A STUDY OF LEADERS AND LEADERSHIP IN A DEVELOPING FRINGE COMMUNITY WITH IMPLICATIONS FOR EDUCATIONAL LEADERS IN FRINGE COMMUNITY SCHOOLS By CYRIL MERT ON MILBRATH A THESIS Submitted to the School for Advanced Graduate Studies of Michigan State University of Agriculture and Applied Science in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Administrative and Educational Services 1957 1: is :11 3;: have 5:; crimes 1:. :f {::fessim ‘v. on: 2:: p- . .Or‘v- ‘ Ling Save are a r: pawns, ::w: w‘a pm $3..“- wu-l uh! U mags-.52: um. I >:. an”... .._ ‘r' Ia: =7. L2: .egle, rifle L‘tis 5‘. nuts cf 5' Id? pcssi': .- h. .‘,. "1- the a.“ 1 .5: ' ”533.01." a, x . . 135.5 In: ‘- ACKNOWLEDGMENTS It is difficult to trace the incidents, personalities, and factors which have shaped one's thinking. I wish to gratefully recognize the experiences in the College of Education which assisted me in the process of professional maturation. These include experiences in two depart- ments plus the placement and research bureaus. Although many have contributed to the develOpment of this thesis, there are a number of people to whom I am especially grateful. Two persons, however, share my greatest debt since without them this work could not have been completed. They are my graduate committee advisor, Dr. William Roe, who initiated the basic ideas and gave constant encouragement and constructive council, and my wife, Mary, who patiently provided help and understanding whenever needed. I am especially greatful to my friend and helpful advisor, Dr. J. Allan Beegle, whose insight and understanding of sociology served to guide this study. Through personal conferences, patient counsel in matters of sociology, and a genuine interest in the project itself, he made possible the completion of this study. I feel a deep gratitude for the always willing laying aside of his own work to assist in the detailed plans this study made necessary. I wish to thank Dr. Harold Byram, Dr. Troy Stearns, and Dr. Fred Vescoloni, as members of my guidance committee, for their very willing assistance and encouragement throughout the study. Their insights and interest given personally have served as a pleasant combination of friendliness and guidance. I wish to acknowledge the assistance given so willingly and ex- tensively by Mrs. Dagmar Breck, instructor of Communication Skills, in reading and criticizing the study. I am deeply indebted to the warren Board of Education, the superin- tendent and assistant superintendent of Warren Public Schools for their permission to conduct the study and their willing cooperation at all stages of data collection. To those in the warren community who so willingly submitted to interviewing, I am also very grateful. I wish to thank Dean Ernest Melby, Dr. Paul Miller, Dr. John Thadden, and many others for their encouragement and counsel at'various stages of the study. ii A STUDY OF LEADERS AND LEADERSHIP IN A DEVELOPING FRINGE COMMUNITY WITH IMPLICATIONS FOR EDUCATIONAL LEADERS IN FRINGE COMMUNITY SCHOOLS By CYRIL MERTON MILBRATH AN ABSTRACT Submitted to the School for Advanced Graduate Studies of Michigan State University of Agriculture and Applied Science in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Administrative and Educational Services 1957 M...- fling Approved ABSTRACT This study was concerned with leadership in a develOping fringe community as compared with leadership in stable mature communities. It also was an attempt to look at the school from the community view- point through the eyes of community-wide leaders. The ultimate purpose was to determine an acceptable community development and leadership role for educational leaders in a developing fringe community. The study was based upon the premise that what leaders feel and believe makes an important difference in the social policy of a com- munity. The research developed out of two major needs concerning com— munity organization. The first need was for more detailed information concerning leadership in developing fringe communities, and the second was for an understanding of the leadership and community improvement roles of the school in a rapidly changing social system. The fringe, referred to as a new sociological frontier, had not been studied in depth in relation to leadership. For this reason the depth interview technique was employed in a case study of the warren School District, geographically located in the northeast fringe area of Detroit, Michigan. The primary focus was upon the completed social profile which gave a picture of the social structure, the social policy, and the leadership pyramid. The top leaders were then interviewed concerning their atti- tudes and beliefs about their community and the role of the school in Community life. iv The major hypothesis was stated as: Leadership in the Warren fringe area is significantly different from leadership in a stable mature community. A second hypothesis related to the first was that: The school as a social institution has a different, more important role to play in a developing fringe community. The seventeen top leaders were interviewed to determine their attitudes toward social change, the community improvement role of the school, newcomers in the community, and the acceptability of the com- munity school concept. The study employed valid sociological techniques and methods to gain the information needed to understand the role of the school. The findings in the study showed that leadership in a fringe com- munity is significantly different. The community lacked social cohesion EiVing a leadership picture of a low flat pyramid with a broad base. Leadership was hampered by ineffective comrmmication at the lay citizen level and an inadequate number of capable leaders interested in community improvement. In such a social situation, due to a fluid population and a Changing social policy, the schools and churches were called upon to accept different and more important social and leadership roles in the devEloping fringe community. Other findings! of the study were: formalized authority was a Prime determinant of a lay citizen's image of a community leader; leadership roles pivoted around institutional problems; community progress was measured in terms of expediency rather than planned goals "I. .— V. x.» vet- I up. ’7' ,- I. -'< IF" w. ~ .. -.—.-..- .' ‘--.....' . ,..,._ c. .. L..‘.§ a..l b -—‘n~... 'v -”:'.'. __. 3 Leaders' attitudes were positive toward change, parallel- A new kind or objectives . ing the kind of leadership common to America's pioneer era. of leadership, commonly termed group-centered democratic leadership, was required which permitted the inclusion of newcomers to the fringe and provided for leadership training at the same time as problems were being solved. The findings of the study point toward an education- centered community in which the community school as an effective tool in the hands of educational leaders can assist all groups in developing an improved and more desirable human community. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS (ZPDAPTER I. DISCUSSION AND STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEMS.... ............... Introduction............ ............ ..... ........ . ...... Analysis of the Situation..... ........ ... ...... ......... Need for the Study......... .................... . ........ Dimensions of the Problem........... .............. . ..... Problem in Focus...... ....... .... ....................... Assumptions Concerning the Study.................. ..... . Leadership in a Stable Mature Community.............. Leadership in a Fringe Area Community................ Procedural Steps and Methods................. ...... ..... Definition of Terms....................... ....... ....... III. A REVIEW OF PERTINENT LITERATURE ...................... ..... Fringe.................. ......... .... ................. .. Definition............. ........ . ....... .............. Criteria of a Fringe Area Community.................. Community..................................... .......... Community Definition... ...... ............ ........... . Community Studies........ ..... ...... ..... ...... ...... Leaders and Leadership.................................. Leaders and Leadership Definition.... ........... ..... Group Definition..................... .......... ...... Community School............ ..... . ...................... Community School Definition........... ........ ....... Pertinent Research Studies. ........ . ............. . ...... Summary...................... ..... ............. ......... III. METHODOLOGY......................... ........ . ...... . ....... Selecting a Fringe.Area Community............ ........... Michigan State University-4warren.Research Project ...... DevelOping a Historical Profile......................... Identification of Community Leaders........ ...... . ..... . The Interviewing of Leaders..................... ..... ... Community.Attitude Scales............................... Important Events in the Progress of the Study........... PlanforAMlySiS 0f mtaOIOOOIOIOOOOIOOOOOOOOOOIOOOOOOO vii Page H HO\O\1\J O\U‘L£:"|\)I-’ FJFJ CEAJSLE OF CONTENTS - Continued CPUXPTER Page IV. THE WARREN SCHOOL COWIUNITY... ............ . ....... 85 IntrOduCtionIIIII.IIII..IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII ....... 85 A Historical Profile.................. ..... . ....... ...... 86 Leaders of the warren School District.................... 93 CommunityAWide Leaders................ ........... . ...... . 9h 'V. LEADERS.AND LEADERSHIP STRUCTURE IN.A FRINGE SCHOOL DISTRICT......................... ....... . ................ 108 Introduction......... .......... . .............. . ....... ... 108 The Leadership Structure.......... ..................... .. 109 Position in the Leadership Structure ............. ........ l2O Leadership Roles....................... ..... ............. 123 Community.Attitude............................ ...... ..... 128 Community Goals and Objectives........................... 132~ Policy Toward Newcomers and Resource Persons............. 136 A Rationale as to Leadership in warren School District... 138 Group-Centered Leadership in a Fringe Community.......... 1hO 'VI. THE ROLE OF THE COMMUNITY SCHOOL AS A SOCIAL INSTITUTION IN A FRINGE COMMUNITY....... ................ ..... ........ 1h? IntrOductionII.III....I.IIIII.II.IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII.III. 1h? The Community School Concept............................. 1&9 The Community School Concept a Design and a Reality ..... . 151 The Role of the warren School in the Fringe.. ..... ....... 166 warren Leaders Interpret Their School's Role........ ..... 178. Summary.......................................... ..... ... 185 ‘FII. SUMMARY OF FINDINGS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR EDUCATIONAL meSIIIIIIIIIIIII ..... IIIIIIII ..... I....I.I. .......... 189 IntrOductionI I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I ..... I I I I I I I I 189 A 311er Of Findings I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I 190 Implications for Educational Leaders in Fringe Community Schools...... ..... .... ..... ................... ..... ... 19h Implications: Social Situation................. ..... .... 196 Implications: New Social and Leadership Role.... ...... .. 197 Implications: Leadership Training........ ....... ........ 198 Implications: Community School ............ . ............. 199 viii ..-... ..- _ n «...—I- ‘.‘ "I o ". ., u - \ U - ,un‘nv-an - Au.—\-.--—L)u TABLE OF CONTENTS - Continued CIDAPTER Page Implications: Graduate Programs.... ..... ................ ZOO General Implications Concerning Schools in Developing Fringe comnitieSIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIOI 202 Suggestions for Further Research......................... 203 BIBI—lImPHY IIIIIIIIII II IIIII IIII IIIIII I IIIIIII I IIIIIIIIIIII .IIIII 206 MPEINDICES IIIII IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII IIIIIIIIII IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII 216 '1“! . c u out». no! “.0 on 1. -.. v-.‘. I.... ,L- r «r TFELBLE I. II. III. IV} III. \FII. VIII . IX. IXI. }(II. lXJIII. LIST OF TABLES Page Random Sample Block Selection..... ............ . ......... .... 69 Present Conditions in the warren School Community. ....... ... 92 Occupational Position of the Top Leaders in a Fringe Schgol District.................................................... 95 Random Sample Survey Team's Reaction to Leadership Diffusion in warren SChOOl DiStI‘iCt-oooooooooooe00000000.090.00.000... Pyramiding of Leadership Choices............................ Basis of Position in the Leadership Structure......., ..... ... Problems Identified by Leaders......................... ..... Self Analysis Role Choices of Top Leaders................... Community Characteristics or Problems as Seen by Top Leaders and Lay Citizens (Index of Adjustment and Values)... A Summary of Results from the Bosworth Community Attitude scaleIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII’IIIIII Community Progress is Measured on the Basis of Expediency... Leadership is the Key in Effective Community Planning ..... .. Need for Democratic Leadership in Planning... ...... ......... . Types of Leadership Training for the warren School District. Community Mindedness of Top Leaders.... ........ ............. 0 Rank order Of mmen's SOCia-l InstitutionSoooo000.000.000.00o School's Role in Community Development........ .......... .... . The School's Roles as Leaders See the School. ....... . ....... Roles Assigned warren Schools by Top Leaders................ 112 117 123 126 128 130 131 135 1A2 lh2 lhh 1A6 170 171 173 177 {A LIST OF TABLES - Continued TABLE Pa ge XX. How Leaders Feel About the School's Initiative in Encouraging Community Deve10pment. . . . . . . . . . . . ........ . . . . . . . 181 XXI. Student Involvement in Improvement Projects ................. 182 XXII. Social Studies Fact Finding Surveys ......................... 183 XXIII. Use of School Funds for Community Flaming .................. 18h XXIV. New or Expanded Services ................................. ..-. 186 xi LIST OF FIGURES FIGURE Page 1. A Comparison of the Conditions in warren, Michigan, May, 1956, with the BlizzardeAnderson Fringe Criteria............ 6? 2. Map Showing Location of Leaders and Sub-Communities ........ . 11b 3. Mutual Choices Made by Top Twenty Leaders ............... .... 119 xii a 0'. .- ' Ion. q .:V*vo a... v‘.. 5'w.,. vw. ._“__ 5.0:,“ ‘ "'-.. 1h 1.. 'l' ... CHAPTER I DISCUSSION AND STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM INTRODUCTION This study attempts to establish a "rationale" as to leadership and the role it plays in community development in a fringe area. Fringe area communities are developing in agricultural territory that lies just outside our modern metropolitan centers. Specifically, the study will attempt to discover if leadership in a fringe area is dif- ferent from leadership in a more stable and more mature rural or urban community. Findings from such a study may be expected to have impli- cations for educational leadership in fringe areas. The rural-urban fringe areas around metropolitan centers have grown fast and their problems have grown faster than the communities' ability to solve them. Adequate and effective leadership become essential in community development. As seen by Truman M. Pierce, "The leading citizens in a community have much to do with the way peeple live."1 The positions held by leaders and their decisions in community matters are of social concern. The writer has long been interested in the fringe area and its community dynamics. This interest, developed through living and 1Truman M. Pierce, Edward C. Merrill, Jr., Craig Wilson, and Ralph B. Kimbrough, Community Leadership for Public Education, New York: Prentice Hall, Inc., l9S§:'p. 5L. 1 working in a fringe area community, has provided the stimulus for this more intense study of leadership and community dynamics as they have affected people in a fringe area school district outside the city of Detroit, Michigan. This study is based upon a single school district which met the basic criteria of a fringe area and was well aware of its own problems of community development. AN ANALYSIS OF THE SITUATION Certain definitions are in order at this point. References will be made throughout this study to a fringe 2522, to community, and to leadership. A £3igg§_arga is used here to mean that area which lies just beyond the incorporated limits of an urban center, where land which was once only farm land is now used for farms,homes, stores, and factories with little or no planned zoning. A.community, as defined here, is a.popu1ation aggregate, inhabiting a delimitable, contiguous territory, sharing a historical heritage, possessing a set of basic service institutions, participating in a common mode of life, conscious of its unity, and able to act in a 2 corporate way. Leadership referred to in this study is group centered leadership and is defined by Thomas Gordon as follows: 2Lloyd Allen Cooke and Elaine Forsyth‘Cooke, A Sociological Approach to Education, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1955; pp.HB-h9. A community is composed of a group of citizens whose common bonds or interests are focused upon institutions which satisfy basic physical and social needs. Such institutions include a twelve grade school, a bank, a newspaper, a movie theater, a doctor and a dentist, and a trade and service center. Q...‘ a . U‘.‘ v I - o ’;v,' ... -... 0‘ -.. R’P;“: -.. but-.-. _ --‘ “gum--..” ' . u.: .- “'u ’x ~ “ ‘ a. u _ . . ' ~ "‘ ~~ , I n . ““a-_ N’I ‘ V ...“:- "Vs..: o . o.‘_v ‘ "‘ a..- u ‘at \ I. -' v~ ~"~ ‘1.‘- r‘_ n _w m_: w... 5. . v v.\ 5. - n ‘I x. Leadership can be conceptualized as an interaction between a person and a group, or, more accurately, between a person and the members of a group. Each participant in this interaction may be said to play a role, and these roles in some way must be dif- ferentiated from each other. The basis for this differentiation seems to be a matter of influence-~that is one person, the leader, influences, while the other persons respond.3 In a fringe area, in contrast to a mature, stable community, new- comers live next to old residents (old roots) in various groupings, each seeking to achieve personal goals on an individual basis. These newcomers often demand changes and such changes are usually resisted by old roots. The conflict tends to produce a cleavage between indi- viduals and between the "old" and the "new" and prevents effective cooperation and use of the social processes. Effective leadership during this period of social conflict is essential if a "good" community is to eventually emerge. During the early planning stages of this study it became quite evident that no one fringe area is identical with any other. Fringe areas vary as to natural resources, physical features, present and potential economic development, and their local tradition. The personalities of its residents, their values and beliefs, and their social organization also differ significantly. ‘However, each fringe community is regulated by similar laws, is served by similar institutions, and faces like problems. It was apparent in planning the study that the similarities in fringe communities were sufficiently important so that a study of a 3Thomas Gordon, Grou -Centered Leadership, New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1955, p. l. - I ,.‘.'. ....o '“12 ~-—— '4 sve- ."-‘._""...'..~ r ...-‘1 . v . . . ‘ '_: c n.U‘-" ~';'~-: v-.*~‘ ‘h‘ - . :Vn ,h‘ ‘0‘: 1“” . ':.-~._, ."-~. I ‘v- a“- “I Q“ ‘5". a‘~.‘ ::- . v single fringe community would have value if applied to any fringe area. Important similarities to this study included mixed social cultural backgrounds, crowded schools, social systems lacking unity, with social change a pattern rather than the exception. NEED FOR THE STUDY There is general lack of research on the development of fringe area communities. In every area of the United States, in varying degrees of acceleration, people are moving into fringe areas which results in cultural changes. With the p0pulation shift, and cultural changes, the services and the institutions extending services change and assume distinctive characteristics. The fringe area changes; it is neither urban nor rural. Fringe area communities need to be studied in order that we may more clearly understand the factors which cause such changes to take place. Educational leaders need to reassess their positions and leader- ship roles in fringe communities. Sociological studies point out that the school's position as a social institution tends to change from one of minor importance to one of key importance in the community. The school then is a unifying force in an area that lacks unity. How people feel toward the school is a key social force in the social system. Educational leadership tends to be effective to the extent that its leaders are in tune with the community policy concerning public edu- cation. Accordingly, Pierce points out, "If the educational adminis- trator is to understand the community's own concepts of education, its - 9v" '1 I‘ f. ‘ — ..‘v’ ‘5" ...; ... «on. c' A-~o.-.- I _ ' v-~-u.- . b Ia. \ a ‘7‘" u. _‘: -. J'.- v 1 i .’ UV role, and its way of achieving its goals, he must understand the com- munity‘s over-all patterns of beliefs and values."4 Within fringe areas, where conflicting concepts of educational policy are likely to exist, the educational leader must have a realistic, positive concept of the role of the school in community development. As viewed in this light, there exists today a need for understanding the leadership structure and the leadership roles of fringe area leaders as they work tOgether in seeking solutions to their problems. How these leaders feel about the school as an institution and the role it plays in community develOpment is important to every fringe area school administrator. The pertinent question is, "What ista reasonable role for the educational leader to play in a fringe area community?" Of necessity the answer can only be formulated after much study and analysis of fringe area communities. DIMENSIONS OF THE PROBLEM If proper focus is to be achieved, operational limits must be recognized. This study is limited to the warren, Michigan, school community, geographically located in the northeast fringe area of Detroit , Michigan . The study included only those leaders who were identified three times or more in the random sample of the warren Community Research Project. This study then was a part of the warren Community Research 4Truman M.. Pierce, et al., Community_ Leadership for Public Education, New York: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1955, p. 271. . -’ ) . H‘ V“'.. on...— ~~ a. , l 3' v I".-A._ 4" v~ . ya on. 0‘ ‘1 .l ‘ I ’. I" ‘5”--r 'V ..-.‘ I‘“- . p r.- . ‘vo- o‘ ¢,_..‘ (n Project conducted by the Administrative and Educational Services Depart- ment of the College of Education at Michigan State University. The data from the larger study are available and were used in determining the basic leadership identification pattern and also served as a basis for community information. The study was confined to leaders identified as community—wide leaders who were important in making decisions for community improvement. The identification of "comrmmity-wide leaders," as against business leaders or political leaders, was necessary in order to provide a common basis of selection. Those leaders who were identified four or more times became the selected community leaders who were studied intensively and upon whom this study was based. THE PROBLEM IN FOCUS The guiding concern of this study was to explore and determine the leadership structure of the Warren School Community. In a sociological Sehse the leadership structure is considered to be the power structure. AcCOrding to Hunter, power is "an abstract term denoting a structural de'S‘aczr-iption of social processes."5 This study then is an attempt to apply a sociological frame of reference concerning community and leader- Ship structure to an educational problem. The design of the study limits the leadership analysis to a single fringe area community and macessitates a comparison then with leadership as in stable communities . ‘_ 5Floyd Hunter, Community Power Structure, Chapel Hill, North carOlina, University of North Carolina Press, 1952, p. 2. q I a I an ‘n' ..a .poa""" C .44...- Q I o 'A I ‘i ‘50,.0 s 4...: < it... .w.‘.". .... . -. I This is necessary since no previous study has been made of leadership in a fringe area community. The variable then becomes the leadership structure under analysis as it is compared with known characteristics of leadership in permanent communities. The working hypothesis for the study is, simply, that leadership in the Warren fringe area is significantly different from leadership in a stable mature community. A second hypothesis related to the firs, is that the school as a social institution has a different and more important role to play in a fringe community. ASSUMPTIONS CONCERNING THE STUDY Certain basic assumptions concerning known characteristics of leaders and the leadership structure in stable mature communities were accepted. Other assumptions were made concerning the school's role in com1"Tu_1:1ity development. These premises, drawn from other research St‘klciies, have served as the constant against which the leadership Structure under analysis as the variable was compared. Among the assuflrptions are these statements concerning leadership in a stable matut‘e community. Leadership in a Stable Mature Community 1. The leadership structure is relatively stable and as diagrammed is pyramidal in shape, having steep sides and rising to a narrow 6 plateau or apex . N 6Hunter, pp. cit., p. 62 3 Robert M. MacIver, Web of Government, 9W York: The Macmillan Company, 19147, p. 97. 2. Position in the leadership structure is based upon social 7 e 9 position, influence, and length of community residence. 3. Leadership roles tend to be relatively stable and well 10 defined. )4. The school as a formal institution plays a minor role in the 1 1 leadership structure . S. The community attitudes of leaders tend to be similar to those 12 held by the community itself. . 70hrist0pher Smith, "Social Selection in Community Leadership," Soc1al Forces, 15:530-35, 1951:; Elizabeth Hooker, "Leaders in Village Commties," Social. Forces, 2:60h-lh, 1928. 