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WI‘WWWWW‘W '1 WWWW‘IW 111 WWW 11I1WWWWIIWIIIWW ‘ ' 11111111.. W W 111W 1111 III 1' ' ‘ WW1IIWW WWIIWWWWWWW WWIWWWWW'WW W WWIWW‘ 1111 IIIII ‘1‘ l,WIWII I1WI1111I,WI'W1 1WWWW1WWIWWWIW 'W.W WWI WW; ., . W11 ,11 11'1 WWIWW WWWIIIjn W11I1111 1 1W. (WmIIII ,IWIIIW IIWIIW WWIWWWWIW WIWWIIWW WWWIWIWWWWWWWW WWW WWWWWWW W1 WW'WW WIIW'I .1'1W III“? WW1 11'1IWWIEWIW W1WWWW1W,W I WWIWW MW LIBRARY 3 1293 10381 1059 Mich?“ .5th Umvcmty This is to certify that the thesis entitled Children's Interests and Concerns: A Study of Anambra (Nigeria) Elementary School Pupils. presented by Ebele Josephine Nwokolo Maduewesi has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph. D. degree inElementary Ed. I - l k Major professor Date 7309 S; (977' 0-7639 © 1977 EBELE JOSEPHINE NWOKOLD MADUEWESI ALL RIGHTS RESERVED CHILDREN'S INTERESTS AND CONCERNS: A STUDY OF ANAMBRA (NIGERIA) ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PUPILS By Ebele Josephine Nwokolo Maduewesi A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of ‘ DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Elementary Education 1977 (AW (7“ cr’ U‘l ABSTRACT CHILDREN'S INTERESTS AND CONCERNS: A STUDY OF ANAMBRA (NIGERIA) ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PUPILS By Ebele Josephine Nwokolo Maduewesi The purpose of the study was to identify and categorize the interests and concerns of elementary school pupils in Anambra State, I Nigeria, and to examine the effects of three variables: age, sex, and physical location on the identified interests and concerns. Three indices: curiosity, wishes, and favorite activities were used to measure interests and three indices: aversions, worries, and fears were used to measure concerns. The sample for the study, consisting of 530 pupils drawn from twelve schools in Anambra State, was made up of equal numbers of boys and girls, rural and urban pupils, and children selected from a younger and an older age set. The major research instrument, a six-item questionnaire which had been translated into Igbo, the language spoken in Anambra State, was administered to the children by means of structured personal interviews. Each item on the questionnaire corresponded to one of the measuring indices. Ebele Josephine Nwokolo Maduewesi Twenty-four research questions which served as focal points of the study were formulated in the following way: for each of the six measuring indices one research question was formulated to iden- tify the components of the index followed by three other questions to examine the effects of sex, age, and physical location on that index. A pilot study was carried out in an urban and a rural school to field test the research instruments and procedure, to generate categories required for coding the final study, and to establish reliability of the coding procedure. The subjects' responses which were classified into cate- gories by three coders during the final study, were analyzed to answer the twenty-four research questions. The chi square was applied in the categories to test for significant differences within the variables. A The results of the analysis indicated that biological, physical, and supernatural/religious phenomena were most frequently mentioned by the children as areas of curiosity. Wishes for personal possessions, those connected with vocations and future careers, and wishes for school success were the most commonly expressed. Play- ing, helping with home chores, and reading were the most frequently .expressed favorite activities. Aversion to aggressive behavior and injustice, to dishonesty, and to conflicts with and punishment by adults were expressed most frequently. The most often expressed worries were about the supernatural, punishment, and school work, Ebele Josephine Nwokolo Maduewesi while the most commonly expressed sources of fear were animals, the supernatural, and accidents or disasters. Of all the variables, age showed the greatest number of significant differences based on the chi square. Younger children expressed significantly more wishes for personal possessions than older children, while older children expressed significantly more wishes for vocations and future careers. Older children also expressed significantly more wishes to be good than younger chil- dren. Regarding favorite activities, older children gave signifi- cantly more responses naming reading/studying as a favorite activity.. Younger children expressed significantly more aversions to conflicts with and punishment by adults; they also expressed significantly more fear of animals. Older children expressed significantly more fears about the supernatural. Urban children gave significantly more responses expressing curiosity about technology and applied science, while rural children gave significantly more responses expressing curiosity about bio- logical phenomena. Boys expressed significantly more wishes about vocations and future careers. Girls gave significantly more responses men- tioning home chores as a favorite activity. Dedicated to: My parents, who laid firm foundations: My brothers and sisters, especially Chukuedu, who set the example; Uchenna, who expressed faith in me early; Ifeyi, sister and friend; and JNC. iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I am deeply indebted to Dr. Janet Alleman-Brooks, my adviser and chairman of the doctoral guidance committee, for her direction, interest, and encouragement throughout my doctoral pro- gram. Her friendship, her support in numerous thoughtful ways, and her remarkable ability to radiate warmth made being her student an enriching experience. Deep gratitude is expressed to Dr. Louise Sause, who as a member of the doctoral guidance committee and cognate adviser on child development, shared many perceptive insights with me. Her gentle guidance, assistance, and concern during the period of my studies at Michigan State were much valued. Special appreciation is extended to Dr. Sheila Fitzgerald fer serving on the doctoral committee and for providing guidance and support in numerous ways. Her constructive criticisms, which were full of insight, gave strength and direction to my graduate program. Appreciation is also expressed to Dr. Stanley Hronski and Dr. John Hanson for serving on the doctoral committee; to Judith Taylor for help and advice during the study: and to Cathy Moehring for her patience in typing the drafts of this dissertation. A particular kind of gratitude is owed to the University of Nigeria, Nsukka, for generous study leave terms and financial iv support: to the citizens of Anambra State; to the P.E.0.; to the heads of schools and classroom teachers whose pupils were used in the study, for their cooperation; and to the pupils for their enthusiastic participation in the field research. Harm appreciation is expressed to my brothers and sisters and their families, especially to my sister Kez and my sister-in- law Janet for their support and for looking after the children in my absence. My greatest debt of love and gratitude is to my husband, Chidube, whose emotional support in every way made the decision to leave Nigeria and come to Michigan State feasible in the first instance; whose continued support from across the miles enabled me to begin, to continue, and to complete this doctoral program. For his readiness to combine the role of both parents while I was away I am also grateful. To our children: Nwamaka, Qna, Okolgma, and Nne, whose questions kindled my interest in the topic of this study, I owe thanks. TABLE OF CONTENTS . Page LIST OF TABLES ........................ ix LIST OF MAPS ......................... xi Chapter I. INTRODUCTION ..................... 1 Need for the Study: Theoretical Bases ....... 1 Statement of the Problem .............. 6 The Significance of the Study ........... 9. Limitations of the Study . . . . . .. ........ 12 Definition of Terms ................ 13 Summary ...................... l4 II. BACKGROUND ............. . ......... 15 Nigeria: A Brief Introduction ........... 15 Anambra State: A Brief Social and Political Background .................... l7 Elementary Schooling in Anambra State ...... 22 Elementary School Teachers ............ 23 Curriculum of the Elementary School ....... 26 Some Crucial Issues in Elementary Education . . . 31 III. REVIEW OF LITERATURE AND RESEARCH' .......... 34 The Nature of Interests: Theoretical Bases ..... 34 Definition of Interest .............. 37 Variables That Affect Interests .......... 39 Age as a Variable ................ 40 Location as a Variable_ .............. 4l . Sex as a Variable .'.‘.‘ ............. 43 Interests and the Learning Process ......... 45 Reading Interests ................ 46 Media Interests ................. 51 Other Interests ................... 55 Interest Indices .................. 57 Curiosities ................... 57 Wishes ...... . ............... 60 Favorite Activities ............... 65 Concern Indices .................. 68 Chapter IV. Aversions .................... Fears and Worries ................ Summary ...................... METHODOLOGY AND DESIGN ................ Population and Sample ............... Selection of Subjects .............. Research Instruments Used ............. The Questionnaire ................ Language Translation of the Questionnaire . Pupil Response Form ............... Code Form .................... Procedure ..................... Training the Interviewers ............ The Pilot Study ................. Data Collection: The Interviews ......... Construction of the List of Categories ...... Training the Coders . . . ............ Classification of the Responses ......... Establishing the Reliability of the Instrument . . Research Design .................. Design Over Subjects ............... Design Over Measures ............... Research Questions ................ Method of Data Analysis .............. Summary ...................... ANALYSIS OF THE DATA AND DISCUSSION OF THE FINDINGS Part One: Analysis of the Data ........... Curiosities ................... Wishes ...................... Favorite Activities ............... ‘Aversions .................... Worries ..................... Fears ...................... Summary of Findings. ............... Part Two: Discussion of Findings ......... Curiosities ................... Favorite Activities ............... Aversions ....... . ............. Worries and Fears ................ Worries ..................... Fears ...................... Summary ...................... vii 112 Chapter Page VI. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION ....... . ......... 189 Summary ...................... 189 The Purpose and Need for the Study ........ 189 The Background .................. 189 Literature Review ................ 191 Methodology and Design .............. 193 Analysis of the Data and the Findings ...... 196 Implications of the Findings . . . .. ........ 200 For the Curriculum Planner ............ 201 For the Classroom Teacher and Teacher Educator . . 208 -Imp1ications for Further Research ........ 214 Conclusion ..................... 216 ,FOOTNOTES ............. . ............. 219 APPENDICES ' A. THE RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS ............... 239 B. THE TABLE OF CATEGORIES ............... 245 C. THE COMPLETE MATRIX 0F VARIABLE FREQUENCIES ..... 255 _ SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY .................... 257 viii LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1.1 Anambra State: Elementary Schools by Division and Number on R011, Second Term, 1976/77 ......... 24 1.2 Anambra State Elementary School Teachers According to Status ...................... 26 4.1 Selection of Schools From Urban and Rural Locations . . 77 4.2 Number of Pupils Selected in Rural and Urban Locations According to Sex and Age Set ........ 78_ 4.3 Number of Pupils Interviewed in Rural and Urban Schools According to Age and Sex ............... 79 4.4 Pilot Study Index One: Curiosities--Agreement Between Coders .................... 95 4.5 Pilot Study Index Two: Wishes--Agreement Between Coders ........................ 95 4.6 Pilot Study Index Three: Favorite Activities-- Agreement Between Coders ............... 97 4.7 Pilot Study Index Four: Aversions-~Agreement Between Coders .................... 97 4.8 Pilot Study Index Five: Worries--Agreement Between Coders ........................ 98 4.9 Pilot Study Index Six: Fears--Agreement Between Coders . 98 4.10 Pilot Study: Summary of Coder Agreement on All Six Indices ....................... 100 5.1 Curiosities: Variable Frequencies, Percentages, and Chi Square by Age Set ................ 113 5.2 Curiosities: Variable Frequencies, Percentages, and Chi Square by Sex .................. 115 5.3 Curiosities: Variable Frequencies, Percentages, and Chi Square by Physical Location ........... 116 ix Table 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.19 C1 Wishes: Variable Frequencies, Percentages, and Chi Square by Age Set ................ Wishes: Variable Frequencies, Percentages, and ' Chi Square by Sex .................. Wishes: Variable Frequencies, Percentages, and -Chi Square by Physical Location ........... Favorite Activities: Variable Frequencies, Percentages, and Chi Square by Age Set ....... Favorite Activities: Variable Frequencies, Percentages, and Chi Square by Sex ......... Favorite Activities: Variable Frequencies, Percentages, and Chi Square by Physical Location AAversions: Variable Frequencies, Percentages, and Chi Square by Age Set ................ Aversions: Variable Frequencies, Percentages, and Chi Square by Sex .................. Aversions: Variable Frequencies, Percentages, and Chi Square by Physical Location ........... Worries: Variable Frequencies, Percentages, and Chi Square by Age Set ................ Worries: Variable Frequencies, Percentages, and Chi Square by Sex .................. Worries: Variable Frequencies, Percentages, and Chi Square by Physical Location ........... Fears: Variable Frequencies, Percentages, and Chi Square by Age Set ................ Fears: Variable Frequencies, Percentages, and Chi Square by Sex .................. Fears: Variable Frequencies, Percentages, and Chi Square by Physical Location ........... Sunnary of Findings: Variable Frequencies, Percentages, aIInEIHChi Square by Age Set, Sex, and Location for All n ces ....................... Complete Matrix of Variable Frequencies ........ X 128 130 132 134 135 138 139 141 143 144 146 255 LIST OF MAPS Map Page 1. Nigeria, Showing the Nineteen States ......... 16 2. Anambra State, Showing Urban and Rural Locations Studied . ...................... 75 xi CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Need for the Study: Theoretical Bases The need to understand the interests and concerns of chil- dren as a basis for curriculum planning has been expressed by many writers in various ways.]’2’3 Tyler said that "interests are of concern in education both as ends and means, that is, as objectives and as motivating forces in connection with experiences to attain objectives."4 The interests and concerns of students should guide the planning of classroom prdcedures. "A modern teacher," said Dorothy Cohen, "listens to and observes children so that she can adapt her resoUrces to what she sees and hears from them."5 Goodlad asserted that the good teacher comes into the situation 6 looking for clues to the child's drives. In a similar vein, Collier et a1. said that knowledge of current interests of children can do much to assist teachers in motivating pupils.7 The utilization of children's interests as motivation for learning has been acknowledged as of prime importance because children learn more easily those things that are of interest to them. Indeed, Getzels suggested that the critical difference between what the learner learns and what he does not learn in the classroom “will in most cases be more a function of his interest than of his intelligence. The child who remembers the batting l averages to the third decimal place, of a dozen of his favorite baseball teams, may also be the one who cannot remember the single date of the discovery of America. It is silly to think of him as having baseball intelligence and history stupidity. What he has is baseball interest and history indifference."8 Carl Rogers said that a person learns significantly only those things which he* per- ceives as being involved in the maintenance of or the enhancement of his own self. Indeed, Rogers insisted that learning can both be hastened and the time shortened if interest is present. He said that "there is evidence that the time for learning various sub- jects would be cut to a fraction of the time if the material were perceived by the learner as related to his own purposes."9 It should be obvious to curriculum planners that children's interests need no artificial compartmentalization. Cohen stated the obvious when she said that "like adults, children's learning is influenced by their tastes and feelings., Whatever children are newly interested in spills over into whatever they already know or what they want to know. They mix science, poetry, body movement and feeling with total ease in the examination of problems that concern them."10 Dearden said that the motivational problem in teaching occurs precisely because children are regarded as needing something in which they have not shown voluntary interest. "It might accordingly be suggested that the curriculum be formed out *Here and in similar circumstances throughout this disser- tation, "he," "his," "him" are used in a generic sense to refer to both sexes. This is for convenience. of children's felt needs, which is in practice much the same thing as to suggest that the curriculum be based on children's inter- ests."11 Recent studies in human growth and development, educa- tional psychology, educational sociology, and philosophy indicate that such issues as the role of experience in learning, individual differences among students, and the relation of maturation to readiness for particular learnings should be carefully considered in planning the curriculum.]2 At the same time, it must be borne in mind that curriculum has various other bases. Since the school has the ultimate function of serving members of the society that set it up, a balanced view of curriculum takes into account the fact that it must serve the needs of the child and those of society as an intelligent citizen, as a member of the family, as a skilled worker, and as a well-rounded individual.13 As Gross et a1. said, this arrangement ensures the maintenance of "some kind of harmon- ious relationship between the educative experiences of the members of [the] society and the major characteristics of the social pat- terns, customs and norms of the society."14 Indeed, the recent upsurge of interest in career education in the United States attests to the importance attached to the societal components of the curriculum, in this case the importance of a balanced and informed attitude toward work. It also reinforces the view that curriculum planning should be done in terms ofthe developing needs and abilities of the learners based on the background of the needs of society, the relative usefulness of various knowledges 15 and skills,.and the logical nature of learning. But important as these other factors are, they are not the focus of this study, which is primarily concerned with how children's interests and concerns can be harnessed for the best results in the teaching/ learning situation. The above discussion suggests that the child's interests cannot be the sole determinant of the curriculum, but they never- theless deserve a Special place. Havighurst said that one can never assume that the child's spontaneously expressed interest and activities are completely reflective of all his important needs and 16 and yet they reflect a critical aspect of those capacities, needs. Taba suggested that the job of the curriculum maker and the teacher is to get below the surface and discover these things that may engage the student and connect them with what has to be learned.17 The factor of growth and change must be taken into account in considering children's interests. Growth means change, includ- ing change in interests, a factor well recognized in child develop- ment and education. Interests, like feelings and views, change in children as they deve10p and as their experiences broaden. The importance to educators of an awareness of developmental changes in children and in their interests has been noted by some writers.18 Piaget's work has thrown considerable light on the developmental stages of children's thinking,19 but the meaning of these stages is not always understood. Basing his views on Piaget's work, Elkind analyzed four basic misconceptions about young children. He pointed out that children think in a different way from adults, that they learn best as active participants in the learning process, that they cannot always Operate according to rules, that elaboration rather than acceleration is often preferable. He warned that emphasis on intellectual growth must be matched by emphasis on the personal- 20 Cohen reminded us that "since the social side of development. content of a full life is not the same at every stage, the educa- tion of young children must be strongly rooted in the developmen- tal growth process of childhood."21 The essence of the developmental approach is the recogni- tion of the roles of different dimensions of growth as interrelated. and interacting in the young person. The developmental approach supports the view that there is a sequential and orderly transfor- 22 Even mation which enhances the ability of the organism to adjust. though knowledge about child development does not answer directly the question of how children should be educated, it does "provide 23 It a basis for deciding what kind of education is desirable." also provides an insight into the interlocking developmental pat- terns as well as into the all-important individual differences. Knowledge of child development has greatly contributed to the concepts of readiness and pacing. These two concepts stress that effective teaching involves timeliness such that learning activi- ties are in line with developmental sequence. The learner's effec- tive cooperation is impossible if the learning task is beyond the learner's capacity to grasp or if it calls for skills and motiva- tion which his physical or emotional base cannot support. In this connection, Hughes said that "even more enlightened teaching methods cannot ensure success unless the existing schemata are suf- ficiently developed to deal with the situation."24 The elementary schobl years (age 6-12), characterized by some writers as the middle years of childhood, are of considerable 25 During this period, as the six year developmental significance. old enters school, he begins a movement that builds towards his independence from parents. At the same time, he begins to grope towards his own identity and towards the foundations of a personal edifice in which peers become increasingly important. Cohen said that "as they enter school, they are developmentally at a point where they must make a shift away from the old intimacy of the family. . . ."26 Peer relationships are an important feature of the elementary school age, and Stone and Church suggested that this is one of the reasons adults know least about this developmental period. They said, "children at this age turn their backs on adults and unite in a society of children . . . clustering into same age and same sex groups drawn from the pool of neighborhood and 27 This accounts for the effects of factors school acquaintances." such as age and sex on interest development during the elementary years . Statement of the Problem The purpose of the research was to study the interests and concerns of elementary school children by examining their curiosi- ties, wishes, favorite activities, aversions, worries, and fears. The method of the research was to collect, classify, and analyze the curiosities, wishes, favorite activities, aversions, worries, and fears of selected elementary school children in urban and rural locations in Anambra state, Nigeria; and to examine the implications of these findings in relation to the elementary school curriculum. In more specific terms, the study sought to answer the following questions: Curiosities 1.0 What are elementary school children in Anambra state curious about? ’ 1.1 Do the curiosities of younger elementary school children differ from those of older elementary school children? 1.2 Do the curiosities of elementary school boys differ from those ' of elementary school girls? 1.3 Do the curiosities of urban elementary school children differ from those of rural elementary school children? 21.1.2119: 2.0 What are the major wishes of elementary school children in Anambra state? 2.1 Do the wishes of younger elementary school children differ from those of older elementary school children? 2.2 Do the wishes of elementary school boys differ from those of elementary school girls? 2.3 Do the wishes Of urban elementary school children differ from those of rural elementary school children? Favorite Activities 3.0 What are the favorite activities of elementary school children in Anambra state? 3.1 Do the favorite activities of younger elementary school chil- dren differ from those of older elementary school children? 3.2 Do the favorite activities of elementary school boys differ from those of elementary school girls? 3.3 Do the favorite activities of urban elementary school children differ from those of rural elementary school children? Aversions 4.0 What are the major aversions of elementary school children in Anambra state? 4.1 Do the aversions of younger elementary school children differ, from those of older elementary schbol children? 4.2 Do the aversions of eleMentary school boys differ from those of elementary school girls? 4.3 Do the aversions of urban elementary school children differ from those 0f rural elementary school children? Worries 5.0' What are the major worries of elementary school children in Anambra state? 5.1 Do the worries of younger elementary school children differ from those of older elementary school children? 5.2 Do the worries of elementary school boys differ from those of elementary school girls? ' 5.3 Do the worries of urban elementary school children differ from those of rural elementary school children? m 6.0 What do elementary school children in Anambra state fear? 6.1 Do the fears of younger elementary school children differ from those of older elementary school children? 6.2 Do the fears of elementary school boys differ from those of elementary school girls? 6.3 Do the fears of urban elementary school children differ from those of rural elementary school children? The Significance of the Study Interests and concerns, especially those that are common to groups, are usually heavily dependent on culture and environment. ' Hurlock stated that "cultural influences in the environment play an important role in the development of interests by controlling learn- ing opportunities. From parents, teachers, and other adults, the child is given Opportunities to learn what the cultural group con- siders appropriate interests and is deprived of Opportunities to "28 Based develop interests which the group considers inappropriate. on the above views, the interests and concerns of Nigerian children are likely to differ from those of children from other cultures. Thus, this study would be breaking new ground, especially since no published Nigerian work has been found related to the topic of this study. It is hoped that the results of the study will be found useful by teacher educators, administrators, planners of elementary curriculum, and even more by classroom teachers. Beauchamp said that "studying and diagnosing is a basic dimension of teaching."29 In their various capacities, these people need to study and diagnose . 