nature of Man. Church. Hastings (1937,pp.l38-l40) observes only two usages of the word "church" in the New Testament. First, it refers to all persons everywhere who acknowledge Jesus as Lord. Second, it refers to those believers who settle in a particular region or place. "Church" is defined in the present study as the com— munity of God's people. Snyder says this community is called to serve God by living together in Christian com— mmity. By so and values of by carrying ou essentially th tantly, the br Lordship of Je The churc than institut' basic level a it is an orga press itself members of th time in partic This defi Enables us to the church is questions by y t”all? discip That is, what Church to rea the usefulnes Pression, Wha exPected to d precisely r a: 28 munity. By so doing, the church witnesses to the character and values of the Kingdom of God and acts as God's agent by carrying out his mission on earth. This mission is essentially the bringing of all things, and more impor— tantly, the bringing of all people under the dominion or Lordship of Jesus Christ. The church is to be understood in charismatic rather than institutional terms. Thus Viewed, it is at its most basic level a covenantal community, not an organization; it is an organism, not an institution. The church may ex- press itself through a variety of forms (institutions) and members of the Christian community may meet from time to time in particular places. This definition of "church" is functional because it enables us to conceptualize more accurately what it is that the church is to do. It enables us to ask the kinds of questions by which the Christian community can more effec— tively discipline its activities to its reason for being. That is, what kinds of institutions are needed for the church to realize its reason for being? Having decided upon the usefulness of a particular form of organizational ex— pressiOn, what precisely ought such an institution be expected to do in terms of functions and outputs, and what, precisely, are its limitations? Thus, wh of believers it seeks spec tutional expr sions are the persons devel sense. The foll the research the developme of the resear The is a and Purl? It is fr elaborate cur direction. A core for a co frequently oh By contr which ought t It is frequen Pondence betw which have co 29 Thus, while "church" refers to the larger community of believers the focus of the research is practical because it seeks specific implications for "church" in its insti— tutional expressions. The variety of institutional expres— sions are the learning environments, the contexts in which persons develop. They are the curriculum in the broadest sense. The following partial definition is a summary of what the research defines as church and as such it sets forth the developmental contexts to which the curricular issues of the research are applied: The church (in its world—wide and regional sense) is a community of persons in which individuals and families develop and it is organized for the purpose of facilitating their development. Summary It is frequently observed that school possesses an elaborate curricular scheme but that this scheme lacks direction. A values rationale necessarily provides the core for a coherent and integrated curricula. School is frequently observed to lack this core. By contrast, church possesses a strong core of values which ought to be giving direction to its many activities. It is frequently observed that there is a lack of corres— Pondence between the core and the peripheral activities which have come into being- The pres with this iss conceptualize and local sen an evaluation community to the foundati expressed pu 30 The present research is an attempt to deal directly with this issue by calling for a concept of curriculum which conceptualizes the church (in its world—wide, regional, and local sense) as having a curriculum and by calling for an evaluation of the several functions of the Christian community to be sure they can be justified on the basis of the foundations for curriculum which are derived from the expressed purpose of the church. FOUNDATI Chapter theory. Sev provide the single state curriculum (1 Huebner is extensive Which is in ful effect or Well-grounded choices conce Viable learni language and in the preser a new languag the church aj The writ nalture of cur Parts of the shift in thir model which a 31 CHAPTER TWO FOUNDATIONS FOR THE RESEARCH FROM THEIJTERATURE Chapter Two reviews relevant research in curriculum theory. Several studies are exceptional in that they provide the necessary tools for bringing together into a Single statement the several concerns of those who do curriculum development and evaluation. Huebner's contribution to curriculum theory—building is extensively summarized. The particular language pattern which is in vogue in particular institutions has a power— ful effect on the ability of decision-makers to develop a well-grounded theory of curriculum by which to make effective choices concerning the development and functioning of a Viable learning environment. What Huebner says about language and curriculum provides the basis for the attempt in the present research to contribute to the development of a new language for identifying what the church is, what the church aims to do, and what the church does. The writings of Macdonald focus on the functional nature of curriculum theory rather than on the thematic parts of the curriculum. That is, Macdonald introduces a shift in thinking from the process-product frameworkr a model which accepts the socially accepted values 0f the present, to a of what to te The valu on the nature curriculum th value theory, cately interw curriculum de interwoven qt does possess concerns for Oriented Stat 32 present, to a new model which focuses on the value question of what to teach. The value question of what to teach necessarily focuses on the nature of man. What does it mean to be human? Thus, curriculum theorists are concerned for the nature of man, value theory, and the nature of knowledge as three "intri— cately interwoven in action contexts" (l975,p.8). While curriculum developers must exercise care not to destroy the interwoven quality of the "in action" contexts, curriculum does possess action implications with broad directional concerns for outcomes of which there are three: Knowledge— Oriented Statements, Reality—Oriented Statements, and Value- Oriented Statements. Greene delineates two fundamental perceptions of cur- riculum——curriculum as a prearranged, prestructured body of knowledge, and curriculum as an experience of continual reconstruction of materials and ideas so as to achieve in— creased integration and meaning. Pinar identifies the three stages of reconceptual development. The process of increasing the effectiveness Of a particular movement requires that persons in positions 0f leadership must find ways to increase the number of per— sons who are advancing sequentially from stage one to stage three. Those in stage three are actively engaged in using their criticisms of a particular tradition to construct new Ways of looking at particular phenomena. Niebuhr' theology ref: in the churcl' cations for i the church. 'nto the deve munity. This bar nodel-buildi: scholars say lam can be de 33 Niebuhr's mid-century study of graduate schools of theology reflects current thinking among many educators in the church. What Niebuhr has to say has profound impli- cations for the education of the professional ministry of the church. His limitations lie in his failure to inquire into the developmental tasks of the whole Christian com— munity. This background in curriculum theory is basic in the model-building process. By building upon what these scholars say is important, a rudimentary theory of curricu— lum can be developed for the church. Dwayne Huebner Huebner (1968, 1975) argues the necessity of a new explanatory paradigm for education. A variety of paradigms have arisen from a variety of disciplines, and these para— digms provide sufficient cause to question the narrow scope of the models currently in use. Huebner refers to these new paradigms as "disclosure models, which open up a world previously unanticipated and which is rife with new exploratory possibilities” (1968,p.3l). Disclosure models may be derived not only from the scientific disciplines, but from a variety of sources. He says: DiS' fro: his and DisclOSl secular eduCE work of "1101': is not free 1 models. The it possesses when coupled both the com conprehensiru church. Huebner phenomenolog a new curric canoe for th ChUl‘Ch han and while re Curricnlar c Dalance. THE EFFECT c Huebner 0f langUage 34 Disclosures come not only from the sciences, but from all of man's creative enterprises——his poetry, his philosophy, his drama, his religions, his art, and indeed his technology (1968,p.3l). Disclosure models which form the basis of contemporary secular education operate largely within the limited frame— work of "normal science." It may be that secular education is not free to take advantage of and to implement other models. The Christian community is a developmental context and it inquires into both Nature and Revelation. Accordingly, it possesses the philosophic and theologic tradition, which, when coupled with the logic of empiricism, provides it with both the conceptual and experiential tools required for a comprehensive statement for a theory of curriculum for the church. Huebner's inquiry into the traditions of existentialism, phenomenology, and theology is for the purpose of creating a new curricular language. What Huebner says has signifi- cance for the church because the disclosure models of the church have been derived largely from secular education, and while recent studies inquire more heavily into theology, curricular conceptions continue to lack integration and balance. THE EFFECT OF LANGUAGE ON EDUCATTONAL THOUGHT Huebner (1975, pp.217-236) analyzes the relationship 0f language to curriculum thinking. Language is the tool we use for ti tend to think Every discipl looking at ce tends to beer the next gene tion. This 1' Things tend t Huebner become deeply "learning" a: have lnStruyn (fiance. He a: 35 we use for thinking. When language patterns are fixed we tend to think about certain phenomena in typified ways. Every discipline and profession develops its own way of looking at certain phenomena. This way of looking at things tends to become part of the heritage which is passed on to the next generation. Language patterns tend toward fixa- tion. This is what Huebner calls "tyrannical mythology." Things tend to be defined in the same, limited ways. Huebner identifies two tyrannical myths which have become deeply embedded in curricular language. They are "learning" and "purpose." Unless terms such as these are carefully scrutinized they become encased in the concrete of mythical language. In "Curricular Language and Class— room Meanings" Huebner underscores the need for a language pattern that is both dynamic and creative. Language must have instrumental value or it fails to maintain its rele- vance. He says: No language system is so good or significant that other language systems cannot eventually take its place--unless it is an esthetic form. But an esthetic form has not instrumental value. Other conceptual models are possible for curricular prob— lems and phenomena, and concepts which inhibit their development must sometimes be violently uprooted in order that the phenomena of concern can be more clearly seen (l975,p.220). THE ROLE OF 1 AS THE BASIS Language definition tc tool with whi different thi for differing choices betwe Frequent which become Movements whi L0 see a gjne aoility to ex 36 THE ROLE OF LANGUAGE IN DEVELOPING A VALUE FRAMEWORK AS THE BASIS FOR SELECTION BETWEEN VIABLE ALTERNATIVES Language is a way of looking at things——of giving definition to observable phenomena. Language is also the tool with which we develop a rationale for giving value to different things. The process of working out a rationale for differing things of value enhances the ability of making Choices between available alternatives. Frequently, social conditions generate new movements which become critical of the existing way of doing things. Movements which become effective in bringing about construc— tive changes are those which excel in their ability to develop a language which enables large numbers of people to see a given problem in a new way. They develop the ability to articulate new and powerful concepts. As these concepts take hold they exercise a revolutionary effect be- cause they transform questions and criteria and, in so doing, the appearance of the value of facts. Current curricular practices tend to be fixated in the “Tyler Rationale" way of looking at things. The concept "learning" is defined from a stimulus-response framework. That is, learning refers to patterns of fixation. There— fore, Huebner rejects "learning” as the key concept for an educational context. He turns to man as a "temporal being" to find the basic referents for educational experiences. He Views man the temporal being as finding himself in "succes— sion and dura looking at tt to focus on t which tend tc in which limi Huebner of questions because the c value, and, 'L phenomena fr: Two imcc ittle Value .__J '._l 37 sion and duration or change and continuity." This way of looking at the developmental environment enables educators to focus on those psycho-emotional and social elements which tend to prevent change, and, subsequently, those ways in which limitations to change can be overcome or set aside. I Huebner is underscoring the awareness that certain kinds of questions may be more useful to educators than others because the questions themselves are relatively free of value, and, therefore, the educator is enabled to explore phenomena from different viewpoints. Two important questions which possess relatively little value orientation are suggested: 1. What can go on in the classroom? 2. How can this activity be valued? The present research builds upon what Huebner says by reconceptualizing the basic concepts in the language of the church. The process of reconceptualization will enable a clarification of the value framework or systems which may be used to give value to varying forms of educational activity. THE REQUIREMENTS OF LANGUACEIN PROVHNNG AN EMPIRICAL BASIS FOR ANY MOVEMENT In "Curriculum as Concern for Man's Temporality", Huebner (1975) identifies the primary condition for giving an empirical language reg‘ acceptance 0 failure to abreast Of t terms are US Pointers in educatiOnal For eXa: ated with a a c. 38 an empirical basis to any movement. A new curricular language requires powerful concepts. He writes: If a science is to come into existence at all, it will do so as more and more powerful concepts are introduced. Their formulation is often the work of empirical investigators, but it is philosophical, nonetheless, because it is concerned with meanings rather than facts, and the syste- matic construction of meanings is philos— ophy. Wherever a new way of thinking may originate, its effect is apt to be revolu- tionary because it transforms questions and criteria, and therewith the appearance and value of facts. The state of having turbulent notions about things that seem to belong together, although in some unknown way, is a prescientific state, a sort of intellectual gestation period. This state the "behavioral sciences" have sought to skip, hoping to learn its lessons by the way, from their elders (p.237). Huebner perceives that current unrest among curriculum thinkers centers upon two central categories in curricular language: learning and objectives. The unquestioned acceptance of terms such as these has resulted in a failure to generate ideas essential to keeping curriculum abreast of the times. The difficulty lies in the way these terms are used—-as symbols of fixed reality rather than as pointers in search for other ways to look at and act upon educational phenomena. For example, the word "learning" has been long associ- ated with a change in behavior of a given organism. If there is a correspondence between changed behavior and particular it said that lec‘: possesses meE response way The proc human change the developme approach to t elements or 6 "change and c sion and dura define the 92 If man is a 5 capacity to 1 not. In othe Elements why 39 particular interactions with one's environment, it can be said that learning has occurred. The word "learning" possesses meaning which has been derived from a stimulus— response way of looking at behavior change. The process of reconceptualizing the phenomenon of human change may provide other useful ways of dealing with the developmental environment. For example, the usual approach to the study of learning has been to study those elements or experiences of a person's life which focus on "change and continuity, change and permanence, or succes- sion and duration" (pp.240—24l). The reconceptualist may define the problem as not that of change but not change. If man is a spiritual being (transcendent) then he has the capacity to transcend what he is to become that which he is not. In other words, the educator might focus on those elements which prevent change from taking place and look for ways the learning (developmental) environment can be structured so as to facilitate the setting aside of the limitations to change. A second example may be seen in the word "creative." The writer of Genesis indicates that "God created man in his own image." The implication here is that man is by nature creative and therefore the more appropriate question is one which inquires into that which prevents creativity than into how one learns to be creative. THE DEVELOPI. LEARNING ENV In his Huebner focu In "Curricul concludes th 40 THE DEVELOPMENTAL REQUIREMENTS FOR A LEARNING ENVIRONMENT In his search for a new language for curriculum, Huebner focuses attention on the concept "temporality." In "Curriculum as Concern for Man's Temporality," Huebner concludes that "Learning" seems inadequate as the key concept for curriculum and points to what must concern the educator, viz, the fact that man is above all else a being caught in succession and dura- tion or change and continuity. ”Learning," however, concerns itself with only a part of this total phenomena. It explains how patterning or conditioning occurs, and focuses upon ab— straction and generalization. It yanks man out of his world and freezes him at a stage in his own biographical evolution (l975,p.243). Huebner sees the effective developmental context as one which maximizes ”the dialectical process" which he defines as interaction with the variety of elements in one's environment such as other persons, ideas and material Objects. The outcomes of this dialectical process are observed in the changes which are effected in these environ— mental elements as well as within the interacting being. Man acts upon his environment and effects changes in it. The environment also acts upon man and effects changes Within him. But man can control the kinds of changes which take place both in his environment and within himself. The responsibility of the curriculum person, according to Huebner, is to design effective environments which embody L— the dialectic Huebner write These en in which the present so t1". 41 the dialectical relationships valued in a given society. Huebner writes: The springs or sources of temporality do not reside in the individual, but in confrontation between the individual and other individuals, other material objects, and other ways of thinking as they are objectified in symbol and operation...Man shapes the world, but the world also shapes man. This is a dialectical process in which cause is effect, and effect is cause (pp.245-246). These environments must encourage "the moment of vision" in which the person is enabled to build upon his past and present so that he can grasp the measure of his own poten— tial. Education is the "meshing“ of the unfolding personality of the individual with the "unfolding history of his society." Knowledge of the past becomes the means by which individuals are able to project their own personality toward full poten— tial. The educational environment is to be constructed in such a way that the past and present are enabled to become a basis for projection. An environment which would embody the dialectical forms valued by society would require three aspects or components: First, components which will call forth reaction— producing responses from the learners. For example, what aSpects of the past are so valued by those controlling educational environments that they should be used to call forth such responses? What aspects of the past can become a horizon of becomes his Second, student must includes tho into the pre dialogue, th social custo nan-made tni of vision wh Project his Wing tOgeth This fr a horizon of the person's present so that his future becomes his own potential for being? Second, the environment must be reactive, or else the student must question it so that it responds to him. This includes those parts of the valued past which are brought into the present of the student. They include forms of dialogue, the structured forms of the several disciplines, social customs which shape the process of interaction, and man—made things. Third, the environment must make possible those moments of vision when the student, and/or those responsible for him, project his potentiality for being in the present, thus tying together the future and the past into the present. This framework provides the possible reinterpretation of the significance of the categories of purpose and learning in the educational process. Given man's temporality, the future makes sense only as the horizon of his present. In this way the purpose or objective is not "specifi- cation of a determined future; it is a value category used in selecting the ready—at—hand and present—at-hand in the educational environment." Peters observes that the function of the purpose category is to determine the content of the educational environment (p.247). The curriculum person must consider the variety of rhythms of continuity—change between society as a whole, and the indi' but man, in ' to shape SOC tune with hi The sel ment is cons continuity-c indicate shi school purpo efforts to 5 environment tempos or r'n For exa possible (ma Capted as en change rhyt‘n universally upon abstrac Ship bEtWeen III eduC “010% is a SOcial SCien Who are 1:681: IESponSibili to Poke arou 43 and the individuals who compose it. Society shapes man, but man, in turn, shapes society. But the man who tries to shape society beyond its limits of tolerance is out of tune with his society and must be held in check. The selection of the content of the educational environ- ment is consequently related to the forces controlling the continuity-change rhythms. Shifting educational purposes indicate shifts in society's evolution. Arguments over school purposes are not simply academic arguments, but efforts to shift the values determining the educational environment and, hence, influencing the continuity-change tempos or rhythms of individuals and society. For example, the components making scientific dialectic possible (materials and language systems) are readily ac- cepted as environmental conditions, for the continuity- change rhythm produced by science and technology is almost universally accepted as good. The emphasis is not simply upon abstract theoretical science, but upon the relation- ship between science and its uses——technology. In education the relationship between science and tech— nology is a source of tension because the technology of the social sciences takes the form of political action. Those who are responsible for the schools are not willing to assume responsibility for its members to use the tools of politics to poke around in sensitive corners or sectors of society. There a continuous t In this cont future. The Their transc relationship use of the c Thus, 9 the educatio involvement Pating not 0 society but falls into ti 0Ver educativ ideological : "Learnii cational env. Serve as tecl 0f education. Program envi: responsivene determinatio the dialecti ditions of t Which are al 44 There are some components of the world that are more continuous than changing, more durable than succeeding. In this context it is proper to speak of objectives as future. These components require complete submission. Their transcending possibilities lie not in the component's relationship with the individual, but in the individual's use of the component. Thus, purpose is really a value category used to select the educational environment. However, because of its involvement in shaping the environment, therefore, partici- pating not only in the dialectic between individuals and society but in the rhythms of continuity and change, it falls into the political domain. Conflict and argument over educational purpose is hence a part of the political ideological struggle existing in any evolving society. "Learning" is another category for building the edu- cational environment. In education, learning theories serve as technological tools to help shape the sequence of educational experiences. They enable the educator to program environments and the forms and rhythms of their responsiveness. Learning theory makes possible the determination of conditions of the environment facilitating the dialectic between the individual and his world: con— ditions of the material components and of the human skills which are also, then, environmental conditions. The moms the education own understan envision his exists in the THE THREE TA Huebner the curricul The work if the curric the “evolving Empirical re Person must language, em actions and 45 The moment of vision is another category for building the educational environment. The student, either by his own understanding or that of others, must be able to envision his own projected potentiality for being as it exists in the past—present-future. THE THREE TASKS OF THE CURRICULUM THEORJST Huebner (l975,pp.250~270) identifies three tasks of the curriculum theorist: 1. He is to lay bare the structure of what it means to be in the world and articulate this structure through the language and the environ— mental forms that he creates. 2. He has a responsibility for the forms that he creates and uses, that they might be controlled by him rather than controlling him. 3. He must be conscious of his man—made equipment, his languages, and his environmental forms. To be aware of these man—made forms is to be aware of their history, of their sources in human act— ivity and intention, and continually to subject them to empirical and social criticism that they be not idols but evolving tools. The working out of these three tasks is facilitated if the curriculum person possesses a working knowledge of the "evolving dialectical relationships among practice, empirical research, and language." That is, the curriculum Person must articulate the relationships of practice to laUQUage, empirical research to language, or practical actions and responsibilities to research. Thus, language is a kind of person gives building) an Theory about what w developed sp stance of la thread woven spider fashi the particul work for ind The cur 0f another i: has the powe: patterns and his own. The cur lated patter practice, em nally consis the whole we The cu disciplines variety of multi—dimen 46 is a kind of common denominator by which the curriculum person gives meaning both to research (including theory building) and practice. Theory has its roots in the language we use to talk about what we do. Huebner likens language to an intricately developed spider's web. Patterns of thought are the sub- stance of language. They are like the patterns of silk thread woven into a unique artistic lace. Just as each spider fashions its web to suit its own purpose, so too, the particular thought patterns of man provide the frame— work for individual perspective. The curriculum perSOn who adopts the thought patterns of another is likely to be caught in the other‘s web. He has the power, however, to stand back and criticize those patterns and to enter into that dynamic process of creating his own. The curriculum person must create carefully articu- lated patterns of thought so that what he thinks about practice, empirical research, and language will be inter- nally consistent. If one corner of the web is touched, the whole web quivers. The curriculum person is at all times dependent on the disciplines as sources for the way he thinks. The very variety of his sources is useful because it enables a multi—dimensional way of looking at a particular educative “ environment . point by whi< multi-dimens: strength beC‘ ically about educative en dimensional be creative educative en prophylactic forms. Dewey ( is "to deter Huebner iden Which make u l. 47 environment. Each discipline serves as a kind of reference point by which to evaluate an educative environment. This multiedimensional perspective can be a source of real strength because it sharpens the ability to think analyt— ically about each discipline as well as the particular educative environment under study. Further, the multi— dimensional perspective enables the curriculum person to be creative in the formulation of new ways of looking at educative environments and their components. It is a prophylactic against the tyranny of stagnant language forms. Dewey (1902) stated that the function of the educator is "to determine the environment of the child“- Huebner identifies three classifications for the elements which make up this environment. 1. Technological Hardware This includes all tangible items including physical facilities and electronic equipment. 2. Language and Symbol Systems This includes the non—tangible aspects of the heritage. 3. The Patterned or Conditioned Behaviors of Individuals who make up the Environment The intent here is to point to the stable skills and habits normally associated with roles and institutions rather than individuals. Again, the educative environ— ment can be articulated, in part, as a capital investment in human resources, The tas environment he focuses a as distinct legitimize t environments HISTORY AS A EDUCATIVE EI‘ Marx ‘ s because it 9 Sign of educ metal condi of action a] Shown their rhetoric t} Histo 48 manifest in the conditioned and interchangeable behaviors of school or educative personnel. The task of the curriculum person is to fabricate the environment which educates. He is enabled to do this as he focuses attention on the components of the environment as distinct from the language used to explain, prescribe, or legitimize them. This enables him to design more effective environments and to see them in historical perspective. INSTORY AS A RESOURCE FOR DEVELOPING EDUCATIVE ENVIRONMENTS Marx's social theory is a good resource for educators because it possesses significant implications for the de- sign of educative environments. According to Marx, environ— mental conditions are as important as ideas as a determiner of action and history. Curriculum persons have customarily shown their idealistic bias by giving more attention to rhetoric than to things and environmental conditions. Historical awareness brings into focus the problems Of environmental obsolescence, including the obsolescence of human skills and habits, and the problems of environ- mental inertia. With an eye on the evolution of environ~ mental form, the curricularist can more readily accept that one of his responsibilities is the renewal and creation Of environmental conditions, such as material, teacher fl habits and sI zational inte SOURCES OF E! The cur aware of the are brought ' of the educa tional inten For ex such as tele architectura actions outs' educator to a 0f the condiI haVior of te‘ OPErating ou nevertheless environment VariouS Pal Schools . Rough-1,9 First. 49 habits and skills, and discourse systems, and their organi— zational interrelationships. SOURCES OF ENVIRONMENTAL COMPONENTS The curriculum person has the responsibility of being aware of the sources of educational conditions and how they are brought into specific situations. Not all components of the educatiVe environment are a consequence of educa— tional intention or rationality. For example, recent forms of instructional media, such as television, computers, talking typewriters, and architectural forms are all a consequence of creative actions outside the educational domain. They force the educator to ask how they can be used educationally. Some of the conditioned and relatively fixed patterns of be— havior of teachers are also a consequence of forces operating outside educational practice or rationality but nevertheless crucial as components of the educational environment. The same can be said of the existence of various patterns of symbol usage within classrooms and schools. There are two ways to launch a search for the rela- tionship between environmental components and their sources. First, the researcher could detail the existence of the Various components within a given situation and then search for the scum Second, the 1 schools funC‘ systems or h‘ conditions w. RELATIONSHIP Huebner functions of veloping and rent. Descr ditions that curriculum p The pre Permit the c mental condi environmenta Wri for new goc HUebner Win the construe the use of e Vices, The of teacher 3 50 for the sources or determiners of those conditions. Second, the researcher could scan the society within which schools function, and inquire how various materials, symbol systems or human skills have been or can be related to conditions within the school. RELAITONSHHRBETWEEN LANGUAGE AND ENVIRONMENT Huebner identifies the descriptive and controlling functions of language to be significant vehicles for de— veloping and introducing new conditions into the environ— ment. Descriptive language may be used to describe con— ditions that might exist in the future. This enables curriculum persons to envision new possibilities. The predictive and manipulating functions of language permit the construction or fabrication of new environ- mental conditions by facilitating the specification of environmental variables and their interrelationships. Writers, using story, novel, or hypothetical form, can describe students and teachers in new and strange environments, in the manner of good science fiction (1975,pp. 264—265). Huebner points out that the language of psychology permits the construction of new environmental conditions through the use of electronic responsive and computer-based de— Vices. The language of psychology enables the conditioning 0f teacher skills and permits teachers to increase their behavioral resources in new and perhaps undreamed ways. The don each of the l—l \ ability to The rev can bring fc ditions can De 301 de: em or ci‘ A reci; environment. mental condi lead to the PRACTICE AS Curricu struction Of equal COUCer envimnment. ing'Creatin describe and SeCUlar language Of are other tr 51 i The domain of psychology is a mere example of how each of the behavioral sciences increase the curricularist's ability to fabricate new environmental conditions. The reverse relationship also exists. New language can bring forth new environmental conditions but new con— ditions can also bring forth new language responses. Developing technologies create new environmental conditions that can foster the creation of new descriptive language, increase the need for new explanatory language, and suggest the necessity or possibility of new legitimating and prescrip- tive language (l975,p.265). A reciprocal relationship exists between language and environment. Language can be used to create new environ— mental conditions, and new environmental conditions can lead to the emergence of new language patterns. PRACTICE AS HUMAN EVENT Curricularists must not only be concerned for the con- struction of the educative environment, they must have an equal concern for the human events which occur within that environment. The theoretical problem here is one of "find- ing, creating, or borrowing a language that can be used to describe and explain human events in educative situations." Secular curricularists have depended largely on the language of psychology or other behavioral science. There are other traditions whose language is rich and productive which have n Certain theo by curricula Huebner larists. Mi near total b the traditio ences? If S as destiny, influence of curricularis situations, A conce: calls attent. are involved which have not yet become sources for secular curricularists. Certain theological traditions have been completely ignored by curricularists. Huebner's point here is addressed to secular curricu— larists. Might not the reverse also be true, namely, the near total blindness of curricularists within the church to the traditions of psychology and the other behavioral sci— ences? If secular curricularists have ignored such questions as destiny, finitude, and the meaning of morality of the influence of one human being on another, have not sacred curricularists ignored such questions as persistent life situations, psychology, socialization, and politics? A concern for the history of "practice as human event" calls attention to the biographical structure of people who are involved in the educational environment. Huebner says, The life history of the individuals involved in educative situations becomes a potential focal point of the concern and suggests the need for conceptual systems that articulate the phenomenon of human power and the dramatic shape of human events....This is another task of the curriculum theorist (l975,p.266). PRACTICE AS DESIGN Huebner makes the point that the practitioner is a designer of educational environments for human events. This is a two-fold design problem. The first is an esthetic problem of composing the environment in such a way that events flow in valued ways. The solutior various qua] lationships , tion among t The sec of educatior involving pe Reaching agr lar environn among those environment , 'ti0n 0f powe There 1 Political in The Pr0cesse ViroIlluents i CurriCUlum t IOOls for gr THE NATURE c It for in att hum evo bet Sea r-IllL___i 53 The solution to this problem requires attention to the various qualities of the environment and their interre- lationships, and to the durational aspects of the interac- tion among the individuals within the environment. The second is a political design problem. Fabrication of educational environments is essentially social policy, involving people with different values and intentions. Reaching agreement about the characteristics of a particu— lar environment, Huebner says, requires a potential conflict among those concerned and the use of power to shape the environment. The resolution of conflict and the organiza- tion of power is essentially a problem of political design. There is the sense in which curriculum is one form of political involvement because it seeks to shape the world. The processes by which developing persons shape their en- vironments is a central curriculum issue. The task for the curriculum theorist, therefore, is to develop conceptual tools for grouping this two—fold design problem. THE NATURE OF RESEARCH Huebner defines research as follows: It is the use of the unformed to create form; as a focusing on the unconditioned in order to develop new conditions; as attention to human events in order that human institutions can be created or evolve; as the dialectical relationship between criticism and creation. ...Re— search is not simply the gathering of Scienti then, as the lated to cur language for: establish th that new phe ments may be Underst- keeping all : institutions been created people to wo Through rese criticize th he held and ' destroyed an the adequacy dEtermines t dSthetic, ec It is m tions that a are also the C(”Isidered and human sk 54 "facts," but the development of a form to "fit" those facts (l975,p.267). Scientific research in curriculum can be considered, then, as the disciplined attentiveness to phenomena re— lated to curriculum in order to create new or modified language forms. These forms enable the curricularist to establish the parameters for particular phenomena in order that new phenomena may be uncovered and new language state- ments may be created. Understood in this way, research is a vehicle for keeping all man—made institutions viable and vital. Human institutions have been created intentionally. They have been created to contain certain phenomena and to enable people to work with or use them for a particular purpose. Through research, people responsible for these institutions criticize them to determine if they reflect the givens to be held and whether they need to be revised or completely destroyed and re—created. The empirical critique determines the adequacy of the form for the facts. The social critique determines the adequacy of the form in terms of the logical, esthetic, economic, and political Values of the users. It is more than just the physical aspect of institu- tions that are in need of criticism and re—creation. There are also the conditioned aspects of the environment to be Considered. These are the materials, symbolic systems, and human skills, which, as institutional forms, are equally in need of tality and be a vehicl created in ate to empi Resear materials (1 Teacher ski human inten cism and re are also in and social j Re th 5 AP] Ac¢ te: id< And again he Macdona Writers for theory . Man 55 in need of criticism and recreation to retain their vi— tality and viability. Research may be considered to be a vehicle by which these forms are Criticized and re- created in order that they might continue to be appropri- ate to empirical givens and social values. Research is needed continually to determine whether materials do indeed serve their intentional function. Teacher skills are also conditioned forms that embody human intention, and must be amenable to empirical criti— i cism and recreation. Symbolic forms used in curriculum ‘ are also intentional forms subject to empirical criticism and social judgment. Huebner says, Research is the human activity that maintains the vitality and Viability of man—made form by subjecting it to empirical and social criticism appropriate to given historical communities. According to Tillich, man must continually pro— test against existing form lest it become an idol, that new form might emerge. (Pinar,p.268) And again he says, All educators attempt to shape the world; theorists should call attention to the tools used for the shaping in order that the world being shaped can be more beautiful and just (l975,p.269). James B. Macdondd Macdonald (1975) stands unique among curriculum writers for his inquiry into the function of curriculum theory. Many writers in the field tend to be thematic. L__;—_ The importan the context upon what Ma any particul lar (planned logical and experience m argument? W esthetic, et or experienc that the mat says possess THE FUNCTIO Macdona the theory 1 for conceptu velopment. curriculum t integrity of three levels level of cm the succeed: directed an: May or may 1 56 The importance of function can hardly be overstated. In the context of church programs decision—makers may build upon what Macdonald says by inquiring into the function of any particular activity. For example, how does a particu— lar (planned or unplanned) experience affect the psycho- logical and emotional state of the participants? Does the experience move participants by its mood as well as its argument? What does it express symbolically? What is the esthetic, ethical, and religious function of each program or experience? These questions and others like them suggest that the matter of function is complicated. What Macdonald says possesses significance for decision-makers in the church. THE FUNCTWONAL.ROL£ OF CURRICULUM THEORY Macdonald‘s (l975,pp.5-6) description of the role of the theory is functional. He provides a useful framework for conceptualizing the entire network of curriculum de- velopment. He differentiates between three levels of curriculum theory to show how each contributes to the integrity of educational writing. Taken altogether, the three levels show how the concepts held at the deepest level of curriculum theory possess implications for each of the succeeding levels. Thus, what is actually done in directed and undirected developmental (learning) contexts may or may not possess valid functional foundations de- l— pending on t between the Macdona tional theor alize theory development curriculum d springboard in relation articulates ticular sch this sense directly op The se is much smal concept of s itself to id their relati is conceptua Validation c than as a te curriculum I The th: Parcent of h is a creati‘ 57 pending on the validity of the theoretical connections between the three levels. Macdonald observes three distinct groups who do educa— tional theorizing. The first and largest group conceptu- alize theory as "a guiding framework for applied curriculum development and research as a tool for evaluation of curriculum development." To this group theory is a springboard for prescribing and guiding practical activity in relation to curriculum. That is, it is a document which articulates what a particular institution (such as a par- ticular school or church) is designed to do. Theory in this sense functions like a philosophy in that it is not directly open to empirical validation. The second group of theorizers, according to Macdonald, is much smaller. It is committed to a more conventional concept of scientific theory. This group has devoted itself to identifying and describing the variables and their relationships in curriculum. Theory for this group is conceptual in nature, and research is used for empirical validation of curriculum variables and relationships, rather than as a test of the efficiency and effectiveness of a curriculum prescription. The third group includes only about three to five percent of curriculum theorists. Theorizing for this group is a creative intellectual task which (it is maintained) should be ne empirically The purpose conceptual 3 curriculum w THE CENTRAL Macdona to be the di lum designs structured ' starting po' The th their desi oriented sta Knowledge—Orin The mos cerned with knowledge de perceived ec Pressures 1:: Union. Bruner the Subj ect 58 should be neither used as a basis for prescription or as an empirically testable set of principles and relationships. The purpose of these theorists is to develop and criticize conceptual schema in the hope that new ways of talking about curriculum will be forthcoming. THE CENTRAL CONCERN OF CURRICULUM THEORY Macdonald identifies the aim of curriculum theorists to be the discovery of the basic unit around which curricu- lum designs are built. Current practices in curriculum are structured in such a way that one of three foci act as the starting point for curriculum development. The three foci around which curriculum theorists build their designs are: "knowledge-oriented statements," "reality- oriented statements," and "value—oriented statements." Knowledge-Oriented Statements. The most prolific of the curriculum thinkers are con- cerned with statements about knowledge. The emphasis upon knowledge developed as a reaction to those critics who perceived education as life adjustment and broad social pressures to keep up with the technology of the Soviet Union. Bruner called for a movement toward reconceptualizing the subject matter of the schools around the structure of (1966), Schw vided a fund stantive, Phenix contr fields of learning an a useful vo articles by theory of But wh theorists i who feel ep‘ an adequate vance of soc appear to la ably with or Reality-Orient: Reality cultural, a1 woven into .