.A COMPARISON OF UNIVERSITY STUDENT

ORGANIZATIGN LEADERS AND '
NON-JOINERS IN ACADEMIC ABILITIES
AND PERSONALITY CHARACTERISTICS

AIfTI'msIs for the Degree oI ph. D.
I. MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY
Louis Alan Barker ' g,
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ABSTRACT

A COMPARISON OF UNIVERSITY STUDENT ORGANIZATIOB
LEADERS AND NON-JOINERS IN ACADEMIC ABILITIES
AND PERSONALITY CHARACTERISTICS

by Louis Alan Barker

The value attached to student leadership in the
university depends upon the purposes underlying the
educational program, and upon the degree to which the needs
of the present social order are considered in determining
educational objectives. If one accepts the principle that
student leadership is a significant phase of the educative
process, he will study leadership as it is demonstrated in
various social areas of university life.

The specific purpose of this study was to demonstrate
certain differences between student leaders and non-joiners
and to contrast possible differences between male and
female student leaders and non—joiners.

This was a retrospective study which proposed to
analyze certain academic abilities and personality
characteristics of 1962 Michigan State University graduating
senior student, as measured by their 1958 Freshmen Admission

Test Battery. Academic abilities were measured by tests of

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Louis Alan Barker

critical thinking, college qualifications, reading comprehen-
sion, and a 4-year cumulative Michigan State University
guade-point average. Student personality characteristics
vmre measured by tests of attitudes, values, beliefs, and
college extra-curricular participation.

In addition, it was believed that student organization
leaders and student non-joiners would manifest certain differ-
mmms in social, economic, educational, and other environmental
factors, as measured by a biographical inventory. Sex
<hfferences would also be contrasted by these data.

The 1958 Michigan State University Freshmen
Admission Test Battery was particularly valuable for the
smrposes of this study because it was part of one of the
most comprehensive testing programs ever given to a freshmen
group, measuring academic abilities, attitudes, values, and
beliefs. This was a government-sponsored project, under
the leadership of the Michigan State University Evaluation
Services.

For the purpose of this Study, the term organization
leader was defined as a graduating Michigan State University
Senior student organization officer. A non-joiner was
defined as a graduating Michigan State University senior

Student who gave negative answers to the 1962 4-year

Louis Alan Barker

extracurricular activities inventory. The term personality
characteristics, has been used interchangeably with
attitudes, values, beliefs, and traits.

The approach to sample selection was established
from the above definitions. The source of the leader-
ship sample was the official l962 Michigan State University
Student Organization Directoryf’ The non-joiner group were
those students with no extra-curricular activities in
4-years, selected from the entire 1962 graduating class.
Student leader and student non-joiner groups were both
composed of 50 men and 50 women, respectively.

The reliability and validity of the instruments used
were substantiated by correlations with relevent criteria.
The data for the student leader and non-joiner groups were
processed by the Michigan State University Data Processing
Center.

The results were treated statistically to test the
hyPotheses. It was established that there were significant
differences between graduating Michigan State University
student Organization leaders and graduating student
non-joiners, as measured by certain tests of academic
abilities and personality characteristics. Significant

differences between graduating male and female student

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Louis Alan Barker

non-joiners were also determined by tests of academic
abilities and personality characteristics.

The statistical data were assembled into correlation
tables for analysis. Tests of academic abilities showed
definite significant patterns of inter-correlations with
each other. /Very little relationship was shown between
tests of values, apptitudes, beliefs, and college participation.‘
When sex differences were constrasted, patterns of
significant relations were revealed between tests of
academic ability. The Correlation between tests of
personality characteristics was scattered and varied for
all male and female groups.

Analysis of the biographical data revealed that
Michigan State student organization leaders were different
from4353dent non-Joiners in socio-economic, and educational
backgrounds. Male and female student organization leaders

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and non-joiners also revealed unique patterns of environ-
mental differences,” Generally, the organization leaders
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aimeared to have greater advantages in social, economical,
amfl.educational background. The student non-joiners were
from homes that could be associated with disadvantages as

Ineasured by all areas of the inventory.

The data from the socio-economic-educational inventory

Louis Alan Barker

supported the original hypotheses that there would be certain
differences between graduating Michigan State University
student organization leaders and student non-joiners, and
also male and female leader and non-joiner groups, as
measured by this instrument.

This study demonstrated that Michigan State University.
1962 graduating student organization leaders, when compared
to graduating student non-joiners, indicated significant
differences as determined by their freshmen admissions
test battery.

These differences were measured by tests of academic
abilities and personality characteristics. The student-
leader patterns differed from the freshmen students,
who eventually became the graduating senior non-joiner
group. This study has further demonstrated that male and
female student organization leaders and student non-joiners
when contrasted, also revealed significantly different patterns
of response, when measured by tests of certain academic
abilities and personality characteristics.

Further research should develop and refine more
effective instruments for the diagnosis and prediction
of leadership potential within the entire student population.

Although this study is primarily concerned with student

Louis Alan Barker

organization leaders and student non-joiners, its conclusions
could effect the entire university student program.

The interactions of the university student and his
group should not be ignored, because group activities are
shared experiences in which organization leaders and
student non-joiners have reciprocal relations. 'Ehis

should enhance their personal and social development.

A COMPARISON OF UNIVERSITY STUDENT ORGANIZATION
LEADERS AND NON-JOINERS IN ACADEMIC ABILITIES

AND PERSONALITY CHARACTERISTICS

BY

Louis Alan Barker

A DISSERTATION

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of Educational Psychology, Guidance
and
Personnel Services

1962

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The writer wishes to express his sincere appreciation
to:

Dr. Harry W. Sundwall, major advisor of his doctoral
committee, for his constant encouragement, guidance,
and constructive suggestions.

To the other distinguished members of his doctoral
committee; Dr. S. Howard Bartley, Dr. Clyde Campbell, Dr.
James B. McKee, and Dr. John Useem, for their generosity
of valuable time, cooperation and assistance.

To Dr. Irvin J. Lehmann, for his special assistance
and helpful suggestions concerning the data and statistical
interpretation.

The writer also wishes to thank the many other individuals
in the Departments of Education, Psychology, and Sociology
for their assistance and helpful attitude.

To my wife, Christy, my sister, Nyda, my children,
Tamara and Bruce Kevin, for their consistent consideration,

patience, and invaluable assistance.

Chapter

I.

II.

III.

IV.

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM . .

THE

REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE . .

THE

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Introduction to the Problem. . .
Purpose of the Study . . . . .
Need for the Study. . . . .
The Retrospective Approach . . . . . .
The Hypotheses . . . . .

IMPORTANCE OF THE PROBLEM .

Present Concern for Leadership. . . . .
Higher Education and Student Leadership. .
New Trends in Student Leadership Theory. .
Leadership Training Programs . . . .

Extra-Curricular Leadership. . . . . .
Extra-Curricular Program. . . . .
The Meaning of Student Leadership. . . .
Environmental Influence on Leadership . .
Academic Abilities of Student Leaders . .
Interests of Student Leaders . . . . .

“Summary of Socio-Economic-Educational

Research . . . . . . . . . .
Personality Characteristics of Student

Leaders . . . . . . . . . .
Recent Research in University Attitudes and

Values. . . . . . . . . . .

Personality Traits of University Women . .
Summary . . .

DESIGN OF THE STUDY . . . . . . . .
Source of the Data. . .
The Retrospective Design. . . . . . .
Definition Of Terms 0 o o o o I 0 °
Selection of the Sample . .

Page

\I bWUJNH

OkDCOxl

12
l3
13
16
l7
19

20
22
24
25
27
3O
3O
31

33
33

Chapter Page

V. DESCRIPTION OF THE EVALUATIVE INSTRUMENTS . . 38
The M. S. U. Admission Test Battery. . . 38
Validity of the Instruments . . . . . 39
Reliability of the Instruments . . . . 40
Discussion of the Evaluative Instruments . 41

Sumary O O I O O O O O O O O O 4 9
VI. STATISTICAL TREATMENT OF THE DATA. . . . . 50
Data Classification and Tabulation . . . 50
The Null Hypotheses . . . . . . . . 51
The Statistical Formulas Used. . . . . 52
Interpretation of the t-Ratio. . . . . 52
Interpretation of Correlation. . . . . 54

Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

VII. ANALYSIS OF COMBINED STUDENT ORGANIZATION
LEADERS AND COMBINED STUDENT NON-JOINERS. . 56

Analysis of Male and Female Student

Organization Leaders. . . . . . . 57
Analysis of Male and Female Student

Non-Joiners. . . . . . . . . . 60
Analysis of Male Organization Leaders and

Male Student Non—Joiners . . . . . 62

Analysis of Female Organization Leaders

and Female Student Non-Joiners . . . 66
Testing the Hypotheses . . . . . . . 69
Summary of the t-Ratio Results . . . . 73

VIII. DISCUSSION OF THE INTERCORRELATION DATA. . . 75

Interpretation of Male and Female Organiza-

tion Leader Correlation Data . . . . 7S
Interpretation of Male and Female Student
Non-Joiner Correlation Data . . . . 77

Interpretation of Male Organization
Leaders and Male Student Non-Joiner
Correlation Data . . . . . . . . 79
Interpretation of Female Organization
Leader and Female Student Non-Joiner
Correlation Data . . . . . . . . 81
Summary of the Intercorrelation Data . . 84

iv

Chapter Page

IX. DISCUSSION OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC-EDUCATIONAL
DATA 0 o I o o o o o o o o o o o 8 7

Methods of Procedure . . . . . . . . 87
Analysis of Socio-Economic-Educational

Data . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Discussion of the Sociological Findings. . 88
Discussion of the Economical Findings . . 91
Discussion of High School Backgrounds . . 95
Discussion of the Educational Findings . . 97
Parents Educational Background. . . . . 99
Students Relationship with Parents . . . 102
Students College Adjustment. . . . . . 103
Students Self Image . . . . . . . 105
Students Reasons for Attending College . . 106
Students Religious Preference . . . . . 108
Interpretation of Findings . . . . . . 110
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

X. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATIONS. . . . . 116
The Problem . . . . . . . . . . . 117
The Hypotheses . . . . . . . . . . 117
The Design and Procedure of the Study . . 120
Analysis of the Data . . . . . . . . 120
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . 125
Implications of the Study . . . . . . 128

BIBLIWRAPIIY o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o l 3 1

Table

LIST OF TABLES

Michigan State University Students. Combined
Student Organization Leaders (Male and
Female) and Combined Senior Student NOn-
Joiners (Male and Female) . . . . . . .

Michigan State University Senior Student Male
Organization Leaders and Female Senior
Organization Leaders. . . . . . . . .

Michigan State University Senior Students,
Male and Female Non-Joiners . . . . . .

Michigan State University Student Male Organiza-

tion Leaders and Senior Student Male Non—
Joiners . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Michigan State University Female Senior Student
Organization Leaders and Senior Student
Non-JOinerS o o o o o o o o o o o o

Intercorrelations Between Tests of Intellectual
Abilities and Personality Characteristics.
Michigan State University Senior Students
NOn-Joiners. . . . . . . . . . . .

Intercorrelations Between Tests of Intellectual
Abilities and Personality Characteristics.
Michigan State University Senior Student
Non-Joiners. . . . . . . . . . . .

Intercorrelations Between Tests of Intellectual
Abilities and Personality Characteristics.
Michigan State University Senior Student
NOn-Joiners. . . . .

Page

58

61

63

67

7O

78

80

82

Table

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

21.

22.

23.

24.

25.

26.

Intercorrelations Between Tests of Intellectual
Abilities and Personality Characteristics.
Michigan State University Senior Student
Organization Leaders and Student Non-
Joiners . . . . . . . . . . . .

Age at Last Birthday . . . . . . . .

Nativity of Parents. . . . . . . .

Where Did You Live Before Coming To College?

What
What
What
Does
Does
High

What

Was Your Principal Support At College?.
Is Your Father's Occupation? . . . .
Is Your Mother's Occupation? . . . .

Your Father Have A Second Job? . . .
Mother Have A Second Job? . . . . .
School Extra-Curricular Activities?. .

Was Your Rank In Your High School Gradua-

ting ClaSS?. . I O O C O C O O I

What

What

Was The Size Of The Graduating Class? .

Type Of Secondary School Did You Attend?

HOW’MUCh Education Do You Really Expect To Get?

How’Much Education Would You Like To Have? .

What Was Your Mother's Educational Background?.

Page

83
89
9o
91
92
93
94
94
95

96

96
97
98
98
99

100

What Was Your Father's Educational Background?. 101

With

Whom Did You Discuss Your Important

Problems? . . . . . . . . . . .

vii

102

Table

27.

28.

29.

30.

31.

32.

33.

34.

35.

What Is The Relationship With My Parents? . .

Where Was Your Residence While You Were At
Michigan State University?. . . . . . .

Do You Plan To Get A Job Anytime During The
Academic Year?. . . . . . . . . . .

1958 M. S. U. Freshmen Self Image. . . . .
1958 M. S. U. Freshmen Self Image. . . . .

1958 M. S. U. Freshmen Self Image, Which Of
The Following Described Your General Make-Up?

What Were Your Reasons For Coming To College?.
Religious Preference . . . . . . . . .

How Often Do You Attend Church? . . . . .

viii

Page

103

104

104
105

106

107
108
109

110

CHAPTER I

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

Introduggion to the Problem

Many leadership studies have indicated that there
is a definite need for democratic leadership, that more
effective leadership programs are necessary, and that
although some progress has been made in evaluating
leadership attributes, there is need for still greater
development in this direction (1). In an effort to meet
these needs, certain leadership programs and theories
have gained considerable acceptance (2, 3, 4). A review
of the literature of leadership research, reveals that
there have been very few studies concerned with diagnosis
and prediction of leadership potential contrasting male
and female groups. The reported studies have taken as
their samples, either all men exclusively, or all women.
‘Where a mixed group has been probed, there was no search
for possible sex differences in leadership motivation. Even
the classical Lewin, Lippitt, and White research study

1

2

which is so often quoted, sampled only groups of boys (5).

Purpose of the Study

In the past most investigators have concerned themselves
with evaluating characteristics and traits of established
leaders. Although many of the studies have considered
male and female groups separately, very few investigations
have contrasted differences between men and women leaders,
and non-leaders.

The specific purpose of this study, therefore, was
not only to analyze differences between student organization
leaders and non-joiners, but to contrast possible significant
differences between male and female student leaders and
non-joiners. This retrospective study proposed to analyze
the academic abilities and personality characteristics of
1962 graduating Michigan State University senior students
as measured by their 1958 Freshmen Admission Test Battery
scores, and in addition, their Spring 1962 4-Year Cumulative
Michigan State University Grade-Point Average. The groups
compared were the 1962 male and female graduating Michigan
State University senior organization leaders and non-joiners.
(The term Michigan State University will be represented by

the abbreviation M. S. U. in this study).