10 the needs of the child before they can discharge their responsi- bilities meaningfully in the educational system. The Nigerian National Curriculum Conference of 1969 was a landmark in Nigeria's efforts to modernize its educational system, while the beginning of the universal free primary education scheme in 1976 put the country on the path towards providing the citizens with basic education. One writer has suggested that "modern educa- tion must satisfy two demands. One of these is the transmission of cultural heritage; the other is provision for educational interests and needs of children."30 So far there has been very little child, development research on which to base educational practice in Nigeria and yet it seems Obvious that to achieve the goals of modernization and making basic educatiOn as useful as possible, this is absolutely essential. This study is an effort to fulfill some of this need. This investigator is in teacher education and she hopes to utilize the experiences of this study in professional teacher prepara- tion, Since among other things, results from this study could suggest areas in which elementary school teachers require additional compe- tence. Since the teacher is the ultimate interpreter of the curricu- lum to the child, he is required to use his professional skill to understand the child. In the teaching/learning situation the teacher becomes responsible for adapting the results of curriculum planning and administrative arrangements to the classroom situation. It is here that the caliber of the teacher's professional preparation faces its greatest challenge. The critical difference between the professionally competent and the professionally weak easily shows up 11 in the classroom, since ”it is only because the teacher is thoroughly cognizant of the backgrounds, interests, needs and capacities of his pupils that he can do a skillful job of selecting from the curricu- lum those areas and activities that he expects will challenge the motivational patterns of the children."31 By identifying and analyz- ing the interests and cOncerns of school-age children, the findings of this study will provide additional tools for teacher education. Information derived from this study would be of benefit in planning the curriculum of the elementary school in a realistic way. Some people have advocated that the entire elementary school program be adjusted in terms of the interests of the children enrolled. Others feel that children's interests should be taken into account along with other factors such as the social demand upon schools in determining the content of the school program.32 This writer feels that much more than children's interests should be involved in deter- mining the curriculum but interests are vital in the timing and presentation of learning materials. Thus in addition to its useful- ness in planning the curriculum, the results of this study would also be very useful to the classroom teacher for selecting teaching activities and materials, for class grouping, and for individualized ‘guidance sessions. This study is an initial step in what may become a series of studies involving interest patterns of Nigerian children. Its impor- tance is enhanced by the fact that it is being carried out at a time (1977) when the pervasive impact of television in particular, and other mass media in general, as major socializing agents, are still 12 in their infancy in Nigeria. At the present time, television sets are common in urban homes in Nigeria but rare in rural homes. There are TV' substations in almost all of Nigeria's nineteen states but many television programs are centrally directed by the National Television authority. Programs are rarely on the air before evening except on weekends and special occasions. Under these circumstances, the ' impact of television as a socializing agent or as a factor affecting children's interests is minimal at this time, but this author sus- pects that the story would be quite different fifteen years from now. Limitations of the Study The sample for this study was taken frOm one state, Anambra, in Nigeria. The questionnaire, the major instrument used in this investigation, was adapted from one used in a previous and similar study by Crippen (1973). The questionnaire and how it was adapted are described in Chapter Three. A history of the instrument was not found, but the present investigator validated and established its reliability in the course of this study. Details of how this was done are also discussed in Chapter Three. The instrument was translated into Igbo, the language spoken in Anambra state. While the translation procedure was carefully regulated, it is conceivable that some meaning was lost in the translation. The ability of pupils to remember their interests and concerns during the interviews and their willingness to disclose them are limit- ing factors. Before the study, however, those who were trained to interview the children were so carefully instructed on techniques to 13 get around these problems that these particular limitations must be minimal. Definition of Terms In order to insure clarify and consistency the following terms are defined as they are used in this study: Interest: A learned motive which drives a person to seek out particular Objects, goals, or activities for attention. A theoreti- cal definition of Interest is presented in the review of literature chapter. A Concern: An uneasy or anxious feeling of interest about something. Curiosity: A strong desire to investigate, learn, or know. Wish: A desire for an object, person, or happening. Favorite activity: A preferred or most liked engagement such as game, sport, work, person, or happening. fear; A distressing emotion aroused by anticipation of pain, danger, or evil whether real or imagined. HQELXF A state of apprehension, uneasiness, or concern leading to anxiety.4 Urban area/center: A community--such as Enugu, Onitsha, Nsukka, Nnewi--designated "urban" by the Federal or a state govern- ment in Nigeria based on political and demographic factors. Rural area: The countryside outside the urban limits, char- acterized by sparse pOpulation. Urban schools: Schools located within the urban limits. 14 Rural schools: Schools located outside the urban limits, in rural areas. Elementary/primary 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6: Class levels in the ele- mentary school corresponding to grades 1 to 6 in the U.S.A. Younger elementary school children: Elementary school chil- dren in this study aged between 7 and 9 years. Older elementary school children: Elementary school children in this study aged between 11 and 13 years. Summary In this chapter, an introduction to the study was made: a' statement of the problem outlining in detail the questions the researcher sought to address was made; the significance of the study was discussed and the limitations outlined; lastly the terms used in the study were defined. The remainder of the dissertation is organized in five chap- ters. Chapter Two provides the reader with basic general background information about Nigeria and about elementary education in Anambra state, Nigeria, where the study was done. Chapter Three is a review Of the literature and research related to the study. Chapter Four describes the Methodology and Design Of the study and Chapter Five presents the Analysis of Data and discussion of findings. Chapter Six presents the Summary and Conclusions. CHAPTER II BACKGROUND , Nigeria: A Brief Introduction Nigeria, with an area of 346,669 sq. miles and a projected population of more than 70 million, is located on the west coast of Africa. It has the largest population concentration in any single country in sub-Sahara Africa, containing about one-fifth of the con- tinent's population. As it is graphically put, every fifth African is a Nigerian. Petroleum, discovered in the country in the last thirty years, is mined and exported in large quantities annually. Earnings from petroleum has improved Nigeria's foreign exchange situation and perhaps its prestige, but it has left the country with a gigantic internal inflation problem. Per capita income is still low, about $300 annually.1 The country, which changed from a federation of twelve states to one of nineteen states in 1976, has been under military rule since 1966. Part of its recent history was a civil war, 1967-1970. Return to civilian rule is planned for 1979 in preparation for which a draft constitution has been prepared and is being currently dis- cussed throughout the country. Elections at the local government level were held in December, 1976, and a constituent assembly to debate the draft constitution is meeting. 15 NIGERIA SHOWING THE NINETEEN STATES KWARA‘ NIGER I \. ‘.,_.---_-£“V'\.." / ‘7‘ \— r 0Y0 ". You»; 3 EN US l ‘ .T‘V-v. I \ o § :‘JONDO. 1,", ”L. HT?) -'7 :BENDEL ‘fANAMBRy «£93. \ ' \ If \ I “ :‘u I . '0 \~’ ‘Tg- -- '5 l , - :PLATEAU SGDNGDLA 1 a $ in ISUKMS- l—I—-—|——| \AREA DESIGNATED AS NEW \\ NATIONAL cum 17 Literacy rate in the country is about 20 percent.2 In September, 1976, the Universal Primary Education scheme was launched, insuring free education for all Nigerian elementary school age chil- dren. The educational syStem thus provides for a free sixgyear elementary program which is terminal for about 70 percent of the population.3 Beyond this are five-year secondary school programs in grammar, technical and commercial education while further up there are various avenues for advanced academic orprofessional education. Polytechnics and Colleges of Technology provide technical, commer- cial, and business education of an intermediate level while the Uni- versities provide courses leading to Bachelors degrees in Arts, Sciences, Education, Pharmacy, Architecture, and other professional areas. Medical schools produce doctors with M.B., 8.5. degrees, while graduate courses in various fields such as Social Sciences, Education, Arts, Biological and Physical Sciences, and Medicine are available in some of the Older Universities. Anambra State: A Brief Social and Political Background Anambra state, where this study was done, is one of the nine- teen states which make up the Federal Republic of Nigeria (see the map on page 16). It takes its name from the Anambra River, a lower tributary of the River Niger. This state was one of the theatres of the recent civil war and parts of it suffered severe physical damage. Most of the structures have, however, been rebuilt but roads in particular are still in poor condition. Generally the citi- zens have resumed their former occupations and life has returned to normal. 18 In many ways, Anambra is a typical (southern) Nigerian state with a population of between three and four million. In climate and vegetation, it is- tropical just like the rest of the country and the occupation of its rural citizens, farming, is typical of southern Nigerian rural areas. The occupations of Anambra urbanites are similar to those of urban dwellers in other parts of the federation. Living habits and styles in rural and urban centers resemble those of other Nigerians. The Igbos, part of whose homeland this is, are traditionally rural dwellers. They are reputed to be hardworking and tenacious, probably because their poor quality soil, unrewarding as it is for agriculture, has taught them tough survival skills. In addition, population is generally dense and man-land ratio high. Parts of Anambra state fall into what Uchendu has described as "one of the world's most densely populated rural areas subsisting on root crops raised through hoe culture."4 Traditionally the people are subsis- tence farmers but factors such as poor quality and unproductive soil, high man-land ratio have tended to lead to migration to other parts of the country, especially the urban centers, in search of employ- ment. Thus urbanization and urban living are becoming increasingly important in the economy, life style, and habits of the people, especially since after the civil war. Amalaha Observed that the Igbo has learned to be mobile and to be an important factor in Nigerian urban life: though he farms he also buys and sells in order to aug- 5 ment his meager harvests. Making essentially the same point, Uchendu observed that “the Igbos see farming as their chief 19 occupation and trading as Subsidiary and not a substitute for it,"6 and again for most people agriculture is the principal means of earn- ing their living and may long continue to be so. For others there is a flight from the 1and--a flight due not to disdain or disrespect but to the poor returns it offers. Those who cling to the land must supplement their earnings from other sources: trading paid labor, livestock tenancy, handicraft and palm product.7 - Industrialization, though slow, is proceeding and modern industries in the state include cement, steel and furniture factories, coal mining, cashew and palm produce processing. Two dominant food- producing areas in the state, Nsukka and Abakaliki, supply other . parts of the country with some staples such as yams, and other vege- tables. One of the legacies of the Nigerian civil war (1967-1970) was a meteoric rise in the population of the urban centers, especially those in the former war zones. In addition to regular urban dwellers, people who lost jobs in other parts Of the country, youth who felt too Old to go back to school at the end of the war, rural dwellers who had nothing to rebuild their lives with, all flocked to the cities. This sudden rise in urban population without a correSponding increase or improvement in supportive services has confounded the existing prob- lems of the urban centers. Some of its features include heavy traf- fic jams on city streets, acute housing shortage, unhygienic surroundings, and higher prices, especially for food. Developing side by side with the above is an interesting, though disturbing, feature of post—war urban life style. This life style is character- ized by a new materialistic culture presided over by the nouveau 20 riche. In each city, particularly in the former war zones, some sharp-dealing businessmen and women made brisk fortunes from property deals with impoverished returning owners and from "reconstruction" contracts very soon after the war ended. This group of people, dis- tinguished by ostentatious life style and habits, are becoming increasingly important in the economic life of the community, in spite of their scant regard for moral dealings. ‘Whatever their faults, however, this group was important in revitalizing economic activities in the cities during the early post-civil war years. Among the bigger and older urban centers or cities are . Onitsha and Enugu, each with a population nearing half a million. Enugu, one of the oldest cities east of the Niger, is a coal mining location and has been the administrative seat of this part of the country since colonial times. It is the capital of Anambra state and home of a campus of the University of Nigeria. Onitsha, a major com- mercial center, is a river port at a strategic crossroad where a famous bridge links the southwestern part of Nigeria with the southeastern part. It is a typical booming Nigerian market town, crowded, unplanned, unhygienic. It is the home of the largest market in West Africa. Other smaller and newer townships (recently declared urban areas) include Nsukka, the seat Of the main campus of the University of Nigeria; Awka, a town noted for its famous blacksmiths, its beau- tiful and historic woodcarvings; Nnewi, whose status as a commercial town has increased tremendously since the end of the civil war; and Abakaliki, noted as the center of a food-producing area. 21 Major urban occupations include civil service jobs, cater- ing, shOpkeeping, and trading; craftsmen and tradesmen of various skills are also found. Ihiaddition, there are artisans, professionals, teachers, and businessmen. To quote Uchendu again, The educated Igbo have entered the professions and white collar jobs: others are successful businessmen. Although politics is Creating a new ”industry," law, medicine, education and business administration provide a livelihood for Igbg professional people, and these frontiers are rapidly increa51ng. The sudden growth in urban population has meant a sudden drop in rural population which has resulted in rural‘deterioration. This is most observable in communally maintained assets such as mare kets and roads which are often in dilapidated condition because of little or no maintenance. Farm labor for planting and harvesting crOps has also become very scarce and expensive. The rural areas, loosely referred to as "towns," are generally only a few miles from the urban centers or townships. Every town is made up of several villages and each village can have as many as five or as few as one school, depending on the population, size, and determination of the people. As with all rural people throughout the world, life is slow and routine, attitude is conservative but relationships are binding and warm. Villagers, mostly older men and women and occasionally hired labor, plod daily to the farm to do a variety of chores, depend- ing on what time of year it is. Children are in school and youth are likely to have migrated to the township to learn a trade, go to school, or simply to escape.9 Village craftsmen often combine a craft such as basket, rope, or cloth weaving, carpentry or carving with shop- keeping and selling wares in the daily market. A pOpular occupation, 22 especially among females but also among men in both rural and urban Nigeria, is the one-man tailor shop. The thatched shed, in which a young man or wOman has hung a few yards of cotton cloth, and is operating a hand/foot machine, is a common feature of every part of Anambra state and of Nigeria as a whole. In the bigger urban cen- ters, of course, such businesses assume sophisticated factory prOpor- tions. Elementary Schooling in Anambra State Two government departments, the Ministry of Education and the State School Management Board, are responsible for educational policy, and administration in Anambra state. The educational system in the state is the same as was described for Nigeria, earlier. It is organ- ized in three parts: (1) a six-year elementary program which is free; (2) a five-year secondary program with options for grammar, 10 a commercial, and technical education where fees are minimal; nd (3) a three-to-five-year higher education program.11 Universal Free Primary Education (commonly referred to as UPE in Nigeria), which came into effect in September, 1976, made elementary education free to all Nigerian children. Officially, elementary schooling is for children aged six to eleven or twelve. But in prac- tice, children who are older than the specified ages are found in many elementary classes throughout the elementary system. This is more common in rural areas and with children of uneducated parents. In contrast, many educated parents enroll their children in school before they are six. Though free, elementary education is not yet 23 compulsory, the citizens of Anambra state, however, need no urging to send their children to school. According to Uchendu, "There is. consensus among the Igbo that education is the key to progress as it 12 Schools in this state suffer, not from is now reinterpreted." lack of pupils, but from overcrowding. School facilities, teachers, and furniture are stretched to their limit of usability. Many urban elementary facilities are used by two school groups, one in a morn— ing session and onein an afternoon session. Some are also used for 13 Thus teacher, room, and additional night sessions for adults. equipment shortage are among the gravest problems in Anambra elemen-_ tary schools. Size of schools differs but urban schools generally tend to be larger than rural ones. Schools with over one thousand pupils and more than thirty teachers are common in urban centers, while two- or three-room schools with as many teachers can be found in some rural areas. Variations in class size are also common and anything from thirty to fifty in each class is common. Most elementary schools except the very small ones have more than one stream14 of each grade. In bigger schools, as many as four streams of each grade can be found. Table 1.1 shows the number Of pupils enrolled in and the number of elementary schools in Anambra state as of March, 1977. Elementary School Teachers Three caders of teachers--the Grade I (the highest), the Grade II (the next highest), and the Auxiliary--can be found in the elementary school system in Anambra state. The cadres are 24 determined by the level of academic and professional qualifications obtained, and each cadre subsumes the one before it. Table l.1.--Anambra state: Elementary schools by division an? number A on roll, second term, 1976/77 (January-March, 1977). 5 Division No. of Schools School Enrollment Abakaliki 102 59,064 Aguata 149 66,250 Anambra 98 33,211 Awgu 131 56,977 Enugu 60 71,002 Ezeagu 63 . ‘ 28,915 Ezzikwo 94 48,595 Idemili 104 39,896 Igboeze 101 53,883 Ihiala 78 . 41,016 Ishielu . 98 44,949 Isi-Uzo 103 40,854 Njikoka 149 62,784 ‘ Nkanu 87 42,705 Nnewi 115 45,595 Nsukka 120 65,944 Ogbaru 26 86,900 Onitsha 50 64,933 Udi 78 33,242 Uzo Uwani 33 13,141 Total - 1848 931,646 Aspirants to the Grade I Teacher's Certificate require addi- tional academic credits and the passing of a professional examination 25 beyond the Grade II level. The majority of Grade I teachers are usually in administrative positions as headmasters/headmistresses or their assistants. The Grade II Teachers Certificate is obtained following two years post-secondary professional training in a Grade II Teacher's College.16 Recently the training period for this grade of teachers was reduced to one year in order to hasten teacher production in the face of acute elementary teacher shortage. For the same reason, a new program was also started, to admit mature and experienced ele- mentary school graduates for a fiveayear combined academicl' professional program to qualify them for the Grade II certificate and elementary school teaching. The Grade II teachers constitute the bulk of the elementary classroom teachers. 4 The last cadre, the auxiliary teachers, were recruited in large numbers in the last few years, to fill an acute need for teachers, following increased enrollment as a result of the launching of the universal free primary education scheme in September, 1976. They make up nearly a third Of the elementary school teachers in Anambra state. Their basic education is limited to elementary school- ing and they come to the classroom with very little or inadequate professional training. However, the Ministry of Education and the State School Management Board are making courageous efforts to pro- vide them with at least a smattering of professional preparation by such means as one-morning-a-week and Saturday morning courses. Table 1.2 shows the number and status of elementary school teachers in Anambra state. 26 Table 1.2.--Anambra state elementary school teachers according to status. Status Number Headmasters/mistresses 1,901 Assistant headmasters/mistresses 60 Other trained teachers 19,520 Auxiliary teachers 11,502 Curriculum of the Elementary School For many years after Nigeria became independent (1960), the elementary school curricula remained basically the same as during the colonial period. Following the first National Curriculum Con- ference held in Nigeria, however, many changes have been made in the curricula Of the elementary school. As part of the soul searching for the troubles that beset the country18 and partly as the realization of a long overdue step, a National Curriculum Conference was convened in 1969. It was the first time that Nigerians themselves came together to discuss their own system of education. It marked the first time that a search went out for what might be called a national philosophy of education. Among other things the conference recommended that the primary school curriculum should contain ingredients for inculcating national con- sciOusness in the child. This was interpreted as making some measure of educational uniformity desirable across the nation. As a result, a series of workshops were held which resulted in the production of a national report titled Guidelines for Primary School Curriculum 27 (1973). This volume, which was sponsored by the Federal Government, was circulated to all the nineteen states in Nigeria as reference material from which each state could draw to make its own syllabus. In 1975, Anambra state, then part of East Central state, produced a 19 new syllabus based on the federal Guidelines. This new syllabus is the major pillar in the elementary school curricula in Anambra state, as discussed below. The total curriculum, for the following discussion, focuses on four major components: the syllabus (the major aspect), text- books, audio-visual material, and evaluation procedures. 20 The syllabus.--The present syllabus is a lO6-page document prepared by the Ministry of Education as a guide and addressed to the teacher. Some important features which are unique to this par- ticular syllabus are its robust philosophy of Nigerian nationalism, the integrated approach it recommended for Social Studies, and some brand new subject matter areas such as Science and Drama. In its stress on nationalism, it seemed to have lived up to the charge that "our curriculum must help us produce a new generation of Nigerians who appreciate their role as citizens of a united, strong and demo- 21 cratic Nigeria." Further, in an introductory comnent to the syl- labus the East Central State Ministry of Education Observed: A special feature of the new syllabus is the introduction of integrated Social Studies, Modern Mathematics and Cultural and Creative Art. In Social Studies, distinction is no longer made between History, Geography, Civics and Moral Instruction. Modern Mathematics embodies an entirely new approach to Mathe- matics. while Cultural and Creative Art comprises Arts &Crafts, Drama and Music. The Sciences--Primary Science, Agriculture, Health Science and Home Economics--are to be taught from Primary 1.22 28 The purpose of the syllabus is to provide a guide to the teacher. Thus it cOntains a listing of eleven subject matter areas as follows: (1) Language, (2) Mathematics, (3) Social Studies, (4) Primary Science, (5) Agriculture, (6) Home Economics, (7) Physi- cal Education, (8) Health Education, (9) Cultural and Creative Art, (10) Hand Writing, and (11) Religious Knowledge. Each subject listed is followed by a brief comment addressed to the teacher, such as the fOllowing about Language. Language, Igbo or English, is a human activity. The main pur- pose of this activity is to communicate ideas and feelings. . . . Teachers are reminded that for the overwhelming majority of their pupils, Igbo is the first language and English the second. In terms of approach, Igbo should be taught as a mother tongue and English as a second language.23 All the subjects are discussed in considerable detail for each class, including suggestions about which features, units, or components the teacher should stress. Suggestions about materials and techniques to be used are occasionally included. All through the document (i.e., the syllabus) the teacher is urged to use initiative, creativity, and imagination to meet the needs of children in the teaching/learning situation. From discussion with Anambra state Ministry of Education officials,24 the investigator learned that teachers served on the State Curriculum Committee and other subcommittees which contributed ideas toward the production of the syllabus. One can conclude from this that the syllabus was based, at least in part, on the experience of those it was designed to help. 29 Teacher response to the document has been positive generally, and discussions which the investigator held with teachers and school administrators suggest that they approve of the document. The inte- grated approach to social studies particularly seems to make more sense to teachers, as it removes the artificial barriers which separated history from geography and civics. But other areas such as the new'mathematics appear to be causing some anxiety,25 largely it seems because some teachers have not themselves been adequately prepared to teach the required skills. The investigator's overall assessment of the new syllabus is that it is a good working document. She feels, however, that there is an urgent need for the educational authorities to provide support of various types such as seminars and inservice workshops, to enable the teacher to use the syllabus most effectively. . Textbooks.