8Gerhard F. Gettel, "A Study of Power in a North Central State Conmnlnity," Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Michigan State University, 1956, P- 153 Seymour Louis Wolfbien, The Decline of a Cotton Textile City, New York: Columbia University Press, 19111;, pp. 514-55. 9Paul A. Miller, "A Comparative Analysis of the Decision-Making ProeesS in Community Organization Toward Major Health Goals," Unpublished Ph-D. thesis, Michigan State University, 1953, pp. 87-91;; Floyd Hunter, Ruth Connor Schaffer, Cecil G. Sheps, Community Organization: Action and Inaction Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1956, PP- 82, 92, 98. 10Smith, _p_. _<_:_i_t_.., pp. 532-33; Hunter, Schaffer and Sheps, pp. 231., 1313- 2314-35. "H 11Hunter, _p. £312., p. 82; Truman M. Pierce and Craig Wilson, TheSearch in County Educational Administration, (Cheatham County Study)" ~Lscvhpol Executive, 72:96-106, March, 1953. s 12A. B. Hollingshead, Elmtown‘s Youth, New York: John Wiley and LIES, Inc., 1919, pp. 89-110; Dwight Sanderson, Leadership in Rural ‘2, New York: Associated Press, 1910, pp. 36-38. 6. Leaders evaluate community progress in terms of commonly acceptei 13 community goals and objectives. . Leaders accept help from outsiders only as such advice is 14 essential in deciding issues. The sub-hypotheses tested in this study are related directly to ‘tJlEB seven assumptions and may be referred to by numerical designation. fifties sub-hypothesis, as a variable to its comparable assumption, focuses 1113(311 differences rather than similarities. The sub-hypotheses tested 2111 iahis study concern leadership in a fringe area community. \ Hunt. e J011n P17 Leadership in a Fringe Area Community 1. The leadership structure is diffused and has a broad base. The pyramid is broad and flat when contrasted with the leadership structure in a stable community. 2. FormaliZed authority is a prime determinant of a leader's position in the leadership structure. 3. Leadership roles pivot about institutional problems and tend to change with the situation. h. The greatest articulation of leadership revolves around the school. 5. Leaders' attitudes about community are different from those held by area residents. 13Hunter and Shafer, pp, cit.5 Gettel, pp, cit., pp. 218-219; r, _p. pip” pp. 207-1 . 14Hunter, _p, cit., pp. 2hO-b2; Hooker, pp, cit., pp. h097103 Useem, Pierre Tangent, and Ruth Useem, "Stratification of a airis Town," American Sociological Review, 7:33l-h2, 1938. IO 6. Community progress tends to be evaluated in terms of expediency rather than planned goals and objectives. 7. Leaders willingly accept assistance from outsiders as resource persons . PROCEDURAL STEPS AND METHODS The general problem basic to this study suggested the case study approach since any data collected would have little comparative research for a background. Using the case study method and focused interviews as a technique for gathering data, it was felt that a more valuable study could be achieved. The fringe school district community selected first had to meet the criteria of a fringe area as described in socio- l9gic:a.1 research. A second requirement, as important as the first, was that the community had to be willing to cooperate in such a study. The acutal study of leadership required the choice of a leadership identification method which was valid and acceptable. The identifi- cation itself required personal interviews and cooperative relations in the community concerned. Using sociometric techniques, it was POSSible to identify those persons who occupied the decision-making leader roles in the community. The decision-making group was then interviewed using the focused or depth interview to determine the role of the school in community development. 33m"... . ritgéfi .. ...leu “.V ll DEFINITION OF TERMS The following definitions were used for the purposes of this study. (The definitions for the terms community, fringe, and leadership were given on pages two and three of this chapter.) The leader in a group-centered situation: is a person whose direction of activities is perceived as providing help with the means the group and individuals desire to use for achieving general and/or 15 personal goals . Stable mature commnity: is a community which has achieved and satisfactorily now has the seven basic elements of a community as defined by Cooke:16 namely, a population aggregate, inhibiting a delimitable, contiguous territory, sharing a historical heritage, Possessing a set of basic service institutions, participating in a common mode of life, conscious of its unity, and able to act in a corporate way . Fringe community: is a developing community neither urban nor rural in which the seven basic elements of a community have not as yet been achieved. (Seven basic elements noted in footnote 16) Community school as defined by Alvin D. Loving is based on two criteria as follows: The communipy school serves and enriches sociepy by survey- ing community needs and resources, giving initial leadership to constructive community improvement projects, helping to develop 15Arron Harry Passow, "Group Centered Curriculum Leadership ," Unpgglished Ph.D. thesis, Teacher's College, Columbia University, 1951, p. o 16Cooke, pp. cit., pp. 118-149- 12 a sense of community throughout the community, practicing and pro- moting democratic procedures, and coordinating all constructive efforts to improve community living. The community school reflects and involves community resources in the schools instructional gogram by using human and material resources in the instructional program, building the curriculum around "major human problems, involving all persons concerned in planning and appraising the school program, and being genuinely life centered as a social institution.“ A Eoup: consists of two or more interacting individuals held together by a common interest or goal. Decision maker: a top power leader who makes decisions that effect community progress. Legitimizer: a second level leader who through formal action in Properly called meetings legalizes the decisions of the top leaders. Facilitator: a leader who makes the legalized decisions work out in practice. Authoripy: as defined by Webster is legal or rightful power, a right to command or act; a power exercised by a person in virtue of his office or trust such as the authority of parents over children. One that is claimed or appealed to in support of opinions, actions, or measures. The authority may be vested in a person, a board, or a commission. imial role: the expectancies of a particular social situation, as interpreted by the actors in the situation. If the person consistently 1'7.Alvin DeMar Loving,"Crystallizing and Making Concrete the Community School Concept in Michigan Through Study of On-Going Community School Practices," Unpublished Ed.D. dissertation, Wayne University, Detroit, Michigan, 19511, p. 3. l3 adopts a particular set of roles in a variety of situations, his behavior may become stabilized so that others expect him to behave in 18 thes e ways . .IBWilbur B. Brookover, A Sociology of Education, New York: American Book Company, 1955, p. 231. CHAPTER II A REVIEW OF PERTINENT LITERATURE Much has been written in the areas of leadership and community, but a. review of such research shows that there is little, if any, agreement as to how "leadership" and "community" should be defined. The literature is teeming with concerted efforts to delimit, define, and/ or delineate the terms. A 1957 bibliography on leadership listed more than 1,650 different recent articles, bulletins, or books, each concerned with some phase of leadership. A review of the pertinent literature revealed that no studies have been completed concerning leadership in the fringe area. A further Perusal showed that there were conflicting and confusing definitions of "fringe." Since a considerable portion of the research concerning fringe areas had been completed at Michigan State University, much of what is reported here came from resource materials available in the sociology department . Similarly, "community" has no end of different meanings. The Particular meaning for this research comes out of a study of the history, the physical and geographical interpretation, the moral concept, and the social structure of the community. The definition accepted for the study is one given by Cooke and Cooke in their book, A Sociological APProach to Education. This definition seems most appropriate since 114 15 we are concerned with the role of the school in community development in this research. In the research studies effective democratic processes and pro- cedures were found to be essential to success in community growth and development. Other factors significant to successful stimulation of people in communities were effective group centered leadership and an initiator leadership on the part of the school as a social institution. This is not an attempt at an exhaustive review of the literature, searching for all possible definitions of leadership. Rather the writer attempted to list the theories and types of leadership, to understand and evaluate the concepts (a. traditional-authoritarian - personality trait, b. situation—determined, c. group: reality-centered) of leader- Ship in light of leadership's function in a democracy. The terms leadership, leader, and group are then defined in relation to this discussion. As discovered in community studies, the community school concept thrives and grows in a democratic atmosphere. Within the concept success seems to come when lay citizens solve their community problems using flexible, adaptable, and creative group-centered leadership. Other leadership studies that have a bearing on this research were either oriented to larger cities or to counties rather than to the smaller community. Their emphasis was either upon a certain phase of a process of leadership rather than upon the leadership structure as it is I‘Glated to community development. None of the studies discussed in 16 this chapter, nor any of the others reviewed, duplicated this study in scope, procedure, or objectives. The pertinent literature has been classified into sections, one dealing with each of the following terms: fringe, community, leadership, and community school. In each section the writer has attempted to define and delimit the term itself in light of current research as it will be used and applied in this study. Related studies which have a bearing, have been referred to specifically within the section in which they are applicable. A further discussion of these studies is summarized in the final section of the chapter. FRINGE The term "fringe" in sociological context means a changing area; it is a natural social phenomenon, involving destruction of the old social atmosphere and development of a new. Recently captioned as "America's modern migration in a station wagon,":L this change is pro- ducing an economic, social, and psychological problem area which as yet is not understood. People moving to the fringe have a motivation-similar to others in migration, a lack of satisfaction of conditions as they are and a promise of "greener pastures" somewhere else. 1N. L. Whetten and W. C. McKain, Suburbanization and Metrgnolitan m, an address, Workshop for Chamber of Commerce Executives, Mlchlgan State University, 1955, p. 2. 17 This urban encircling, rural penetrating movement has been increas- ing at an accelerating rate until now 35 to hO million of America's 15h to 155 million live in the fringe of our 168 cities.2 The present migration is a short one. The distance each person moves is not usually far, only a change of residence from an urban setting to a rural setting just beyond the metropolitan reaches.3 Made possible by the convenience of the automobile and rapid communication, the fringe has become popular across the nation as a place to live and raise the family, a fulfillment of the romantic dream of having satisfactions of both urban and rural livil'lg.4 However, the rural resident, whom this fringe pushes in upon, wishes to maintain his "old pattern of living," and is much disturbed when his rurban (rural-urban) neighbor settles down and soon becomes dissatisfied with the lack of services and comforts urban living formerly provided. AS an inevitable conflict ensues over schools, roads, utilities, and services, a new social frontier is born which eventually results in a new community with a new and different value orientation, where ideally, both rural and urban residents find a place of real life satisfaction 5 and living . .__ 2W. A. Anderson, "Social Change and an Urban Fringe Area," New York: Cornell University, Rural Sociology Publication 35, February 1953, p. 1. 3Whetten, _p_. cit., p. 2. 4Anderson, _p_. cit., p. 23. 5Walter C. McKain, Jr. and Nathan L. Whetten, "Occupational and Industrial Diversity in Rural Connecticut," Bulletin 263, Storrs: tor-rs Agricultural Experiment Station, University of Connecticut, November, 1919, p. 21. 18 Far too many people think of the fringe as a suburb or housing subdivision which is almost a copy of urban streets, except for larger lots. Our concern is not with these rows of new houses but with the unplanned, nondvillage, rural non-farm area in which there is a mixture of land uses related to farming and to urban interests alike. As pointed out by Rodehaver,6 a two directional movement has been established in the fringe; in addition to migration out of the city, there is an in- migration of rural people in search of employment and urban social and cultural advantages, who still prefer rural living and do some part- time farming. Mention in research concerning the term ruraldurban fringe was made by Lynn T. Smith in l937. He described it as a non-village--rural non-farm pOpulation living in "an area in which there is a mixture of land uses that are related to farming and to urban interest."v Dr. Nathan L. Whetten, a rural sociologist, did a good deal of pioneer work on fringes in Connecticut before l9h0. This would indicate that the rurban fringe was a recognized social problem first in the eastern part of the country before it became a well defined movement in other areas . 6Miles W. Rodehaver, "Fringe Settlement as a Two Directional Movement," Rural Sociology, l2:h9-S7, March, l9h7. 7Samuel W} Blizzard and William F. Anderson, "Problems in Rural- Urban Fringe Research: Conceptualization and Delineation," Progress Report 89. State College, Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania State College, November, 1952, p. 2. 19 Fringe Definition .According to various sources, the term fringe is very general and because it is relatively new no completely acceptable definition has been developed. McKain and Burnight,8 after a perusal of thirty studies of the rural-urban fringe described the concept as "spongy" with a definite lack of sharpness. They found that attempted definitions included these concepts: (1) both rural and urban land uses, common, (2) a definite mingling of those who work inagriculture and those in urban occupations, (3) demographic characteristics, (h) and an abnormal social problem, transitional in nature. Their suggestion is that there might be two types of fringe: the limited fringe and the extended fringe. The limited fringe9 lies next to the city or urbanized area. It frequently contains some commercial, amusement, and manufacturing establishments, as well as subdivisions of homes. As greater numbers of urban home-seekers move into the area there results an eventual disappearance of the "rural" element. The extended fringe,lo on the other hand, represents more mixed land use with much of the area still in farmland, but having a large 8‘lil'alter C. McKain and Robert G. Burnight, "Sociological Signifi- cance of the Rural-Urban Fringe," Rural Sociology, 18:108-109, June, 1953. 9Ibid., p. 110. 1°Ibid. 20 number of comparatively new single family residences interSpersed among the farms. Governmental responsibility is in the hands of a town board and i_s: usually carried out through ordinances which were enacted to meet the 'goxwoblems of a rural area. Its business establishments, randomly spac:exd because of lax zoning laws, include general stores, gas stations, drinee—in restaurants, and out—door movies. Most fringe dwellers own thejLI? own homes, commute to industrial jobs in nearby urban centers, 11 haves inadequate social life, and do some part—time farming or gardening. One cof the basic physical features of the extended fringe area is the lacl< of uniformity of residences; no characteristic type of farm resficience or non-farm residence can be detected. The extended rural urban fringe may prove to be the ideal laboratory for- tdoe rural sociologist interested in social change. According to 2 1 LiVEily3 the agricultural hinterlands will continue to be penetrated by increasing numbers of people from urban centers. This area of pene- tratxion,in the industrial East may encompass the rural areas of an entiaoe state. In other sections of the country, the extended rural urban frixige may cover all or parts of several counties surrounding a city. 13 J. Allan Beegle, in his study of Michigan's fringe population, defines the fringe operationally as an area "including all townships 11Ibid., p. 111. 12Charles E. Lively, "The Sociological Significance of the Rural Urban Fringe," Rural Sociology, 18:168479, June, 1953. 13J. Allan Beegle, "Characteristics of Michigan's Fringe POpulation," 'Rural Sociolo , 12:253-263, September, l9h7. 21 surrounding a given center which has fifty percent or more nonevillage rural non-farm residents." In a similar definition, Blizzard says it is "that area of mixed urban and rural land uses between the point where full city services cease to be available and the point where agricultural land uses predominate."14 In both definitions the emphasis is placed upon the facts that urban residents have reached a majority, and mixed land use in common. For the purposes of this study the fringe is considered to be: that area which lies just beyond the incorporated limits of an urban center, where land which was once only farm land is now used for farms, homes, stores, and factories with little or no planned zoning evident. Criteria of a Fringe Area Community Our concern in.this study is primarily that of the extended fringe and its problems of community importance. In order to select a fringe community for this study, a further review of the literature was made. Lively, in his discussion of the sociological significance of the rural urban fringe noted the following as criteria: . Mixed land use . A good deal of farming . An urban-oriented people 15 . Many rural non—farm homes. FWNF—J 14Samuel W} Blizzard, "Research on the Rural Urban Fringe, A Case Study," State College, Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania State University, Paper No. 1802, 19Sh, p. l. 16Lively,_p. cit., p. 172. 22 Blizzard and Anderson in their study in Pennsylvania selected the following criteria of a fringe area: 1 . Mixed land use .. Both rural and urban values evident (provide for possible social cleavage) Largely an unplanned development A wide occupational variation A high percent of home ownership Part-time farming or gardening, common Governmental responsibility in the hands of a town board. ID 0‘me 16 \] FOP the purpose of this study the Blizzard, Anderson criteria were aeCepted as basic for the selection of a fringe area for study. COMMUNITY The concept of community is used and misused by people in all walks 0 - . . f llfe. Because of its many uses, community seems to be a nebulous term; yet it is a concept with definable characteristics. At whatever leVel community life is to be studied, however, there are social Structures and social processes which implement it. Such processes teday would tend to mean a sharing in common with a strong sense of belonging. Historically, the elements of the local community came out of the eVOlutionary process of living together.“ In the usual concept the Local community has the feeling of wholeness, as one out of many.18 \ 16Blizzard and Anderson, .23 cit., p. 3. 1"’Dwight Sanderson, The Rural Community, Boston: Ginn and Company, 1932’ p0 70 18Edward C. Lindeman, The Community, New York: Associated Press, 1921, p. 11. 23 It has organization, including a center and a boundary and a means of 19 communication from one point to another and back again. It has its 20 cm heritage of culture and its life reflects all of its varied past. Its community values are essential to the continuity of society and require education for perpetuation. This primary concept of community is never far from nature. Our modern society attaches many shades of meaning to "community," each based upon the value orientations of culture.21 Obviously, even though they vary greatly, all communities have their physical environ- ments, cultural patterns, occupations, natural resources, and communi- cation facilities. According to Steiner, People comprising the community may be few or many, the area they inhabit may be large or small, and their communal organi- zation may vary from the most informal efforts to act tOgether to the highly institutionalized form of government of a modern city complicated by its confusing network of agencies and functionaries both public and private.” It becomes apparent that understandings of community are inexact and very nebulous in nature. It must be evident at this point that there is no clear-cut definition, but rather that there are many impressions. —_ 19Sanderson, 2p. cit., p. hBO. 20Carle C. Zimmerman, The Changing Communit , New York: Harper and Brothers, 1938, p. 22. 21John A. Kinneman, The CommunitLin American Society, New York: Appleton-Century—Crafts, Inc., 191;? , p. 16. C azJeese F- Steiner, Community Organization, New York: Appleton- entury Company, 1930, p. 21. 2h A community has a psychic phenomenon or character akin to fellow- 23 ship or brotherhood. As the community develops the socio-psychic aspect, it produces a common culture or basic value system. This suggests that the community must possess some degree of equilibrium since cultural differences and similarities are constantly pulling it apart and together. Basic values held in common within the social structure form the basic moral concepts of community which when chal- lenged are least susceptable to change or alteration. Robert Angell refers to the integrated society in American culture as the "moral" community in which its members hold ultimate values in common. His statement would imply that "moral" community is seldom lost if the ultimate values remain. His insight implies this: One cannot specify the number of strands of moral community there must be to produce a society that is satisfactorily inte- grated, but it is obvious that it need not be many. So long as there are a few broad objectives, which all unite in seeking, the rest of the social structure may be adapted to them in some Organized way.“ The sense of moral community does not require that people think alike on all issues. The important ingredient in this context is that p80p1e have a broad framework within which conflicts and disagreements may be worked out. The crucial point, therefore, is not whether people actually concur with respect to the expediency of various issues but Whether they are in accord as to the ultimate values to be realized.25 —_‘ 23Lindeman, pp. cit., p. 18. M 24Robert C. Angell, Integration of American Society, New York: cGraw~Hi11 Company, Inc., 19341, p- 29- 25Ibid., p. 33. 25 The crust of this conception of community lies in the belief that com- muni ty is not produced consciously or intentionally, but rather grows naturally out of intimate living together. The most common interpretation of community is that which depicts it as a physical configuration. In studying a population map, for ex- ample, one can quickly observe that it presents curious configuration, m irregular massing and thinning of habitation, as nuclei of great 26 density shading off into more sparsely settled areas. The density map actually shows a varied range and different types of communities. Unquestionably, the location of people in space constitutes an integral phase of any concept of community. The literature usually Agrees that territoriality is one facet of the term community in any attempted definition. In addition, most communities have some semblance Of a center for physical and social services. MacIver describes it in this fashion: , In particular, whenever human habitation is congested in an area too small to contain within itself enough land for its primal needs, there a community center exists, in rudimentary or developed form since this condition implies exchange and special- ization.” The c=enter's function is to supply the necessary physical services such as blil-l'lking, marketing, communication, and health care plus such social services as education, recreation, and religious activities. \ The size Bull 265Dwight Sanderson, Locating the Rural Community, Extension - e tin No. 1413, Ithaca, New York: New York State College of Agri- culture, Cornell University, 1939, p. 3. . 27R. M. MacIver, Society, New York: Farrer and Pinehart Inc., 1937’ p0 1’46. 26 09, community as suggested by MacIver may vary from a village to a metropolis . The rural community as it exists in America today consists of separate farmsteads and rural villages. The outside limits of real community tend to be where peOple cease to feel an attachment or common interest with the village trade center. Sanderson depicts this in his definition of rural community: A rural community consists of the social interactions of the PeOple and their institutions in a local area in which they live on dispersed farmsteads and in a hamlet or village which forms the center of their common activities.28 A contrasting conception of community is depicted as that of the "urbm" center. Tyler's candid portrayal of the urban community is given as follows: The urban community is the most significant social develop- men-t, of modern times. This unique form of social organization is the logical culmination of an industrialized society, the cu:Ltural fruit of technology. It symbolizes modern America. .e influence of the urban community upon all aspects of human 11ving is increasingly evident to the student of social sciences.29 Interestingly enough, in this new community the human being is not the Product of his family, his neighborhood, or his peer group, but instead of the urban way of life and of the newer technical society. Tyler goes on to give another classical description of the urban com- munity when he says: l 28DWight Sanderson, The Rural CommunitX, Boston: Ginn and Company, 932. p. 1481. U , 2("11. w. Tyler, The School and the Urban Community, Chicago: niversity of Chicago Press, 191:2, p. 6. 