Need for the Study
Furthermore, the data were statistically treated for
the purpose of ascertaining possible significant differences
in academic abilities and personality characteristics between
male and female senior organization student leaders and
non—joiners. It was proposed that those measurements which
were meaningful between the groups in this study would
form the basis for establishing predictive tests of
potential leadership for future evaluation of incoming
freshmen students. Such identification could lead to
comprehensive educational programs which would encourage
all student leaders as well as non-leaders, to participate
more actively in all areas of University life. Campbell
states that higher institutions of learning are charged
‘with the responsibility for developing educational leaders.
They can evade the issue no longer. Campbell emphasizes:
The moment professors of educational
administration accept the premise that leaders

are made and not born, they are committed to a
new and different type of preparation program. (6)

The Retrospective Approach
Methods of Investigation.--Two methods of investigation

presented themselves in an approach to the problem:

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l. A four year follow—up study of experimental
groups of M. S. U. freshmen, comparing their freshmen
admission test scores with their actual leadership achieve-
ment as graduating seniors.

2. A restrospective study which compared 1962
established senior leaders with their 1958 freshmen admission
test scores, and other pertinent criteria.

It was the retrospective method which was selected.

In addition, a unique opportunity for such a study was
available from the data of one of the most comprehensive
batteries of admission tests ever given to a M. S. U.
freshmen class.

This was the United States Department of Education
supported four-year project initiated in the fall term of
1958. This project surveyed changes in critical thinking,
attitudes, and values of the 1958 entering M. S. U. incoming
freshmen students. It was believed by the present investigator
that these data would also furnish valuable predictive informa-
tion for 1962 graduating senior M. S. U. leaders compared

with non-joiners.

The Hypotheseg

It was postulated that significant differences would

5
be revealed in personality characteristics and intellectual
abilities as measured by the 1958 M. S. U. Freshmen Admission
Test Battery, the 1962 4-Year M. S. U. Cumulative Grade-Point
Average, and the Michigan State University Socio-Economic
Educational Inventory. These differences would contrast
1962 graduating Michigan State University graduating student
Organization leaders and graduating student non-leaders.

The following hypotheses were formulated in
relation to the general postulation:

1. Michigan State University graduating student
organization leaders and graduating student non-joiners
would show significant differences in academic abilities
as measured by The American Council on Education Test of
Critical Thinking, The College Qualification Tests, The
Michigan State University Reading Comprehension Test, and
The 4-Year Michigan State University Grade-Point Average.

2. Michigan State University graduating student
organization leaders and graduating student non—leaders
would show significant differences in personality character-
istics as measured by the Inventory of Beliefs, The Differen-
tial Values Inventory, The Rokeach Dogmatism Scale and The

Michigan State University General Immersion Scale.

6

3. Michigan State University graduating student male
and female organization leaders and graduating student male
and female non—joiners would show significant differences
in academic abilities and personality characteristics as
measured by the 1958 M. S. U. Admission Test Battery

4. Michigan State University graduating student
organization leaders and graduating student non-joiners
would show differences in social, economic, educational,
and other environmental factors as measured by the
Michigan State University Socio-Economic-Educational
Inventory.

5. Michigan State University graduating student
male and female student organization leaders and graduating
student male and female non-joiners, would show differences
in social, economic education, and other environmental
factors as measured by the Michigan State University

Socio-Economic-Educational Inventory.

CHAPTER II

THE IMPORTANCE OF THE PROBLEM

Present Concern for Leadership

The field of leadership has become one of the most
rapidly growing areas in education and the allied social
sciences. A tremendous amount of concern is evident in
gpresent day writing in this field. Why is there such a
sense of urgency? Thomas Gordon widely recognized
authority..writes,

‘Rapidly changing conditions in our society
have made traditional patterns of leadership seem
inadequate and often intolerable . . . For Man
throughout the world is on the march to acquire for
himself a new dignity. increased worth and greater
respect . . . A new conception of leadership is
urgently needed to match the new conception of Man
emerging today in our society.“ (7)

In these crucial times when international tension is
high, unresolved differences may lead us todthe brink of
total destruction (8). One of the possible solutions for
this continuing need, is the conscious recognition, training

and development of leadership potential through our education-

al system. Clyde M. Campbell (9) emphasizes that leadership

8
ability can be developed through planned programs of

learning and instruction.

Higher Education and Student Leadership

 

The 15th yearbook of the National Education Association

states,

Higher institutions have a significant role to
play in the development of leaders . . . As the school
expands its concept of education and its place in the
improvement of social living, it enlarges its field
of operations and increases its opportunities for
leadership. With these changing opportunities must
come likewise, changes in the educational process. (10)

This clearly defines the role of higher education
in leadership training. However this training should not be
left to chance. In the broadest sense such a program should
be a part of our entire educational system. Certain education
in leadership skills should be offered to young men and
women. The National Education Association further notes
that this role can be best satisfied by the University,
working with boys and girls in the elementary and secondary
schools of the nation, as well as with adults in the local
communities. Campbell (11) concludes that in a truly
democratic state situations occur in such variety that

everyone could possibly be a leader under certain conditions.

Paralleling the growing consciousness of leadership

9
training is a changing concept of the nature and quality
of leadership. Recent research (12, l3, 14, 15) has created
a changing philosophy of the role of the leader. The
Knowles team (16) has defined this trainsition as the move
from the pre-scientific era to the scientific era of
leadership investigation.

The basic studies of Lewin, Lippitt and White (17)
have crystallized the following concepts of democratic
leadership:

1. Leadership is now defined as a set of functions

in contrast to the traditional definition of
position or personality.

2. The new conception does not deny that there are
leaders, but rather eliminates the sharp distinction
between leaders and followers.

3. Each group member can contribute his own unique
talents and knowledge in accomplishing the common

goal.

New Trends in Leadership Theory

The new emphasis (18) is on the idea that the effective
leader is primarily a convener, trainer, and co-ordinator for
the group. His central function is helping the group learn

and act more effectively.

10

What existing channels do we have that can be used
as a starting point for recognizing and freeing leader—
ship potential? (19) How can we achieve their maximum
development? How can these aptitudes best be directed
toward democratic values and goals? Most colleges give
various admissions tests to diagnose the quality of
incoming students (20, 21). However, leadership potential
has neither been sought nor recognized. In addition to
the traditional academic aptitudes that are measured, such
test batteries offer much valuable leadership information
which has not been evaluated. (22, 23, 24) Furthermore,
new tests seeking leadership capacities should be devised.

In the search for instruments which could tap this
reservoir of dormant leadership, studies have indicated
(25, 26, 27) that certain tests of values, attitudes,
beliefs, critical thinking, intellectual abilities, and

social integration are directly related to leadership.

Leadership Training Pgograms

French finds from the results of the First National
Training Laboratory in Group Development at Bethel,
Maine that,

. . . the more productive leaders had greater
intelligence, more originality, and were less stereo-

ll
typed in their attitudes and ways of thinking. They
were emotionally responsive, yet with better emotional
control. On the Ruivner-Seaver Test, there was evident
in this group a greater sociability and initiative with
less obstinacy and anxiety . . . (28)

Zeleny (29) in his discussion of leadership (The
Encyclopedia of Educational Research) stresses that
characteristics of leaders are not necessarily the causes
of leadership. Therefore, one may infer that high scores
in test batteries do not in themselves constitute leader-
ship. The way in which the group perceives the individual
will determine his effectiveness as a leader. The group
will select that individual whom they perceive can best

help them to achieve specific group goals, in a given

situation.

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CHAPTER III

REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

The value attached to leadership training in the
University depends upon the purposes underlying the educa-
tional program, and upon the degree to which the needs of
the present social order are considered in determining
educational objectives.(30)

If one accepts the principle that training for
leadership is a significant phase of the educative process,
he will study leadership as it is demonstrated in the
various social areas and in the groups with which students

have contact. (31)

Extra-Curricular Leadership

The extra-curricular program offered a promising field
for investigation because it presented a type of social
situation which had been considered to be particularly favor-
able to leadership orientation. Koos (32) analyzed the
literature representative of the best opinion and practice
in the field of extra-curricular activities in order to
secure an estimate of the asserted values of the program. It

12

13
was found that those most frequently mentioned fell under the
classification of civic-social-moral qualities, and training
for leadership was one of the statements most frequently

mentioned.

The Extra-curricular Program
Although the advocates of the extra-curricular
programs seem to assume that leadership training is a
worthy educational objective, and that the extra-class
activities offer an effective program of educative
experiences for such training, these assumptions could only
be bases for further study. Symonds states:
. . . if the extra-curricular program is
looking forward toward the development of qualities
of leadership, then methods of detecting the
development of leadership are needed. (33)
This would require that leadership be studied as it is
shown in particular situations and under clearly defined
conditions.
The literature on leadership ranges from uncritical
generalizations to careful analyses and reports of descriptive

and experimental researches. Authors differ in their evaluation

of leadership as a contributing factor to social progress.

The Meaning of Student Leadership

There is a difference of opinion as to what is meant

14

by "leadership." It is usually described in terms of
its functions, qualities, and characteristics which are
found to be associated with particular types of leaders,
and patterns of leadership. (34) Cowley (35) reports
a psychological study of college students which led
him to distinguish between leaders and position-holders.
The study concluded that leadership is a function of a
definite situation, and that leadership traits should be
studied in a particular situation. It was concluded that
there was a distinction between leaders and position-holders.

“2 Follett, (36) discussing leadership in present-day
economic life, states that the leader is the individual who
can energize his group and has the ability to encourage
initiative among his followers.

Lee and Kenworthy, represent the point of view of

the mental hygienist toward leadership:

. . . Leadership . . . that quality in human relation-
ships which permits the exercise of personal influence
over others without weakening their own initiative.
Leadership furnishes a perfect contrast with coercion
as a method of securing response from another human
being. (37)

Lee continues:
. . . there are two kinds of leaders: first are

those who by strength of character, by pleasing person-
ality and sometimes by the prestige of the position or

15
the like, are able to dominate the group and make each
individual member exercise self-control, render service
to the other members of the group, conform to all the
rules and in general be a docile and helpful follower,
ready to take orders and subordinate individual
interest to the interest of the group under the direc-
tion of the leader. The second type of leader is
difficult to find. Such leaders are produced by
training rather than developed by interest and intui-
tion. His function, in the first place, is to note
the individual talents of the different members of
the group and give each the opportunity to become
superior in something, and then to integrate these
abilities for the common welfare. (37)

Therefore, leadership in a particular situation seems
to depend not only upon the qualities possessed by the
individual leader, but also upon the circumstances in which
the leader and group are functioning. The person who becomes
a leader does so by virtue of his own attributes, and
because he possesses to a greater degree the characteristics
which the situation seems to demand.

Recent investigations are concerned with intensive
studies of specific qualities commonly attributed to
leadership. Among college students intelligence, age, grades,
physique, and certain other personality traits have been
measured among students holding positions of leadership
and those not holding recognized positions. Comparison of

the two groups reveals some qualities which are associated

with the holding of leadership positions. Bellingrath (38)

16
found statistically significant differences between male
and female student leaders. The male leaders were older
than the male non-leaders, while the female leaders were
younger than female non-leaders. Terman, in his famous
study, found that the female student leaders were younger

than any male group.

gpyironmental Influence on Leadership

Research has indicated that social background or
prestige gained through family heritage, wealth, or
occupational status has some influence upon the selection
of certain individuals to positions of leadership. In
view of this idea, it was important to discover whether,
among the leader group there was any marked tendency for
students from the more favorable backgrounds to become the
more prominent leaders. Counts (39) investigated 17,992
students in four cities and concluded that the opportunities
of higher education were much more widely distributed
among students of native parents than those born of immi-
grants. Bromely (40) found that 96.43 per cent of the
students in a representative sample of Universities were
born in the United States. Further research concluded that

university leaders were selected with a higher percentage of

l7

native-born parents, than average college students. (41)

Occupational Status.--Allison Davis (42) stressed
the findings of a definite relationship between parental
occupation and the privileges of higher education. Terman
(43) and Hollingshead (44) also emphasized that college
students selected to positions of leadership, came from
'homes where the occupational status of the parents was
'higher than the class average. Pressey (45) concluded
that a great majority of student leaders have parents of
business and professional status. Research has indicated
that student leaders have an intellectual, social, and
economic background which is definitely above that of the

average student.

Aggggmigvailities of Student Leaggpg

Certain investigations have attempted to answer the
problem of the intellectual ability of student leaders.
McCuen (46) studied 58 organized social groups at Stanford
University. It was concluded that a majority of the leaders
had intelligence test scores above the University average.
Other conclusions from this investigation indicated that
there was a tendency for university student groups to

select student leaders who intelligence was above the average

 

 

 

18

student. When sex differences in student leadership were
compared, male student leaders were usually higher in
intelligence in relation to other male students than
female students to their respective groups. Havighurst
(47) studied the effect of student leadership and intellectual
abilities and found that males who participated in extra-
class activities were slightly higher in ability than the
non-participating males. Female participants were definitely
superior to non-participating females. Fisher (48) found
that female leaders tested higher in intellectual abilities
than female non-leaders. Hollingworth (49) emphasized that
students of the highest or gifted level of intelligence were
not as popular in leadership selection as students who were
just above the average in intellectual abilities. Conclusions
of all studies in intellectual abilities of student
leaders definitely indicate that both male and female student
leaders were well above the average in comparison to their
fellow students.

University Grades and Scholarship.~-Most investigators
of student leadership have given consideration to evidence
of scholarship when compared to average students. Teacher's
grades have been used in numerous investigations as an

indication of academic progress. Chapin's (50) investigation

19
of college student leaders demonstrated that those who were
most active in extra-curricular organizations had the
highest cumulative grade-point average. The female student
leaders in this specific aspect in this study,had higher
grades than the male student leaders. Rohrbach (51)
discovered that students whose academic record was above
average had a much better chance of being selected to an
organization office. Smith (52) studied grades of student
leaders and non-leaders and also found that leaders
received higher grades than non—leaders. A conclusion of
the investigations of the grades and scholarships of student
leaders indicated a definite advantage in favor of the
leaders over average and non-leader groups. In most

studies the female leader had the better scholarship record.

Interests of Student Leaders

Research has indicated that broad interests are
commonly associated with student leaders. These findings
were emphasized by outstanding social-psychologists such
as Allport (53), Bogardus (54), Sherif (55), and Klineberg
(56). Social intelligence, and other qualities that result
from wide experience, seem to be a factor in effective
leadership. Research has shown that there is a consistent

relationship between student leaders and plans for education

20

beyond the high school. College preparation has been preferred
by a majority of leaders in most studies. (57) Male leaders
appear to have a higher level of aspiration as far as
graduate work is considered. Studies of recreation have
indicated that leaders have more hobbies and leisure time
interests than non-joiners. Male leaders seem to have the
widest diversity of interest. Female leaders favored
artistic interest but reading was definitely the most
favored leisure time activity, by both male and female
leader-students. Brown (31) found that the non-leader
group did not mention travel as a leisure time interest.
The research emphasizes that there are significant differences
in the leisure time and academic interests of leaders
and non-leaders. The males preferred more active patterns
than females. (48)

Other studies have demonstrated that student leaders
had greater participation in part time jobs, and a larger
number of activities in the community, than less prominent

students. (57, 58, 59)

Summary of Socio—Economiceggucation Research
A review of the literature (60) in this field concludes

that the typical leader is younger than his classmates,

21

above average in intellectual abilities, receives better
grades, selects college preparation studies in high school,
and surpasses his fellow students in breadth of interest.