--The following official view on the role of text- books is informative: Textbooks and curriculum revision go hand in hand. Whenever changes occur in the curriculum, textbooks are revised or devised to match the new curriculum. In a developing country like Nigeria where educational technology has not made a great impact in our schools, textbooks constitute the core Of educa- tional material.25 The syllabus discussed above does not contain suggestions of specific textbooks to be used by the teacher or class because school systems are expected to select their own texts from a master list compiled by the Ministry Of Education. Inquiries from the Ministry of 27 Education revealed that the preparation of the textbook master list goes through the following steps: The Ministry invites publishing 30 houses to submit to it copies of their published textbooks. When these are received, they are circulated to Zonal (i.e., divisional) Inspectors of Education who summon teachers and headmasters to review the books. Afterwards, their recommendations are returned to the Ministry of Education, which then compiles the master list based on these. A It is encouraging to note that there is Some teacher input, however small, in developing this aspect of the curriculum, which had hitherto been handled by administrators. It is hoped that this is the beginning of much greater teacher participation in a curriculum area which they should dominate. - Audio-visual aids.--The constant references made to the impor- tance Of visual and other teaching aids in the syllabus discussed above suggest a recognition of the importance of this curriculum com- ponent. Teachers are urged throughout the syllabus to make and use aids such as models, maps, charts, in order to add meaning, attrac- tiveness, and appeal to their lessons. The Anambra State Ministry of Education has a Modern-Aids-tO-Teaching Center, which is presently undergoing reorganization. In the past the Center was involved in producing teaching/learning aids and materials for school broad- casts, but there remains much that the Center can do to support teachers and the schools with teaching aids. Teachers themselves are often hindered from making and using visual aids in their lessons by a host of other handicaps such as lack of financial support, lack ‘ of knowledge, and lack of materials. 31 Evaluation procedure.--The educational system in Anambra state, as in Nigeria as a whole, is examination-oriented. Major examinations are required for transition from one educational stage to another, and for progress from one elementary class to another every child is expected to pass an examination. Naturally, these examinations are fact oriented and teaching follows much the same pat- tern. Bloom's warning that testing “may do more to influence student learning and teacher practices than the other educational procedures that we regard as the substance of education"28 was never more true than in the case of Nigeria. Teacher initiative and creativity are encouraged in theory, but the reality of practice does not provide 1 much scape for them. Some Crucial Issues in Elementary Education The following brief discussion of some issues which the investigator identified as being crucial in elementary education in Anambra state does not represent a consensus of views. It simply reflects the author's own assessment. 1. Problems Of learning in a foreign language. The status of Igbo, the language of the peOple of Anambra state, is uncertain and ill-defined within the elementary school system. Since English is the-language of education and government in Nigeria, the early classes (i.e., grades) of elementary school are taught by a mixture of English and the child's mother tongue. Thereafter, there is a switch to English as the medium of education, and English continues 29 in this capacity for the rest of the educational system. Numerous 32 problems are inherent in this arrangement since neither the teacher nor the children are adequately prepared for the switch. Some of the learning problems created by similar arrangements all over Nigeria have been identified.30 2. Teaching and learning are not perceived as interactive, but as distinctively discrete activities in which the teacher gives and the learner takes. Amidst frequent shortages of basic facili- ties, in situations where teachers are often overworked and under- paid, where adequate knowledge of new and workable teaching strate- gies is frequently lacking, in the absence of research evidence on which to base practice, a warped conception Of teaching and learning is not surprising. In this situation, processes and techniques for exploring child-directed learning are neglected while facts much easier to handle though of much less ultimate value are emphasized. 3. In spite of important changes in the syllabus, the ques- tion of relevance persists. The 1969 National Curriculum Conference noted that "The primary school curriculum must be weighted more heavily on the first order of preparing the majority of children for life, since primary education may turn out to be terminal education for this category."31 But the crucial question of specifying which components of the elementary curriculum constitute "preparation for life" was not and has not been tackled. . 4. Teacher education and the quality of teachers in the nation's schools are basic considerations in any plan to develop a country. In the final analysis, it is the classroom teacher, not the headmaster or the Ministry of Education official, who is the 33 interpreter of the curriculum to the child. In the interactive teaching/learning process, the teacher's conception of the learning experiences which the child should have is vital. The scheme or unit of work, the selected textbook or reader, and the audioévisual mate- rials, in short the curriculum itself, becomes either serviceable and enriching or neither, depending on what type of teacher is mediating it to the child. The younger the child the more critical the teacher's role. This obvious fact provides a compelling reason why the production of well-trained elementary teachers should take priority over many other matters including even the production of a syllabus. Unfortunately, the production of well-trained elementary‘ teachers is rarely a high priority: more often attention is focused on education at other levels. Hanson's obserVation in this regard is perceptive; he said: "Too much primary school teacher education in Africa today is watered down secondary education, with some works 32 in methods and psychology thrown in." Not surprisingly, teachers so trained "do not look at the community and its problems but at a paper syllabus; after all, this is what has dominated their education from their earliest school days through the last days of their pro- n33 fessional training. In the developing countries, the issue of teacher education in relation to educational development constitutes a vicious circle34 and teacher educators, especially at the univer-. ' sity level, are searching for the points at which to break the circle. CHAPTER III REVIEW OF LITERATURE AND RESEARCH This chapter presents a review of literature and research related to the topic of this study.* The chapter is presented under the following subheadings: The Nature of Interests; Variables that Affect Interests: Interests and the Learning Process (reading and media interests): Interest Indices: Curiosities, Wishes, Favorite Activities; and Concern Indices: Aversions, Fears, and Worries. The Nature of Interests: Theoretical Bases1 Interest as a spur to learning is vital at all stages of life. For children, it can make the critical difference between learning and not learning. Kopel has said that: ". . . in the con— stellation of human qualities, which comprise the human personality, none perhaps serves better than interests to characterize a man and 2 Other personality components to distinguish him from his fellows." such as attitudes, values, and habits are also very important but interests permeate them all. It has been said that interests that endure often have special characteristics which are not always found *The investigator could not identify any study related to the topic of this dissertation in which Nigerian or other African children were used. Only one study using Kenyan subjects was found. Thus, the following review is based largely on studies done in America, and on American children. 34 35 in general interests; frequently, too, such interests are varied and mature. "They depict the uniqueness of a person that far excels what may be gleaned from any catalogue of skills or inventory of attitudes."3 Enduring interests reflect the total personality and suggest the individual person's life style. Skill and interests 90 hand in hand. Bruner4 suggested that we become most interested in and perceive as part of ourselves what we control. In other words, skill provides the confidence neces- sary for the development of enduring interests. There appears also to be’a close relationship between interests and values. Kopel observed that the Allport-Vernon-Lindzey "study of values"--an instrument used for the appraisal of values--was in actuality an 5 The structure of this instrument is com- inventory of interests. parable to the six value types described by Spranger in which each type is characterized by a dominant interest. For an example, the economic type has a dominant interest in what is useful, while the religious has a dominant interest in comprehending the unity of the universe. Kopel mentioned that a satisfactory validity has been reported for the "study of values" in numerous instances, which thus supports its use for counseling and vocational guidance. Other factors that affect interest development include age, sex, physical location, and social class. Whatever variable is adopted in an examination of interests is based on its convenience in providing a suitable framework for ordering and evaluating the phenomenon in question. 36 Smith proposed three categories of interest: active, social, and creative. He distinguished between active and passive interests, observing that the former extends the self whereas the latter does not. According to him, active interest has more potential for developing control than passive interest. While the role of social interests lies in helping the individual expand himself such as in developing friendships and interactive skills, creative interests, on the other hand, provide for the develOpment of self-potency, self- understanding, and control. This way, emotions such as fear, anger, and frustration are channeled to constructive ends. From the above, it seems reasonable to conclude that what a person does with an 4 interest is more important than the interest itself. The determinants of interest have been traced back to the origins of basic human needs but are different from needs. Maslow6 prOpounded a theory of five basic needs: the gratification of bodily hungers, safety and security, love and affection, self-respect and 7 social esteem, and self-actualization. Super discussed culture and class, intelligence, aptitude, social expectation, personality needs and values, and physical characteristics as factors determining interests. He condensed these to three interdependent factors which he called aptitude, social expectations, and need or value. He said: All of these combine to determine interests. What a person can do well and what people expect him to do limit the activities in which his needs and values will manifest themselves and the preferences which they lead him to formulate. They limit also the development of his interests. What a person needs and values and what people expect him to do limit the outlets which. he will find and use for his aptitudes. And what a person can do limits his response to social role expectations. No theory 37 of interests which fails to give due emphasis to all three types of factors seems likely to stand the test of time or to prove very helpful to educators. As expressed above, Super provided an effective synthesis of the essential ideas contained in the views referred to earlier. Definition of Interest A recurrent issue in studies of interests has been the lack of a clear definition of what interest actually is. Sylvia Carter8 asserted that a careful analysis of more than fifteen introductory texts used in teaching reading indicated that interest measurements were based on "certain unquestioned theoretical assumptions." Hubbard,9 who conceived interest as a relations study, also noted the lack of clarity in defining interest. According to her the typical "interested“ behavior has the following characteristics: (1) the person willinglyputs forth effort to accomplish a purpose, (2) he will pay attention to that which attracts him, and (3) his behavior towards his goal is persistent. Getzels distinguished between interest and preference, interest and a positive attitude, interest and a drive. He commented: An interest . . ..is not merely a preference. I have a preference for broccoli over asparagus. I have no interest in I either. The difference between a preference and an interest is that the preference is relatively passive while the interest is mentally dynamic. A preference is a readiness to receive one object as against another; it does not induce us to seek out the object. In contrast, the basic nature of interest is that it does induce us to seek out particular objects and activities. Again, despite present usage, an interest, it seems to me, is not merely a positive attitude. I have, for example, a posi- tive attitude toward the Eskimos. I confess that I have no par- ticular interest in them. In contrast, I have a decidedly negative attitude toward the Soviets. But I am keenly interested in them. An attitude implies merely the readiness to react in a 38 particular direction with respect to the given object. We do not ordinarily speak of being driven by an attitude; we are necessarily driven by our interests. Finally, I want to make clear the distinction between a drive and an interest. A drive has its source in a specific physiological disequilibrium and the individual seeks conditions that will reduce the drive or need. An interest has its source in experience and challenges us to exert ourselves even though there's no necessity in any biological sense. Technically speaking, we may say a drive is a function largely of our ipgi- vidual processes, an interest largely of our ego processes. Getzels proceeded to suggest the following definition Of interest: An interest is a characteristic disposition, organized through experience, which impels an individual to seek out particular objects, activities, understandings, skills or goals for atten- tion or acquisition. English and English defined interest as "selective attentiOn to something, an attitude or feeling that an object or event makes a 11 difference, or is of concern to oneself.“ Kopel summarized the foregoing ideas in his own definition thus: "Interests are Objects, relations, skills, goals and activities that actively engage our selective attention."12 He made the important observation that in spite of the foregoing ideas, interest does require effort. He concluded, "what makes an activity interesting is not that it is 'easy' but rather that it is challenging--which means that it pre- sents Obstacles that can be overcome-~necessarily through effort."13 Hurlock said, with regard to the development and acquisition of interests: The child is not born with ready made interests. Instead, interests are an outgrowth of learning experiences. The kind of learning from which an interest develops will determine how satisfying and how persistent the interest is likely to be.14 In summarizing, the foregoing views suggest that interest in adult- hood is closely linked with the personality, providing scope for 39 social and creative growth. Theories of interest go back to the concepts of basic human needs but interests are much more than a preference, a positive attitude, or even a drive. Interests have been defined as Objects, relations, skills, and goals that actively engage human attention. Interests are learned and their develop- ment is affected by certain factors. It is to these factors that we now turn. Variables That Affect Interests 15 Interest is a learned motive, and it is influenced by various factors which impinge on learning. Cultural and social influences regulating such things as sex roles are important in the development of interests. Parents and other adults provide models and opportunities to enable the child to learn and develop interest in what the group considers appropriate, while depriving him Of opportunity to develop interest in those things the group considers inappropriate. Doris Young aptly illustrated this phenomenon when she said that nice little girls, for instance, were not supposed to be interested in mechanical toys or chemistry sets.16 The location in which a child lives also affects the kinds of interests he develOps, depending on opportunities available to him. Hurlock reminded us that opportunities to learn depend upon the environment and the interests of the people, both children and adults, with whom the child is associated. She observed that even already developed interests are subject to extinction through disuse.17 40 Age, a factor in determining physical and mental capaci- ties at any given stage, affects interest development. Matura- tion, cognitive skills which the child has developed at any given developmental stage, enable him to function within the age group, and thus discharge roles and activities appropriate to that age group. Age as a Variable Gessell noted that: Psychically the child inherits nothing fully formed. Each and every part of his nature has to grow--his sense of self; his fears, his affections and his curiosities; . . . his ideas about life and death, crime, man, nature and deity. All his sentiments, goncepts and attitudes are products of growth and experience.1 ' At each stage,maturation and development of cognitive skills enable the child to handle age-appropriate activities in which he could then develop interest. Quite early, young children realize differences in functions and duties according to age. Goodman stated that "the three year old in any society knows his identity as a boy or girl and is rapidly learning what is considered approp- 19 riate behavior for boys and girls, for men and women." Age- dictated interest is strongly reinforced during the middle years of childhood when the peer gang is an extremely strong influence.20 Improvement in motor skills during the middle years contributes to a growing sense of competence, leading to greater peer acceptance, especially among boys.21 In a study involving six, eight, and twelve year olds, 22 Nelson unobtrusively observed the children in free-play situations, 41 and also administered a picture card test. She found that both age and sex were potent factors in determining preferred play groups. Summarizing, as the child develops physically his cognitive skills also grow. At each stage these two facets of growth affect his social activities and interests, which are also influenced by the physical location in which the child lives. Location as a Variable The location in which a person grows up—-rural, city, sub- urban, or small town--tremendously affects the experiences to which he is exposed. Semple said that "location may mean only a single spot and yet from this spot powerful influences may radiate."23 Theron Alexander Observed that "a human being, like any other organism is an object in space: he is surrounded by a milieu with which he "24 interacts. Dubos also noted that: Jets and world television have not altered the fact that rocky hills and alluvial plains, family homesteads and housing develop- ments foster different kinds of people. During the last 40 years, my professional activities as a microbiologist have given me many chances to observe in the laboratory that the character- istics of all living things are deeply affected by the conditions of their lives.25 Opportunity to become interested in some things or lack of such an opportunity is often a function of where one lives or grows up.26 Living conditions, especially in cities, have been of interest to scholars because these conditions affect behavior. Preobrazhensky et al. characterized the city as a body that has "continuous mass contact, vast flow of information and noise, physical passiveness 42 in an artificial and monotonous environment isolated from nature."27 Alexander contended that "the validity of distinguishing between urban versus rural life style lies in the high degree of technology and organization demanded by urban living, which will produce a new type of society in future."28 The emotional implications of physical location were under- lined by Proshansky, who said that physical settings. simple or complex. evoke complex human responses in the form Of feelings, attitudes, values, expectations and desires, and it was in that sense that the relationship to human experience and behavior must be understood.29 Stringer saw the effect of urbanization only in terms of socialrelationships.30 Milgram suggested that the con- trast between city and rural behavior probably reflects the response of similar people to very different situations. In other words, individuals respond adaptively to the city.“ He theorized that urban life style has a detrimental effect on human behavior because the urban environment represents a cognitive overload which results 32 cited studies by in the reduction of human functioning. Skolnick Calhoun and Griffith and Veitch, which showed that high-density conditions lead to aggressiveness, carelessness, and passivity in rats and humans. Urban living is an important factor in human development, and an understanding of its effects is essential for educational planning. Urging this understanding, Dubos said: Since human beings are as much the product of their environ- ment as of their genetic endowment, it is theoretically pos- sible to improve the lot of man on earth by manipulating the 43 environmental factors that shape his nature and condition his destiny. In the modern world, urbanization and technology are certainly among the most important of these factors, and for this reason it is deplorable that so little is done to study their effect on human life.33 Nancy Larrick insisted that if we are to make the best of children's interests, we must know what those interests are at various age levels and in various communities. In a study of fourth graders in communities across the United States, Larrick found that in rural Louisiana every child had a pet, in rural Virginia 86 per- cent did, while in New York City only 10 percent of the children studied had pets. In rural communities, 65 percent of the children mentioned they had most fun while playing, but only 10 percent and 25 percent said so in two New York communities.34 In Summarizing the sources discussed above, we note that the location in which a child grows up determines his Opportunities to learn, his values,.and his interests. City life, with its social tensions and physical pressure, was represented as a cognitive over- load, which has a detrimental effect on human behavior. At least one study suggested that the interests of rural and urban children differ. Sex as a Variable It is not clear when the learning of sex roles starts in children, but certainly long before they enter school.35 The home, the school, and the mass media are contributing institutions in 36 sex role socialization. In almost all cultures boys and girls are expected to conform to certain patterns. 44 Hartley interviewed eight-to-eleven-year-old boys about what they thought adults expected them to do. The responses showed that the boys believed that adults expected them to be noisy, dirty, play rough games, and get into trouble more than girls. They also thought that adults expected girls to stay close to the house, play quietly, keep clean, and be gentle.37 Quite early in the lives of children, the home sets the stage fOr sex role socialization when toys are differentiated for boys and girls. Millar said that only very young boys are allowed to play with their sisters' dolls without ridicule or remonstrance.38 Older girls are discouraged from participating in physically aggresé sive activities and are called "tom boy" when they do, while boys are labeled “sissy" if they avoid rough games in preference for reading and playing the piano.39 1 Liebert, McCall, and Hanratty investigated first graders' . toy preferences. The investigators told the children that members of their own sex preferred certain toys and thereafter the children were asked to make their own selection. The result showed that each group of children tried to match its own sex in toy selection, but knowledge of what the opposite sex preferred had no effect.40 Montemayor used sex preference as a behavioral index of performance level. Games labeled sex-appropriate, sex-neutral, and sex-inapprOpriate were played by children aged six to eight. Per- fOrmance results scores for both boys and girls were highest on those labeled sex-appropriate, intermediate on those labeled sex- neutral, and lowest on those labeled sex-inappropriate.41 45 If the home is the basic sex role educator, the school rein- forces the efforts of the home. Certain so-called "soft" subject matter areas such as the humanities are habitually associated with girls, while such others as woodwork and mechanics are the domain of boys. Some musical instruments are considered more suitable for girls than for boys. According to Levy and Stacy, in dividing chores within the classroom, girls water the plants and boys move the chairs.42 Summarizing, sex role socialization, a common feature in most human cultures, is promoted by social institutions such as the home, the school, and mass media. Following these socially expected patterns, quite early in their lives young children learn to base their activities and interests on socially accepted standards. In turn their preference for a learning modality is often based on' their interests. Interests and the Learning Process Interest as an important factor in the learning process has led to many studies on the topic. Doris Young observed that "although much has been written about children's interests, teachers continue to ask questions regarding the factor of interest in plan- 43 In a similar ning the educative process for and with children." vein, Virgil Howe noted that "interest is an all important basis of learning whatever the particular level of competence may be. But when moved by a high degree of interest, children show increased energy to work persistently at reading until satisfaction is gained from accomplishment."44 46 During the first part of this century, studies Of children's interests were of the general type. Researchers in those days used various techniques such as indices of children's interests like the "three wishes"; the interest inventory, collecting and keeping records of children's questions, and "I wonder about . . ." were also utilized to get at children's general interests. Research of this type is reviewed below under Interest Indices. Since the 1960's, however, studies of children's interests have become more special- ized; today investigators in this area tend more and mOre to concen- trate on specific interests such as reading interests, television interests, story or poetry preferences, and the like. Following is. a review of literature and research on children's reading interests. Reading Interests In the Final Report of the National Endowment for the Humani- 45 ties Project, the authors reviewed reading interest research. They showed that from the point of view of methodology, interest was often poorly defined. Their review showed that methods used in reading interest studies included the checklist, observation, interview, and the questionnaire. In a survey Of reading interest studies since '1900, McKay46 found the questionnaire the most often used method. 