27 Merely to enumerate these five outstanding characteristics of an urban community, namely, chaotic stimulation, mechanization, impersonalization, commercialization, and complexity of organi- zation suggests many implications.30 Community Definition It would appear evident from the preceding interpretations of com- munity that the term has many meanings. For the purpose of this study the definition given by Cooke and Cooke will be accepted. As far as education is concerned it is the most applicable of all interpretations of community. The authors describe community as consisting of seven fundamental characteristics 1. A pOpulation aggregate 2. Inhibiting a delimitable, contiguous area 3. Sharing a historical heritage h. Possessing a set of basic service institutions 5. Participating in a common mode of life 6. Conscious of its unity 7. Able to act in a corporate way.31 In defining community'population "aggregate" refers to the members and makedup of people in the human community. The idea of contiguous and delimitable territory implies merely that a community has location, a spatial habitat, hence a mode of life conditioned by areal factors. Sharing a historical heritage is a basic characteristic which indicates group consciousness of a cumulative culture. Thus, familiarity with cultural heritage establishes one‘s social identity and identifies the 3°Ibid., p. 3. 31Lloyd Allen Cooke and Elaine Forsyth Cooke, A Sociological Approach to Education, New York: McGraw Hill Book Company, Inc., 1950, pp. 7" lo 28 individual as a respector of customs and sacred beliefs. Basic service institutions serve as the media through which economic and other basic needs can be met. The connotation here is that the community has the ways and means of converting inner and outer resources to its own press- ing needs. Community Studies The accepted definition of community by Cooke and Cooke provides a sociological basis for understanding community. Such a definition would not have been possible without much pioneer research in actual communi- ties in America. Among the pioneer efforts is a comprehensive study by Robert S. Lynd and Helen M. LyndB' in Middletown. The study required three and one-half years and was followed in ten years by another shorter study, Middletown in Transitionfaz3 The findings in these studies established basic tenets concerning community. Later studies which followed, whether detailed and comprehensive such as Hollinghead's 34 Elmtown's Youth or more simplified studies of community action as as dien's Small Communities in Action, simply added to the knowledge 32Robert S. Lynd and Helen M. Lynd, Middletown, New York: Harcourt- Brace and Company, 1929. 33Robert S. Lynd and Helen M.'Lynd, Middletown in Transition, New York: Harcourt-Brace and Company, 1937. 34A. B. Hollingshead, Elmtown's_Youth, New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 19b9- 35Jean and Jess Ogden, Small Communities in Actigg, New York: Harper and Brothers, 19h9. 1' 29 needed to understand community. Such studies in rural communities have 36 37 as 39 40 been completed by Sanders, Hooker, Sanderson, 'West, Loomis, . 41 42 . 43 44 45 Ensminger, Brunner, Hlller, Poston, and warner. Similar studies in urban communities or sections of cities with a 4e 4? 48 community element have been reported by Bogue, Kinneman, Welfbien, 351rwin T. Sanders, "Alabama Rural Communities, A Study of Chilton County," Alabama College Bulletin, Vol. 33, No. 1A, Montevallo, Alabama, l9h0. 37Elizabeth R. Hooker, "Leaders in Village Communities," Social Forces, 2:60h-6lb, June, 1928. 38Dwight Sanderson, Leadership for Rural Life, New York: Associ- ation.Press, l9h0; ibid., Rural Sociology and Rural Social Life, New York, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., l9h2. 39James West, Plainville, U. S. A., New York: Columbia University Press, 19h5. 4°Charles P. Loomis and Associates, Studies in Applied and Theo- retical Social Science, East Lansing, Michigan State College Press, l9h5. 41Douglas Ensminger, "Measuring the Effectiveness of YOur Community," Cornell Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin, hhh, l9h0. 42Edmund de Brunner, Village Communities, New York: George H. Doran Company, 1927. 43E. T. Hiller, "The Community as a Social Group," American Socio- lggical Review, 63189-202, l9hl. 44Richard waverly Poston, Small Town Renaissance: A Story of the Mbntana Study, New York: Harper and Brothers, 1950. 45Lloyd‘W’.Warner, Democracy in Jonesville, New York: Harper and Brothers, 19h9. 46Donald J. Bogue, Structure of the Metropolitan Community, Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, l9h9. . 47Kinneman, pp, cit. 48Seymour L. Wblfbien, The Decline of a Cotton Textile Town, New Ybrk: Columbia University Press, l9hh. 30 49 so 5 McKenzie, Smith, and Alinsky. 1 This period of intensive research from l920-l9h0 which provided a scientific basis for the concept of community also provided data which indicated a decline of vigor in rural communities52 and a disintegration of the community concept in metropolitan areas.53 Such danger signs to the alert social scientists have stimulated rural and urban community improvement programs and considerable action research on community dynamics. The focus of attention has been on procedures of community analysis and planning, leadership, participation, and the coordination of activities. _ Certainly implicit, when not explicit, in this community improve- ment movement is the belief that community is of value. Community not only exists but it ought to be developed.54 Such feeling has been made explicit by the treatments of Brownell55 and Nisbet56 in developing a philosophy of community. In his philosophic treatment because of the 49R. D. McKenzie, The Metrppolitan Community, New York: McGraw- Hill Book Company, 1933. 50Christopher Smith, "Social Selection in Community Leadership," Social Forces, 15: 530-35, May, 1937. 513. D. Alinsky, "Community Analysis and Organization," American Journal of Sociology, h6: 707-808, l9hl. 52Arthur F. Morgan, The Small Community, New York: Harper and Brothers, l9h2, p. 1h; Baker Brownell, The Human Communipy, New York: Harper and Brothers, 1950, p. 13. 53Hillman, _p, cit., p. 181; Alinsky, pp, cit., p. 806. eiMorgan, 223 cit., p. 17. 55Brownell, pp, cit. 56R. A. Nisbet, "De Bonald and the Concept of the Social Group," Journal of the History of Ideas, 5:315-31, l9hh. 31 fluid nature of community and its many attempted definitions which apply in one case and not in another, Brownell refuses a fixed definition of community. The Montana Study basic to Brownell's community philosophy was a pioneer attempt to improve communities through a program of action research.57 The success of the Montana Study, the Michigan Community School Service Program,58 and the Southern States Community Development Workshops59 is revealed in a recent survey in the southern states where it was reported that over 2000 open-country clubs and over 500 towns and small cities had action programs for community-wide improvement.60 In these developments it is significant to note that the school as a social institution tended to be a key factor.61 A commonly accepted axiom states that "leaders are found wherever ordinary human beings work tOgether for the common good." Accordingly, wherever community action prOgrams have been successful, leadership has been provided by those confronted with the problem. This cooperative 62 approach and subsequent leadership development was noted by Ogden, 57Poston, pp: cit., pp. 21-33. 58Maurice F. Seay and Ferris Crawford, The Community School and Community Self Improvement, Lansing: Department of Public Instruction, 59Workshop proceedings, Second meeting of annual convention of the Association of Southern Agricultural workers, Memphis, Tennessee, February, 1951. 6°Ibid., p. 5. 6133151., pp. 10-39; Poston, _p. 212°: pp. 62, 91, 99, 109; Seay and Crawford, pp, cit., pp. 12-16. 62Ogden, _p, p23,, pp. 17h, 217-21. 63 . 64 65 66 6’7 Miller, Pierce, Poston, Homans, and Morgan. The foregoing emphasis upon the rural community should not be interpreted as a lack of concern for action programs in urban.communi- ties. There is considerable interest in urban centers to attain a practical orientation to community problems through the community council68 and organized health,69 education, and welfare programs.70 The idea of community, in any of its diverse varieties is potentially an arena of social communication and social participation. It tends to be the garden in which the seed of democracy, once planted, can grow and fluorish. A successful harvest of an improved quality of living in a more desirable social atmosphere requires a continuous flow of stimulating leadership. LEADERS AND LEADERSHIP If leadership is to be understood in the context of a fringe com- munity and in its central creative role in community improvement, it becomes necessary to understand, delimit, and define it. The concern 63Miller, pp, cit., pp. l9h-5. €54‘Pierce,_p, cit., pp. 202-h. 65Poston, pp. pip, pp. 162—63. 66George C. Homans, The Human Group, New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company, 1950, pp. h28-29. 57Morgan, pp, cit., pp. 293-96. 66Hillman, pp, p32,, Chapter VIII. 69Alinsky, _p_. cit., p. 807. 7°Morgan, _p, 93.3., pp. 22-29- 33 at this point is for a kind of leadership that will serve to preserve and enhance the values of democracy found in the community as a functional unit of society. It is not the purpose of this review of literature to investigate thoroughly the terms "leaders" and "leadership." Rather it is the intention here to indicate the various theories and types of leadership now prevailing and then accept the definitions of leadership and leader in harmony with the constructs of leadership in a democratic school- .community situation. As we make this examination and analysis of the major approaches to leadership we seem to support J. F. Brown's contention, "Our final decision must be that leadership is a quality of great variability and the only generalizations we can make concerning it are in terms of the language of constructs."71 There is little question that semantic obstacles are involved and that the finding of an all-inclusive definition suggests the impossible.)72 Emory S. B0gardus has summed up seven prevalent theories, some of which explain leadership by stressing the individual's personal traits while others consider situational factors as being decisive. l. The theory of balance in leadership means that one personality trait highly developed by itself is not sufficient to guarantee leadership...Balance in leadership is complex for it includes more than a happy combination of two personality traits. 71J. F. Brown, Psychology_and the Social Order, New York: McGraw- Hill Book Company, 1936, pp. 3U7-3h8, 72A. L. Knoblauch, "Leadership," Secondary Education, 13:2h-25, April-June, 19b? . ' u “—h— 3h It means an Organization of many different traits, supporting now one, and now another, but giving to all a super-strength which comes from.unity. 2. Focalization of payphic energy means that a person with standard abilities may concentrate his efforts so as to create superior results and become a leaders. A person with average ability may by concentrated hard work and persistence attain the heights...he develops superior results and masters a part of file unknown. 3. The marginal uniqueness theory of leadership means that some persons are able to lead by their unique traits and abilities.... Superior uniqueness is genius that does things in markedly new ways... If genius expresses itself in ways that social groups feel a need for and appreciate, then genius may become leadership...Personal magnetism is a special form of marginal uniqueness. h. The flashes of insight theory of leadership means that a person suddenly sees the connection between two previously dis- connected ideas, or sees the needed solution to a problem, and thereby is enabled to direct associates wisely...Either insight before others attain it or deeper insight than others possess is essential to directive or creative leadership. 5. The ability:in-disability theopy of leadership originates in Alfred Adler‘s discussion of compensation. Special ability, talent and genius are the result 0f nature's efforts to compensate for weakness and inferiority. 6. The conjuncture theory of leadership means that various factors occur simultaneously...'the conjuncture, or falling to- gether, of personality traits, social situation, and the event determines leadership.‘ 7. The ggpupiprocess theory of leadership implies that persons as group members function freely. They express themselves with freedom but learn to work together in small groups with leadership arising out of the process of interaction...Leadership with the group arises and is selected in keeping with the intra-needs and the larger social needs.73 Another approach to the problem has been that of identifying leader types describing individuals in their roles according to these types: 73Emory S. B0gardus, Sociolo , New York: The Macmillan Company, 19h3, PP- 517-52h- 35 l. The charismatic or colorful leader helps make the group aware of common objectives by dramatically emotionalizing them. He performs three major functions~~cohesion, interpretation, and channelization. 2. The orgapizational leader is concerned primarily with everyday administrative functioning with emphasis on efficient action. His usefulness may be in analyzing, planning, and integrating. 3. The intellectual or expert leader is able to provide perspective and see relationships of various aspects of the group's problems. h. The informal leader has a personal warmth and an acute sensitivity to the feelings of participants and is able to work with people in a warm, flexible way.74 Much recent study and research has given rise to questions concern- 75 ing the traditional approaches and understandings of leadership. Traditional leadership approaches have caused individual members of many groups in our society to react to their leaders by submitting to the authority upon which the group's leadership has been based and upon 76 which it has depended. For many the existing patterns of leadership in our society can be characterized by different degrees of control and manipulation, often for the purpose of satisfying materialistic values 77 or for only the values held by the leaders themselves. Traditionally, 74Sol Levine, "An.Approach to Constructive Leadership," Journal of Social Issues, 5:h7-52, Winter, l9h9. 75Ernest 0. Melby, AdministeringgCommunity Education, Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall Inc., 1955, p. 12546; Howard A. Dawson, "A Blueprint for Progress," Phi Delta Kappan, 3hz62, October, l95h. 76Ralph Stogdill, "Personality Factors Associated with Leadership," Journal of Psychology, 25:39, l9h8. 77Dwight Sanderson, Leadership for Rural Life, New York: Accociated Press, l9h0, p. 3h. 36 a leader was identified as a person with dignity and stature who was in 78 command of military forces. In contrast to the authoritarian concept, Cecil Gibbs states, "Leadership is not an attribute of the personality but a quality of his role within a particular and specified social system."29 Viewed in re- lation to the group, leadership is a quality of its structure. A group is here defined as two or more people in a state of social interaction.80 Leadership further depends on attitudes and habits of dominance in certain individuals and submissive behavior in others.81 .This statement would indicate that the status of file individual is important but that such status must be related to the needs and desires of the individuals within the group. Thus, as the needs and desires of the group change, so may the leadership role change to another individual.82 The point, in part, is that leadership is relative to the situation. The second part is that the leadership role is dependent upon the group goal and upon the capacity of the individual to contribute to the achievement of so that goal. In this connection, as well, it can be noted that the 78H. D. Lasswell, "The Comparative Study of the Elite," Hoover Institute Series, Series B. No. 1, January 1952, p. 2. ’9Cecil Gibbs, "The Principles and Traits of Leadership," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, h2:267-28h, l9h7. 8QRogerW. Heynes, "Effects of Variation In Leadership on Participant Behavior in Discussion Groups," Adult Leadership, December, l9h8, p. 109. 81H. C. Warren, DictionaryAOf ngcology, Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, l93h, p. 150. 82Marlowe Ervin Wegner, "A Comparative Study of Leadership Attitudes Held by Teachers and Community Leaders in Certain Representative Minnesota Towns,"Unpublished Ph. D. dissertation, University of North Dakota, January, 1955, p. 1h. 53Gibbs, _p_. pi_t_., p. 271 37 leader inevitably embodies many qualities of the other group members 84 (followers). A research laboratory casts its vote for reality-centered leader- ship as good leadership. Reality-centered leadership helps the groups in which it Operates to face and deal with all the realities involved in as solving problems. These include social and personal conditions as well as physical. This involves the use of relevant scientific knowledge as in defining and solving the problem. Better leadership, therefore, means in general leadership more deeply committed to and more skilled than used at present in spreading scientific and democratic methods in the group life of our industrial society.87 It requires a leadership with sensitivities and skills necessary to guide and direct changes in social arrangements and relation- ships. as According to Thomas A. Gordon, a new pattern of leade‘ship needs to be discovered-~one that frees the individual from the control of external authority, a kind of leadership that puts human values first,‘ 84John K. Hemphill, "Situational Factors of Leadership," Columbus, Ohio State University, Bureau of Educational Research Monograph No. 32, 19149, p. 35. 85John R. P. French Jr., "Leadership, A Dynamic Redefinition, A Concluding Comment," Journal of Educational Sociology, l7:h36-7, March, l9hh. 86Helen Hall Jennings, "Leadership-2A Dynamic Redefinition," Journal of Educational Sociology, l7:hO3-33, March, l9hh. 8r’Charles W} Nelson and Harry L. Stone, "New Management Develop- ment and Community Planning: A Three Part Leadership Training Program," Industrial Relations Center, University of Chicago, 1955, p. 7. 88Thomas Gordon, Group-Centered Leadership, New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1955, p. 3. 38 a leadership that facilitates man's realization of his creative capaci- ties, and a leadership that promotes a man's free expression of individuality. Leadership is not usually an enduring role unless an organization is built up which enables an individual to retain the role after he ceases to be qualified for it. Yet, according to A. W. Gouldner, "even when leadership roles become institutionalized in this way, a leader to be followed, must be perceived by members as facilitating the members' efforts at reaching some goal."€39 Leadership appears to have emerged when individuals confront Crisis situations with which they feel themselves impotent to deal. This frame of reference in our society emphasized democracy, individualism and mastery of the environment.90 The problem is one of combining a demo- cratic approach with effective social organization in solving the prob- lems in a contingent society. Leaders and Leadership Definition The review of literature to this point has revealed an extreme divergence of concepts, most of which describe traits or qualities expected in leaders, sketch desirable behavior, or stress group or in- dividual reaction. .According to Howard A. Dawson, "The true function of leadership~is to release the creative capacities of people--’ 89A. W3 Gouldner (ed.), Studies In Leadership, New York: Harper and Brothers, 1950, p. 36. 9°Ibid., p. 10. 39 a leadership which requires a flexible bouyant approach to problems."91 Considering this emphasis in the total picture of leadership, the best working definition for this study seems to be that written by Gordon, in his book, Group-Centered Leadership, According to Gordon, if the more positive and hopeful leadership concepts prevail: . . . then we predict that the general approach would be an attempt to discover new and better ways of developing the potentials of groups, of freeing individuals to assume more responsibility and control over their destinies, and of providing the conditions where- by 'followers' could learn to carry out the functions required for groups to operate effectively and maturely.92 Gordon's approach here would tend to support Brown's contention, "The only generalizations we can make concerning leadership are in terms of the language of constructs."93 A construct is defined as something that is assumed to exist; we assume its existence to explain phenomena that we observe. Constructs involving complex human relationships are not usually pictured as those involving physical phenomena. Through constructs, though, we are able to coordinate observed data and derive meanings which enable more accurate predictions or outcomes of events.94 Thus, as Gordon‘s concept of group-centeredIleadershipis viewed as a construct it becomes apparent that this is a definition suited to group behavior in a democratic society. His definition takes into account the emphasis of the personality and needs factors as stressed v 91Dawson, pp. pip” p. 62. 92;p;p,, pp. 38-39. 93Brown, pp, pip,, p. 3h8. 9?;pgg,, p. 3h9. to 95 96 97 by F. H. Stanford, Jennings, and others. Gordon emphasizes, also, the position of Gibbs98 and the situationists99 but doubts that the whole answer is with either group. His prOposal is for an inte- gration of previously proposed divergent theories of leadership into a working definition upon which to base research. According to Gordon such an integration would retain the important contribution of the situationist-"Their emphasis is on the demands of the group and the needs of the members; yet it would not close the door on the possibility of discovering some traits or characteristics of importance to leaders in most group situations."loo Gordon provides the following working definition of leadership: Leadership can be conceptualized as an interaction between a person and a group, or, more accurately, between a person and the members of a group. Each participant in this interaction may 95F. H. Sanford, "Leadership Identification and Acceptance," in H. Guetzkow (ed.) Groups, Leadership_and Men, Pittsburg: Carnegie Press, 1951. 96H. H. Jennings, Leadership and Isolation, New York: Longman's Green and Company, l9h3. 97Stogdill, pp, p23,, p. 35-71; Simpson, Ray Homill, A Study of Those pr Influence and Those Who are Influenced in Discussion, Bureau of Publication, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York: 1938; K. Lewin, A Dynamic Theory of Personalipy, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1935. 98Gibbs, _p, cit., pp. 267-28h. 99Hemphill, _p, p23,, pp. 3-102; Paul J. Pigors, Leadership or Domination, Boston: Houghton-Mifflin Company, 1935; I. Knickerbocker, "Leadership: A Conception and Some Implications," Journal of Social Issues, hz23-h0, 19h8; Charles K. warriner,"Leadership in a Small Group," American Journal of Sociology, 60:361-9, June, 1955; Robert F. Bales, "The Two Tasks of Leadership," Adult Leadership, June, 1956, pp. h9-52. 1("’Gordon, _p. cit., p. 51. hl be said to play a role, and these roles in some way must be dif- ferentiated from each other. The basis for this differentiation seems to be a matter of influence-~that is, one person, the leader, influences while the other persons respond.”1 Gordon's definition is based upon a construct which allows: (1) leadership to be centered in a group, (2) each person to play a role, and (3) one person, the leader, to influence while other members of the group respond. In this sense, leadership is truly a process of inter- action, relative to the situation. What could stimulate group behavior in one situation may not in the situations which follow. Similarly, though specific functions may be required in a group, the total pattern 0f leadership functions will be unique for each individual group and for succeeding situations within the group. Passow similarly conceived of leadership as a "group related process of interaction." In his discussion of the topic, "A Conception of Leadership," he lists the following elements: 1. Members of any group are involved in some kind of dynamic Psyco-social relationship with each other. 2. Leadership emerges when‘an individual is perceived by some members of the group as having or controlling, the means to the achievement of the group objectives. 3. Psychological factors, individual and group, affect the emergence of leadership. 1;. The process of leadership is one in which more than a Single individual may play a relatively important role. Several individuals may be able to provide different means of reaching group objectives-«ell these people may play leadership roles. \ 1°11bid., p. 51. h2 S. The methods by which an individual may emerge in a leader role are varied. 6. There may be no sharp dichotomy between ‘leader' and 'group members'-~every member is potentially capable of contributing to the resolution of group problems. 7. The factors in a situation will determine the quality of leader roles.102 His conception, then, drawn from these elements, "views leadership as an interactive process, in which the leader, is one whose direction of activities is perceived as providing help with the means the grogp, and individuals desire to use for achieving general and/orppersonal 103 ggals." Passow's definition of the leader in the group-centered leadership process will be accepted as effectively stated for the purpose of this study. Group Definition The term "group" used frequently in this study is another of the terms requiring further definition in relation to this study's concept of leadership. For the purpose of this research, a gpoup consists of two or more interacting individuals held together by a common interest or goal. Gordon further points out, "Let us first assume that people join groups because they perceive that membership in a gppup will some- how provide satisfaction of some basic need. Furthermore people will 1”Arron Harry Passow, "Group-Centered Curriculum.Leadership," Unpublished Ph. D. thesis, Teacher's College, Columbia University, 1951, pp. 55-73. 