- 1975,p. 9) . “all Of look. facing real 59 the disciplines and the modes of disciplined inquiry. Others followed his lead. Among them are Brownell and King (1966), Schwab (1964) and Phenix (1965). Schwab has pro— vided a fundamental analysis of the organizational, sub- stantive, and syntactical structures of the disciplines. Phenix contributed a conceptual reorganization of the fields of knowledge with the intention of facilitating learning and use of knowledge. Vandenberg (1969) edited a useful volume of readings in which he presented selected articles by a variety of persons, which helps put the theory of knowledge into educational perspective. But when all of the data from the knowledge-oriented theorists is set forth, there are still a great many scholars who feel epistemology or knowledge is too limited a base for an adequate curriculum theory. Questions about the rele— vance of social, human, and personal qualities would appear to lead to broader vistas in order to cope comfort— ably with curriculum decisions. Reath—Orfiented Statements. Reality-oriented statements focus on the social, cultural, and personal context and fabric which is inter— woven into a complex mosaic of living and being (Macdonald, l975,p.9). The result is a curriculum which becomes a WaY Of looking at the fundamental concerns of persons facing real life situations. L‘ CurriCU scope. G00d eras, the PI He observes disciplines prepositions John Dewey, tendency of Mann (I of politics his study 1: design can I of the rela‘ ality develc GOOdla< Elaborate 0 four levels tUtional, a The G0: Process of the Tyler r assqu that to be intro SUbj ect mat of the Tyle 60 Curriculum thinking all too frequently is segmented in scope. Goodlad paints a curriculum picture in terms of two eras, the progressive era and the discipline—centered era. He observes that Bruner as a major figure in the recent disciplines era has also presented a number of secondary propositions which are of vital concern to the progressives. John Dewey, representing the progressives, warned about the tendency of some progressives to forget the disciplines. Mann (l975,p.10) did a study in the relationship of politics to curriculum theory. The significance of his study lies in whether or not an adequate curriculum design can be formulated without a sophisticated awareness of the relationship between political concerns and person- ality development. Goodlad and Richter (1977) have presented the most . elaborate contemporary model for curriculum. They identify four levels of decision—making: social, ideological, insti- tutional, and instructional. The Goodlad and Richter model is predicated upon the process of rational decision—making and is an extension of the Tyler rationale. However, contrary to Tyler they assume that values are beginning points, not only screens to be introduced after analysis of society, learners, and SUbject matter, thus avoiding one of the major criticisms Of the Tyler model. l—‘_ The int explain, and model to rat out importar as that disc usefulness c trol of the hacdone "actions" a: than the de attempt her. Contexts of activity th ships, The On the fufldame Conceptual actiOn PrOC tial unit h The in the Selecti Puses Selec the COnCept bias. Thus by the cm 61 The intent of this conceptual model is to control, explain, and describe. However, limiting a conceptual model to rational decision making processes may well rule out important descriptive and explanatory phenomena, such as that discussed by Mann, and thus weaken the long—range usefulness of the model for more short—term needs for con- trol of the curriculum processes. Macdonald proposed a conceptual model which views "actions" as the central unit of curriculum theory (rather than the decisions of the Tyler—Goodlad variety). The attempt here was to explain the activity found in relevant contexts of schooling and to describe the various levels of activity that go on and at least hint at their relation— ships. The one central concern of theorists is identifying the fundamental unit of curriculum with which to build conceptual systems. Whether this be rational decisions, action processes, language patterns, or any other poten- tial unit has not been agreed upon by the theorizers. The intentions of the theorists necessarily influence the selection of the unit. The intent to control predis— poses selection of scientific and technical language, and the conceptual system which develops reflects this initial bias. Thus, the value question has not been transcended by the curriculum models that are presently available. .¥_ Currie Designs , in legitimize, explain, an Over t There have designs, re designs. 0 curriculum, 0f curricul The pr is that whi Problem of and the val is central Concep the basic u are units T_______—___ 62 Value—Oriented Statements. Curriculum designs are value-oriented statements. Designs, in contrast to epistemological theories or reality- oriented statements, attempt "to project a theoretically based pattern of experiences as desirable." The intention of designs is clearly to prescribe, legitimize, and win advocates rather than simply describe, explain, and/or control. Over the years a variety of designs have been witnessed. There have been subject—centered designs, broad-field designs, real-life problem designs, and the child—centered designs. Other designs have been called the "activity ll curriculum," the "core curriculum, and the "emerging needs of curriculum." The primary problem that confronts curriculum designers is that which confronts conceptual modelers. That is the 3 problem of the basic unit around which designs are built; and the value commitment, perhaps at a different level, is central to design. Conceptual models rely on "rational decisions" as the basic unit. Other designs have often utilized learning experiences as a basic unit. Instructional objectives, learning tasks, and functional social roles and skills are units which are frequently proposed. L The other tionship a experience. There ogous to D essence of to have a said to be the study c There selected ft for the le; academic d Should it tions of e rOle of st 63 Value priorities have generally been set in one of the basic referents of curriculum. Designers have generally opted for priority on subject matter, social phenomena, or people (learners). At the level of practical design it makes a difference which one of the three one begins with. Nevertheless, there is no inherent isolation among these three units. They each represent a starting point only. The other kinds of statements stand in complementary rela— tionship and may need to be dealt with in the learning experience. There is an article of faith involved which is anal— ogous to Dewey's comment that educational philosophy was the essence of all philosophy because it was "the study of how to have a world." Curriculum theory in this light might be said to be the essence of educational theory because it is the study of how to have a learning environment. Maxine Greene There are conflicting viewpoints about the way knowledge selected for the learning environment should be organized for the learners. Should the program be based on the academic disciplines as they are traditionally defined? Should it be designed around persistent topics and situa— tions of everyday living? What should be the distinctive role of students and professional educators in selecting available Green criticism his world . TWO PERCEP The first \ nmtnrnm The s: Possibilit: making sen: tunities f means of e personally 64 the content? What knowledge should be made available to all students? What specialized knowledge should be made available to special groups of students? Greene (l977,pp.237—253) builds upon the literary criticism and work of phenomenologists such as Merleau— Ponty. Greene offers fresh insights into the relationship between knowledge and the curriculum particularly in re- gards to the way the learner commits himself to act upon his world. TWO PERCEPTTONS OF CURRICULUM In "Curriculum and Consciousness" Greene (1977) pro- vides a bold contrast between two perceptiOns of curriculum. The first View represents curriculum as an arrangement of subjects, a structure of socially prescribed knowledge, or a complex system of meanings...(which are) "objectively existent," something "external to the person—. to be discovered, mastered, learned." The second view represents curriculum as a series of possibilities for the individual who is “concerned with making sense of his own life—world." It provides oppor- tunities for the individual to impose "‘configurations‘ by means of experiences and perspectives made available for personally conducted cognitive action." In the application of the first view to curriculum construction, the available resources are focused upon 'priorities , intended (or Conside and America! to conceive understood J biography a1 emphasis on illustrates isolated st prescribe t literature . CRITICS 0F 1 Greene has arisen Members of sciousness. notion that divorced f1 work as a I a gradual Structures For t ceived as 65 "priorities, purposes, programs of 'intended learning' and intended (or unintended) manipulation." Consider, for example, current practices in British and American literary criticism. The dominant tendency is to conceive literary works as objects or artifacts "best understood in relative isolation from the writer's personal biography and...the reader's own daily life." T. S. Eliot's emphasis on the autonomy and "impersonality" of literary art illustrates this approach. A work of art is "a self—enclosed isolated structure" in this view and those who opt for it prescribe that only "esthetic values are to be found in literature." CRITICS OF CONSCIOUSNESS VIEWPOINT Greene observes a new movement on the Continent which has arisen as an active critic to the first point of View. Members of this movement are called the "Critics of Con- sciousness." Their objective is to secure a break with the notion that a literary work can be dealt with objectively, divorced from experience. This second view presents each work as a manifestation of an individual writer's experience, a gradual ordering of conscious configurations (cognitive structures) which are given expression through language. For the critic of consciousness, literature is per— ceived as a kind of genesis, a conscious effort on the part of the their own sion of thi is involved terms of hi analyze or experience meaningful. artist inte tion) beyon own syntheti This pc of Dewey whc ) 66 part of the individual to give cognitive structure to their own understanding of experience and to give expres— sion of this understanding through language. The reader is involved in the process of recreating what he reads in terms of his own needs. The objective here is not to analyze or explicate or evaluate; it is to "extract the experience made manifest by means of the work." Learning is the process, therefore, of continual reconstruction so that a piece of one's own literature becomes increasingly meaningful. Learning is not simply regenerating what the artist intended. It is moving (within one's own imagina— tion) beyond the meanings of the artist to project one's own synthetic form. This point of View, Greene says, captures the meaning of Dewey who said: Solution comes only by getting away from the meaning of terms that is already fixed upon and coming to see the conditions from another point of View, and hence in a fresh light. There is work done on the part of the percipient as there is on the part of the artist. The one who is too lazy, idle, or indurated in convention to perform this work will not see or hear. His 'appreciation' will be a mixture of scraps of learning with con— formity to norms of conventional admiration and with a confused, even if genuine, emo— tional excitation (l975,p.299). The "work" to which Dewey refers is that of disclosure, reconstruction, and generation. Greene observes some useful clues in wh Learning re tures. The lar to what which [the intellectua The ve perceiving within expe ways, and meaningful Thus, experiences Similate a 0f expressi ideas to cc fifi'fil—rmfimm 67 clues in what the critics of consciousness have to say. Learning results in the development of new cognitive struc- tures. These cognitive restructuring activities are simi- lar to what Piaget calls "continual 'decentering' without which [the individual subject] cannot become free from his intellectual egocentricity" (p.302). The very process of developing a rationale involves perceiving one's own world, determining logical relations within experience, organizing these relations in meaningful ways, and the giving of expression of this process through meaningful language. Thus, curriculum may be conceived as a series of experiences in which the growing child is enabled to as— similate a language system of expression" which is capable of expressing "an indeterminate number of cognitions or ideas to come." Greene says: ...unease and disorder are increasingly endemic in contemporary life and...more and more persons are finding the recipes they habitually use inadequate for sense— making in a changing world. This puts them, more and more frequently, in the position of strangers or immigrants trying to orient themselves in an unfamiliar town. The desire, indeed, the need, for orientation is equivalent to the desire to constitute meanings, all sorts of mean— ings, in the many dimensions of existence. But this desire, I have suggested, is not satisfied by the authoritative confronta— tion of student with knowledge structures (no matter how "teachable" the forms in which the knowledge is revealed). It is surely not satisfied when the instructional Greene only be in act upon hi egocentris own possib' the road; he may be certain e1 devised is the stages generating in mastery 68 situation is conceived to be. . .one in which the teacher is endeavoring "with respect to his subject matter, to bring the understand— ing of the learner in equality with his own understanding." ‘ Greene's point is that the student (learner) will only be in a position to learn when he is committed to act upon his world. If he is incapable of breaking with egocentrism, he will remain alienated from himself and his own possibilities; he will wander lost and victimized upon the road; he will be unable to learn. He may be conditioned; he may be trained. He may even have some rote memory of certain elements of the curriculum; but no matter how well devised is that curriculum, no matter how well adapted to the stages of his growth, learning (as disclosure, as generating structures, as engendering meaning, (as achieved in mastery) will not occur. William Pinar Pinar's (l975, xi—xii) description of the process of reconceptualization provides one way of categorizing cur— rent thinking among decision makers within particular educative institutions or movements. The process of recon— ceptualization is essential to any movement which challenges current ways of thinking about tradition. It enables the movement to move beyond mere criticism and a tearing down of traditional structures to conceptualizing what ought to be and to e ships which to its reas The fu in the way or heritage ceptualizat values of tion, and ically. Fc technical 5 others. THE came Criti 69 be and to effect the necessary connections or relation- ships which enable the movement to discipline its activities to its reason for being. The function of any such movement is to effect changes in the way people perceive and talk about a given tradition or heritage. Pinar describes three stages in this recon— ceptualization process. THE APPLICATION OF TRADITION Initiates into the tradition accept uncritically the values of that tradition. Their work is that of applica— tion, and occasionally the extension of that work theoret— ically. For the most part, however, their work is of a technical sort; that is, it is a carrying the load of others. THE CRITICS OF TRADITION Critics are essential if this condition is to be overcome. This task is generally accomplished under ex— tremely complicated conditions and is rarely appreciated. The critic must learn the language of the heritage, of the masters, in order to be understood. This learning almost always occurs because the critic begins as one of the initiates and he comes of age within the tradition. It is generally through his own usually painful self- educative e: culties witi of criticis: tion of the and deliber within the discomfort- Nevertheles condition f TOWARD SYh The ti turned thej the Present attempts tc SCienCe, U of theOlOg; framework . The c faCEd with TrueblOOd liable reS aCtion) . 70 educative experiences that he comes to realize the diffi- culties with accepted tradition. Then begins the process of criticism, the hope and aim of which is the transforma— tion of the situation. While the criticism is consciously and deliberately aimed at colleagues, the real target lies within the critic. The effect is that of considerable discomfort—~to the critic as well as to the colleagues. Nevertheless, this second stage of criticism is a necessary condition for the third stage to begin. TOWARD SYNTHESIS AND POTENTIALITY The third stage is characterized by those who have turned their attention from the past and begun to look to the present and future. At its most ambitious, this stage attempts to become a synthesis of contemporary social science, the humanities and values. It is the synthesis of theological and empirical inquiry that provides the framework for maximizing human potential. The church, like all institutions, is constantly faced with the problem of how to remain contemporary. Trueblood (l970,p.9) says that obsolescence is the inev— itable result when the church gives "exclusive attention to a single aspect of the gospel" (such as piety or social action). In its efforts to avoid Obsolescence, the church frequently accurately Recoc the preser might do i its procla identifies There are beyond sta at stage 1 have reaci Nieb' ment of ti Which hav. by which - tiOn in t. (if—Scribes ment. An. Uh baSis Serves as tiOn Ough 71 frequently resorts to the making of improvements, or more accurately, what are perceived to be improvements. Recognizing the relative importance of improvements, the present research seeks to reconceptualize what the church might do in terms of functions and outputs in the light of its proclaimed aims. What Pinar says is useful in that he identifies the stages of the reconceptualization process. There are many within the church who have never progressed beyond stage one. There are a great many whose thinking is at stage two. The church, at large, can hardly be said to have reached stage three. H. Richard Niebuhr Niebuhr (1957), in his summary report on the advance- ment of theological education, sets forth several proposals which have relevance to our study. He provides a scheme by which to reconceptualize the role of theological educa— tion in the preparation of ministers. He identifies and describes essential relationships in the learning environ- ment. And he provides a series of statements which form the basis for an instructional design. That is, his study serves as an effective statement of what theological educa— tion ought to be doing. THE GOAL 0 Accorc logical edz sufficient church and the develo; of relatin human know according and Psychi thEOlogy a lOgical sc arts (p.76 THE FUNCT ACHIEVING The a quantitatj learning 1' theOlOgiCe 0f confrOI Theologice ophically‘ the henna 72 THE GOAL OF THEOLOCICAL EDUCATION According to Niebuhr the supreme need facing theo- logical education is how to equip theological students with sufficient resources for coping with the demands upon the church and its ministry for today (p.77). By this he means the development of Christian intellectuals who are capable of relating the Christian faith to the growing body of human knowledge and method in other fields. The need, according to Niebuhr, is for persons trained in theology and psychiatry, theology and law, theology and anthropology, theology and the physical sciences, theology and the bio— logical sciences and theology and the humanities and the arts (p.76). THE FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS TO ACHIEVING THE GOAL The achievement of this goal requires a shift from quantitative to qualitative learning procedures. Since learning in these areas would require life-long study, theological education ought to be conceptualized as a place of confrontation between both secular and sacred studies. Theological students ought to learn how to think philos— Ophically. By so doing, they will be better able to relate the normative character of Christian faith to a continuing pr0cess of critical inquiry. Theological education, then, is the pro critical i effective: because t‘r. in a langt‘ ations of LIMITATION Self- provide a above Obje unlike the PIOblem cc Education 73 is the process of organizing one's life in such a way that critical inquiry becomes a way of life. In this way the effectiveness of theological students will be increased because they are better able to relate the Christian gospel in a language which can be understood in terms of the situ- ations of the common life. LIMITATIONS FACING THEOLOGICAL EDUCATION Self-perpetuating practices in theological education provide a significant obstacle to the achievement of the above objective. This self—perpetuating tendency is not unlike that of school or any other institution. The problem confronting the curriculum person in theological education is how to carve out a learning environment which will effectively enable these outcomes. PROPOSALS FOR HWPLBMENTATTON AND EVALUATTON The proposals set forth by Niebuhr are built on the need for a continuing process of internal communication and redefinition to bring about integration—coordination among the faculty, among the several disciplines and among the physical components of the learning environment. The goal is the integration-coordination of all elements of the learning environment into a single, unified structure So as to maximize the theological education environment as an effectii prospective effectivem ship of the The p descriptio logic of e implicatio the church These Syst Which cert several co exclusive These fur detern language I: formed, We “0" 0f t} Lingi Way the pg W Ship" and neeESSariI 74 an effective catalyst to the growth and development of prospective ministers. The measure of the environmental effectiveness lies in whether or not the dynamic relation— ship of the church to culture is increasingly defined. Summary The present research seeks to construct a normative description of the church by the use of the language and logic of education. Huebner's writings possess important implications for the church. The several traditions within the church have developed their own systems of language. These systems are not unlike several related dialects in which certain words and concepts are shared among the several communities while other words and concepts are the exclusive domain of a particular segment or group. These language systems tend to become rigid frameworks for determining the way perceptions develop. The particular language tradition which one adopts (such as Baptist, Re- formed, Wesleyan, or Roman Catholic) determines the defini— tion of things. Linguistic categories and language forms affect the Way the people of God conceptualize ghurgh and egggatign for the church. Must "church" necessarily refer to "wor- Ship" and "sermon?" Does educatiOn in and for the church necessarily refer to "Sunday School?" When this kind of language c] there are < For exampl well theol- Can "churc the corner which peop week? Mus tional pla profession church cor H The r Contemporg at church. may in fa< CritiCiZE 0n the pa; Ought to 1 ments whi. to achiev encourage "diSClOsu It iS a p determini thESe rel 75 language characterizes educators in and for the church, there are certain kinds of questions which never arise. For example, does good teaching necessarily refer to how well theological answers can be "poured" into the students? Can "church" refer to something other than the building on the corner with a steeple and a cross on top, and into which people come to worship and Sunday School once a week? Must curriculum necessarily refer to the instruc— tional plan for Sunday School? Must "pastor" refer to the professionally trained and salaried overseer of the local church congregation? The responsibility of those who would criticize the contemporary church is one of finding new ways of looking at church. The very process of reconceptualizing the church may in fact provide a firm basis from which to design and criticize specialized environments which place a premium on the particular dialectical relationships which are or ought to be valued in the church. These are the environ— ments which are structured in such a way as to enable persons to achieve personal integration. Such environments would encourage individual participation in the "work" of "disclosure, reconstruction, and generation" (Greene,p.302). It is a process which involves perceiving one's own world, determining logical relations within experience, organizing these relations in meaningful ways, and the giving of expression The past b: future and to its hig The 1 language 0 the langua their heri for man by ence. It The langua and curric existing E Phenomena, its effec. out, its 3 (Huebner, I t r-h which pos more and lation of empirical form bECa facts. A COnstruct 76 expression of this process through meaningful language. The past becomes for such persons a launching pad for the future and the means by which the personality can unfold to its highest potential. The language of the people of God is not unlike the language of educators. The people of God accept as given the language which has been passed down to them as part of their heritage. It is easy to forget that language is formed for man by man. Language is one of the outcomes of experi— ence. It is not formed by God with ultimate truth value. The language of any discipline, including that of theology and curriculum, must be "put to the test of explaining existing phenomena and predicting or controlling future phenomena. Such language must be continually questioned, its effectiveness challenged, its inconsistencies pointed out, its flaws exposed, and its presumed beauty denied" (Huebner,l975,p.218). If the church is to bring into existence a language which possesses an empirical basis, it will do so only as more and more powerful concepts are introduced. The formu— lation of these powerful concepts is frequently the work of empirical investigators, but it is philosophical in its form because it is concerned with meanings rather than facts. And philosophy is, by definition, the systematic construction of meanings (l975,p-237I- New n (such as t perspectix ways of ti ary becaus formerly a of the phe are value< Refo: the syste: structure to new by require n 05 concep Points or teaching and, We TI Students. at teachj merchant‘ to “Se cI Chilrch be to use t3 Way that lectual think SO 77 New ways of thinking about a particular phenomenon (such as the church), may originate from a variety of perspectives (such as theology and social science). New ways of thinking may have the effect of being revolution- ary because they raise questions which had not been formerly asked. If the language is changed, the appearance of the phenomena is changed with the sorts of things which are valued. Reformers (innovators) are generally forced out of the system. How, then, can decision—makers alter the vast structures of the church? Persons do not switch from old to new by an act of will alone. New procedures often require not merely a new methodology, but a whole new way of conceptualizing certain relationships. Broudy (1972) points out that educators have been somewhat successful at teaching good chemistry to prospective chemistry students and, we might add, good theology to prospective theological students. But educators have been less than successful at teaching chemical concepts to the prospective lawyer, merchant, or housewife so that these persons will know how to use chemical concepts and their relationships. Has the church been less than successful in teaching the laity how to use theological concepts and their relationships in a Way that will promote their social, physical, moral, intel— lectual and spiritual development? Many in the church think so. Part ineffectiv of God con lfreligio discipline largely' on uportant of knowleé situations learner nu he field: an ideas \— '_4 lie Sithe haVe a re. CEptualiz from the Past Variety O instructi are hOt a of their the enthl.‘ tOr and 11 valid mod 78 Part of the reason why the church may be relatively ineffective in this regard may lie in the way the people of God conceptualize the function of religious studies. If religious studies are conceptualized as being like other disciplines then persons are forced to focus their attention largely on the utility of religious ideas. Utility is important but not at the expense of the relational aspects of knowledge and the structural features of persistent life situations. In order for learning to be effective, the learner must come to understand the logical structure of the fields of experience. That is, he must know the facts and ideas and the logical relations among his persistent life situations as they are organized into categories of instruction. What this means for innovators is that they have a responsibility to enable would-be followers to con- ceptualize the church in a way that may be quite different from the conceptualization which they presently hold. Pastors are rarely led into an understanding of the variety of models which are the basis for much of seminary instruction. It may be, too, that many of the instructors are not aware of the model or models which are at the basis Of their instruction. Many ideas are adopted because of the enthusiasm with which they are conveyed by the instruc— tor and not with regard to their merit or compatibility with Valid models of pastoral theology. More I calling of the commit senination Rather, it the realiz institutic necessaril cellence. To kr t0 articul Cognitive tion oL f5 Process 0;: know how I thinking i to grips I Processes Any come 1:0 g are enabl It may be SiVeneSS to the in StructuIe 79 More often than not, there is a commitment to the calling of Christian vocation, but it is not, as a rule, the commitment of a scholar to the discovery or the dis— semination of that which is central to the Christian faith. Rather, it is a mildly messianic commitment directed toward the realization of a people's faith in God through the institutions of the church. But this commitment has not necessarily been one of deep commitment to academic ex- cellence. To know that two plus two equals four and to be able to articulate why are two different modes of operation. Cognitive style differs dramatically between the computa- tion of facts and the process of critical thinking as a process of discovery. Many persons in the church do not know how to make effective use of inductive and deductive thinking processes. The church has largely failed to come to grips with this need in its consideration of educative processes. Any attempt to effect basic changes in the church must come to grips with the process by which learners in the church are enabled to make the shift to new conceptual processes. It may be that bureaucratic rigidity and lack of respon- siveness is not due so much to unwillingness to change but to the inability to make the necessary changes in cognitive structures as rapidly as innovators demand. Is t} Yes! Its aries. TI confusion even adop them. Bu Systemic routes of dominant understan as a resu For guess as What sort liVe in t The ChangeS 1' how the r of the ft research Order. I of Curric talking a forthCom; 80 Is the Christian community unresponsive to innovation? Yes! Its institutions protect their functions and function- aries. To violent attacks upon them, they respond with confusion, hesitation, and ad hgg improvizations. They may even adopt the rhetoric of their attackers and identify with them. But adaptations are transitory and superficial. Systemic and pervasive reform awaits changes in success routes of an epoch and a change in the ideology of the dominant group (Broudy,l972). It is useful, then, to understand that systemic change does not generally occur as a result of the pressures exerted upon institutions. For systemic change to occur, the leadership must guess as shrewdly as it can the shape of the world to come. What sort of church will such a society require if it is to live in the style of Christ? The present research, then, seeks to effect useful changes in the language and logic of the church. To show how the research proceeds, consider Macdonald's description of the functional role of curriculum theory. The present research builds upon Macdonald's three groups in reverse order. First, the research develops a new conceptual schema of curriculum for the church in the hope that new ways of talking about appropriate functions and outputs will be forthcoming. This task is essentially creative and it represents the third category set forth by Macdonald. Havir lunfor ti of the for search pr< two categi second ca describe for the c ships wil validatic Macd developme research Specific; the kinds Engaged : PhYSiCal of PeOpl. Nie enViIOnm theless, ments ar Effeetiv Church c The fOCt 81 Having developed a new way of conceptualizing curricu- lum for the church, the research proceeds to the articulation of the foundations of curriculum for the church. This re- search provides the basis for treating Macdonald's first two categories of curriculum theory. At the level of the second category, the research proceeds to identify and describe the variables and their relationships in curriculum for the church. It is expected that particular relation- ships will be forthcoming which are open to empirical validation. Macdonald's first category of research describes the development of a model which can become a tool for the research and evaluation of curriculum development. More specifically, this model provides the basis for determining the kinds of functions in which the church ought to be engaged if it is to be effective in facilitating the moral, physical, social, spiritual, and intellectual development of people. Niebuhr's concept of an integrated—coordinated learning environment has profound educational implications. Never— theless, Niebuhr is talking about improvements. Improve- ments are a necessary but insufficient condition for effectiveness. Niebuhr has not examined what the whole church ought to be doing as a developmental institution. The focus of his study is upon seminaries and graduate schools of tion of mi larger iss munity out 82 schools of theology. Their dominant purpose is the prepara— tion of ministers. The present study is concerned with the larger issue of where the energies of the Christian com— munity ought to be directed. Chapt known abet (1974,1971 What the c he nature schema by? astartinc the churcj cerned wi functions terminolo hOiOgy, p The haier (l9 dEScribe (1955, 19 (1897, is inquire j while not psycholog that Sur i behaviOr: CHAPTER THREE IDENTHHCATWON OF THE STRUCTURES Chapter Three identifies the structures of what is known about the nature of church, man, and society. Snyder (1974,1977) provides a normative description of the church. What the church aims to do and what it does is derived from the nature of the church. Snyder provides a conceptual schema by which to evaluate the language of the church as a starting point for develOping new ways of talking about the church. Based on what Snyder says, the church is con- cerned with the whole of human development and it possesses functions which are not unlike school. The theological terminology of Snyder, translated into educational termi- nology, possesses important implications. The writings of Werner (1948,1957), Baldwin (1967), Maier (1969), and Piaget (Flavell, l963, Wadsworth, 1971) describe the process of human development while Allport (1955, 1960, 1967, 1968), Combs (1962, 1974, 1976), Dewey (1897, 1899, 1916, 1933, 1938, 1944), and Wolff (1974) inquire into what man can become in terms of ultimates. While not all of these theorists are considered to be growth PSychologists, they do propose a level of human development that surpasses the norm of human development reflected in behaviorism and psychoanalysis. Allport presents the view that enrichment presents a behaves is Dewey pres the relat: experienCE psychologj significa to a stud nature an ficant ed Beca is useful ment whic is given SYStems, tators 0: families, tencies . On many USE of a 0f the r and the F___i View that human beings have the capacity for expansion, enrichment, development, and self-fulfillment. Combs presents a perceptual view of psychology. The way a person behaves is a direct result of the way he perceives himself. Dewey presents human development in terms of "growing" and the relationship of habit to growth. His psychology of experience is essential to the development of an organismic psychology of human development. Wolff's contribution is