47 Another study by Lehtovaara and Saarinen using 2000 Finnish pre- adolescents and adolescents compared the merits of four techniques-- questionnaire, fictitious-title booklists, text sample, and paired comparison. They found that the booklist and text sample had the 48 closest correspondence. When Kiser studied the effectiveness of 47 measuring elementary students' attitude towards reading by means of the San Diego County Inventory of Reading Attitude, he found one part of the instrument more effective for girls, the other part more effective for boys. This suggests that certain techniques could be more effective for certain groups than for others. Some research studies on what children actually enjoyed reading showed that reading interest areas changed with age, but many studies also found similarity in reading interests throughout the elementary years. A typical list of elementary students' read- 49 ing interests compiled by Broening showed in order of decreasing interest: adventure, fairy tales, making things, humor, biography, 50 true-event stories, and animals. Witty, Coomer, and McBean found that pupils in the first two grades preferred subject matter about animals, nature, fantasy, and characters as children. Similar results were Obtained by Nelson and Consuelo.51 On the basis of his findings, Curley concluded that as pupils in the third and fourth grades lose interest in animal stories they become more interested in stories of adventure, familiar experiences, 52 and nature. . According to Terman and Lima, by the fourth and fifth grades reading interests tend to become more fixed.53 By about fourth or fifth grade war adventure, travel, and mystery stories capture the interest of boys, while girls prefer westerns and animal stories: at the approach of puberty, love stories dominate girls' reading as sex differences become more pronounced in reading inter- ests. Intelligence has been mentioned as a factor that affects 54 ~reading interests. According to Thorndike, the more intelligent 48 children lose interest in less saphisticated material sooner than the less intelligent. Cultural and prevailing influences, for example space travel, have also been noted to influence children's reading interest since the 1960's. . Some studies have been concerned with the literary forms children prefer. Generally, elementary children seem to prefer 55 literary forms to nonliterary forms. Peltola found in a study of 3,176 children that fourth and sixth graders chose more stories classified as "real" than those classified as "make-believe," but more sixth graders chose more "real" stories than fourth graders, Suggesting a develOpmental trend from fantasy interests to interests in real life stories or possibly in realistic treat- ments. . . . The findings do suggest that primary students perceive their reading, for the most part, as entertainment-- the more successful action plot in gripping their attention or making them laugh the more they like it. Another factor is that primary children tend to prefer a form that does not con- fine ggem, which allows free extensions of vicarious experi- ence. It appears that in general poetry as a literary form is not popular with elementary children but certain kinds are more popular than others. Poems retaining elements of prose, action, and humor are preferred to sentimental, didactic, or subtle poetry. It is interesting to note that the appearance of a book affects its appeal to children. Elder and Carpenter57 reported that books with smaller print are construed as belonging to more "grown up" people. Illustrations were found very important to kinder- garteners. Books were especially favored if illustrations were 158 lifelike or depicted action. Rowland and Hi1 found from their study of reading selection behavior that more Caucasian children 49 selected books illustrated with their own racial features than did black children. Among personal determinants of reading interests, researchers have found sex, IQ, and age as significantly related to sophistica- 59 tion of reading interest. Terman and Lima indicated that elemen- tary school students' interests show a definite development by grade level. They said: Researchers have found a close conformity of interest to grade level. Children at all age levels maintain interest in chil- dren their own age. The identification at earlier ages is with fantasy figures, usually animals, who represent childlike experiences, while the more realistic stories popular with Older elementary school children portray peers undergoing unknown or suspenseful adventures. 6] confirm sex as A number of studies such as those by Norvell the most important determinant of differences in reading interests. According to Norvell, girls read more and mature earlier in reading ability. Before age nine there is generally little sex difference in reading interest but thereafter, differences become important. Purves and Black commented: One explanation for differences between the sexes in the ele- . mentary grades is identification with sex-related characters-- a phenomenon also explaining sex differences in literary response studies. Another might be sex-role stereotypes. Peltola's study63 found sharp sex differences among fourth and sixth graders in the types of characters the children preferred. Klein's64 study, in which he made boys and girls rate the same char- acters, revealed that boys and girls reacted to the same characters in distinctly different ways. Other factors identified as influencing reading interest include availability of books, socioeconomic and ethnic factors. 50 Since most of the studies were done with white children, not much difference was found between the different ethnic groups. But sig- nificant differences have been found between blacks and whites in 65 in which interests as shown by the Rowland the Hill study, Caucasians chose significantly more books illustrated with their racial features than blacks did of black-feature-illustrated books. Little difference was found between rural, suburban, and 66 67 metrOpolitan students from the studies of Shores, and Rudman, others. The influence of peers, parents, and teachers has also been noted in reading interest development. These people not only recommend books for reading, but serve as models of emulation. Getzels68 suggested that modeling affects reading interests more than instruction. He also believed that parents appear to know more about children's reading interests than teachers. In an analytic study of why children, particularly six to eight year olds, like fairy tales, Andre Favat69 used Piaget's child development theory to build a relationship between interest in fairy tales and the child's psychological state. Favat referred to studies by Arbuthnot and Sutherland as additional evidence in support of his contention. He maintained that.modern youngsters, surrounded as they are by mechanical gadgets and scientific wonders, are still spellbound by the magic of the fairy tales. He found fairy tales most popular between ages six and eight, followed by a decline in interest concurrent with which a new interest in stories of reality *emerges. Favat asserted that at each stage of development children turn to different kinds of reading to achieve whatever gratification 51 they need. Among the conclusions he reached from his study were the following: Fairy tales embody an accurate representation of the child's conception of the world; children younger than eight are attracted to fairy tales because the tales by their form and content reaffirm children's original, simplistic conception of the world as a stable and gratifying universe. Studies reviewed above indicate that methods used in reading interest studies have included inventories, questionnaires, cheCk- lists, observations, and interviews. Children's reading interests change with age, and while animal stories are most popular with young children, older children have been found to enjoy humor, adventure, and true-situation stories. From about age eight or nine, reading interests begin to be affected by sex. Westerns and animal stories are enjoyed by girls at this stage until love stories dis- place them during the teen years. Boys like stories of adventure, war, and travel. Poetry in simple form is enjoyed by most children and, on the whole, girls read more than boys. Illustrations and appearance of books are among factors that determine book popularity. Other factors that influence children's reading include race, socio- economic status, availability of books, and significant individuals such as parents and teachers. Interest in the fairy tale, paramount up to age eight, is explained to be psychologically linked with childhood developmental patterns. Media Interests In recent years the influence of mass media, especially television, on children and in particular on their behavior has been 52 a source of concern to both parents and educators in the United States. The status of television in Nigeria has already been referred to. As of now its impact on the society is minimal and this investigator knows of no study dealing with the effect of television on any aspect of child development in Nigeria. Thus all the studies reviewed below refer to the United States. The Report to the Surgeon General, Television and Growing 70 observed that much of the time children spend today watching 11.2. television is simply the time earlier generations of children devoted to such media as movies and radio, to social activities, play with other children, daydreaming, listening to adult conversation, and other unsupervised activities. It continued: "Important changes in children's psychological functioning may result from this redis- 71 tribution of their time in waking hours experience." Studies have shown that children spend an unusually high proportion of their out- of-school time in front of television screens. In a study of play 72 noted that mass media constituted the most and recreation, Witty popular leisure activity of children and youth. In order of prefer- ence, television and radio consume more of children's time than anything else. In another study in which he summarized studies of children's 73 interests, Witty noted that prior to the television, children spent two or three hours daily reading or listening to the radio. Atten- dance at movies was once or twice weekly. In terms of favorite movies, Disney productions, cowboys, and pilots were rated among the 74 most popular. In another study, Witty et al. reported that before 53 1960, children in grades three to nine were spending eight hours each week listening to the radio, younger children averaging fewer hours than older children. By 1960, television was being rated highest among children's favorite pursuits. The authors observed, in relation to this phenomenon: We may observe the marked influence of mass media upon the lives of children and youth. A problem of primary signifi- cance in teaching reading implies the recognition of this force as well as the importance of efforts to utilize inter- ests awakened through mass media.75 A U.S. Office of Education supported study by Northwestern Univer- sity76 showed that children in grades three to nine devoted 1.1 hours daily to reading, while much more was spent on television. Much of the reading was fiction: science fiction was preferred by boys and girls enjoyed romance. Very little time outside school was spent reading. 77 78 Studies by Bailyn and Miller revealed that sixth graders spend time, most to least, watching television, reading comic strips, reading books, reading comic books, listening to radio, and lastly going to movies. Bailyn noted that students fall into two groups-~those utilizing mostly verbal modalities and those using media modalities. The Report to the Surgeon General79 noted that by first grade, children have spent hundreds of hours watching televi- sion, and know the system so well that a majority of boys and girls exhibit individual taste in television program selection and prefer- ences for characters. Among younger children, situation comedies and ’cartoons are most pOpular, while sixth graders prefer family situa- tion comedies, adventure, and-music variety programs. Tenth 54 graders enjoy adventure and music variety programs. Children and adults alike are attracted to programs featuring characters their own age. The report concluded, "The propensity to view television changes as the individual goes through the major stages Of matura- tion." Feeley's80 investigations revealed that children generally preferred watching television to reading. He adminiStered an inven- tory of fifty items based on annotated fictitious titles to 250 boys and 282 girls of mixed races in grades four and five in New Jersey. Analysis of the results showed that while race was not a strong fac-_ tor in content-interest determination, socioeconomic status and sex were. Consistent with previous research, Feeley found that girls liked to read more than boys: children from lower socioeconomic families spent more time watching television than reading. Overall, all children preferred watching television to reading. 8] study of children's television-watching Nancy Larrick's habits revealed that three to five year olds average fifty-four hours of television watching each week; the average pre-kindergartener spends 65 percent of waking time in front of a television screen; by the time he graduates from high school he has spent roughly 11,000 hours in school and double those watching television. Regarding the probable effects of television violence on children, Larrick referred to a University of Arizona study which found that by the age of fourteen the average American child has seen more than 18,000 human beings killed on television. 55 Cox82 had fourth and fifth graders rate twenty-four short films. On analyzing the rating she found that the children liked best those films depicting realistic settings: sex was not a factor in film preference, but race and socioeconomic status were moderately associated with film preference. Narrative, live-action films were the most pOpular. Summarizing, children spend a large part of their out-Of- school time watching television--thus depleting time previously spent on other interests such as reading, radio listening, movies, or con- versing with adults. Early, children show preferences in television program selection as a result of precocious familiarity with the tele- vision. Younger children prefer situation comedies and cartoons, older children enjoy family programs, while adolescents prefer music variety programs. Children from lower socioeconomic families spend more hours watching television than other children. c Other Interests One of the earliest studies of vocational interest was made in 1898 when Monroe asked eight-to-ten-year-Old children in Massa- chusetts what they would like to do when they grew up. The greater majority of girls indicated teaching, while only 8 percent expressed interest in other professions such as medicine and law. This was in contrast to Jersild'583 finding when he studied 400 eight-to-twelve- year-old children. About half of Jersild's subjects expressed an 84 interest in Occupations within the professions. Witty noted that even though the vocational interests of elementary school children 56 were often unrealistic, such strong interests may be usefully exploited in planning programs to motivate children. In a study of play and recreation, Witty85 reported that games and sports of all kinds were mentioned. More boys than girls reported making things such as tables, shelves, and clothing. More girls than boys were taking music lessons and playing musical instru- ments. A considerable number of students studied had home chores: more girls than boys had duties such as washing dishes. Reading time was about an hour and a third daily, more girls than boys read- ing and more books being read by girls. Fiction, especially science fiction, was enjoyed by boys, while girls enjoyed romance, mystery, 1 and humor. In reading newspapers, the comic strips of the superman and thriller variety were enjoyed by boys more than by girls. Boys reported reading more magazines than girls, who read more stories from books. MacAuley86 studied the social studies interests of grades one, two, and three pupils in eastern Pennsylvania. First graders were found to express interest about environments different from their own; second graders wanted information about their country's history; third graders inquired about the life styles of peOple in other countries. Jobe's87 study of ninety boys and girls from grades two, four, and six showed that when given freedom to select topics for creative writing, main areas Of selection were fantasy, animals, and personalities, in that order. Sources reviewed above showed that girls expressed prefer- ence for teaching over other professions. More boys than girls had 57 other leisure interests such as making things and sports, but more girls than boys played musical instruments and took music lessons. In social studies, interest in other peoples and how they lived was dominant among elementary school children. When allowed to select their own creative writing topics, tOpics selected predominated in fantasy, animals, and personalities. Interest Indices Curiosities Curiosity is demonstrated by wonder and an interest to find out more about something. Hence, curiosity is a promoter of learn- - ing and more powerfully of self-teaching. Watson Observed, “Curios- ity certainly plays a basic part as an instigator to learning."88 Children are incurably curious, wantingto look, touch, and ask about whatever they come across. Rogers made an insightful obser- vation when he stated, "Children are living question marks. Froebel and Pestallozzi wisely provided training programs to capitalize for educational purposes this insistent curiosity." Investigators of children's curiosities have used various methods. Byers89 tape recorded unstructured sharing time of first graders in rural and urban communities. When ranked, the most fre- quently expressed curiosities were science and nature, with boys showing slightly more interest than girls. Thompson90 collected children's questions from teachers and parents and found an incredible variety. Two hundred twenty-eight questions (the highest) were recorded for geography, and seven for penmanship. Nature study, music, and art appreciation were among sixteen other headings reported. 58 Thompson concluded that the scope of thinking in the average class- room was broad. He suggested the use of children's questions as a basis for determining the curricula and methods of approaching subject matter. Davisgl analyzed the questions of children between three and twelve collected by their mothers. Eighty-three percent of the questions seemed to result from the immediate situation, com- pared with 11 percent from remote events. The curiosity of boys and girls indicated by their questions seemed to be very similar, with differences increasing with age. Preoccupation with aspects of human life, causality, classification, and social relations was common. Beggs92 reported a study in which questions of children under eleven were collected. Among the topics on which questions were asked were the sun, stars, moon, lightning, and other natural forces. Other questions dealt with the earth--its shape, size, interior, etc. Next to desire to know about natural science was curiosity about making things, animals, and plants; present-day practices and their origin were also of interest to the children. In a comprehensive study of children's questions, Baker93 analyzed 9,280 questions written by 1,531 elementary school children in grades three through six. As in the other studies, curiosity ranged over broad areas: from animal life with 12.2 percent, to riddles with 0.23 percent, and daydreaming with 0.18 percent. The investigator noted that breadth of curiosity expanded as the grades advanced: that many curiosities were common through grades three to six: that children were interested in the origins and causes of 59 natural and social phenomena; that nearly 50 percent of questions fell within the general social studies area; and that nearly 38 percent called for scientific information. He concluded that to meet the subject matter needs of children in the elementary school, teachers need a rich background of information in the social studies and biological and physical sciences. Rudman94 studied 6,313 fourth through eighth grade children by asking them to write the questions they would ask a very good friend who could answer any question. Questions dealing with reli- gion, ethics, and values ranked highest, followed by those dealing with school; science questions ranked third. A dramatic increase in concern with personal problems, especially those dealing with boy- girl relationships and vocations, was noted as children approached puberty. Dawson95 found that curiosity about animals decreased as children increased in age. Symonds asked adolescents to rate fifteen areas of life concerns in the order in which they would like to learn more about them. Girls showed more interest in personal accomplish- ments and relationships, while boys showed greatest interest in health, safety, money, study, recreation, and civic affairs. Con- cluding his review of literature on curiosity, Crippen noted, "In general, it appears that children's curiosities range from the wonders of nature and animals during the early elementary years to a more pronounced interest in personal and social relationships as 'they approach puberty."96 60 It is interesting to note the relationship between curiosity and fear. Among the objects young children fear are animals, and at the same time they constitute an object of curiosity. William James observed that "curiosity and fear form a couple of antagonistic emo- tions liable to be awakened by the same outward things." Other studies with infants, such as those of C. W. Valentine,97 showed that certain noisy toys both fascinated and frightened infants. . Crippen98 reported from his study of 235 Kenya elementary school pupils that applied science ranked highest as the area of greatest curiosity. The pupils also expressed curiosity about reli- gion, academics, animals, human behavior, and languages. I Summarizing, curiosity, a quality common to children, is characterized by wonder and interest to find out. Collection and analysis of children's questions are among procedures used in study- ing curiosity. Results of studies showed broad areas about which children were curious. It ranged from wonders of nature and animals to personal and social relationships. There appears to be a rela- tionship between curiosity and fear. Wishes A study of a child's wishes can reveal valuable'information about his personality, interests, and ambition. Rose Zeligs99 Observed that the wish is a useful instrument for studying character, personality, and knowledge. Hurlock said: A study Of children's wishes gives clues to their interests. When asked what they would like to have if they could have anything they wanted, most state frankly wishes for things which interest them most. An analysis of those wishes gives 61 a clue to the personality of the child, as well as state of maturity he has attained.100 Children's wishes reveal their personality but even more importantly they reveal their own concept of life, their inner longings, beliefs, ambitions, and dreams. Jersild, an authority in children's wishes research, noted: A person's wishes directly or indirectly reveal something concerning his outlook on life and what he wants from it. For this reason, findings with regard to wishes children :licggefi‘might tell us much that is significant for educa- Wishes are concerned with the ambitions of the wisher. They are, therefore, based on his experience and knowledge. The background of‘ the wisher, therefore, has everything to do with the wishes. In this regard, Wilson said: "Culture and socioeconomic background as well as chronological age affect peOple's wishes, probably both in very early and in late life."102 Many investigators of children's interests have used the ”wish technique," asking the child to name three wishes which he would ask if they would come true. Zeligs103 investigated the wishes and worries of twelve year olds by identifying their most common wishes. Personal possessions and pleasure, social, family, and welfare matters were most frequently mentioned. With regard to sex differences, Zeligs found that while boys were interested in personal development and political progress, girls wished for family welfare. The thirty-five most commonly expressed wishes constituted 68 percent Of all wishes expressed. They included desire for world peace, health, and long life. 62 104 105 Milgram, 106 Studies by Paul Boynton, and Witty showed that early grade children's wishes were dominated by material objects and possessions. Jersild's study}07 while confirming the results mentioned above, showed that such wishes decreased as grades advanced. He reported that 55 percent of five and six year olds, 48 percent of seven and eight year olds, 26 percent of nine and ten year olds, and 14 percent of eleven and twelve year olds wished for material posses- sions. In another investigation, Jersild108 studied 2,248 children from all twelve grades representing large city, small city, suburban, and small town communities in the Midwest, South, and around New York City. The Springfield Interest Finder was administered to all the children and among other things, Jersild found that younger children expressed more wishes for material possessions than Older children; older children expressed more concern about others, though the concerns were usually self-centered since they involved people whose fortunes were tied up with the children's. He observed: Our findings suggest that young peOple are so closely bound to currents in their own personal lives that even after a trying war [World War II] it occurs to hardly any of them 1159 devote one of their three wishes to peace for all manklnd. Jersild commented that his findings here one indication of the dif- ficulty education faces in encouraging children to encompass realistically within their own thinking the fact that "their own welfare and the welfare of their immediate community are tied in this atomic age to the welfare of all mankind." When Jersild com- pared his findings with those of Serhan,no he observed that children 63 did not always relate needs and worries to their wishes. He com- mented: "It occurs to very few children who are burdened with fears to wish that they could be rid of them or could acquire the power within themselves to cope with them."]]] Wishes for material possessions appear to decrease as chil- dren grow older. Milgram”2 noted that 52 percent of the wishes of first graders were for pets, toys, and food, while only 12 percent of fourth graders and no sixth graders wished for such things. As children grow older, wishes for material possessions become replaced with mOre abstract wishes such as for happiness or well- being, vocational and educational success. The truth of this develop- mental concept is well illustrated in Krumgold's And Now Miguel.H3 According to Miguel, all that his seven-year-old younger brother needed for happiness was a fish, six inches long. But for Miguel, who was older, life was "a great deal of trouble." The longing to follow the sheep with the elders in his family was a desire so great that it over-shadowed all other wishes. MilgramH4 found that whereas 8 percent of first graders included vocational and educational aspira- tions in their wishes, 20 percent of fourth graders did. Gray”5 found only fifth and sixth graders expressing wishes relating to edu- 116 noted that wishes to succeed in school ranked cation. Zeligs third among sixth graders, while those for health ranked second. . Wishes for the well-being of parents were noted as being high among grades five and six children in Jersild's study.”7 According to Zeligs,“8 wishes for family health ranked second, family happi- ness fourth, and long life for the family fifth, while those for 64 119 120 father's success in business ranked sixth. Jersild and Boynton both noted a higher frequency of wishes for better living conditions among older than among younger children. Wishes for animals which were common among lower grade children tapered off in the higher grades, according to Witty.]2] Among upper grade children, wishes for benefits for others, few among lower grade children, increased d122 123 Studies by Nelson”4 and Gray125 showed that black children, according to Jersil and Milgram. especially younger ones, wished for a car more than anything else. This wish for a car, 36 percent in first grade, decreased to 6 per- cent in sixth grade, again illustrating the effect of age. Regarding sex differences, Witty126 and Zeligs‘27 reported that girls made more wishes for clothing and dolls than did boys, who preferred trains. Girls wished for school success more than ‘28 studied the dreams and Wishes of ele- boys. When Witty and Kopel mentary school children, they found among K-8 children a preponder- ance of wishes for recreational equipment; 37 percent of all wishes were for material objects. Boys expressed more wishes for wealth, travel, and proficiency, while girls ranked travel higher than wealth. As in the Jersild study, Witty and Kopel found that wishes for success or proficiency in school were infrequent. Speers129 compared the wishes of rural and city children. He found that rural children had fewer choices because of a narrower sphere of activities. Boys wished to have more things than girls, while the wishes of girls related more to other peOple than those of boys. Younger children wished for more things than Older children. 