103Ibid., p. 7b. h3 continue in a group only if they continue to have an expectation of need 104 satisfaction." According to Robert Sutherland and Julian Wbodward, "Groups, even the more stable ones, are not static forms, but dynamic and complex relationships of persons whose interests are always changing."105 Thus, as these concepts point out, groups provide leadership Opportunities in which individuals as leaders may change roles and the roles they play may be different in each situation. Such group inter- action promises an individual the opportunities to grow, develop, ful- fill, create, or simply to become that person for which he has the potential. Only as group participation, as conceived here, is permitted to develop will there be genuine progress toward an improved democratic social order. COMMUNITY SCHOOL If one looksiupon the fringe community as a social force'that lacks unity, in which the tendency to change is acceptable, and where social conflict becomes common, then it is not "a self-sufficing'unit of interest"106 for the individual citizen. 'Within this context it might be pointed out that in general there is a search for unity of purpose but this is on an individual basis. What is needed is an agent which 1°4Gordon, _p. 223., p- 514- 1“Robert J. Sutherland, and Julian L. Wbodward, Introductory Sociology, Chicago: J. B. Lippincott Company, l9h0, p. 306. 106Floyd Hunter, Communit Power Structure Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1953, p. 23h. bb will bring about a drawing together of the individuals behind a common cause. It is a working hypothesis of this research that the school in a fringe community can be such an agent. Such a concept,of a school has been.p0pularly termed "the community school." According to Baker Brownell‘s comments, Ask any person concerned with survival of the human community,-- Arthur Hillman, Arthur E. Morgan, Richard Poston, Jess Ogden, or Irwin Sanders-~and he will reply that the search for leadership and for the ways to cultivate leadership in the small community is central to community action programs.107 In developing action programs leaders can.become community edu- cators. William W} Biddle describes such a leader as "one who concen- trates more attention upon human beings than upon the programs they are persuaded to adopt as community educators."108 The two roles of the community educator are described as promoter of growth toward respons- ibility in others and conciliator of differences among others.109 In this sense the stimulating leadership of the wise educational leader serves to bring about a lasting community improvement that goes beyond the immediate materialistic objectives of today. By its very definition it is anticipated that the community school as a social institution in a fringe community can serve in this dynamic leadership role. B. O. Wilson, president of the National Association of County and Rural Area Superintendents at the 1957 A.A.S.A. convention in Atlantic 1mBaker Brownell-~foreward p. xi-JWilliam W} Biddle, Cultivation 0f Community Leaders, New York: Harper and Brothers, 1953. lOBW'illiamW'. Biddle, Cultivation of Community_Leaders, New York: Harper and Brothers, 1953, p- 7- 1°9Ibid., p. 8. 115 City had this to say concerning the leadership role of a community school in fringe communities: It is that leadership which deals with peOple in a way that it acts as a catalytic agent-«an agent which induces an exchange of ideas within the community. Such leadership would tend to release the creative power of groups. Through group thinking new ideas emerge. But it is more than a catalyst. It is not absolved from the responsibility for exercising initiative, aZLthough the manner of its expression is prescribed.110 Such a dynamic concept of the leadership role of a community school would not have been possible thirty years ago when in certain sections of rural . America. individual schools were becoming concerned with the community of which they were a part. Ab out this time such a stimulating leadership experience began at . 111 H1°k0ry College, a one room rural school in Lewiston, New York, built in 18,42 . The school, though once the center of community life in a pioneer social setting, was a stagnant institution striving to serve on““0de purposes in a social setting that had moved away almost iso-iating the school. Within a short space of time under the multiplier effBCt of a vigorous, creative, and far-seeing teacher, the school. had I“aged-armed its place as an effective social force in its sociological pattern. "The whole community became a laboratory for learning. The lives of adults, too, were enriched by their active interest in \ Sch 110B. O. Wilson, "Functions of Leadership for Rural and Rurban Ne 0018," A speech presented at the A.A.S.A. Convention, Atlantic City, w Jersey, February, 1957. Edu lllEdith M. Breckon, "The Rebirth of a One Room School," in Wion in Rural Communities, pp. 12h-128. Fifty-first Yearbook of Univ ational Society for the Study of Education, Part II. Chicago: eI‘sity of Chicago Press, 1952. 1:6 112 education resulting in the 'Rebirth of a One Room School.” The implication here is that though the terminology "community school" is new the concept is old. According to Milosh Muntyan, The fundamental concepts which underlie the community school are neither the product of the twentieth century nor the result of any violent shift in the ideals of the community or the PrOfessional educators.113 1t was out of such one room rural schools of over a half century ago 114 that 14—1-1 Club work and vocational agriculture had their beginning. As interested teachers became citizen members of the community they knew their neighbors face to face and the job of education was a con- tinuous experience, enlivening as well as enriching, a process where the joy of discovery and growing was never absent. Outside of education, a sociologist, Joseph K. Hart, warned of a tendency for education to be apart from life when he wrote: Education is not apart from life... .The democratic problem in education is not primarily a problem of training children; it is a problem of making a community within which children cannot help growing up to be democratic, intelligent, disciplined to freedom, reverent of the goods of life, and eager to share in the tasks of the age. A school cannot produce the result; nothing but a commmity can do 30.115 112mm,, p.128. in 113Milosh Muntyan, "Community School Concepts: A Critical Analysis," 30¢:th SChOOl, p. 31. Fifty-second Yearbook of the National Chief-y for the Study of Education, Part II. Chicago: University of Cage Press, 1953. Agen 114Donald Meaders, "Practices Advocated by Selected National (2 A ties and Organizations for Implementing Local Programs of Vocational Ungivimlmre, 1836-19514," Unpublished Ed. D. Dissertation, Michigan State ersity, 1957, pp. 18-19. The 1155Joseph K. Hart, Theiiscovery of Intellegence, New York: ' Century Comp-aw, 1921," p, 382. b? J ohn Dewey in commenting on the community schools described by Elsie Clapp in Compllity Schools in Action had these things to say: The school as well as the community gains when the basic interests of health, recreation, and occupation are made funde- mental in education. The school is a living part of the community. Communities develop themselves by means of their schools that have become the centers of their own life. Closely connected with the response is the fact that the commmity was a rural community. Schools function socially only when they function in a community for community purposes. The neighborhood is the first prime community. An important aspect is the point that those who were teachers in the schools became citizen members Of the community in the most intimate way, educating themselves as to the commuhity's needs and resources, its weaknesses and strengths . 1 16 ElLsie Clapp, whose dynamic community leadership in the Ballard Memorial School of Kentucky and the Arthurdale School in West Virginia develOped community schools, described a community school out of her firsthand experiences : First of all, it meets as best it can, and with everyone's help, the urgent needs of the people, for it holds that everything that affects the welfare of the children and their families is its Concern. Where does school end and life outside begin? There is 1'10 distinction between them. A community school is a used place, a place used freely and informally for all the needs of living and learning. It is, in effect, the place where learning and living Converge . 1 17 Such emphasis on school centered community development was more than just a conceptual dream by l9hO. The goal of the community school is a local social climate that will foster the values of democracy and \ Act“ 116John Dewey, "Foreword" in Elsie R. Clapp, Commumity Schools in ~432, New York: Viking Press, 1939, p. viii-x. Pre 117Elsie R. Clapp, Community Schools in Action, New York: Viking SS, 1939, p. 89. £8 118 provide for a creativity in just ordinary people. Research programs, begun and deve10ped in many sections of America, attempted to find out more about the comnnmity school program and its concept. Mnong these studies on a larger scale were the Sloan Foundation 119 experiments in Kentucky, Florida, and Vermont, the Kellogg Foundation 120 121 prograrn in Michigan, the T.V.A. develOpment with studies in 122 Kentucky and Tennessee, and state studies in North Carolina, _ 123 . 124 125 126 Virgriia , Florida, Tennessee , Alabama, llsogden, _20 2120’ pp. 216-2ho ll'91"1aurice F. Seay and Leonard E. Neece, "The Sloan Experiment in Kentucky," Bulletin of the Bureau of School Service, Vol. XIV, No. b, Letington, Kentucky: University of Kentucky, June, 1911b; Leon W. Henderson and H . B . Nutter, "The University of Florida, Project in Applied Economics," High School Journal, 25:318-20; Maurice B. Merrill, "Clothing, The Sloan EXPeriment in Vermont," Clearing House, 19:1.29-31. 12%urice F. Seay and Ferris N. Crawford, The Cow School and QOWt Self I rovement Department of Public Instruction, Lansmg ,_—L-_Michigan——%—_, 19 . "‘ , 121Maurice F. Seay and William J. McGlothlin, "Elementary Education 111 TWO Communities of the Tennessee Valley: A Description of the Wilson Dam and Gilbertsville Schools," Bulletin of the Bureau of School Service, V01 - XIV, No. 3, Lexington, Kentucky: University of Kentucky, March, 19112. 2L2‘-’Edmund de S. Brunner, Community Organization and Adult Education, Wearncperinenp, Chapel Hill, North Carolina: University of Carolina Press, 19142. H 123Jean and Jess Ogden, These Things We Have Tried, New York: wiper and Brothers, 191:6. 124Florida Citizens Committee on Education, "Educationand the mmmre of Florida," Tallahassee: Florida Citizens Committee on Education, ch, 191:?- Te 125"The Story of Holtville," A Southern Association Study, Nashville, nnesSee: Cullom and Ghutner Company, 19141:. Alab leenUsing Resources of the Community to Build a School Program," Stata'ma‘ Department of Education, Bulletin No. 21, Montgomery, Alabama: 8 Board of Education. D9 127 and Michigan. Individual studies concerning the actual concept and 128 the characteristics of communities were completed by Lorene K. Fox, 129 130 131 Alvin Loving, Milosh Muntyan, Robert A. Naslund, James A. 132 133 Dickinson, and W} R. Goodson. A distinctive thread of thought had been woven in throughout these studies concerning democracy and the democratic processes and procedures. According to Muntyan: In our society, the 'game' we are committed to is generally referred to as democratic living, a major characteristic of which is the 'rule' that changes in the rules of the game are permis- sible in so far as the.group can agree on desirable changes. Furthermore, our chief common comnitment seems to be that of ad- herence to the fundamental rule of our 'game', the rule of democracy and democratic process.134 12”"lesic Community Survey," Bulletin No. 30lh, Instructional Service Series, Lansing, Michigan: Department of Public Instruction, 1939. 128Lorene K. Fox, The Rural Community and Its School, Morningside Heights, New York: Kings Crown.Press, 19E8. 129Alvin D. Loving, "Crystalizing and Making Concrete the Community School Concept in Michigan Through Study of On-Going Community School Practices," Unpublished Ed. D. thesis, wayne University, Detroit, Michigan, 19Sh. 13°Milosh Muntyan, "Community School Concepts in Relation to Societal Determinants," Unpublished Ph. D. thesis, University of Illinons, 19h7. 131Robert A. Naslund, "The Origin and Development of the Community School Concept," Unpublished Ph. D. dissertation, Stanford, University, 1951. 132James A. Dickinson, "The Community School Concept in Education," Unpublished Ph. D. dissertation, Ohio State University, l9h2. 133W} R. Goodson, "The Community School Concept, Unpublished Ph. D. dissertation, University of Texas, 1951. 13“*M'ilosh Muntyan, "Community-School Concepts: A Critical Analysis," in Ihe Community School, Fifty-second Yearbook, Part II, of the National Society for the Study of Education, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1953, p. ’45. 50 A similar expression of significance concerning democracy is pointed out by Dickinson: An identifying feature of first importance is found in the direct relationship of the objectives of the community school to the values and tenets of the democratic theory. The community- school concept embodies a distinctive educational scheme because its raison d'etre is to promote, encourage, and lead to this distinctive way of life.135 It is a common characteristic of community-school organization that citizens of the community as well as the school staff and the students play interactive roles in the development and operation of an educational program. Yet, coupled with this dominant interest in the local community is often a lack of reflections for the state, regional or national social patterns. These can be furthered and developed only as the community relationship between the local, regional, national or international groups are recognized and furthered. According to Paul R. Hanna, "It must be the conscious plan of the school to serve each of the expanding 136 communities of which it is a part." The effectiveness of a community school program is in large measure dependent upon.the cooperation, support, and participation ofczommunity leaders. According to Seay, "One of the most difficult barriers is erected when this support and cooperation are blocked by autocratic and 135James A. Dickinson, "Antecedents of the Community School Concept In the Utopian Theories," in The CommunitE School.“Fifty-second Yearbook 0f the National Society for the S udy o duca ion, Part II. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1953, p. 238. 136Paul R. Hanna, "The Community School and Larger Geographic Areas," The Community School, Fiftyesecond Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, Part II. Chicago: 'University of Chicago Press, 1953, p. 237. 51 authoritative leadership." Instead he suggests, Democratic leadership seeks always to develop mutual under- standing and consent among the participants in the prOgram; it does not seek to dominate, hand down decisions, or impose policies. The effectiveness of the community school program is due in large measure to involvement of people and in the wide participation of teachers, pupils, and community representatives in program plan- ning and decision making.137 According to Seay's comments the probable key to the community school concept is lay citizen involvement and participation in all phases and at all levels. Such participation must be based upon demo- cratic procedures which help train.1ay persons for the leadership roles that must be filled as the community expands and grows. The community school concept conceived and developed in a rural environment has now become adapted in urban, suburban, and fringe schools. In even a broader sense, through the espousal of UNESCO, it is giving 138 renewed hope to peOples of the great democracies of the world. The community approach in which the peOple are helped through education to help themselves is giving a permanence to education. The community school movement in the Philippines reflects political urges, economic 139 factors, and social phenomena inherent in the history of the people. On a recent visit Philippine educational leaders confirmed the reports 0f intensive community school programs in all parts of that country. 13'7Seay,'.<_1'p_. gig, pp. 278-79. 138Jose V. Aguilar, "Development of Community School Concepts in Other Countries," The Community School, Fifty-second Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, Part II. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1952, p. 212. 139 Ibid., pp. 221-2. 52 140 The Michigan Community School Service Program initiated and sponsored by the State Department of Public Instruction under the leadership of Lee Thurston has made the program acceptable in all levels and types of schools within the state. One of the most successful community school experiments has been in operation in Flint, Michigan for the past twenty years. The Flint Board of Education in partnership with the Mott Foundation has developed a community centered program of adult education, year round recreational prOgram, and a community college. The program has attained remarkable school community cooperation by developing community centers in the neighborhood elementary schools. In 1955, 2h,OOO adults were 141 enrolled in 526 adult education courses. Community School-Definition The problem encountered in attempting to define leadership also seems to apply in the case of the community school concept. Due to the application of the concept to all sizes and types of schools, no one definition could be all inclusive. The language of constructs142 may again be used to explain what is meant by this concept using action terms. Such a definition was developed out of the work of the Department Of Public Instruction Committee on the Instructional Program of the Community School. + ‘1 14°Seay and Crawford, _p, cit. 141Tom Mayes, "Flint Has A System," Lyon‘s International, May, 1956, a.reprint. 142For a definition of a construct, see p. 39, Chapter II. ems: 53 143 Alvin Loving's dissertation concerning the community school concept developed out of the work of this Michigan committee. The committee attempted to define in action terms the community school con- cept as it was being developed in twenty-five selected SleOl systems. Two basic criteria were selected first as representative of the two major emphases in existing programs. Criterion I.-The community school serves and enriches society. Criterion II.--The community school reflects and involves community resources in the schools instructional 144 . program. Subsequently ten descriptive statements or constructs were added to help make concrete the Michigan community school concept. They are stated below as follows: The community school serves and enriches society by survey- ing community needs and resources, giving initial leadership to constructive community improvement projects, helping to develop a sense of community throughout the community, practicing and promoting democratic procedures, and coordinating all constructive efforts to improve community living. The community school reflects and involves community re- sources in the schools instructional program by using human and material resources in the instructional program, building the curriculum around major human problems, involving all persons concerned in planning and appraising the school program, and being genuinely life centered as a social institution.145 The stated criteria are accepted in place of a formal definition since they are fundamental to the Michigan community school philosophy. l“‘3Loving, _p. cit . 144Ibid., p. 65. 145 Ibid., p. 3. Sb Many other formal definitions were considered including those by 146 147 148 149 Edward G - Olson, Cooke and Cooke, Burton Krie tlow, and Seay. 1‘5 Seems significant to recognize the role which leadership plays in COMty growth and enrichment. According to the Michigan Community School Pro gram Self Evaluation Check List, "The community school expands and diffilses leadership-~by fostering and assisting leadership develop- ment in community groups."150 Some of the success in the Michigan exPeril—1119111.: may be attributed to exchange of leaders between communities, leadership training programs, and leadership help from public schools in Participating and involvement prOgrams.151 Haskew and Hanna state that: Basic to community school operation is the concept of leader- sFlip-«the concept that group prOgress depends upon the emergence Of satisfying relations between people such that the best ideas available are being brought out, accepted, and followed. 14 ESEdward G. Olson, School and Community, Second Edition, New York: Prentice Hall, Inc., 1951:, p. 11. 14VCooke and Cooke, gp. Cit”: P- 239' leBurton W. Krietlow, Rural Education: Communiii Backgrounds, New York: Harper and Brothers, 1951;, p. 165. Term :quaurice R. Seay, "The Community School: New Meaning for an Old 9 Soci 2h; Communipy School, Fifty-second Yearbook of the National ety for the Study of Education, Part II, Chicago: University of ago Press, 1953, p. 13- Com 15C”The Committee on the Program of the Reorganized School, "The Publmn: 1ity School Program Self Evaluative Check List," Department of 1° Instruction, Lansing, Michigan, 1956. Soho 151Edgar L. Grim and Eugene Richardson, "The Michigan Community the 131 Service Program," The Commmity School, Fifty-second Yearbook of Univ a‘l‘aional Society for the Study of Education, Part II, Chicago: eFeity of Chicago Press, 1953, p. 211. 55 Administration in a Community school seeks to facilitate the emergence and employment of democratic leadership.152 The leadership described above is the kind of democratic leadership which serves as a stimulating agent in a community setting providing, through democratic processes, for more effective school-community cooperati on . PERTINENT RESEARCH STUDIES If the terms fringe and community are considered together as they are in this study they refer to a developing community which does not 153 possess all seven elements of a stable, mature community. If the leadership structure of this fringe area community is to have signifi- cance it must be compared with known characteristics of leadership Structures in stable mature communities. Such comparisons are possible, but they are important only to the extent that what they describe or discover has relevance to this study. Since leadership studies in education have, by and large, been concerned with leadership attitudes, characteristics, or behavior in relation to education, they have been of little value in this review Of literature. Since the study applies sociCIOgical concepts, the relevant studies are found in the field of sociology. The author (3095 not purport to be a sociologist but used the findings of sociologists to validate assumptions or methodology. \ trat, 11821.. D. Haskew and Geneva Hanna, "The Organizatization and Adminis- Yearbon of the Community School," The Community School, Fifty-second Chi 00k of the National Society for the Study of Education, Part II, 08-80: University of Chicago Press, 1953 , p. 1113. 15‘3See Chapter I, p. 11. 56 The responsibility of the sociologist in his field has been that of the Study and understanding of society. As a section within 330101057 the study of community as such has been of recent concern. 0f the Walde variety of studies made in this area, those dealing with the power structure, the decision making process, or the social power POSitj-On seemed important. Several research studies of this nature had been recently completed at Michigan State University. These studies were or Particular importance since the men concerned were available for consultation and suggestions in planning this study. When sociologists’ refer- to power, power structure, power position, or the decision makirg process in this study, leadership may be substituted for power or d901315-011 making as having essentially the same meaning. Of particular significance is a research study by Paul A. Miller154 concel‘rling the decision making process in community organization. In his approach to studying the decision making process he used a single focus upon major health goals. He made a careful analysis of the 1e"“‘3‘31=‘E‘»hip structure as it related to community organization- His approach was one of developing a focused historical profile in which the I'eSearch team reconstructed a detailed sequence of events leading into a particular hospital development. The procedure involved a detailed examination of local newspapers over the entire period of the I’m-5 eCt. The data collected included names of persans and Places: plans, dates, associations and other descriptive materials that provided \ P 16“Paul A. Miller, "A Comparative Analysis of the Decision Making UroceSS in Community Organization Toward Major Health Goals ," npublished Ph. D. Thesis, Michigan State College, 1953. 57 information about the community organization. The newspaper analysis and a review of the hospital association records resulted in an ordered statement. of events leading up to a hospital completion. The Second step was that of submitting the statement of events to the hospital board for a full discussion and eventual correction or . 155 redraftlng . These two preparatory steps by Miller provided an orien- tation for the research team and helped establish rapport for the project With people of influence. The names of the persons (leaders) placed upon the research schedule were Selected on the basis of the frequency and intensity of their participation. The names were divided into four categories according to the leader's position in the leadership structure and particular project in f0 156 . . . . . . c118 . During the intenSlve lnteerews which followed, the leaders p3Sit-101:1 was further verified or changed as the situation turned out. The preceding phases of Miller's research were of importance to the present study and since it was possible to discuss these during the planning stages, his many helpful suggestions made it easier to plan and carry out the parts of this study concerned with the leadership structure. He pointed out several results in his findings which were of j“Mpc’l:"t‘la1'1c:e to a study of the leadership structure”)? (1) The influentials initiate, legitimize decisions of initiation and sponsorship but continue \_ 155nm” p. 37. J‘sslbidu p. 77. 