significant because he has applied the tools of anthropology to a study of the Old Testament concepts concerning the nature and destiny of man and what he says possesses signi— ficant educational implications. Because man is a social being, an ecological approach is useful for the examination of all parts of the environ- ment which may facilitate human development. Attention is given to both family and community as energy transforming systems, with particular emphasis on their roles as facili— tators of the whole of human development. Individuals, families, and communities need to develop particular compe- tencies so as to be able to cope with crisis and problems on many levels: individual, family, community, and societal. Use of an ecological approach can enhance the understanding Of the relationship of behavior to environmental conditions and the effects on families of the institutions and organi— zations with which they interact. This approach can also provide a inaginativ based on 1 interactic church as acting sys more effe< The tian comm fields of is that c @051 by wt from a St Which is the Sevei The pushing ( abOut th1 decision. contribu StUdY of 85 provide a framework for design and implementation of imaginative intervention programs and support systems based on knowledge of environmental components and the interaction process. The ability to conceptualize the church as part of the totality of human and natural inter— acting systems enables decision makers in the church to be more effective. Toward a Normafive Descfipfion of Church The particular theology held by members of the Chris- tian community alters or sharpens their perception of the fields of sociology, psychology, and philosophy. Theology is that composite of concepts and principles concerning God by which one gives meaning to the information derived from a study of the disciplines. The particular theology which is held serves as a screen by which information from the several disciplines is valued or not valued. The present research proceeds with the intent of pushing out the present horizons of contemporary thinking about the church. It seeks to sharpen the perception of decision-makers within the church concerning the potential contribution to the church which can be derived from a study of sociology, psychology, and philosophy. It accom— plishes th church. S who are re tures with effective the Christ he churc1 The 1 insightfui widely re. \ 1. Howard gress 9ress the co issues tribut Signif world- 2° Snyder Lausae analy; mem nally they g the m; mined Furth. Easil In Th the‘V The c which tian The P fOr e 86 plishes this by building upon Snyder'sl theology of the church. Snyder is part of a new generation of writers who are re—evaluating the meaning of church and its struc- tures with renewed intensity. Snyder's writings are an effective catalyst enabling a wide variety of persons within the Christian community to reconsider their basic views of the church. The particular focus of Snyder's writings provide an insightful rediscovery of the nature of the church. He is widely read and acclaimed.2 Thus, it is appropriate to use Howard Snyder was a major speaker at the 1974 International Con— gress on World Evangelization in Lausaane, Switzerland. The Con— gress issued a document, "The Lausaane Covenant," which expressed the consensus of some 3500 participants on a wide variety of issues related to world evangelization. Snyder's particular con— tribution was in what he said about the church. The Covenant is Significant because it is the expression of evangelicals with world—wide representation. Snyder has written two books which expand upon his presentation in Lausaane, Switzerland. In The Problem of Wineskins (1974) Snyder analyzes the problem of church structures in technologically ad— vanced cultures. The "new wine" of the gospel consists of eter— nally new concepts and principles which possess meaning only as they are applied to current life situations. The "Wineskins" are the man—made structures of the Church. They are culturally deter- mined and tend to lose their relevance as cultural change occurs. Furthermore, culturally determined structures do not transplant easily to other cultures. In The Community of the King (1977) Snyder analyzes the church as the "Agent of the Kingdom" with a clearly defined miSSion on earth. The Christian community witnesses to the values of the Kingdom . Which is neither entirely present nor entirely future. The Chris— tian community is primarily an organism rather than an organization. The particular structures adopted by members of the community are for executing its mission. But the structure is not the church. Snyder's o for a stud underscore important tions wit1 Snyde tion of c1 Wes1eyan, traditions Snyde tions and portrays ' a curricu Th1 What t Aims 87 Snyder‘s orientation to the church as a frame of reference for a study of curriculum for the church. The research underscores those elements which Snyder considers to be important and proceeds to seek their educational implica- tions within the framework of curriculum theory. Snyder's View of the church is mainline. His defini— tion of church is in harmony with writers in the Reformed, Wesleyan, Roman Catholic, Baptist, AnaBaptist and Quaker traditions, among others. Snyder's rediscovery underscores a series of defini— tions and relationships. The following diagram graphically portrays the central issues set forth in his writings from a curricular viewpoint: ngreZ The Central Issues in Snyder's Theology of the Church . What the Church Does What the Church . . . . . Aims to Do What the Church Is WHAT THE Snyde related c< two poles of the ch What can he ri "clear bi 9.12). PM \E' 88 WHAT THE CHURCHIS Snyder says persons and community are two inter— related concepts with supreme importance. They are the two poles "which together make up the biblical reality of the church" (1974a,p.45). The most biblical definition is to say the Church is the community of God's people. The two key elements here are the church as a people, a new race or humanity, and a community or fellowship (1974a,p.45). What the church aims to do and what the church does can be rightly defined only within the context of a "clear biblical understanding of the church itself" (1977, p.12). ...the Church is seen as the community of God's people-—a people called to serve him and called to live together in true Christian community as a witness to the character and values of his Kingdom. The Church is the agent of God's mission on earth" (1977,p.12). Pmsons. Concerning "people", Snyder says: On the one hand, the church is the people of God——a concept with rich Old Testament roots which underlines the objective fact of God's acting throughout history to call and prepare "a chosen race, a royal priesthood, a holy nation, God's own people" (1 Peter 2:9; cf. Exodus 19:5—6). The Greek word for "people" is laos, from which comes the latin laicus and the English "laity." This reminds us that the whole church is a "laity", a people. Communhy. insitutic OrgaDiZa‘ (Wineski; not to d. meaning. Christia Snyder S 89 Here the emphasis is on the universality of the church-—God's people scattered throughout the world in hundreds of specific denominations, movements, and other structures. Seen in the cosmic-historical perspective, the church is the people of God. (1974a,p.45-46). Communhy. Concerning "community" Snyder says: On the other hand, the church is a community of fellowship. This New Testament emphasis grows directly out of the experience of Pentecost (Acts 2). If peoplehood underlines the con- tinuity of God's plan from Old to New Testament, community calls attention to the "new covenant," the "new wine," "the new thing" God did in the resurrection of Jesus Christ and the Spirit's baptism at Pentecost. The emphasis here is on the locality of the church in its intense, inter— active common life. The church is the community of the Holy Spirit. The church, then, is the community of God's people. It is established by God as the agent of His cosmic plan for human history. It was to this church in its inconspicuous, unpromising beginnings that Jesus Christ entrusted the Great Commission (1974a,p.46). ChaHsma. Snyder sees the church in charismatic rather than insitutional terms. It is an organism not an institutional Organization. "The church is by definition, Charismatic" (Wineskins,p.157). The term "charismatic" is used by Snyder not to designate a provincial, Pentecostal or glossolalia meaning, but to indicate its broader significance. The Christian community is a charismatic or organic model. Snyder says, "A charismatic or organic model is one marked by community, interpersonal relationships, mutuality and interdependence. It is flexible and leaves Snyde for suppor Church as often neg] p.138). The 1 he God-m. Sny< WithOut the inst meaning. that ex; T0 the e Church 6 the dull 90 room for a high degree of spontaneity. The Bible gives us such a model for the Church: the human body" (1977,p.67). Snyder cites the Roman Catholic Theologian Hans Kung for support when he says, "in the history of theology the Church as assembled community of the faithful has been too often neglected in favor of the Church as institution" (1974, p.158). The basis of the church as a charismatic community is the God-man relationship. Snyder says: This provides the basis of the church's community life. The pure light of God's manifold grace" (1 Peter 4:10, NASB) is then refracted as it shines through the Church, as light through a prism, pro— ducing the varied, multicolored charismata, or gifts of the Spirit.... This operation of the Holy Spirit provides the basis for the Church's diversity within unity (Ephesians 4:1-12; 1 Corinthians 12). The edifi— cation of the Church thus results from the exercise of spiritual gifts as ”the whole body, joined and held together by every supporting ligament, grows and builds itself up in love, as each part does its work" (Ephesians 4:16)(l977,p.61). Snyder recognizes the necessity of institutional form. Without it the church could not accomplish its purpose. But the institutional nature of the church is not its primary meaning. The church is primarily a charismatic community that expresses itself in a variety of institutional forms. TO the extent that the institutional perception of the church dominates the perception of decision—makers within the Church the growth of both individuals and the community is impede< he insti give it " spiritual cise of 5 church wh able to a if they a tional st in cultur (l974,p.] the cont: Church a: histOric; of the w Work is . don of 9. Simply a the Proc Kingdom. COIlVictj. to exEcu on the 13 mltted ( 91 is impeded. The church as charismatic community is primary. The institutions it establishes to accomplish its purposes give it "currency" (1977,p.64). The "charismata" are the spiritual gifts. The church is built up through the exer- cise of spiritual gifts (Ephesians 4:16). Institutions of church which structure themselves charismatically are better able to adapt themselves to present and future needs than if they are structured in "rigid, bureaucratic, institu— tional structures which may soon find themselves trapped in culturally bound forms which are fast becoming obsolete" (l974,p.158). Whatthe Church Ahnsto Do. Snyder says that reconciliation is the controlling purpose or aim of the church. He views the church as the very center of God's plan for the cosmic— historical process. The church is the agent or "doer" of the work of God throughout time. This reconciling work is the Kingdom of God (1977). In this view, the King— dom of God is a reality at work within history, and not simply a goal toward which history is moving. Faith is the process by which the people of God participate in the Kingdom. It possesses three component elements: a firm conviction regarding what is really important, commitment to execute the mandates of the Kingdom, and trustful reliance on the power and the goodness of that to which one is com- mitted (Dulles, 1977,p-l3)~ Acti instrumen world. F than hOpe present ; bringing Just lationshi society, There is faith am justice. God cann Acc extends between and his sonal Se Sians 1: 92 Active participation in the Kingdom involves becoming instruments in the healing and reconciliation of the broken world. Faith becomes "more than intellectual assent, more than hope in what God will do without us; it is also a present participation in the work that God is doing" —- bringing forth justice to nations (Dulles,l977,p.44). Justice is fidelity to the demands of the God-man re— lationship. It is "Concern for the marginal people in society, the widow, the alien, the poor (Donahue,l977,p.69). There is no dichotomy between "theoria and praxis": between faith and doing justice. Faith is not the application of justice. Justice is the substance of faith. Without it, God cannot be known (Donahue,l977,p.76). According to Snyder the reconciliation Christ brings extends to all the alienation that results from the Fall-— between man and himself, between man and man, and between man and his physical environment. Individual and corporate per- sonal salvation must be seen in cosmic perspective (Ephe— sians l:3-20). Whatthe Church Does. Each function of the church including evangelism, church growth, organization, structure, and leadership are the means to the "formation of the Chris— tian community." Snyder says the concept of the church as agent of t of these i Niebi sight intc Christ. i tion. 'The relationa God, to 0' and to cu All aith and 9—11 they poss serves th "Sublimit is due tc hearted t of God" I Fror meaning ( love of I is the m< Characte: mediator the rela 93 agent of the Kingdom is essential to the meaning of each of these functions. Niebuhr (1951) suggests that the church can gain in- sight into what it is to do in the attributes of God in Christ. He underscores five attributes for our considera- tion. These five attributes, taken together, provide a relational model. It is a model for our relationship to God, to ourselves, to others, to the physical creation, and to culture. All five of these attributes, love, hope, obedience, faith and humility, are radical in their expression and they possess value only in relation to God. Niebuhr ob— serves that "the strangeness," "stature,” ”extremism," and "sublimity" of Jesus, considered from a moral perspective, is due to the unique devotion to God and to the single— hearted trust in him which is symbolized by the term "Son of God" (1951,p.27). From an ethical perspective this is only half the meaning of Christ. The second half has to do with his love of men in relation to his love of God. Because Jesus is the moral Son of God and his relationship to God is characterized by these five attributes, he is the moral mediator of the Father's will toward men. Schematically, the relation of Jesus to the Father looks like this: JESUS Beca1 relation ‘ for his r. follows: JESUS Nieb Christ an movemEnt BelieVerS HECeSSity 94 Figure 3 The Relation of Jesus to the Father Love (perfect human eros) Obedience : § JESUS Hope GOD Trust j:777 Humility Because each of theSe virtues characterized Jesus' relation to God, Jesus possessed corresponding resources for his relation to men. These can be schematized as follows: Figure 4 The Relation of Jesus to Men Love (Divine Agape) Exercises Authority by commanding \ obedience to God's will not his own JESUS Promises MEN Trustworthy in his own faithfulness to men Humbles men by giving to them beyond their deserving Niebuhr's theology is relational. Belief in Jesus Christ and loyalty to his cause involve men in the double movement from the world to God and from God to the world. Believers in Jesus Christ are forever confronted with the necessity of abandoning all things for the sake of God; and the C! Um world been conun Furt combined to do wit Take Ethics gi Ethically DOT. mean right to Capacitie determine Onght to esChew SC bold Cont Jesus EXE One Who 5 not withc and not C 95 and the corresponding necessity of being sent back into the world to teach and practice all the things that have been commanded them. Further, the disciplines of theology and ethics are combined by Neibuhr in a relational context. Theology has to do with our knowledge of God. Ethics has to do with disclosing the basic pattern, the morphology of the life and action of the Christian community in the moral sphere——the way of thinking and acting that is true to its character as a com— munity of men before God (The Responsible Self, p.&. Taken together, a relational theology and a relational ethics gives us a responsibility model. We cannot think ethically outside of Christian affirmation. But this does not mean that the Christian community can claim an inherent right to superiority for its moral knowledge, or for its capacities to cultivate moral wisdom, or for its power to determine for others what the proper course of their affair ought to be. Haughey (1977,p.27l) observes that Jesus did not eschew social power, but employed it in a unique way. In bold contrast to the exercise of power by world rulers, Jesus explains that his power places him among persons as one who serves (Luke 22:27). Thus, the Kingdom of God is not without power, but it is for the purpose of serving, and not domination. In E the churc Basi each of seen in several ments wi the self the self Ship to and to t The unij developr Vidual a head Of Thi is know: T SO with th the PEr 96 In summary, five elements in Snyder's theology of the church are useful to the model—building process: The Individual The Christian Community The Kingdom of God The Society The Church as Agent mwaH ...- Based on what Snyder says is important concerning each of the above, the meaning of the church is to be seen in the focus on human experience in the context of several relationships. The individual, acting upon ele— ments within the environment, effects changes both within the self and within those elements which are external to the self. Thus, the man of Christ, standing in relation- ship to self, to the Christian community, to the Kingdom, and to the larger society, is in a relational environment. The unifying principle which guides the relational— developmental experience is the relationship of the indi- vidual and the Christian community to Jesus Christ, the head of the church. The next section examines the structures of what is known about the nature of man and his development. The Nature and Aim of Human Development: What Man Can Become Social scientists have become increasingly concerned with the philosophical questions of the development of the person. Every experience which educators provide will affect tl cators i: rather tl more ful. therefor: developm But learning are like experime concerni who beco tate tha Persons to be ar. and Wolf adequate THE PRO: For Sential dEVElOPI an effec 97 affect the process of development. The concern of edu- cators is to provide experiences which will facilitate rather than impede development. In order to understand more fully how to structure the learning environment, therefore, educators need to look at the process of development. But whatever educators do to give structure to a learning environment depends upon what they believe persons are like. Educational goals, activities, judgments, and experiments are determined by the beliefs educators hold concerning the nature of man and his capacities. Educators who become aware of a person's potential will try to facili— tate that potential. Educators who are convinced that persons are "unable" simply do not put forth the effort to be an effective catalyst to growth. What Combs, Dewey, and Wolff have to say enable educators to infer a very adequate description of what man can become. THE PROCESS OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT Four categories of conceptual terminology are es— sential to understanding the process of human growth and development. What is believed about this process will have an effect on educational decision—making. The Orthoc organismi "orthoger 126ff; We the corre to behav: whenever relative of incree integrat; Thi: pline of tion pro. The init into two in this COntinue islZiCS a the glob highly C which in \ 1- Beilj a mm ramii 98 The Orthogenefic Pflncufie. A central proposition of the organismic—developmental conceptual framework is Werner's "orthogenetic principle" (Werner, l948,pp.40ff;l957,pp. 126ff; Werner and Kaplan, l963,pp.7ff).l Building upon the corresponding biological principle, Werner applied it to behavioral development. This principle states that whenever development occurs it proceeds from a state of relative globality and lack of differentiation to a state of increased differentiation, articulation and hierarchic integration. This principle is readily illustrated from the disci— pline of biology. For example, there is the differentia- tion process in the cellular development of the embryo. The initial single—cell union of the egg and sperm divide into two, then four, then eight, then sixteen, etc. Early in this process the cells are very similar. As the process continues the cells begin to take on differing character- istics and functions. They become differentiated. In time the global undifferentiated state of the embryo becomes a highly complex system of cells, organs, and relationships which involve differentiation, articulation and integration. 1. Beilin (1971), Harris (1957), and Langer (1969, 1970), provide a more complete presentation of this principle including some ramifications and implications. Ever tern of c the persc applies 6 The humar ate betwe movement: of space and moto: organism and envi Pattern. Citement anger, j differen the disc Dev difoSe Perceptj and lacl Elements Bal also inx State U Childhm 99 Every person follows the same kind of course or pat- tern of development. This applies to the entire schema of the person or to each one of the parts. This principle applies equally to the spheres of the body and psyche. The human organism in its infancy is unable to differenti— ate between self and other persons or objects. Motor movements are uncoordinated and the infant has no concepts of space, time, cause and effect. Gradually the cognitive and motor aspects begin to differentiate and the human organism begins to distinguish the differences in self and environment. Emotional development follows the same pattern. Early in life there is the global nature of ex— citement which differentiates into the emotions of fear, anger, joy, and other discrete emotional responses. Thus, differentiation involves transition from the syncretic to the discrete. Development also involves the transition from the diffuse to the articulated. At first cells, actions, perceptions, cognitions, etc. are, in general uncoordinated, and lack organization. As the ontogenesis progresses these elements become articulated and coordinated. Baldwin (1967,pp.502ff.) points out that development also involves progression from the initial rigid and labile state to one that is increasingly flexible and stable. Childhood behavior provides a good example of this pro— gression. will ofte they are story OVl the same protests The related developn forth fr tently. sensitit times by Older we and inc1 Hie gradUal tiVe tr. hiSher SYhCret become a sYSte Hi tures C deStrOE 100 gression. In the early stages of development children will often use the same patterns of behavior even when they are not successful. They like to hear the same story over and over again. They like to be carried in the same way. The infant who likes to be carried upright protests when he is cradled and carried in that fashion. The rigidity of the early stages of development is related to the instability of this period. Early in development, moods, interests, and attention shift back and forth from one thing to another very quickly and inconsis— tently. Emotions of young children are fragile and their sensitivity often results in shattered emotions caused many times by seemingly unimportant events. As the child grows older we observe the transition to increased flexibility and increased ability to cope. Hierarchical integration may be understood to be the gradual subordination of parts to wholes and the qualita— tive transformations whereby elements of systems move to higher levels in the new and more integrated form. The syncretic and unarticulated thoughts of the young child become differentiated and articulated and organized into a system that is capable of superior understanding. Hierarchical integration does not mean that the struc- tures of the earlier stages are lost. They are not lost, destroyed or replaced. They are transformed into more complex, the higl DEVELOPi De\ which a: without DevelOpI and str1 and acc< functi01 St: develop; quantit. and res: is redu. aCtiOIls for Con- Th JCiOn Of transfo dthrbe In like dSsimil On its complex, more mature, and more effective structures at the higher stages. DEVELOPMENT, STRUCTURE, AND FUNCTION Development, structure, and function are concepts which are so closely related that none can be eliminated without destroying the essential nature of "development." DevelOpment is the ontogenesis and elaboration of structure and structure develops through the process of assimilation and accommodation which are the properties of the inherited functional invariants. Structure is an essential element in a conception of development. Without it development is reduced to the quantitative accumulation of content, processes, skills, and response patterns. But without development structure is reduced to a description of relationships among concepts, actions, and perceptions at a given moment without regard for continuity or meanings. The biological assimilation of food is a good illustra- tion of this process. The food is ingested, processed, transformed into the elements required by the organism, absorbed in this form, and then utilized for development. In like manner the raw datum of the world is perceived, assimilated into the existing structures of the human mind On its own terms, processed, transformed into meaningful data in : and bec01 It and the ture tha identity than a n To tures in they car selves. that the affect ( invariai The Similat. ZatiOn . unique PrOduce words, or Proc These P Sible f They at are Par with er 102 data in relationship to the organism's structures and needs, and becomes responsible for some form of behavior. It is the relative stability of individual structures and the enormous stability of the entire network of struc— ture that makes it possible for the individual to have an identity, knowledge, and continuity of consciousness rather than a meaningless stream of conscious sensations. To a considerable degree inherited neurological struc- tures impede or facilitate intellectual functioning. But they cannot account for intellectual functioning by them- selves. Piaget (Flavell, l963,pp.lS-52) makes the point that there are other properties which are inherited which affect cognitive development and he calls these "functional invariants." The functional invariants are the processes of as— similation and accommodation that permit cognitive organi— zation and adaptation. Every individual develops his own unique process of accommodation and assimilation. This produces a "mode of intellectual functioning.“ In other words, a particular individual develops a particular mode Or process of adapting to and organizing the environment. These prOperties are functional because they are respon— sible for the adaptation of the organism to the environment. They are invariant because they are genetically determined, are part of the biophysiological system, and do not change with environment. Dex that occ organisr manifesl DEVELOP De‘ It is b. impedim Th it poss his own iS poss in this extent son ex; De Potentj bOtanic exists contaiI that t) But We W] talkini 103 Development, then, is the product of the transaction that occurs between the elements and systems within the organism and the external environment. And content is the manifestation of the entire process (Flavell,l963,pp.45—46). DEVELOPMENTH THE SETTING ASIDE OF UNHTATIONS Development is the process of laying aside limitations. It is becoming liberated from the material and non-material impediments to personal unity. It is a process of unfolding. This process of laying aside one's limitations makes it possible for the person to gain increased control over his own life situations. Mental health (personal unity) is possessed to the extent that the human organism continues in this pattern of development throughout life. To the extent that development is stalemated or impeded the per— son experiences dis—ease and dis—ease is pathalogical. Development is a process. It is the actualization of potential. This concept may be best illustrated in botanical terms. A tree does not exist in the seed; it exists in potential in the Seed. We can say that the seed contains the capacity to produce a tree. We can even say that the seed contains the pattern for which kind of tree. But we cannot say that there is a tree inside the seed. When Piaget describes cognitive development he is not talking about an intelligence which acquires increased capabili this is process created faction unfoldi' Th with a The une tain re will "p Which a descrit let in Of rea] large I is to } Which : film i: Nothin. Create had th Was in Perien The pa 104 capabilities. We can talk about evolving structures and this is a process of "unfolding." During this unfolding process nothing is added to or taken away. Nothing is created. As the human organism experiences need satis- faction, and as it interacts with this environment, this unfolding takes place. The photographic process of development provides us with a good illustration of this concept of development. The unexposed film is placed in the camera. It is in cer— tain respects like the human organism at birth. The film will "perceive" the world through the lens of the camera which are represented by the three spheres of the person described by Tournier (1963,pp.36ff). The amount of light let in by the lens, the degree of focus, and the portion of reality on which the camera is focused will determine in large measure how accurate the "perception" of the world is to be. Given the proper environment in the darkroom which represents the internal state of the individual, the film is exposed or subjected to the developer and the fix. Nothing is added to the film, nothing is taken away or created. Prior to being placed in the camera, the film had the potential for providing a picture but no picture Was in the unexposed film. Exposed to a series of ex- periences, the outcome is a picture——or series of pictures. The particular picture that results from the series of experien ences. the gual contribt is comp] pictures way one La: camera. accordiz (Flavelj Which ti his env Way thej charact comes i H I-h Process 0r stim behavio rated 0 the sch a1lows Ac Schema 105 experiences depends upon the uniqueness of its experi— ences. The quality of the film, the quality of the scene, the quality of the developer and fix, each makes its own contribution to the process. Once the developing process is completed, the pictures can be organized and the way the pictures are organized has a great deal to do with the way one perceives and relates to the world. Language is to the person what pictures are to the camera. Language is the organization of mental symbols according to categories. Piaget calls these "schema" (Flavell,pp.52ff). Schema are cognitive structures by which the individual adapts to and organizes his life and his environment. Events are organized according to the way they are perceived into groups according to common characteristics. As the human organism develops it be- comes increasingly able to differentiate between stimuli. If "schema" are the categories, assimilation is the process of integrating new pictures or perceptual matter or stimulus events into existing schemata or patterns of behavior. As more and more perceptual matter is incorpo— rated or assimilated into an existing category or schema, the schema does not change but grows larger. Assimilation allows for development of the schemata. Accommodation is the process of changing an existing schema or of developing new ones. Perceptual matter that could nc may be a schemata In are like In accor some wag Pia between crucial ance" i a perso very fe differe is over who has The per Tb the per Ont acc alWayS adultls is thec Ceptuaj there a w°rth,: could not be assimilated into previously existing schemata may be assimilated into the newly developed or changed schemata. In assimilation, the cognitive structures of schemata are like grids against which incoming stimuli are processed. In accommodation, the cognitive structures are altered in some way so as to make room for the newly processed stimuli. Piaget points out that there must be a kind of balance between assimilation and accommodation. This balance is crucial to the maintenance of mental health. This "bal— ance" is called "equilibrium" (F1avell,1963,pp.64-65). If a person is overbalanced by assimilation he would develop very few and very large schemata and would be unable to differentiate the difference between things. If a person is overbalanced toward accommodation the result is a person who has very small schemata that prevent generalization. The person would be unable to detect similarities. The normal person strives toward equilibrium. But the person ultimately assimilates all stimuli with or with— out accommodation. A child's organization of stimuli is always consistent. The schemata may not be the same as an adult's, but the child's placement of stimuli into schemata is theoretically always appropriate for his level of con- ceptual development. Piaget makes the point here that there are no wrong placements, only better placements (Wads— worth,197l,p.18). WHAT MA Wha environn Educatic are dete the natt aware of potentie "unable' fective Am) 1968) SE and dom: Persons scious ; which g1 faCe Of Th: Childho: Allpol‘t functio: WHAT MAN CAN BECOME Whatever educators do to give structure to a learning environment depends upon what they believe persons are like. Educational goals, activities, judgments, and experiments are determined by the beliefs educators hold concerning the nature of man and his capacities. Educators who become aware of a person's potential will try to facilitate that potential. Educators who are convinced that persons are "unable" simply do not put forth the effort to be an ef— fective catalyst to growth. What Allport, Combs, Dewey, and Wolff have to say enable educators to infer a very adequate description of what man can become. A Heath Personath: Cordon AHport. Allport (1955,1960,1967, 1968) says the healthy functioning person is not controlled and dominated by unconscious forces as are dysfunctional persons. Healthy persons function on a rational and con— scious level. There is an adequate awareness of the forces which guide them, and they maintain self control in the face of these forces. The healthy functioning person is not controlled by childhood traumas and conflicts. Contrary to Freud, Allport says there is a dichtomy between healthy and dys— functional persons. 108 Allport is concerned with identifying the forces which push, pull, or in some way give direction to action. The problem of motivation is central for those who are engaged in the facilitation of human development. The human personality is intentional in that it strives toward the future by giving unity and integration to the whole of the personality. Hopes, aspirations and dreams are central aspects of personality which are both conscious and deliberate. The healthy functioning person becomes so through the very process of integrating all aspects of his life toward the achievement of goals and intentions. Dysfunctional persons lack long-range purposes and goals, and their personalities become fragmented into unrelated systems which lack a central or unifying force. Two aspects of Allport's conception of the healthy personality seem paradoxical. First, happiness is a by-product, not the goal, of intentional behavior. Happi- ness may be the outcome when a person experiences success— fully the integration of his personality. But many persons become well—integrated though their lives are characterized by much pain and sorrow. Second, the goals of healthy persons are, in the final analysis, unattainable. While many or most subgoals are attainable, the ultimate goal is not. Life is directed by the overall goal. It is the ultimate goal which pulls the 109 person from one subgoal to the next, but the ultimate goal is always beyond one's grasp. "Salvation comes only to him who ceaselessly bestirs himself in the pursuit of objectives that in the end are not fully attained" (1955, p.67). Allport says the person's ability to organize the energy level is central to personality integration. The person is in constant need for motives of sufficient strength and vitality to consume energy in constructive ways. Concerned with the uniqueness of the individual personality, Allport uses the term "prOprium" to refer to those qualities or characteristics which are appropriate to, or belong to, a given person. He identifies seven stages in the development of the proprium (self): bodily self, self—identity, self-esteem, self-extension, self- image, the self as a rational coper, and propriate striving. These seven stages of the self, or proprium, develop from infancy to adolescence. Overwhelming failures or frustra- tions at any stage can severely cripple the emergence of later stages. Seven criteria characterize the healthy personality in Allport's view: 110 1. Extension of the sense of self 2. Warm relating of self to others 3. Emotional security 4. Realistic perception 5. Skills and Assignments 6. Self-objectification (self—insight) 7. Unifying philosophy of life Several aspects of Allport's research are useful to the present study. The healthy person is qualitatively different from the dysfunctional person. While Freud and others view persons as products or prisoners of childhood experiences, Allport believes this to be true only of dys— functional persons. The healthy personality, once devel— oped, is free from childhood traumas. The healthy person is future oriented. The future can be deliberately planned and one's energies can be disciplined to serve one's own purposes. Allport identifies three attributes of the healthy personality. The mature person is concerned, first, with "ideal objects and values" beyond biological impulse; second, by the ability to objectify oneself, to be reflective and insightful about one's own life; and third, by the pos- session of a "unifying philosophy of life" (1950,p.53). These attributes represent the three avenues of available development. According to Allport, whenever a mature religious sentiment develOps, it is charged with the task of accom— modating every experience in the face of "all facts, lll values, and disvalues." There is no room for escape pro- cesses. By contrast, an immature sentiment does not practice self—objectification. It remains unreflective and functions at the level of impulse and self-gratification. A context of meaning in which a person can locate himself remains undeveloped. It does not really unify one's life because it excludes large segments of experience. A developing religious sentiment is always in the direction of increased consistency. Allport identifies six attributes which distinguish the mature religious person from the immature. The mature sentiment is (1) well differentiated; (2) dynamic in character in spite of its derivative nature; (3) productive of a consistent morality; (4) comprehensive; (5) integral; and (6) funda— mentally heuristic. A well differentiated sentiment thinks critically and practices continuous reorganization. A sense of autonomy is central to motivational power. Mature religion is the master in the economy of life. By contrast, immature re— ligion is concerned with magical thinking, self—justifica— tion, and biological conflict. Mature religion exercises control and motivates the person toward a goal that is no longer determined by mere self-interest. A mature religious sentiment is consistent in its moral consequences. It possesses a steady, persistent 112 influence and is, therefore, concerned with translating private thoughts and feelings into action. In so doing, conviction is strengthened and high and consistent stand— ards of action are generated. Religion must answer questions of a different order from that of science and it must infuse all of life with motive. It possesses a cause or sincere belief, ardently embraced, which performs an integrative function. It confirms intelligibility and direction upon COnduct, pre- scribes rights and duties; it is highly motivational, satisfying, and may include all aspects of life deemed important to the individual. Thus, a mature religion must be comprehensive in that it must fashion an integral pattern of all life's experience-—a life—long task. Persons whose roots are in the Judeo—Christian tradi- tion must bind contemporary science with integrity, direction, and zeal because the theology and ethics of tradition were written in a pre—scientific and pre-technological era. Allport likens man to a weaver who must take the strands of science and bind them with values and purpose. The sciences that deal with personality and human relations are crucial to this weaving process. A truly integrated religious person must admit to the disturbing fact that human conduct is to a considerable extent determined. The accurate perception of the balance 113 between human freedom and determinism is essential if a proper integration of science and religion is to be effected. If a person thinks he is hopelessly limited he will not exert himself. If he believes the way will be opened to him that leads to a fuller realization of values, he will explore, discover, and enter. The person who believes he is free uses the resources at his disposal more flexibly and successfully than those who are convinced they dwell in chains. The fourth attribute of a mature religious person is that such a person holds an heuristic belief tentatively until it can be confirmed or until it helps one to discover a more valid belief. The mature mind "can act whole heartedly even without absolute certainty" (1950,p.72). A Perceptual\Hew: Arthur Combs. Combs (1962, 1974, 1976) pre— sents a perceptual view of the adequate personality. Accord- ing