65 Crippen130 found from his study of Kenyan children that almost a third of the total wishes were for specific objects or possessions, while wishes for education and employment were also frequent. In summary, the expressed wishes of a child reveal aspects of his personality, particularly what interests, hopes, and ambi- tions he has. Studies discussed above show that the wishes of younger children are dominated by material objects such as pets, sporting and games equipment, clothes, and toys. As children grow older, wishes become more abstract and socially conscious. Children do not always relate their needs to their wishes. Some studies indi- cated that girls wished for more things, especially clothing, than 4 boys; they also expressed more wishes for success in school. Favorite Activities An individual's personality can partially be revealed in leisure interests and activities. Based on what is available, chil- dren tend to select those activities which are most interesting and stimulating to them. Thus the favorite activities of children are those they most enjoy doing and to many children, this is play in one form or another.]31 From adult perspective, this might look like work, for instance a child dressing himself; but in reality, this might be play to the child. Hurlock said that: Play is a term so loosely used that its real significance is apt to be lost. It relates to any activity engaged in for the enjoyment it gives, without consideration of end result. It differs from work, which is an activity toward an end, in which the individual carries out the activity not because he enjoys it, but because he wants the end result.132 66 Sutton-Smith133 suggested that in his play the young child is seen as revealing his "world construction" and the time-space pat- tern of his life; he tries in play to construct that life-space. The concept advanced by Stone134 that play draws the child into the larger society is even more suited to our purpose in this study. Gessell and 119's135 develOpmental chart indicated that six year olds elaborate and expand five-year-old play interests to include independent play. Seven year olds show more intensive interest in some activities and have fewer new ventures. Eight year olds prefer group play and variety. Separate play for boys and girls begins to develop. The nine year old plays hard, often to the point of fatigue. He enjoys planning his own activities, organized clubs, and collecting things such as stamps. Jersild and Tasch136 found outdoor play, games, and sports the favorite activities of the elementary school child. In his study of first and second grade girls, Lehman137 noted that doll play ranked highest among black and second highest among white first and second grade girls. After ' age twelve, interest drOpped drastically in doll play among girls in both racial groups. Foster138 reported that games involving catching, throwing, and kicking were popular throughout the elementary school. Fleeing and chasing were also popular among elementary school children, with a peak among seven-year-old groups. By age seven or eight, interest in hide and seek, folk dances, and ring games was reported to have .5139 dropped sharply. Furfey study Of New York boys showed that high-activity games such as cops and thieves and tag were very 67 popular among young boys, but interest in such games dropped sharply at the onset of puberty. Lehman and Witty140 found similar results in their study of over 5000 children. Girls were reported to lose interest in cutting paper things, running races, skipping, and tag games at the approach Of puberty. McCullough14] found watching tele- vision the favorite activity of upper-elementary children. When Selig142 asked more than 200 fourth graders what they would do if they could do anything they wanted, play activities ranked just slightly higher than school work, followed by reading, then helping at home with chores, and lastly working for money. From a study of some Kenyan elementary school pupils, Crippen143 reported that academics was the most frequently named favorite activity by all pupils, followed by home duties, games, and sports. In summarizing the sources reviewed above, we note that leisure-time activities represent a person's area of interest. To many children, this is play. What adults consider work might be play to children, who learn and grow in social understanding from play. Children have different play interests from age to age. Out- door and high-activity games involving fleeing, catching, and kicking, which are popular among elementary school boys, lose their attraction at the onset of puberty. 0011 play, much enjoyed by girls, also becomes uninteresting to them at about age twelve. Some studies also showed that studying, reading, and home chores were among favorite activities named by children. 68 ‘Concern Indices Concerns include those happenings or situations which make a person uneasy. Thus the concerns of the learner are just as important as his interests. Indeed, a concern can be a source of motivation, making the learner want to learn about a certain happen- ing or object. In this context, Fantini and Weinstein observed: Irrelevance occurs if the concerns of the learners are ignored. Concerns are the most persistent, pervasive threads of under- lying uneasiness the l?arners have about themselves and their relation to the world. 44 Studies of concerns have included aversions, fears, worries, inap- propriate activities, and other harbingers of anxiety. Below, literature and research related to aversions, worries, and fears are reviewed. Aversions Aversion can be considered as a negative interest, but whereas interest attracts a person towards itself, aversion repels. Concerning human interests, Guilford stated: This conception is sufficiently broad to include negative attractions (aversions) as well as positive ones, which means that dimensions in the domain of interest can be bipolar. The definition adOpted indicates an gbvious rela- tion to motivation. This is as it should be.1 5 Fryer Observed that living creatures respond to the environment by active degrees of interest or aversion, by movements toward or away 146 from the exciting stimulus. This phenomenon should be of rele- vance to education. 147 Zeligs found that among sixth graders some of the most annoying situations at home included making parents unhappy, 69 scoldings, and spankings. Boys indicated that they hated being scolded and even more being spanked for things they did not actually do. Girls disliked spankings and making parents, especially mother, angry. The most frequent responses from boys, when asked to list things that annoyed or irritated them, were: "being blamed for something I didn't do," "people who cheat," and "unfair things." Among girls, the most frequently mentioned were the following: "seeing peOple get killed," "being accused of something I didn't do," and "being called a cheater." Thomas'148 study showed that among Indonesian children, 4 percent of the fourth graders, 5 percent of the fifth graders, and 19 percent of the sixth graders disliked an unruly class. Nine percent in the fourth grade, 14 percent in the fifth grade, and 20 percent in the sixth disliked quarreling. Zeligs149 reported that sixth grade boys were most easily irritated by bicycle breakdowns, bad smells, and Obligations to do things they would rather not do. Girls hated being unable to play outside, having their hair pulled, bicycle breakdowns, and flat tires. Crippen150 found that among Kenyan children studied, physi- cal aggression was the issue of greatest aversion. Differences appear to exist between the dislikes of younger and older children. JersildIS] noted that 13 percent of five and six year olds disliked animals and bugs,while only 3 percent of eleven and twelve year olds did. Older children's aversions seem ' to be concerned more with disturbances in the personal/social 7O relations plane, such as quarreling, unruly behavior, and undesir- able traits in peOple. Summarizing, aversion is a negative interest leading the individual to avoid the Object or phenomenon. Animals, making parents unhappy, punishment considered unfair, quarreling, and the bullying of younger by older children were among the major areas of aversion reported in research literature. Younger children disliked animals and bugs more than older children, who disliked disturbance of personal social relationships. Fears and Worries Anxiety, a complex emotional condition, can be the result of a combination of some or all of fear, worry, apprehension, inse- curity, and suspicion, among other emotions. The anxiety of young children is dominated by fear of things present or imagined, but as they grow Older, "naked fear" changes to worry. Watson said that the term worry "aptly expresses the shift away from overt naked fear that takes place during childhood in the direction of more complex ".15?- derivatives from it. It is probable that inability to under- stand the concept, ”future," reduces worry for the younger child. ‘53 studied children aged two and six and found that Hayman the most common fears were of dogs, doctors, storms, and darkness. When Jersild154 asked the following: -"Tell me about things that scare you, things that frighten you, tell me what makes you afraid," more than a quarter of five and six year olds named various animals; 20 percent mentioned supernatural events and beings; 11 percent named the dark, being alone, strange sights and deformities of 71 of various kinds; about 6 percent mentioned nightmares and appari- tions. ‘ Witty155 found the greatest fears of grades one and two children to be animals followed by the dark, storms, and fire. According to the results of Maurer's study,156 children aged five and eight feared animals most, then machines, supernatural beings, 157 people who might harm them, and the dark. Pratt found that among K-4 children, fears included fear of nature, such as storms and wind; fears of weapons, electricity, fire, vehicles, the dark, the super- natural, and graveyards. Studies of older children reveal a shift from simple fears 158 to more sophisticated emotions such as worry. Angelino reported from a study of 1100 pupils aged between nine and eighteen that the five greatest sources of worry were related to school, safety, social relations, animals, economical and political matters. 159 Pintner found that the greatest worry of grades five and six 160 pupils was failing a test.' Zeligs' results showed that "school marks and reports? constituted the second greatest worry of sixth graders. Health worries were also common among upper-elementary p“9115: as reported by Pintner and Lev.]61 In Crippen's162 study using Kenyan children, he reported that fear of animals was the most frequently mentioned by all chil- dren studied. Anxiety related to death accounted for nearly one- fifth of the anxiety responses. Illness ranked high; academics, natural hazards, future employment, and aggression were also reported as causing anxiety. Helms and Turner163 noted that during the middle 72 years of childhood lfears of personal safety and animals decline while fears relating to school, social relationship and economic difficulties increase." In summarizing the sources reviewed above, we note that anxiety is usually in the form of “naked fear" for young children, but that as children grow older and are able to understand the con- cept of future, worry becomes an important emotion. Animals, the dark, and natural disasters such as storms were frequently reported as causes of fear in younger children. For older children, worries relating to school success and social relationships were often reported. Summary In this chapter, a review of literature and research related to the study was presented. Sources reviewed showed the following: theories about the origin of interests were related to theories of basic human needs; variables that affect interest development include age, sex, and physical lOcation; children's interests have been identified through their reading and television preferences, their curiosities, wishes, and favorite activities. Children's concerns include their aversions, worries, 'and fears. Several studies reported that both age and sex affect read- ing interests. Before the age Of eight or nine children enjoy fairy tales, stories about animals, nature, and fantasy. From about the age of nine, war, adventure, travel, and mystery stories become more popular with boys, while girls at this stage prefer western and animal stories, until adolescence when love stories predominate the reading 73 interest of girls. Television viewing, reported as the elementary child's favorite activity, depletes time devoted to other interests. Younger children enjoy situational comedies and cartoons, while older children prefer family situation.comedies, and music variety pro— grams. Reports from studies of children's curiosity showed much variety, but science, nature, social relations, religion, animals, and plants were among the most frequently mentioned areas of curiosity. Curiosity about animals and nature appeared more common with younger children, whereas personal and social relationship matters seemed to excite the curiosity of children as they approached puberty. Chil-4 dren's wishes were dominated by personal possessions, although older children also expreSsed more wishes about school success, sOcial relationships, and the future. Apart from television, the favorite activities of children included play in various forms, reading, and helping with home chores. Among the aversions of elementary school children, research reviewed above identified the following: being unjustly accused or punished, scolding or spanking, and making parents unhappy, which appeared to be particularly disliked by girls. Older children were reported as showing more aversion to a disturbance in personal social relationships than younger children. Apprehension in younger chil- dren took the form of fear of animals, the supernatural and the strange, darkness and storms, while worries about school work, social relationships, and the future were reported for Older children. CHAPTER IV METHODOLOGY AND DESIGN The purpose of the study was to determine the interests and concerns of elementary school children in Anambra state, Nigeria. Six concepts: Curiosities, Wishes, Favorite Activities (interests), Aversions, Worries, and Fears (concerns) were used as measuring indices to gather data. An open-ended questionnaire embodying the‘ above six concepts was the major research instrument which was administered to the subjects by means of structured individual inter- views. This chapter is divided into four sections:1 the Population and Sample, Research Instruments Used, Procedure, and Research Design. Population and Sample The population for this study consisted of the elementary school pupils in Anambra state, Nigeria, the investigator's home state. The sample, made up of 530 pupils, was selected in such a way as to enable the investigator to observe the effects of the following three variables: physical location, age, and sex on the expressed interests and concerns of the subjects. In order to examine the effects of physical location, samples were taken from rural and urban locations. Three rural and three urban locations were selected in order to include as diverse 74 75 LOCA TIONS S I UD/ED ANAMBRA STATE SHOWING URBAN AND RURAL ANA/VERA WITHIN NIGER/A f \‘ 3 Q- .0“:an "_ fl, _ _ + _, -n-l 0 x/ I , 4" SCALE meadow ,1 4. is a 1‘ 32 u um- (@URBAN ’ w \‘rORURAL ’ .l- x r’ x 1*“3‘ ’1 OBUKPAX BENUE 2: \‘»~ 1"-” *~ / (I NSUKKA \ z ‘ I \x .k ‘\ {5‘ I - as A . " ‘i \ , @ENUGU Q~ g ONITSHA 9’6? ‘ 0 A" / X6 k OGIDI / ‘a. , 76 geographical sections of Anambra state as possible. The selection of the locations was random, and those selected were: Oraifite, Ogidi, and Obukpa (rural); and Onitsha, Enugu, and Nsukka (urban). These locations can be identified on the map on page 75. The predominant occupation Of rural Nigerians is subsistence agriculture, so the socioeconomic background Of all the rural sub- jects was approximately the same. 0n the other hand, urban centers in Nigeria have more socioeconomic diversity among their pOpulations. Two major socioeconomic groups are usually identified: those in the so-called high socioeconomic group generally referred to as the "elite," and the remainder of the urban population who fall into the low socioeconomic group. The elite include senior civil servants, university professors, high-level professionals, and prosperous busi- nessmen. Children from such “elite" families are more commonly found in certain schools than in others.1 The low socioeconomic group consists of traders, low-level professionals, junior civil servants, artisans, and industrial workers. Their children are in the majority in the schools. The investigator decided to draw samples from two schools in every selected urban area on the basis of one of the schools enjoying the patronage of high socioeconomic families. This way a representation of both socioeconomic levels was assured. Two schools were therefore selected from each of the three urban areas, making a total of six urban schools. Two schools were also selected from each of the three rural areas in order to maintain comparable figures 77 with the urbanites; this made a total of six rural schools. Table 4.1 shows how the schools were selected. Table 4.1.--Selection of schools from urban and rural locations. Urban Rural Onitsha 2 schools Oraifite 2 schools Enugu 2 schools Ogidi 2 schools Nsukka 2 schools Obukpa 2 schools Total ‘6 schools .75 schools Grand Total lg_schools Two other variables, the effect Of which the investigator wished to study, were ggg_and sex, Officially, elementary schooling in Anambra state is for six-to-twelve-year-old children, but in practice many older children are found in schools. The investi- gator identified two age ranges-~seven to nine and eleven to thirteen--in order to include roughly children from the early and late elementary classes (i.e., grades). To enable examination-of“ the sex variable, approximatelyoequal numbers of boys and girls were randomly selected from within the delimited age ranges from the locations described above. Table 4.2 shows the pattern with which pupils were selected to reflect the physical location, age, and sex variables. 78 Table 4.2.--Number of pupils selected in rural and urban locations according to sex and age set. Total Location School Sex M Age Set Boys Girls Pupils (TY-9) (ll°-l3) yum Onitsha 1 23 23 46 24 22 2 22 ' 22 44 22 22 Enugu l 22 23 45 23 22 2 22 21 43 22 21 Nsukka l 22 21 43 21 22 2 22 22 44 22 22 Date; 0raifite l 22 22 44 22 22 2 23 ' 22 45 22 22 Ogidi 1 21 23 44 22 22 2 23 21 44 22 22 Obukpa l 22 22 44 22 22 2 22 22 44 22 22 Total 266 264 530 266 264 Key: y = younger children 0 = older children Selection of the Subjects The investigator visited selected schools several times befOre the study. From the school registers the investigator extracted the names of all the children within the target age sets in all the classrooms selected for the study. Then the names were sorted according to sex within each age set. Next, the investigator randomly selected approximately the same number of boys and girls 79 from each age set (about eleven children in each case). This proce- dure was used in selecting the 530 pupils who made up the study sample taken from twelve schools in three rural and three urban locations in Anambra state, Nigeria. Each pupil was assigned a number. Table 4.3 shows the number of pupils interviewed from rural and urban schools according to age and sex. Table 4.3.--Number of pupils interviewed in rural and urban schools according to age and sex. Age Younger Older No. of Location School Age 7-9 Age 11-13 PupilS- Boys Girls Boys Girls 2:222 Onitsha 1 12 ll 11 12 46 2 10 l2 11 ll 44 Enugu 1 ll 11 11 ll 44 2 ll 10 ll 11 43 Nsukka 1 ll 11 ll 10 43 2 __Li_ .1). 42. .19. .95.. Total urban 6 66 66 67 55 254 ' Mel. Oraifite l 12 10 11 ll 44 2 ll 11 12 ll 45 Ogidi 1 11 ll 10 ll 43 2 10 12 12 10 44 Obukpa 1 ll 11 11 ll 44 2 J). _i_i_ _ii_ .1 .31 Total rural 6 66 66 67 65 264 Gra"d t°ta' 12 132 132 134 130 528 (urban & rural) 80 Research Instruments Used A six-item questionnaire was used to interview the children. and their responses were recorded on a Pupil Response Form. A code form was also used to classify the responses. The Questionnaire A six-item open-ended questionnaire was used to gather data. The nature of this questionnaire was considered suitable for this study for the following reasons: It had been successfully used in a similar study and it contained three indices each for measuring the interests and concerns of subjects. Further, its open-ended format ‘ was suited to one of the goals of this study, which was to obtain broad-based information about children's interests and concerns. It was also reasoned that an open-ended questionnaire would afford more freedom to children for expressing themselves without the restrictions which a more structured instrument would impose. This 2 and was questionnaire was based on an earlier one used by Crippen, adapted and modified in the following ways to meet the goals of this study. ’ l. Crippen's six items consisted of curiosity, wishes, favorite activities, aversions, anxieties, and inappropriate activi- ties. This investigator used the first four concepts and subdivided anxiety into the categories of worries and fears. Six concepts were thus used. 2. Minor modifications were made in the wording of the questionnaire, especially with regard to the number Of responses 81 expected. Crippen asked for only one response for each item except in the case of wishes, where he asked for three. This inves- tigator provided for as many as three responses for every index. The questionnaire was translated into Igbo, the language spoken in Anambra state, Nigeria. Using the translation, trained interviewers gathered data from the children by means of the struc- tured interview technique. The children's responses were recorded on the Pupil Response forms. The questionnaire was validated by being used in a pilot study, described later in this chapter. The pilot study also enabled the investigator to revise and modify the structure of the ques- ' tions and to test the effectiveness of the translation. Language Translation Of the Questionnaire The questionnaire was translated from English into Igbo, the language of the Igbo people of Anambra state. This was done to ensure (l) optimal understanding of the questions by the subjects and (2) ease in communication between the pupils and the interviewers. Following is a description of the translation procedure:3 1. The investigator briefed three experienced Igbo teachers (two of them examiners in Igbo for the West African Examinations Council), on the nature and purposes of the study. Then she asked them to translate the questionnaire independently. Emphasis was put on meaning rather than word-for-word translation. The investigator, a native Igbo speaker herself, also did a translation of the instru- ment. 82 2. Later, the three teachers and the investigator sat together and carefully discussed the translations, changing, modify- ing, and expanding. The version agreed upon at that point was circu- lated to each translator, who was asked to translate it back into English without the benefit of the original English version. 3. Meanwhile, during the interviewer training sessions which the investigator was conducting simultaneously, trainees4 were asked to examine this Igbo version of the questionnaire as to meaningful- ness and clarity. They were invited to give suggestions for improvement. 4. Last, the investigator held a final open session with the three translators. This meeting produced the final translation which was used for the pilot and the final study. The Igbo and the English versions of the questionnaire are included in Appendix A. The questionnaire was intended to elicit some special inter- ests and concerns of each child. Since it was realized that a single response may not adequately represent the actual interest or concern of a child, the subject was encouraged to give as many as three responses per item. 1. The first concept was curiosities. In some families, children are discouraged in a variety of ways from being curious or inquisitive. When the home atmosphere is too authoritarian, chil- dren might be too frightened to ask questions. Sometimes parents are so preoccupied with their own problems and anxieties that they might ignore children's questions, be irritated by them, or when they answer, be so sarcastic or absent-minded that the answers are 83 meaningless. The interviewer encouraged the subjects to recall and mention things/phenomena about which they wanted to know more. 2. Wishes was the next concept. The pupils were asked to mention a maximum Of three things they would most wish to have or to see happen. 3. The next item was favorite activities. Pupils were encouraged to select, out of common daily activities, those that they most enjoyed doing. The interviewer asked the pupils to mention those activities they would like to do if they were free to do any- thing they wanted. 4. The fourth concept was aversions. This was the antithe- sis of item 3. To solicit data on this the pupils were reminded that just as they enjoyed doing certain things, they might similarly dis- like doing other things or seeing certain things done. They were encouraged to reveal things that are done, happen, or are said which they intensely disliked. I 5. The next item was worries. Children have worries of various types and magnitudes, depending on their age and circum- stances. Pupils were asked to recall situations/things that made them afraid, apprehensive, or uneasy. 