157mm,, p. 167. 58 with but. token assistance otherwise. (2) To initiate action, inter- personal networks of relationships must be activated, involved, committed, and deployed. (3) The inclusion of governing groups is essential in the plarming process of community health projects. (h) The expansion of extra community specialists through in-service leadership training is 158 significant to later success. Floyd Hunter‘s study159 of the community power structure is a socio- metric study of the decision making leaders in a southern city. Hunter's approach is significant since it more closely approximates a study of the leadership structure as such. His approach to leadership identifi— cation involved a preliminary of clipping newspaper items for a period bf eighteen months. Notes were taken at random, documents were edited and Classified, and personal observations were added to provide a back- ground for a field analysis. Hunter's and Miller's studies were quite Similar in this respect. The second step of analyzing power relations in the field involved a prelisting of leaders occupying positions of prominence in civic organizations, business establishments, a university bureaucracy, office h°1ders in village politics, and lists of persons prominent socially and of wealthy status. Four lists of names for civic, governmental, . 160 busmess, and status leaders were typed separately. From each list ‘— 1581bid., pp. 1183-85. 159Floyd Hunter, Community Power Structure, Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1933. 16°Ibid., p. 263. 59 six judges then selected ten persons of influence in rank order of im- portance . Judges were given the privilege of adding names not on the lists. Hunter used detailed sociometric pictures to show the leaders positions in the leadership structure. His findings in relation to the institution role of schools and churches can have a direct application in this study. The school's role in a stable community was shown to be minor, thus giving support to one of this study's basic assumptions. Other findings by Hunter would indicate that expressions of in- security or fear are characteristic of the top leadership group. This is Pointed out as basic in this statement: It is manifest in a cautious approach to any new issue which Iflay arise and is apparently rooted in the feeling that any change 111 the existing relations of power and decision in the community wmild be disastrous for the leaders who now hold power.161 Another finding in the study is that there are relatively few leadership positions in Regional City. It now represents a closed 81:. 162 sy em of power or relatively so. This would indicate a pyramiding of leadership; yet he suggests the community council as a place where real C=<>mmunity problems could be discussed. His findings would point out that: The Community Council in Regional City might be a place where Such issues could be fully discussed, but as an organization it is so hedged around with protocol maintained by the fears of the POlicy-making group that there is little likelihood of its being an effective community-wide instrument for community discussion and action. The political organizations are also so completely :lslIbid., pp. 228-29. 162Ibid., p. 233. 60 I dominated by the power interests which have been identified that there is little hope of adequate expression being fostered by them at this time.163 Such findings are of importance for what they imply in a stable, mature community in relation to leaders, leadership, and the disinte- gration of the concept of community as such. 164 In Donald H. Bouma's study, he attempts through an analysis of the social power position of a community institution to show that there is an effective leadership role for community institutions. His primary focus {Ls the Real Estate Board as a system of influence which has played a large part in the shaping of community-wide decisions. In his analy- sis, Bouma is concerned with the relative position of power groups and the factors affecting their leadership position. The findings of the study point out that the school has a relatively mi-HOI‘ role to play within the conummity's institutional structure. The V study of the social power framework leads to a more adequate understand- . 165 mg of community decision-making processes. Wealth and influence were independent in operation and were not directly related in the case Of 168 . the Real Estate Board. In reaching these concluSlons, Bouma res01Ved the premise that wealth is not the key to influence as a leadership factor . \ 163Ibid., p. 236. 16413011,,de H. Bouma, An Analysis of the Social Power Position of the £931 Estate Board in Grand Ra 15g Michig___an, East Lansing: ”Michigan tate University, 1932. 1651mm, p. 283. 1661mm, p. 281;. 61 16*: In a. study of power in a north central community, Gerhard F. Gettel places specific emphasis upon the criteria for power. His methodology and procedure were different from those used in this study since he lived in and held a formalized position of leadership in the community. However, his interview techniques and development of a power structure picture within the community do have a bearing in this study. He used the tGChIiique of focused or depth interviews and found that memorizing the qllestions was helpful in collecting data.168 In his analysis he discovers that wealth is not a prime determinant 0f POWGI‘. His analysis points out that in the decision making process informal decisions were more important than formal ones, and that the 1egi’C-imizing of decisions occurs in formal leadership situations.169 Such findings were important since they could be applied directly to the findings in this study. A previous research study on secondary education in Warren Township by P . 17° ‘. . . . . 3‘11 K. CouSino had historical and local Significance to this study - The historical analysis in Chapter IV gives a broad understand- mg of community development. His understanding of the sociological factors at, work in the ccmuunity provided a depth which otherwise might not have been possible. The survey itself pointed up the fact that \ 16P’Gerhard F. Gettel, "A Study of Power in a North Central State (bmlllnity, " Unpublished Ph. D. thesis, Michigan State University, 1956. 1681mm, p. 27. lssIb__i__d., p. 236. 1': °Paul K. Cousino, "Social Attitudes Toward Certain Curricular I Sues Michis in Warren Township ," Unpublished Ed. D. thesis, University of gall, 1951. 62 people do realize that the program of the secondary school has changed drastically since they attended school and that these changes are "good" 171 for the young people of today. The findings showed that the new program was worth working for and that residents were willing to "pay 1'7 the bill - " In this study the peOple agreed overwhelmingly with the educational experts on the major objectives of education. In their study on leadership and social change, Marvin Bressler 1'73 - and Charles F. Westoff pointed out that the leadership group in the fringe area of Lower Buck's County, Pennsylvania, exerts its influence to effect, positive adjustments to change. Another noticeable finding was that group leadership seemed to be the most decisive influence on 174 attitude toward change. Their study shows that 50 percent of leaders named were in the government-politics--legal area, indicating that the primary image of power is probably due to the more visible nature of 1'75 the authority wielded by people in office. The Value of this study is that it is based upon an industrial fringe area. in which many of the same problems are present. There are several similarities between the two studies. Both studies have treated the fringe as developing communities in which leadership tends to be —_ 1'71 ‘ Ibid., p. 122. 172w.” P- 123- Chan 17 ElmerVin Bressler and Charles F. Westoff, "Leadership and Social ge: P The Reactions of a Special Group to Industrialization and Opulation Influx," Social Forces, 32:235-2’43, March, 19514. 174929.‘ a P- 2143 . 175-12251“ a P- 2H2 - 63 based upon formalized authority. In both social change seemed to be passed upon a msitive attitude of leaders toward community development. In both studies leadership positions were held by people having a high level of education. In the Buck's County Study, the authors recognize that though these areas are changing, the conservative, traditionally- oriented natives will make such changes tempered to reality. The contributions of this study tend to support the contention that even though fringe communities differ, they are also similar in many ways. Research carried on in fringe communities will then tend to be of significant value to social scientists. SUMMARY It has been the purpose of this chapter to relate what research has to say concerning a develOping community within a fringe school district with many pressing problems. The first review attempted to Present a. clear understanding of a fringe area; then, since a fringe area was noted to be a developing community, a review of research con- cerning community and community studies followed. It was shown in a review of successful community studies that leadership was a necessary element in a community development and improvement program. Having recognized that leadership was necessary to effective group action in coMtY work, the review became concerned with discovering a kind of leadership that would free people and leaders for creative and effective work in solving problems. 6h Another finding pointed out that successful community development programs found the school as an effective ally. This finding then led to a review of the literature concerning a community school and the role such a school has played in community develOpment. It :s eemed quite clear to this investigator that no previous investi- gation could be found which attempted to study the leadership structure in the same way as outlined in this thesis. Even the research in SOCiOlogy concerned with power and the decision making process could serve only as a guide in the planning and analyzing phases of this study. SOciological concepts were accepted as valid and in addition, various methodological procedures outlined in them were used. CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY The purpose of this chapter is to trace the development of the StUdY I‘63:|_at.ive to the methods and techniques used. The primary data were derived from two sources; namely, the depth interview and the COMty attitude scales. Secondary and additional data were derived from the development of a community historical profile and personal observations made over a period of eight months. The working hypothesis basic to 'the study points out that leadership in afringe area is dif- ferent. from leadership in a stable, mature community. The methods and techniques used in this study are sociologically defined; yet, they have application in educational research. They were accepted as valid. Additional data were collected to present a picture or the role of the school within this particular fringe community. The findings whether affirmative or negative are considered valuable as a basis for drawing implications for educational administration. SELECTING A FRINGE AREA COMMUNITY TWO problems confronted the researcher at the planning stage of the Study. The first dealt with finding a school district which would meet the criteria of a fringe area. The second concerned obtaining permissiOn from the school superintendent and the board of education to 65 66 make the study. Since the study would concentrate upon the decision making group of leaders and would bring the school itself under close scrutiny, the educational leadership would need to be relatively secure in their social positions. The school as it played its functional role in the comnmity would be evaluated. Due to time and economic consideration it was decided that a Michigan fringe community would serve as the location for the study. Within I"ELohigan the school districts in the fringe comrmlnities of these Michigan cities were considered: Lansing, East Lansing, Jackson, Flint, Battle Creek, and Detroit. The Lansing, East Lansing area was close by, but 3011001 superintendents and boards of education were finding it difficult, to carry out bonding procedures or they were occupied with the LaJISZ'Lng Area School Study. The Flint fringe school districts, due ’00 their proximity to the very active community school program in the city 0f Flint, would have been acceptable since they were all concerned With a type of community centered program. However, the choice actually fell to the Warren School District in the fringe of the city of Detroit. NOt’ °nly did the Warren district meet the criteria of a fringe comnnmity but the board of education had already given its permission and was the subject 01‘ another school community research project. The criteria used in the selection of a Pennsylvania fringe area . 1 were 1lsted by Blizzard and Anderson in their conceptualization and lSfimel W. Blizzard and William F. Anderson, "Problems in Rural- Urban Fringe Research: Conceptualization and Delineation," Progress Report 89. State College, Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania State College, November, 1952, p. 2. delineation of a fringe. well when checked in early May of 1956. 67 The Warren School District met these criteria Figure 1 indicates agreement with the Anderson-Blizzard fringe criteria accepted for this study. Figure l . A Comparison of the Conditions in Warren, Michigan, May 1956, with the Blizzard-Anderson Fringe Criteria. B1211: zard -Anderson Fringe Criteria 1' Mixed land use 2. Rural and urban values evident. 3° Largely unplanned developments. 14' wlde Occupational variation. 5. 1; high percentage of home “nership. 6. p cart‘time farms and gardening DIN-men . 7. Gove the I'Imental responsibility in ds of a town board. Conditions in Warren, Michigan, May, 1956 Approximately 31 square miles within the school district. lb are predominately rural, 17 are mixed, part-time farms, homes, stores, and industrial plants. Farm groups are still organized, new residents exhibit high de- mands for urban services. . Aside from two housing develop- ments in Warren Village, most homes were established by the house holders in recent years. The occupations range from farmer and self employed persons to professionals and men of industry. The school community survey showed 90 percent home ownership. Lot sizes are large making garden- ing common. 75 percent of farmers are part-time Operators. Warren was governed by a town board, but on October 2, 1956, Warren voted to become a city-- effective date, January 1, 1957. 68 MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY-~WARREN RESEARCH PROJECT The larger school community research project was being conducted by the MmiIListrative and Educational Services Department of the College of Education at Michigan State University. Dr. Karl Hereford and Dr. Robert Hopper were in charge of the study, which attempted to gather basic com- munity data. , determine the important community problems and attitudes, and analyze the basic community structure as it existed in the school district. The interview forms, including a community attitude scale, were given to 193 eleventh and twelfth grade students of the high school, 1145 members of the school staff and board of education, and to a random sample of: 159 heads of households in the school district. The infor- nation gathered in this survey was of value and was used immediately by the board of education in making plans for the immediate future. In research this data would serve as a bench mark for a five to ten year st d - u y Whlch would seek to understand changes that take place as a school dist ’ I'lct changes from a predominantly rural to a predominantly urban eomm'lhj 2 t)? . The survey itself provided many kinds of information incl uding an initial identification of comnmnity-wide leaders. At the project director's suggestion, the writer was invited to become a member of a team of graduate students who conducted the pers ‘ Dual interviews in the Warren School community. These interviews had bee . 11 arranged on a random sample basis of the adult population. The int . e1"Viewers needed to interview the heads of households or their \ as léewa-I‘ren's school district population in October, 1956 was projected ’SOO but is expected to reach 100,000 before 1965. 69 spouses in the households selected to make study valid. A household is a dwelling unit which is considered as a room or a group of rooms containing a kitchen and sleeping quarters for a single family unit“:3 The survey was so structured that every member of the adult population had an eqLLal chance of being selected and interviewed. The school district was divided into four areas with a total of 220 equal sized blocks in the total division of territory. These areas correspond ed to the kind of land use that was predominant. Table I describes the breakdown of the 220 blocks. TABLE I RANDOM SAMPLE BLOCK SELECTION Areas Number of Description Blocks Selected __ Blocks for Sample I 1714 Rural 7 II 19 Prewar homes 3 III 25 Postwar homes 19146-52 h IV ll New housing develOpments 1955-56 h \ Totals 220 18 It is easy to note that the school district is still predominantly I‘ur £11 with 17h blocks so designated. The 19 blocks of prewar homes \ In PuSPa-ul K. Cousino, "Social Attitudes Toward Certain Curricular Issue diSse lie School Education in Warren Township," Unpublished Ed. D. I"bastion, Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, 1951, p. 30. 70 were located primarily in Warren Village and the Countyline School area. The post—war homes were those which individual householders developed without public water and sewage being available. The new housing develoPments were concentrated in the area near Warren Village with I’llblic water and sewer facilities available to real estate developers. The blocks selected from each area were chosen from the table of random numbers. The eighteen blocks so selected were then individually 8amPled on a one to five random sample basis. This procedure resulted in a 6 percent sample of the adult pOpulation with the households identified by code and house number. In other words, variances due to interviewer selectivity were removed, at least to the extent that the intervi ewers followed instructions. This random sample procedure in the larger community study was °°nsid ered valid. The initial identification of community-wide leaders was a part of the information collected. It was the desire of the proj ect directors that a more intensive study of leadership be undertaken in 0rd er to establish a clearer bench mark for the Warren School District . The only real connection between this thesis and the larger research I’m-fleet. lies in the initial identification of community~wide leaders and the director's approval and sanction for this more intensive study of leaders and leadership in the school district. From this point on the re Search moves from this larger departmental study to a more intensive Study of leadership for which this researcher is solely responsible. The researcher had several advantages in develOping this leadership 8 tudy . First, the research was given Michigan State University backing 71 and status and the interviewer was able to establish rapport with leaders more easily. Second, the Warren School District had a long record of successful experience in community development; yet, certain sections within the district definitely lacked community improvements. Mu43h of the basic community data had already been collected and was available for reference as needed. DEVELOPING A HISTORICAL PROFILE A second phase which naturally followed was the development of a historical profile of the community. This technique was used by both Millerq‘ and Hunter5 as a means of building a background of information about the community, its leaders, and its history. This provided basic in-f°I‘I“1-3.‘l‘.:].on concerning the community's culture, tradition, and value orientation. The technique itself involved the sample device of searching newspaper reports and public records concerning one important comlity issue which involved community leaders extensively. The information g"N’helf‘ed was then checked by resource persons who verified the information and added to it whatever they felt was lacking. The issue selected was that of the dispute with the city of Detroit over the propOSed Northeast Airport. The dispute was of concern because considerable land would be required that was at that time being used for \ 4For a description of Paul F. Miller's technique, see p. 56. SFl 1 Cha 1 Hill N to Ca . Oyd Hunter, Communit Power Structure, pe , or . r°11naz University of North Carolina Press, 1953, pp. 262-63. 72 homes, schools, businesses, and certain real estate developments. The issue itself was important to the study only as a means of identifying the persons who occupied leadership roles and in noting that there could be solidarity of action on an important community issue. IDENTIFICATION OF COMMUNITY LEADERS In any study of community leadership structure, leadership identi- fication is a significant phase. Not only is correct identification important but also the method used must be valid. A number of leadership identification methods have been validated in other leadership studies inch - - 6 ' :Lng the following: Miller's method carried out in a sociological 7 study of community health goals; Hunter's method described in his study a of a C=<>mmlmity power structure; Moreno's tele-sociometric technique described in Who Shall Survive; and the "snowball" method used by the Bureau of Community Service, University of Kentucky, in developing a community profile.9 As in Hunter's and Miller's approach leaders were identified in deYen—Oping a historical profile. This served only to verify the random ample identification of leaders. \ e . Miller, .2. 2a., pp. 71-780 7Hunter, _p. c_i_t_., pp. 262-71. 8J . L. Moreno, Who Shall Survive, New York: Beacon House Inc., 1953. Co 913'?an T. Sanders, "Preparing a Commmity Profile," Bureau of ty Service, University of Kentucky, Lexington,Kentucky: Community S s erles Bulletin Number 7, May, 1952, p. l. 73 Mmceno'slo sociometric methods were used in the leadership identifi- cation process because the sociometric picture developed gave a better understanding of certain leader relationships. The sociometric devices developed by Moreno were considered valid and were used to interpret the leadership identification results. His concept of leaders' mutual choice is basic at this point, "The increased rate of interaction between members of a group, the increased mutuality of choices surpasses chance Possib ility ."1 1 The snowball technique of leadership identification accepted in this study has been used since 19140 by the Bureau of Community Service at the university of Kentucky. The technique itself came out of the work of Dr. rm '1‘. Sanders in some of his early rural community studies. According to a Bureau of Conurmnity Service Report ,12 the technique has been_ revised and changed to some extent, but still maintains its basic form . Sal'ider‘s basic assumptions concerning the snowball technique were Stated as follows: A. The community is a social system. Its basic structural Outlines can be determined. Its dominant social processes can be described. Hence an introductory reconnaissance study, if done properly, will yield some insight into the nature of the SOcial system that is the commity. B. Community leaders generally provide an overall view of the cBOIm'Iumity sufficient for purposes of outlining a profile of its Chief social features. \ loMoreno, pp. 9311., pp. 110-190- 1133351” p. 311. 12Sanders, _p. 922., p. 13- 714 C. Hunches about the social characteristics of a community can be formulated and tested by trained interviewers in the course of a field visit.13 Sanders further states: When the testimony of all the leaders is put tOgether and when the type of interviewing described here is carried on, there is reason to believe that the interviewers have obtained a good all-around, overall profile of the community.14 The validation of the snowball technique is based upon an opera- . 15 t40113.1 insight; "it seems to work." In practice, Sanders has found success in develOping a leadership profile which can be checked by (1) use of quantitative measurements, (2) validation by an individual investigator, (3) use of two or more resource persons to check independ— ently conclusions reached, and (h) by analysis of the research, after . 16 the LITl‘restigator returns from the commlnity. The actual selection of leaders by this method starts with a first Step in which people are asked to identify eight community-wide leaders.17 After leaders are identified the reSpondent is asked to give the reason f°r listing each individual as a community leader. Further steps in successive interviews place the people identified in positions in the “Wily social structure. Those leaders identified most often are later interviewed more intensively in establishing the leadership \ 131333. , p. 1. 14311-9.” p. 3. 15M” p. 2. 16M” p. 3. Dir 17Personal letter, April 25, 1957, Willis A. Sutton Jr. Executive ector of Community Service, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky. 8”431101" 3 personal file . 