to this view the way a person behaves will be a direct outgrowth of the way he perceives things at the moment Of acting. If the configuration of meanings that exist for a given person are known, it is possible to create the conditions which will facilitate changes in the behavior and personality. Building upon Allport (1955), Goldstein (1939), Maslow (1954), Rogers (1947, 1957), and Sullivan (1947), Combs rn In In In 114 describes the adequate personality in terms of the person's characteristic way of seeing himself and the world. He seeks the answer to two questions: How do adequate persons see themselves and the world in which they live? What is the nature of their perceptual organization and how does this differ from their less fortunate fellows? Four characteristics always seem to underlie the behavior of the healthy personality (Combs,l962,pp.50-62): l. A Positive View of Self 2. Identification with Others 3. Openness to Experience and Acceptance 4. A Rich and Available Perceptual Field First, adequate persons possess a positive View of self. Extremely adequate persons see themselves as per— sons who are '1iked, wanted, acceptable, able; as persons of dignity and integrity, of worth and importance.' While they may possess negative ways of seeing themselves, the normal perception is positive (Combs,l962,p.51). Adequate persons have so few doubts about their own self worth and value and have such a large reservoir of positive regard that negative perceptions are unable to distort the totality. They perceive themselves as adequate to deal with life. They are able to confess failure or wrong—doing when it is so without destroying the person- ality structure. Negative aspects of self are taken in _ .u- 115 stride. It is the essential positive view of self that enables the self to admit negative self—references. Self-concept refers to the ways in which an individual characteristically sees himself (l962,p.51). This is the way he feels about himself. The self concept determines the way a person behaves——whether in adjusted or malad- justed ways. A positive View of self gives a person a tremendous advantage in dealing with life. A positive self- concept is the basis for personal strength. It enables one to "expect" success in life. Because they expect success they behave in ways that tend to bring it about (p.52). Positive persons are able to trust themselves and their impulses. Positive persons become trustworthy, reliable instruments for the accomplishment of one‘s purposes. They have fewer doubts and hesitations con- cerning themselves. Positive persons are more likely to gravitate into leadership roles. They are enabled to focus more attention to events outside the self. They secure life's essentials and then move on to the romance of other adventures. A weak self must be forever buttressed and cared for. A strong person can deal with problems more objectively because the self is not at stake. A positive view of self permits adequate people to be effective without worry about conformity or nonconformity. They can behave in terms of What seems best to do, and let the chips fall where they may. 116 A positive View of self is like having money in the bank. It is a kind of security that enables one to have freedom of flexibility. Such a person can risk taking chances; the new and the different are not to be feared. A positive View of self is like a sturdy ship; it can ven— ture farther and farther from port. An adequate person can launch without fear into the new, the untried and the unknown. Such a person is free to be creative, original, and spontaneous; can afford to be generous, give of oneself freely and become involved personally in events. People learn who and what they are through interacting with the human and nonhuman elements in their environment. Sullivan (l947,p.l47) called it "learning about self from the mirror of other people." Self-concept results from the kinds of experiences one has with life. People develop feelings that they are liked, wanted, acceptable and able from "having been liked, wanted, accepted, and from having been successful" (Combs,l962,p.53). To produce a positive View of self, it is necessary to provide experiences that teach individuals they are positive persons. Combs says: The best guarantee we have that a person will be able to deal with the future effectively is that he has been essentially successful in the past. People learn that they are able, not from failure, but from success. While it may be true that tough- ness and adequacy come from successfully dealing with problems, the learning comes not from experi- encing failure but from successfully avoiding it. 117 Similarly, to feel acceptable one must ex- perience acceptance. To feel lovable one must have been loved. A positive view of self is the product of fulfillment, of having been given. The product of deprivation is a diminished self, and even, if carried to extreme, a depraved self (l962,p.53). Identification with others is the second major characteristic of the adequate personality. The self- concept is capable of contraction or expansion——that is, a person may define himself so narrowly as to virtually exclude a part of the person such as the body, or it may be expanded so greatly as to include many other people and things. Some persons never experience feelings of altruism and remain to the end of their lives capable of concern for little more than their own welfare. Other persons develop a strong View of self and seem to reach a point where they can identify with great blocks of mankind, with all mankind, without making barriers of creed, color, or nationality (Combs,l962,p.54). Identification is this sense has to do with a "feeling" of oneness with one's fellows. It does not refer to togetherness or to any obsession to be with people. It does not mean being the life of the party. Such persons may even prefer to be alone much of the time and may give themselves to pursuits which are largely individual in their nature, and this activity may express a profound concern for others. Terms like "belonging," "joining," 118 and "keeping up with the Joneses" are terms which character— ize inadequate persons. There is a sense of compulsion-— a sort of bondage here. Adequate persons are generally free from compulsion and in their freedom they sense unity or oneness, a feeling of sharing a common fate, or of striving for a common goal. They extend themselves to include their fellows. The feeling of oneness with others produces in the adequate person a high degree of responsible, trustworthy behavior. When identification with others is strong, one cannot behave in ways likely to be harmful or injurious to others, for to do that would be to injure one's self. Adequate persons are likely to manifest a deep respect for the dignity and integrity of other people and a strong sense of justice and moral probity. One cannot behave in ways which ignore and reject others when self and others are one. Adequate persons usually possess a deep sense of responsibility or duty and they are likely to be democratic in their attitude toward group participation. The feeling of identification seems to produce a deep sensitivity to the feelings and attitudes of others. Feelings of identification enable one to work harmoniously with others in both leader and follower roles. They do not have to lead to prove their strength and power. Leader— ship for them is not a way of proving superiority, but a way of organizing to accomplish desirable ends. The feeling of identification produces such trust in others that adequate persons can lead or not as the situation demands and be satisfied in either role. Identification, like the self-concept is learned. It is the product both of experience and a positive View of self. As people are friendly and helpful, it is easy and natural to extend one's self to include them or to feel at one with them. As people are harmful and rejecting, one's need to protect oneself produces an organization from which such people must be excluded. It is natural to build walls against those who hurt and humiliate us. On the other hand, it is possible to lower one's defenses when one is sure of the friendly behavior of others (Combs,l962, p.55). Truly adequate people are able to extend themselves to identify even with those who are antagonistic to them. This requires, of course, that a person feel so strongly about one's self that he has no fear of the attacks of others. Inadequate or insecure persons can identify only with those who make them feel safe and secure. The capacity for identification appears to be a product of an essentially positive view of self and of successful, satisfying experi- ences of interation with others. 120 Third, adequate persons possess perceptual fields maximally open to experience. That is, these persons are capable of change and adjustment to the point where they can make the fullest possible use of their experience. They do not have to build defenses against events or to distort their perceptions to bolster their self—concepts. This capacity to confront openly is called "acceptance." Acceptance in this sense means the ability to admit evidence into awareness. The more secure a person feels, the less he will feel threatened by events and the more open he can be in relating to the world about him. In like manner, the more the individual is identified with other people, the less threatened he will feel by those who surround him and the more he will be able to accept his experience with others with equilibrium and profit. Openness to experience and acceptance, it appears, is related to the individual's freedom from threat, and this freedom in turn is a product of a self and identification. The person who is open to experience is offered many advantages. He has more data for input into the decision— making process. And having more data, he is more likely to make correct decisions. Adequate persons are more likely to include the generic as well as the specific aspects of problems or to perceive events or details that would be missed or would seem unimportant to others. This 121 is another way of saying adequate persons behave more intelligently, for what else is intelligence but the ability to behave more effectively and efficiently? (1962,p.57). Adequate persons behave more decisively. Decisions can be made with more certainty when one feels he is in command of the data and feels sufficiently sure of self to be unafraid to commit himself to action. On the other hand, the straightforward, uncomplicated relationship these people have with reality also makes it possible for them to live comfortably without a decision when this is called for. They find it possible to live comfortably with unsolved problems. They do not have to have an answer when there is none yet, so are less likely to adopt spurious or expedient explanations. The accurate, realistic assessment of self resulting from acceptance makes possible the use of self as a dependable, trustworthy instrument for achieving one's purposes. They can permit themselves to be what they are while working to become the best they can be. Their levels of aspiration are more likely to be in line with their capacities. Because goals are more realistic, they are more likely to achieve them (1962,p.57). Adequate persons, having the capacity to be open to eXperience and acceptance, find life to be more pleasant 122 and exciting. Life is experienced and savored without fear or hesitation. Life is more imaginative and creative even when these persons are well along in years. Openness and acceptance are learned. PerSOns who have developed attitudes of valuing new experience, of seeking personal growth, or of the testing of idea against idea are likely to develop perceptual fields more open and accepting. Acceptance is learned. Combs points out that children can accept even the most formidable handicaps if these handicaps can be accepted by those who surround them. Accurate, realistic assessments of self are essential bases for growth and fulfillment and are, in turn, the products of one's experience. One of the prime character— istics of the dysfunctional person is his inability to accept either himself or his fellows. Apparently one learns to accept himself and others as a function of having "experienced" acceptance (l962,p.59). Fourth, adequate persons possess a rich and avail— able perceptual field. One need not know everything to be adequate, but one must certainly have a field of perceptions, rich and extensive enough to provide under— standing of the events in which he is enmeshed and avail- able when he needs them. Adequate people have such perceptual fields (l962,p.59). 123 If behavior is a function of perceptions, then a rich and available perceptual field makes possible more effec- tive, efficient behavior. One can do a better job when he has a fine array of tools immediately at hand than he can when he is limited to the use of a hammer and screwdriver for every task no matter what its character. In like manner, with wide choices open to them, adequate persons can and do operate in ways more satisfying and productive both for themselves and for the world in which they live. The quality of one's perceptions are directly related to the quality of one‘s experience. Mere exposure to an event is no guarantee that the event will be perceived by the individual or be available on later occasions. The degree to which any perception will affect be- havior depends upon its personal meaning for the individual. These perceptions may exist at a variety of levels of meaning. These varying levels of personal meaning are expressed in the words we use to describe such perceptions. Arranged in order of increasing meaning, we speak, for example, of looking, seeing, knowing; of understanding, belief, conviction. The deeper, more personally signifi— cant the perception, the more likely it is to affect behavior (l962,p.61). - _ l l 124 Adequate persons possess many constructs of personal meaning. These persons are less easily swayed and much more precise and efficient because the relationship and pertinence of perceptions are clearer and more available when needed. Such meanings are the product of one's experience. The availability of perceptions in one's environment has a direct effect upon the individual's achievement of need satisfaction. Need has a focusing effect upon per— ception. We perceive what we "need" to perceive (1962, p.61). A more adequate self permits attention to wander far afield from Self while the inadequate person, desper- ately seeking maintenance and enhancement of self, must, of necessity, focus most of his perceptions on events contributing directly to such feelings. Failure of need satisfaction results in narrowness and rigidity of perceptual organization. The adequate person possessing a positive View of self, has a more fluid, open field of perceptions. We can conclude, then, that the production of a more available field requires the development of a positive view of self, and a positive View of self is a function of the kinds of experiences provided in the process of development (1962,p.61). Since all of the ways of perceiving are learned, they can also be taught if we can but find ways to provide the necessary kinds of experiences. To produce adequate [———7 ** ———————_ 125 persons requires not that we do something entirely new and different, but that we all do more efficiently and effectively what some of us now do only sometimes and haphazardly. A SodahPsychdogkal\Hewz John Dewey. Dewey (1897, 1899, 1916, 1933, 1938, 1944)1 stands foremost among the ad— vocates of experimentalism which is an explicit and sys— tematic theory of education. Dewey, Peirce (1878), Mead (1934), and James (1890, 1897, 1909) shared the same fundamental outlook. They were concerned with the effects of scientific thinking on human development. What man can become may be seen in Dewey's treatment of the following themes: the functional role of philosophy, the nature of reflective intelligence, the pattern of reflective thinking, the nature of growth and habit, the relation of the person to stimulus events, and the need for a theory of experience. First, rejecting the distinction between theoretical and practical philosophy, Dewey says all thought is practical in function. Philosophy possesses a practical function because it arises out of the problems of human life, particularly those connected with social conflicts, and it is concerned with the solution of such problems. 3 1. Additional publications are listed in the bibliography. Therefore, it is the function of philosophy to eventuate in ...the projection of large generous hypotheses which, if used as plans of action, will give intelligent direction to men in search for ways to make the world more one of worth and signi— ficance (l946,p.20). Dewey insists that all philosophy, including the philOSOphy of education, must be empirical. He says: What is characteristic of my theory is simply the emphasis placed upon the knowledge mode of experience, defined in terms of the outcome of competent enquiry...an emphasis which goes so far as to say that intelligence, as the fruit of such knowledge, is the only available instru- mentality for accomplishing them (1939,p.563). While Dewey rejects non—empirical sources for deter— mining desirable dispositions (such as metaphysical and theological sources) what Dewey has to say about the re— lationship of intellectual processes to human development is no less important. He rejects any distinction between moral and intellectual excellences and in so doing stands over against the argument of Aristotle. He rejects any distinction between moral and natural perfection and so stands opposed to the argument of Kant. Dewey says that all education is moral because all life is moral. The fact that education may be Scientific does not mean that it therefore ceases to be moral. Moral education is not a separable activity of educational experience. Moral 127 education necessarily permeates all aspects of the educa— tive experience. A Second, Dewey is an apostle of the method of reflective inquiry. He believes that the method is as desirable in morals as in the sciences. The moral life-—including conduct, choice, and self-making, should be precisely "a habit of reflective thought." Affection and action should not be simply habitual. What should be habitual is the use of intelligence, and affection and action should be habitual only insofar as their being so is a condition of intelli— gent living. Persons must develop a reflective disposition or habit of intelligence. Dewey says this involves two things: It involves a disposition to reflect. The ability to reflect requires that the person learn to control his impulses in order to inquire and deliberate. It involves forming a will to know everything that is relevant to the formulation and solution of the problems one is or may be faced with. The moral element here is the will to know rather than the extent of knowledge the person may possess. The will to know must issue in action. A person cannot both will to know and avoid going after the knowledge. A habit of reflection includes a habit of getting knowledge, firsthand if possible. 128 It involves developing longer—range and more inclusive aims, learning to act on the basis of the clearest concepts and best knowledge available, but also to act accordingly—— not only to think, but also to execute, intelligently. To possess this complex disposition, Dewey says, is to possess character. ...character consists of an abiding identification of impulse with thought, in which impulse provides the drive while thought supplies consecutiveness, patience, and persistence, leading to a unified course of conduct (1960,p.36). Third, there is a pattern which characterizes reflective thinking. Dewey says we should acquire the habit of re- flective thinking in connection with questions of both fact and action, meaning by this that we should acquire the abilities or skills involved in doing such thinking well, the knowledge needed to bring it to sound conclusions, and the disposition to rely on it as the sole basis for action and belief. Dewey defines reflective thought in this way. It means active, persistent, and careful consideration of any belief or supposed form of knowledge in the light of the grounds that support it, and the further conclusions to which it tends (1933,p.9). He says there are five general features of reflective experience. First, all thinking begins with some Problem which is actually felt as a problem needing 129 solution. Second, the problem needs to be clarified and defined through the use of analysis, past experience, and relevant knowledge already attained, plus imagination. Third, a tentative hypothesis as to the most likely solution needs to be set forth and, fourth, its consequences and implications deduced and envisaged. Fifth, the hypothesis must be tested. The worth of the whole process of reflective thinking depends on the extent and accuracy of what is done in steps two, three, and four (1933,p.109—118). The same pattern of thought used in scientific thinking should be used in dealing with moral questions. One of Dewey's primary theses is that morals should be placed on the same kind of experimental basis as that on which re— searchers have already put the study of nature. The same kinds of intellectual diSpositions would then be needed for both scientific inquiry and moral deliberation. Dewey says there is only one kind of knowledge and it may be called either moral or scientific. Moral science is eradicably empirical, not theological nor metaphysical nor mathematical....(It) is not something with a separate province. It is physical, biological and historic knowledge placed in a human context where it will illuminate and guide the activities of men (1932,p.144). ...there is no gulf dividing non—moral knowledge from that which is truly moral. At any moment conceptions which once seemed to belong exclu- sively to the biological or physical realm may assume moral import. This will happen whenever they are discovered to have a bearing on the 130 common good. When knowledge of bacteria and germs and their relation to the spread of disease was achieved, sanitation...took on a moral signi— ficance it did not have before (1932,p.144). Dewey believes that even the knowledge of basic ends or prin- ciples is ineradicably empirical, and must be built up and tested by the experimental method. Frankena (l965,p.146) responds to Dewey's unitary View of moral and scientific thinking. He says: In order to know how to use all of this physical, biological, and historic knowledge one must first know what basic principle or end our actions should subserve, so that a knowledge of a purely moral kind must be presupposed. The habit of thinking, according to Dewey, whether applied to morals or science, includes certain traits which are, by necessity, moral virtues. In various places, Dewey identifies some of these traits. In one place (1944,p.172), ‘he identifies the traits which are derived from developing the habit of intelligent thought. They are “mental power," "individual method" or “originality," and "purposive" or "directed action.” In another place, Dewey refers to the traits of individual method (1944,p.174). They are "con— fidence", "straightforwardness," and "openmindedness." Intellectual "integrity," "honesty," and "sincerity" are the outcomes of active intellectual response (1944,p.l76). Other traits of mind are also essential to reflective thinking and human development. There is willingness to 131 assume responsibility for the consequences of one's activity including thought processes (1944,p.178). There is intel— lectual thoroughness (1944,p.121) by which Dewey means "seeing a thing through." Dewey speaks hopefully of the method of intelligence as the prime need for human development. He says: ...the prime need of every person at present is capacity to think; the power to see problems, to relate facts to them, to use and enjoy ideas. If a young man or woman comes from school with this power, all other things may be in time added to him. He will find himself intellectually and morally (l945,p.91). It is clear that Dewey possesses a powerful reason for wanting to make intelligent thought the central focus of educative processes. Intellectual thinking need not result in cold, calculated neutrality or passivity in the face of human need, individual and social. Intelligent thought processes may actually generate a more passionate commitment to social issues. For all of the traits of intelligent thought are conceived to be essential to a healthy social life, both to produce it, and to refine it. Fourth, growth and habit are essential elements in human development. The promotion of the common good or the general welfare means, to Dewey, promoting "the all- around growth of every member of society" (l948,p.l48). An experience is educative if it is conducive to growth. 132 That is, each subsequent experience must be conducive to still further growth. Dewey says: Education...is that reconstruction or reorganiza— tion of experience which adds to the meaning of experience, and which increases the ability to direct the course of subsequent experience..." (1944,p.76). According to Dewey, an experience contributes to growth if it contributes to the formation of dispositions or habits that increase the desirability or value of one's experience and gives him the ability to secure good experi- ences or avert bad ones. Dewey's concept of growth stands in contrast to the idea that human development has to do with an "unfolding" process. He conceives the "unfolding" process not as con- tinuous growing, but as the "unfolding of latent pOWers toward a definite goal" (1944,p.56). The "unfolding" conception of human development begins with a conception of a whole—-an absolute--which is inherent or "immanent" in human life. Dewey says that any absolute or fixed end must necessarily result in the inhibition of growth. Dewey says: A remote goal of complete unfoldedness is, in technical philosophic language, transcendental. That is, it is something apart from directed experience and perception. So far as experience is concerned, it is empty; it represents a vague sentimental aspiration rather than anything which can be intelligently grasped and stated. This vagueness must be compensated for by some a priori formula (1944,p.58). 133 This concept of development as an unfolding process suggests a certain static characteristic of life. Dewey opts for the conception of growth and progress as a dynamic understanding of life. Dewey identifies two typical directions in philosophic thought in which attempts have been made to provide a working representative of the absolute goal of human development. Both start from the conception of a kind of wholeness which is latent in human life. This absoluteness exists "implicitly" or "potentially" in an enfolded condi— tion. Development consists in "the gradual making explicit and outward of what is thus wrapped up" (1944,p.58). The first direction which Dewey identifies is that of Froebel. Froebel formulated the notion of development in which the unfolding of a ready—made latent principle was given so much weight that he was led to develop devices for promoting the unfolding process which resulted in the arrest of growth. Froebel failed to see the relationship that exists between end and process. Consequently, Froebel placed the emphasis on the completed product. The goal imposed a strait jacket on the process of growth. Hegel, too, was haunted by the conception of an ab— SOlute goal. He arranged institutional structures on a Stepladder of ascending approximations. He saw each in 134 its time and place to be essential because it was a stage in the self-realizing process of the absolute mind. By accepting each institution as representing a step or stage, its existence was considered to be proof of its complete rationality, for it is an integral element in the totality of life which is Reason. In the face of these institutions individuals possess no 'spiritual rights.‘ Personal devel- opment and nurture consists in obedient assimilation of the spirit of existing institutions. Conformity, not transformation became the essence of education. Hegel saw that institutions change, but changes were the result of the action of "world-Spirit." Except for the "heroes" selected by the world—spirit, individuals do not share in the process of bringing about change. “Evolu- tion" was something which worked its own way toward its own end. In the face of this autonomous evolutionary process the ideas and preferences of persons were impotent. Concerning the Hegelian View, Dewey says, ...in its notion of a complete and all—inclusive end of development, the Hegelian theory swallowed up concrete individualities, though magnifying The Individual in the abstract. Some of Hegel's followers sought to reconcile the claims of the Whole and of individuality by the conception of society as an organic whole, or organism. That social organization is presupposed in the ade— quate exercise of individual capacity is not to be doubted. But the social organism, interpreted after the relation of the organs of the body to each other and to the whole body, means that each individual has a certain limited place and func- tion, requiring to be supplemented by the place 135 and functions of the other organs. As one por— tion of the bodily tissue is differentiated so that it can be the hand and the hand only, another, the eye, and so on, all taken together making the organism, so one individual is supposed to be dif- ferentiated for the exercise of the mechanical operations of society, another for those of statesmen, another for those of a scholar, and so on. The notion of "organism" is thus used to give a philosophic sanction to class distinc— tions in social organization-—a notion which in its educational application again means external dictation instead of growth. (1944,p.60). In contrast to the views of Froebel and Hegel, Dewey identifies what he calls "a correct ideal." He says, One outcome of education should be the creation of specific powers of accomplishment. A trained person is one who can do the chief things which it is important for him to do better than he could without training: "better" signifying great— er ease, efficiency, economy, promptness, etc. That this is an outcome of education was indicated in what was said about habits as the product of educative development (1944,p.61). The aims of instruction, then, are certain powers, powers which must be deliberately sought. They must not be considered as simply the "results" of growth. Dewey says there are a certain number of powers to be trained just as there are a certain number of strokes which a golfer has to master. It is the purpose of education to get to the business of training persons in the acquiring and use of these powers. The powers to which Dewey is referring are the faculties of perceiving, retaining, recalling, associating, 136 attending, willing, feeling, imagining, thinking, etc., which are given refinement as they are put to use. This theory was presented in its classic form by Locke. The external world provided the material or content of knowledge. But the mind has certain powers such as attention, observa- tion, retention, comparison, abstraction, compounding, etc. Knowledge is the outcome if the mind discriminates and combines things as they are united and divided in nature itself. Education, in Locke's view, involves the exercise or practice of the faculties of the mind until they become well established habits. The extent to which an individual possesses adapta- bility constitutes his "plasticity." Dewey sees this as quite different from the plasticity of putty or wax. It does not refer to the capacity to take on change of form in accord to external pressures. Dewey's meaning of plasticity lies closer to a pliable elasticity “by which some persons take on the color of their surroundings While retaining their OWn bent" (1944,p.44). By this Dewey means the ability to learn from experience. Plasticity is the power to extract from one experience that which is useful in coping with the difficulties of a later experience. It is the power to modify one's actions on the basis of the outcomes of prior experience. Thus, it is the power to develop ”dispositions." The acquisition of habits is dependent upon plasticity. 137 A habit is a type of executive skill. It has to do with efficiency of action. "A habit means an ability to use natural conditions as means to ends" (1944,p.46). It is the active control of one's environment through control of the "organs of action." Habit is differentiated from habituation which refers to the adaptation to one's surroundings. Habituation is conformity to the environment. When Dewey speaks of the purpose of education as insuring the "continuance of educa— tion by organizing the powers that insure growth," he is equating habit with "the powers that insure growth" (1944, p.51). Fifth, the most significant of Dewey's psychological conceptions is his analysis of the relation of the person to stimulus events. In a paper now regarded as a psycho- logical classic, he defined this relation: If one is reading a book, if one is hunting, if one is watching in a dark place on a lonely night, if one is performing a chemical experiment, in each case, the noise has a very different psychical value; it is a different experience. In any case, what proceeds the ‘stimulus' is a whole act, a sensori-motor coordination. What is more to the point, the 'stimulus' emerges out of this coordina- tion; it is born from it as its matrix; it represents as it were an escape from it. The conscious sensation of sound depends upon the motor response having already taken p1ace;...it is the motor response or attention which constitutes that which finally becomes the stimulus to another act....The motor reaction involved in the running is, once more, into, not merely to, the sound. It occurs to change the sound, to get rid of it....What 138 we have is a circuit, not an arc or broken segment of a circle. This circuit is more truly termed organic than reflex, because the motor response determines the stimulus, just as truly as sensory stimulus de— termines movement (1896,pp.357-370). For Dewey, stimulus and response were not to be sharply distinguished but were always to be viewed as "organically related." "Mediated experiences," events in relation to their adjustive function, were the central psychological events. Contrast the above statement with that of Thorndike l (1913): Learning is connecting; and teaching is the arrangement of situations which will lead to desirable bonds and make them satisfying (p.55). The two systems came to be described as presenting a picture of an "active" learning organism as opposed to that of a "passive" learning organism. Curtis (1959) issues a caution lest educative decision-makers neglect the purposive element in learner behavior. He says: Thorndike's maxim, "Exercise and reward desirable connections; prevent or punish undesirable connec— tions" means that the teacher is to decide on the particular bonds or connections that are to be established, or in short, to set the stage for the fixing process. The child would be apt to be over— looked as the result of such a procedure, in the eyes of some critics, since by insisting on the analytic and neglecting the synthetic aspects of learning, it would put a premium on skills and habits and come near to denying purposive behavior (p.471). A second major psychological conception of equal importance in Dewey's thinking is that of "interest," which serves as the basic motivational construct in his system. Interest is, for Dewey, the critical link between the pupil's present stage and where the teacher hopes he will be (1944,p.127). Interest and discipline are connected, not Opposed (1944,p.129), and discipline is the power to anticipate consequences, the fruit of mediated experiences. Anything which intelligence studies represents things in the part which they play in the carry— ing forward of active lines of interest....This connection of an object and a topic with the promotion of an activity having a purpose is the first and the last word of a genuine theory of interest in education (l934,pp.l34—l35). Dewey's third major conception was that of the role of "aims" in action. It is this conception that accounts for the description of his system as "purposive." For DeWey, aims and intelligent action was interrelated. "The new conclusion is that acting with an aim is all one with acting intelligently" (1944,p.lO3). Intelligent be- havior was forseeing the terminus of an act; this foresight provided the basis for ordering, selecting, and observing. "To do these things means to have a mind--for mind is pre- cisely intentional purposeful activity controlled by Perception of facts and their relationships to one another" (1944,p.103). Mind was a convenient label for describing a problem-solving activity in which person and environ- ment are organically related. Learning is, then, problem-solving or intelligent action in which the person continually evaluates his experience in the light of its foreseen and experienced consequences. The greater the foresight in terms of multi- ple anticipated consequences, the greater the accumulated experience or "learning." But learning in this sense is not simply an acquisition or achievement but a moment of experience out of which emerges redefined purposes, new evaluations, and action in the service of continued growth. Aims are in people. The child learns in the light of his own aims. "An educational aim must be founded upon the intrinsic activities and needs (including original instincts and acquired habits) of the given individual to be educated" (l944,pp.lO7-108). The teacher also has his aims, necessarily disparate with those of the pupil because their experiences have not been the same. In learning, the present powers of the pupil are the initial stage; the aim of the teacher repre— sents the remote limit. Between the two lie means...acts to be performed....These intermediate conditions are of interest precisely because the development of existing activities into the fore— seen and desired end depends upon them. To be means for the achieving of present tendencies, to be "betWeen" the agent and his end, to be of interest, are different names for the same thing (Ibid.,p.127). 141 The interrelationship of "aim," "interest," and "intelligent action" provides the essential ideas in hat might be called Dewey's psychology of learning. Sixth, Dewey (1938) identifies what he assumes to e the one permanent frame of reference: the organic con— ection between education and personal experience. It is universally accepted that all genuine education comes Fbout through experience. But Dewey underscores a point which he has repeatedly made, that not all experience is therefore equally educative. Miseducation may be defined as... 1. any experience which has the effect of arrest- ing or distorting the growth of further exper— ience. It may engender callousness-—a lack of sensitivity and responsiveness; 2. any experience which increases a person's auto— matic skill in a particular direction and re— sults in landing him in a groove or rut. This again has the effect of narrowing the field of experience; 3. any experience which has immediate pleasure but promotes slack and careless attitude; and 4. experiences which are so disconnected from each other that, while each is agreeable or even exciting in itself, they are not linked cumu— latively to one another. Each experience may be lively, vivid, and interesting, and yet their disconnectedness may artificially gen- erate dispersive, disintegrated, centrifugal habits (l938,pp.25—26). Dewey observes that much of education is defective from the standpoint of connection with further experience. 142 And the integrity of the educative experience depends on the ”quality" of the experience. The quality of any experience possesses two aspects: 1. An immediate aspect of agreeableness or disagreeableness, and 2. Its influence upon later experiences (l938,pp.27—28). In order for education to result in the continuity of experience, experience must be conceived as development within, by, and for experience. This must issue in con— crete plans for subject matter, methods of instruction and discipline, and upon the material equipment and social organization of the school. The structure of the learning environment must be in harmony with the principles of growth. The development of a theory of experience requires an understanding of two significant principles. First, the category of continuity (the experiential continuum), This principle has the function of discrim— inating between experiences that are useful educationally and those that are not. Dewey asks three questions: 1. Can we find any reason that does not ultimately come down to the belief that democratic social arrangements promote a better quality of human experience, one which is more widely accessible and enjoyed, than do non—democratic and anti—democratic forms of social life? 143 2. Does not the principle of regard for individual freedom and for decency and kindliness of human relations come back in the end to the conviction that these things are tributary to a higher quality of experience on the part of a greater number than are methods of repression and coercion or force? 3. Do we not believe that mutual consultation and convictions reached through persuasion, make pos— sible a better quality of experience than can otherwise be provided on any wide scale? Dewey indicates that the affirmative response to these questions is support for the principle of continuity of experience as a criterion of discrimination. This principle of continuity is built upon the con- cept of habit, when habit is interpreted biologically. The basic characteristic of habit is that every experience modifies the person and affects the quality of subsequent experience. Furthermore, every experience modifies the person. In this sense, then, habit includes the formation of attitudes, attitudes which are both intellectual and emotional; it includes our basic sensitivities and ways of meeting and responding to all the conditions which we meet in living. This conception of habit goes beyond that of a more or less fixed way of doing things. Dewey identifies the educative process with growth when growth is understood in terms of the active participle, "growing." His concept of "growth", then, may be equated With the process of “development." Only when development is conducive to continued growth does it answer to the Criterion of education as growing. 