6. The sixth concept was fears. Pupils were asked to men- tion situations/objects that made them afraid. Pupil Response Form The Pupil Response form was used by the interviewers to record the pupils' responses. This was a modification of the one 84 used by Crippen. Crippen's form provided for the pupil's number, school, class (i.e., grade), date, and age. It also had the num- erals 1-6 written along the margin, to represent the number of items in the questionnaire, and beside each numeral were lines for record- ing the responses. In addition to the above, this investigator also wrote the item name beside each numeral (e.g., Item l-- Curiosity, Item 2--Wishes, and so on). This was designed to mini- mize the shuffling of papers in search of the item name during the interview. Since three responses were allowed per item, three lines were allowed under each item and the letters a, b, c written beside the lines. A cOpy of the Pupil Response form is included in Appendix A. Code Form The code form was used to code (i.e., to classify) the responses according to the table of categories, which was constructed from the pilot study. The responses for each item were coded sep- arately. The form has space for the coder's name, the name and number of the item being classified, pupil number, and the category to which the response is assigned. A copy of the code form is included in Appendix A. Procedure Training the Interviewers After the schools were selected, it became clear that the same interviewers could not handle all the subjects. Two training bases were consequently established at Onitsha to train interviewers 85 for schools in Onitsha, Ogidi, and Oraifite, and at Nsukka to train interviewers for Nsukka, Enugu, and Obukpa schools. At each base the investigator trained twelve interviewers. These were students 5 The students were elemen- drawn from a Grade II Teachers College. tary teacher trainees and had been randomly selected from a group who had previously taught in the elementary school. The investigator held many training sessions with the two groups. The early sessions were devoted to briefing the trainees on the nature and purpose of the study. Subsequent sessions were used for discussion of both the Igbo and English versions of the ques- tionnaire, interviewing atmosphere, and interviewing techniques. Demonstrations and explanation of interviewing techniques were also given. Some Of the most frequently emphasized points during inter- viewer training included (1) creating a friendly, relaxed atmos- phere to enable the child to be Open with the interviewer; (2) giv- ing support and encouragement to the child by such means as the use of body language; (3) carefully studying the questionnaire; and (4) attending more to the child than to paper work. The following written instructions were used during interviewer training sessions: Written Instructions for INTERVIEWER TRAINEES Purpose: The major purpose of the interview is to get the children to respond to the questions in a meaningful way. This means that every child must be relaxed enough to trust the interviewer. 86 Interviewing children is an art which requires patience, under- standing, and real interest in the child. Note the following especially: 1. The interviewer should establish a rapport with each child so that the child feels at ease with the inter- viewer before beginning to ask the questions. 2. A low friendly tone of voice and a cheerful countenance would help to reassure the child. 3. 'The interviewer should give time, encouragement, and support to each child. Everything should be done to encourage openness. 4. It is important to be thoroughly familiar with the ques- tions so that the interviewer focuses attention on the child rather than on reading the questions. 5. Attention should be on the child to encourage him to answer meaningfully but without pressure or undue sug- gestion. 6. If one question fails to elicit a response after approp- riate encouragement the interviewer should go to the next question and later return to the first one. During the training sessions, the interviewers practiced the techniques among themselves. Sessions held after the pilot study were very valuable for discussing interviewers' reactions to the instruments and for reviewing previous instructions. The Pilot Study A pilot study was conducted in two schools, a rural and an urban school, in order to (1) provide practice in actual school settings for the interviewers, (2) test the questionnaire for clarity and reliability, (3) provide data for constructing cate- gories needed to classify final responses, and (4) have opportunity to field test the entire study procedure. Expert validation of the 87 instrument was obtained by distussing the contents and areas of children's interests and concerns with teachers and professional. educators. The procedure mapped out for the final study was fol- lowed during the pilot study so as to afford opportunity to foresee any problems that might arise later. The procedure described below is for both the pilot and the final study. Ninety-one children were used for the pilot study; half were from a rural school and half from an urban school. An equal number of children was selected to reflect the three variables of age, sex, and physical location. Data Collection: The Interviews Preparations for interviewing the children in their schools were made early so that the interview area was arranged and teacher COOperation ensured. The investigator arranged to have the inter- viewers transported to the school at an appropriate time each inter- viewing day. They were received on arrival by the investigator, who took them to the demarcated interview area. For the pilot as well as for the final study, interviews were held out of doors, under the shade of trees within the school compound. A chair and table or chair with writing rest was provided for the interviewer, while the subject could sit or stand as he wished. Arrangements were such that each child was interviewed privately. Since there were twelve interviewers at each base, every interviewing session was started with twelve children. Just before a session the teacher whose pupils were to be interviewed would pick 88 out twelVe pieces of paper from the box which had been placed on his table6 and would send the twelve pupils whose names were on the papers across to the inveStigator. The investigator then assigned them randomly to the twelve interviewers. The pupils were inter- viewed individually. The interview started with a brief, socially complimentary monologue designed to reassure and relax the subject. Interviewers were encouraged to touch or hold the pupil if they thought this necessary. The interviewer explained that he wanted to ask some individuals in the class some questions, but that there was no compulsion to answer. He explained that anyone who did not wish to participate was free to withdraw. Depending on the pupil's reaction, the interviewer posed the first question. Interviewers were encouraged to be so familiar with the questions that they did not actually read the questions but occasionally glanced at the paper while talking to the pupil. It was thought that this would reduce fear and suspicion. As the child began to talk, the interviewer recorded the response in short English words, phrases, or sentences 7 All the 91 subjects interviewed on the form which was provided. for the pilot study participated willingly. Of the 530 subjects selected for the final study, only one refused to participate, saying he did not know what to answer; one other child was sick. Some subjects did not give three responses to every item, and inter- viewers were instructed to refrain from applying pressure if after one or two responses the pupil appeared reluctant to give more. The majority of children interviewed, however, gave three responses. 89 When a pupil had been interviewed he returned to the class and the teacher picked out a fresh piece of paper from the box and sent another pupil across to be interviewed. This way every inter- viewer questioned children of both sexes and both age sets. Interviewing a child took from ten to twenty minutes, and each interviewer questioned three or four pupils for the pilot study and between six and eight pupils per interviewing day during the final study. The pupils' responses were recorded on forms which were provided. All the interviewers who took part in the pilot study also participated in the final study. In both the pilot and final study, each group of twelve interviewers questioned rural and urban chil- dren, boys and girls, and children from both age sets. Altogether, 528 children were interviewed. After the collection of the responses, the next stage was to construct categories into which the responses would be coded (i.e., classified). Construction of the List of Categories Prior to the study, the investigator had discussed the nature and purpose of her study with two lecturers in Education at the University of Nigeria, Nsukka, and requested their assistance in building the categories. Soon after the pupils' responses from the pilot study were collected, the investigator met with the two lecturers and together they examined the responses. They pooled all the responses for each index, then tried to group them according to content. For example, after pooling the responses for Curiosities, 90 they found that-many of them were concerned with issues in applied science, biological phenomena, physical phenomena, supernatural powers, human and animal behavior, and misfortunes and accidents, so they decided to include these as category headings. In a similar way, they developed tentative category tables for the other five indices. A reliability check.--At this stage, twenty-five Pupil Response sheets were randomly pulled from the pilot study response pile and submitted to a group of college students for classifica- tion according to the tentative category tables. They were instructed to keep tallies and notes of responses which did not fit 1 into any existing category. The results of this exercise were incor- porated into revising the categories. The major criterion for setting up a category was that at least ten responses had to be classifiable under it.8 The final list contained seven categories for Curiosities, twelve for Wishes, nine for Favorite Activities, nine for Aversions, and fourteen for Worries and 5333;, The major category headings for the different indices are set out below, but a detailed description of the kinds of responses, including sample responses, classified under each category is included in Appendix B. This list of categories was used to classify responses in both the pilot and the final study. 91 Index One: Curiosities Categories NOTU‘l-hOJN-i Technology 8 Applied Science Biological Phenomena Physical Phenomena Human & Animal Behavior Supernatural/Religious Matters Misfortunes & Accidents Miscellaneous Index Two: Wishes ..J—a—a N-‘ommumm-pr—a Index Three: OWVO’IU'l-DwN-d Index Four: tomNOlU'l-th-i Personal Material Possessions Success in School Travel Ambitions for Vocations & Future Careers Personal & Family Welfare Others' Welfare Food Sports, Playing & Entertainment Miscellaneous To Be Good To Live Long No Death Favorite Activities Home Duties & Chores Playing, Sports, Games Making Things Reading/Studying Eating Excursions/Exploring Attending School Social Activities/Entertainment Miscellaneous Aversions Aggression/Violence/Injustice Conflict/Punishment by Significant Adults Dishonesty Disasters Doing Chores Poor School Performance Miscellaneous Denial Of Necessities Conflict Between Parents 92 Index Five: Worries Index Six: \OmNOto'l-DwN-J School Work Economic Anxiety Loss or Accidental Damage Punishment Family & Social Relationships Animals Death & Dead PeOple Accidents/Disaster/Violence The SUpernatural/The Strange Il1ness/Hospitals/Doctors Dreams Law Enforcement Officers Darkness Miscellaneous Fears School Work Economic Anxiety Loss or Accidental Damage Punishment Family & Social Relationships Animals Death & Dead PeOple Accidents/Disaster/Violence The Supernatural/The Strange Illness/Hospitals/Doctors Dreams ~ Law Enforcement Officers Darkness Miscellaneous Training the Coders To classify the responses on the basis of the list of catego- ries discussed above, two students majoring in Education were trained. The training process was as follows: (1) the investigator briefed the trainee coders on the nature and purpose of the study, (2) they were given the questionnaire and some samples of recorded responses to study, (3) they also studied the list of categories after the inves- tigator had explained it and the mechanics of using it, and (4) during training, the coder-trainees practiced trial classification. 93 Classification of the RespOnses After the training, these two students and the investigator independently classified (that is, coded) all of the pupils' responses onto the code form, using the list of categories as a basis.9 The result of the coding of the pilot study was one of the means which the investigator used to establish the reliability Of the measuring instrument. It was felt that the level of agreement among the three coders, since they classified the responses inde- pendently, constituted a legitimate and powerful appraisal of the consistency of the instrument. For this reason, the results of the classification of the pilot study responses are discussed in detail below. Establishing the Reliability of the Instrument The reliability of the measuring instrument used for this study was established in the following ways: 1. In the course of developing the list of categories, a reliability check was made by taking a small sampling of twenty- five response forms and submitting them to two college students for classification. This was briefly described above (page 90). 2. The pilot study was planned and carried out to validate the questionnaire and to furnish data for establishing the reliability of the classification procedure. Below is a detailed description of how reliability was established. The investigator and two trained college students coded all the responses on the code form independently, on the basis of the 94 previously developed list of categories. The investigator then collected the code forms and worked out the percentage rate of agreement on every index. These are described and set out in tables below. Pilot Study Index One: Curiosities.--The total number of responses recorded for this index was 246 (see Table 4.4). The code forms showed that only once did all three coders disagree in their classification of the responses. Thus on at least 245 out of 246 occasions, at least two out of three coders agreed. Looking at individual classifications, Coder l agreed with the other two 236 times, Coder 2, 230 times, and Coder 3, 240 times. Altogether there were thirty instances in which there was some disagreement among the coders in classifying the 246 responses. The percentage of coder agreement for this index was 85.36.* Pilot Study Index Two: Wishes.--For this index, 253 responses were recorded (see Table 4.5). All three coders disagreed in their classification on two occasions, so that on at least 251 occasions two coders agreed. Coder 1 agreed with the others in 250 instances, Coder 2 in 248 instances, and Coder 3 in 247 instances. In classify- ing 253 responses, a total of twelve instances of disagreement between and among the three coders was recorded. Rate of agreement was 94.86 percent. *This was computed by dividing the number of times all three coders agreed by the total number of responses and multiply- ing the quotient by 100. 95 mm.om m_ N com mew mew omm mmm azosoosm< mucus zoozmomwo oomzm< m Looou N zooou P cocoa mama noozmompo yo oozzh Fp< moczh Fp< mzo momzoomoz - . . . zoo oz» zap: eooeo< . zoozoa oz pouch weave mo oz weave mo oz zooou zoom weave mo .oz to oz .mzoooo zoozpoz ozosoozm< "zoom xoozH zuzum aopwaii.n.¢ opze» ¢o.mm om m —NN mmm omm ,NeN Pmm ozomwwzm< -oozmwmos o wwwzmom_o owmozm< m zoooo N zooou P cocoa momzoomoz -eooewa .oz _wmew maesezwapmmz aoeeezwa_wmz wmwuwozwuw ”wadeewwcemz to .oz .mzoooo zoozpoz uzosoozm_uo< op_co>em "oozzh xoozfi zozum ooppoii.m.o opzoh 98 om.om o» N mm» mm» . —mp mm» mm» »zoEoozm< m»zos ooozmomFo ooozm< m zooou N Looou _ cocoa womzoomoz one» ioozmomwo mo oozzp __< oozzh __< moo i . . . . z»o oz» z»_z ooocm< mo .oz zoozoo oz po»oh moe_h mo oz mos»h mo oz zooou zoom moEPP mo .oz .msoooo zoo3»oz »zosoozm_m xoozm zv=»m »o_»oii.m.e opzeh 99 coders agreed on at least 187 occasions. Coder 1 agreed with the other two 186 times, Coder 2, 181 times, and Coder 3, 186 times. Total number of disagreements between and among coders in classify- ing this index was ten and the percentage agreement was 94.70. Summary of coder agreement.--Rate of agreement between the coders in all six indices is summarized in Table 4.10. The overall percentage of agreement computed from the total number of responses for all indices and the number of times all three coders agreed was 92.07. On the basis of this high rage of agreement (92.07),'0 the investigator decided that the classification procedure was reliable. The questionnaire and the classification procedure were thus con- sidered suitable for use in the final study. Research Design The study was designed to examine the effetts of three vari- ables on the interests and concerns of elementary school children, which were measured with six indices. Design Over Subjects Three factors-~age, sex, and location--were observed. Design Over Measures Multiple measures were taken from a six-item questionnaire dealing with Curiosities, Wishes, Favorite Activities, Aversions, Worries, and Fears, with three responses per item. An illustration Of the design of the study is found on page 101. 100 NC.NC FFP C» pomp mmmp Nmmp Camp mpep m—o»0h C~.em C— N on» CCF PC— CCF amp mgoom N¢.Cm C N NNN CNN CNN CNN eNN mowgzoz CC.PC FN C CNN NeN NMN meN CmN mzopmgo>< . No_>o»o< ac om on m _NN moo omN NaN _oN appeasau Cm.vm N_ N CeN NvN CeN CmN mmN mozmpz Cm.mC on p CFN CeN CNN CMN CeN mo»»pmopgzo »zoeoozm< m»zos ooozaompo ooocm< mu NC —C a doe» -oocoam_o ea ooze» __< ooze» _.< ecozeo zoo: mamma.aom xaoeo izoozoo .oz po»oh mos»h mo .oz moewh mo .oz oooza< zoooo m oz zoom mosph mo .oz .moopoz» xpm —po zo »zoeoozmo Loooo mo zeo552m "zo=»m »op_o-i.op.o o_zoh 101 oFoEom N oo< opoz Pozzz opoaom _ om< opoz o—oeom N ooo opoz ooze: oposom P ooz ope: o z o o z o o z o o z o o z o o z o xom om< cow»oooz mzoom mowzgoz mzowmzo>< mow»»>_»o< mozmwz mo»»»mowzsu ooeeasao mooo moo=mopo oom< z .oz»: o» zo>om oom mo_eomo»oo momzoomoz ._o>o_ oza_o ma_o. oo oo.o n Nx .oooo_eo .»om omo xz ozoaomNzo ozo .momo»zoozoo .movozoaoozm opzo_zo> “mop»»mopzzoii._.m opzoh 114 children in the Supernatural/Religious matters category where the chi square, 5.6103, was just short of significance (5.99). Research Question 1.2: Do the curiosities of elementary school boys differ from those of elementary school girls? Table 5.2 presents variable frequencies and percentages by sex for the index, Curiosities. The area Of greatest curiosity for both sexes was Biological Phenomena, in which the frequency of the responses of boys and girls was very close. In Physical Phenomena, the second greatest area of curiosity, 52 percent of the responses were made by girls while in the SupernaturalLReligious category, the third greatest area of curiosity, boys gave 56 percent of the responses. The response behavior of boys and girls was very similar for all categories. Boys' responses were slightly lower than girls' in four categories: Biological Phenomena, Physical Phenomena, Human & Animal Behavior, and Misfortunes & Accidents. The trend was, however, reversed for Technology & Applied Science and Supernatural/Religious Phenomena. In these two categories, boys gave 52.6 percent and 56.3 percent, respectively, of the responses. No significant differences were found between the responses of girls and boys. Research Question 1.3: Do the curiosities of urban elementary school children differ from those of rural elementary school children? Variable frequencies and percentages by physical location for the index, Curiosities, are presented in Table 5.3. 115 .—o»o» =s=_oo co oomom .m—MHOH 30..— co flammmw z oo.oo_ moo» Non mNN Fo»op Nm. N» mm.mm .mmi om.o_ .Mii mooozoppoosz mm.N mm mN.om a» Pu.mo m» m»zoo_oo< a moza»sommoz mmmm.m CN.mF .mN NN.me Pop NN.om om» mzoomwpoz\_oz=»ozzoo:m mNmm.o ms.»» NN» mo.om mm mm.mo mu Low>ozom Foewz< a zoe=z mNom.o .m.NN mom mo.Nm ms» _m.No pop ozoeozoza poonazo mm.»m Noe om.om NmN mo.mo mNN ozoeozoza _oo_mo_o»m omoo.o Nm.e» m_N —o.uo Po» mm.Nm Np» oozo»om ooppoo< a Amopozzooh x ea 2 ow z ox z N .o»o» mpzpc moon moNLomo»oC momzoomoz .Poso. oea_o ma_o. pa oo.m u x .aooooco N .xom Az oeoaom pzo uzo .momo»zooeoo .mowozozoozw opzooco> "mow»»mo»L:CiT.N.m opzop 116 .me_o. v a »o oeoooooeoom. ._o»o» caspoo zo oomomz .mpo»o» 3oz :o oomomo oo.oo» moo» CmN CNN po»op Pm. N_ oo.oo m mm.mm o mooozoP—oompz NN.N mm mw.No mp ep.Nm ON m»zoowoo< N moz=»zomm_z oon.N mN.m» pmN m».oo No. em.mm mN_ maoomvpoz\pozs»ozzoo:m mN._P NN» o_._m mm mm.me em Lo_.>ozom Poswz< a ooze: pm.NN mmm oo.me on» mm.om on» ozosozoza —oo»mzzm «moNN.m mm._m Noe mm.om omN oo.mo _oN ozosozozo pooomoFon so_mN.m Nm.o» m_N om.mm mm mo.oo NNP oozowom oom_oo< a zoopozzooh an 2 ox 2 on 2 Nx po»oh pozaz ooze: moozoao»ou momzoomoz .po>op ozapo mcpo. »o mm.m u Nx .oo_»_eo .zo»»ooo~ poopmxzo an ocoaom on ozo .momo»:oogoo .mowozozoozm o—zo»go> "mo»»»mopzauii.m.m opzoh 117 In the most frequently mentioned area of curiosity, Biologi- cal Phenomena, rural children gave nearly 57 percent of the responses while in Physical Phenomena, which ranked second, frequency of responses from both locations was very close. In the third highest area of curiosity, Supernatural/Religious, urban children gave nearly 56 percent of the responses. Urban children gave 60.1 percent of the responses in the Technology_§ Applied Science category, 57.1 percent of those in the Accidents & Misfortunes category, and 55.8 percent of those in the Supernatural/Religious category. This trend was reversed for the Biological Phenomena category, where rural children gave nearly 57 percent of the responses and 51.2 percent of those for Human & Animal Behavior. Significant differences were found between the responses of rural and urban children in two categories: Technology & Applied Science where the chi square was 8.28 and Biological Phenomena with chi square of 8.77. Wishes Research Question 2.0: What are the major wishes of elementary school children in Anambra state? Research Question 2.1: Do the wishes of younger elementary school children differ from those of older elementary school children? Forty and six-tenths percent of all the wishes expressed by both groups were for Personal Possessions, 16.1 percent were con- nected with Ambitions for Vocations & Future Career, and 11.5 per- cent were wishes for School Success. 118 Table 5.4 presents variable frequencies and percentages for the two age groups for this index, Wishes. Responses to this item showed variations in the wishes of the two age groups. Of the 634 wishes for Personal Possessions, 61.7 percent were made by the younger age group. In wishes for Iggygl, 55.1 percent were made by younger children. Only 37 wishes out of 1563 were for 5999, and 30 of these or 81 percent were made by younger children. In all the other categories in this index, older children expressed more wishes. Fifty-four and two-tenths percent of the wishes for Success in School, 62.7 percent of those about Ambitions for Vocations & Future Careers, 59.2 percent of wishes for A Personal & Familngelfare, 72.7 percent of wishes for Others' Welfare, 75.2 percent of wishes To Be Good, 66.6 percent of wishes that there be No Death, and 65.5 percent of wishes To Live Long were expressed by older children. Significant differences between the wishes Of the two age groups were found in three categories: wishes for Personal Posses- §jgg§, wishes concerned with Ambitions for Vocations 8 Future Career, and third, wishes To Be Good. Research Question 2.2: Do the wishes of elementary school boys differ from those of elementary school girls? Table 5.5 presents variable frequencies and percentages by sex for the index, Wishes. Forty and six-tenths percent of the wishes expressed by both sexes were for Personal Possessions, 16.1 percent were concerned 119 .mmooo. v a pa oeoooooeoom. .Fo»o» zsapoo zo Comomz .mpo»o» 3oz zo oomomo oo.oo_ NCCF CNN own Po»oh NC. a CC.CC C mm.mm m z»ooo oz ~N.m CC —C.CC Cm Co.em oN mzoz o>_z oh rCNCN.pN mC.C mm CN.CN NC PN.oN NN oooC om oh CC.» CN NC.»C C» pC.em m mooozoppoomwz mm. m» CC.NC N C_.Cv C »zosz_o»zo»zm a mzwxopo .m»zoom Cm.N um Fm.CP N Co.pC om ooom oz.» NN NN.NN C» NN.NN C ozompoz .mzoz»o mmom.N CN.C Cm CN.CC CC FC.o¢ co ozompoz appsom C pozomzoo «CN.C_ N».Cp NCN CC.NC CC— om.Nm om coozou oss»:m C mzoN»ooo> Loo meow»wzs< mmmm.» oo.m No» mm.eo CC CN.CC —C po>ozp memo.— Ce.»_ on» C_.eC so FC.Co NC poozom z» mmoooam amo.¢m CC.oo omC Nm.mm moN NC._C pmm Amzowmmommoo apwsom aorta—oz_v pozomzoo Nx Po»ok zouwwwuu ”wmmhwuo mopzomo»ou momzoomoz x poow»»zo .po>o— ozapo NMCCC. »o CC.C u N .»om omo zz ozozom Nzo ozo .momo»:oozoo .mowozozoozw opzopzo> "mozmwzii.e.m opzop .oa»o. v a pa oeoo»o»eo»m. .»o»o» :E:»oo co ComoCz .m»o»o» 3o; zo oomoCo 120 oo.oo» CCC» CNN CNN »o»oN NC. a CC.CC C oo.oo e z»ooo oz »N.m CC »C.CC CC Co.om oN Coo; o>»z o» mC.C mC Co.CC mo em.¢o Ce CooC om o» CC.» CN oo.¢o »» oo.CC o» mooozo»»oom»z CC. C» CC.CC N m».Ce C »zosz»o»zo»zm C mz»»o»o .m»goom CC.N Nm Co.em CN om.me N» ooom ow.» NN Cm.Cm C mC.mC e» ozow»o3 .mcoz»o mCom.N CN.C Cm C».mC CC »C.oo co ogom»o2 N»»Eom »ozomzoa «CCCN.C N».C» NCN No.oo NC» NC.mC om» ooozou oz=»=m C mzo»»ooo> go» mzo»»»ze< CNmN.m oo.m Ne» NC.NC CC N».N» NC »o>ozN CN»N.C Co.»» mN» Cm.CC NC» »o.mo NN »oozom z» mmoooam Cme».» CC.C¢ «CC mN.N¢ mom CN.NC »mm Amzo»mmommoo »o.»..o»oE . N»»Eom az»u=»oz»v »ozomeoo za 2 on 2 on 2 Nx »o»oN m»z»C mNoC mo»zomo»ou momzoomom x »oo»»»zC .»o>o» oza»o «Moos. oo oo.o n N .xom Nz ozooom »zo ozo .momo»zooeoo .mo»ozo:oozm o»zo»co> "mozm»zii.C.C o»no» 121 with Ambitions for Vocations 8 Future Career, 11.45 percent were for Success in School, and 9.4 percent for Irgygl. - Response patterns were quite similar for both sexes. Boys expressed slightly more wishes for Personal Possessions than girls, 52.5 percent compared to 47.8 percent. Boys also expressed more wishes, nearly 60 percent, concerned with Ambitions for Vocations 8 Future Career, and nearly 64 percent of those about Others' Welfare. But in wishes To Live Long, No Death, To Be Good, for Food, for Personal 8 Family Welfare, Travel, and Success in School, girls expressed more wishes than boys. More boys' wishes (56 percent) than girls' were classified under Miscellaneous. A significant difference between the responses of boys and girls was found in the Ambitions for Vocations 8 Future Career category, with a chi square of 8.77. Research Question 2.3: Do the wishes of urban elementary school children differ from those of rural ele- mentary school children? The most frequently mentioned wishes were for Personal Possessions and in this category, responses of urban and rural chil- dren were very similar. The category, Ambitions for Vocations 8 Future Career ranked second, and in this category an identical number of responses were recorded from the two locations. In the third most frequently expressed wish, for School Success, more than 52 percent of the responses were made by rural children. Table 5.6 lists variable frequencies and percentages by physical location for the index, Wishes. 