75 Structure of the community. Sander's18 "rule of thumb" concerning the leaders to be interviewed more intensively is based upon the number of times a leader is identified, usually by 10 percent of the people interviewed. By chance or good fortune the leadership identification question used in the Administrative and Educational Services Departmental Study ineluded the first step of the snowball technique of leadership identi- fication. The leaders so identified were plotted on fact sheets. S°°i°grams were then worked out and used to confirm the identification 01' the tOp forty leaders in the Warren School Community. T119 number of leaders identified in the original departmental survey seemed extremely diffused. In order to check his own impression in the Hatter , this researcher prepared an eight question scale. Each of the graduate students who served as interviewers in the school community survey was asked to give his reaction to the leadership identification part, Of the survey. This information proved to be valuable in the analysis of the data. C)‘l‘aher hunches in connection with the study during data collection were Checked for validity with the resource persons. When there was general corroboration of a point in discussion with leaders who obviously reflected the opinion of different social circles, the interviewer could frame his observations as tentative conclusions. If further analySis SuppoI'ted these conclusions and the resource persons independently affirmed t . he flndings, the investigator felt himself to be on firm ground. \‘ 18 Ibid. - 76 Included in the procedure suggested by Sanders is the technique of establishing territorially the area to be studied and then developing neighborhood-community maps.19 The maps served as a point of orientation for the interviews and were based upon sociological considerations. As also worked out in Hunter's study,” the final determination of the leadership structure was made during the focused interview. It became apparent that unless leaders themselves indicated which leader in thEir estimation was most important in making decisions for community improvement, that the valid leadership structure could not be established. After a discussion of leadership in relation to leadership roles and the decision making process, leaders were asked this question, "Who would you £991 is the most important person in making decisions for community inrprov ement?" The answer to the question usually resulted in discussion and Lrlformation then received helped to validate the previous findings. THE INTERVIEWING OF LEADERS Since the researcher was personally responsible for carrying out each successive phase of data collection, he used depth interviews which Provided an understanding of the deeper insights about the community leader. 8 value orientation and his reaction to the leadership role of t he Sc=hool in the community. .\ 19Sanders, _gp. cit., p. 3. aonter, .2. 2331., p. 2710 77 The interview schedule (Appendix A) was prepared using mainly open ended questions of a general nature to begin with, then gradually using questions focused upon the main matters of concern in this study. This procedure worked very well and avoided wasting time during the interview. From the interviews the researcher attempted to determine the leader's attitudes concerning: (1) the commur1ity--social policy-~past, present, and future , (2) community development, (3) community planning, (1:) resource persons, ( S) the place of newcomers, (6) the school and its leadership role in conummity affairs, and (7) formulized leadership training. The information requested was either directly or indirectly related to proving the hypotheses which served as variables. The interview schedule contained thirty Open-ended questions in its final form, In the process of developing the schedule, nearly twice this mnnber of questions were proposed. A pilot study was conducted using graduate students, leaders in the East Lansing fringe area, and Professors on campus as interviewees. Many very helpful and worth- While Suggestions came out of these experiences. ACCording to accepted procedure the interview included such items as institutional ratings, leader ratings, orientation devices, and attitude scales. Leaders were asked to give their own self image as a leader and their reactions concerning the leadership role of various S°°ia1 institutions within the conummity. The interview questions had been memorized and were focused upon fiv 21 e 01‘ the study's seven basic assumptions. Before the top leaders \ ——v 21See p. 7, Chapter I of this study. 78 were intensively interviewed they were given assurance in each case, that any iriformation given would be kept in strictest confidence. Occasionally, as the first interview progressed, an informant would say, "You understand that I'm assuming that you will keep this confidential." It was felt by the interviewer that all the top leaders were very frank and sincere . The interviews themselves were conducted in privacy if possible and at the Convenience of the leader being interviewed. Notes were not taken during the interviews in order to avoid hesitancy on the part of the informazit and to permit close observation of the informant‘s actions or reactions as the interview prOgressed. It was necessary on this basis to allot, sufficient time following each interview to record responses. BY using time-spaced appointments it was possible to take time for orientation and to provide for an informal interview situation. The interviews took place either at the office of the informant or in the inf"“"r'nantvs home. All the informants talked freely and at length in answer to questions. Occasionally an informant would go back and trace the com'plete development of a situation or discuss a matter in much detail - When this occurred the interviewer maintained an attentive attitude and aSked such questions as would clarify the informant's Statements. The interviews were planned for a one hour period with a twenty minute leaway allowed. In practice the interviews averaged one and oneshalf hours with several extending as long as three hours. It was decided, on the basis of a pilot study, to use two inter- ‘vi . . ews with each leader instead of a single long intervzlew. This 79 procedure imposed less on the informant's daily schedule, and allowed time for amlysis on the researcher's part. As it later worked out in practice , unexpected findings sometimes became apparent, and at the second interview leaders were asked to confirm or reject the unexpected findings - COMMUNITY ATTITUDE SCALES In Order that the interview findings might be checked on an objective basis, the study plan included two different community atti- Wde Scales. Since the index of adjustment and value was used as part Of the random sample survey earlier, this index was one used. Second, 22 the B0 S"Worth Community Attitude Scale, developed and used in Michigan, was a(3(39‘pted since it has more direct application within the state of MiChj. gan. The Bosworth Scale was developed by Dr. Claude Bosworth as part of his Ph. D. study and was later validated in his work in the Department of COW’W Services at Michigan State University. The instrument is ' imended to assist in the scientific analysis of communities and measures the Ci tizens attitude toward comImmity progress. The scale consists 0f Sixty items with three sub-scales designed to measure attitude toward COWty services, community integration, and civic responsibility. The Scale is reliable and validfe3 \ Smteazclaude Bosworth, "Community Inventory," East Lansing: Michigan University, Department of Community Services, June, 1955. 23Ibid., p. 3. 80 The Bosworth scale accomplished two purposes in this study. It permitted the Warren fringe community to be compared directly with stable Ina‘bure communities in Michigan. Secondly, it permitted an Objective analysis of leaders' opinions on specific issues not included in the depth interview. In order to avoid repetition in administering two community atti- tude scales, the Bosworth scale was administered using a sorting board. The sixty items in the scale were typed on individual cards and informants were requested to sort the cards into the sorting board which provided space fOI‘ the informant's desired response.24 This procedure of a(meni-S‘bering the scale was approved and accepted as valid. The index of adjustment and values has an objective similar to the Bosworth scale but uses a more general approach to the problem. A basic assumptiOn of the index is that a community may be viewed as a "Gestalt" With its own dynamic personality characteristics, and that communities are mo"*-'-‘.’Lvated to improve themselves according to what communities believe to be "good" in terms of their own goals and objectives.25 The index attempts to measure a community's inclination to change. In Sitllations in which the community perceives a "threat" to its value 3 ystem, it measures the action taken to maintain the community's \ 24The responses of leaders and the individuals who cooperated in t . ahgcgi‘lot study would indicate that it was easier to take this kind of renter-k8 using this method. The responses included these or similar One 33 "It was easier and didn't take so long."; "You dispose of 5111.3“estion and go on to the next."; "It didn't seem like a test at he average time for the. scale was 11 minutes. How Czslndex of adjustment and values, "Basic Assumptions Concerning Hie. .Omluumties Grow and DevelOp," A.E.S. Dept., College of Education, gan State University, 1956. .. arm, 81 status 9:10 - Also, in other situations in which no threat is perceived, action can be taken to promote community's inclination to change. Leadership within the context of the index is viewed as contributing situations in which communities acknowledge, identify and resolve con- fliCt Within their conception of ideal community. When people feel dissatisfied with their community they are indexed as having a high inclination to change. Community leadership would be much surer of support. for community improvement projects in such a case. The index of adjustment and value was used to show that leaders in a fringe community perceive the community problems differently than do the People in a fringe area community. IMPORTANT EVENTS IN THE PROGRESS OF THE STUDY ° This study in a sub—hypothesis states that: The greatest articu- 1"-?L-Jt-':“-‘O&,2:f;leadership revolves around the school. An indication that this Was true in the Warren School Community came to light when on May 28: 1956, the Coordinating Council for Community Development met 1‘ or the first time in the high school. The meeting had been called by th e schOol borad in an attempt to coordinate the community plans of s' . 1x dlfferent governmental agencies, industry, labor, social agencies, and the community churches . The reasons for calling the meeting were stated as follows: 1. The Warren Consolidated School District lies in six (6) different governmental units and is in a unique position of being he only common agency serving all of these people. 82 2 . Tremendous growth (both now and in the future) in this 30 sq11are mile areas points up many problems of which the educational problem is but one. 3 . There is a need for c00perative planning involving all agencies. 2.; . The fact that there is only one tax paying public points up the need for careful cooperative integrated planning so that there is no dilution of fiscal resources through unnecessary uncoordinated duplication of effort. 5;. In order that all may be served there is need for the development of a master plan identifying areas for housing, industry, commerce, schools, churches, recreation, parks, libraries, etc.26 Since its initial meeting in May, the group has met four times. The executive board has met six additional times to plan and coordinate the group ' s over-all function. The author was privileged to meet with how the executive board and the council itself at all the meetings, before the depth interviews were conducted. The meetings provided in- sights into potential community development and gave the author Oppor- tunities to meet and know many of the leaders on an informal basis. Important to this study is the fact that the school as a govern- mental a-gency initiated a coordinating and planning group for the community . The school as a social agency, recognizing its responsibility in a wider sense, brought together other governmental and social agencies Within the school district to effect over-all community planning and COOPeI‘ation. According to Paul Reid, Director, Detroit Metropolitan 191331115118 Commission, "This is the first effort for cooperative community N 26 Co .mmtes of May 28, 1956, Meeting of Coordinating Council for Qty Development, Warren, Michigan. éd‘flm. » .Lt.dlnl.b..' Hg 83 27 planning on a school district level in this nation." Reid's comment would emphasize that such an effort by the school as a social institution was different. According to his stable community orientation, this was "a different kind of leadership role for educational leadership." Another event of significance occurred on October 2, 1956, when the voters of Warren Township (fourteen square miles were a part of the Warren School District) voted in a special election to become ‘a city. This election also provided for a city council and a mayor to replace the long Out-moded township government. (See map page 1114) The development was significant in that this meant a step forward in functional government. It allowed the local government considerably more fI'f-l‘eciom in develOping adequate roads and public services. It was 931390131137 important to the portion of Warren Township included in the Warren 3011001 District. The new methods of finance and other municipal regulations now permitted the extension of roads, water, and sewer faCilities to waiting real estate develOpers. PLAN FOR ANALYSIS OF DATA The methodology called for considerable analysis at various stages Ch)!“ 8 lng the actual data collection. It was necessary to us sociometric dev' the Communit lees in determining the actual leadership structure of ' Yo T . he hlStori cal profile and community informati on were completed and oh ' 80ked Prior to the time the interviews actually were begun. The \ Cou 27Pau1 Reid, Minutes of May 28, 1956, Meeting of Coordinating ncil for Community Deve10pment, Warren, Michigan. g I :1 8h questions of the first interview were coded and checked so that unex- pected findings could be confirmed or rejected during the second inter- view. Preplanning with Dr. Bosworth in his office at Northern Michigan College permitted an analysis of the Bosworth Scale. An item analysis of the scale was later worked out and it proved to be valuable in under- standing leaders‘ responses. A complete coding of the depth interview responses attempted to bring out the varied reactions as well as direct answers to the inter- view questions. The contrasts provided in certain responses tended to confuse the results until a pattern appeared. The analysis of the open end questions involved responses from only seventeen leaders, so I.B.M. cards were not used. The methodology as a whole has focused first upon the leadership Structure and secondly upon the leaders' attitudes and opinions concern— ing the community organization and the leadership role of the school. A comparison of the findings of this study with those of other similar Studies made in stable mature communities, revealed facts with important 1 . .. o o o o o mpllcatlons for educational leaders in fringe area communities. .- 19min l ‘l CHAPTER IV THE WARREN SCHOOL COMMUNITY INTRODUCTION The Warren School community is pictured here as a developing com- munity in the fringe area of Detroit, Michigan. The fringe development started before World War II and was a gradual normal development until five Years ago. Since 1952, when General Motors began their 67 million dollar industrial development within the school district, the technical and PhySical changes have begun to noticeably change the social structure and a“UVIOSphere of the community. These deveIOpments have made necessary the building of more homes, the expansion of schools and utilities, the construction of new roads and streets, and the extension of social services . In effect, such expansion is expressed by McClennan, of the Troy Planning Commission, "fringe communities grow by concentratiDni 1 small PrOblems become large ones." It is on this background of tremendous industrial and business exPension that the Warren School District is pictured at the time of this study. The present population of the thirty square miles included in the School district is estimated at 16,500, but the projected popu- lation in 1965 is 100,000. Warren Village population was 727 in the 1950 \ War 1Hel'll'y McClennan, Coordinating Council for Community Development, ren, Michigan, Executive Committee Meeting, June in, 1956. 85 86 census but was estimated as 2,500 in October, 1956, or an increase of 2 2143.9 percent up to the time this study was made. A HISTORICAL PROFILE In order to understand the leadership picture of the present com- munity organization one must have a knowledge of the community's past organizati on and history. The significance of a historical profile is primarily that of developing an adequate understanding of the cultural foundations of social policy. An adequate understanding of the contemp- orary 30018.1 cultural aspects of the Warren School community would permit a. more effective interpretation of the present leaders' attitudes and Opinions. With this thought in mind the researcher spent consider- able time deveIOping a historical profile of the Warren School community. This chapter does not present a complete historical account but rather aflitempts to focus on meaningful aspects of the community‘s history; that is, to focus on these shifts in community organization or 300131 Policy which are significantly related to community development. The leadership structure is cumulative in nature and changes according . 3 to the beliefs and attitudes of the community of which it is a part. BaSic to any community are the people who live and work in it. This coImmunity was originally settled by German immigrants, many arriVing before the Civil War. These early residents farmed good land and 1956 2Detroit Metropolitan Area Regional Flaming Commission, October, 3R0'nald L. Warren, Stud ‘11 Your Communit , New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1955, p. 35%. 87 prospered, and as usually occurs in community development, a village center formed. It grew and prospered at the present location of the Village of Warren. The village served as a trade center to the farm people who lived in the general immediate area now served by the school district with which this study is concerned. (Note figure 2 on page 1114) A closely knit sociological unit identifying itself with Warren Village resulted. The social policy, reflecting a typical rural com- munity, was conservative, with a body of beliefs and values definitely directed toward maintaining the M 932 of a small rural village and the surrounding rural area. The rural and ethical code, derived largely from Protestant Christian principles, provided a strong foundation for law and order which even today are highly valued. The Methodist Church was organized over 110 years ago , followed in seven years by the German Evangelical Reformed CWCh- Even today the latter church holds a dominant place in the religious and social life of the school community. With such a moral setting the basic social institutions, particularly home and church, were of great importance. The informal patterns of 15-va centering in the home and church tended to be more significant than 0their formal institutionalized social patterns. The community setting just described remained predominant until 1920 When hard-surfaced roads, a land boom, and the automobile made POSSible an initial disturbance in the community's rather pastoral scene. The first newcomers came from Detroit in search of country homes. The depression years put an end to this movement, however. Gradually these 88 first newcomers were absorbed into the rural atmosphere. Then, in the late 1930' 8 another movement into the school community began. This move- ment was of peOple attempting to find tax relief and a cheaper source of food direct from the land. These newcomers too tended to become a part of the school community. It was their influence along with technological advances that made the conservative rural atmosphere begin to change. Included to help promote change were such things as rural electrification, mechanical farm power, radio, and improved roads. Farm youth could now leave the farm and find work in the war industries. Community change became the 'key to community improvement. Beginning about 1938 the need in school district reorganization became evident in the Warren School community. It was at this time that "social change" became more acceptable. The school system of the village 0f Warren joined with nearby primary school districts to provide a secondary education for all the youth of the community. The new consoli- dated SChool system provided the war training programs that became common for many community residents. This natural gravitation to the school as a center for community functions continued after the war when community recreation and 530131 acJDiVj-tiies were offered through the school. Almost all activities of the corn”unity were centralized at the school. This accelerated institu- tional role of the school then became a part of the community's social 1301103,. The school played a vital role in community life. From the a uthor' S observation and personal experience this would seem to be a t ”1031 role for the school to play. in a fringe area. 89 A fringe development had occurred in an almost unnoticed fashion just prior to and during the war. By l9hS-l9h6 both rural and urban land use had become common within the school district as workers attempted to provide housing near the war plants. These housing developments were not planned and usually provided sufficient land for gardening or part- time farming. There was a definite mingling of people who worked on the farms and those who pursued urban occupations. These changes in a conservative rural community would indicate that a fringe development was W911 underway before the war ended. In the post war years the pOpulation continued to build up as indi- vidual farmilies bought home sites and built homes. These newcomers were Still Pioneering in a new kind of social development. They had to pro- vide for their own water and waste disposal, and most of them sought out this pioneer life because they liked it. For those who became dissatiSfied, there were others searching for such holdings who were ready to take their places. These people as newcomers found it rather easy to become a part of the fringe community's social policy. Their contributions were not only in terms of large numbers of children to be Educated , but they also had a vital interest in the educational program. Through the war years and the years that followed until 1952, a Steady Somewhat unnoticed change had taken place among the "old roots." Land then valued at higher and higher levels was used less for farming and more for real estate development. The newcomer who gardened was ace . epted: and between the new and the old a certain bond was established whi ch peI‘mitted a growing together. Much of this was fostered by rural 90 extension groups in homemaking and still more on a community-wide basis by the school and its recreation and social program. The churches in their extensive and extended programs encouraged a community approach. Catholic and Lutheran churches were provided as members of these church groups requested and received assistance from their churches at large. At this point in 1952 before the General Motors industrial develOp- ment the community social policy might still have been termed "conservative." However, it was subject to change in many areas. The moral code emphasiz- ing the still dominant Protestant interpretations of spiritual and social ethics sex-ved as an important conditioner of social action. The new- comers and old roots were not too far apart, especially in their dis- inclination for urbanization and urban values. The final phase in this historical profile may be described as a “353 deVelopment. Included as a key factor was the develOpment of General Motors Technical Center and the Chevrolet Engineering plant just south of the village of Warren. This General Motors industrial development gave a growth stimulus by. Providing adequate utilities, primarily sewer and water, for mass housing developments. The tax base was raised significantly which in turn brought in revenue for new school buildings and expansion. A real estate boom has forced most farmers to consider selling but many are Still farming. Probably one reason for this is that taxes have I10t been forced beyond a reasonable level. Other industrial expansion iS inevitable as more land is purchased by industry in the golden mile. Bus iness in the form of shopping centers, outdoor theaters, and 91 recreational establishments have begun development within the school district area . The question of what all this development and expansion means in terms of social policy is the purpose of the larger Warren School Community Study conducted by the Administration and Educational Services The effect it has had and may continue to have upon the Much Department . leadership structure of Warren is of major concern to this study. of what is now taking place can not yet be interpreted since technologi- cal and physical changes move far ahead of the more slowly changing and developing social policy. A Picture of the present setting, as developed by the Warren School Commmity Study,4 is presented in Table II. This table reveals pertinent information concerning the 12).; respondents in the random sample. SEVeral interesting facets of information bear pointing out. Socially integrating forces in the community are reflected in the high percentages of home ownership, of church attendance, and of young couples living in the school district area. By contrast the social disintegrat- ing forces are also at work and can be noted in the small degree of participation in community organizations, the need to find recreation outside of warren, and the lack of adequate shopping facilities. Some Effort is being put forth to correct the undesirable community features; yet it Seems unlikely that, in face of present population increases, these efforts will be sufficient to meet the needs. \ 4 . 