144 The principle of continuity is a criterion by which to discriminate between experiences which are educative and those which are miseducative suggest three things. First, there is continuity in every series of experiences since these experiences influence each succeeding experience. But the quality of the present experience influences the “way“ in which the principle applies. That is, does a given experience possess influence for good or ill? Edu- cative decision-makers must ascertain the worth of planned experiences. Second, it is the function of educators to be alert to the sorts of attitudes and habitual tendencies which are being created. Human activities do affect the environ- ment. Educators are responsible for inquiring into the effects their activities have on persons and things. Third, a prime responsibility of educators is that they recognize what surroundings are conducive to ex— periences that lead to growth. They should know how to utilize the surroundings, physical and social, that exist so as to extract from them all that they have to contribute to building up experiences that are worth while. The "wise" educator orders the external conditions so that a particular kind of "interaction" may be brought about. The second principle essential to the development of a theory of experience, Dewey calls “Interation.” It has 145 the function of assigning equal rights to both factors in experience—-objective and internal conditions. Taken altogether the objective and internal conditions form what we call a "situation." Dewey says that "situation" and "interaction" are two inseparable parts. The environment is whatever con- ditions interact with personal needs, desires, purposes, and capacities to create the experience. The powers and pur- poses of the learners must be an integral factor in the learning process. Viewed in this way, subject-matter is not educative if it stands alone——that is, if it is the only element in the environment. Every experience should do something to prepare a person for subsequent experiences of a deeper and more expansive quality. This, Dewey says, is the very meaning of growth, continuity, and reconstruction of experience. A Biblical-Anthropological View; Hans Walter Wolff. Hans Walter Wolff (1974) has broken new ground in exploring the Old Testament from an anthropological perspective. His major concern is 'how in the Old Testament man is initiated into a knowledge of himself.‘ Wolff perceives the world Of man as the essence of God's whole creation. What man can become may be seen in Wolff's treatment of the nature Of man, reasonable man, the relation of correspondence between God and man, and the destiny of man. h;— 146 Wolff raises the following question: What is it that distinguishes man from all other created beings? To answer this question he focuses on the eye, ear and mouth. Wolff discovers that the man who is threatened with becoming deaf and dumb fears for his very humanity. It is the hearing and the corresponding opening of the mouth, the being able to answer, that makes man. The failure to hear and to respond is a denial of life. The word, once heard, expects an answer. Thus, the mouth, which expresses what eye and ear have perceived, becomes the organ which distinguishes man above all other creatures. The capacity for language provides the essential condition for the humanity of man. Language, then is central to the question of mental health. But not language only. The right use of it is also essential to that unity. What counts is this: The word that comes from hearing (Proverbs 18:13,l9:20) The word at the right time (Proverbs 25:11) The quietly thought out, restrained word (Proverbs 29:20) The temperate, kindly word (Proverbs 25:15) Right speech requires the fear of God (Proverbs l:7,9:10,15:33) 147 Thus, if man does not want to fall short of his real being, either in "hubris" (insolence or wanton violence stemming from excessive pride) or in laziness, he remains dependent on the God who in Israel began to speak with him in a human way. We can see here that meaning is rooted in language, and language is central to culture. Language is central to culture. Learned behavior patterns which characterize communities are simply the behavioral expression of a common language. If one's language (culture) consists of a closed system in which God is denied, then life is denied. If one's culture consists of a limited system in which God is the infinite reference point and dialogue characterizes the relationship between God and man, the man affirms life and life affirms man. God is the standard, therefore, by which man comes to know himself, that which is not self, and the relative value of all things. Wolff points out that the expectation of the future has a direct bearing on the structure of language (culture). When God becomes man's infinite reference point man begins to hope for God promises a new creation that radically transcends man's own possibilities. But in so promising, man is encouraged to take steps that are within his power in the direction of this goal, and to refrain from steps Which lead in the opposite direction. Then man who aban— dons the God of hope as his infinite reference point and 148 as the founder of specific hopes, is observed to either make excessive and inhuman demands on men, or he rela— tivizes the expectation of the new world to a lamentable degree. Wolff writes: ...man, who is of his very nature oriented towards the future, can--trusting in the word of promise—-remain radically hopeful within the relativity of 'a step at a time.’ He neither reduces what is totally new to the trivial level of paltry innovations, nor does he burden men intolerably with what only the One who is incom— parable can achieve (p.155). The most important word in the vocabulary of the Old Testament is the word generally translated "heart." From the standpoint of anthropology it has significant implications. In its most common form, leb, it occurs 598 times in the Hebrew Old Testament. There are other forms of the word and altogether "heart" can be found 858 times. This term is applied almost exclusively to man. Subtracting all other applications there remain 814 passages which deal exclusively with the human heart. The essential activities of the human heart are in the Bible mental and spiritual in kind. Wolff finds the following activities are ascribed to the heart. The "heart" is to be distinguished from feelings or emotions. They are not the same. The heart affects the sensibilities and the emotions and in certain passages the heart includes references to the health of a person's 149 whole life. In Proverbs 14:30, for example, a tranquil heart contributes to the health of the whole life. But the reference here is to attitude of mind, a man's mood, or his temperament. In Proverbs 15:13, the state of the heart dominates every manifestation of life. Courage and fear are also movements of the heart. Sometimes heart stands for desire and longing. But in the greatest number of cases it is intellectual, rational functions that are ascribed to the heart. That is, heart refers precisely to those functions which we ascribe to the head and, more exactly, to the brain (cf. 1 Samuel 25:37). The biblical concept of man was deter— mined more by reason than by feeling. It is significant in this regard that heart (leb) occurs by far the most frequently in the wisdom literature-—99 times in Proverbs alone, 42 times in Ecclesiastes, and in the strongly didactic Deuteronomy, 51 times. Deuteronomy 29:3 presupposes that the heart is des- tined for "understanding," in the same way that the eyes are destined for seeing and the ears for hearing (cf. 8:5). It is failing to fulfill its primary function if its in— sight fails through callousness (Isaiah 6:10). Proverbs 15:14 describes the essential business of the heart in the biblical sense: 'The wise heart seeks knowledge.‘ Psalm 90:12 defines the aim of life to be as follows: 150 To number our days-—so teach us—-that we may bring home a heart of wisdom. Fullness of perception comes from receptive hearing. Solomon asks for "a hearing heart" (1 Kings 3:9—12). It is the wise and discerning heart because of its capacity for hearing. Insight leads to permanent consciousness. That is-- it is through the exercise of the reasoning processes that volition becomes controlled more by conscious processes than by unconscious processes. Thus, when the Old Testament speaks quite often of "lack of heart" the meaning is not coldness of feeling but lack of thought. The phrase "without heart" means without a clear sense of direction. People who rely on the use of mindless oracles have lost their heart, that is to say they have been robbed of their power of judgment and direction. The phrase "do not say to their hearts" means that they do not reflect. In 1 Samuel 27:1, "David said to his heart" means that he has all kinds of reflections. He makes plans and considers various factors. A whole strategy can therefore be thought through when a man "says to his heart." In Hebrew the function of the heart and of the will are directly related. The Israelite finds it difficult to distinguish linguistically between "perceiving" and 151 "choosing," between "hearing" and "obeying." This lin- guistic difficulty that ensues for our more differentiating mode of thought comes from the factual impossibility of dividing theory from practice. Thus, the heart is at once the organ of understanding and of will. The functions of the heart and conscience are also directly related. In 2 Samuel 24:10, the word "heart" takes on the meaning of "conscience." It is the heart as conscience that beats, or smites David. The beating heart is the reaction of ethical judgment formed by the con- science. The conscience is called heart because it is a perceptive organ. Intention is also an activity that takes place in the heart. Nathan says to David, when he is considering the building of the temple (2 Samuel 7:3): "Go, do all that is in your heart." That is to say, do what you intend to do. Again, in Exodus 35:21 and 36:2, the heart is considered to be the "impulse” of the will. The men working on the tent of meeting are called people "whose hearts had stirred them up to come to do the work." This is the way in which willingness is described. The Deuteronomic preachers are stressing that love Of God should come of its own accord when they charge their hearers in Deuteronomy 6:5: "You shall love Yahweh your God with all your "heart" and with all your soul 152 (the seat of your emotions) and with all your might." Just as nepas(souU means true longing and desire, so leb (heart) here means the conscious devotion of the will. The aspects of consciousness and of will must definitely be seen to- gether at this point. The point, says Wolff, is that leb (heart) least of all means emotions. It much more frequently means the organ of knowledge, with which is associated the will, its plans, decisions and intentions, the consciousness, and a conscious and sincerely devoted obedience. Now we can see that the Bible primarily views the heart as the center of the consciously living man. The heart is called to reason, and reason is dependent upon dialogue with God. What man can become may be seen in the special rela— tionship between God and man. The unique nature of man in creation is to be understood in the light of his special That is——God's relationship to man is relationship to God. the presupposition for man's self-understanding. The rela- tion of correspondence between God and man may be understood through the biblical definitions of three concepts. God conferred on man the office that distinguishes him. Psalm 8:5 understands it as a "crowning with glory and honor.“ This "crowning" office is characterized by three things. 153 1) Man is given responsible tasks and powers of decision within creation. It is this which provides the context for the first discussion among created beings and the first dialogue between God and man. 2) Man is set in a particular relationship to the living beings that have been previously created. Man is put in possession of the works of God's hands. They are given to him for his work, as sustenance or as helps. When so engaged man enters objectively into relationship with God, as their Creator. Accordingly, the relation of correspondence, to which his destiny as "God's Image" points, is also to be seen in the world with the very things that God has created. 3) The relation of correspondence, man in God's image, is seen to be a dominating relationship. The meaning of man's "crowning" in Psalm 8:5f is seen in his "ruling" over the world of divine creative power and in the fact that "all things are put under his feet.” It is precisely in his function as rules that he is God's image. The use of the word "adam" in the phrase "Let us make adam in our image," is to be understood in the collective sense. God wanted to create "mankind." Dominion over the world is not to be by individuals but by "community." The family relationship here is presented as Illustra— tive of the biblical pattern for community. The sense of community dominion is seen in the explanation of how man— kind, created in the image of God, is to be fashioned: it is to take the form of two sexes. Men are allowed to com- plement themselves in love. That they live together in this way and not in warfare is an essential presuppOSi- tion for the success of SteWardShip of the world entrusted to them. They are the image of God in that together they 154 are one. Man can only fulfill the commission as the image of God given to them in their creation by turning towards one another and complementing one another, like man and wife. The stewardship over the world includes the ability to generate children and thus to increase mankind. The increase of mankind and dominion over the earth and the beasts are directly linked together. Stewardship over the world is therefore entrusted to the great company of mankind with the multitude of its members; and this pre— supposes that they all partake in the dominion over creation. How does mankind as God's image exercise this dominion? Wolff says that the nature of the universal human stewardship is "absolute dominance." The dignity of absolute royal rule is granted to the multitude of all men. In principle everything is "put under man's feet" (Psalm 8:5f). Only man himself is not to be the object of subjection (Genesis 9:6), all men having the joint task of administering and molding creation and of having it at their disposal. But man as God's image is in danger because his from him and because man domination threatens to escape does not pursue rightfully the process of exercising dominion. Wolff points to two areas wherein the steward— ship of rulership is being threatened. 155 l) The subjection of the world must not lead to such an endangering of man as is taking on threatening proportions in the pollution of the environment. The lordship of man over man is a falsification of the image of God. 2) The subjection of the world must not lead to man's being dominated by a myth of technology, which produces the technically possible simply because it is possible, and therefore subjects man to technological and economic compulsions. The sense of community responsibility is directly related to the destiny of man. Mankind is destined to love and to overcome hate. In order that mankind does not lose track of his destiny among his fellows, Israel is taught through ever—new precepts to deal rightly with men, until the crowning sentence in Leviticus 19:17ff is reached with its command that a man should love his neighbor as his own self, not excluding the stranger or even the enemy. Love and a feeling of complete solidarity can enter even into the relations between masters and slaves. A prime criteria of a true ruler is that he consider the poor to be precious. Wherever men deny their fellow men recognition, justice and kindness, they become inhuman. This View developed in Old Testament times among the Jews who be- lieved this view could be generalized to apply to all persons and nations. In the world of extra-human creation, the destiny of man is to rule. Concerning this dominion Wolff writes: -..hfi,“ __, v... 156 The Yahwist in his story—like way expressed his joy over man's capacity for controlling the world's potentialities: He can produce musical instruments and learn the arts of playing zither and flute, he can mine and fashion minerals and iron. As husbandman, he learned to cultivate the vine and discovered its power to overthrow him. He invented materials which made it possible for him to put up giant buildings. But did not the ancient narrator already see the danger that man would himself be dominated by the potentiali— ties of the creation which he was himself designed to dominate-—as when wine deprives Noah of his willpower and puts him at the mercy of his son's shamelessness; or when the unguessed—at technique of building drew man on the one hand into the intoxication of self- praise and on the other into projects motivated by fear? Wherever man is overpowered by the things which he himself is meant to overpower, inhuman man is born (l974,p.226). Wolff sees that there is a reason why man's domination of the world is described with so much artistry. It is to make abundantly clear that for all his searchings and investigations man cannot discover wisdom itself, "the meaning implanted in creation." Man’s dominion is not rooted in man himself, but in God. And only through dialogue with God can man discover himself. Therefore, man's destiny is to praise God and there- fore to enter into a grateful dialogue with the Creator. This dialogue with the Creator must not be pushed aside by man's fascination with his own capabilities; for he must also keep himself and his own neediness in View. Wolff concludes: In praise...the destiny of man-~his destiny to live in the world, his destiny to love his fellow men, and his destiny to rule over all non—human 157 creation--finds its truly human fulfillment. Otherwise man, becoming his own idol, turns into a tyrant; either that, or, falling dumb, he loses his freedom (p.229). The Nature of Society: A Systemic Approach An ecological approach is rooted in ecology, the study of the interrelations of organisms and environment. It is developed on the concept of an "ecosystem," the term ,coined by Tansley (1935) as a name for the interaction system comprised of living things together with their habitat or environment which surrounds them. An ecological approach utilizes concepts from general systems theory (Buckley,l968,pp.490—513) and from a social systems approach, as suggested and promulgated by several family scholars (Broderick,l97l; Hill,1970; Kantor and Lehr,1975). An ecosystems approach, however, adds and gives emphasis to the biological and physical dimensions of the organism and the environment, as well as to psychosocial character- istics and interactions. Social systems approaches some— times assume particular biological and physical dimensions and environments as givens, or when considered, have given them scant attention. With an ecological approach, the physical resource base of the individual, family and community are as critical as are the individual's trans- actions with his family and other environments. 158 The present research does not consider the interre- lationship of family and community only from a biological stance, the discipline with which ecology has been pri- marily identified, nor does it use it from a strictly ihuman ecological orientation as developed in sociology. However, such concepts and principles as are related to the ihuman organism's need for nourishment, shelter and repro- , duction; interdependence, community, population and spatial fdistribution; stability, diversity, adaption and balance or equilibrium, common to flora and animal as well as human ecology are basic in considering the whole of human develop- ment. The present study builds from the Greek word from which "ecology" was derived-—"oikos," a house or living place. Underlying the approach of the present chapter is the assumption that the human organism is part of a total life system and it cannot be considered apart from all other living species in nature and the environments that surround them. Sprout and Sprout (1965) identify three central organizing concepts in an ecosystem: environed unit, environment, and the patterning of interactions and trans— actions between them. In the family ecosystem, the environed unit is the group of persons who constitute the family, defined as a bonded unit of interacting and 159 interdependent persons who possess common goals and .resources, and for part of their life cycle, at least, ‘share living space. On this basis, families with dif- [ferent configurations of age, sex, marital status, and role fpatterns can be delineated. This definition is useful be- icause it places emphasis upon the corporate unity of the family as a group, with identity, actions, and character of its own, rather than the sum of the individuals who make up the family. In the ecosystem of the larger society, the community is the smallest cultural unit and, as such, constitutes an environed unit at the cultural level. Morgan (1942) de- fines community as a closely organized association of peOple who live and work together for common ends, with mutual good will, respect, and tolerance, sharing dangers and hopes. Since members know each other intimately, dis— honesty does not succeed. The members of a community possess common standards, a common background, a community of memory and association. They help one another and share the common lot. The family is the smallest social unit of society; the community is the smallest cultural unit. The combined environments of family and community constitute an essential life—support system. Environment is conceptualized to include natural, human constructed, and human behavioral 160 components (Bubolz, Eicher, and Sontag, 1979; Morrison, l974,pp.l7l—l78). Humans are interdependent organisms. For survival certain fundamental resources such as air, water, space, food, and other energy sources, and shelter are essential. But humans have transformed the natural environment both biologically and physically. As social beings, humans have developed such constructions as language, values, norms, social patterns, systems and in- stitutions, which provide the basis for communication, order and coordination of human activities. These, too, are part of the human environment. In addition, humans constitute environments for other humans. The human behavioral environment plays a central role in the facilitation of the whole of human development. The community as an ecosystem can be viewed as an environment that supports the development of both indi— vidual and family subsystems. The socio—psychological and behavioral environment of roles, rules, and inter- actions supports the development of those human character— istics that serve as an integrative function for society. It shapes attitudes, values, expectations, and patterns of decision—making. The interaction of this socio—psychological and behavioral environment with the material human constructed aspects of the eCOSyStem (housing, equipment, clothing, and food) and the natural environment (land, air, and 161 water) facilitates the physical maintenance of the system; the development of skills, eating patterns and aesthetic choices. The extensive research focusing on conditions affecting the whole of human development vividly illustrates how both family and community aspirations, values and child rearing styles interact with the material resource base of the family (Keniston,1977;Morgan,l942). HEALTHY FAMIUES: BASKICONTEXT FOR PSYCHOLOGICAL HEALTH A family ecosystem approach conceptualizes the family as a unit in interaction with environments comprised of matter—energy and information in the form of symbols, signs and messages (Kuhn,l974;Miller,l97l). Each family system structures a pattern of communication for trans- forming matter—energy and information (Weick,1969;Laszlo, 1973). The flow of energy through the system serves the function of organization, relating part to wholes and systems to environments. In this way, energy forms the life—blood of human systems. A supply of energy is essential for system maintenance and sheer existence——to maintain essential functions for survival, e.g., food and fuel. Either additional energy or a more efficient use of energy is required for transactions with other environmental systems. 162 Still higher levels of organization of energy use are needed for adaptive, creative behavior to enable a system to cope with changing environments and rules. Koenig (1973) finds that transactions between family and environment are guided by two sets of rules: the immu— table 1aws of nature and the set of human derived rules. The laws of nature are immutable and pivot around the capacity of the natural environment to process waste and the finite nature of energy (fossil fuel) resources. Rules of relationships within and between systems are, however, human derived and changeable, e.g., allocation of resources, social customs, role expectations, power distributions. Because both family and community ecosystems exist in inter— dependence with a series of other ecosystems such as the immediate social and physical ecosystems and the global ecosystem, both sets of rules must be considered. The FamHy: An Energy Transflwnmtbn System. The boundaries which protect the integrity and identity of the family system are permeable, permitting energy exchanges with the environment. Family members interact with other systems. These interactions are called "linkages." Wherever the family system interfaces with other systems information, goods, and services flow across boundary lines. As this flow of energy passes into and through 163 the family system they activate the decision making and decision implementing processes. Internally, energy is transformed to support the production, assimilation, and adaptation functions (socialization functions) of the family. Input from the community environment, for example, is transformed into material goods, information, or waste products and human resources. The outputs of family activity are used by other systems, activating reciprocal exchanges and bonds of interdependence. The family is a cybernetic system. Information that re—enters the family as feedback provides the perceptual data that allows the family to adjust its behavior in relation to the environment. Changes in familial perception enable the family to change its pattern of internal organiza— tion and external relatedness. Feedforward mechanisms are also used by the family system to anticipate or predict the effects of family change on other systems as well as to anticipate and predict the effects of environment on the family. The ability to both anticipate and learn from experience provides the basis for family planning and goal—oriented adaptation and assimilation. 164 Family Behavior: An Ecologifiystemic Perspective. The family is a living system and is, therefore, dynamic. Family systems are constantly assimilating and adapting to perceived cir- cumstances. In so doing, family systems experience periods of growth and integration, periods of relative balance and stability, and periods of disorder and disintegration. Family systems both react to perceived internal and ex- ternal conditions as well as proact and initiate action to seek new levels of functioning. An ecological systemic perspective conceives that as change is introduced somewhere in the environment, it has an effect on all aspects of the environment. The state of equilibrium of the ecosystem will be disrupted by such an intervention and the disruption calls for counterbalancing or elaborating changes. Until such time as counter- balancing activities are introduced, stress or tension is created within the ecosystem. Such stress, within limits, is a natural or necessary condition for growth. It serves as a motivating or activating force to create change. Change within the family system can be effected both by external environmental forces such as inflation which eats away the family's purchasing power, and by internal Changes brought about by the re—examination of values and goals, as well as by the physical, psychological and emo— 165 tional changes introduced as members of the family move through the life cycle. As the family system assimilates and adapts to the various changes, a new level of equil- ibrium is created and the system moves to a new level of relatedness both internally and externally. Growth and development occurs when the family system possesses the ability to cope with the introduced changes. Lacking the essential coping skills, changes can overwhelm the system and disruption and breakdown can occur. In order for growth to characterize a family system, information must be available to the family system in a meaningful form. Aggregate family behavior does make a noticeable impact on the larger environment. But it is difficult for individual families to perceive how their behavior can or does make a difference in the larger realm. Professionals can contribute significantly to family growth and development by helping families to translate the effects of microlevel behavior on macrosystems. Pro— fessionals can enable families to identify and process critical information essential to the processes of assimila— tion and adaptation. In a period of information overload, many individual and family system decision making processes break dOWn because of the inability to handle all of the information and the inconsistency of the information they receive. The resulting behavior is apathy, indecision, and 166 a continuation of past behavior. Effective leadership will enable families to evaluate various alternatives and con— flicting points of View and help predict the consequences of various courses of action. The ability of family members to process information may be directly related to the qualitative ability of the family system to assimilate and adapt to change and, in this way, serve as a healthy support system. In terms of individual ability to perceive feedback and exert control, it is the family's immediate environment-— the environment closest in proximity both in physical and social-emotional space that provides the greatest insights concerning family behavior. This environment is of crucial importance because some of the most essential transactions of matter-energy and information exchange occur in the family and its immediate environment. Basic processes of valuing, goal setting, decision making, and implementation, including resource allocation (the outcomes of which are socialization and consumption) occur within the family system. The quality of transactions which occur within the family are heavily influenced by surrounding conditions, including available resources, customs, values, and patterns of interaction. 167 How Heath FanfiHes Funcfion: Ahntfi’FamHy Devdopment. Many writers (Satir,l972; Haley,1967,Clinebe11,l970) appreciate the fundamental role of the family in the ongoing develop— ment and lifestyle of every human being. A disproportionate amount of the literature focuses on pathological family types. There is a scarcity of data on the healthy family. One study of healthy families deserves notice. Lewis, et. a1. (1976) presents the results of a long- term study of how healthy families function. What Lewis has to say is built upon a concept of family systems as an outgrowth of general systems theory. This study identi- fies the characteristics of healthy families, focusing on those family variables which are interactional rather than based solely on individual observations. Lewis and his colleagues found that optimally function— ing or competent families were characterized by the presence and interrelationship of a number of variables. It is not that dysfunctional families did not possess any of these variables, but that functional families possessed all of them and demonstrated them at levels significantly beyond the levels of dysfunctional families. The presence of these several variables led Lewis to suggest that “health at the level of family was not a single thread, and that competence must be considered as a tapestry, reflecting differences in degrees along many dimensions" (1976,p.206). 168 Lewis presents several characteristics or variables which describe the optimally functioning family. An Affiliative Attitude About Human Encounter Respect for Subjective Views A Belief in Complex Motivations High Levels of Initiative Growth Supporting Structures High Levels of Personal Autonomy A Congruent Mythology Acceptance of Feelings High Levels of Spontaneity and Wit Low Levels of Scapegoating and Authorative Family Management The Lewis (1976) study demonstrates that high levels of family health are possible and the data provided in their findings provide a standard against which to measure dysfunction in disturbed family systems. Two constructs about families appear to be validated by this study. The first has to do with the primary im— portance of communication variables in conceptualizing and assessing family function. The second has to do with the cardinal role of the parental coalition in establishing the level of function of the total family. Further, the study demonstrates the advantages of a systems model of family function. Psychological pain in families is not invariably associated with disability, and in less than optimal families the mother is generally the first to suffer from the system's inadequacy. She is generally the first to become dissatisfied, distressed, or symptomatic. At increased levels of family system 169 dysfunctioning, a child may also begin to experience dis- tress and become symptomatic. Frequently he becomes the identified patient. The father, possessing more in the way of outside sources of esteem, is often the last family member to become symptomatic. While this scheme is acknow— ledged to be over—simplified, the data of the research does suggest this general trend. Dysfunctional families frequently develop a pattern of physical illness, and the clinician is advised to seek ‘out the data of this useful area. The FamHy: A Subsystem Wiflfln Sodety. ’The family functions within a complex milieu of biological, physical, social, and institutional systems that comprise the environments of the family. These environments influence the resources avail- able to the family and the manner in which a variety of activities are performed. If the environments do not furnish the material, human, or information resources needed the family and its members cannot function effec— tively. The family system includes both personal attributes of its members such as health and skills, and structural attributes of the family, i.e., authority patterns, roles, goals, aspirations, affectual relationships and patterns of decision making. The family system produces human resources, and with the help of other social systems, trans— 170 forms these resources to provide the human capital reserves of a society. If essential resources are not available, or if the family is not able to effectively utilize these resources, family members do not develop in positive directions, and instead of becoming human capital reserves for the larger society, they become burdens to society. The family, as the basic social unit, and through its individual members participates in both market (business, industry, agriculture, service) and non—market (household production, individual maintenance, community participa- tion) activities and provides an integrative function (trust, ‘organization, relatedness) that contributes to the social, economic, and spiritual well-being of the family, the com— munity, and the society. An ecological approach to the study of the family enables decision makers in the church to develop a frame— work for policy and planning, for resource assessments, for developing program strategies, and for evaluation. An ecological model can aid decision-makers in identifying the systems which impact on families,1 in assessing both human and nonhuman resources available in and to families, in identifying and quantifying integrative activities of 1. See Brown (1978) for a graphic presentation of the biological and mineral systems which provide the renewable and non—renewable resource for human development. The focus is upon the need for mankind to accommodate itself to the earth‘s resources. 171 families that impact upon the functioning of other systems (i.e., trust), and in identifying and quantifying the activities or contributions of families and their members in the economic and production systems as well as in the community and home. The model can also provide a basis for delineating the competencies which families and individuals need to function in contemporary society—-a society confronted with rapid change. HEALTHY COMMUNFHES: BASKZCONTEXT FOR ‘FAMILY AND ”MMVIDUAL HEALTH Families cannot develop essential competencies without an interdependent system of supports (Andrews, Bubolz, Pao— lucci, 1978). Formally organized institutions such as school, police protection, and health care are essential, but just as important are the non-formal and informal systems. Non—formal systems, such as adult education, scouting, 4—H Club, and childcare groups provide for some meaningful interaction. Such groups can serve a complementary relationship to formal systems. Informal support from friends, neighbors, and extended family groupings are frequently overlooked by community 173 The Nanne ofa Communfiy. The ancient village was a closely organized association of people who lived and worked itogether for common ends, with mutual good will, respect, and tolerance, sharing dangers and hopes. Since the (members all knew each other intimately, dishonesty did not succeed. The people possessed common standards, a common background, a community of memory and association. ‘They helped each other and shared the common lot. The controlling factors of civilization are not its art, business, science, or government. Morgan (1942) says these are its fruits. The roots of civilization are elemental traits--good will, neighborliness, fair play, courage, tolerance, open—minded inquiry, and patience. Morgan says: A people rich in these qualities will develop a great civilization, with great art, science, industry, government. If the basic qualities fade, then no matter how great the wealth, how brilliant the learning, how polished the culture, that civilization will crumble (l942,p.6). Community traits of good will and mutual confidence constitute the very life principle of society. Without them society would disintegrate. The small community, rightly developed, can be the home, the refuge, the seed bed, of some of the finest qualities of civilization. Morgan describes "top-down“ approaches to developing community life to be a myth. Community is a grass-roots Process that takes much time. Once people are enabled to (i, - - unu— ; r , I 174 conceptualize the process by which they may create their own future they experience compelling reasons for a sense of significance and validity for their lives. Wycliffe sent his Lollard preachers through the English villages, arousing the old democratic community spirit within the people. The results of this movement can be seen in the survival of political and religious freedom in England. Morgan writes: Should there be a breakdown in the present social order, the small community is the seed bed from which a new order would have to grow...Whoever increases the excellence and stability of small communities sets limits to social retrogression (l942,p.12). Suppose a person wishes to work for the development of a quality community life. What must that person do? According to Morgan It is necessary to get a clear vision of the new community as an all-round, well—proportioned society in which human relations are fine and sound, and where all the elemental needs of men can be met, together with a vision of the place of such communities in larger societies (1942, p.14). For example, the community needs help to appraise its economic needs and resources, to plan through the years to achieve sound economic balance. The community, by means of free inquiry and common aspiration, must achieve a common View of a total way of life, and a common discipline. Never Will a community be united on all issues, yet it must be 175 conscious of the standards on which they are substantially united. Concerning class spirit, Morgan says: A real community can emerge only when there is sincere recognition of the fact that ultimate truth or wisdom is not given to any sect or class or organization, but that all alike should be open—minded seekers (l942,p.l8). The new community will not try to monopolize the whole life of its members. It will endeavor to satisfy member needs for common purpose and united neighborly effort which contemporary life neglects. Unless a growing number of persons live and work in the intimate relationships of community life, there never can emerge a truly unified nation, or a community of mankind. Morgan says A community is an aSSOCiation of individuals and families that, out of inclination, habit, custom, and mutual interest, act in concert as a unit in meeting their common needs (l942,p.20). To the extent that the needs of the group are met through unified action in a spirit of mutuality and responsibility, to that extent a community exists. The German sociologist, Ferdinand Tonnies (1940) dif— ferentiates between GemeinSChaft and Gesellschaft. Gemein- Schaft consists of the natural, spontaneous, organic relations Of people as they develop in the course of living, growing Out of mutual affection, acquaintance, custom, and tradition. Gesellschaft describes the formal organization of society 176 by contracts, legislation, and deliberately planned agreements. The natural, spontaneous kind of human rela- tions based on Gemeinschaft he calls community. The conscious, deliberate, formal organization he calls society. The Gesellschaft or formal relations grow out of and rest on the spontaneous Gemeinschaft, and cannot thrive without it. That is, organized society grows out of community, and can thrive only so long as the spirit of community pervades and vitalizes it. Local congregations of church frequently possess a single purpose with social relations only as a minor acces— sory. Such organizations scarcely deserve the name of community. These organizations frequently provide for certain emotional needs, but to the extent to which they are highly specialized, they lack the quality of being a community. When careful provision is made for recreation and social life; when the poor of the community are cared for; when education for vocation (including homemaking) is given careful attention; when in these and numerous other ways the varied, yet common needs of members are met by common planning and action, there you have community. Wherever in human associations there is a high degree of intimate, first-hand acquaintance, some of the characteristics of community will appear. 