According to Sanford,this acquisition and information
require, more than mere knowledge of the content of various
fields, which is most readily measured by grades. Involved
also, are diverse kinds of intellectual functioning. Specified
among the goals of education are certain qualities as
independence of judgment, critical thinking, creativity, and
freedom from the irrational prejudice. The problem of under—
standing thr relationship between the process of acquir-
ing knowledge, as measured by achievement tests, the
measured abilities, and other personality characteristics
of students is a complex one, there is much research that
must be accomplished in the future.

Eggs and Female Student Differences.--Robert A.
Jackson (61) reporting significant sex differences from
the Basic College Research Project at M. S. U. under the
direction of Paul L. Dressel, concluded the following:
(This data was gathered on 3,053 entering freshmen at M. S. U.
fall term 1954).

l. Freshman men have a significantly higher mean on

the Arithmetic Test than do the freshman women.

22

2. Freshman women have significantly higher means
on the English Test and the Reading Test than do the fresh-
man men.

3. Freshman women have a significantly higher mean
grade point average than do the freshman men.

4. The means of the men and women on the Psychological
Test are not significantly different.

5. The best predictory of grade point average is
the Reading Test for both men and women.
The same results have been confirmed by several similar

studies (62).

Personality;Characteristics of Student Leaderg

According to Heist (63) the functioning of personality
is reflected by numerous observable characteristics; the
most important being interests, attitudes, and values.
Attitudes toward the self, toward others, and toward
institutions, reveal to some extent the underlying motives
and values that are more central to personality. Sanford
(64) asserts when education produces important effects, it
is likely to alter what is valued; in turn, changes in
values, influence, attitudes, and interests result.

Although attitudes and values are treated in the

following discussion as if they were separable features of

 

Al.

 

 

 

23
personality, they are in fact bound up with aptitudes,
abilities and other cognitive characteristics, some of
which have been discussed earlier, but the relationships
are often indirect or obscure (Heist, (65) Webster, (66)
Mayhew, (67). The observed differences are partly
attributable to differences in motivation and attitude.
In general, cognitive and motivational characteristics
are interrelated within personality in many ways.

Webster (68) reports that most of the earlier
longitudinal investigations of changes in student values
and attitudes revealed small, but significant changes in
attitudes. Except for minor discrepancies, the differences
observed would still be described today as changes in
the direction of a more liberal attitude on social issues
and a more tolerant attitude toward persons.

Hunter (69) emphasizes changes in attitudes of
four successive classes of college women; that no
evaluation of educational outcomes is adequate without
appraisal of attitudes, interests, and other subtle
aspects of personality. It was found that a number
of changes, in the direction of increased liberalism, had
taken place by the senior year.

Burgemeister (70) in exploring the permanent interests

 

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-

 

is

 

24
in Barnard women, administered an interest test, a values
test, and several other instruments to 164 volunteer
freshmen. The subjects were interviewed after the first
testing, and retesting took place at the end of the
sophomore year. One of Burgenmeister's conclusions was
that students who minimized or avoided social participation
and activities possessed deeper, or more permanent intellectual
interests.

Arsenian (71), noted that attitude change was away
from formal, ritualistic, dogmatic belief to a more
tolerant, humane, social belief. Freedman (72) concluded
that research, on attitudes and values carried out prior
to the end of WOrld War II, demonstrated that students in
college changed in the direction of greater liberalism
and sophistication in their political, social, and
religious outlooks. There was also evidence of broadening

interests during the college years.

Rgcent Reseapch on University Attitudes and Values
Jacob (73), accomplished the most outstanding work
in recent years on university student attitudes and values
during the college years. In a survey of recent investigations

with university students, Jacob reports that there is a

25

profile of values which holds for a majority of college
students, both male and female. The current student
generation are gloriously contented in their present activity
and in their outlook toward the future. The students
were "unabashedly self-centered," aspiring above all to
material gratifications for themselves and their families.

Jacob concluded that there were few significant
changes in values during the college years, and that
among the few changes that could be noted, the most
striking were in the direction of greater conformity.
Reisman (74) has criticized Jacobs findings because the
studies were not validated on sex differences or methodological
grounds. Many critics believe that Jacobs view of college
students does not differentiate the sound findings from the
less defensible conclusions.

webster (75) found in agreement with the majority
of research, that students became more heterogeneous in
attitudes as they progressed toward their degree. Recent
studies of attitudes and values have shown that education
can reduce ethnocentric attitudes as students continue in
college (76).

Adorno (77) found that students who withdrew from

college tested much higher in prejudice than students who

26

remained in school.

ggpsonality Traits of University Women

Data indicates that generally, students become more
liberal with college participation. A major feature
of present day investigations has been a more generalized
tendency in an approach to personality theory. This would
consider personality as composed of an integration of
attitudes, values, and beliefs.

Conclusions of the findings at Vassar, and Bennington
female graduating seniors also support the view that the
college female student becomes less conservative with
increased tolerance for individual differences, and more
freedom to express impulses (78).

The center of higher education at the University of
California, is currently studying attitudes, values, and
beliefs, on a number of new dimensions. Both male and
female leaders and non-joiners have been treated. Also,
studied were several kinds of colleges and universities
with suspected regional differences, attitudes and personality
characteristics. One conclusion indicates that a Negro
college in the South, a Catholic College in the North, and

an Eastern womens college had similar trends in attitudes and

27
other personality characteristics (79). The women senior
students were also more progressive, similar to the findings
at Vassar and Bennington College.

The findings for the other colleges in certain
investigations again supported more flexible and broadminded
approach to University life for student leaders.

Lehmann and Ikenberry (1959), in a study of
Michigan State University students, reported evidence that
attitudes and values were affected differentially by
different types of experience. Attitudes are often not
affected by changes in information even though instructors
may assume that they are (Mayhew, 1958). This research
emphasizes the fact that a logical aim of education would
consist in increasing the opportunities for diverse kinds

of new experiences. (60, 61)

Summary

The research has pointed out that the most effective
leader represents a synthesis of the attitudes, values,
beliefs, and other personality characteristics of his
group. Therefore, the quality of this leadership would be
effected by the degree to which he has synthesized those

characteristics which are perceived to be most valuable by

 

 

Iv

28
the group.

In this review, three general areas of investigation
were approached:

1. Research concerning the intellectual ability of
college student leaders and non-leaders.

2. Research concerning the socio-economic educational
background of college student leaders, and non-joiners.

3. Research concerning attitudes, values, and
beliefs and other personality characteristics of college
student leaders and non-joiners.

4. Approach to the investigation of the meaning of
leadership in the university extra-curriculum program.

According to Sanford (80), new ways of conceptualizing
interests, attitudes, values, and personality characteristics,
should be explored.

Improved testing methods for measuring a large variety
of personality characteristics are necessary. Instruments
that are already known to be valuable for the understanding
of college student development should be studied further, and
the search for related measures should continue. Sanford
further emphasizes, in his monumental investigation of the
american college, that comparisons should be made of students

who show personality change with those who show little change

29
during their college stay.

Among these comparisons should be a variety of
research which would allow student populations to develop
and to channel leadership potentials in higher education
situations. Research further indicates that the role of
experience in personality change is crucial, and that
higher education should study opportunities provided for

diverse kinds of meaningful experience for all students.

CHAPTER IV
THE DESIGN OF THE STUDY

Source of the Data
In the spring term 1962, a retrospective study
was designed to utilize the data from the United States
Department of Education project, "Critical Thinking,
Attitudes, Values, In Higher Education." (81). This
project was under the leadership of the Department of
Evaluation Services, Michigan State University. The
following battery of tests was given to the entering
1958 freshman class, fall term:
1. The American Council on Education Inventory of
Beliefs, Form I (82).
2. The American Council on Education Test of
Critical Thinking, Form G (83).
3. The Differential Values Inventory (84).
4. The Rokeach Dogmatism Scale, Form D (85).
5. ‘Michigan State University Reading Test (86).
6. College Qualification Tests (87). 3
7. Michigan State University Experience Inventory (88).

30

31
8. Michigan State University Biographical Data
Sheet (89).
The original research was under the direction of
Paul L. Dressel, Principal Investigator; Irvin J. Lehmann,
and Stanley 0. Ikenberry. A four year study was initiated
to analyze the data from these tests for possible correlations
among the following factors:
(1) Sex difference; (2) Curricular and religious
differences; (3) Academic performance; (4) Withdrawal
from college.

The investigators were also searching for evidence of

patterns of change in the experimental group.

Tpg_Retrospectiye Design

It was believed by this investigator that the data
from this test battery would offer an unusual opportunity
for finding relationships between test scores and student
leadership potential. Furthermore, it was postulated that
certain significant differences would be disclosed between
male and female student organization leaders and student
non-joiners, as measured by these instruments.

Therefore, in the fall of 1962, a retrospective
research study was initiated by contrasting graduating

M. S. U. student organization leaders and student non-joiners

32
by treating statistically, their 1958 freshmen admission
test data. It was assumed that definite patterns of
leadership would have been established in the above group
during the four year period. In addition, the 1962 4-Year
Cumulative Grade-Point Average was taken as further indication
of achievement.

It should be noted that in the admissions tests, the
JExperience Inventory was given to the Freshmen group after
they had been on campus three terms. From this Experience
Inventory, the section called, The General Immersion Scale
was selected as the most valid instrument of evaluation
in this area (88).

The Biographical Data Sheet, herein described as the
Socio-Economic-Educational Inventory, given simultaneously
with the test battery, provided the necessary biographical
information relating to age, sex, size of community,
nativity and level of parental education and occupation,
as well as religion and educational aspirations. From the
biographical data, the corresponding information was tabulated,
and the percentages compared for men and women student
organization leaders and the corresponding non—joiners.

Finally, it was hoped that this study would furnish

data which could be used as a basis of a wider program for

33
the recognition, prediction, and development of leadership
possibilities among Michigan State University freshmen

students.

Definition of Terms
For the purpose of this investigation, the terms

used here were defined in the following manner:

Leader.--was defined as a duly elected graduating senior
officer of a representative student organization chartered
by Michigan State University.

Non-Joiner.--was defined as a graduating senior who answered
"NO" to all questions in the M. S. U. 1962 Senior Extra-
curricular Activities Inventory, a four-year campus
history. This questionnaire was answered by graduating
seniors for publication in the spring term 1962 M. S. U.
year book.

Epppg,--were broadly defined as a series of written items
evaluating an individual's behavior when referred to a
particular reference point as standardized by certain
norms. Positive or negative values were assigned to

the scores by the test authors.

Selection of the Sample

 

The approach to sample selection was established from

 

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34
the above definitions of leaders and non-joiners. The source
of our leadership population was the official 1962 Michigan
State University Student Organization Directory. Michigan
State University Student Government has divided student
organizations into five extensive areas:

1. All University Governing Groups.

2. All University Societies.

3. Resident Living Units.

4. Academic and Special Organizations.

5. Student Publications.

The Selection of the Leader.--From each of the above
five areas, ten men and ten women were selected at random
to give a total of 100 men and women organization leaders.
The following stratified conditions were established:

1. Only graduating, unmarried seniors were selected.

2. The sample was divided into equal groups of men

men and women (50 male and 50 female).

3. Only duly elected M. S. U. student organization

officers were selected.

4. The list of student organization officers was

alphabetically divided into male and female cata-

gories.

 

a. A‘
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35

5. The selection was randomized by taking every

tenth name from the respective lists.

Selection of Non-Joiners.--The student non-joiner
records were collected in the following manner:

1. The four-year individual 1962 graduating M. S. U.
senior student extra-curricular activities inventory was
surveyed.

2. The student non-joiner population was chosen from
those graduating senior students who gave a completely
negative answer to each extra-curricular activities item in
the four-year questionnaire. The information from these
replies was published in the senior year book.

3. The student non-joiner sample was then separated
into two groups of 50 males and 50 females. This population

\vas stratified as follows:

a. Only single 1962 graduating M. S. U. seniors
included.

b. These lists were then alphabetized.

c. Only 50 men and 50 women non—joiners were
selected to match in number, the leader group.

d. Among the non-joiners, random selection was
made by choosing every fifth name to obtain

50 male and 50 female student non-joiners.

36

The sample then consisted of 100 graduating student
organization leaders (50 men, 50 women) and 100 graduating
M. S. U. student non-joiners (50 men, 50 women). The
records of the two sample senior groups, (leaders and
non-joiners) were tabulated and matched with their
respective freshmen 1958 admission test scores. The
data for each group were then separated into catagories

for treatment at the Michigan State University Data

Processing Center.

.pfi‘

n"

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'c‘v

37

The 1962 M. S. U. graduating senior extra-curricular

activities inventory. The graduating senior non—joiner

answered negatively to all of the acitivities in the

inventory.

WRITE OUT FULL NAME

ACTIVITIES
Please Print Carefully OF ORGANIZATIONS
Curriculum Degree

School of

 

Social Fraternities or Sororities

Honorary Fraternities or Sororities and Organizations

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Publications

Managerships

.Atrnletic Activities—-Designate by year, thus (1) (2) (3) (4)
(2) (3) (4) _________

Class Offices--Designate by year, thus (1)

 

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Miscellaneous-~any other activities

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CHAPTER V

DESCRIPTION OF THE EVALUATIVE INSTRUMENTS
The purpose of the statistical treatment was to search
for significant differences between student leaders and non-

joiners (male and female) as measured by the following tests:

The M. S. U. Admission Test Battery
1. The Inventory of Beliefs, Form I, 120 items,
The American Council on Education (1951).
2. A test of Critical Thinking, Form G, 52 items,
.American Council on Education (1952).
3. The Differential Values Inventory, 64 pairs of
matched items, (Prince, 1957).
4. Rokeach Dogmatism Scale D, 40 items (1954).
5. Michigan State University Reading Comprehension
Test, 45 items (Revised, 1958).
6. The College Qualification Tests, 200 items (75
Verbal. 50 numerical, 75 general information, 1957).
7.. The General Immersion Scale of the M. S. U.
Experience Inventory, 32 items (1958) .
53-' The 4-Year M. S. U. Graduating Senior Cumulative

G .
rade-P01nt Average (1958‘1962)°

38

 

 

I.

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39
The coefficients of validity and reliability used in
the above tests were taken from the 4-Year Project beginning
with the fall 1958 M. S. U. freshmen class. The data were
particularly relevant to the present study as it was from
this large (2,746) student population that the leaders

and non joiners were selected.

Validity of the Instruments

Validity asks the question, "Does the test measure
what it purports to measure?" The effectiveness of a test
depends first on its validity, and then on its reliability;
reliability measures the consistency of a test. The
American Psychological Association in 1954 (90) classified
validity into four general types:

1. Content Validity--This evaluation of the test
contents rests upon the subjective judgement of specialists
in the particular field.