122 .»o»o» zs=»oo zo ComoCz .m»o»o» 3oz zo oomomo oo.oo» CCC» »CN NCN »o»o» NC. a NN.NN N NN.NN N z»ooo oz »N.m CC Cm.CC oo Co.»m C» mzoz o>»z o» CN»C.» CC.C CC CC.No Cm CC.NC »C CooC om oN CC.» CN oo.CC o» oo.oo »» mooozo»»oom»z CC. C» No.mN C NC.CN o» »zoEz»o»co»zm C m=»>o»o .m»zoom Cm.N NC Co.oC CN om.Co N» ooom ow.» NN CC.CC C CC.CC o» oooC»oz .mcoz»o mCom.N CN.C Cm C».mC CC »C.oo co ozoC»o= C»»Eom C »ozomeoo N».C» NCN oo.oC CN» oo.oC CN» zoozoo oz:»=m C zo»»ooo> Low mzo»»»z=_< e»oN.» oo.m Ne» »N.eo CC CN.CC NC »o>og» Co.»» CN» »C.NC om Co.Ne CC »oozoC cw mmoooom CC.oo CCC Cm.mo m»m CC.oC »Nm mzo»mmommoo C»»Eom C »ozomzoo zu 2 on 2 on 2 Nx »ooa» »oeso cone: moweeooooo momzoomoa .»oso» aza»a mmooo. »o oo.o n Nx »ooF»»co .zo»»ooo» »oo»mazo Cz ozozom »zo Coo .momo»zoozoo .mo»o=o=oogw o»zo»zo> “mozm»3ii.C.C o»zoN 123 Responses in certain categories were quite similar for both rural and urban children, but variation was also evident. Regarding Personal Possessions, children in both locations responded almost identically. But slightly more urban children than rural wished for Irgygl, 55.8 percent against 44.2 percent. The same pattern was shown in wishes To Be Good, 57.3 percent against 42.7 percent. The pattern was reversed in wishes for School Success and Food. In these two, rural children gave slightly more responses than urban children. In wishes for Others' Welfare, urban children gave consider- ably more responses, giving 63.6 percent of the responses. For Sports, Playing,8 Entertainment, they gave 76.9 percent of the responses for that category. In the wish category To Live Long, rural children gave 70 percent of the responses. No significant differences were found in the responses of children from the two locations for this index. Favorite Activities Research Question 3.0: What are the favorite activities of ele- mentary school children in Anambra state? Research Question 3.1: Do the favorite activities of younger . elementary school children differ from those of older elementary school children? Table 5.7 presents variable frequencies and percentages by age sets for the index, Favorite Activities. The overall most favored activities were in the Playingz Sports 8 Games category, which accounted for 43.6 percent of the responses. Home Duties was the second most popular with 18.7 124 .oozoo»m»zm»m Co »Nozm »maarr .»»»»o. v.a »o »eoo»o_eowms .»o»o» :E=»oo co Comom .m»o»o» 3oz zo Comomo z oo.OO» Coo» o»N NeN »ooa» m».m oa N».Nm aN No.Na NN asaoeo»»ooa»z CN.C oN om.ee om oo.oo ea »eoEeNooeooeo Noo_»wsw»o< »o_oem »o. o CN.CC m oo.oo o »aezom oeooeoooo oo.N Ne oN.aC NN NN.ma o» oe»ca»amemea»ao=oxm e»NN.m mo.o No oo.om em »o.oo no oe»oom .oo»o.o o».o» ooN NN.NC am» c».Ne N»» oe_»o=»m C oevoooo om.» NN N».Nm N» NN.Ne _» aoeoz» oe»xoz om.ma moo oo.me N»m om.om NNN moeoo .oocoam .oe_»o»a ..»o»o.o CN.C» CNN em.Na N»» Ca.No om» aoeazo C oo_»=o oEe: CN 2 oN z aN z eoeo»on coco»_zo Nx »o»oN Loo»o Noazso> mo»zomo»ou momzoomoz .»oso» aza»a »»»»o. oa ao.o n x o» N »o .»»zu .»om omo xz ocooom »zo ozo .momo»zoozoo .mo»ozo=ooeC o»zo»so> "mo»»»>»»o< o»»zo>omii.N.C o»zo» 125 percent while Reading/Studying was third, making up 18.1 percent of the responses. A slightly greater percentage of responses in the flgmg_ Dutjg§_and Social Activities/Entertainment categories were made by younger children, while in the Making Things, Excursions, and Reading/Studying categories, more responses were made by older children. Younger children responded more in the Attending School (66.7 percent) and Eating (61 percent) categories than older children. A significant difference was found in the responses of the two age sets in the Reading[Studying category. Home Duties had a high chi square (5.8181), though this did not reach the level of significance (6.44). Research Question 3.2: Do the favorite activities of elementary school boys differ from those of elemen- tary school girls? Table 5.8 presents variable frequencies and percentages by sex for the index, Favorite Activities. Playing, Sports 8 Games was the most popular category and slightly more than 51 percent of the responses were given by boys. In Reading 8 Studying, the next most popular, frequency of response was almost equal for both sexes. Girls gave almost 58 percent of the Home Duties 8 Chores responses, the third most popular category. In five categories, Playing, Sports 8 Games, Making Things, Reading 8 Studying, Eating, and Excursions, there was close simi- larity in the response patterns of boys and girls, but with the boys giving slightly more responses than girls in all five. In 126 .»o»o» :e:»oo :o oomom .»»»»o. v a »o »eoovm_eo_m. z .m»o»o» 3o; zo comomo CC.CC» CCo» CCN NNN »o»o» C».C Co CC.CC »N CC.CC CN mzoozo»»oom.»z NCCo.C CC.C CN CN.CC CC CN.CC CN »zoEz»o»Lo»zC \mop»»>»»o< »o»oom »C. C CC.CC C CC.CC C »oozoC Cz»ozo»»< CC.N No CC.NC C» o».NC oN Cz»zo»oxm\mzo»mg=oxm CC.C NC NN.C¢ Ne NN.»C Co Cz»»om C».C» CCN CN.CC »C» CN.CC CC» C:»CC:»C C Cz»oooa CC.» CN NC.CC o» NC.CC C» mCz»z» Cz»xoz CNCC.C CC.CC CCC »C.C¢ C»C Co.»C CNC moEoC .m»zooC .C:»Co»o «Nooe.C CN.C» CNN »C.NC CC» C».No C»» mozozu C mo.»»:o oeo: DR 2 MN Z 6% z Nx »o»o» m»z»C mCoC mo»eoCo»oC momzommom .Poso» oza»a »»»»o. oe eo.o u x oo N » »»Nzu .xom Cz ozoaom »zo czo .moCo»zooLoo .mo»ozo=oozm o»zo»eo> ”mo»»»>»»o< o»»zo>ouii.C.C o»zo» 127 only two categories, Home Duties and Social Activities, did more girls than boys respond. Sixty-five percent of the responses for Attending School came from boys. A significant difference was found between boys' and girls' responses in the Home Duties 8 Chores category. The chi square for this category was 6.44. Research Question 3.3: Do the favorite activities of urban ele- mentary school children differ from those of rural elementary school children? Table 5.9 lists variable frequencies and percentages by physical location for the index, Favorite Activities. For children in both locations, Playing, Sports 8 Games ranked first as favorite activities, receiving more than 54 percent of its responses from rural children. Almost the same number of responses were made by children from the two locations for Home Duties 8 Chores, the second most popular category. For the third most popular category, Reading/Studying, 55 percent of the responses were made by urban children. Response patterns were very similar in this index for chil- dren from rural and urban locations. But more urban than rural children mentioned ggtjgg_as a favorite activity. Also 88.9 percent of the responses mentioning Attending School as a favorite activity were given by urban children. On the other hand, 76.2 percent of the tallies for Excursions/Exploring were from rural children. Slightly more rural than urban children mentioned Playing, Sports 8 Games as favorite activities. 128 .oozoo»C»:Cwm No »zozm »mawr .»o»o» =s=»oo zo Comom z .m»o»o» 3oz zo oomomo oo.oo» ooo» NeN eNN »ooa» m».m ea Na.ma .mmu NC.CC .mm. asaoea»»oompz oo.m oN CC.Ca om CC.CC oa oeoEe»aoeo»eo \mowoe>_»o< »o_aam »o. o »».»» » CC.CC o »aozom oewoeooo< CC.N Na o».oN NC oo.mN o» oe_ca»aonmea_ac=oxo .Nmom.m mo.m No CN.CC NC »N.mo om oewooo ooaN.N a».o» ooN CN.ea C»» CN.CC Ne» oe»so=omNoe_oooo om.» CN No.No »» N_.NC N» ooewz» oe_¥oz oNoo.e CC.Ce omo oe.em Com CC.Ce »CN ooEoo .aoeaam .oe_No»a CN.C» CNN oo.oo so» oo.oe mm» mocozo o mowoso oea: CN 2 ea 2 oN z Nx »ooa» »oeso cone: moveaooooo momzoomom .»oso» oza»a »»»»o. oo ea.o n Nx »ooe»_oo .zow»ooo» »oopmazo Cz oeoaom »zo Coo .moCo»zooLoo .mo»ozo:ooeC o»zo»zo> “mo»»»>»»o< o»»go>omii.C.C o»zo» 129 No significant differences were found between the responses of urban and rural children, though the chi square (5.56) for cate- gory six, Eating, was quite high. Aversions Research Question 4.0: What are elementary school pupils in Anambra state most averse to? Research Question 4.1: Do the aversions of younger elementary school children differ from those of Older elementary school children? Table 5.10 presents variable frequencies and percentages for the index, Aversions, by age set. The category with the greatest number of responses was Aggression/Violence/Injustice with 42 percent of the responses. Aversion to Dishonesty_accounted for 23.7 percent of the responses, while the Conflicts/Punishment category had the third highest total responses and made up 15.7 percent. The response pattern showed some similarity and some varia- tion for the two age sets. In aversion to Aggression/Violence/ Injustice, both groups responded quite similarly, but in aversion to Dishonesty and to Disasters older children gave slightly more responses than younger children. Younger children gave more responses in aversion to Conflicts/Punishment (61.7 percent) and Doing Chores (63.6 percent) than older children. Older children responded more in the Poor School Performance category (61.1 percent) than younger children. 130 .»»»»o. v o oo »eaoNoCeo_m. .»o»o» ze=»oo zo Comomz .m»o»o» zoo zo oomomo oo.oO» N»m» Nmo one »ooe» om. a co.OO» a oo.o mwi. ooeoeoa eoosooo »o.»Ceao so.» CN oo.oa e» oo.oo C» mow»»maoooz Ca »oweoo oa.o NN NN.NC om NN.NN am asaoeo»»oomaz No.» C» »».»o »» CC.CC N ooeoEeeeeoa »eazom Leas No.» NN CN.CC o CC.CC a» mocezo oeooa eo.N me» CC.CC Co oo.oa oN oeooaoaCo o»eo.» CC.CN »»m CC.CC mo» ao.oe oe» Coaoeezmpo .CNNN.o» oo.o» CON om.om oN oo.»o NN» oeoezo»esa .aooo»meao oooN.o eo.Ne Nmm NN.»C NCN oo.oa CCN oo»»a=CeHNooeo»a_>\ea»oaoeoo< CN 2 omoeo»»zu omoeo»_zu Nx »o»o» zoo»o zoCz=o> mo»zoCo»oC momzoomom .»oso» aza»o »»»»o. oo eo.o n Nx »ao»o_eo .»om oCo Cz ozoaom »zo ozo .moCo»zooeoo .mo»o=o=ooem o»zo»go> "ozo»mzo>\=o»mmocCC< an z o& 2 on 2 Nx »o»oN C»C»C mCoC mo»zoCo»oC momzoomom .»oso» oza»o »»»»o. »o ee.o n Nx »oo_»_co .xom Cz ozoaom »zo Czo .moCo»coogoo .mo»o:o:ooem o»zo»go> Nmzo»mgo>\oo»mmooCC< x za 2 ox z ox z N »o»o» »oNCN ooze: mo»zoCo»oC momooomom .»oso» oza»a »»»»o. »o CN.C n x N »oow»»su .oo»»ooo» »oo»mCzo Cz ooooom »zo Coo .moCo»oooooo .mo»ooo=oooN o»zo»oo> "moovmco>\oo»mom»C\m»ooz»oo< »N»C.» CC.N» CC» NC.CC CC NC.CC CN o»oooo oooC C z»ooC o».» C» CC.CC C CC.CC C m»oo.»o< NC.N CC CC.CC »N CC.CC o» mo»zmoo»»o»om »o»ooC C C»»Eoo NN»C.C CN.C» CCN CN.N¢ N»» CC.NC CN» »ooszm»o=o NC.C CC CC.CC Co CC.CC Co oCoEoC »o»ooo»oo<\mmoz CC.C CC CC.CC »C CC.»C CC C»o»xo< o»sooooC CCCC.» NC.C» o»N NC.CC N»» NC.CC NC zoo: »oozom DN 2 omoeo»qu omoco»»zu Nx »o»o» Loo»C ooCooo> mo»ooCo»oC momooomom .»oso» ozo»a a»Noo. oo NN.N u Nx »oovooco .»om oCo Cz oooaom »zo zoo .moCo»ooozoo .mo»ooo:ooom o»zo»eo> "mo»ooo3ii.C».C o»zoN 136 Worries about The Supernatural/The Strange had the largest responses, making up 23.9 percent of the responses for this item. Both age groups gave exactly the same number of responses in this category. Worries about Punishment was the next highest and made up 18.28 percent of the responses. More of the younger children (52.5 percent) than older responded to this. Worries about Sghggl_ Wgrk_was third and made up 16.4 percent of the responses, with older children responding more to this (54.7 percent) than younger children. Slightly more (51.56 percent) of younger than older children responded in the Economic Anxiety_category. The same was true of worries about Illness/HospitallDoctors, in which younger children gave 53.5 percent of the responses. Sixty percent of the responses for worries about Animals were made by younger children and nearly 70 percent of responses about Accidents/Disaster/Violence. In addi- tion, 60 percent of responses about Drggm§_and 85.7 percent of those about Darkness were made by younger children. Older children responded more (55.1 percent) to worries caused by Loss/Accidental Damage to things than younger children; they also gave more responses (60 percent) in the Family 8 Social Relationships category and in the Death 8 Dead Pepple category, where they gave 55.7 percent of the responses. No significant differences were found in the responses of the two age sets in any of the categories in this index. Research Question 5.2: Do the worries of elementary school boys differ from those of elementary school girls? 137 Table 5.14 presents variable frequencies and percentages by sex for the index, Worries. Similarity rather than differences was evident regarding the worries of boys and girls. The most frequently expressed source of worries for both sexes was The Supernatural/The Strange, in which nearly 55 percent of the responses came from boys. Worries connected with Punishment came next and nearly 54 percent of the responses were made by girls. Worries connected with School Work ranked third with 57 percent of the responses coming from girls. No significant differences were found between the responses of boys and girls. Research Question 5.3: Do the worries of urban elementary school children differ from those of rural ele— mentary school children? Table 5.15 lists variable frequencies and percentages by physical location for the index, Worries. I Worries about The Supernatural/The Strange received the overall largest number of responses, more than 53 percent Of these being made by urban children. Next came worries about Punishment, with urban children contributing more than 54 percent. Worries concerning School Work ranked third, with the same number of responses coming from each location. Similarity in the responses of rural and urban children was evident in many of the categories; worries about School Work showed 50 percent of the responses coming from each location. Slightly . quou 5.5—.00 co flmmwmn .m»o»o» 3oz oo zomoCo 138 CC.CC» NCC» CCC NzC »o»oN CN.» CN CN.CN C» CN.»N C mooooo»»oom»z CC. N z».NC z CC.NC C mmoozzoC CC. C CC.CC N CC.CC N mooo»NmC »oooooooNoC 3o: o».» C» CC.CC C CC.CC C mo.oo..C NN.N »C» NC.NC CC NC.Nz Co moo»ooC\»o»»omoz\mmoo»»» CCCC.N NC.CN N»C C».Cz »o» CC.CC »N» oCooc»C oz»\»oo:»oozooam ozN CN.» CN NC.CC C» NC.CC C» oooo»o»>\zo»mom»CNm»oozNoo< NCC».» CC.N» CC» CC.CC NN CC.CC NC o»oooo zooC C z»ooC z».» C» CC.CC C CC.CC N m»oE»o< NC.N CC »N.Cz C» CN.CC C» mo»zmoo»»o»oz »oNooC C C»»sou CzNN.» CC.C» CCN »C.CC NN» C».Cz CC» »ooEzm»o:o CCN».» CC.C CC N».CC CC NC.CC CC oCoEoC »o»ooz»oo<\mmoz CC.C CC CN.CC CN CN.CC CC N»o_xo< oNEooooC CCNC.C CC.C» z»N CC.NC NN» CC.NC NC zoo: »oozoC za 2 ox 2 on 2 Nx »o»oN C»C»C mCoC mo»ooCo»oC .momooomoN (.»oso» oza»o e»Noo. »o NN.N n Nx »oooooeo .xom Cz oooaom »zo zoo .moCo»ooosoo .mopoooooozC o»zomoo> "moNLLozii.z».C o»zoN 139 .pcaou 5.5—.00 :o tmmmm z .m»o»o» zoo oo zomoCo CC.CC» NCC» NCC CNC »o»o» CN.» CN CC.C» C CC.CC CN maoooo»»oomwz CC. N No.»N C NC.CN N mmooxooC CC. C CC.CN » CC.CN C mooo»CmC »ooooooowom 3o: o».» C» CC.CN C CC.CC N» mooooC NN.N »C» CC.CC CC CC.CC Ce moo»ooC\»o»»omoz\mmoo»»H zC»z.» NC.CN N»C NC.CC Co» NC.CC NC» oCooz»C oz»\»oz=»oooooam ozN CN.» CN CC.CC N CC.CC C» oooo»o»>\oo»mom»C\m»ooz»oo< »N»C.N CC.N» CC» NC.CC CC NC.CC CN o»oooo zooC C z»ooC o».» C» CC.CC C CC.CC N m»oo»o< NC.N CC o».NC CN CC.NC C» CCNzCoo»»o»oN »o»ooC C C»N5oo CCCC.» CC.C» CCN CC.CC NC» CC.CC CN» . »ooezCNoao CC.C CC »C.Co Co CC.»C Co oCoEoC »o»ooz»oo<\mmoz CC.C CC CC.CC CC CC.CC CN C»o»xo< o»oooooC NC.C» z»N CC.CC NC» CC.CC NC» goo: »oozom Ca 2 CN 2 Ca 2 Nx »o»oN »oozm oozo: mo»CoCo»oC momooomom .»o>o» ozC»o szCC. »o NN.N u Nx »oowopeo .oo_»ooo» »oo»mCzo Cz ooooom »zo zoo .moCo»ooogoo .mo»ooo:oocm o»zo»oo> "mo»zoozii.C».C o»zoN 140 more urban children worried about Loss/Accidental Damage, Punishment, The Supernatural/The Strange. On the other hand, slightly more rural than urban children worried about Family 8 Social Relationships, Animals, Death 8 Dead People, and Illness/HospjtaljDoctors. No significant differences were found between the responses of rural and urban children in this index. Fears Research Question 6.0: What do elementary school children in Anambra state fear? Research Question 6.1: Do the fears of younger elementary school children differ from those of older ele- mentary school children? ' Table 5.16 presents variable frequencies and percentages by age set for the index, Fears. The most frequently expressed fear was of Animals, which received 32.3 percent of the total index responses. Fear of The_ Supernatural1The Strange had 29.2 percent, of Accidents/Violence] Disaster 19.4 percent. 0f the responses for Animals, 60.2 percent were given by younger children and 39.8 percent by the older set. 0f the responses for Accidents/Violence/Disaster, 54.5 percent came from younger children and 45.5 percent from older children. Forty-three and five-tenths percent of the responses for The Supernatural/The Strange came from younger children, while older children gave 56.5 percent. Significant differences were found between between the age sets in two categories: fear of Animals, where the chi square was 141 .e»Noo. v a »o »eoopo_eo_mN .»o»o» os:»oo oo zomoC z .m»o»o» zoo oo zomoCo CC.CC» NCC» »CN »NN »o»oN CN.C CC CC.CC CC CC.CC N» mooooo»»oom»z C».C Cz CC.CC oN NC.»C CN mmoozooC Co. N z».NC o CC.NC C moooNCCC »ooeoozoCoC 3oz CC.» C» CC.CN N» CC.CN z mEoooC CN. N» CC.CC N NC.»C C moo»ooC\»o»»omoz\mmoo»»» «NNCN.N CN.CN Coo NC.CC CCN NC.CC CC» oCoog»C ozN\»oo=»oozoo=C ozN CCNN.N CC.C» NCN CC.CC CC» izC.zC NC» oo»mom»CNoooo»oC>\m»oozwoo< CCCN.¢ CN.C »o» NC.CC CC NC.Cz NC o»oooo zooC C z»ooC «CNCN.CN »C.NC CCo CN.CC NC» CN.CC CCN m»oewo< C». C CC.CC N CC.CC » mopzmoo»»o»om »o»ooC C C»»Eoo CC. C» NC.CN C» CC.CN C »ooEzm»o:o CC.C C CC.C C CC.C C oCoooC »o»ooz»oo<\mmoz CC.C C CC.C C CC.C C C»o»xo< owooooom CC. » CC.C C CC.CC» » zoo: »oozoC CC 2 oNo »zn eNo on o zz». o oz»» Nx »o»o» ooz»C ooCo=o> mo»zoCo»oC momooomoz .»oso» oza»o e»Noo. »o NN.N n x »oo»»»oC N .»om oCo Cz ozooom »zo zoo .moCo»oooooo .mo»ooo:oozN o»zo»oo> "mooomii.C».C o»zo» 142 20.2, and fear of The Supernatural/The Strange, with a chi square of 7.25. Research Question 6.2: Do the fears of elementary school boys differ from those of elementary school girls? Table 5.17 presents variable frequencies and percentages by sex for the index, Fears. For both boys and girls the most frequently mentioned fear was that of Animals, with boys expressing slightly more, 52.5 per- cent, of this kind of fear. Fear of The Supernatural/The Strange ranked second, and both sexes responded in equal numbers; fear of Accidents/Disaster/Violence came third and showed slightly more girls, 51.2 percent, responding. An overall look at the categories suggests that girls gave more responses throughout the index than did boys. For fear of Death 8 Dead People, Accidents/Disaster/Violence, and Darkness, slightly more responses were recorded from girls than from boys. Boys, however, expressed 66 percent of the fears recorded in the Illness/HospitaljDoctors category and 52.5 percent of those about Animals. No significant differences were found between the responses of boys and girls to this index. Research Question 6.3: Do the fears of urban elementary school children differ from those of rural ele- mentary school children? Variable frequencies and percentages by physical location for the index, Fears, are presented in Table 5.18. 143 .»o»o» oE=»oo oo zomoC z .m»o»o» zoo oo zomoCo CC.CC» NCC» CCN NNN »o»o» CN.C CC CC.NC C» CC.CC CC mooooo»»oom»z C». Co NC.»C CN NC.CC oN mmooxooC Co. N z».NC o CC.NC C mooo»CCC poosoooomom 3oz CC.» C» CN.CC »» CN.»C C mooooC CN. N» CC.CC z CC.CC C moo»ooC\»o»»omoz\mmoo»»» CN.CN Coo CC.CC CNN CC.CC CNN oCooo»C oz»\»ozz»oozoozm ozN CC.C» NCN N».»C NC» NC.CC Co» oooo»o»>Nzo»mom»C\m»ooz»oo< N»NC.» CN.C »o» CC.CC NN CC.CC CC o»oooo zooC C z»ooC CCC».» »C.NC CCo NC.NC CCN NC.NC CCN m»oe.»o< o». N CC.CC N CC.NC » ao_zoeewoo»oo »o_oam N C».ooo CC. C» CN.CC C CN.CC o »ooEzm»o=o CC.C C CC.C C CC.C C oCoEoC »o»ooz»oo<\mmoz CC.C C CC.C C CC.C C N»o»xo< o»eooooC CC. » CC.CC» » CC.C C zoo: »oozoC zm z ox z ow z Nx »o»oN C»C»C mNoC mowooCo»oC momooomoz .»oso» oza»a e»Noo. oo NN.N n Nx »oowooco .xom Cz ooozom Nzo zoo .moCo»oooooo .mo»ooo:oooN o»zo»oo> Nmzoooii.N».C o»zoN 144 .»o»o» oE=»oo oo zomoC z .m»o»o» zoo oo zomoCo oo.oo» NCC» CNN NoN »aoa» CN.C om oo.oe NN CC.NC NN asaoeo»»ooa_z C».C me NC.Co oN NC.»C CN amoexeoo Ce. N »e.»N o NC.CN N mcoo_ooo »eoeooeaoeo zoo eo.» o» CN.Ca N CN.CC o moooco CN. N» CC.C» N NC.CC o» ocoooao\»a»_ooo=Noaoe»»o oN.oN Coo CC.Ca »NN CC.CC NNN ooeacom ozNN»oesoaecoa=m oz» Nomm.o CC.C» NCN CC.»C am» N».CN Ne» ooeo»a»>\aeooooa_onoeoo_oo< CN.C »o» oa.Nm eN »C.Ne No o»aaoa oooo N eoooo CooN.o »C.NC Coo »C.»C ooN CC.CN »oN m»oe_e< o». N CC.C o CC.CC» m mowzaee_»o»oo.»o»oom N C»_Eoo so. m» C».Co o eo.mm N »eoezmoesa CC.C o CC.C o oo.o o oooan »ooeoo»oo "mooomii.C».C o»zo» 145 Fear of Animals constituted the highest (32.3) percentage of all fears expressed by the children. More than 51 percent of the Animals responses were made by rural children, whereas for the next highest, fear of The Supernatural/The Strange, nearly the same number of responses was recorded from both locations. Difference in number of responses between the locations was also small in the third most frequently expressed source of fear, AccidentsLDisasteeriolence. Response patterns were similar for urban and rural children. Slightly more urban than rural children feared Punishment, Dreams, and Darkness, while slightly more rural than urban children feared Animals, Death 8 Dead PeOple, and Accidents/Disasters[Violence. Differences between the two locations were more noticeable in the Illnesslhospital/Doctors and Law Enforcement Officers cate- gories, where 83.3 percent of the responses for fear of Illness[ Hospital/Doctors came from urban children and 71.4 percent of those for fear of Law Enforcement Officers were expressed by rural children. NO significant differences were found, however, between the responses of rural and urban children in this index.. Summary of Findings Of all the variables, gge_yielded the largest number of sig- nificant differences along the six index measures, while the variable physical location showed significant differences in only one index. Significant differences were measured for the sey_variable in two indices. Table 5.19 presents a summary of the findings. 1116 no: NCN CNN :N NNN 2N NCN N38. ..N o. ..N. oN a... oN N... .N N... CN N.NC .N o.N. 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No. a. ...... ....N . ...: n o.8. . o... o 38.5. 58.833.38 .... ... a... o. o... o. 98 o. 83.383... .....oo .2 .... NNN .N N..... a N.N. .N . .32....3... ... .. a... N .... .. ...... N 822.2253 .52. ..N N N... C. ...N o ..N. .. .255 2.8 .... N. .... 3 ..2 ..N .... o. 23...... .o. .N.» .... 2... 3.. ..S no. a... ... 3.2.2.... .2 ... .... a .NN... N..: ..N N... NN. .335... £2.38 .8 »NN. .... .NN 8... ..N... SN 3.. SN 8:33Nooea.a.ts.:os2 ...5. v o .- ...o . N.. .83.: mezzo... . .. u .. N a a u _. .....o 2.8 N be... ...!So 3.383).... mom .3 .zuaczeoui...o~ .m .3: I48 Curiosities 1.0 1.] 1.2 1.3 Biological phenomena was the area of greatest curiosity for all children. Physical Phenomena ranked second, and Supernatural/ Religious matters third. No significant differences were found between the responses of younger and older children in this index. There were no significant differences between the curiosities of boys and girls. However, percentages suggest that boys were slightly more curious about Supernatural/Religious matters, while girls were slightly more curious about Human & Animal Behavior and Misfortunes/Accidents. Urban children were significantly more curious about Technology& Applied Science than rural children, while rural children were significantly more curious about Biological Phenomena than urban children. Wishes 2.0 Personal Possessions were by far the most pOpular wishes of all 2.] the children, and accounted for more than 40 percent of the total responses for the index. The second most popular wishes were connected with Ambitions for Vocations & Future Careers, and the third most frequent wishes were for Success in School. Significantly more of the younger children expressed wishes for Personal Possessions than older children, while significantly more of the older children expressed wishes connected with Ambitions for Vocations & Future Careers. To Be Good ranked 2.2 2.3 149 sixth in frequency of wishes and significantly more children from the older age set made this kind of wish. Boys expressed significantly more wishes about Ambitions for Vocations & Future Careers than girls. No significant differences were found between the wishes of urban and rural children, but percentages showed that more urban children expressed wishes about Others' welfare and for sports & Playing Equipment than rural children, while more rural children wished To Live Long and expressed wishes regarding Personal & Family Welfare more than urban children. Favorite Activities 3.0 3.l 3.2 3.3 The favorite activities with the highest frequencies were in the Playing, Games, Sports category. Ranking second were activities connected with House Duties & Chores and third, Reading/Studying. Significantly more older children responded to Reading/Studying and significantly more girls responded to doing Home Duties & Chores. There were no significant differences between the favorite activi- ties of rural and urban children, but the percentages suggested that more urban children responded to Eating and Social Activi- ties, while more rural children responded to Excursions. Aversions 4.0 The largest number of responses in this index came in expressions of aversion toward Aggression/Violence/Injustice. Aversion to Dishonesty was second, while aversion to Conflicts with and Punishment by adults was third. 4.1 4.2 4.3 150 Significantly more of the younger children were averse to Conflicts with and Punishment by adults. Percentages showed that more younger children disliked Doing Chores and being denied necessities, while more older children disliked doing poorly in school. There were no signficant differences between boys' and girls' aversions but the percentages indicated that more boys disliked Doing Chores and being denied necessities, while more girls were averse to doing poorly in school. Rural and urban children showed no significant differences in their aversions, and percentages indicated just slight differ-' ences . Worries 5.0 5.1 5.2 The Supernatural/The Strange constituted the greatest source of worries for all children, followed by worries regarding Punish- ment. The third most frequently expressed area of worry was School Work. Chi square tests showed no significant age, sex, or locational differences. Percentages, however, showed that more older children worried about Family & Social Relationships, and more younger children worried about Animals, Accidents/Disaster/ Violence, and Dreams. More boys worried about Dreams, while slightly more girls wor- ried about Darkness, Accidents/Disaster/Violence, and Loss/ Accidental Damage to things. 151 5.3 More rural children expressed Economic Anxiety and worries about Darkness, while more urban children worried about Accidents/ Disaster/Violence, Dreams, and Law Enforcement Officers. Eg25§_ 6.0 The greatest source of fear was Animals for all children, fol- lowed by The Supernatural/The Strange; fear of Accidents/ Disaster/Violence was the third most frequently expressed. 6.1 Significantly more of the younger children feared Animals, while significantly more of the older children feared The Supernatural/ The Strange. The percentages showed that more of the older children expressed fears about Death & Dead PeOple and about Dreams. 6.2 Percentages showed negligible differences between boys' and girls' fears. 6.3 Negligible differences were also found between the fears of rural and urban children. 