1956 _ Mlc31‘11'|.gan State University Warren School Community Study, July, 92 TABLE II PRESENT CONDITIONS IN THE WARREN SCHOOL COMMUNITY Description Number Percent 1. Number of persons per home 14 ~- 2. Less than hO years of age 79 63 3- Owning their own home 119 95 h. Husband's occupation labor affiliated 80 6h 5- Wives gainfully employed 15 12 6. Shop in Warren for food bl 33 7- Shop in Warren for clothing 5 )4 8° Shop in Warren for appliances 8 6 9- Bank in Warren 68 55 10° Attend church in Warren 7h 60 11- Find recreation in Warren ’42 3b 12. Residents one year or less 37 30 13' Participate in 2 or fewer organizations 73 59 1h. Identified 3 or fewer community leaders 101 81 93 THE LEADERS OF WARREN SCHOOL DISTRICT Within any given physical setting leadership itself is resident in the people who play the decision making roles. The following sketches of the persons who are leaders in the Warren School community will necessarily include something about their physical surroundings and about the dynaxrdcs of their relationships. Of the forty persons identified most often as leaders by the random sample heads of households, the largest number were found to occupy formalized positions of authority within the framework of government. This is significant to the study only as it highlights the tendency of newcomers to identify people in positions of governmental authority as leaders . Of the leaders identified at the first level, twenty held either appointive or elective governmental positions. The next largest group 0f leaders identified was composed of five religious leaders or 12-5 Percent of the total group identified. Other individuals identified were associated with other areas of community business and professional life. This is not to indicate, however, that position alone determines leaderShip. As will be noted later leadership is a shifting, changing factor and such other factors as education, personal success, and p0tentia1 ability are also important to a leader's influence. The descriptions of community leaders which follows leaves until later the placing Of them in their structural relationships. servsl'lteen persons were identified by 15 percent or more of the top twenty 1eaders. What these leaders do , and the positions they hold 9b become important in placing them in the leadership structure of the communi ty - The leaders highlighted in the study my be considered typical of the persons playing decision-making roles in the Warren School CormrmrL‘i by . (See Table III.) The table shows the importance of formalized positions and legalized authority in determining a leader's position. All but six of these persons had completed college or university training; several had com- pleted graduate work beyond the master of arts degree. COMMUNITY-WIDE LEADERS Individuals filling the various leadership roles within the fringe CONW‘ity are much the same as other persons except that they have been more Willing to accept and assume responsibility. One person in a formaliz ed position as superintendent of schools, contributed a great deal to community life. Shortly after his arrival in the community in 1938 as School superintendent, his leadership was responsible for the school district's reorganization. The lack of an adequate county health program bECame evident just before World War II. Working with other intePeSted leaders within the county, he was instrumental in establish- ing a cc>12L1'1ty health program in l9h2 which recently has been extended to include an experimental mental health study in the Warren School District . In more recent years other community-wide controversial issues have dweloped and in nearly a patterned fashion, this person identified by 6 0° e number 1 on Table III, page 95, has been asked to represent the 95 TABLE III OCCUPATIONAL POSITION OF TOP LEADERS IN A FRINGE SCHOOL DISTRICT Leader ' 8 Occupation Major Areas Number of Member- Code No - of Leader- ships in Community ship Organizations 1 Superintendent of schools Education 13 2 Township supervisor Government 7 3 Public works Government 5 7 Minister Religion 7 8 Assistant superintendent Education 13 of schools 10 Homemaker Education 7 11 Recreation director Government 15 12 Local priest Religion 3 ‘18 \Iisiting teacher Education in 22 Minister Religion 12 2S Salesman Education 9 26 Homemaker Voluntary organi- 12 zation 37 Attorney Government 3 8 3 Public utilities Education 7 39 Assistant regional manager Government 10 hC) Secreta Chamber of Informal 5 r3" Commerce h2. Insurance Informal S -\ 96 community - One such issue was that of the North East Detroit Airport. It was ‘proposed by Mayor Cobo of Detroit that several sections now part of the Warren School district be set aside for the airport. The legal procedllres were set in motion and only after the superintendent made a successful). presentation before the state legislature in Lansing was the issue resolved in favor of the Warren Community. The superintendent was spokesman and a key leader in nearly all stages of this community effort. In this instance as in many community functions on prior occasions, the leaderShip role played by leader 1 was the key to the success of the prOJGCt - After success in community projects had been assured he reverts to a 1988 conspicuous behind-the-scenes role. This leader could almost be considered one of the old roots, having lived in the community eighteen years. He is a man of middle age, fitting the hS-SO age bracket in this study. He is a man of average height and build whose quick sense of humor and ready smile enable him to make friends easily. Comments of other leaders concerning him such as, "He' 3 a good guy," or "He's a regular fellow," indicate a warm, out- going Per sonality. His educational background and training have stood him in good stead. He received his Ed. D. in education at the University of Michigan in 1951 ~' His background of small town living fitted well with the value SyStem of the Warren School community. His approach to community improvement projects can be noted from his comment concerning the com- munity "School approved swimming pool: "Five years ago in '1951 when I first Proposed a swimming pool I knew the people weren‘t ready for it. 97 Last year, though, when they voted for it 10 to l, the people felt that this was now their own project." It is this approach to community leadership which has enabled him to remain a top decision-mker through the years - Another person occupying more of a stimulative leadership role in the school community is 22. He is a person in the 60-65 age group who, as pastor of the Methodist church, has brought a challenge for the school community to broaden its horizons. With his experience and training in the office of regional director of the Methodist church in two different states he has ideas which have been challenging to the <30th ' s conservative value system. He has helped initiate a social integration of newcomers into the school community. He helds a doctor's degree in theology and has had considerable experience in working with people of all classes and creeds. His acceptance of a small parish outside Detroit was supposed to provide Opportmties for writing and study. Instead his time has been filled in aSSiSt-ing not only his own church, but also many in the community to see a broader vision of what the area might become. coupled with him in the efforts to broaden community thinking and planning particularly among the women is his wife, number 18. Her education and background is in social work and mental health. Trained in group work and with an understanding of the need for social inte- gration of newcomers she has helped initiate several community programs. These include the visiting teacher program and the experimental mental health S’ftoudy groups. Since no one else could be found to fill the 98 position of visiting teacher, she accepted on a temporary basis and has remained on the staff since. In the past three years her work in the community beyond the bounds of the church has given a vision to many of the old roots who may have questioned the need for planning and development in areas of social inte- gration. Her leadership is given more by example and counselling than in the form of official positions or offices. A leader whose training and background fit him well to direct the recreational program is number 11. He fits the age group of ’40-’45 having Worked in the community for the past twelve years in the recrea- tion field - Though having lived in the Warren School community only the P331} two years, he has been well informed concerning the problems and needs for thorough and effective planning. He is active as chairman °f the Dhcomb County Flaming Commission and has provided leadership in other directions. He beoame a member of the decision making group because of his tramillg and education. His master's degree in social work and his close Contact with all kinds and levels of people give him a basis fOI‘ umjers‘ba-I‘Lding community problems and for having leaders as well as f0llOWEI‘S place faith in him as a leader. Though considered a newcomer, his understanding and perception have permitted him an inside place in the deciSion making process. Next, number 7, a pastor whose role as a leader in the school com— munity c3011.1d be noted as that of an influencer has his pastorate in the Refo rmed Church of the community. The parish is by far the largest and 99 in it are found many of the persons identified as top leaders in this study. His understanding of many of the community problems and intimate knowledge of the entire social integration problem have permitted him to influence decisions in this direction in a number of cases. His interest and educational training in sociology and social work have broadened his perspective so that he encourages the use of church facilities for community functions including a day nursery school and many daytime meetings. He personally has visited every new family in Warren Village regardless of denomination to encourage local church Part'mi‘pation and finds in this activity an outlet for his community interest and his advanced social training. Leader 7 is a man in the hO-hS age group. He has lived in Warren the past, ten years. He has a personal preference for the smaller com- munity and has found in Warren the opportunity to project more than just the re:Lj~g:ious program of his denomination. Because of his religious bias his more restricted leadership role remains that of an influencer. The local priest, number 12 who also occupies a leadership role of influene er, is much concerned about education. By his own remarks though, he must serve in the role of stabilizer since he cannot permit the educational program of the parish to move too rapidly. "The Junior High School and Senior High School will need to wait until the present debt load can be reduced." The cooperation with the public schools in certain programs has been effective with a continued c00perative approacl—l to youth programs always encouraged. The obvious religious background prevents a very cooperative approach to soCial problems, 100 but commnity planning and community improvement projects finds support of this individual in his leadership role. An old roots resident identified by code number 3 was born and raised in MTarren Village and has lived in the community all of his life. Chosen as a top leader in the school commmity this person has tended to hold his position both because of his background in public work and because of his outgoing, warm personality. He is industrious, community—minded, and willing to support a good cause as his father did before him. His father helped establish the Warren Village High School. He held Office as mayor for twenty-five years and served his community in many Ways. Leader 3 was at the time of the study mayor of the Village or Warren and president of the Rotary Club. His contempt of other Old roots residents who gave money in support of worthy community causes but refused to give personal help could place him as a liberal. He like his father has had foresight in community affairs. His present POSitiDn as head of the public works department brings him in contact With many people. His educational background was limited to high school training. He is not wealthy but maintains a high middle-class standard of living. “I present in the 50-55 age group, he is a man whose leadership is based upon personality, political success, liberalism, and long-time residence in the Community. An Old time resident identified by code number 25 was also born and I'35-.L3ed on a farm in the Warren community. Until 1938 he operated his 0““ farm. His association with the Warren Public Schools began in 101 1939 at the time of the reorganization of the Warren schools. He has served on the board of education continuously since that date. His occupation at present is that of a merchandise salesman, covering all of the local territory. He is probably the only man of wealth among the leaders described. Most of this wealth he accumulated through the sale of land for development. Anoth er old-time resident, a widow who now operates her late husband' 8 insurance business with her son, remains a person of influence in spite o f no active comunity-wide leadership. Her former widespread leadership role on the board of education and in the county health pro- gram has continued to encourage her role of influencer. She is identified by code number h2. She was born and raised on a farm in the community but moved to the village when she was married and has lived there ever since. Her formal education was limited to one year or high School but it has been supplemented by constant reading. Her upper mi(idle-class status has enabled her to maintain a position of leadership even among the newcomers. She does not see in them a threat to the SC31'1001 community but rather feels that what is happening will eventually benefit everyone. In spite of her 60 plus years and old roots bac‘okground, her pattern of influence is liberal. An in-between group as to time of residence in the community are well represented by a woman identified by code number 26. The family moved to the school community twenty years ago and built their home in a secluded wooded tract. They intended to enjoy a rural life away from the hustle and bustle of the city. She and her husband soon became 102 involved in village and county activities. He has now served as state senator for many years. Her experience and training in nursing and public health work led to a natural responsibility as chairman of the County Health Board. She held this position for ten years and has since worked closely with the Y.W.C.A. program, Girl Scouts, and other volunteer social and youth_ groups. With her insight into the problems of newcomers, she has arranged special programs in P.T.A., assisted the community council, and worked on the mental health program. She was instrumental in bringing into the warren School District a branch of the Detroit Council of Social Agencies, and this extended her influence to many in the community. Another homemaker, identified as code number 10, who came into the community following the war years,has provided leadership for the P.T.A. and other local social and religious groups. She came into the leader- ship picture quite by accident shortly after she arrived. Because of her nmsical talent she was asked to sing for various groups, and soon she became an active member of most of the community organizations. Having a warm, pleasant personality and considerable talent has helped her give leadership to the P.T.A., community council, and the community recreation prOgram, Through her husband who is employed at General Motor's Techni- cal Center and is presently a member of the school board she has attained a POSition of rather high prestige for the short time she has lived there. An individual who might well be considered an old roots resident became acceptable as a leader only after years of striving to become a part of the social set. Identified as code number 38, this individual 103 arrived in warren twenty years ago in the post depression years. Because he was aggressive and persistent in his efforts to promote a good com- munity and to become socially acceptable, he is one of the busiest persons in warren. He holds offices in several groups and seems to be busy most of the time he is free from his job as public utilities director for the new city of warren. He is on the school board and has been very active in youth work and in the recreation program. His formal education ended with high school, but a later extention course in accounting has helped him in this work. An attorney, code 37, carried out a different leadership role. He is called upon for legal advice by many clients including the school district, the village council, and the township board. Being the only attorney in the local area, he is forced into a professional leadership role that doesn't wear too well. He finds himself in positions where Ins professional role conflicts with his role as a citizen. This con- flict and a past conservative cultural heritage have caused him to be over cautious in dealings within the community. He is not a leader in a true sense since his participation is seldom volunteered; yet, in another sense he is probably closer to the decision making processes than anyone else. He is a man in the hO-hS age group, whose large frame and rugged features make him stand out in any group. His office hours from 1:00 p.m. to 9:00 p.m. accommodate his clients better than the daytime schedule of a metropolitan attorney. By his own admission he is a poor joiner or organization man but he joins most groups out of business 10h courtesy- Thus, because of his conservative ideas and lack of interest in commmunity affairs his role is one of negative influence. Of the remaining persons who are new to the school district community, the township supervisor could be considered of the old roots rather than of the newcomers. He grew up and was educated in the southern edge of the township before entering the service in World War II. Upon his return he was active in the leadership school of the labor union. He moved on from labor into politics, where for a man of less than forty years he has been very successful. He is meticulously honest and forthright in his dealings and has gained stature by keeping close to the peO‘ple. During an interview he described his role as one of "liSteni—ng to everyone's problems, even the little man's, because to this Person his personal problem is the biggest one." Identified by code number 2, this person of the upper lower-class has moved 11p into the upper middle-class having built a large new mOdem home in Warren Village within the past two years. He is self 00118010113 about his lack of a college education but has has made up for this by initiative and drive. He was elected as the first mayor of the new City of Warren by a two to one majority. Because of his rural back- ground and a conservative religious training he has been more conserva~ tive than liberal, but has been willing to listen to the advice of experts in solving community problems. In his leadership role he has tended to be democratic and use the group approach, but by his own admission he loses patience with the process. His decision-making seems to be influenced more by what can be done "now" that will be best for Dec . pie, With less concern for what people "will think." 105 The lone person representing business is the secretary of the Chamber of Commerce who is identified by code number hO. This individual with a college degree in business and economics seems to have a basically negative approach to community problems. His training and background in a rural Midwest community have caused him to view each tax increase as detrimental to business, and his business training has caused him to question new ideas or changes in community functions. His responsibility in civic associational life is greater since he was appointed secretary of the Chamber of Commerce. Out of this position he has made consider- able gain in prestige. He moved into the Warren School district only recently but had been a member of several social groups for five or more years . He apparently enjoys the role he plays in which he challenges other leaders, the experts, or local officials, serving as a watch dog for the Chamber of Commerce. He is looked upon with some contempt by tOp leaders and with awe by the lesser leaders. His effectiveness as a leader Stems from his position and not from his personality. Several referred to him as the tool of industry and yet in reality he does not represent industry directly. He is instead a pseudo-leader whose erfect'iveness is limited to keeping top leaders on their toes. A newly elected city councilman, code 39, for the new city 0f Warren has lived in the community for ten years. As assistant regional manager of a large insurance company in Detroit, he exerts little influence on the fringe area community. In his leadership role as a home owner and oit‘ lZen’ he has through the years exerted a progressive influence. He 1 S a tall, athletic person whose training, education, and speaking 106 ability make him stand out in a crowd. He served as chairman of the citizen groupthat Opposed the Northeast Detroit Airport. He later served on the Warren Township Board before being elected to the city council of the new city of Warrenf At the age of LLB-50 years, he rather enjoys the give and take of Politics and represents the home owners' groups. The family is very busy and very active in social and athletic affairs. He coaches hockey and soft ball teams as part of the community athletic prOgram. Since the family is Catholic, the children attend parochial school and thus the family is less associated with Warren as a community than the family 0f any Other leader interviewed. His effectiveness in community projects stems from an aggressive approach and an inner secureness in dealing With people. The last person, code 8, on the list is the assistant superintendent or 80hools who as a newcomer in the commmmity has been accepted in most community organizations because of his formalized position. His back- ground in music and administration have given him the opportunities for leadership roles in many organizations. There is little doubt but that he has had the support of the superintendent in these matters; IVE-”t: he has made progress in his own right. He is a veteran and he has spent a good deal of time since the war in advanced study. He has only his thesis to finish before receiving his Ed. D. in education. It is clear that such descriptions as are given here are only a part. of the story that needs to be told. The purpose of these de - . - Scrlptlons has been to picture these leaders as persons in the more 10? abstract leadership structure of the Warren School comrmmity of the fringe area of Detroit. Certain of these leaders have tended to guide the commlnity more than others; none has tried to destroy the community but have rather intended to maintain the status guo. In this process some are hurt and others are made happy but only as a community is drawn together rather than split apart can it be said that a community is developing. In this study we are more concerned with the developing communi ty,‘ the analysis to follow will be concerned with understanding leaders and leadership in a fringe school district. CHAPTER V LEADERS AND LEADERSHIP STRUCTURE OF A FRINGE SCHOOL DISTRICT INTRODUCTION As this study attempts to establish a "rationale" as to leadership and its role in community develOpment in a fringe school district, the leadership structure is important. Leadership structure is here taken to mean the position of the status leaders in relation to each other and the People in the social framework of the community. The working hypothe- sis of this analysis is: Leadership in the Warren School District is Significantly different from leadershiLin a stable mature community. The S“ggested comparison would imply that the findings of this study will be different from those known to be characteristic of the leadership Sthtur‘e in mature stable communities. The findings concerning known characteristics of leaders and the leadership structure were accepted as basic assumptions.1 They were used to develop a word picture of leaders and leadership in a stable mature commnity. According to the accepted definition of a stable mature c(Drfllrrum',ty, it is a community which now has the seven basic ele- ments of community; namely, a population aggregate, inhabiting a del ' ' imitable, contiguous territory, sharing a historical heritage, _‘i 1 For reference to basic assumptions, see p. 7 , Chapter I- 108 109 possessing a set of basic service institutions, participating in a common mode of life, conscious of its unity, and able to act in a corporate way. Within the population aggregate is a community social system, based upon 2 roles, status, and authority, the upper element of which has been termed the leadership structure. THE LEADERSHIP STRUCTURE The first assumption describing leadership in a stable community was: Tile leadershij> structure is relatively stable and as diagramed is mammal in shapeLhaving steep sides rising to a narrowjlateau or ERE- This description refers to a community in which people share a culture based upon a history of living together, out of which have come traditions and value orientations that tend to fix status and the accept- able core values (accepted mores). A part of what the community tradi- tion has provided may be described as power. According to Robert MacIver 3 "Power i - - - 3 never a mere sub~ord1nation of many to one. It 18 always a . 4 hierarchy." Within a social system a hierarchy "is a structure of 5 power r"5318.1;ionships of varying amounts of power." The hierarchy described here may be referred to as the leadership structure within a mature COW-ty . ‘ 20138. New Yorkgrles P. Loomis and J. Allan Beegle, Rural Social Systems, Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1950, p. 787. 3 Leadership may be substituted for power in this study. 4 Com Robert M. MacIver, The Web of Government, New York: The Macmillian pany, 19147, p. 97. s Yale UHaJrold D. Lasswell and Abraham Kaplan, Power and Society, New Haven: Inversity Press, 1950, p. 201;. llO Acaording to George C. Homans' description: The pyramid tends to evolve spontaneously through the dynamic relations between the norms of a group, its activities, sentiments, and interactions. The tOp leader appears at the apex of the pyramid, working with a small group of lesser leaders; each lesser leader level by level works with his own small group of still lower rank until the broad base of rank and file are reached.6 Pictured in this way leadership structure then refers to the ordering of the individuals within a community social system according to status (rank) accorded by the system. In a stable mature community this con- dition, sometimes referred to as a closed system, makes it difficult for the democratic principle of equality of opportunity to operate. Such a situation usually results in a pyramid with steeper sides due to less diffusion of leadership. In this type of community, leaders may be fitted into the leadership pattern with relative ease. People know each other's status; the habits of the individuals tend to conform to the customs of the community. Due to the ordered arrangement of status and the compliance with custom and tradition, such a community is nearing maturity and is stable. In contrast to the well defined and regular leadership structure of a mature community, the leadership structure in a fringe community was hypothesized to be: diffused with a broad base. The pyramid is broad Egg flat when compared with the leadership structure in a stable commun- 221, .A major task in any analysis of community is encountered in delimiting and defining it as a structure or framework. 