2. Predigtiye Validitye-This is established by
presenting correlation tables between scores on a given
test with some subsequent or future criterion.

3. Concupgent Validipy--Here the correlation is

established with some criterion being studied in the

present time.

II.
II‘

 

 

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40

4. Copgtruct Validipyr-Here is demonstrated correlation
of a specifically measured behavior with a variety 2; pggpg.
No one test is exactly equivalent or sufficient, but all
tests taken together become relevant to the trait being
measured.

Lingren (90) summarized these concepts by stating that
one of the important approaches to research was to gain
informantion about the validity of all the instruments used.
The present study considered the above four types of
validity. An additional objective of the present under-
taking was the strengthening of predictive validity of

the instruments used.

Reliability of the Instruments

According to Frank S. Freeman, the chief measure of
reliability is internal consistency. This assumes that
performance within a given test is stable and reproducible.
Such information is usually obtained by correlation studies
of different parts of the test according to accepted methods.
The most familiar procedure for finding inter-item consistency
is the formula developed by Kuder and Richardson (91). The
correlation values from this formula were used in assessing

the reliability of the instruments used in this study.

u-

“4,

 

'11.

7'!

41
The level of significance for validity and reliability
is highly dependent on the size of the sample. Statistical
tables indicate that 1.002 subjects, a one per cent level of
significance is reached with a small correlation co-efficient
of pgg. In the M. S. U. Dressel-Lehmann project, significant

correlations were obtained at lower values. (89)

Discussion of the Evaluative Instruments

The grYear Cumulative Grade—Point Average was taken
as a measure of student achievement. This test was not
in the original battery, but was included as an instrument
which could disclose possible contrasts between men and
women graduating student leaders and graduating student
non-joiners. Cronbach (92) has pointed out that cumulative
college grade-point average is a valuable indication of
student behavior and prediction. Robert Thorndike (93) also
emphasizes the predictive value of the accrued grade-point
average.

Significant correlations have been reported in the
literature between high cumulative grade-point averages of
college seniors and,

1. Successful adjustment in vocations.

2. Better adjustment in follow-up studies of martial

life.

 

 

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42

3. Acceptance by superiors in colleges and professions.

4. Leadership abilities in communities.

Investigations of reliability of cumulative grade-point
average as a student behavior index at the University level
has demonstrated significant degrees of consistency (94).

Th; Inventory _§ Beliefs, consists of stereotyped
statements in which a high score was considered a sign of
maturity, flexibility, and adaptivity. A low score was
considered as showing immaturity, compulsiveness, and rigidity
in attitude. Payne summed up the value of the test in the
statement that, "implicit in the development of this scale
. . . was the assumption that general education makes indivi—
duals less stereotypic in their beliefs." (95)

Correlation values for the Inventory of Beliefs test
when compared to the Rokeach D scale gave co-efficients
of -.61 and -.63 for males and females respectively. This
follows from the fact that the negative data shows a high
score obtained from the Inventory of Beliefs denotes higher
flexibility in the personality. The consistently negative
‘Values between the two instruments found in the correlation
tables strong support to their validity.

Finally, reliability as measured by internal consistency

and test-retest methods has been stated as having a median

43
r of, .86 (range from .68 to .95) (82)

The Test g; Critical Thinking has been described by

 

the American Council on Education (in the cooperative

study of Evaluation in General Education in General Education)
as a measure of competence in dealing with a variety of
problems. The test involves several important types of
thinking. According to Lehmann (88) some of the more
important aspects were:

1. The ability to define and select information

from a problem.

2. The ability to judge the validity of the in—

formation and draw appropriate conclusions.

3. The competence to recognize stated and un-

stated assumptions.

Finally, the test may be said to measure the problem
solving aspect of critical thinking, and to test the
subjects capability to solve problems in a highly verbalized
‘manner.

The fact that the test was limited to 50 minutes
and contained 52 unusual problems in formal logic with more
than 250 multiple choices should be considered in evaluating

the results and usefulness of the test. An individual

”v
.I‘

 

 

44

scoring high on this test should show superior critical
thinking capability.

The following correlations for male freshmen were
obtained between the Test of Critical thinking and the
M. S. U. Reading Test .60, College Qualification Test,
.60, Inventory of Beliefs, .27, Rokeach Scale, -.18. The
female freshmen group gave almost identical correlations.
The reliability as measured by internal consistency, was,
.75 to .79. Dressal team. (88)

Thg_2i£§erential_Values Inventogy was developed by
Richard Prince as part of an unpublished dissertation
at the University of Chicago in 1954. The value orientation
of a student was determined by his choice from 64 pairs of
statements. A superior score indicated a leaning toward
traditional values, future rewards, and satisfactions. In
addition, the high score represented self-centered orientation.
A lgg'ggggg showed willingness to allow the student's actions
to be governed primarily by a consideration of others. The
low score also indicated orientation to the present with a
tendency toward group goals.

The test-retest reliability was reported a .70
while the test of internal consistency was .71 (84).

Current research has indicated a low, but signigicant

.w

.u‘ ‘

'1

‘-

 

iv

(-

45
correlation of the Differential Values Inventory with
the Rokeach Scale. Recent studies (96) report that a
highly traditional individual is also more dogmatic in
his views. The Lehmann correlation table (data males)
report positive correlation of .26 between the values
inventory and religion; and .16 with the theoretical concepts
in the Allport-Vernon Inventory. But negative correlation
were shown for the same test with aesthetic values (~.20),
and political concepts (-.l4). In this study the following
conditions were established: (89)
For males, N: 256; l per cent level of significance required
r =.l6
5 per cent level of significance required
r =.l4
For females, N =197; l per cent level of significance required
r: .18
5 per cent level of significance required
r =.l4
For the female group there was a significant correla-
tion of the Differential Values Inventory with the College
Qualification Tests. In addition, the female group indicated
negative correlation of the values inventory with economic

concepts (-.l6); political concepts (-.15) while there was

I‘D

.
,.n\

.nr

no

in.

u
55‘

to:

n
c

 

46
a value of .38 with religious ideals. All of these were
acles of the Allport-Vernon Inventory. (97)

The size of the population and the significant
correlations shown for reliability and validity, as well
as the norms that were established at M. S. U., make the
Differential Values Inventory an effective instrument
for this study.

The Rokeach Dogmatism Scale, consists of 40
statements in which subjects were asked to agree or dis-
agree along a six point continuum. High scorepg were
considered dogmatic in their thinking, unreceptive to new
ideas, inflexible. Low scorers were considered flexible,
adaptive, and receptive to new ideas. Reliability coefficients
of internal consistency ranged from .69 to .76 in several
studies reported by Rokeach. (98)

Concurrent validity with the Rokeach Scale gave high
negative correlations, —.63, -.23, -20 with these respective
tests: Inventory of Beliefs, Critical Thinking, and M. S. U.
Reading Test (for male students).

For female students, the validity was further enhanced
by comparable values of —.61, -18, -.22, and -.19 for the
same tests. The above relationships are similar to findings

from previous research (85).

47

Thg_Michigan State University Reading 2gp; has been
successfully used to measure the subject's ability to
comprehend thoughts expressed in reading certain passages.
Reliability is shown by internal consistency correlations
of .71 to .79. Validity is demonstrated by high positive
correlations of .33, .61, and .71 with tests of Inventory
of Beliefs, Critical Thinking, and College Qualification for
male students. (99) Negative correlations for the
Reading Test were reported with the Rokeach Dogmatism
Scale.

College Qgglification Tests attended to determine
those abilities needed for success in higher education. The
test allows 15 minutes for the verbal, 35 minutes for the
numerical, and 30 minutes for the information section--a
total of 70 minutes. (All other tests in the 1958 M. S. U.
Admissions Battery Tests were allotted 50 minutes each).
Percentile norms were based on approximately 20,000 freshmen
in 37 colleges and universities in 22 states. Reliability
of internal consistency was reported as ranging from .85
to .93 (87).

Validity for this test indicated by reported values
of .33, .61, and .70 with Inventory of Beliefs, Critical

Thinking, and the M. S. U. Reading Tests in that order, for

48
the male student group. A negative value of -.19 with
the Rokeach Scale disclosed an inverse relationship of
college ability with authoritarian behavior. The female
freshmen students showed almost the same values.

Follow-up studies have demonstrated significant
correlations of the College Qualification Tests with Inventory
of Beliefs, Grade-Point Average, and successful adjustment
to vocations. (99)

Other predictive validity studies of drop—outs at
M. S. U. indicated that low scorers in the College
Qualification Tests had significantly greater withdrawal
rates and lower academic achievement for both male and
female students. (88)

The General Immersion Scale.--This term pertains to
the degree a student participates in campus activities,
academic or social clubs, or unstructured groups such
as dormitory talk sessions.

Validation for this test was demonstrated by
correlations of .75, .68, .41, and .34 with tests of
Emrsonal interaction, social structure, communication of
effect, and social unstructure (sub-groups in the M. S. U.

Experience Inventory). The above values represented 1958

49

freshmen female students who had remained at Michigan
State University for one year (May, 1959). For the
same inventories, the male freshmen students registered
correlations of .77, .71, .44, and .26. (88,89)

Follow-up research at M. S. U. showed significant
differences in college achievement and social adjustment
between high and low scorers in the General Immersion

Scale.

Summary

Further indication for the reliability for the
entire test battery was demonstrated by corresponding
trends of M. S. U. students, male and female in test-
retest situations.

Dressel and Mayhew (86) reported that those men and
women students who made superior scores in both intellectual
competence as well as personality tests, generally achieved
greater success in college life. In subsequent publications

Sanford pp. 1. confirm these findings according to their

reported work. (100)

us.

.s.

vs.

."

‘su

 

 

CHAPTER VI
STATISTICAL TREATMENT OF THE DATA

Data Classification and Tabulation

The 1958 freshmen admission test scores were
obtained from the records of the Michigan State University
Evaluation Services. The numerical data from these
tests were arranged for treatment at the M. S. U. Data
Processing Center by the MISTIC computer system. From
the calculations, based on accepted statical formulas
the following constants were obtained: (1) The means i;
(2) The standard deviation, sigma (101); (3) The
intercorrelations among the tests, values or p. (See
Tables

The t-ratio was calculated in order to test for
differences between and among various groups in the
sample. Correlation tables were to further observe and
contrast the trends of men and women leaders and non-joiners
in response to the test battery. Both the values of p and
g were inspected for one percent and 5 percent levels of
significance from the appropriate statistical tables.(102)

50

51
The Null Hypotheses

The major postulates of this study were formulated
into null hypotheses for statistical treatment:

1. There would be pg significant difference between
Michigan State University graduating student organization
leaders and graduating student non-joiners in academic
abilities as measured by the American Council on Education
Tests of Critical Thinking, The College Qualification
Tests, The Michigan State University Reading Comprehension
Test, and the 4-Year Michigan State University Cumulative
Grade-Point Average.

2. There would be pg significant differences between
Michigan State University graduating student organization
leaders and graduating student non-joiners in peraonslity
characteristics as measured by the Inventory of Beliefs,
The Differential Values Inventory, The Rokeach Dogmatism
Scale, and the M, S. U. General Immersion Scale.

3. There would be pg significant differences between
Michigan State University graduating student male and female
organization leaders and mgle and female graduating non-
joiners in their intellectual abilities and personality
characteristics as measured by the tests in 1958 Michigan

State University Freshman Admissions Battery and the 4-Year

52

M. S. U. Grade-Point Average.

The Statistigal Formula§:psed

The null hypothesis states that the difference
between the values of two means between two populations
with respect to a given test is zero: Ml—M2= 0, where M1
is the mean of the scores for population 1 and M2 is the mean
of the scores of population 2. Accepting the null
hypothesis confirms that the values for the means are
indeed the same; rejecting the null hypothesis implies that
the respective means of the two responses or sampling is
indeed different. At what point or how close to the value
of zero must such a difference be before the null hypothesis
is rejected or accepted? These values are established for
each experiment (and according to the needs of the
experimenter) after subjecting the data to certain formulas
and tables. The method used to test the null hypothesis
in this study was the t—ratio. This formula divides the
difference of the two means by the sigma difference (all

call Standard error of the Difference). (103, 104)

Interpretation of the t-Ratio

 

 

M1 =mean of Group 1 ‘74; Standard Deviation
_ C>-
M2 _mean of Group 2 67m: - -
\/l "N-l
N = the number in the sample Also called Standard

Error of the mean.

_s1

.‘1-

,.I
:-

v.1

 

53
then, E = M1 -M2

\/(m1)2 (o’Mzfl

 

The values of p thus calculated were compared with
certain standard tables. These indicated what values of 3
were necessary to obtain a level of significance at either
one percent or five per cent. These tables are in reality
based on standard curves indicating the number of deviation
units from the means. Such units are also called z~scores
where z= (§;M)and §_is any observed value; M,is the mean.

67"
When the null hypotheses were rejected at a high level

 

9; significance (one percent and five per cent) or with a

—_—

level g; confidence (95 per cent and 99 per cent), the

I:
P'
5‘

 

results were said to be statistically significant. When the
value of p approached zero there was little difference in
the values of the means of the two groups measured. When

3 was 1.96, a five per cent level of significance was reported.
Higher levels of 3 resulted in higher levels of significance.
The t-ratio formula includes the two standard error formulas;
the Standard Error of the Mean and the Stadard Error of

the Difference. It takes these calculations into account
and is considered by statisticians to be appropriate in

treatment of this type of data. (105)

54
Interpretation of Correlation

Correlation is an interrelation between two or more
conditions or events. Three types of correlations are
noted; positive, negative, and zero correlation. When two
events or factors change in the same direction, the correla-
tion is positive. Changes in opposite directions result
in negative correlations. When there is no relationship
in direction of change between two events, the relationship
is zero. (104)

The primary purpose of correlation study is the
demonstration of relationship between two factors for the
purpose of prediction. Correlation data cannot be used
to identify the primary cause of the relationship, but is
nevertheless a valuable statistical technique.

Correlation numbers are called correlation coefficients.
There is a specific numerical value for each set of paired
data. The term 3 will be the statistical symbol used
here for the Pearson (productumoment) correlation coefficient.

The computational formula is: (106)
(a! - MxMy

 

N x==score on Test I
r:
axa’y Y= score on Test II
My==mean of Test II N: the number in the population
’37: =standard deviation Mx= mean of Test I
Test I

GYI= standard deviation Test II

v

Q...

.Q

"

 

'5

"

 

‘u.

 

u.

 

55
Summary

The significance of the values of 5 depends specifically
upon the size of the sample. The value of N determines the
number of degrees 9f freedom. With largers populations,
greater significance can be assigned to smaller values of
3. Statistical tables originally established by Fisher and
Yate indicate 3 correlation values at five per cent and
l per cen‘ levels of significance. Degrees of freedom
(the size of the sample) are also considered in these
tables. The values of p range from 1 to -1 where the
number 1 indicated perfect correlation (positive or negative)
and zero is equal to no correlation. As 3 approaches
positive or negative l, the relationship between the items
becomes greater.