177 If substantially the same group of people, in a spirit of working together for common ends, should use a variety of means for doing so, that fact would not prevent the group from constituting a community. The essential character of a community is the spirit and the habit of meeting varied general needs by unified planning and action. While the characteristics of community-~mutual respect, good will, living for and with each other by united effort for common ends, and mutual acquaintance-—are not limited to groups of any certain size, there are groups of a cer— 1tain range of size in which community of effort and interest 1finds fullest and most normal expression, and which seem most adapted to human capacity for intimate co—operation. Such groups range in size from a few dozen to a few hundred, or at most a very few thousand persons. Cooley (1909) calls them "primary groups." Man and Communny. A person is not a normal organism alone, but only in relation to others. Persons live best in inte- grated groups of limited size. They search for community life, that is, for a community of interest, for a common destiny, and for a sense of belonging (Kee,l973). Morgan (1942) observes that communities may vary much in the spacing of their members. Some spacing is essential. Extremes of solitude or intimacy are variants to the normal L , 178 range of spacing needs. Persons who live isolated from their fellows tend to be psychopathic or variant in other ways. Persons forced into too intimate and constant association become irritable or lose individuality. People have a strong impulse to imitation. This begins very early and lasts throughout life. An inte- grated community life facilitates human development through imitation. The Pheecfi Communhy WhhHlCuHure. The roots of human culture ‘are not its fine arts, its technology, its political insti- ‘tutions. These are the flower and the fruit. According to Morgan, the roots of culture are the underlying drives, motives, incentives, manners, habits, and purposes. If the roots of culture are socially sound and vitally alive in a good social soil, then the flowers and fruit will appear. Young life is much in need of example and instruction which it can accept and imitate. It takes to itself what— ever is available in the culture of its environment, and makes that its own. It becomes fundamentally and intimately like the culture in which it grows. The crowning inheri- tance of humanity is its basic culture of community habits, traits, and attitudes. 179 One of the tasks of the church, therefore, is to cultivate and give direction to the development of the roots of human culture-—the underlying drives, motives, incentives, manners, habits, and purposes of culture. By focusing on the roots (foundations) of culture, the church may be able to maximize its effect on culture and on human development. ‘ The family is considered by many to be the basic unit of society. Morgan says the community is the basic cultural lunit. As children overflow the immediate family environ- ment, however, they are much affected by the neighborhood or community environment. But the larger environment tends strongly to improve the poorest and to debase the best, and to reduce all to an approximation to uniformity. Just as the human body supplies an almost ideal environment for each of its cells such as no individual one-celled animal could provide for itself, so the community may create a favorable milieu for the development of each of its members. Morgan (1942) observes that, just as individuals learn chiefly by imitating others, so communities on the whole, when they have endeavored to improve their designs, only rarely have undertaken original study and planning. For the most part they have imitated what was most obvious. For example, the city manager concept was initiated by one small city. Other communities, having something to imitate, imitated that example. 180 The creation of one finely designed community, and the development there of a vital community spirit, probably would lead to that general type of social organization being imitated and reproduced many times. It is not the size but the quality of a society which, in the long run determines its influence. The creation of a good community may be the best way--indeed, the most vital way——to contri- bute to national and world affairs. The ProbbnlofLeaderdflp. The higher plants and animals are made up of cells and tissues and organs which co—operate to the common good of the organism. Yet each cell has its own individual life and carries on its own individual functions in a little world of its own. To protect that individuality each cell is surrounded by a cell membrane which separates it from all others, and tissues and organs are similarly protected. If the cell walls or tissue walls of the human body should be dissolved, the body would quickly die. Similarly, a social organism, such as a state or a People, is composed of cells and organs--individuals, families, communal and functional societies. Each of these in its way has its own cell or tissue wall, its own individual life. Only by maintaining its separateness and identity can its indigenous culture be kept alive and transmitted with de— Pendableness from generation to generation. 181 Today, in unprecedented fashion, society is dissolving its cell and tissue walls, and as a result it is losing power to preserve and to transmit its basic culture. Social perspective and its accompanying convictions and habits that once gave people a sense of validity are fading be— cause the social units through which those values were preserved and transmitted are disappearing, leaving little but immediate self-assertion to give meaning and a sense of worth to life. Where community life is dissolved and the only remain- ing sense of social identity is with vast societies, such as great nations, serious—minded youth who wish to be socially effective often measure their small powers against national or world movements and develop a feeling of frus— tration and futility. It is doubtful whether there can be social health until this process of preservation and trans— mission of basic culture is renewed. One of the tasks of the church is to rebuild the cell and tissue walls of society so as to provide a context for the transmission of those cultural values which reflect that which is best within the Christian community. Recoverin the Sense of an lnte rated Communit . Morgan (1942, P. 109) identifies the central problem to be that of ' nit and to recovering the essence Of the integrated commu y, 182 achieve for it a set of mores, a code and a temper of inquiry, of critical—mindedness, of intellectual freedom and intellectual interests, which, so far as possible, will leave it without inhibiting barriers. How can there be a community of standards, aims, and purposes, without regimentation of dogmatism? Can unity without regimentation be achieved by eliminating arbitrary and capricious standards and by seeking uni— versal and fundamental standards? One of the standards most difficult to maintain is that of freedom of thought and inquiry. Everywhere, in the church and outside it, vested interests and dogmatism strive to entrench themselves by claims to special sacred— ness, revelation, or other authority, demanding that men accept the orthodox position without inquiry. Community possibilities can never be fully realized as long as any group or groups claim a monopoly of truth or wisdom. Morgan says: Unity of the whole community can result only to the extent that claims to unique authority are given up (l942,p.110) The problem of the community has commonly been viewed in its superficial aspects. Only slowly is it being seen as dealing with a way of life, rather than simply with economic or social arrangements. Morgan observes that a commOn perception of the failure to develop the desired 183 level of community life is due to a lack of organization. But, says Morgan, underlying organization is personnel and professional technique. But even with these the founda- tions of community have not been reached. For underneath personal and professional technique there must be the slowly developed spirit of community, which will give vitality to both organization and technique. There are many aggrega- tions of families which are waiting for leadership to turn them from aggregations into communities. The problem, according to Morgan (l942,p.112), is how to find or to develop or to encourage such leadership. For the leaders, the problem is how to bring into being a picture of the full, well—proportioned community as it might be, and how to turn indifference and unconcern into critical but active interest. An_Approach to a Solution to the Problem of Community. The idea of self—conscious, critical design for the association of families which can be called community, with a spirit of universality instead of provincialism, and with a con— scious striving for a sense of proportion, Will develOp slowly and must be transmitted by the contagion of both word and example. The aim will be to seek unity, fellowship, and a sense of good proportion, so that the community shall be 184 united in the aim of making possible for each of its members a full and varied development of his life according to the needs of the community as a whole and the needs of his own individual genius. Morgan suggests ten elements of such an objective 1. (l942,pp.115-116): The development of neighborliness, with mutual good will, helpfulness, tolerance, and personal acquaintance. A budget of community interests, consisting of matters on which the community has substantial unity, so that it can act effectively; development of the broadest possible base of unified social purpose; a policy of common efforts to common ends. Suitable and effective relationships with larger units such as regional cooperatives. A policy of free, open—minded, critical inquiry, with the habit of striving for unity through sincere, patient, tolerant inquiry, rather than through compulsion or arbitrary authority. The largest possible agreement on ethical prin- ciples, with conscious development of common ethical standards; no interference with pioneer standards or sincere and tolerable divergences of individuals. Common community programs of education, cultural and social life, recreation, health, and other major community interests, with inclusion of the entire community of population in those programs to the full extent of individual capacity and interest. Recognition of community interest in land and im— provements, both public and private, through pro— grams of zoning, etc. The development of co-operative community effort or group co—operative effort for supplying basic economic needs where the general welfare can be advanced thereby; community consideration of such possibilities as community-owned and operated utilities, co—operatives, credit unions, etc. 9. The habit of regularly meeting together as a community without division into social and economic classes, for the discussion of gen- eral and specific community problems, and for general community recreation and acquain— tance; the attitude of working together as a community of people who have cast their lot together and who will stand or fall together in working out common problems. 10. Respect for individuality and for individual tastes and interests——the maintenance of a wholesome balance between community life in which the entire community acts together, and individual or smaller group life where diver— sity of individuality is recognized and respected. Regardless of the form of government and of society, most of our contacts from week to week and from year to year are these first—hand personal relations with people close to us. If these relations are fine, then the greater part of our lives is fine, and that fineness will iconstantly infect the community and all social units beyond the community. The development of community life begins with the development of person—to-person relationships. The Ahn<fi'Communhy Deflgn and Devdopment. Morgan says: Community organization is...merely an improvement or perfecting of the relationships which make a community. The very idea of community carries with it the correlative concept of organization. The community is itelf a form of organization (l942,p.l2l). The aim of community design and development should be to understand the actual nature and potentialities of men and to make possible their fuller realization. Individuals thrive best with a considerable degree of spacing. Too great proximity and too close association Violate deep—seated cravings for freedom of motion and for privacy. Where physical proximity is compulsory men tend to set up emotional partitions. A community should (be like an excellent automobile, which has all the parts it needs, but no more than it needs. No one should join a community unless the service he can render will add to the completeness or to the quality of that community. In the best interests of a social organization, Morgan (1942) says, it is important that the number of persons included shall be properly related to the purposes of the (organization. In general, the more intimate the relation- ‘ships, the fewer are the numbers that may satisfactorily belong to it. A community should be large enough to support a feeling of belonging and small enough so that the members generally are enabled to know each other personally, and especially so that persons in different vocations or of different degrees of authority or status can be fairly intimately acquainted. It should be large enough to Provide a reasonable choice of intimate friends and acquaintances. It should be small enough to make possible a sharing of burdens, and to encourage a feeling of all- around community. Morgan says there can be no standard pattern of com— munity design. Each community must necessarily develop in a way that is commensurate with natural organic rela- tions. The community feeling which originates and develops in the smaller, more intimate community, tends to spread beyond it and to give some of the characteristics of community to large groups. Morgan says that "it is a social fact of great importance that the spirit of com— munity in large groups generally is the outgrowth of the development of that spirit in small groups" (l942,p.129). Morgan (1942) says the community is like the family. Family interests and issues are too varied and complex to be foreseen. Therefore family life cannot be worked out according to a single plan. Yet a family needs to plan. Planning is required so that there will be financial resources for an adequate education, for a family car, home, etc. Family planning is essential in areas other than the financial; but a plan by which all activities of the family would be controlled is not only not necessary but not desired. Just as family members do not live primarily by rule, but by "motives and intelligence and training" (1942,p.l31) 188 so that behavior is appropriate for the occasion, so too, the members of a good community will not live chiefly by rule, but by motives of good will and mutual confidence, ‘and by a sense of security and of belonging. Thus, community planning does not occur as an engineer learns lto design a bridge, but as a member of an orchestra learns the spirit of cooperating with the Whole, whatever may be the music. Morgan (1942, p.133 identifies nine aims of community planning: 1. To lead the people of the community to become conscious of the existence of their community as such and of the significance of the community as a basic unit of civilization, and to encourage them to feel that they are members of it. 2. To satisfy unmet needs, whether economic, cultural, or physical. 3. To incline the people of the community to plan and to act together for common ends, and for develop— ment of common acquaintance and interests, so that there will be "all—around participation in the thinking, the feeling, and the activities of the group." 4. To develop a community spirit and common community standards, and to maintain them in a spirit of loyalty. 5. To get the groups within the community to increase effectiveness by avoiding duplication, interference, and waste in programs and undertakings, and by pooling their efforts where that is desirable. 6. To prevent the entrance of undesirable influences and conditions. 189 7. To co-operate with other communities, with public and private organizations, and with the larger units of region, state, and nation. 8. To develop ways of mutual understanding and agree— ment, that is, of consensus of opinion. 9. To develop leadership within the community. Most of these aims are long term and cannot be realized through high intensity campaigns or programs. They require patient conviction, determination, and loyalty of the leadership. The first step toward the building of a strong community is a study of its needs, interests, and possi— bilities. A preliminary study of the community should have two principal aims: First, the members of the study group should become informed concerning the general framework so as to serve as a source of judgment and information. They should not get lost in detail. Second, members of the study group should become acquainted with those persons in the community who could be added to their group, and with those who, after a study of the general principles and methods, might be able to serve as effective leaders in particular phases of community life. 190 THE NATURE OF SCHOOL: A NORMATIVE DESCRIPTION Taba says that public opinion does not possess a singu— lar conception of what the function of the educative process ought to be (l962,pp.l6-30). The issues which dominate debate over the function of school are the issues faced by society. They include the "balance betWeen freedom and control, between change and tradition, whether the elite of society should be of power or of intellect, and who I should participate in shaping the public policy." Some of these arguments have been sufficiently in- tense to Split educators into different camps. But Taba points out that these arguments are proving to be largely semantic. Complicating the task of coming to an agreement concerning the central function of the school is the fact that the decision—making process is influenced by the convergence of two phenomena: the transforming effects of science and the constant shifts in the balance of the _international power structures. Taba says these phenomena are subjectively perceived and therefore decisions about the central function of the schools are subjectively based. The people of the United States have historically main~ tained high standards of expectation for their educational processes. They assume that education possesses the power to reduce poverty and environmental distress, prevent 191 child delinquency and crime, promote individual well— being, the intelligent use of suffrage, and the welfare and stability of the state. But, says Taba, in order to accomplish these ends the schools must be perceived to function on behalf of the culture which establishes them. In the United States the schools are expected to reproduce in the learner the knowledge, attitudes, values, and techniques that have cultural relevance or that enable the individual to get along within the social parameters established by the various decision—making processes. The schools are responsible for cultural continuity. That cultural continuity is a primary function of the schools is widely accepted. Difficulties arise, however, when one attempts to define precisely the enculturation process. Some hold to the View that the culture should determine everything the schools do. Others hold particu— lar conceptions of how individualization occurs and to the View that education is responsible for facilitating individual develOpment regardless of cultural values and norms. Thus, schools are expected to transmit culture, but there are sharp differences about what cultural content should be transmitted and the manner in which it should be done. According to Taba there are three things which exert a modifying influence on the function of common education: 192 education as preserver and transmitter of the cultural heritage, education as an instrument for transforming culture, and education for individual development. Education as Preserver and Transmitter of the Cultural Heritage. The Harvard Report on General Education underscores the im— portance of preserving tradition and maintaining roots from the past (Report of the Harvard Committee, 1945, pp. 44-51). According to this report, education can develop a unifying purpose only as it develops a sense of heritage. ‘This heritage is crucial to educative processes because it draws from the past for clarification of the present and even to determine what is important in the present. It is the function of education to pass on the "inherited" View of man and society. Thus, one of the main tasks of education is to perpetuate such ideas as the dignity of man and cer— tain other ideas about what is good. The transmission of the cultural heritage is in turn modified by the relative importance of new experience and change. Society is perpetually in need of new and independent insight. Scientific processes of thought are one of society's vital resources. The rational humanists and classicists (see, for example, Hutchins, 1936, and Adler and Mayer, 1958) are a group of theorists who accentuate the preserving or 193 conserving function of education. According to this group of theorists the essence of human nature is its rational character. Rationality is the common denominator of all men regardless of race or culture. The world can be under— stood through the faculty of rationality. The chief function of education is to develop this rationality and to come to an understanding of the eternal truths which rationality reveals. The rationale humanists and classicist viewpoint insists that learning is concerned with essentials, that is, the first principles articulated in the great books and the classical tradition. The subjects which possess the greatest rational content should have priority in the curriculum. Thus, the liberal arts, and more particu— larly, the humanities ought to be central in the learning process. This viewpoint underscores three reasons why the transmission of the cultural heritage is the chief function Of common education. First, intellectual development is the distinctive function of common education. According to Bestor (1955) this intellectual development must include an understanding of principles and the ability to handle and to apply complex ideas, to make use of a wide range of accurate knowledge, and to command the means of effective communication. Second, this type of intellectual training is possible only by centering the educational effort on basic skills and disciplines, such as reading, writing, and arithmetic on the lower level, and logic, history, philosophy, mathe— matics, science, art, and philosophy on the higher levels. The writings of the basic educators underscore the assumption that there is a hierarchy of subjects according to 'their power to enhance intellectual development' (Bestor,l955,pp. 7—21). Third, the "basic education" viewpoint holds to a rejection of certain functions of common education, among them education for democratic citizenship, for moral values, and for ability to deal with social problems, the concern for the "whole child" or any form of "life adjustment“ including education for vocations. Basic education is an argument against any goals for schools beyond those for intellectual development. It assumes that men are rational and truth is everywhere the same. Accordingly, education must everywhere be uniformly addressed to these truths and to the exclusive task of developing the rational powers. Taba observes widespread acceptance of the importance of intellectual development but finds the basic education Viewpoint wanting when it argues for isolation from the cultural milieu. Intellectuality cannot be neatly separated 195 from other aspects of personality development. To do so is to encourage academic intellectuality instead of a functioning intelligence. Education as an Instrument for Transforming Culture. A second viewpoint holds that education can and does play a creative role in modifying and even reshaping the culture in which it functions, that education and public policy are directly ‘related, and that progress in one is limited without iprogress in the other. Education must deal with the current ‘needs of culture and help to shape the future of the culture. Taba observes considerable precedence for the idea that education has a constructive role to play in shaping the society. It is demonstrated in the general public faith in the power of education to deal with cultural problems. It is articulated in much of educational writing from the time of Mann to the present. Mann underscored repeatedly the integral relationship between popular education and social problems (Cremin,l957,p.7—8). Dewey and his followers set forth the View that education is a social process, the primary and most effective instrument of social reconstruc- tion. The main thesis of Dewey and his followers was that the school is not merely a residual institution to maintain things as they are. Education has a creative function to Play in the shaping of individuals and through them in the 196 shaping of the culture. Dewey consistently saw the function of the school in both psychological and sociological terms. In 1897 he wrote: I believe that: all education proceeds by the participation of the individuals in the social consciousness of the race. This process...is con— tinually shaping the individual's powers, saturating his consciousness, forming his habits, training his ideas, and arousing his feelings and emotions....The most formal and technical education in the world cannot safely depart from this general process.... This educational process has two sides——one psycho— logical, and one sociological and...neither can be subordinated to the other, or neglected, without evil consequences....knowledge of social conditions of the present state of civilization is necessary in order to properly interpret the child's powers... and that the school is primarily a social institution (Dewey,1897,pp.3—6). In Dewey's later writings the function of school is treated in two ways. First, Dewey elaborates on the social responsibilities of the school. Second, Dewey emphasizes individual development. Dewey's concept of democracy was that of an intentionally progressive society, committed to change, organized as intelligently and as scientifically as possible. The primary role of education in this society is to inculcate the habits that would make it possible for individuals to control their surroundings rather than merely to submit to them. A progressive society would endeavor to shape the experience of the young so that instead of reproducing cur- rent habits, better habits shall be formed, and thus the future adult society he an 197 improvement on their own....We are doubtless far from realizing the potential efficacy of education as a constructive agency of im— proving society, from realizing that it represents not only a development of children and youth but also of the future society of which they will be the constituents" (Dewey, l928,p.92). This viewpoint dictates priorities for curriculum. Essentials come before refinements. Essentials are those elements which are most fundamental socially, which have to do with experience shared by the widest groups (l928,p.225). Dewey's elaboration of the social function of the school took on several different shadings, which ranged from emphasis on changing individuals to stress on planned reconstruction of the social system. Taba identifies certain ideas which tend to run through all the variations in concepts of the social functions of education. First, there is Widespread understanding that education must, and usually does, work in the cultural setting of a given society, at a given time, in a given place, shaping the individual in some measure to participate in that society. The values and forces of that society determine not only what manner of man exists but also to some extent What manner of man is needed. A second important element in these concepts is the profound appreciation of the fact of change in modern cul— ture and of the meaning of social change. If the society and the culture are changing, then it is the task of schools to play a constructive role in that change. Edu- cation must adjust its aims and program to changing condi- tions, and, if possible, foreshadow them, especially under the conditions of rapid change introduced by modern tech— ‘nology. Without a continual reorientation to changing conditions, education becomes unreal and in a sense useless 1because it does not prepare youth for life's problems and responsibilities. To meet changing conditions means, of course, that both the aims of education and the programs devised to implement these aims, including the orientation brought to bear on materials used, must be changed also. It is of central importance to use critical intelligence and scientific attitudes in understanding and solving human and social problems. These qualities of mind can be cultivated to the extent that the "subject matter" of education is significant to the ongoing experience and concerns of the culture, and that experience is used as the key for giving meaning to knowledge and for translating subject matter into behavior and action (Dewey,1937,pp. 235-238; Kilpatrick,1935,l926). 199 The third most important element of this concept is the idea that education is a moral undertaking. It begins and ends with value decisions. Educational decisions, whether regarding aims or curricular selections, always involves an element of prescription. Scientific inquiry can determine what is, but it will not prescribe ideals to transmit. No school in any society can be completely (neutral; the difference lies in whether the basis for selection is made clear and whether the selction is made with-some degree of rational method and scientific inquiry (Childs,l935,pp.l-9; l959,p.9l). The concept of education as a reconstruction of society goes further than any of the above. The proponents of this View speak of education as management and control of social change and as social engineering, and of educators as statesmen. The idea that education should not only foster changes in society but should change the very social order was first expressed by Counts (1932). It was later reiterated in The Educational Frontier, the thesis of which was that the task of education is to prepare individuals to take part intelli— gently in the management of conditions under which they live, to bring them to an under- standing of the forces which are moving, to equip them with the intellectual tools by which they can themselves enter into the direction of these forces (Kilpatrick,l933,p.7l). 200 To implement such an education it would be necessary to launch a massive adult program that would build political and educational support for a radically different school curriculum, to develop a public which is education con- scious and wise in the realities of industrial civiliza- tion, to reorient professional education, and to alert teachers to the pressing social issues of the day (Cremin, l96l,p.230). A mid—century group of educators called themselves the "reconstructionists." They possessed the same urgency with regard to the social mission of education. Smith (l950,p.16) concluded: It is clear that the time for building a comprehensive social perspective is here. We are now living in a time when we can no longer depend upon custom and uncon— scious control to regulate our social existence. There is no longer any sub- stitute for human management of the vast social machine. As a people we have much knowledge of and techniques for social engineering. The question is: can we learn to use it rapidly enough to control the social machine before it either en— slaves us or destroys us? Taba (l962,p.26) identifies the main theses of the reconstructionist position as follows: The transformation of society by technological and scientific revolution is so radical as to require a new moral and intellectual consensus capable of molding and directing this transfor— mation. It is the task of educators to analyze the social trends, to discern the problems society is facing, to speculate on the conse- 201 quences of the current social dynamics, and to project the values and the goals which need to be sought to maintain a democratic way of life. Because social changes today are rapid and rad— ical, and because there are blind consequences to the technological revolution which seem to endanger the democratic way of life, tradition is a poor guide. A continuous critical re— examination of the meaning of the democratic way of life under the altered social conditions is needed. Critical examination and reconstruction of the cultural heritage—-or social ideas, beliefs, and institutions-—in the light of current problems and conditions, rather than inculcation of traditional ideas, must consti— tute the core of the educational program of today. In addition, educators must be statesmen, and in cooperation with other agencies must study and discuss the implication of the new "intellectual and moral order" for the "institutional structure of society" (B.O. Smith, Stanley, and Shores,l957,pp. 574-582). In this "reconstructionist" scheme the educational process is called to perform a highly exalted role. Educators must be knowledgeable concerning social forces, the variety of social institutions, and their educative effects. They must translate this understanding into educational policy, that is, a curriculum which will facilitate student understanding of these forces and a consideration of those attitudes and techniques necessary for participation in the reconstruction of the democratic society. The total educative impact must necessarily encompass and coordinate changes in beliefs, personality structures, and social arrangements. The educative process must reach beyond the schools into the community so that 202 all members of the community will be brought into agreement with the broad "reconstructionist" proposals (B.O. Smith, Stanley, and Shores,l957,pp.580—582). Curriculum planning needs to focus on building "social goals" and a "common social orientation." Individual goals and diverse group goals must be integrated into a system of social ends. Curriculum development in this sense becomes a way of making public policy (B.O. Smith,March,l950,p.lO). Brim (l958,pp.l6-l7) takes strong exception to the reconstructionist position. The Brim viewpoint is that schools do not possess the capacity to assume a leading role in changing the society and the social structure. The forces within the culture are so diverse and powerful that it is unrealistic for schools to be animated by goals which differ radically from those of the culture in which they function. The aims of education are normally con— servative. They encompass only those aims which society establishes as a result of its developing a conception of the desirable adult. Educafion fin-Indhddum Devdopment. A significant portion of the progressive education movement emphasized the creative role of education in society by stressing the development Of a creative individual. This aim of education was implemented by focusing educational resources on the development of individual potential——particularly his physical and emotional powers. Terminology increasingly underscored the development of the "whole child." Extreme forms of this idea lead to the development of the "child— centered school" which focused on creative self—expression, individuality, activity, freedom from imposition from without and growth from within. Rugg and Shoemaker (1928) represent the classical expression of this viewpoint. The idea was to build the educational experience around the child and to allow each child to develop into a unique personality. Historically American education has been more heavily influenced by the moderate view of education and individual development. This moderate concept of education included the needs of the individual for the fullest possible Opportunity for self-realization in an intellectual as well as emotional sense, while recognizing that this develop— ment needs to combine social and intellectual discipline and freedom in a reasonable balance. Taba notes that the emphasis on individual develop— ment has probably had greater impact on educational policy than has the emphasis on social reconstruction. In many sections of the country there is an exclusive emphasis on education as chiefly an instrument of individual develop— ment. The talent of each child is to be sought out and developed to the fullest. Each weakness is to be studied and so far as possible, corrected (Committee for the White House Conference,l956,p.9). One contemporary theme is that education is a primary gateway to mobility, an arm of equalization society uses in democratizing its inevitable hierarchical structure of economic, social, and intellectual opportunity. One function of the school, therefore, is to fill the gaps and correct the deficiencies in socialization which occur because of the limitations imposed on opportunities by the social structure. It is the task of the school to select and nurture ability that may be stultified by the limita— tions imposed by social background. According to this concept the school must do two things: 1. It must introduce learners to the skills and powers necessary for survival or for self— realization within his culture. 2. It must act as an integrating force in shaping beliefs and attitudes to make them coherent with the requirements of the social plan of organization (such as democracy). It is to act as an integrator of the pluralistic and con— tradictory values and expectations engendered in a stratified society. Viewed in this way the school functions at once as a con- serving force on behalf of human soc1al organizations (democracy) and as an innovating force by helping indi- Viduals rediscover democratic processes in an enVironment Which is in large measure undemocratic. I———_——_ ........ _ 205 Summary Human development is the essence of the church‘s reason for being. Because education encompasses the sorts of things which people do to facilitate that development, the language and logic of education is a valid analytic model for the church as an institution concerned with the whole of human development. The church is an educative institution. Its aims are derived from biblical theology. But biblical theology iden- tifies sources in psychology and sociology as important to the development of a psychology of learning. From Snyder the church can derive the foundational areas which are the basis for the programs and activities of the church. By building upon Snyder and supporting scholarship a model of curriculum for the church can be developed. Such a model will reveal how the church relates to culture in each of the five foundation areas. Allport, Combs, Dewey, and Wolff provide a description of what man can become in terms of ultimates. Allport focuses on the healthy personality in terms of its func— tioning on a rational and conscious level. He is concerned with the forces which give direction to action for those Seeking to develop a mature religious sentiment. Seven criteria are presented of the healthy personality along with six criteria of a mature religious sentiment. Combs T—m 206 provides a description of how an adequate personality perceives itself and the nature of the perceptual organi— zation. Both Allport and Combs provide a description of what man can become as a person who is self-controlled at the rational, conscious level. Dewey is important to the church because of his focus on the processes of human development which enable persons to secure control over human affairs. He says: Man's power of deliberate control of his own affairs depends upon ability to direct natural energies to use: An ability which is in turn dependent upon insight into nature's processes. Whatever natural science may be for the specialist, for educational purposes it is knowledge of the conditions of human action (l9l6,pp.267—269). Dewey says again: Knowledge is humanistic in quality not because it is about human products in the past, but because of what it does in liberating human intelligence and human sympathy. Any subject matter which accomplishes this result is humane, and any subject matter which does not accomplish it is not even educational (l9l6,pp. 267-269). For Dewey, education is the process in which an indi— vidual reconstructs and reorganizes his experiences in such a way that they add meaning to life and at the same time, increases his ability to direct the course of subsequent eXperience. If an experience is educative, it will increase the power to give direction and control. What Dewey says from a social—philosophical view is ported by Wolff's biblical—anthropological view. Ac— ding to Wolff, man sees himself as called into question, arched out and thus not so much established for what is as called to new things" (p.3). What man can ome is described in what Wolff has to say about the ortance of sight, hearing, and speech to human develop- t. From Piaget is derived a highly useful description explanation of the systematic way the growth and elopment of intellectual structures and knowledge occurs. 