152 Part Two: Discussion of Findings In this second part of Chapter Five, major findings are dis- cussed, interpreted and where possible, explained in terms of the sociocultural system in Anambra, Nigeria. References are made to previous studies to point out findings similar to or contrasting with those made in this study. As was indicated in the review of litera- ture, the investigator could not find any researchdone in Nigeria relating to the topic of this study. Thus in this section "flash- backs" to previous research are to those done with American children. It would have been more beneficial to compare the results of this investigation with studies based on Nigerian or African children, but such literature is lacking in the area of this study. The inves- tigator, however, found one study in which Kenyan children had been used as research subjects.1 Curiosities Children and adults alike often use questions to explore their areas of curiosity. Among many families, children are some- times discouraged from asking questions. Some parents who do not understand the value of answering children's questions might put a ban on questions; others might just ignore them and some others might answer so sarcastically that children would stop asking. By which- ever method, many children soon get the message that asking questions is not welcome. Henceforth, such children just cease to ask and either try to find answers to puzzling questions from each other, or they just accept things as they see them. The golden glow of 153 curiosity might thus have been effectively snuffed out quite early in the lives of such children. When asked, children from such back- grounds might be unwilling to or bashful in expressing their curiosity. It was to allow all children maximum freedom to express themselves that the open-ended questions were used. Against this background, the investigator found the results quite exciting. Results showed that objects and phenomena causing curiosity were varied but they could be broadly grouped into seven categories as shown in Table 5.1. Curiosity about Biological Phenomena had the highest frequency and responses covered a wide range of subjects. Here are some examples, randomly selected from those classified in this category:- How did man come to be? Why can birds fly and not man? Why are some snakes poisonous? How do plants "eat" in order to grow? Why don't trees move about like human beings? How are babies born? One of the most common questions concerned the origin of man. This probably suggests a basic conflict between the biblical story of the creation which these subjects are familiar with and the practical daily references they hear made to childbirth. Indeed, a number of questions in this category concerned how a child enters the mother's "stomach," how it grows, and how it is born. The investigator remem- bered from the.interviews that some such questions were asked by older female children and a check from some of the response sheets seemed to confirm this. When the detailed frequency matrix in Appendix C was consulted, it was discovered that more responses on Biological Phenomena were made by older girls in rural as well as in urban locations. 154 For the category under discussion, that is Biological Phe- nomena, slightly more of the older than younger children responded, as did almost the same number of boys and girls, but significantly more rural than urban children responded in this category. The investigator can think of no sociocultural reason why many more rural than urban children should respond in this category. It is, of course, possible that rural children are more nature-conscious and so have wondered more often than their urban brothers and sisters about bees and birds and human beings. Age did not make much differ- ence to responses in this category, suggesting that both age sets have similar needs for information in this area. The finding just discussed--that the area of greatest curi- osity is Biological Phenomena--is similar to Byers'2 finding. He reported the most frequently expressed curiosity of first graders to be science and nature. Thompson3 also found nature frequently men- tioned in children's questions. Baker4 found interest in animal life having the highest frequency in his analysis of children's questions. Questions relating to Physical Phenomena were the second most common in the Curiosities index. They included the following randomly selected samples: What is inside the mountains? If I dig deep down, what can I find? Can stars see us? Where does air live? Why is the sun so hot? ,Where does the sky end? As in the case of Biological Phenomena, these questions concerned daily experiences which the children found puzzling. The results, Tables 5.1, 5.2, and 5.3, showed that differences within each variable were small, but girls asked more questions in this category than boys, 155 older children more than younger, and urban more than rural children. 0n the basis of the smallness of differences, this result suggests a uniform interestin this phenomenon among all the subjects. Beggs'5 report that questions about the sun, stars, and the earth were among the most common in a study of children's questions is similar to the finding just discussed, which showed curiosity about Physical Phenomena the second commonest area of curiosity. The third most frequently expressed curiosity related to Supernatural/Religious matters (Table 5.1). Religion is an important factor in the lives of the Igbo people of Anambra state and this fact showed up repeatedly in the course of this study. Among questions ' asked in this category were the following, selected at random from the responses classified under the category: Who is God? Who created God? Where did God come from? How did God create everything in the world? Where do spirits go during the day? How can some peOple go to hell and others to heaven? Belief in the existence of a "controlling power" is basic to Igbo cosmology and Christianity, which is widespread among the Igbos, reinforces this belief. This finding suggests that children are trying to understand adult forms of belief. Crippen6 also reported that religion was a source of curiosity among Kenyan elementary school children. Nearly l6 percent of the Curiosities responses in this study were in this category. Many more of the older than the younger age set responded in this category so that the chi square (5.6l) is just short of the (5.99) significance level (Table 5.l). In both rural 156 and urban locations, more boys than girls expressed curiosity in this area but more urban than rural children were curious about these mat- ters (Tables 5.2 and 5.3). The fact that older children were more curious about this than younger ones is not surprising. With their greater experience and growing mental 50phistication, they are bound to wonder about certain views and concepts which they had accepted without understanding at an earlier age. There appears to be no ready explanation why more boys than girls should be curious about these phenomena unless one refers to the strong sex-role SOcializa- tion practices among the Igbos. On that basis, girls would be expected to be more accepting of ideas, suggestions, rules, and regulations than boys. Applied here, girls would not be expected to question such fundamental issues as religious beliefs. The investigator was surprised that responses in the Igghr nology & Applied Science category made up only 14.5 percent of the Curiosity responses. Samples of randomly selected responses in this category are as follows: How are dresses colored differently? How do aeroplanes fly? How do motor cars move? How are clothes manufactured? How tare bridges constructed? Who makes nails and other building materials? How are watches made? Crippen7 found that applied science was the most frequently mentioned area of curiosity in his study of Kenyan children. Based on her own observation, the investigator thought that the interest and wonder with which some children regarded mechanical gadgets was common enough that the subjects of this study would ask many more questions about such things. But it is likely that in spite of the commonness 157 of such gadgets, both adults and children are not sufficiently familiar with them to take more than a superficial interest in them. As a matter of fact, a "don't touch" aura is built around possessions such as stereos, watches, and calculators, among some people. Since such articles are imported and not home-manufactured, an in-depth understanding of their basic operational mechanism is often lacking; there is thus always a fear of their getting "spoiled" and becoming useless. Further, because they are imported they are usually quite expensive and an owner tries to get as much use out of the gadget as possible; hence children are generally discouraged from handling mechanical gadgets. Also, in the absence of large-scale industriali- zation in Anambra state, children's toys are not mechanical. Thus from all considerations, children actually have very little experi- ence with mechanical things--hence their limited interest. There was very little difference in the number of younger and older children's responses (Table 5.1). One can see that children of both ages need contact with technical and applied science materials equally. Boys showed slightly more curiosity than girls, but urban children were significantly more curious than rural children about such issues (Tables 5.2 and 5.3). The fact that girls showed almost as much interest as boys in this category suggests that later sex- role stereotyping rather than lack of interest or ability is respon- sible for turning girls off applied science subjects at higher educational levels. The fact that rural children showed signifi- cantly less curiosity about this factor is probably based on their more limited experience with such materials. 158 Human & Animal Behavior, which accounted for nearly 13 percent of the Curiosities responses, should be viewed alongside the chil- dren's interest in Biological Phenomena, which has already been dis- cussed. The children's curiosity about human and animal behavior indicates a growing awareness of their social surroundings, suggesting interest in social science. The following randomly selected examples portray the types of responses classified under this category: Why do we eat? Why do people poison others? Why do some par- ents kill their children? Why are some people wicked, others kind? Why do human beings sleep at night? Why do peOple marry? More such questions came from older children than from younger ones (Table 5.1), more from girls than from boys (Table 5.2), and just a ‘ few more from rural than from urban children (Table 5.3). In none of the variables was a significant difference recorded; there were only small differences, suggesting that interest in human and animal behavior was general. Similar curiosity about human behavior was reported by Crippen.8 Wishes The most frequently wished-for things were Personal Posses- sions, making up 40.6 percent of the responses in this index (Table 5.4). Randomly selected samples included: To have money, to have good school uniform, to have a car when I grow up, to have shoes, to have television in our home, to have balls. * Personal possessions have always dominated children's wishes, as 9 reported by Zeligs and others. More than 60 percent of this type of wish were made by younger children, showing a significant 159 difference between older and younger children's responses in this category (Table 5.4). This finding is similar to results reported by Boynton,10 Milgram,n ‘2 and Witty. In this study, slightly more boys than girls made this kind of wish (Table 5.5) and almost the same number of responses were recorded from rural and urban pupils (Table 5.6). Looking at the findings regarding Personal Possessions from the point of view of child development, the elementary school years are the years when collections or as Stone and Church13 prefer "aggregations" are so important. At this developmental stage, par- ticularly with younger children, to own things appears so important, giving them the grown-up feeling which they treasure during these years. Much of the school-age child's "property" might look like junk to adults, but to the owner they are more valuable than the adult's gold. The investigator was interested to find that many of the material things the children wished to have were much the same things that adults are interested in. Wishes for toys and play materials were few and were probably made by children from higher socioeconomic backgrounds. The second most frequently expressed wishes were connected with Ambitions for Vocations & Future Careers (Table 5.4). Random samples of this kind of wish included: To be a teacher, to be a footballer, to have university edu- cation, to have a good husband, to become a civil servant, to become an engineer. 160 The third most common kind of wishes had to do with Success in School (Table 5.4). The results of these two categories should be discussed together because they appear to be related. Randomly selected examples of responses classified under Success in School included: God's help to pass examinations, money to buy school books, to be brilliant, to have plenty of books for my schooling, to read my books successfully, to pass all my examinations. Jersild and Tasch14 15 as well as Witty and Kopel reported that wishes for school success were infrequent in their studies. The opposite is the case in this study, partly explainable by the tremendous potential attributed to education as a social lever in Nigeria. Even though elementary and much of subsequent education is now free in Nigeria, no one takes things for granted. Parents and other adults constantly remind children that the most reliable route to obtaining such status- conferring possessions as cars and good homes is by getting a good education which would lead to a good job and to social status. As would be expected, significantly more of the older children expressed wishes regarding vocations and future careers (Table 5.4). This finding is similar to that related by Zeligs'6 '7 and Milgram. Significantly more boys than girls expressed wishes about vocations and future careers (Table 5.5). The explanation for this might be found in sociocultural sex-role socialization. In Anambra state many professional and leadership positions still appear to be men's pre- serves, in spite of pressure from women. The stereotypic view still regards men as "natural" leaders, particularly in the professions. One is not surprised that children are already socialized into this pattern of thinking. 161 It is interesting to note, however, that even though more boys than girls expressed wishes about vocations and future careers, more girls expressed wishes regarding school success (Table 5.5). In her study of children's wishes, Zeligs18 also reported that girls expressed more wishes for school success than boys. In the United States, the greater diligence and concern shown by girls in school work is well documented; the same may well be true of the girls among these Anambra children. Wishes To Be Good ranked sixth and accounted for only about 7 percent of the Wishes responses, but significantly more of the older than the younger children expressed this kind of wish (Table 5.4); more girls than boys (Table 5.5) and more urban than rural children (Table 5.6) also expressed this kind of wish. Examples of such wishes randomly selected from the wishes in that category included: To live in peace with neighbors, to be a good citizen, to be useful in the community, to be a good Christian, to do the will of God, to obey parents, teachers and older people. It is not surprising that the majority of this kind of wish was expressed by older children. They should, after all, be more aware of social expectations and among the Igbos, this includes "being good," that is, doing the socially approved thing and generally toeing the social line. From a developmental point of view, this finding attests 19 that even to the truth of the observation made by Stone and Church as the elementary school child turns his back on adults, he continues to take on adult values, at the same time that he resists them. Thus socioculturally and developmentally, these findings are explainable. 162 The more frequent expression of this kind of wish by girls (Table 5.5) is also explained from a sociocultural and stereotypic viewpoint. From both viewpoints, the female is expected to be more conforming, to value approval, which means being considered "good." Favorite Activities The most frequently mentioned favorite activities were in the Playing, Sports, Games category (Table 5.7). Randomly selected responses classified in this category included: Jumping, running, playing football, moonlight games, playing with other children, playing basketball, playing ball, playing gga games, relay races, rope skipping, swimming, marching to ands, group dancing. This finding about the pOpularity of playing is similar to results 20 reported by Jersild and Tasch, who found outdoor play, games, and sports the favorite activities of the elementary school child. Simi- lar results were also reported by Foster.21 There was very little difference between the frequency of responses of older and younger children (Table 5.7), but more rural than urban children made responses in this category (Table 5.9). This is similar to what Nancy Larrick22 reported: that more rural children mentioned playing as a source of fun than urban children. Slightly more boys than girls responded in this category (Table 5.8). There seems to be no sociocultural explanation for this result except that in Anambra, boys are more likely than girls to have free play time. Girls are more apt to stay indoors doing chores. When the detailed matrix (in Appendix C) was consulted to see if more boys within each variable responded, it was found that there was no 163 consistency in the responses. For example, among rural children, the matrix showed that more of the older girls responded in this category but among urban children, more of the older boys did. No significant differences were reported within any of the variables, indicating that generally the children were similar in their views on this category. This finding is not surprising in a climate where, but for the rainy season, the weather is fine through- out the year; outdoor play is bound to be the most popular form of recreation for children. Performing Home Duties & Chores was the second most favored activity among the subjects (Table 5.7). Nearly l9 percent of the total index responses were made for this category. Among others, the following duties and chores were mentioned in the children's responses: Fetching water, running errands for my parents, helping my mother with housework, washing my school uniform, sweeping and cleaning the house, working on the farm, looking after younger brothers and sisters, washing plates, cooking. 23 who reported that home duties This result is similar to Crippen's, was the second most popular activity among Kenyan elementary school children. In Anambra, Nigeria, mechanical labor-saving devices are rare in homes; this means that children have to help around the house prob- ably more than they do in the United States. Parents supply necessi- ties to children as part of their regular parental obligation and in return expect c00peration and help with housework and duties around the house. The discharge of these duties is also a demonstration of 164 loyalty and family solidarity. Children grow up knowing that they are expected to do these duties and they accept them as obligations and not as impositions. During the interviews it was interesting to note that many children replied that if they had free time they would clean the house, fetch water, or help mother. Though one is entitled to wonder if the children were responding in the way they knew would please the adult interviewers, yet these children's con- cept of free time seemed to be limited to times when there were no house chores to do. It is puzzling to find that many more of the younger children (almost significantly more) indicated that they enjoyed home duties and chores (Table 5.7). Older children tradi- tionally have more duties to perform in the home. Perhaps it was precisely for that reason that more of the younger children "enjoyed" the chores. Since the younger ones would have lighter duties and chores to perform, this could be turned into play much of the time, but such would not be tolerated in older children, who would be expected to be more serious and thorough. The popularity of this category should also be viewed from the perspective that chores, such as fetching water, running errands, being sent to the market, provide ample opportunity for peer interactions. Water fetching either in a stream or from a public tap is more often than not done in the company of peers and most children welcome such opportunity. Often such chores enable the youngster to have more fun that if he stayed at home. Children, especially younger children, do find ways to enjoy these duties. 165 There was very little difference between the responses of rural and urban children (Table 5.9), but significantly more girls than boys responded in this category (Table 5.8). This has a socio- cultural explanation. As mentioned elsewhere, girls in Anambra have more home duties than boys. Witty reported a similar finding in a study with American children.24 It is part of Igbo sex-role training to assign more house duties to girls in order to keep them at home, busy, and out of mischief. Besides, this is part of their appren- ticeship as future housewives and mothers. Thus, diligence and care in the discharge of household duties are reinforced in the form of greater parental attention, praise, and commendation, all of which are valued by children at this stage. Girls whose parents commend as effective in discharging household duties are confident about their adult roles. Reading/Studying had more than 18 percent of the responses in the Favorite Activities index and was the third most popular of the Favorite Activities (Table 5.7). Randomly selected sample responses were: Reading, being active in class, reading books, reading in class, studies, studying, doing English in class, being helped with my lessons at home. 25 who reported that academics This finding is similar to Crippen's, was the most frequently mentioned favorite activity of the Kenyan pupils he used in his study. The importance attached to schooling and school-related activities in Anambra has already been referred to. This finding further confirms what was said earlier. It should further be noted that another category in this index, Attending 166 Sghggl, is related to the category under discussion. Though only nine responses were recorded for that category, it is noteworthy that some children found attending school so interesting as to be mentioned as a favorite activity. Reference has already been made to the contrast between this finding and Jersild and Tasch's, where school and school- related activities were rarely mentioned in a positive way. Older children responded significantly more in the Reading/ Studying category than younger ones (Table 5.7). The older children, in Elementary 5 or 6, would be approaching the first in a series of "external" examinations scattered through the Anambra educational system so that Reading/Studying as a favorite activity is not neces-' sarily limited to enjoyment of reading or studying but could also indicate a sense of duty, evidence of being conscientious. ' Regarding sex differences, only four responses separated the boys from the girls (Table 5.8), and these were too few to warrant any more than to comment that boys and girls responded in the same way to this category. In several studies such as those by Norvell26 27 it was found that girls read more than boys. The and Feeley results of this study do not support these findings, and one can only speculate as to why not. It has been pointed out earlier that girls have more duties around the house than do boys in Anambra society. There are still parents, especially in rural areas, who might think of reading and studying as idle pastimes, and so discourage their daughters from developing interest in leisure-time reading. Some parents probably still believe that reading or too much education is ruinous to feminine character. Such parents would discourage their 167 daughters from developing interests in reading. It can be seen from Table 5.9 that more urban than rural children indicated Readingl Studying as a favorite activity. Availability of books, in terms of public libraries and better school equipment, clearly favors the urban child. This finding is in line with Speers,28 who reported that rural children had fewer choices open to them in terms of what interests to pursue. Less than 2 percent of the Favorite Activities responses were for Making Things (Table 5.7). This finding deserves a special com- ment because this result is disturbing in a system where mechanization is still very limited. Handcrafts, including the making of bags, ropes, brooms, baskets, pots, and many other household items have always been a pride of the Igbo people. In a conscious effort to perpetuate this artistic tendency, schools from quite early in their history set aside a "handwork" period each Friday during which chil- dren explored making different crafts. However, two factors have worked against this recently. One is large-scale population drift from rural to urban areas which has made it very difficult to obtain handwork material cheaply in urban areas; the other, and to the inves- tigator, more serious factor, is a piteous loss of perspective by the educational authorities. Since the l970's, many schools in Anambra state have been content to accept as "handwork" finished products purchased from the market and brought to the school by children. School authorities probably do not realize that this default on their part has some serious implications, one being the suggestion, so early in the lives of children, that the creation of beauty by their 168 own hands is not important. In addition, children are denied the opportunity to learn and practice useful motor skills through manipu- lating different materials. They are denied the experience of the exhilarating pride and satisfaction which come from looking on one's own finished work. The neglect of so important an aSpect of the child's development could have such unfortunate repercussions in future that the child's personality development, including his atti- tude to work, might be jeopardized. The findings from the three interest indices discussed so far are on the whole similar to results found in the literature reviewed in Chapter Three. There is, however, one important differ; ence: the absence in the children's responses of an indication of interest in the television. Of the nearly 4500 responses given in the three interest indices discussed so far, less than fifteen men- tioned the television as a source of interest. This is in contrast to the great interest that children in the United States have in 29 television. Witty reported that since the l960's watching televi- sion has been rated highest among children's favorite pursuits. 30 and Miller31 Bailyn also reported that sixth graders spent a greater part of their time watching television than in any other activity. As mentioned earlier in this study, television sets are quite common in Anambra urban homes but are rarely found in rural homes. The reasons for this are many. One is the prohibitive cost of television sets, another is that the taste for television viewing is only just developing among the people, and a third reason is that programs are unavailable in some areas and where available are yet 169 very limited, lacking the variety and saphistication available in United States television. Elsewhere in this study the investigator has predicted that in fifteen years, if this study were repeated, the results would show evidence of the effects of television as an inter- est arouser. This suspicion is strengthened by the steps now being taken in Nigeria to establish many more television stations and to expand and diversify programs. Already the popularity of a number of particular TV programs among children and youth suggests that it will be only a matter of time before such programs become the focus of children's interest. The present anxiety of parents and teachers in the United States over the effects of television on children ought to serve as a warning to countries like Nigeria where the television is not yet an important social factor. The experience of the United States with the television suggests that though the TV can be an excellent educative medium, programs have to be carefully planned and presented in order to avoid abuses caused by such factors as over- commercialization. Aversions Of all the categories in this index, aversion to Aggressiogl Violence/Injustice received the largest number of responses, account- int for over 42 percent (Table 5.10). Randomly selected responses classified in this category are: Being punished for what I didn't do, false accusation, bullying by older children, maltreatment by seniors, telling lies against me, fighting, abusive words, seeing people being beaten, killing peOple. insulting my parents, teacher being partial to some people. 170 Aversion to unfair blame and punishment as found in this result is 32 similar to that obtained by Zeligs, who reported that expressed aversions