The assumptions for the significance of p and p have
been based on the following conditions: (1) random
sampling, (2) normal distribution of the sample. These
conditions were satisfied for the purpose of the present

research. (107, 102, 104)

:-

'\

 

.hi
v s

CHAPTER VII

ANALYSIS OF COMBINED STUDENT ORGANIZATION
LEADERS AND COMBINED STUDENT NON-JOINERS

T§§L_I, Inventory of Beliefs.--The organization
leaders indicated more flexibility and uniformity as
measured by this test. The p—ratio was significant at
the five per cent level.

Test II, Critical Thinking.-~There was pg significant
difference at the five per cent level between combined
men and women leaders and nonujoiners. However, there
was an approach toward significance (8.3 per cent level)
with the leaders having the advantage.

Test IIII Diferential_Yalues.--For this test, the
lowest pératio value was obtained, and hence there was
pg significant difference between combined student
organization leaders and combined student non-joiners.

Test IV, The Rokeach Dogmatism Scale.--On1y a Epgpg
could be indicated here at the 10 per cent level of signifi-
cance. The non-leaders appeared to be more dogmatic in
response.

Test foMichigan State University Reading Test.--This

56

57
test showed a highly significant difference in reading
comprehension between the combined organization leaders
and student non-joiners. (t .001 per cent) The combined
leaders tested much higher in reading ability.

Egg: VI, College gnalification Test.--At a .01 per
cent level of confidence, the combined leaders were found to
be more highly qualified for college work as measured by
this test.

Test VIIy_General Immersion Scale.-~The student
leaders were definitely more involved in college extra—
curricular life as measured by this scale at .006 per cent
level of significance.

Test VIII, 4-Year Cumulative Grade-Point AverageI Spring
1262 Graduating Seniors.--The highest possible significant
difference was established between combined student leaders
and non-joiners at p .001 per cent level. The student
leader definitely achieved greater academic success as
measured by the 4-Year Grade-Point average at Michigan
State University. (See Table 1)

Analysis of the Male Student
Organization Leaders and
Female Student
Organization

Leaders

Test 1; Inventory of Beliefs.--There was pg significant

N.'I '0’. ,‘VI.

58

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.ucmu Hem wno cmnu umBoHnu ass

« HoHumuau

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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mmomumafl
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quasmm 924 uses.
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.mszmooem wsHmam>st madam zaoamon

.H mamas

59
difference between the male or female student organization
leader, in this test.

Test II ang_Test III, Critical Thinking and Differeppigi
Values.--In neither test, could any significant differences
be found between the men and women organization leaders.

Test IV, Rokeach Scale.-—A significant difference was
demonstratable at the five per cent level (5.36 per cent).
The female student leader was less dogmatic in her thinking
according to this test.

Tppt V, Miphigan State University Reading Te§E.-~A very
low value for the p-ratio confirmed the fact that there was
pg significant difference between the male and female
organization leaders in reading comprehension. This contrasts
with scores obtained for the entire 1958 freshmen class,
where the freshman woman was found to be definitely the
better reader.

zppt VIprollege_Qualification Tests.—- A very
significant difference was noted at the 0.46 per cent level.
The male student organization leader as a freshman had the
highest qualifications of all groups measured.

Test VII, General Immersion Scalg.~—§g significant
difference could be shown with regards to participation in

college life at the time of the test, between the male and

60
female organization leaders.
Test VIII, Spring 1962 4-Year Cumulapive Grade—Ppint
Avepagg.--The highest possible significant difference between
the men and women student leaders in cumulative grade point

average was distinctly in favor of the women. (See Table 2)

Analysis of Male and Femalg Student
Organization Leaders

Between the male student non-joiner type and
female non-joiner type, the p—ratio revealed only one
case where there was a significant difference between the
two groups when taking the 1958 M. S. U. freshmen admissions
tests. This was the College Qualifications Test, where
the femal non-joiner student scored significantly lower
(t .006 per cent) when entering college. Even the 4-Year
Cumulative Grade-Point Average, (which was one of the most
sensitive instruments in detecting differences between the
groups being measured by these tests), did not reach our
criteria of l and 5 per cent level of significance. However,
it should be recalled that although there was a highly
significant difference in college qualifications when the
two groups were taking their freshmen admissions tests, four
years later, when the same groups were seniors, the female

student non-joiners had apparently improved their grades to

'I‘A III .IC

61

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.ucwo Hem wco cmnu umBOH n
“mocmuamasmam mo Ho>mH uswu pom spam”.

see

HoochHMHsmHm
Hoaumutu mo

 

 

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TUMHO>€
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mHmom con OH.O OH.OH Om MHMHMM
enmesH Hmumcmo Om.~m NN.O OO.m Om.OH Om mHmz
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umma mm.m am.~m Om mHmsmm
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mmsHm> me.O OO.mm Om mHmsms
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mcchHna mH.a mm.mm Om mamamm
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N gin.

ZOHBdNHZdUMO adds BZMQDBm MOHZNm NBHmMM>HZD maflfim ZGUHEUHZ

62
the point of pg significant difference in cumulative grade~
point average.

Furthermore, intercorrelation tables have shown that
college qualifications are highly related to cumulative
grade point average. Therefore, it may be inferred that
the female student non-joiners differed from the male
student non-joiners in that they successfully overcame an
initial disadvantage of the lowest score in college
qualifications. They achieved a gradempoint average
which was not different from the male non-leader group.
(See Table 3)

Analysis of Male OrganIzatIon Leadgpg
apgpMale Student Non—Joinepg

Test 1, Inventory of BeIIgI§.--The difference was
not significant between male organization leaders and
male student non-joiners at the 5 per cent level. However,
there was definitely a trend towards significance (9.3 per
cent) with the male organization leader showing more
flexibility and consistency than the non-joiner. He was
also higher in this quality as compared to the average
male 1958 M. S. U. freshman.

Test II, CrItical Thinking.--There was no significant

 

difference in critical thinking ability between male

14- l‘

63

.ucmo Hem wco can» HwBOH

Hfss

“mocmummmcmmm

mo Hm>wH ucmu Hem 0:0 u as HmUCMUHmHanm mo Hw>ma ueoo Hem mpam u « "oaumwuu

 

 

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64
organization leaders and student nonchiners, and the
leader group appeared to have the greater variability. How-
ever, both male leaders and non-joiners scored higher in
this test than the 1958 freshmen who took the admissions
tests.

Test III, Differential Values Inventory.--Although
there was pg significant difference for this test between
the male student leaders and joiners in traditional and
emergent values, the scores for both these groups were
higher than those of all the male freshmen taking the
test battery. The male nonwjoiners also differed at that
period, in being less uniform than all groups under
consideration.

Test IV, Rokeach Dogmatism Scale.--Although there was
pg significant differences between the male leader and non-
joiner groups when they were freshmen, both groups scored
lower than the average male 1958 M. S. U. freshman, and
seemed less uniform in their thinking on dogmatic ideads.

Iest V, M. S. U. Readinngest.meere there was a
significant difference between male student leaders and
non-joiners at the 1.64 per cent level. The male organiza—
tion leader, even as a freshman, was the superior reader.

However, both groups gave higher scores than the average

no.

,lv‘

 

 

-
‘0

 

.-

 

65
M. S. U. male student taking the admissions tests, and the
latter also indicated a wider spread in diversity in their
reading test scores.

Test VI, College Qpalifications.--The high significant
difference between male organization leaders and student
non-joiners stood at the .46 per cent level. The entering
male freshmen leader—type demonstrated greater college
aptitude. Both groups were nevertheless, much higher than
the average male student recorded for this test. The whole
male group taking the test, was decidedly less consistent
as well.

Test VII, M. S. U. General ImmergIon chIg.--An
exceedingly high significance was demonstrated between
a freshman student leader-type and the student non-joiners
with regard to assimilation into campus life at the end of
three quarters when this test was given. The non-joiner
group was well below the entire 1958 freshmen students
scored in this test.

Test VIII, Spring 1962, 4-Year CumulatIye Grade-
Point Average.--A very significant difference in grades
existed between the graduating 1962 senior male organization
leader and the graduating 1962 senior male non-joiner in

this current test. This did not, however, establish as

66
high a Erratio as other groups compared in the same area.
(See Table 4)
Analysis of Female Organization Leaders
and Female Student Non-Joiners

Test I, Inventory oIIBeIIgIg.--In contrast to the
male group, female student organization leaders were
significantly different from student non-joiners and showed
greater flexibility at a five per cent of significance
(2.1 per cent). The female leaders scored higher in
flexibility than any of the groups discussed. The data
for the female non-joiner in this test as in most of the
battery, resembled the scores of the entire 1958 female
freshman group taking the admissions test.

Test II, Critical Thinking.--Here too, a significant
difference at the five per cent level, was recorded
between female organization leaders and student non-joiners
which was in contrast to the male group. However, it was
apparent that the female non-joiner group was more hetero-
geneous than all other observed groups in critical thinking.

Test III, Differential Values.--There was pg significant
difference between the female student leader and female non-
joiner groups, but the non-joiners showed much variation

in their response to this test. A low score indicated less

67

mo moam> n.»

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mo Hw>ma usmo Hem mac n as “mnemommacmmm mo am>ma ucmu mom 0>Hm

«as

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I « “OHHmuuu

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68
traditional values, and it was noteworthy that the all campus
female 1958 freshman had the lowest score of all.

Test IV, Rokeach DogmatIgm Scale.--Here the Erratio
indicated an approach to, rather than, significant difference
between the female student leader and student non-joiner.

The higher score for the female non-joiner suggested more
dogmatic thinking amongst that group.

Test V, The M. S. U. Reading Test.--A p—ratio of

 

.02 per cent demonstrated a very significant difference
between female student leaders and non-joiners in
reading comprehension. In fact, the female student leader
scored highest of all groups being compared.
Tgst VI, College Qualification Tests.--Highly
significant, was the difference in the college aptitude
of the female leader as compared to the female non-joiner
freshman (t .006 per cent). The female leader-type as
a freshman showed better college qualification, but this
score was much lower than the male organization leader.
Iggt VIILJM. S. U. GenegalyImmersion Scale.--A very
noticeable trend towards significance was evident from the
p—ratio at the 6.7 per cent level showing the degree of
adaptation into college life. It should be recalled, that

this test given at the end of the third term in the

..y .

0-

 

 

 

‘u

.D

69

freshmen year, may not have given sufficient time for the
full differences to become apparent.

Test VIII, Spring 1962, 4-Year Cumulative Grade-
Point Avgpgge.--There was significant difference in this
comparison between female organization leaders and non-
joiners as graduating seniors. The women student organiza-
tion leaders had the highest grade-point value of the entire
campus, even though they had started with lower college
qualifications scores when they were freshmen. (See Table

5).

Testing OI the Hyppthesgg

The Erratio was employed to test three null
hypotheses, the first of which was to look for significant
differences between M. S. U. graduating student leaders
and graduating student non-joiners. The tables and
summaries point clearly to demonstrable differences between,
(1) combined student organization leaders, male and female,
and combined student non-joiners, male and female; (2) male
student organization leaders and student non-joiners; (3) female
student organization leaders and female student non-joiners.

The combined organization leaders differed from the

combined student non-joiners in the tests of intellectual

iull I’I ’\I.a

70

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71
capabilities. The student leaders scored higher than.
non-joiners in the College Qualification Tests, the M. S. U.
Reading Test, and the 4-Year Cumulative Grade-Point Average
as 1962 seniors.

Male organization leaders differed from male student
non-joiners in three tests of academic competence; College
Qualification Tests, M. S. U. Reading Test, and the 4—Year
Cumulative M. S. U. Grade-Point Average. It was apparent
that the male student freshmen who became 1962 accepted
student organization leaders scored higher in each test
than those who formed the student non—joiner group.

Female organization leaders differed significantly
from female non-joiners in more tests than any of the above
groups. The female student leaders scored higher than
women non-joiners when both were entering freshmen. They
demonstrated greater college qualifications, readin ability,
and critical thinking as shown by the 1958 M. S. U. test
battery. In addition, as senior student organization leaders
they had the highest cumulative grade-point average.

Null hypothesis I which stated that there would be no
significant differences in the tests of academic ability
between student organization leaders and student non-joiners,

is therefore rejected at the one per cent level of signficance.

72

The second of the null hypotheses probed for
differences between student organization leaders and student
non-joiners in personality characteristics. The combined
student leader groups differed from the combined non-joiner
groups as shown by Inventory of Beliefs. The combined
leaders appeared to be less stereotypic, and proved to be
much more adaptive to college life as shown by the values
for p leading to a high level of significance for the
General Immersion Test.

The male student organization leaders showed greater
ease of entering into campus activities than the non-joiners
in the same test. The female student organization leaders
however, did not show a significant difference from
female student non-joiners, at the time the test was
given (third term freshman year). On the other hand,
female leaders did differ very significantly from the non-
joiner women as measured by the Inventory of Beliefs.

Therefore, null hypothesis II is rejected at
one per cent level of significance, and M. S. U. student
organization leader and student non-joiner groups do differ
in certain attitudes, values, and beliefs as measured by
the 1958 M. S. U. Freshmen Admission Test Battery.

The third statement in the null hypotheses asserted

73
there were no differences in the two populations, male
student organization leaders and female student organization
leaders as shown by academic and personality tests. The p-
ratio values, however, gave a significant difference at
the five per cent level between the men and women groups for
the Rokeach Dogmatism Scale. According to this test male
organization leaders appeared to be more authoritarian

and closed-minded, in their ideas.

Summary

Differences were apparent in the tests of scholastic
aptitude. Both freshmen male groups ranked high in college
qualifications. But by the end of 4 years, the freshmen
women who became organization leaders, had transformed an
initial disadvantage into the highest grade point average
of all groups compared.

Between the student non-joiner groups, male and female,
there was only one significant area, the College Qualification
Tests. It was also of interest that the female organization
leader and non-joiner groups differed in more tests than
did their counterpart male organization leader and non-
joiner groups.

The p—ratios for the scores presented by the entire

74

freshmen groups of 2,746 students taking the 1958
test battery demonstrated significant differences for
most instruments used in this study except the Differential
Values Inventory. This further emphasized male and
female student differences in response to tests in
both intellectual abilities as well as personality traits.

Thus, null hypothesis III is rejected, and it can be
concluded that certain differences have been demonstrated
between male and female graduating student organization lead-
ers and male and female graduating student non-joiners.
Differences in degree and kind have also be revealed be-
tween the male student organization leader and the female
student leader, the male student non-joiner and the female

student non-joiner.

CHAPTER VIII

DISCUSSION OF THE INTERCORRELATION DATA
When the correlation data was inspected, a number
of relationships were disclosed.
Interpretation of Male and Female Organization
Leader Correlation Data

The General Immersion Scale,w~showed a positive signifi-

 

cant correlation at the five per cent level with the Inventory
of Beliefs Test for the male student organization leaders.

This was in contrast to the female student organization leaders
who showed no correlations between the General Immersion

Test and the rest of the Admissions Test Battery.

Unexpectedly therefore, those male organization leaders
who scored high in extra-curricular activities tended to
score low in flexibility, as measured by this test.