5 development of intellectual structures is the same : all persons. An ecological approach to the study of man and his rironment reveals the interdependent quality of indi— lual, family, and community relationships. What is >wn about this interdependency and the function of !h is useful to the church because it enables decision .ers to define with greater clarity the categories in ch church activities and programs ought to have the t effect. The quality of life developed at the level of family have a profound and positive effect On human develop- t. Six characteristics reveal what the family can Dme in terms of ultimates. 208 The community can become an effective milieu for the development of intimate relationships which are the product of "natural, spontaneous, organic relations among people." Community life is the seedbed for the kinds of drives, mo— tives, incentives, manners, habits, and purposes" which characterize the people who live there. It is in community that young life finds its needed examples and instruction—— at a level not possible in the nuclear family. Habits, traits, and attitudes are transmitted effectively from one generation to another through both formal and informal contexts. Individuals and families are in need of a newly designed and newly created environment in which socializa- tion is effective. Thus, one of the tasks of the church is to prepare leaders who know how to develop environments which maximize the quality of the socialization process. Such an environment will focus on the utility of particular structured experiences. By "utility" is meant the benefits to the individual, to other persons, to family, to community, and to the larger society that accrue from structured learning experiences. T—_____‘_fl CHAPTER FOUR DISCIPLINING OF STRUCTURES TO AIMS The writings of two scholars provide the basis for what is said here about human development and the edu- cative process. Stratemeyer, et.al. (1957) provide the most comprehensive treatment of curriculum from the View— point of persistent life situations for various levels of development extending from early childhood into adulthood. What Stratemeyer and her associates say possesses profound ‘implications for the educative processes of the church-- particularly in the way it structures its plans of instruction and in the way it seeks application of the findings of inquiry into biblical revelation. Broudy et. a1. (1964) provide a focus on a general education which stresses the interpretative use of knowledge, so that the learner will be able to deal with future changes in his life. What Broudy and his associates have to say about the "uses of schooling" possesses vital implications for the church particularly in the way it conceptualizes the role of its several institutions and in the way it designs the several learning environments. Understandings derived from the work of these three Scholars provide a partial framework for developing an effective environment for human development. 209 Centrath of Learner Needs and Purposes According to Stratemeyer, et. al. (1957), there are essentially four proposals for dealing with the scope, sequence, and organization of structured learning experi— ences: 1. Organization by separate subjects. Levels of maturation determine sequence. 2. Organization by subject fields or groups of related subjects: soope and sequence are de— termined largely by maturation. 3. Broad areas which cut across subject fields: scope and sequence are still designated grade by grade but in terms of the broad areas: Aspects of life in which the learner must function effectively-—communication, develop— ment and conservation of human material resources, home and family life. 4. Needs or problems faced by the group. Choice, organization, and sequence of subject matter flows or emerges from the needs or problems faced by the group. Neither scope, organiza— tion, or sequence is specifically outlined and pre—planned grade by grade. According to the Stratemeyer viewpoint, the everyday concerns of the learners are the starting point for curri— culum design. The everyday concerns of persons are related to persistent life situations. This means that the basic problems and situations which are central in life itself are central in education. The content and organization of learning experiences are determined by the experiences of learners as they deal with their everyday concerns and the persistent life situations which are part of them. 211 Educators in the church need, therefore, to ascertain those needs and purposes which are persistently facing the learners. But the educative institutions of the church are only part of the total learning environment. Therefore, it is necessary to identify the sorts of things that should characterize the institutions of the church which are in- volved in curriculum processes. THE DEVELOPING LEARNER-—A GUIDE TO CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT Organized educative experiences are one of society's primary means for enlarging the range of personal compe— tencies needed for contemporary living. Persons need a viable conceptual framework if they are to be able to understand present events and participate actively and effectively in community affairs. There are, however, specific curricular implications in the fact that the learner brings to the structured learning experiences his OWn unique combination of strengths and weaknesses and grows (develops) according to the principles inherent in the developmental process itself. Each learner is unique. Each has his Individual Uniqueness. own unique pattern of capacities. Development involves 212 structural changes which result from an interaction of the individual with his environment. Each learner is unique in that each has his own unique Pattern (combination) of capacities, Growth pattern, Background experience, and Concept of himself. prH The concept of oneself involves the evaluation of one's own capacities; one's feeling of personal worth; one's own ways of maintaining feelings of self-respect; one's interpretation of the value of the structured learning experience, the role of the leader (teacher, pastor), and the importance of learning, as they relate to the learner's aspirations (goals) and needs. Stratemeyer (1957) says the definition of learner goals relates directly to decisions about which "knowledge, understandings, and skills the learner experiences shall be directed. These decisions determine the scope of the... Curriculum" (p.9). Stratemeyer is quick to point out that the way a person uses what he knows is more important than what he knows. And the way he uses his information is tested by every problem in daily living. Therefore, "What is known about learners, as well as what is known about SOCiety, should underlie every aspect of curriculum devel- Opment" —— including 213 1. Scope, 2. Sequence, 3. Organization, and 4. Methodology. Developmental Tasks. While each learner is unique, each faces the same develOpmental tasks in the same general sequence. Studies in developmental tasks possess three implications for educative decision makers: 1. They suggest the types of problems to which learners will be actively seeking solution, with or without the help of the school; 2. They indicate the areas in which learners must achieve competence to live effectively in modern society; and 3. The developmental sequence provides an impor- tant key to the sequence of school activities. (Stratemeyer,l957,p.58). Consider, for example, the list of major develop- mental tasks proposed by Havighurst (1971): A. DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS OF INFANCY AND EARLY CHILDHOOD . Learning to walk . Learning to take solid foods Learning to talk Learning to control the elimination of body wastes . Learning sex differences and sexual modesty Forming concepts and learning language to describe social and physical reality Getting ready to read Learning to distinguish right and wrong and beginning to develop a conscience oxUIe.w NIH (I)\J 214 B. DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS OF MIDDLE CHILDHOOD 1. Learning physical skills necessary for ordinary games 2. Building wholesome attitudes toward oneself as a growing organism 3. Learning to get along with age-mates Learning an appropriate masculine or feminine social role 5. Developing fundamental skills in reading, writing, and calculating 6. Developing concepts necessary for everyday living 7. Developing conscience, morality, and a scale of values 8. Achieving personal independence 9. Developing attitudes toward social groups and institutions C. DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS OF ADOLESCENCE l. Achieving new and more mature relations with age mates Achieving a masculine or feminine social role 3. Accepting one's physique and using the body effectively Achieving emotional independence of parents and other adults 5. Preparing for marriage and family life 6. Preparing for an economic career Acquiring a set of values and an ethical system as a guide to behavior-—developing an ideology Desiring and achieving socially responsible behavior D. DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS OF EARLY ADULTHOOD Selecting a mate Learning to live with a marriage partner Starting a family Rearing children Managing a home Getting started in an occupation Taking on civic responsibility Finding a congenial social group O - c c QOU'Ipwal“ E. DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS OF MIDDLE ADULTHOOD l. Assisting teen—age children to become responsible and happy adults 2. Achieving adult social and civic responsibility — , 215 Reaching and maintaining satisfactory performance in one's occupational career 4. Developing adult leisure-time activities 5. To accept and adjust to the physiological changes of middle age F. DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS OF LATER ADULTHOOD l. Adjusting to decreasing physical strength and health 2. Adjustment to retirement and reduced income 3. Adjusting to death of spouse 4. Establishing an explicit affiliation with one's age group 5. Adopting and adapting social roles in a flexible way 6. Establishing satisfactory physical living arrange- ments Having considered the several developmental tasks, Stratemeyer (1957) says that the learning environment should be structured in such a way that planned learning experiences should proceed with the learner's growth Sequences and needs in mind. She suggests five questions which are helpful to decision-makers develOping plans of instruction: 1. How can proposals of curriculum sequence best reflect what is known about developmental patterns? 2. What place should the developmental tasks of learners be accorded in the curriculum? 3. What curriculum adjustments are needed because of the ways in which both cultural background and individual growth patterns condition when and how a new task is faced? 4. What curriculum adjustments are needed to give help both to the learner of limited intellectual ability and to the individual who is intellec- tually gifted? !lIEIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIll---E—— 216 What kind of research in the classroom setting can contribute to a more accurate identification of specific developmental tasks as they are faced in varied cultural settings? (p.58-59) Individual Rates of Development. Because each learner develops at his own pace, three questions are put forth by Strate- meyer (1957,p.61) which underscore the implications of individual growth rates for curriculum: 1. What adjustments are needed in what is taught in order to take maximum advantage of learner‘s levels of development? a. Are there teaching methods particularly effective for differing maturity levels? b. What activities best contribute to readi- ness for beginning reading, work with numbers, written language skills? c. When is the best time to introduce learn- ers to the remote in time and space? d. What contributes to ability to learn through vicarious experiences? 2. How can proposals of scope and sequence allow for differing rates of development-—for the child whose development is accelerated as well as the one whose development is slow, for dif— fering rates of development in the same learner? 3. What characterizes an environment which provides maximum opportunity to exercise developing capa- cities and allows for experience when and as needed? LrL’ternaI Sources of Motivation. The learner is a dynamic, goal— seeking organism. Because he is active and dynamic, he resPonds vigorously to his environment from his own inner motives. But inner motives develop out of three _~— 217 different kinds of needs of which the curriculum decision- maker must be aware: l. The purposes of the learner, that which he pursues on his own volition 2. Developmental tasks, which are inherent in the learner 3. Basic or psycho-social needs which cause the learner to seek certain goals related to his biological nature (Stratemeyer,l957,p.62). Because learner needs are vitally important in curricu— lum decision-making, the way decision-makers answer the following questions will have a powerful effect on learning outcomes: 1. How should proposals of curriculum scope, se- quence, and organization reflect what is known about basic needs? 2. To what extent should proposals of scope and sequence help learners deal with the problems they are facing in the ever-expanding worlds to which their maturity is introducing them? 3. What should be the relative importance of pur— pose (a need expressed or unexpressed) and of interest (intellectual curiosity) in the selec- tion and guidance of learning activities? 4. What effect do aspects of the school organization ——grouping, reporting, administrative procedures—— have on the satisfaction of basic needs? 5. What are desirable teacher-child and pupil—pupil relationships if basic needs are to be met? (Stratemeyer,l957,pp.64—65) 218 Holistic Patterns of Development. Each learner is a whole person. That is, growth in one dimension (such as the bio- logical) necessarily affects all other areas (such as the cognitive and affective). Biological development is a process of setting aside biological limitations. As these limitations are set aside, the organism is capable of higher levels of activity. Thus, when learning insti— tutions (such as school or church) provide a clear state- ment of goals and a clear statement concerning the role of a particular institution, it follows that all aspects of growth must necessarily be taken into account in planning even though several different institutions may contribute to this total growth. In the context of church this means that educative decision—makers need to re-evaluate the goals and activities of the church to be sure the curricular focus provides adequately for learner growth and develop— ment. The holistic conception of growth possesses impli— cations for curriculum: 1. What type of environment and classroom atmos— phere is most conducive to maximum total growth? 2. What techniques can the teacher use to become acquainted with and understand the "whole" learner? To gain insights into the special problems of each child or youth? 3. How can the school program be developed to achieve its major functions and at the same time recognize that the whole child comes to school? 219 4. To what aspects of growth should the school give primary attention? (Stratemeyer,l957,p.66). THE LEARNING PROCESS-—A GUIDE TO CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT Stratemeyer (1957,pp.66ff) observes that decision- making regarding the scope, sequence, and organization of school experiences involves more than consideration of the capacities of the learner, his maturity, and his needs. Choices must be made on the basis of what we know about learner goals and purposes, transfer of learning, and the active, dynamic nature of the learners. Learner Goals and Purposes . Choices must be made, in part, in terms of ultimate goals—-the types of adult problems a learner eventually should be able to handle, and the skills, attitudes, and knowledge toward which his present experi- ences should build. To give intelligent guidance in selecting experiences, we need to understand how learning takes place. The learning process as typically described is as follows: 1. The learner (possessed of specific capacities, experience background, and maturity) is motivated to seek a given goal. 2. As he progresses toward his goal, he encounters a new problem (because he lacks necessary skills, knowledge, or generalizations needed to reach his goal or because he does not see how what he knows can be applied). 220 3. As he explores the problem, he hits on a solution in line with his goal (through a process of trial and error, with varying degrees of insight, with varying types of guidance from his teacher). 4. He refines and perfects his solution through repetition and reduction of incorrect responses, through increasingly accurate insights, through analysis of his errors). 5. He makes his solution his own (through repetition, practice, use in daily life). (Stratemeyer, 1957, p.67). The exact nature of a person‘s learning is determined by his purpose. That is, learning is always, to some extent, selective. The resources a person brings to a learning situation will be different from those brought to the same situation by others. The goals of the several learners are never quite the same. Stratemeyer says: Every goal——whether a good grade, a name on the honor role, the recognition that comes from having an article in the school paper, the in- tellectual satisfaction of acquiring interesting information or solving a challenging set of arith- metic problems, or the praise of parents-—relates to some need. By achieving his goal the learner gains status or self-respect, satisfies intellectual curiosity, wins affection. (1957,p.70) The goal of the teacher is to structure the learning environment in such a way that the task to be learned (the teacher's goal) and the goal of the learner correspond. When there is such a positive correspondence, motivation is called "intrinsic." When there is not a positive cor— respondence between teacher and learner goals, learning may still take place. But the source of motivation must 221 be "extrinsic." Clearly, the type of motivation present in a particular situation will have considerable effect On both the nature and quality of the learning process. Teachers are not necessarily limited to the purposes or goals which learners bring to the learning situation. Simply because what is learned is determined by the meaning the learner sees in a situation in the light of his pur— poses, this does not mean that an effective learning ex- perience must be restricted to the purposes students can identify unaided or to the needs they express. Purposes can be developed jointly by teacher and learner in a planning session. The creative skills of the teacher in bringing to consciousness needs of which the learners have not been aware becomes most instrumental to the learning process. Not to take such responsibility is to restrict learning experiences to the immature insights of the group. Transfin‘ofLeanflng. Persons learn through doing. Thorn— dike (1949) says that transfer is greatest when there are similar elements in the two situations. That is, persons operate more effectively in a new situation when they have reached generalizations about old situations. The princi- ples governing effective transfer have direct implications for the selection and organization of learning environ- ments. They suggest that children and youth should learn 222 through experiences that lead as directly as possible to the generalizations and ways of behaving defined by the educative institutions. These goals are predicated on what the learner will be expected to be and do in con- temporary society. This requires the translation of these goals into specific behaviors and the consideration of such questions as Stratemeyer raises (1957,p.77): 1. What are the basic generalizations most needed in dealing with situations of concern to all individuals? What command of fundamental skills is needed——critical reading ability, problem solving skills, skills in social relationships? 2. What classroom and other experiences, and what use of subject matter will lead most directly to the above goals? 3. How can the curriculum be designed to include the situations and problems with which all individuals need to deal? 4. What guidance of experiences will be needed to help learners of various maturity levels to reach generalizations most effectively? (Stratemeyer,l957,p.77). Acfive, Dynanfic Learners. Because the individual possesses an active, dynamic approach to learning; because he actively seeks to satisfy his own needs; because he responds to a situation selectively in terms of his purposes; because from his own reservoir of experience he tends to draw generalizations, to come to conclusions; because he sees patterns, develops insights, and senses relationships, the relationship which develops between 223 teacher and learner is of particular importance. Strate- meyer (l957,pp.57ff) identifies three curricular implica— tirnls: 1. When teachers plan with the learners--seeking to identify learner needs and helping him to clarify his purposes and through the sharing of the institution's goals and purposes, the goals of both school and learner will tend to become more alike. 2. When teachers organize learning experiences so that it is easy to see relationships and to draw conclusions, the teacher is capitalizing on the dynamics of the learning process. 3. Because of the learner's need to arrive at his own generalizations, teachers provide active learning experiences. The learner is encouraged to compare, to discuss, to draw conclusions, to try out what he has learned. (Stratemeyer,l957, p.78). There is a need, therefore, for teachers to move away from a model of instruction which places the teacher in the position of responsibility for directing step by step the learning process. This model calls for a passive learner who need only follow the lead of the teacher or the text- book. A model of learning which is based on a more accurate assessment of the developmental process requires that the learning environment be designed to take advantage of in— herent capacities and potentialities in the learner. The learner is active, creative, and self-prOpelled. In order to give this kind of direction to the learning environment, developers of curriculum and learning environments need 224 to answer such questions as set forth by Stratemeyer (1957, £3.79): 1. How can learners be involved in planning, carry— ing out, and evaluating their experiences? 2. How can experiences be guided so that learners are helped to see relationships and reach gen— eralizations? 3. What constitutes purposeful practice? Learnings not used tend to be forgotten. Forgetting is one of the most exasperating phenomenon facing educators. The extent to which forgetting occurs rapidly seems to depend upon the thoroughness of the learning in the first place. It also depends, in part, on how dramatic and mean- ingful it was. The problem facing educators is how to reduce forgetting to a minimum or maximize retention. Retention can be maxi— mized through the exercise of certain procedures. First, identification of meaningful relationships tends to con- tribute to retention. By contrast, nonsense syllables and lists of words are much more difficult to retain. Second, retention implies repetition. If facts, skills, and generalizations are important in the learner's daily routine and they continue to be used, retention is likely to be high. It follows that the less related to life the learnings are, the greater the chance of forgetting. Three questions are useful to educators planning for experiences in repetition: MW 225 1. To what extent can what is learned in school be related to learner out-of-school exper- iences so that there will be retention through use? 2. What plans for sequence or continuity of ex— perience will guarantee repetition under the guidance of the school? 3. How can teachers work in terms of learner's purposes so that the contributions to memory of a meaningful situation can be capitalized upon? (Stratemeyer,l957,p.80) SUMMARY The scope of the learning experiences lies in the range of persistent life situations with which, to some extent, every individual deals. The sequence and continuity are determined by the changing aspects of persistent life situations as the learner moves from childhood into the full responsibilities of adulthood. Experiences faced in church activities are related to experiences in the rest of life because the same persistent life situations are faced everywhere—-in the home, school, community. When the curriculum is viewed in this way, plans for instruction must always be in process, never a fixed design. A curriculum that provides the basis for developing the maximum effectiveness in meeting the problems of modern living requires the use of immediate situations in the life of the learners as a basis for developing competencies and understandings for future action. 226 Stratemeyer (l957,pp.113ff) says: 1. The scope of persistent life situations pro- vides the guide to balanced development. 2. The recurring nature of persistent life situa— tions provides the basis for continuity. 3. The increasing complexity of persistent life situations provides the guarantee of depth of learning. 4. The relations between the immediate concern and the persistent life situation provides the safe- guard against trivial problems and unwise use of time. 5. Persistent life situations provide the guide to selection of learnings from the vast cultural heritage. 6. The variety of experiences in which persistent life situations are met provides the key to balance between group and individual activity. A curriculum designed around persistent life situations focuses upon building understandings, values, generaliza— tions, and skills through experiences arising out of daily situations that learners actually face. The per- sistent life situations, the recurring situations which are constants in a changing society, give the clue to the direction in which the experiences should be guided. Educative decision—makers must shoulder the reSpon- sibility for guiding the structured educative experiences of learners. Stratemeyer (l957,pp.369ff) considers the following to be critical elements in dealing effectively with the situations of daily life: 227 1. Developing a healthy curiosity about day—to-day experiences. 2. Planning a way of working on a problem of special concern. 3. Identifying needed resources and competencies. 4. Locating these resources or developing these competencies and using them appropriately. 5. Thinking critically about data gathered. 6. Making decisions based on evidence. 7. Initiating and taking action on decisions made. 8. Evaluating action taken and, if necessary, plan— ning a new course of action. Learning experiences structured in this way enable learners to make essential generalizations. These general— izations take on added meaning when learners use and extend them in a variety of experiences. Each generaliza— tion may be useful in a variety of experiences. Conversely, several generalizations may emerge from a single experience. When solutions to everyday problems are approached through carefully planned action there are opportunities for in understanding of generalizations basic to growth problem—solving and to the use of a scientific method of work. Structured learning experiences are organized into units of work. These units require the planning of both learners and teachers. For the teacher, involving the learner in planning possesses two fundamental values: 228 It is the interaction between teacher and pupils that helps the teacher to identify strengths, needs, and concerns, to note insights, and to assist learners in becoming aware of gaps in their understanding and skills. In planning ways of dealing with a concern or problem the teacher will find opportunities to help learners to clarify purposes, to consider related problems of which they may have been only partially aware, and to share thinking about ways of working. (Stratemeyer,l957,p.379) Structured learning experiences require provision for individual differences. Stratemeyer (l957,pp.438ff) sug- gests five guidelines for effecting such provision: 1. Each class should be well known by at least one teacher. Some all—class problems arising from common concerns are needed to develop feelings of group unity. Time for small—group and for individual con— cerns should be definitely scheduled. Flexibility in grouping is essential. The learner's ability to work independently is an important asset in meeting individual needs. Learners are not being neglected when they work inde— pendently as long as they have guidance, purpose, and direction. 229 The Socialization Process Smith and Orlosky (1975) focus on the breakdown of the processes of socialization and the necessity of recon— structing a process of socialization required by the needs of contemporary living. This breakdown has resulted in the increased dissipation of the "productive potential" and the "moral fiber" of youth. They say: The youth of all social classes, of the cultural majority no less than the minorities, are being squandered in idle dissipation, assigned to mar- tydom by isolation and monotony. The way this situation is dealt with is the test of our national will to survive (1975, from the Preface, p.iii). One of the central reasons for this breakdown lies in the denial by the adult community of youth associating with adults in the social functions by which society is sustained and advanced. The burden of preparing the young for the adult world has been relegated almost exclusively to the home and the school. In ever increasing numbers the young are denied association with adults in the social functions by which society is sustained and advanced... the home and the school almost alone bear the burden of preparing the young for the adult world (1975, preface, p. iii). Smith and Orlosky lay a potent charge at the feet Of the adult community when they say that the adults have abandoned the youth. But at least part of the reason for this "abandonment of the young" is due to the 230 fact that the family finds itself in the midst of "an agonizing struggle...to adjust itself to the impact of technology and the changing status of women..." This preoccupation leaves little time or energy for the social- ization of the youth. The problem of socialization confronts decision-makers with an issue that is at least as grave as any other con— fronting mankind today. Reconstruction of structured learning situations are inadequate alone. What is needed is a "radical reconstruction of the socializing process of the adult world and fundamental changes in schooling" (l975,preface,p.iv). Smith and Orlosky proscribe an empirical approach to the problem rather than a prescriptive treatment in which a slate of particular solutions is ready—made. The process Of creating a new environment in which socialization is effective, is one that will require a "higher pedagogy, one that includes statecraft rather than politics, the commitment of adults in all forms of enterprise and the professions, the family, and the school" (1975,Preface, p.iv). There is need for a systematic reform of structured s——the curriculum, methodology, admin— learning experience istration and personnel of the school program. Of equal importance is the rethinking of the "utility of schooling." 231 Testable criteria are essential to such a rethinking process. SOCHALJZATION AND SCHOOL REFORM Every society "replenishes and maintains itself by births and socialization" (Orlosky and Smith,l975,p.l). If either process is seriously impaired, the society is threatened. In the United States recent changes in the birth rate have not created a problem. The process of socialization is the crucial issue. All aspects of the society are hurting because "of the deterioration of the processes by which the young are prepared to assume the responsibilities and activities of the adults" (p.l). There is a need, therefore, for new modes of socialization to COpe with the strains brought on by modern technological conditions. De-educafion ofthe AduH Communhy. Socialization is the total process by which a people reproduces its societal type. Schooling is part of this total process. Thus, schooling requires tuition, financial support, trained personnel, and particular types of institutions to execute its pur— poses. The process of socialization (except for schooling) requires none of these. Schooling is not an inherent feature of society. It emerges when symbolic skills and abstract knowledge become significant in the View of those 232 who are the decision—makers. There is a tendency to make the school assume the entire burden of socialization when by its very nature it can accomplish only a fraction of the total process. Formal learning situations can only reinforce the formative influences of selective aspects of the culture. Smith and Orlosky say: If socialization were perfect, there would be little change in either the societal type or the society. If it fails to reproduce the type in sufficient num— bers, the life of the social system is threatened. When the process by which the individual is shaped to the type is critically impaired, the young will grow up confused, unstable, and adrift. In a deep and prolonged social and economic crisis they are likely to be attracted to those who promise them status and a share in the action. If recent history in other lands is any lesson, the leaders most likely to attract them are those who have a taste for tyranny v(1975,p,2)_ The ideas of a societal type and a pluralistic society are not mutually exclusive. Social pluralism is possible only among a people of a particular character. They must possess a high level of tolerance for differing opinions; have patience with the use of power by those who hold minority views, be constantly in negotiation with the several centers of power, and be willing to engage in the search for valid evidences and reasonable compromise. In such a society the people are committed to certain values and modes of behavior. In a society such as is found in the United States, a number of cultures are Their folkways and mores provide the "over— represented. lay" in which pluralism is evident. But all persons must 233 possess a commitment to more basic and pervasive beliefs and social practices. Smith and Orlosky underscore the View that school reform is not the primary educational problem facing contemporary society. The young do not grow up absurd...because of the school, but because the adult society has shut them out. The waning influence of the home... is only part of the picture. The entire adult society--professions, services, trades, farms, commerce, corporations, mass media, press, in- dustry, whatever--has made the young into a social class that approaches a caste in the rigid— ity of its barriers. No group is more isolated, reduced to uselessness, and more denied the chance at profitable employment than the youth....They have only minor economic value except as consumers (l975,p.4). The "emptiness of youth's experiences" denies them the necessary preparation for adult responsibilities and it renders them incapable of making full use of the years of schooling. But school reform alone is incapable of bringing about significant improvement in the socializa— tion of children and youth. Socialization requires a broader, more comprehensive viewpoint. Such a viewpoint must reach into the purposes and programs of all institutions and agencies of the community. Those who achieve such a viewpoint discover that it forces them to face responsi— bilities which have been evaded through delegating them to the school. Formal education can achieve optimal conditions only when social institutions nourish the youth. Therefore, to deal successfully with the problem of socialization requires that decision-makers attack the problem on a broad front. Adults in all occupations-—"government, trades, professional, service, or whatever-—must assume responsibility for in— corporating youth in their various enterprises. This cannot be accomplished by hap—hazard processes, nor by assigning socializing responsibilities to industry, the home, or any other single enterprise or agency“ (l975,p.6). The renewal of socialization requires a compre— hensive plan in which every occupational group participates and every youth is involved. This means that an operational structure must be evolved that makes socialization an inherent feature of community life (l975,p.6). No one has charted such a course. No body of litera— ture exists for decision—makers to follow. Throughout the last century, society has assumed less and less responsibility for the educational development Of children and youth, delegating this responsibility to the school. A half century ago Counts (1930) observed this flaw in the social process. This exclusive emphasis on the school, however, constitutes a fundamental weakness in the Amer— ican theory of education. Obviously the school is but one among many educational institutions, and its power can easily be exaggerated. Certainly the American people place too much confidence in what it can do. One need recall the family, the church, the press, the theater, the cinema, the 235 library, and the museum to realize that the school, if it works alone, can accomplish but little beyond the performance of certain rather definite tasks with which other institutions and the ordinary processes of living are not concerned. And a theory of education which is devoted altogether to what goes on in the school is sure to be lacking in reality and vitality (l930,p.7). A fundamental conception underlying the function of the school is the idea that the school is to be a regu- latory agency. Not only is it to teach the basic skills, but it is to "develop the kind of person who will utilize his learning to perform socially acceptable tasks" (1930, p.8). What is meant by this is that the behavior of the teacher in the classroom is such that it should regulate the behavior of students outside the school and even when the students achieve adulthood. Teachers are not in pos- session of such pedagogical processes or political power. A teacher of chemistry has no way to insure that the student of chemistry will not use his knowledge for destruc- tive purposes. A professor of the humanities cannot be sure his students will not accept bribes on quiz shows. Educators cannot devise nor construct a curriculum which will reduce the divorce rate. This, in spite 0f the fact that courses in family life have been taught for more than half a century. 236 Need for Reform Needs Essential Criteria. There is a need for criteria by which decision—makers can determine whether particular changes are improvements or not. Smith and Orlosky point out that "school" is sometimes considered to be an "independent variable," evaluated by the quality of its products. At other times it is considered to be a "dependent variable" reflecting the larger society——its structure, social controls, purposes, and economic well— being. As a dependent variable, the school is frequently judged by the amount of its financial support, the prepara— tion and spirit of its personnel, and its facilities. These presumptive indicators are more accessible than the quality of the school's product. As an independent variable, the quality of the school is judged by reference to pupils' achievement. Pupil achievement is measured by reference to the central tendency of a distribution of test scores. But the system has no valid reason for considering one average to be better or worse than another. In short, the educating community possesses no defensible criteria by which to assess the benefits to be gained from changes in the school. This deficiency is one of the "most serious stumbling blocks to school reform" (l975,p.l3). In the absence of established criteria, educative decision makers will continue to be harassed by a constant 237 parade of pedagogical formulas leading to one "tour de force" after another. The formulation of essential criteria could enable education to rise above being victim— ized by these pedagogical forces. There is no clear consensus about which variables are most closely associated with school effectiveness as measured by benefits to the individual or society or both. There is not a consistent body of theory from which to derive or justify particular variables. As a result, some educators focus on curriculum design and content, others on student freedom to choose, plan, and act. No matter what the View, it can be rationalized by use of a highly technical vocabulary. The most prudent approach seems to be the conservative approach. Accordingly, certain clusters of variables are hypothesized to be more promising than others. Reform Variables. Smith and Orlosky observe that no consistent body of theory exists from which to derive or justify those variables which are most closely associated with school effectiveness in terms of benefits to the individual or society or both. Authorities consider different variables to be relevant depending upon the particular point of View with which they approach school reform. There is enough pseudo—technical vocabulary to develOp a rational frame of reference. Therefore, change should be considered from a great many angles and made on a trial basis providing ample evaluation in terms of benefits to both the indi- vidual and society. The first set of variables consists of the content of instruction. The basic question here is how to decide what knowledge is of most worth for everyone. The best available answer is that of the principle of utility. Utility, considered in the broadest sense, suggests that the ability to read and calculate are the most defensible. Beyond these, what knowledge should be considered to be of optimum value? The second set of variables has to do with teaching. The interaction of student and teacher is necessarily closely related to school learning. Smith says that if the teacher can analyze student behavior and respond appropriately to the student's difficulty as he tries to learn, learning is likely to occur. What sorts of training, therefore, will enable the teacher to identify and deal with learning problems? There is a need to formulate a program of leadership education in which specific concepts and skills, both descriptive and diagnostic, are taught by behavioral indicators rather than merely as verbal defini— tions supplemented by verbal instances, a program in which the schools and the graduate schools combine their 239 resources to teach the concepts and skills needed to handle all sorts of learning problems. At present, however, those who are responsible for training the leadership of the church are not held accountable. Smith and Orlosky point out that the content of teacher preparation must proceed slowly and experimentally, for only by training teachers in promising concepts and skills and then testing them can the current knowledge base be extended. As this sort of knowledge is determined and teachers are trained to use it, the competence of teachers will cease to be a subject of discussion (l975,p.l6). In much of current practice it is assumed that con— cepts and theories such as those in psychology can be applied directly to teaching. If, for example, one knows how learning occurs, he thereby knows how to teach. To go from conceptions and theories to performance in the classroom is to work out procedures and materials to bridge the gap between theory and practice. It is seldom possible to translate concepts and theories directly into practice. It is essential to know the practical situation as well as one knows the concepts and theories if one is to design materials for training individuals to deal with the practical condition. Basic research requires the expertise of an engineer to work out the materials and procedures 240 for applying the findings of such research to practical problems and for personnel training. TOWARD RENEWAL OF THE SOCIALIZATION PROCESS Smith and Orlosky (l975,pp.21—39) observe a need for a new meaning to the concept "rites of passage." Cere- monial events, feats of courage or endurance are no longer suitable for contemporary society. Rites of passage in contemporary society need to focus on ways individuals can demonstrate that they are the kind of ~person needed by an interdependent society--one that requires the well~being of all, one that requires depend— ability in varying circumstances over an extended period of time. Rites of passage need to become a newly and clearly defined process for contemporary society. Clearly defined objectives and resources for achieving them are essential if the socialization process is to be executed by design and not accident. Objectives of Socialization. Socialization goes on in all societies no matter how complex. The problem is not one of reinstitution of the socialization process. It is to make adult influence again a main emphasis in socializa- tion. Socialization begins at birth and continues throughout life. The intensity of this process necessarily decreases as the individual begins to assume the roles expected of him as an adult. But there are a great many behaviors expected of each person by the adult community. To list these several behaviors is to list the objectives of the socialization process. Havighurst (1972) has made the most exhaustive study of develOpmental tasks. He divides these into six groups. Altogether, they include the entire life span. Mayer Phn flw Sochhzafion. The first thing to consider is the resources for socialization. They include all the avenues through which individuals can enter into the count— less activities that maintain and advance the society. If society is viewed as a set of functions performed by adults in their varied activities as members of the com- munity, it is easier to see into what the young are to be included. In contemporary society, social behavior is organized into systems called institutions. They are "organized systems of practices and social roles developed about a value or series of values, and the machinery evolved to regulate the practices and administer the roles" (Reuter, l941,p.ll3). A concrete institution, for instance, a 242 particular family, is to be distinguished from the class of institutions called family. Sociologists have grouped institutions into four classes, each serving particular human needs through the performance of certain functions. They are: political, economic, expressive-integrative, and kinship (Inkeles,l965,p.68 [see also: Roucek & Warren, 1962, for a discussion of institutional functions]). These are not mutually exclusive groupings. In some social systems, Smith and Orlosky observe, an expressive—integrative institution may exercise the functions of a political insti— tution as in medieval society when the church exercised political control and regulated commercial activities. The institutions and agencies that carry on the work of society can be grouped by function. If all the functions were determined, the range of resources for the assimila— tion of youth could be seen. They are numerous and fully adequate for the involvement of all youth with adults in responsible activities. The development of such a chart of resources is an eSSential step in planning a compre— hensive attach on the problem of assimilating youth. Another step is to work out ways for the youth to engage with adults in each family of institutions or agencies, determine what activities they can engage in, and learn what supervision the enterprise can provide. 243 For the present purpose, it is sufficient to rely on the four main classes of institutions, to give instances of each of these classes, and to list their functions. Perhaps the greatest obstacle to the development of effective structured learning environments is the unequal distribution of opportunities. THE UTHJTY OF SCHOOLJNG The first problem confronting those who would reform a particular institution is how to assess changes in that institution. The task is complex because each institution is part of the larger social system, and a change in the target institution must be evaluated by reference to its effects on the system as well as on individuals within the target institution. Evaluation of learner progress is a different thing from evaluation of changes in the insti- tution itself. The problem of how to determine the benefits of changes in the institution is one that is almost completely neglected. One plan follows another to make institutions of learning more effective. Many have proved to be fruitless litter. Many of these plans are highly subjective and of circular reasoning. Effective evaluation must deal with the problem of subjectivity. 244 The MemfingfiofLHHHy. Utility consists of the benefits to the individual or society that accrue from schooling. If the individual becomes efficient in managing something as a result of what he has learned, or if the larger society is improved because of widespread ability in some particular skill, these can be counted as utilities. Utilities are not something which can be taught. Those who teach are not responsible for them. Teachers are reSponsible, however, for planning the learning environment in such a way that the objectives of instruction are realized at levels which render them usable. Smith and Orlosky (l975,p.62) suggest three broad cate- gories within which a more detailed classification of institutional utility can be developed: 1. Benefits that accrue to the individual 2. Benefits to other individuals 3. Benefits to society Based upon what Snyder (1974, 1977) says is important concerning the church, the above classification can serve as an effective beginning point for determining the utility of church programs and activities. The specific benefits within each of these three categories will necessarily be different for the church. All persons need to derive certain benefits from the institutions of society if they are to function effectively. Anyone who fails to acquire essential skills risks ex- 245 ploitation throughout life and an inferior level of personal and social existence. The Christian community, through its individual and corporate activities, should develop patterns of interaction so that apprOpriate changes can be effected in its own organizations as well as those of secular society to ensure that all persons reach minimum levels of achieve— ment in fundamentals. These minimum levels of achievement must be determined with exceptions for those who are severely limited by physical, mental, or emotional character— istics. It is not necessary to develop an exhaustive list of possible utilities. There needs to be adequate research so as to identify a few crucial criteria by which to deter— mine what learning is most beneficial to the individual and to society. Because of the absence of appropriate criteria church, like school, frequently hears arguments based on personal experience, random observations, senti— ments, and pedagogical, social, and theological doctrines. Until research has established criteria for determining the benefits of church programs, basic policies will continue to be decided by idle and inconclusive arguments and inade— quate data. Some fundamental questions could be answered were there to be a breakthrough in this matter of essential criteria. What are the limitations inherent in the various 246 types of organizations of church? Which concepts and principles are most useful to generalist learners in the church? Which concepts and principles are most useful to specialist learners? When human development is holistic, the individual is not the only recipient of the benefits of schooling. Others also benefit from it. There are a great many con- texts in which the performance of individuals effects improved conditions for others. Structured learning experiences can be beneficial to society as well as to the individual and his neighbors. Society benefits in two ways: collectively and distribu- tively. According to Smith and Orlosky (l975,p.7l) in the first case the advantages accrue to society as a whole, but they affect individuals differently. In the second case the society benefits as a whole, and at the same time all indi- viduals are affected in the same direction. Neither form of utility takes into account the needs of individual mem— bers of society. A change in the particular structured experiences of the church can increase the church's utility for society and at the same time can benefit all individuals. This is utility for the society distributively. A change in the church that results in an increase in the moral climate of the larger society would be beneficial to each individual 247 because of improved moral conditions. An improved moral climate with particular implications for economics may well result in improved economic conditions. Some social utilities are not dependent upon the behavior of individuals per se but rather are social phenomena involving countless kinds of behavior of myriad individuals. Smith and Orlosky observe that the level of schooling rather than certain kinds of knowledge is more closely associated with economic betterment. Social cohesion is another utility that does not de- pend on the behavior of individuals. Social cohesion is associated with learning experiences in which social values and political knowledge are central. While commonly held values are no doubt essential to social cohesion, there is considerable question as to what specifically promotes social cohesion. Instruction is no doubt important, but no measure exists for determining its utility in social cohesion. Common values are frequently developed through participation in conjoint activities and sustained by institutions. Further, social cohesion may depend upon the image of society possessed by its members. Wirth (l936,p.25) helps elucidate this point: A society is possible in the last analysis because the individuals in it carry around in their heads some sort of picture of the society. Our society, however, in this period of minute division of labor, of extreme heterogeneity, and profound conflict of interests, has come to pass where these pictures are .248 blurred and incongruous. Hence we no longer perceive the same things as real, and coincident with our van— ishing sense of a common reality we are losing our common medium for expressing and communicating our experiences. The world has been splintered into countless fragments of atomized individuals and groups. The disruption in the wholeness of individual experience corresponds to the disintegration in culture and group solidarity. When the bases of unified collective action begin to weaken, the social structure tends to break and to produce a condition which Emile Durkheim has termed anomie, by which he means a situation which might be described as a sort of social emptiness or void. Under such conditions suicide, crime, and disorder are pheno- mena to be expected because individual existence no longer is rooted in a stable and integrated social milieu and much of life's activity loses its sense and meaning. If Wirth’s analysis is correct, there can be no doubt of the need to strengthen forces of social integration. This is certainly one of the tasks of the church. But the task is so great that one must question the contribution that a particular content of the church program can make. What is needed are measures of social cohesion and tools by which the utility of religious experiences can be judged. Needed: An Achievement Floor for the Church. An achievement floor consists of a body of knowledge and skills, the mastery of which is deemed essential for effective living in a particular society. The acquisition and application of knowledge are not the same. It is at this juncture that the social tasks of the church become paramount. There is no assurance that knowledge, even 249 biblical and theological knowledge will be used productively. Organizations of church which focus on structured learning experiences are in a tenable position. The church needs other agencies to assure productive outcomes from the acquisition of knowledge. Smith and Orlosky (1975) identify two problems in particular which arise regarding the application of knowledge. The first is that a more highly trained population may not find useful outlets for its knowledge. Ignorance has levied a heavy toll on individuals and society. Decision makers in the church must be increasingly concerned with the ‘ problem of creating the kinds of structures which enable ‘ individuals to capitalize on knowledge freshly gained. The second problem is that the relationship between the institutions of learning and society must be mutually supportive or the chasm between adults and youth may widen. Institutions of learning can explain application of knowledge, describe utilization of abilities acquired, and advocate uses of knowledge that will encourage pro- ductive work, but to expect institutions of learning to provide appropriate outlets for knowledge without support from other institutions and structures is an unrealistic expectation. Smith and Orlosky (1975) point out that once a learner has mastered everything up to and including the 250 achievement floor, he is to be freed from additional prescribed knowledge and skills regardless of his age or level of schooling. They recommend that additional use of structured learning experiences should be decided upon by the learner in consultation with teachers and other leaders (p.120). Decision makers in the church can build upon this idea. What is needed in the church is the development of an achievement floor, a body of learning, which, when mastered, provides the learner with a comprehensive grasp of those basic concepts and princi- ples of Christian faith which enable creative thinking and problem solving to continue throughout life. The primary obstacle to the establishment of achieve- ment floors in the school is college entrance requirements. Church colleges parallel state schools in this regard. At the level of local congregations of church, the primary obstacle is the two~century—old-plus marriage of the church school to the worship service. There is a need for a broader conception of the meaning and function of church. The articulation of a meaningful achievement floor within a framework of institutional utility could enable the necessary changes in the way church is perceived. Smith and Orlosky note that knowledge in relationship to social functions can work in at least three ways. It can enable an individual to acquire further knowledge, it can enable the inquiring mind to create new knowledge, and 251 it can render social functions more intelligible (1975, p.124). The third is the intellectual meaning of the injunction to relate the school to life. That is, the task of increasing the individual utility of structured learning experiences consists partly in identifying the knowledge most closely related to the network of social relationships affecting the individual, and the first step in this direction, according to Smith and Orlosky, is to determine the range of possibly useful knowledge defined by reference to categories. By comparing the structured offerings with these categories, it is possible to identify those parts of knowledge neglected by decision—makers and to see what knowledge is most relevant to social functions. The five foundations of church developed in the present research possess pedagogical usefulness. They provide the framework for the development of a taxonomy of those cate— gories of knowledge which provide a fundamental basis for determining not only the actual but also the possible scope of curriculum for the church. Reassessing the Uses of Schooling In the face of the increasing complexity of contempo- rary society, the church must seek ways to effectively deploy its resources. The church can and must fashion a curriculum that provides effective basic education for both the generalist and the specialist learners. Broudy et a1 (1964) say that while many elements of current curriculum thought and practice are highly defensi— ble, it is also obvious that the total curriculum scene evidences serious shortcomings. What are shortcomings today, however, were originally reasonably appropriate responses to the educative problems of the time. Broudy is talking about secondary education in the public schools. But both Broudy's criticisms of school and his proposals for change possess significance for the church. The argument set forth by Broudy and his associates is that "there is no reason whatever why a program cannot 1be common in its inputs or content and be differentiated in the levels at which it is taught" (l964,pp.8ff). Such a scheme would differ radically from current practices which favor a multiple curriculum which includes the college—preparatory curriculum, the vocational curriculum, the commercial curriculum, and the vocational and commercial curricula designed especially for the potential school dropout. Such curriculum sophistication is "ludicrously irrelevant to the capacities, concerns, and circumstances of the potential school dropout." Current practices are a "travesty" when the ideals of self-actualization, social involvement, and personal and vocational competence are seriously considered. 253 Two contentions set the Broudy theory apart from others: 1. American secondary education can and should be common education, in the sense that it is basi- cally the same for all in regard to what is taught. Variability for different ability le- vels can be obtained by adjusting the sophis— tication and detail of what is taught. This is in contrast to the notion that the require- ment of "common education" is met when we pro— vide numerous, different programs in order that everyone can get at least some kind of education. 2. American secondary education can and should be general education, meaning by "general" that what is taught should consist of those central skills, ideas, and evaluations which can be most significantly and widely used in order to deal with life in our times. This notion is in con- trast to that which holds general education to be a survey of generally everything (Broudy,l964,p.10). SHORTCOMINGS OF CURRENT CURRICULA Broudy identifies several shortcomings of current cur- ricula (l964,pp.llff). These shortcomings of current cur— ricula practices in the school frequently apply to education in the church because educative practices in the church frequently are patterned after those of school. inersity and Fragmentation. This refers to a curriculum which offers a wide variety of choices from which individual learners can draw according to their own needs, interests, and capacities. Because its focus is generally designed to supply short answers to immediate needs, it fails to 254 provide the learner with the base of knowledge and skills needed for social mobility, retraining in a labor market, or personal and marital competence. Gross, hnmedkfie Expeflence. This kind of learning is often seen where the emphasis is upon illustrations of concepts rather than upon the concepts themselves. Training to operate today's sophisticated hardware is another illustra- tion of this kind of teaching. The focus here is upon "gross elements which are mainly of momentary significance." The more basic elements of understanding, anticipating, and preparing for scientific and technological change are generally neglected. Gross,<3vm1, Behavmrm Roms. There is a tendency to focus upon youth's adoption of mechanically constructed roles for himself, as opposed to his developing a personal world view or total ideology for the conduct of his life. This has long been an obvious feature of the commercial and vocational programs in high school. This same procedure is frequently observed in educative programs of the church. A perusal of the college catalogs reveals a series of course study designed for preparation of entrance into specialized fields such as medicine, law, ministry, etc. If a learner is planning to become a director of Christian education, he takes one particular set of courses. If he is entering ministry, another set of courses is to be taken. Negmctin DeaHng th Vahms. There has been a neglect of just those evaluative, appreciative, and interpretive models which could do much to furnish the base for the world and life View whose absence is increasingly conSpicuous. RepHcafive and AppHcafive Usescfi SchooHng. There is a failure in contemporary schooling to emphasize value models and the corresponding importance of interpretive use which school can provide. There is currently a massive effort to ha- bituate the student to replicate responses and to apply learnings in the solution of practical problems. While there can be no objection to the importance of these uses of schooling, there is room for objection to the way and the extent to which schooling devotes its energies to these things. Broudy (1964) says there is no argument with the emphasis on the replicative uses of "the three R‘s"—— that is, the symbols of information. The ability to read, write and calculate should be habitual. It is the context in which facts are used that determines which facts are relevant. For example, the meaning of the Magna Carta is more important than the names of persons, places, and dates which are associated with its signing. Likewise, inquiry into divine revelation is frequently pursued at the level of learning Bible facts while the meanings (in terms of concepts and principles as they relate to per— sistent life situations) are frequently ignored. The same is true for applicative uses of schooling. Broudy (1964) says that the notion that learning the principles of physics and chemistry should help the student to understand and repair household appliances, autos, and other similar items is a gross error. The use of schooling to train generalist learners in the same way as specialists is an incorrect use of applicative learning concepts. De-Emphasb ofthe Rob ofverbm Behavmr. Broudy (1964) points out that the popularizing of pragmatic philosophy and exper- imental psychology has resulted in a de-emphasis of verbal behavior. Pragmatic philosophy stressed that the individual learns best by doing. Experimental psychology was developing laws of learning based upon studies of the behavior of lower animal forms. These laws of behavior——nonverbal behavior—— stressed the activity of the learner in problem situations. The learning curve was plotted with respect to the number of trials that the learner took to acquire a particular way of behaving. 257 Both of these developments have led in the long run to the neglect and distrust of language as an instrument of learning and teaching. This deficiency has led to the devaluing of language as an instrument of thought and overt behavior. Linguistic behavior does not rank as behavior at all. The effect of this devaluation has been a lack of concern for the logical character of language in communi— cation. Attention to the improvement of the ability of the student to handle ideas has been limited primarily to those problem—solving abilities which can be dealt with in the psychological descriptions of problem-solving; and, as a result, the strictly logical character of thinking and discourse largely has been eliminated from consideration in the educative process. FOUR USES OF SCHOOLING Good thinking has both "form" and "content." Broudy (1964) and his associates point out that generalists and specialists both use structured learning in four ways: Associatively, replicatively, applicatively, and interpre— tively. Further, it is in the specific use of these that we are able to distinguish between the generalist and the specialist. 258 Assodafive Use(fi’SchooHng. Many learnings have an element of the "accidental" about them. For example, something we have learned comes to mind because it possesses something in common with what is before us. When a person responds to a question, he resurrects from memory those items which the cue suggests. The laws of association-—resemblance, contiguity, and satisfaction——allude to those learnings the given cue is most likely to elicit. But resemblance, contiguity, satisfaction, and vivid— ness can determine what is associated with what, but these are not logical relations. Learners frequently respond with everything they can recall that is in any way related to some word or phrase in the examination question. While such an answer may contain nothing that is wrong and nothing that was not in the textbook, it may be totally irrelevant to the point of the question. Broudy (1964) observes that this pattern is characteristic of much of American schooling. Each time an instructor accepts a psychologically relevant answer in place of a logically relevant one, he is ignoring this important distinction. Associative use of school learnings also constitutes an important matrix of meaning for the appreciation of the Much of the imagery in the reading of poetry, fiction, arts. and drama depends on learned materials that cannot be re- called exactly as learned. Much of the effectiveness of 259 figures of speech rests on comparisons once noted, now forgotten, yet still amenable to partial recall. Associative use of school learnings is inadequate as a basis for curriculum theory because it makes too much depend on the idiosyncratic and uncontrollable. Learning by association will occur simply because content, if rightly chosen, also teaches more than meets the eye or the test. RepHcafive Use ofSchogflng. When we read the daily newspaper, calculate a sum, look up a word in the dictionary, read a map, or recite a passage from memory, we repeat an opera— tion performed many times in structured learning situations—— school. This replicative use of schooling is most notice- able in the practice of skills. We do not "apply" our skills. Rather, we repeat that which has been performed time and again. Attitudes are presumably examples of replication. We rely on the replicative uSe of schooling for those opera— tions and contents that are used very much as learned in a wide range of frequently occurring situations. They are the most reliable type of school learnings precisely because life affords opportunities to overlearn them to the point Of virtually faultless performance. The difficulty con— t they can anticipate but a small fronting educators is tha portion of the behavior that is demanded by life and there- 260 fore the replicative use of schooling is limited less in importance than in range. The traditional emphasis on the three R's suggests the tremendous reliance placed on the replicative use of schooling. Life was replete with demands to use these skills, hence, their importance in elementary education. Facts, too, are sometimes used replicatively. State— ments of fact are a frequent visitor to structured learning situations. To the question, "When did the colonies declare their independence from Britain?" the replicative response is "1776." The response here is a repetition of an oft— repeated response made in similar situations. A repertory of facts is indispensable to life and thought. The importance of developing such has been be— littled in the minds of many because of the frequent misuse Of facts in structured learning situations. Nevertheless, all thinking requires facts as well as meanings and rela— tions. In every thinking situation some elements are re— garded as fact and when so taken they are used replica— tively, that is, as given or as learned. The mistake which occurs in a great many learning is to be seen in the emphasis on learning a situations tremendous quantity of facts. Such learning is futile in the long run. The replicative use of facts is such that schooling should giVe attention to the strategy of 261 fact—storage and retrieval, to use the language of the computer. Such strategy concerns itself, on the one hand, with selection of key facts to be stored, and, on the other, with conceptual nets or maps that facilitate both the storage of facts and their recall. These are the direct objective of general studies. AppHcafive Usecfi Schooflng. Broudy (1964) identifies the most serious limitation on the replicative use of learning to be its lack of flexibility. Replication works best when the new situation is a near replica of those in which the learning was acquired. For example, when master workmen are confronted with new materials or new designs, their efficiency is disrupted. This occurs because habits and skills that have become well-established can no longer function replicatively. The contemporary technological civilization requires the application of knowledge to particular problems of practice rather than on its replicative use. For example, mathematics and physics "applied" to problems of mechanics gives us the profession of engineering which, in turn, struction, and other mechanical solves transportation, con problems. The applicative use of learning is generally in the form of some principle, generalization, or statement of 262 fact which is used to solve a problem or to analyze a situ- ation. Broudy says: The cues for what knowledge is needed and how it is to be used are limited and often hidden. Sometimes the situation is so unstructured and open that the bulk of the cues must come from the problem—solver himself. (Broudy,l964,p.51) Thus, the applicative use of knowledge greatly enhances the pOWers of understanding and control. But the applica— tive use of knowledge is much more complicated than it first appears. Knowledge is applied whenever one recognizes an object or an event as a member of a class or an instance of a generalization or a law. This is application by "sub— sumption," and "there is some justice in believing that it is a basic way of applying knowledge" (l964,p.51). In complex situations, one does not generally deal with one object or event. One deals with problems or problem situ— ations, and to solve them one seeks some resemblance to a familiar problem or situations. Broudy compares this type of application to the filling in of the missing terms of a proportional equation. We have Familiar Problem Familiar Solution ____________'_—- New Problem 263 This use of applicative processes is essentially problem-solving by analogy (l964,p.51). Problem-solvers frequently apply knowledge by working backward on a problem. Broudy (1964) uses the illustra- tion of a thermometer to explain. "What in the temperature situation would move a painter?" By building upon available facts one can move closer to a solution. For example, if we know (or can use replicatively) the fact that heat and cold affect the volume of metals or liquids, we are on the road to completing an analogy and devising some kind of thermometer. Broudy (l964,p.52) observes that once solutions have been found for similar type problems many times, another problem of the same type elicits a response that "repli- cates" at least part of the previous response. When this happens knowledge is no longer "applied." Rather, one is using a "skill." Merely by observing someone solving a problem, even a difficult one, the observer cannot be sure that knowledge is being "applied." Skills may be in the process of being replicated. What Broudy says has significance for curriculum developers. In ordinary life the applicative use of knowl- edge is relatively rare. Persons do not ordinarily solve many of their problems by thinking their way through them. On the contrary, we consult someone who has the solution for sale, or we look up the answer in some manual. Our 264 behavior follows the law of least cognitive strain; we think no more than we have to (l964,p.53). The highest applicative use of knowledge is to expand knowledge itself, as in the work of the scholar and re— searcher. The specialist is the one most likely to use his knowledge applicatively, and even he does so only when confronted with problems that are not routine. The generalist is satisfying the requirements of thinking and intelligence when he uses knowledge interpretively. Broudy says: ...in educational thinking it has generally been taken for granted that it is the applicative use of knowledge that justifies schooling in general and the teaching of any subject in particular. At times the schools have operated on the assump— tion that a large repertory of facts, rules, and principles learned for replication on cue would automatically be used applicatively when the life situation became problematic. (l964,p.53) The automatic application of school learning does not generally occur, however, because life problems are "molar," that is, more complex and massive than problems in a single discipline such as mathematics, physics, or chemistry. In such a culture as ours, people depend more and more on specialized problem-solvers who have the knowl— edge, tools, and skills required. A curriculum which focuses on the application of knowledge is not practical nor theoretically defensible, unless it is the curriculum for the training of specialists. 265 ”nerprefive Use ofSchooHng. The interpretive use of schooling is a process which is closely related to application but far less specific and detailed. Experience becomes intelligi- ble only as we categorize it, conceptualize it, or classify it. In other words, experience becomes intelligible and intelligently manageable insofar as we impose form upon it. The question which confronts developers of curriculum is "which forms, and how are they derived?" Broudy (l964,p.54) identifies all of the disciplines as sources from which these forms must flow and the molds into which experience must be shaped if we are to under- stand it. Language is the "great prefigurer or premolder of ordinary everyday experience." For example, the sciences use molds or categories that allow us to under- stand our world in terms of atoms and electrons, galaxies and solar systems, acids and bases, causes and effects. Works of art enable us to feel the world of values. Broudy (1964) says that whenever we use our school learnings in these areas to perceive, understand, or feel life situations, we say that we are using our learnings primarily for interpretation, and not replicatively, associatively, or applicatively. Of course, the use of one does not automatically exclude the others. There is the sense in which the interpretive use of knowledge is the most fundamental in that a prior interpretation of any situation is required before a choice can be made to replicate, associate, or apply. The interpretive use of schooling, accordingly, is primarily for orientation and perspective rather than for action and problem—solving. Broudy says: Although interpretation is a necessary preliminary to all the other uses of knowledge, there are many situ- ations in which orientation toward a problem is as far as we can go, that is, in virtually all of the situations in which we cannot function as specialists (l964.p.55). SUMMARY An ecological approach to the study of man and his environment reveals the interdependent quality of indi- vidual, family, and community relationships. What is known about this interdependency and the function of each is useful because it enables decision-makers in the church to define with greater clarity how to facilitate human development. The quality of life developed at the level of family can have a profound and positive effect on human develop— ment. Six important characteristics reveal what the family can become in terms of ultimates. The optimally functioning family can be clearly distinguished from both adequate and dysfunctional families. 267 The community, and not the family, is the basic cultural unit, and it, too, develops certain definite characteristics. These characteristics take much time to develop and their development occurs "bottom-up." An effective community is an effective milieu for the development of intimate relationships which are the product of "natural, spontaneous, organic relations among the people." Community life is the seedbed for the kinds of "drives, motives, incentives, manners, habits, and purposes" which characterize the people who live there. It is in community that young life finds its needed examples and instruction--at a level not possible in the nuclear family. Habits, traits, and attitudes are transmitted effectively from one generation to another through both formal and informal contexts. Formal contexts, to be effective, must be subordinated to socialization which occurs in non-formal processes. When formal learning contexts (such as school and church) assume too large a share of the responsibility for social- ization, community and family life break down. Schooling can supplement the socialization process but it cannot supplant it. When schooling assumes the tasks which belong to the family, the family becomes depressed. Schooling can enable family members to develop essential skills, but schooling cannot assume the whole responsibility for the socialization process. 268 The particular "uses of schooling" which are employed by the church will have an effect on the manner in which the church complements other social institutions and on the degree of its effectiveness in facilitating individual and family skill development. CHAPTER FIVE CONCLUSIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS AND EPILOGUE Chapter Five serves three functions. First, it presents a compilation of the conclusions which are derived from conceptualizing the church as having a curriculum and from an inquiry into particular foundational sources for those contributions which facilitate the process of developing an increasingly consistent relationship between the purpose and the outcomes of the church in its insti— tutional forms. Second, several recommendations are derived from an attempt to develop a rudimentary theory of curriculum for the church. The recommendations are concerned with sug- gestions for application to institutions of church. Third, an epilogue provides a synthesizing statement. It seeks to capture the essence of the theme and the scope of what has been attempted in the research. The research builds upon the scholarship of Huebner (1968, 1975) through its development of the concept cur- riculum for the church. This concept provides the basis for the development of a new language for disclosing the morphology of what the church is to do to facilitate the whole of human development. 269 270 The research builds upon Greene (1977) by underscoring how the people of God, committed to act upon their world, are thereby enabled to grow. This view of human develop- ment correlates positively with what is known about the nature, aims, and function of the church (Snyder,l974,l977; Niebuhr,l957). Because the research proceeds on the basis of our- riculum theory the particular conclusions and recommenda- tions which are offered satisfy the criteria for each of the three levels of curriculum theory identified by Macdonald (1975). There are the conceptual schema "cur- riculum for the church" which provides decision—makers with a more holistic View of the church. Such a View enables the development of a more empirical basis for disciplining activities and programs to the aims of the church. The primary variables and relationships can be seen in the three elements which always make up the learning experience—~the needs of the learner, the content or infor- mation, and the relationship of the learner to both human and non—human elements in his environment. Last, there are the tasks of the church. 271 Conclusions Following are the three most important conclusions of the research: 1. The concept curriculum for the church is a valid model for ministry. That is, it provides a valid framework for what the whole church ought to be doing to facilitate the development of persons morally, socially, physically, intellectually, and spiritually. Substantial theory can be de- rived from conceptualizing the church as having a curriculum. 2. The concept curriculum for the church is in pos— session of a supporting psychology, sociology, and philosophy (theology) and thus, it rests up— on firm foundations. Five foundation sources are identified. 3. The church is the people of God who live out their lives in an ecology which encompasses the whole of life. The church is one of the variables in this ecology. Human life is part of a total life system and it cannot be understood or given direction without considera— tion for all the elements in this total life system. The concept curriculum for the church provides decision-makers with a more holistic View of the church as a dynamic, creative force for spiritual develOpment and hence to the whole of human development. The church can become a pervasive instrument for change if it takes into account the entire ecology in which it exists. The church cannot not communicate. Therefore the question confronting the -a-