The Collegeigualification Test,—-correlated signifi—
cantly at the one per cent level with the 4-Year Cumulative
Grade-Point Average, the Critical Thinking Test, and the
M. S. U. Reading Test, for both the male and female organiza-
tion leaders. However, the male organization leaders
demonstrated a significant correlation at the five per cent

75

76
level between the COT and the Differential Values Inventory.
The female student leaders also showed a significant
correlation between the COT and the Rokeach Dogmatism Scale
at the five per cent level.

Therefore, both male and female student organization
leaders show high relationships among tests of intellectual
abilities. Those male leaders who scored higher in traditional
values (Differential Values Test) scored higher in college
aptitude (CQT). For the female student organization
leaders however, those who tended to score higher in dogmatic
ideas, scored higher in college aptitude.

The M. S. U. Reading Tgs ,--gave significant correla-
tions with Critical Thinking and Cumulative Grade-Point Average
for both male and female organization leaders at the one per
cent level. This emphasized the already apparent correlation-
ship of academic abilities among the male and female leaders.

The nggach Dogpapism Scale,--was negatively
correlated with the Inventory of Beliefs at the one per cent
level for the leader groups. This was in the expected
direction because the flexible person would probably score
low in dogmatic thinking.

Thg DIgfggenpial Values Tgs§,--revealed no further

significant correlations with the remainder of the test battery

 

4-

 

 

2

77
among the male and female student leaders.

Critical ThInking,--was related positively to the
4-Year Cumulative Grade-Point Average at the one per cent
level for both leader groups. The relationship between critical
thinking and academic grades seemed to be common factors for
male and female organization leaders. (See Table 6)

Interpretation oI,Male Organization Leaders
Non-Joiner Correlation Data

General Immersion Data.--For the student non-joiner
groups there were no significant correlations between the
General Immersion Scale and the remaining tests of the
battery.

The College Qualification Tests,--was significantly
related at the one per cent level for both the student
non-joiner groups, with Critical Thinking and M. S. U.
Reading Test. The correlation coefficients were positive
pg;,mpgh_lpgeg,ip_ya;pg for the non—joiner groups. However,
the female student non-joiner showed a positive correlation at
one per cent level between CQT and the Inventory of Beliefs.
Those female non-joiners scoring higher in college ability
seemed to score higher in flexibility.

The M. S. U. Reading Test.--The graduating male non-

joiner's correlation score was significant at the five per cent

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79
level with the Critical Thinking Test. However, the female
non-joiner showed this correlation at one per cent level of
significance, and in addition indicated a significant correla-
tion at one per cent level with the Inventory of Beliefs
test. This continues the unique relationship between the
academic tests and the Beliefs Test.

degach Dggpatism Scale.--For the student non-joiner
the correlation was negatively related to Inventory of
Beliefs in accordance with the inverse relationship of two
scores and this paralleled the trend of the organizational
leader group.

Diffepential Valugs.--Only the male organization
non-joiners gave a significant correlation at the one per
cent level with the 4-Year Grade-Point Average, but the
female non-joiner scores did not reach the correlation level.

CripIcaI Thinking.—-Among the men non-joiners, there
was a correlation score which was significant at the

one per cent level with cwmulative grade point average.

Interpretation of Male Organization Leaders
and Male Student NOn-JoIngr Correlation
Dapg
For the General Immersion Test the male organization

leaders showed negative correlation with Inventory of Beliefs

in Contrast to the nOn-correlation of male student non-joiners.

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81
The men organization leaders displayed four significant
correlations of the College Qualification Tests with academic
abilities tests and the Differential Value Test. Men non-
joiners showed this type of correlation for three tests;
Critical Thinking, Cumulative Grades, and the M. S. U.

Reading Test. (See Table 8)

ngprpretation of Female OrganigationgLeadgp
and Female Student Non-Joiner Correlation
Pass

The entire female group indicated no significant
correlations between the General Immersion Scale and the
remainder of the test battery. They shared similar
correlation scores of College Qualifications with
Critical Thinking and Reading Tests, but differed in that
student non-joiner gave a further correlation with Inventory
of Beliefs Test. Female organization leaders, however, showed
further correlation of the COT with Grade-Point average, and
pmsitive correlation with Rokeach scale. For the non-
joiner females, the Inventory of Beliefs again showed
correlation with the M. S. U. Reading Test. Neither group

Showed correlations of Differential Values Test with the

other tests. (See Table 9)

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84
Summary of the Intercorrelation Data

The purpose of the examination of the intercorrelation
data was to search for relationships which would support
certain tenets of the hypotheses. In support of Hypothesis
I, the intercorrelations valid at one per cent and five per
cent level of significance demonstrated significant differ—
ences between men and women student organization leaders in
the tests of academic ability. The female student non-
joiner group, for example, did not show a correlation of the
College Qualification Tests with the 4-Year Grade-Point
Average as did the organizational leader groups.

With regard to Hypothesis II, there were less
intercorrelations between tests of values and beliefs
(personality characteristics). The organization leader
groups however, differed from the student non-joiner groups.
The female non-joiners indicated a unique quality in the
relationship of the Inventory of Beliefs with both
College Qualification Tests, and the M. S. U. Reading Test.
The male non-joiners on the other hand, showed an absence of
correlation between intellectual and non-intellectual tests
with the exception of the test shared by all groups, the
negative correlation of the Inventory of Beliefs and the

Rokeach Scale.

85

Male organization leaders revealed most intercorrelations
among the tests of all groups. Thus, college ability (CQT)
was related to traditional values (Differential Values Inventory),
and flexibility (Inventory of Beliefs) was related to partici-
pation in campus life (General Immersion Scale).

The last two hypotheses, which proposed sex differences
as contrasted by the test battery, were strengthened by
significant intercorrelations among the tests for both the
male and female student organization leader groups. Thus,
female student leaders differed from the male leader groups
by indicating a positive relationship between College
Qualifications and the Rokeach Scale. For them, more
dogmatic ideas were interdependent with college aptitude.
However, female organization leader-type freshmen students
differed from the males by showing no relationship between
college assimilation and college ability, but did relate
the latter to the Rokeach scale instead of the Differential
Values Inventory. The female student non-joiner showed more
instances of interrelationships among the tests than did
the male student non-joiners.

It is noteworthy that in this statistical treatment, as
well as in the t-ratio, the College Qualification Tests

showed more clustering of relationships than any other

86
instrument. This would appear to strengthen its validity by
demonstrating strong relationship with student organization
leadership qualities.
In this respect, the 1962 4-Year Cumulative Grade-
Point Average was shown to be significantly intercorrelated
not only with the College Qualification Tests, but alSOVHJfll

most of the other instruments measuring academic ability.

CHAPTER IX

DISCUSSION OF SOCIO-ECONOMIC-

EDUCATIONAL DATA

Methods of Procedure

This 25 question inventory was given to the entire
1958 entering freshmen class (fall term) at Michigan
State University during orientation week along with the
other units of the test battery. The freshmen students were
asked to furnish their name, age, student number, sex, and
major before they filled out the inventory. The directions
included the statement, "While it is necessary to ask your
name, your replies will be held in strict confidence, and
will be read only by the research staff.“ There was no
time limit set for making out the inventory; all students
were permitted to finish at their own pace. The test consisted
of 25 multiple choice questions with no less than three, and
no more than 15 selections.

This biographical data sheet was prepared by the Dressel
Research Team as part of the Government supported 4-year project
at Michigan State University (United States Office of Education,

87

88
Department of Health, Education and Welfare).

The original Socio—economic-education inventories were
obtained from the records of the Institutional Research Office,
Michigan State University. Those of the male and female student
organization leaders and student non-joiners were selected as
previously described. The answers for each of the multiple
choice questions were converted into percentages for each of
the four divisions, (1) male leaders, (2) female leaders,

(3) male non-joiners, and (4) female non~joiners.

This data was treated for percentages manually as distin-
guished from the MISTIC process of the M. S. U. Computer
Laboratory used in treatment of the information from the
1958 Admissions Test Battery. The resulting biographical
data was compiled into tables

Analysis of the Socio-Economic-
Educational Data

The name of this test will now be abbreviated to
S. E. E. Test and the percentages will be stated for males
first in the discussion. A table summarizing the data from

each question will be included in this chapter to further

substantiate the written discussion.

89

Discussion of the Sociological
Findings

The non—joiners were somewhat older than the leaders:
75 per cent of the males and 72 per cent of the females were
eighteen years of age as compared to 54 per cent and 72 per cent
respectively for the corresponding leader groups. It was
of interest that 40 per cent of the organization male leaders
were under 18 years of age as compared to 14 per cent of

the non joiner males.

TABLE 10

AGE AT LAST BIRTHDAY

 

 

Percent Organization

 

 

Leaders Percent Non-Joinerg

Male Female Male Female
Under 18 40 28 14 24
Eighteen 54 72 75 72
Nineteen 6 0 8 0
20 or Over 0 0 3 4

 

By far the majority of parents were native born for
the entire group. However, this was even higher in the
organization leader group (78, 92 per cent) as compared to
non-joiner (78, 76 per cent). Noteworthy was the fact
that 17 per cent of the male nonwjoiner had parents both of
whom were foreign born. On the other group 24 per cent of

female non-joiner had mother who were foreign born. (See

Table 11)

90

TABLE 11

NATIVITY OF PARENTS

 

 

 

 

Parents Percent Organization Percent Non-

Birth Leaders Joinerg

Place MaIe Female Male Female
Father

Foreign 13 0 5 0
Mother

Foreign 2 4 0 24

Both Parents
Foreign Born 7 4 l7 0

Both Parents
Native Born 78 92 78 76

 

The male organization leaders was the largest single
group in this study, with a home environment from cities
populated over 100,000; 36 per cent representing the largest
single group among the female organization leaders lived in
towns with a population ranging from 2,500 to 25,000. In
contrast the non-leaders had a surprising amount of student—
representation from the farms, with 31 per cent for the men
and 20 per cent for the women, respectively. In addition,
more of the non-joiners lived in rural communities under
25,000 population, with 32 per cent of the non-joiners living

in cities of approximately 100,000. (See Table 12)

91
TABLE 12

WHERE DID YOU LIVE BEFORE COMING TO COLLEGE?

 

Percent Organization

 

 

Size of Leaders Pergent Non-Joinerg
Community Male Female Male Female
Farm. 7 ll 31 20
Village

(250-2,500) 7 ll 22 12
Town

(2,500-25,000) 31 36 ll 24
City

(25,000-100,000) 14 21 17 32
Big City

jover_I00,000)_, 41 21 19 l;

 

Discussion of the Economical Findings

Parents were the mainstay for all the groups, but the
female leader appeared to be more free of economic problems,
with 85 per cent admitting to parental support and 14 per
cent academic scholarships. The male organization leader
presented a more complex picture, 53 per cent accepted
parental support, and 30 per cent academic scholarships, and
13 per cent depended upon jobs. The male non-joiners showed
a higher percentage in comparison with 22 per cent who needed
jobs to get through college. Only 3 per cent of the non-joiners
attended college on the G. 1. Bill. Sixteen per cent of the

female non-joiners were dependent (72 per cent depended on

92

parents) to further their college education.

TABLE 13

WHAT WAS YOUR PRINCIPAL SUPPORT AT COLLEGE?

m

Percent Organization

 

 

Principal Leadergp, Percent Non-Joiner
Support Male Female Male Female
Parents 53 86 61 72
Job 13 0 22 16
Athletic

Scholarship 0 0 3 0
Loans 4 0 3 4

G. I. Bill 0 0 3 0
Academic

Scholarship 30 14 8 8

 

It was immediately evident that the organization leader
group came from homes where the father was in a business and
professional occupation. Fifty-five per cent of the leaders
reported business in contrast with 18 and 25 per cent for
both male and female non-joiners. The reverse ratio appeared
in the former catagory, 31 and 35 per cent for the non-joiners
in contrast with 9 and 12 per cent for the organization leader-
fathers. More female non-joiners however had fathers who

were professionals than male; 17 and 9 per cent respectively.

93
TABLE 14
WHAT IS YOUR FATHER'S OCCUPATION?

Percent Organization

 

 

 

 

Father's ppeadgpp ngggnt Non-Joiners
Occupation Male Female Male Femgle
Professional 19 24 9 17
Business 55 56 18 25
Skilled 9 8 15 12
Farmer 9 12 31 25
Unskilled 8 0 I7 21

 

Noticeable immediately was the large percentage (22
per cent) from the female organization leader group whose
mothers were in a professional occupation, and that percent-
age far exceeded any of the remaining groups of the student
sample. In addition, the female organization leaders reported
14 per cent of their mothers as "business" compared with 7
per cent of the male organization leader-mothers. This per-
centage was reversed in the non-joiner groups. However, the
male organization leaders stated that 16 per cent of their
mothers were classified as "skilled" occupational. All of
this data corresponds with the observations on the higher

level of the mother's education in the total group.

94

TABLE 15

WHAT IS YOUR MOTHER'S OCCUPATION

 

Percent Organization

 

 

.Mother's Leaders Percent Non-JoInerg
Occupation MaIgj FemaIp__, MaIe Femalg_____
Professional 3 22 6 8
Business 7 l4 l4 8
Skilled l6 0 0 8
Farmer 0 0 0 0
Unskilled 7 0 9 4
prsewife 67 64 71 72

 

A great majority of the fathers of both the leader and
non-joiner groups did not have a second job. The female non-
joiners however, had the largest percentage of fathers working

at "extra" jobs.

TABLE 16

DOES FATHER HAVE A SECOND JOB?

 

 

Second Percent Organization

Job Leaders Percent Non-Joiners
Father Male Female Male Female
No 96 81 88 76

Yes 4 19 12 p4

 

95
Both student organization leaders and non-joiners answer—
ed negatively in large percentages to this question. These
results were similar to the question regarding the fathers

working with "extra" jobs.

TABLE 17

DOES MOTHER HAVE A SECOND JOB?

 

 

Second Percent Organization

Job Leaders Percent Non-Joiners
Mother Male Female Male Female
No 98 86 92 88

Yes 2 l4 8 12

 

Discussion of High School Backgroundg

There appeared to be a sharp contrast between the male
organization leaders and non-joiners in this respect. Seventy
per cent of the leaders said they had been very active in
high school as compared to 35 per cent of the non-joiners.
The women organization leaders and non—joiners were equally
active as high school students. The male non-joiners who
said they were moderately active in high school, had the
highest percentage. (See Table 18)

Although most of the entire group were from the upper
third of their high school graduating class, the percentage was

higher for the organization leaders, 73 per cent, 96 per cent

96

TABLE 18

HIGH SCHOOL EXTRA-CURRICULAR ACTIVITIES?

 

 

 

 

 

High 1 Percent Organization

School Leadergp, Percent Non—Joiners
Extra Curric. MaIe FemaI_, Male Female
Very Active 70 64 36 64
Moderately

Active 20 36 53 28

Not Active 10 0 ll 8

 

as compared to 66 per cent, 88 per cent of the non-joiners.

In each case the women from the upper third of their high
school class indicated the highest percentage. However, these
figures were to be expected since college freshmen are screen-

ed from these grade divisions.

TABLE 19

WHAT WAS YOUR RANK IN YOUR HIGH SCHOOL GRADUATING CLASS?

 

 

 

 

High School Percent Organization

Graduating Leaders Percent Non-Joinep
Class Rank Male Female Male Female
Upper 1/3 73 96 66 88
Middle 1/3 20 4 28 8
Lower 1/3 7 0 6 4

 

The male and female organization leaders showed similar

size graduating classes (100-199 and 200-399) but the same

97
percentages for the non-joiner were shown in classes 25-99 and
100-199. This was in keeping with the larger percentages of

non-joiners who came from farms and rural communities.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

TABLE 20

WHAT WAS THE SIZE OF THE GRADUATING CLASS?
Size of Percent OrganiEation
Graduating Leaders Percent Nop-Jginer
Clgss MgIe Female Male Female
Under 25 O 4 ll 12
25—99 16 21 39 36
100-199 35 36 19 24
200-399 27 21 14 4
400-999 16 18 17 4
Over 1000 6 0 0 0

 

Practically all of the student organization leaders and
non-joiners received their education from public schools. It
was important to note that 15 per cent of the female non-joiners
were educated in parochial and 8 per cent in private schools.
This was in contrast to very small percentage in the remaining

groups of the sample. (See Table 21)

Discussions of the Educational Findings

The non-joiner and female organization leaders were the

most confident of realizing their goal in education. The male

98
TABLE 21

WHAT TYPE OF SECONDARY SCHOOL DID YOU ATTEND?

 

 

 

Type of Percent Organization

Secondary Leaders Pepcent Non-Joiners
School Male Female , Male Femalg
Public 93 86 89 76
Parochial 0 7 8 16
Private 7 7 3 8

 

organization leaders dropped 10 per cent in those who

actually expected to be accepted for graduate school.

TABLE 22

HOW MUCH EDUCATION DO YOU REALLY EXPECT TO GET?

 

Percent Organization

 

 

 

 

 

Education Leadepgfi Percent NOn-Joiners
Expected "912 Female Male Female
One year 0 0 0 0

Two years 0 3 5 8
Three years 0 O 0 0
Degree 4 47 86 70 84
Graduate school 53 II_ I; 8

 

The entire group agreed that they would like a
Bachelors Degree, but the male organization leaders were

outstanding in their decision with 64 per cent showing a

99
preference for graduate study. The percentage for the male

non-joiners on the same question descended to 22 per cent.

TABLE 23
HOW MUCH EDUCATION WOULD YOU LIKE TO HAVE?

Percent Organization

 

 

 

 

Education Leaders Percent NOn-Joiners
Desired Malg, Female MgIg Female
One year 0 0 0 0

Two years 0 0 0 0
Three years 0 0 0 - 0
Bachelor

Degree 36 82 78 88
Graduate

School 64 I8 IQ; 12

 

Papents Educational Background

The mothers of the female organization leaders had an
easily demonstrable high percentage of those completing
education at all the higher levels with 39 per cent
graduating college and 7 per cent having advanced degrees.

Among the non-joiner the pattern of the mothers was similar

to that of the fathers, but there was a far higher per cent

who had graduated high school, especially for the female organic
zation leaders (24 per cent of the fathers, 56 per cent of the

mothers). See Table 24.

WHAT WAS YOUR MOTHERS EDUCATIONAL BACKGROUND?

100

TABLE 24

Percent Organization

 

 

 

 

 

Mothers Leaders Percent NOn-Joiner

Education Male Female Male Female

Unfinished

Elementary 3 0 6 4

Finished

Elementary 0 3 l7 0

Unfinished

High School 0 8 8 12

Graduated

High School 55 25 42 56

Unfinished

College 13 14 ll 12

Graduated

College 20‘ 39 8 12

Unfinished

Gradute 4 4 3 0

Finished

Graduate 4 7 5 4
Easily recognizable was the difference between the male

organization leader and the female organization leader as well

as the male non—joiner.

The fathers of the male organization

leaders showed higher percentages at all upper levels of

education.

The fathers of the female organization leaders

indicated the highest percentage of those with advanced

101

degrees. An almost reverse image was the education of the

male non-joiner father with the largest amount completing

elementary and high school.

paralleled by the fathers backgroun education of the

female non-joiner group.

WHAT WAS YOUR FATHER'S EDUCATIONAL BACKGROUND?
Percent Organization

TABLE 25

These figures were closely

 

 

Father's Leaders Percent Non-Joiners
Education Male Female Male Female
Unfinished

Elementary 0 0 13 11
Finished

Elementary 0 ll 19 12
Unfinished

High School 8 14 16 16
Graduated

High School 28 ll 22 24
Unfinished

College 20 14 6 13
College

Degree 31 29 17 ll
Unfinished

Graduate 10 7 0 9
Graduate

Degree 3 l4 7 4

 

102
Students Relationship with Parents

Almost uniformly 50-60 per cent of the entire group
said that as high school students they discussed personal
problems with parents. The next category (similarly in all
groups) was the teacher. Small scattered percentages said
they discussed problems with minister, doctor, or friend.
Ten per cent of the males stated their preference for dis—
cussion with their minister, their personal doctor, or

close friends.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

TABLE 26

WITH WHOM DID YOU DISCUSS YOUR IMPORTANT PROBLEMS?
Discussed Percent Organization
Problems Leaders Percent an-Joiners
With MaIg_ Female Male Female
Parents 52 57 55 6O
Minister 3 0 3 4
Doctor 0 O 3 8
Teacher 35 39 33 28
Friend 10 4 6 0
Sppuse 0 0 0 0

 

The male organization leader revealed the lest
satisfactory relationship with only 30 per cent excellent

as compared to 58-68 per cent of the other groups. Only

103
male organization leaders also admitted (24 per cent) that
their relation with parents was poor, and 13 per cent "fair."
For the other gnoups, relations were good to excellent with

parents when they were college freshmen.

TABLE 27

WHAT IS THE RELATIONSHIP WITH MY PARENTS?

 

 

 

 

 

Relationship Percent Organization

'With Leaders Percent an-Jginers
Parents MgIe Female Male Female
Excellent 30 68 58 60
Good 33 25 31 36
Average 0 3 8 0
Fair 13 4 3 4
Poor - g4 - 0 0 0

 

 

Students College Adjustment

Generally freshmen students were requested to live
in campus dormitories or in their homes. This study indicat-
ed that 20 per cent of the female non-joiners lived at home
with their family as compared to 14 per cent of the male
non-joiners, and this differed from the organization leader
with only 10 per cent living at home. (See Table 28)

Sixty per cent of both male and female organization

leaders did plan to get part-time work when they first entered

104

TABLE 28

WHERE WAS YOUR RESIDENCE WHILE YOU WERE AT

 

 

MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY?

 

 

 

—

Percent Organization
Living Leaders Percent Non-Joiners
Qparters Male Female Male Female
Dormitory 90 89 83 80
Off-Campus
Apartments 0 0 0 O
Rooming Houses 0 0 3 0
Fraternity or
Sorority 0 0 0 0
Family 10 ll 14 I0

 

college, in contrast to forty per cent of the non-leaders.
The percentages were reversed for the organization leader-

non-joiner when answering this question.

TABLE 29

DO YOU PLAN TO GET A JOB ANYTIME DURING
THE ACADEMIC YEAR?

 

 

 

 

Plan Percent Organization

Part Time Leader Percent Non-Joiner
Job Male FemgIe Male Femalg
Yes 40 39 58 60

No 60 61 42 40

 

105
Student Self Image

Only the male non-joiners were less confident of
having a friendly attitude (55 per cent) the lowest of
the entire sample. It was the men organization leaders and
non-joiners who were pessimistic (7 per cent) and anxious
(21 per cent, 16 per cent), respectively. The female
organization leaders demonstrated a large percentage of
self centeredness as compared to women non-joiners. There

was very little difference between the male organization

leaders and the male non-joiners.

 

 

 

 

 

TABLE 30
M. S. U. FRESHMEN SELF
— , —- _-_,,,,-___ -_ ~ ~ ~ —
Percent Organization
‘ Leadegs Peppent NOn-Joiners
Trait Mgle Female Male Female
Friendly 65 64 55 68
Happy 28 43 33 20
Pessimistic 7 0 6 0
Self-Centered 7 l4 9 0
Anxious II 0 l6 4

 

The leader group appeared to be more cheerfull, and
somewhat more cooperative than the non-joiners. Unusual,

was the fact that more female non-joiners replied that they

106

were stubborn than female organization leaders and male

leaders.

TABLE 31

112§§H!;1§;_H;1§§§SEEEEM§§E§WEHBEE-
Percent Organization

   

 

 

Leaders Percent Non-Jongpg
ngIp, Male Female Male Female
Cheerful 34 42 27 20
Optimistic 21 25 ll 20
Depressed 3 0 3 4
Cooperative 52 46 42 40
Stubborn 17 11 5 l6

 

Male organization leaders emerged as being more sociable.
more egotistic. Also, more of them said they were patient
and industrious (38 per cent) as compared to (19 per cent)

male non-joiners with respect to the latter characteristics.

(See Table 32)

Sppgents Reasons for AttendIng CoIIege
the female organization leaders and non-joiners were more
definite in their reason for coming to college. Sixty-eight
per cent of the female organization leaders gave "broad educa-
tion" as their reply and 89 per cent said "vocation" as compared

to 48 per cent and 76 per cent of the female non-joiners for

107
TABLE 32
1958 M. S. U. FRESHMEN SELF IMAGE

‘WHICH OF THE FOLLOWING DESCRIBE YOUR GENERAL MAKE-UP?
Percent Organization

 

 

 

 

 

Leaders Percent an-Joiners
Tra t MpIe FemgIg ngIe Female
Sociable 55 46 38 28
Egotistic lO 0 0 0
Patient 21 l8 l4 l6
Docile 3 0 0 0
Industrious 38 35 ,I9 ;4

the same questions. The female non-joiner represented an
uncomplex profile from 12 possible choices. Only the above
two reasons stimulated replies. The male organization leader
demonstrated an unusual response. For example, 69 per cent
reported "prestige" was important, 10 per cent said "forgone
conclusions." (These factors were little stressed by

other groups.

"To Make More Money," was greater motivation for the
males with 39 per cent of the non-joiners, giving this as their
answers. In addition, the 13 per cent of the non-joiners said,
"it was the thing to do."

Both female groups were more influenced by "College

Life” than the males. (See Table 33)

108

TABLE 33

WHAT WERE YOUR REASONS FOR COMING TO COLLEGE?

 

 

 

Reason for Percent Organization

Coming to Lgaders Percent Non-Joineps
College Male Female MaIg, Female
Broad

Education 41 68 36 48
Vocation 72 89 61 76
Prestige 69 ll 8 0
Peers 3 0 0 0
Training 14 14 22 6
Please

Parents 0 0 6 4
The Thing

To Do 0 0 13 0
Forgone

Conclusion 10 0 0 0

Make More

Money 28 ll 39 8
College Life 3 ll 0 8
Family
Tradition 0 4 3 4
NOne of
Above 7 0 3 0

 

Students Religious Preference

By far the heaviest percentage of answers from all
groups was Protestant. However, the female non-joiners register-

ed 80 per cent as compared to,58 per cent for the male

109
non-joiners in this denomination. Noteworthy was the
fact that among the males, 31 per cent of the organization
leaders and 22 per cent of the non—joiners showed 8 per cent
who affirmed that they had "none" as their religious

preference.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

TABLE 34

RELIGIOUS PREFERENCE

Percent Organization
Religious Leaders Percenp_N0n-Joiner§
PreIerence Male FemgIe Male Female
Catholic 0 12 ll 8
Jewish 0 0 3 4
Protestant 79 84 56 80
None 0 4 8 0
Would Not
Answer 31. 0 4;; ,8

 

 

Marital Status.--All members of the sample groups
selected were single students.

Men and women organization leaders were more regular in
church-attendance than the non-joiner group, 47 per cent.
68 per cent, and 36 per cent, 48 per cent respectively.

Among the male non-joiners,3 per cent stated that

they never went to church. (See Table 35)

110
TABLE 35

HOW OFTEN DO YOU ATTEND CHURCH?
'ercent Organization

 

Church Leaders Percent an-Joiners
Attendance Male Female Male Female
Regularly 47 68 36 48
Frequently 27 25 33 44'
Rarely 26 7 28 8
Ngygp, 0 0 3 0

 

Interpretation of Findings

The analysis of the socio-economic-educational inventory
had its purpose the extraction of those factors which would
make a possible pattern of social and environmental back-
ground leading to the development of student leadership. The
answers given to the 1958 M. S. U. Biographical Questionnaire
by l962.student organization leaders when they were freshmen
were contrasted with an equal number of students defined by
this study as student non-joiners. The similarities and
differences were finally evaluated to see if they could
answer the question, "Was the potential student organization
leader already recognizable by the answers he gave to the 1958
test battery?“ Or was he in 1958 an ugly duckling who
suddenly became a student organization leader swan in 1962?

Did the student non-joiner type come from different ethnic,

111
economic, and social strata? The comparison of percentage
answers revealed differences between the 1958 freshmen students
who became organization leaders or non-joiners, between men and
women organization leaders, and between the respective
organization leader and non—joiner groups.

The 1958 M. S. U. freshmen students who became the
organization leaders of campus organizations in 1962, were
somewhat young (especially the males) than those who remain-
ed non-joiners. The students organization leader groups
were more regular church goers and largely Protestant.

However, a third of the male student organization leaders
did not answer the question on religious preference. The
organization leader-type of students were almost exclusively
from public schools, larger towns and cities. Their high
school graduating class ranged from 100 to 400 students, and
they were from the upper third of their class. They claimed
to be "very active" in high school, especially the males.

This contrasted with non-joiner groups, a third of whom
came from farms, and the remainder, mainly from rural communities
or small towns. Just as with the entire group, the majority
came from public schools (but more female organization non-
joiners came from parochial and private schools) with small

graduating classes. Most of the men non—joiner group was

112

modgrately active in high school extra-curricular activities.

It was evident that M. S. U. students who became organi-
zation leaders originated from homes where parents were
mainly native born. A higher percentage of their fathers
and mothers had college education and advanced degrees, but
the mothers of the female students were outstanding in
having higher levels of education. The majority of the
parents of 1958 freshmen who formed the 1962 senior
organization leader groups were engaged in business or
professional occupations. However, in contrast to all
these positive factors, the relationship with their
parents was unclear. More than a third of the male
organization leader students reported "poor“ or "fair” in
answer to this questions, and this contrasted with the
majority of all other groups who recorded relationships
with parents as "good or excellent." Nevertheless, the
organization leader group said they did discuss important
problems with their parents. Parents too, were the
principal support through college although scholarships
and part-time jobs were also important factors in their
plans. Only 10 per cent of campus leaders planned on living
at home.

From the question on self-evaluation of their personal

113
traits, a profile emerged of the student organization
leadership groups even when they were freshmen. Higher
percentages of the 1958 freshmen group reported they were
more cheerful, cooperative, and sociable. Some of the
female organization leaders admitted they were self-center-
ed and stubborn, but their male counterparts said they were
egotistic, anxious, and somewhat pessimistic; a smaller
percentage registered as having a friendly attitude. Perhaps
this very admission, when they were freshmen, was an
indication of greater maturity in facing their weakness. In
addition the males were frank to say that some of his reasons
for coming to college were prestige, to make more money, and
vocational training. This contrasted with the female student
leader who stressed broad education, vocation, and college life.
Although a majority of the entire group agreed they expected
to complete four years of college, nearly two-thirds of the
male organization leaders aspired to enter graduate

school as well.

The 1958 M. S. U. Spudent Organization NOn-Joiner.--A

larger percentage in the group had foreign born parents and
their degree of education was weighted in the grade or high
school level. But more mothers of the women non—joiner students

had completed high school and gone on to advanced degrees.

114
Among the students who composed the non-joiner sample, the
majority of the parents were engaged in farming or unskilled
occupations. Many of the parents had a second job; most of
the mothers were housewives (as was the general case) but
a large number had part-time work which was often stated
as ”skilled." More of the non—joiners were depending on
jobs, full or part-time than the leadership group. A
larger number, especially girls, were planning on living at
home while going to college. However, the majority of the
entire non-joiner catagory claimed that their relationship
with parents was good or excellent and that they brought
their important personal problems home for discussion.

The non-joiner student freshman saw himself somewhat
differently than the eventual student leader. The former
was less cheerful and happy, somewhat less friendly (the
males) and sociable, less optimistic, and somewhat more
depressed. However, the female non-joiner as a freshman
student, appeared more clear as to purpose in coming to
college. By far, the greatest percentage answered broad
education, vocational training; a smaller percentage added
college life. The majority desired and expected only four
years of college.

A surprising number of male non-joiner students replied

115
that their reason for going to college included a desire to
please their parents, and "family tradition," or to make
money. The greatest contrast to the male organization leader
group was the noticeably smaller number of the non-joiner
group who were planning on graduate work, although

practically all of them expected to get a Bachelor's degree.

Summary

It was the purpose of the Socio-Economic+Educational
Inventory to indicate certain important differences in
environmental background between student organization
leaders and student non-joiners at Michigan State University.
Male and Female differences were also sought to reveal
valuable information, within the organization leader and
student non-joiner groups. Although the inventory has
the limitations of validity and reliability,it emphasizes
certain areas of the Michigan State University entering

freshmen that must be considered in this study.

CHAPTER X

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND IMPLICATIONS

Summary

The need for the study.--To utilize the reservoir of
potential leadership among university students, a more
comprehensive approach should be formulated for the dis-
closure of student leadership resources. A scientific
approach to this problem would seek new and refined methods
of recognizing, diagnosing, and predicting leadership
qualities in large groups of university students. To
meet diversified student needs more effectively, a
comprehensive program should be developed considering
differences in academic abilities and personality character-
istics of university students. Higher education should
search for certain factors that may be predictive of student
leadership as well as contrasting the differing abilities and
personality traits of students who do not join college
organizations. Differences between male and female student
organization leaders and non-joiners should also be sought.

116

117
The PpgbIgm

The specific purpose of this study was to determine
certain possible differences between graduating senior
student organization leaders and non-joining students at
Michigan State University. It was believed that these
differences could be measured by certain tests of
academic abilities and personality traits as well as a
socio-economic-educational inventory.

In addition, it was postulated that certain
differences would be disclosed by contrasting male and
female senior student organization leaders, and male
and female student non-joiners at Michigan State University.

From these postulations, certain hypotheses were

formulated which stated:

The Hypgghgses

1. Michigan State University 1962 graduating senior
student organization leaders differ significantly from senior
student non-joiners of student organizations in academic
abilities and personality characteristics as measured by
their 1958 Freshmen Admission Test Battery and their 4-Year
M. S. U. Cumulative Grade-Point Average.

2. Michigan State University graduating student

organization male and female leaders, and male and female

118
graduating senior student non-joiners would reveal signifi-
cant differences in academic abilities and personality
characteristics when measured by the 1958 Freshmen Admission
Test Battery and the 1962 4-Year Cumulative Grade—Point-
Average.

3. Michigan State University graduating senior student
organization leaders and graduating senior-student non-joiners
described in Hypothesis L and the male and female graduating
senior student organization leader and non-joiner described
in Hypothesis II,wou1d disclose differences in socio-economic-
educational background as indicated by the Michigan State Univer-
.sity Socianconomic-Education Inventory.

The Design ang Ppgcedure of the Study.--For the purpose
of this investigation a leader was defined as an elected.
graduating senior, officer of a representative student
organization. A pgprlgIggp'was defined as a graduating
senior student who answered negatively to all questions in
the 4-Year M. S. U. 1962 graduating senior, Extra-Curricular \
Activities Inventory. The term tests was used interchangeably
with inventory, questionnaire, scale and instruments. The
term personalIty chgractepigticg was used equivalently with
traits, to represent a composite of attitudes, values, beliefs,

and social participation.

119

The student leader sample was selected from the official
1962 M. S. U. Student Organizations Directory. The student
non-joiner sample was selected from graduating seniors who
showed no extra—curricular activities in their 4-year
campus history. Both groups were unmarried, graduating
seniors and stratified to select 50 males and 50 females
senior student organization leaders and 50 male and 50
female senior student non-joiners. Randomness was taken
into account by alphabetizing male and female lists of
senior student leaders and non—joiners. To equate the
samples, every tenth name was selected for student
organization leaders who composed the largest group, and
every fifth name for student non-joiners.

The measures of academic ability and personality for
the groups studied were taken from a government supported
research project under the leadership of the M. S. U. Evalua-
tion Services. This test battery yielding the measures was
one of the most comprehensive ever given to entering M. S. U.
freshmen. The tests were measures of general college of
academic ability, critical thinking, reading comprehension,
and cumulative grade-point average.

The personality traits were evaluated by inventories

of flexibility, dogmatism. traditional values. and participation

120
in college life.

Reliability of the instruments used was found to be
adequate by inspection of the internal consistency, and
test re-test correlation data. Validity was equally
treated by considering, concurrent and predictive aspects
with relevant criteria. Ippgg_ngI pypopheseslwere postu-
lated for statistical treatment.

The data were treated by the M. S. U. Computer
Laboratory, and the null hypotheses were subjected to the
t—ratio formula. Intercorrelation tables were compiled for
the tests in the 1958 M. S. U. Admissions Battery, including
the 1962 Cumulative Grade-Point Average.

The socio—economicweducational data were calculated
for percentage composition of the various questions in the

Biographical Inventory.

Analysis of the Data

Thg t—rapio data.--The results of the t-ratio values
demonstrated that there were certain significant differences
between M. S. U. graduating student leaders and non-joiners
as measured by their scores in the freshmen tests of academic
abilities and personality characteristics. Therefore, phg

fIrsp pyg_g§,§hg nuIl hypgtheseg ygpg pgjecte .

1
Cf. ante. Chapter VII.

121
The t-ratio values indicated that certain significant
differences were demonstrable between male and female
student organization leaders, and male and female student
non-joiners in tests of academic abilities and personality
characteristics as measured by the 1958 Freshmen Test

Battery and the 1962 4-Year-Grade-Point Average. The

fine; null hypothesis wgs also rejecte .

 

The Intepcorrelation Data.--The purpose of the

examination of the correlation data, was to search for
significant relationship (at one and five per cent levels)
which would help to validate the hypotheses. Two sets of
differences were readily discernible from the intercorrela-
tions. First, tests of academic abilities seemed to form

a pattern of intercorrelations among themselves. On the
other hand, the tests of personality traits showed few and
scattered relationship among themselves, with one exception,
the consistent negative correlation of the Rokeach Dogmatism
Scale with the Inventory of Beliefs. Second, each student
organization leader group and student non—joiner group
examined, showed different patterns of significant correlations
for any pair of tests. The male organization leaders
demonstrated more correlations for the test battery than

any other group. The female student organization leader

122
resembled the student organization male leader in correlations
among tests of academic competence. However, there were
differences in relationships of tests with the tests of
attitudes, values and beliefs.

The male non-joiner group showed the least number
of intercorrelations in the entire test battery. While
the male and female non-joiner groups resembled each
other in tests of academic capability. the female non-joiners
differed noticeably in indicating significance correlations
of flexibility in thinking with reading comprehension and
college qualifications.

When student organization leaders and student non-
joiners were contrasted, it was apparent that all student
organization leaders showed far more significant inter-
correlations among the entire test battery. The female
organization leaders presented more significant correlations
of academic tests with the inventories of attitudes, values
and beliefs.

Therefore, the correlation data did substantiate the
original hypotheses by demonstrating differences between
M. S. U. Senior student organization leaders and senior
student non-joiners as well as between male and female senior

student organization leaders and student non-joiners.

123
Summppy

These data indicated patterns of differences between
student organization leaders and student non-joiners. Male
and female student organization leaders and non—joiners also
showed contrasting backgrounds as indicated by their replies
to the Biographical Inventory.

Generally, the organization leaders appeared to have
a greater advantage in social, economic, and educational
background. More of the non-joiners came from an environment
of farms and rural communities and had parents from
non-professional occupations. More parents of the non-joiners
were foreign-born and belonged to minority religious groups.
The male organization leaders had aspirations for higher
levels of education as contrasted to female student
organization leaders and the entire non—joiner group. More
organization leaders came from the upper third of their high
school graduating class. Student organization leaders
evaluated themselves as more sociable, friendly, optimistic,
and industrious. The male organization leader, even as a
freshman, was more egotistic, anxious, and a large percentage
said relations with their parents were 'poor." The non-joiner
group was more vocationally minded, especially the female

student non-joiner (as a freshman). More of the non-joiner

124
depended on jobs, full and part-time, to pay for their college
education. One of the main differences between male and
female student groups, in response to the Socio-Economic-
Education Inventory, was their purpose in coming to college.
The male organization leader and non-Joiner emphasized
vocation, more money and family tradition. The female
organization leader and non-Joiner state broad education,
vocation and college life as their reasons. A larger percent~
age of non-Joiners, especially the male, entered college
because of family expectations. More non-joiners lived at
home, which may have been a contributing reason for non-
participation in campus life. However, more non-joiners
,said that relations with their parents were "good" or
"excellent.“ Both male and female non-Joiner groups said
that they had been very active, or moderately active in
high school. Perhaps the freshman non-joiner student was
unable to adjust from the rural community and small high
school to the relatively urban and competitive life of the
large university. A large percentage of the fathers of the
non—joiners had an elementary school education. More of the
mothers, however, were high school graduates and had

college training.

125

The concluding hypotheses of this study stated that
certain differences in socio-economic, and educational
background would be indicated by graduating senior student
organization leaders and senior student non-joiners. In
addition, male and female senior student organization leaders
would demonstrate specific differences in their biographical
background. These hypotheses were supported therefore, by
the analysis of the data from the socio-economic and

educational inventory.

Conclusions

The hypotheses in this study were validated in
accordance with the conditions previously set forth for
determining their validity. The conclusions formed here were
determined by the evaluative instruments used in this
investigation.

1. Combined male and female graduating student
organization leaders, when contrasted to the graduating
student non—joiners, were higher in academic abilities. The
student leaders were generally superior in college
qualifications, more effective in reading comprehension,
better in critical thinking, and earned a higher cumulative

grade-point average in four years of university endeavor.

126

2. Combined male and female graduating student
organization leaders, when contrasted to the graduating
student non-joiners; were generally more adaptive and
flexible, more open-minded and receptive to new ideas, less
traditional, and more responsive to group values, and
demonstrated more ability to integrate into university life.

3. Combined male and female graduating student organiza-
tion leaders, when contrasted to the graduating student
non-joiners; tended to have greater social, economic, and educa»
tional advantages. More of the organization leader groups came
from homes where parents were engaged in business and
professional occupations, and had achieved higher educational
levels. The combined student leader groups described them-
selves as having more positive personality traits but admitted
negative traits of anxiety, egotism, and depression.

4. Combined male and female graduating student
non-joiners, when contrasted to graduating student
organization leaders, came from farms, rural communities,
and small high schools. A larger percentage came from
parochial and private schools, had parents who were foreign
born, with less educational background. More of the
student non-joiners stated that their reason for coming to

college was to please their parents.

127

5. When sex differences were contrasted, it was
demonstrated that both male student leaders and non—joiners
were younger, ranked lower in their high school achievement,
had higher aspiration for graduate work, and gave prestige
as a predominant reason for coming to college. Both male
groups attended church less regularly than the female
groups, and the larger percentage of them did not answer the
question stating their religious preference.

6. When considering academic abilities, both male
student organization leaders and male non-joiners demonstrated
superior college qualifications, when contrasted to both
female groups. However, the female groups overcame this
initial disadvantage and together achieved a higher 4-year
university cumulative grade—point average. It was note-
worthy that both male student organization leaders and
non—joiners were less open-minded and more dogmatic in
their responses, when contrasted to the female groups.

7. Intercorrelation data disclosed a constellation
of significant relationships among tests of academic
abilities. In contrast, tests of personality characteristics
indicated scattered and varied relationships within the
battery. The least number of significant correlations were

indicated by tests of traditional values and college

128
participation with the rest of the battery. An unusual
significant relationship between scholastic ability, and
flexibility was demonstrated by the graduating female

student non-Joiners.

Impligations of the Study

Although this investigation was primarily concerned
with the differences between student organization leaders
and student non-joiners, the interactions of organization
leaders and groups cannot be discounted. The conclusions of
this study were limited to the university extra-curricular
program, nevertheless its implications carry over to the
entire student population. This is true, not only because
student activities are shared experiences in which student
leaders and student non-joiners have reciprocal relations,
but because no person is a leader in all situations. It
would follow that part of his leadership behavior would
consist of participating in different student roles, at
various times and places, within the university.

Previous research has pointed out that the most
effective student organization leader represents a synthesis
of the attitudes, values, beliefs and other personality

characteristics of his group. Therefore, the quality of

129
this leadership would be effected by the degree to which he
has synthesized those characteristics which are perceived
to be most valuable by his fellow students.

New ways of conceptualizing interests, attitudes,
values and personality traits should be explored. Improved
testing methods for measuring a large variety of personality
characteristics are necessary. Instruments that are already
known to be valuable for the understanding of college student
development should be studied further, and the search for
related measured could continue.

Comparison should be made of university students
who demonstrate personality change with those students
who show little change in the course of their college
careers. Among the inovations should be a variety of
opportunities which would allow students to develop their
leadership potentials in the university. The results of
investigations have shown that the role of varied experience
of positive change is crucial to the personality growth of
university students.

The university extra—curricular programs as well as
curricular programs, should be more effectively employed
in helping the entering freshmen student to overcome dis-

advantages and to strengthen personality weaknesses. The

130
university should present both male and female students with
new and more varied channels through which the student could
be stimulated toward social awareness and self understanding.
It is through these different experiences that the individual
student would progressively learn to develop qualities of
leadership that would enable him to assume responsibilities
that are desirable for effective living in present day

society.

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