6George C. Homans, The Human Group, New York: Harcourt, Brace, and Company, 1950, p. 186. III In the study of the Warren School District in the fringe area of Detroit, Michigan, it became apparent very early that leadership was broadly diffused and that lay citizens were not sure who their leaders were. It will be recalled that the initial identification of leaders was secured during the random sample survey of the community, May 28th and 29th of 1956. The survey interviews (see forms, Appendix B) were conducted by a team of seventeen graduate students under the guidance of Dr. Karl Hereford as part of the warren School Community Project.7 A preliminary summary showed that 101 of the heads of households named three or fewer leaders during the random sample survey. This sample of lay people represented 81 percent of the 12h respondents and indicated a lack of community communication at the lay citizen level. This can be partially accounted for by the fact that thirty-five respondents or 28 percent had lived in the community less than one year. During the random sample survey it became evident to the author that the lay citizens were finding it difficult to identify community-wide leaders. In order to check his own interpretation of the situation and to shed more light on the issue a simple questionnaire was prepared. The questionnaire was given to each of the graduate students involved in conducting the survey to gain their impression of the seemingly apparent diffusion of leadership. The results of the survey of graduate students are presented in Table IV. Such evidence surely indicated that lay citizens had difficulty identifying community-wide leaders. The average "For a more thorough description, see p. 68, Chapter III. 112 u: a: m m m .mmpm oHnampmomm pmwpmH map cusp teapot wzHQSopm mpHHwooH map on op popcmp omSmH>mecH maompma hams op mpHsdEsoo .m n: t: It 4 NH .mcomnmm : to m corp egos hMHpcopH op pHdOHMMHp pH endow omsmHspmpsH msHmn mcompmm .m H m m m m .mpwome msz nthqsssoo mm mo pzmsozp ohms mumpmmH cognac .0 H a m o m .mHoonom cpwz pmpomQCoo mp op axosx mHaomm ohms mpwommH mm pmHMHpcmpH mHmomQ one .m nu m an s s .mpr mpmpmmH prznmpHchEoo msp on; 30px pom oHo pmzmH>pmch wHQomm .4 nu m tn OH m mnmnon mm omHMHpcmpH ohms mmsHQSOpm apHHmooH CH whopmmH mspmpm .m m u: I: OH m .quHpHmoQ «mace :H mHmomm mm anMHmepH hHmsww> mums mpmpme msznthchEou .m w m nn H n: .omka>hmp:H mHQomQ map an szosx mums mpmpme mpwzumpHnsEsoo .H ompmmmHQ mmpm< mecOnpm mmpmmmHQ QoHpmmso mmpm<_ hHmconpm pawsmpwpw u] BOHmHmHQ doomom zmmm<3 zH onmDhmHQ mHmmmMQ¢MH OB onBodmm m_zmbm mqmzH mqm<><><><>< X X (Index of adjustment and Community.Attitude Scale was given during the first interview. The scale attempts to measure the attitude of the individual toward community Progress. with those established as norms for the scale in Michigan- The summary presented in Table X compares tsp leaders' scores According to Claude A. Bosworth, 131 It appears that attitudes toward progress are generalized. Those citizens who are in favor of improving sewers tend to be in favor of other phases of community improvement such as new schools and hospitals, recreation programs, industrial deve10p- ment, and civic improvements. A SUMMARY OF RESULTS FROM THE BOSWORTH COMMUNITY ATTITUDE SCALE Percent Characteristics . Scale Norms Difference Top Leaders Score Score Total sax-nple 56 19.3 75-3 Age Level 31-140 50.1; 18.2 68.2 141 ~50 59.5 19.2 78.7 Sl~60 62.0 25.2 87.2 61 and over 15.1 214.9 70.0 EducalaiPn Level J.H -S. 9th grade or less 116.7 17.5 614-2 High school 62.5 8.5 71.0 COllege graduate 71.5 11.2 82.7 MerGI‘Shj-p in Organizations 3 Or more 60.1.1 1h.9 75-3 The comparative results in this case show a wide positive differential in the case of the leaders of the Warren School District. The fact that 21Claude Bosworth, "Community Inventory," Fast Lansing: Michigan State unlversity, Department of Comrmmity Service, June, 1955, P- 6- 132 the school community was oriented toward change and adjustment could have scewed the results toward the positive end of the continuum to some extent - Additional data in support of the premise was presented in the Bucks County Study. The study attempted to answer this major concern: To determine the extent to which a leadership group as reflected by its expressed attitudes is prepared to make ad equate adjustments to problems engendered by the rapid con- version of a semi-rural area to an industrialized urban area}2 The eighty-one respondents were intensively interviewed as to their attitudes concerning social change. Social change is considered, accord— ing to Bosworth's interpretation, to be similar to community improvement. In summary the authors make these statements concerning the adjustive potential of a leadership group facing social change. It seems safe to say, if attitudes are at all predictive of behavior, that the leadership group as a whole will assert its influence to effect positive adjustments to change. . . .The Power groups seems to be the most decisive influence on attitude toward change, in that it appears to be the dynamic variable reflected only in shadow form by other factors.23 The findings presented leave little doubt as to the validity of hypothesis five . COMMUNITY GOALS AND OBJECTIVES In Stable communities, due to their maturity, goals and objectives tend to be evaluated within the framework of community norms. In most instances these goals are formed out of a comrmmity's value pattern which 22Bressler and Westoff, _p. cit., p. 235- 23.IE1_<_3_., p. 2h3. Airman . . .lili.itll. 133 serves as a major determinant of community action. According to Pierce, "In its own way, each community establishes norms . . . and passes them on from generation to generation." 24 Using this frame of reference assump- tion six was stated: Leaders evaluate commnlitypg'oggess in terms of commonly accepted comminity gotls and otfiectives. The ideals and goals inherent in the concepts of long settled social policy present no extreme challenge to community leaders. The goals and objectives when set by commonly accepted social policy become a part of the citizens‘ value pattern. According to Hunter, "The more firmly fixed a P011037 is in the habits and customs of a community, the easier is the task 0f the decision maker.”5 In such situations a mature stable com- munity Inay easily evaluate progress since social policy outlines the commonly accepted community goals. Within fringe communities where social policy is in a state of flux and in Wiiich goals and objectives are in a constant state of examination and I‘G‘GXamination, a leader’s task in decision making becomes more diffiCUl‘t . Sub-hypothesis six was stated: Community progress in a fringe Community tends to be evaluated. in terms of expediency rather thanjlgnneigpgls and objectives. In fringe communities leadership becomes more critical due to a lack 0f effective communication and insufficient planning. In the Warren SCh001 D33-S‘trict an interesting sociological concept was proved in gather- ing the data; this was the core concept of comrmmity integration. When 24‘Pififl"ce, _p. git” p. 117. 25Hunter, _p. 9339., p. 207. 13b the researcher was interviewing leaders concerning community goals and objectives, this question was asked, "Would you say that people in Warren today have a common basis for measuring community progress?" The nearly uniform response was that people in Warren do have commonly accepted goals and objectives. A further discussion revealed that these goals were based upon the core values of a religious heritage, a friendly informal social atmosphere, a high value for schools and education, and a satis- fying family life. Such core values according to Muntyan are basic elements of the American community culture. These core values as a part of the culture are a part of the Warren fringe scene giving peOple a common basis for measuring community prOgress. Further discussion revealed that in the outer areas of community culture, which dealt with material matters, change was the common pattern. The once rural culture was fast disappearing; ethnic traditions were being shared and melded with others; technical advances made life easier, and people had become more other directed with less dependence upon internalized goals. In summary, the fast disappearing rural community culture, though being changed in a physical sense, still had a basic cohesive factor maintaining the sense of community. The newcomers were bringing about a change in the material sense through their demands for the conveniences of urban living; yet, the basic conservative rural village community culture had served to maintain purposeful goals. The findings in this case are significant only to the extent that the core values of American culture have been proved to remain constant in a fringe community. 135 A second question attempted to determine the present evaluative process in mmmmnrity improvements. The consensus of top leaders was that in the Warren School District community progress in the material sense was rmnsured in terms of expediency rather than planned goals or objectives. Tfius was evidenced by the kinds of responses recorded in Table XI. TABLE XI COMMUNITY PROGRESS IS MEASURED ON THE BASIS OF EXPEDIENCY Comments by Leaders Number 1. People want to see results 15 2. Community progress based upon things, roads, ’ buildings, services 17 3. Need this or that done today 10 h. Changes are forced by newcomers who expect services like Detroit 5} Plan only as much as you can pay for 7 The findings provided in the preceding pages confirmed that the core concept of moral community is still very much a part of fringe community and that this moral integration continues to provide a co- hesiveness in a social system which lacks unity. The hypothesis was supported and proved.valid on evidence provided by the top leaders. The urgency of the newcomers demands and the sheer numbers of people force action. 136 POLICY TOWARD NEWCOMERS AND RESOURCE PERSONS In a stable community social policy is affected by a conservative point of view and a body of beliefs and values reflecting the maintenance of a status gu . Any disturbance of such a social system results in conflict of some sort. In such a setting an altruistic spirit is seldom extended to the outsider since his presence usually represents a threat to someone. Out of this word picture assumption seven is stated: Leaders-accgpt help from outsiders only as such advice is essential in. deciding issues. Outsiders in this study refer to individuals new to the community whether they appear in the role of newcomer or the resource person as an outside expert. According to John Useem, Newcomers even with good family background or a reputation of high status may be welcomed warmly but are rarely accepted as functional members of the community until they have proven them- selves.26 Under unusual circumstances outsiders as experts may be called in to give advice in a conflict situation. Evidence that such advice is often used only to decide an issue rather than initiate a program is given by Hunter when he reports, The files of planning agencies in Regional City are crammed with 'expert' advice on what should be done to relieve some tensions in the city in spite of the distrust of the policy mak- ing group in Brain Trusters. But the fact that the bulk of the reports are filed indicates that action on many of the suggested programs has been stopped. The inference here is that stable communities wish to maintain a 26Useem, _p. git” p. 333. 2'7Hunter, gp, cit., p. 2h0. 137 gtgtgg ggg and that "expert advice" is often taken with "a grain of salt." In contrast in a fringe community, beset with ever-increasing numbers of new people and the problems which result, leaders welcome the resource person's advice. Subehypothesis seven stated simply is: Leaders willingly accgpt assistance from resource persons. If the number of resource people used in the schools and churches or in local government are considered, there is no lack of evidence. The researcher was privileged to be an observer in a variety of meetings in the warren School community. Resource people were apparently so common that his presence in the group seldom raised a question even though he often took notes. The top leaders by unanimous response indicated an acceptance of resource people because several pointed out their needs were greater than their human resources. The need for outside assistance seems to have prevented an open social cleavage between old roots and newcomers. The evidence given by the heads of households in the random sample Survey rated "acceptance of newcomers" in second place on a thirty item list of community characteristics. A majority of tOp leaders listed the community council program, the P.T.A. efforts, and the open door POIiCy of the schools and churches as indications of newcomer acceptance. This should not be taken to mean that none of the "old roots" resented newcomers. An undercurrent of feeling was indicated in comments by top leaders such as, "New people expect too much," "New pe0p1e don't under- stand," or, "New people never consider all these conveniences that have been provided for them and they never even lift a finger." Yet in spite 138 of such reactions these same people, without exception, commented in favor of working toward a friendly community and making the new peOple feel welcome. These findings in the data provide valid evidence for proving hypothesis seven. A RATIONALE AS TO LEADERSHIP IN WARREN SCHOOL DISTRICT A stated objective of this research was that of establishing an understanding of leadership in a fringe community. The data presented in this chapter have described leadership in a fringe community as being different from the leadership common in stable mature communities. In each comparison the findings pictured leadership in the Warren School District as a kind of leadership affected by the social milieu but in turn affecting the social policy through a positive approach based on expert help. The approach to establishing a picture of leadership in the warren School community began with a review of literature. The presentation provided a picture of the fringe as a developing community which lacked unity and in which the key to community development was leadership. A further finding showed the school to be an effective ally in successful community development programs. In order to be clear in setting the framework for this discussion the key terms were delimited and defined. Warren School District was pictured, in the community profile, as a developing industrial fringe community outside the city of Detroit, Michigan. Its social background had been rural, conservative, and Protestant; a moral code, derived largely from Protestant Christian 139 ethics, placed law and order high in value. In spite of the technical advances of science and the physical changes required in a fringe development, the core value concept of moral community was still very real. Faith in democracy, the moral good, and the dignity of man remained evident in the reactions of the people who made up the community's changing social system. Regardless of the physical setting, leadership is resident in the people who play the decision making roles. To locate leadership it is necessary to identify the individuals who are leaders. From them comes an understanding of what leadership is in their immediate social setting. The description given here can serve only as a bench mark since leader- ship, as an on-going dynamic process, is constantly changing. In Chapter IV an attempt was made to picture each tOp leader as a person. The preceding portion of Chapter V pictured the characteristics of Warren’s leadership as different from leadership in a stable mature community. What this implies will be discussed in Chapter VII. The immediate concern here is the development of a rational picture of the leadership in warren School District. According to the findings presented and discussed, the leadership structure in Warren is diffused and dispersed with ineffective communi- cation apparent. The leadership hierarchy has a broad base with a pyramidal structure that is broad and flat when compared with the leader- ship structure in a stable mature community. There are two neighborhood sub-communities within the school dis- trict. The leadership in these sections presents a similar leadership 1110 structure with educational leaders in each area playing important leader roles . Formalized authority is a prime determinant of the lay citizens' image of the community leader. This conception is due in part to the leadership roles being focused upon institutional problems and govern- mental symbol of authority and power. An important finding in this study supported by a similar finding in the Lower Bucks County Study showed that in fringe areas leaders' attitudes are positive toward change. The attitude of fringe area leaders is more individualistic and optimistic, paralleling the kind of leadership common to America's pioneer era. The same kind of atmosphere of anticipation and excitement is sometimes present, encouraging a certain individual recklessness in leaders so inclined. The ever present road-blocks to community development are noted in lack of finances and planning. An organization to promote planning is under way in the Coordinating Council for Community Development. A further evidence of positive leadership was provided in the community leaderS' attitudes toward newcomers and resource people. The willingness to accept help and advice in the solving of problems made possible an application of the democratic kind of leadership accepted as necessary to commmety development. GROUP CENTERED LEADERSHH> IN A FRINGE COMMUNITY In rapidly changing fringe communities, such as Warren, because of fluidity of pOpulation and the increasing smallness of the world, there fluid... .. .. .I.J!.| ,. Erw‘.\ 1hl is a new culture emerging. This new culture, a composite of many cul- tures, can have positive values and provide an atmosphere in which people, children, youth, and adults are free to develop and create the "good community life." A leadership that inspires such development and creativity cannot be taught as a subject, nor even be totally inspired by outstanding leadership; it must rather evolve from within each individual as he participates with fellow citizens in c00perative com- 28 munity improvement ventures. Group-centered leadership29 projected on the basis of democratic principles and procedures permits a broadening, expanding kind of leader- ship and enables willing and able citizens to become a part of an ever- growing leadership pattern. This reality-centered leadership, operating in the freedom of a democratic atmosphere, can encourage the develOp- ment of new inspired leadership in the group situation as citizens work together in solving their community problems. Such democratic leadership is essential because of the increasing demands for more leaders in an GXpanding developing community. The researcher attempted, in the warren Study, to gain an understanding of the kind of leadership, top leaders felt was being developed. Warren's top leaders during the personal interviews were asked this, question, "Do you feel that leadership is a key factor in effective c0mmunity planning?" Their unanimous agreement was supported by the reasons given in Table XII. i 28Abram T. Collier, "Business Leadership and a Creative Society," }hrvard Business Review, January, February, 1953, p. 9. 29Definition in Chapter I, p. 3- 1112 TABLE XII LEADERSHIP IS THE KEY IN EFFECTIVE COMMUNITY PLANNING ; Reasons Leadership is Key Factor Number 1. Leaders are needed at all levels 10 . Good leadership is a prerequisite to community development 8 3. Foresight and vision are essential 11 1:. People generally feel a need for planning 6 The leader's recognition of the need for help in planning and that the key to planning was leadership, led to a natural question of what type 035 leadership was needed in planning. A quick reference to the description of leadership usually resulted in a response concerning democratic leadership as different from autocratic type leadership. A summary of the responses concerning sufficient democratic leadership 1n Warren is given in Table XIII. TABLE XIII NEED FOR DMOCRATIC LEADERSHIP IN PLANNING :=:====::_ est‘ Qu lon: Does Warren, at present, have enough of the right kind of leaders for community planning? Yes 0 , Yes and No i , N013 \ Ch"=3-I‘acteristic Needs in Leadership Planning Number 12 3:: leaders who will accept outside help 10 eI‘s must be trained in some way 10 74.12:: leaders are needed if Warren keeps growing 10 ant planning and leadership training be combined 10 5° The he \w people are willing to help 8 1&3 If more leadership was to be provided leaders felt that there would need to be some kind of training program or a method of searching among newcomers for those willing to help. A camouflage of "leadership train~ ing" would be necessary if a formal training prOgram were offered. Outside help would be needed preferably in the form of resource people who could involve people in a participation type of training program. A lecture method or show and tell wouldn't work. The local institutions suggested in the first interview were the community council, C.C.C.D., the schools and churches. The summary of results between the first and second interview gave an impression that leaders, though aware of the need for more capable leaders, did not see in themselves the "very seed" for democratic leader- ship in their social environment. The desire for outside help and assistance, characteristic of deveIOping fringe communities, shows a lack of confidence in themselves but a functional respect for other people as possessors of ideas and experiences. To overcome such con- ditions a type of leadership is needed that is democratic in procedure, permits freedom, and the development in each individual his creative abilities and a social intelligence on the part of the community. In this procedure according to Dawson and Butterworth, Its function is not to pronounce policies and issue orders; it is to raise issues, make proposals, and by discussion and stimu- lation, by praise, by criticism tactfully given, and by patient work with others get them to participate in the formulation of poli- cies and activities.30 3°Julian E. Butterworth and Howard A. Dawson, The Modern Rural §£§ggl, New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 195?, p. 315} lhh By following the suggested procedure of Dawson and Butterworth, demo- cratic leadership becomes a learning situation and a leadership training program; at the same time the participants can solve their own problems. During the second interview the subject of leadership and community development was again discussed. A significant difference in attitude was noticed probably due to an intervening C.C.C.D. meeting. The response was unanimous agreement concerning the need for some type of formal leadership training, with immediate application possible. .A summary of their responses is shown in Table XIV. TABLE XIV TYPES OF LEADERSHIP TRAINING FOR WARREN SCHOOL DISTRICT Reactions to Formal Leader Training Number I. Use school facilities and have community council and churches help 12 2. Schools responsible but community organizations cooperate ll 3. would require personal involvement and immediate application 9 h. The training should be camouflaged as "How to Meet and Influence People." 7 5. Could be a regular part of adult education program 6 6. Use outside resource person for presenting training 5 The focused interview on leadership brought out several interesting findings relative to top leader's personal feelings about leadership. Leaders were asked, "When did leadership in community development become 1&5 interesting to you?" Eight of nine t0p leaders who were not natives of warren indicated that this interest developed after they came to Warren. For three persons this had been a part of their interest in college days. For seven leaders this interest in community progress came out of their interests in church and the desire to help others. When asked the question, "Do you enjoy working on community projects?" sixteen of seventeen top leaders responded favorably. The responses included such comments as, "It has made life seem worth-while," or, I enjoy working with people." The positiveness of community minded peOple was evident in leaders' reactions to the question, "Do you feel that most leaders are interested in the common good of the people?" Table XV summarizes their reactions. The Summary in the table gives the impression of community-minded leaders, people who would be willing to cooperate with others in develop- ing a sense of social intelligence and creativeness in solving community problems. As stated by Pierce, A major thesis here is that the welfare of communities and individuals is one and the same and that the role of community can be enhanced magnificently through cooperative action for others gelf-improvement. This in turn provides a setting of the highest levels of individual leadership attainment.31 The kind of leadership most adequately conceived for assisting in community development and improvement in the fringe community would be group-centered leadership. 31Pierce, 22: cit., foreward p. iv. /II\V 1H6 TABLE XV COMMUNITY MINDEDNESS OF TOP LEADERS Question: AAre leaders interested in the common good? Yes 16 No 1 Responses of Leaders Number la Real leaders don't have an axe to grind ll 2. In community work the leader has others in mind 10 3. If the leader is selfish, he won't last long 9 h. The work serves personal needs indirectly ll 5} Serves as the "oil" of community sociability ll 6. The small politician may get mixed up and believe they seek common good 7. It's true more people are willing if they are recognized 8. Community work does help a person grow socially W 12’ U1 U1 9. Personal satisfaction is minor for certain people CHAPTER VI THE ROLE OF THE COMMUNITY SCHOOL AS A SOCIAL INSTITUTION IN A FRINGE COMMUNITY INTR ODU CT ION The working hypothesis given in Chapter I was stated: Leadership _ilLthe MTarren fringe area is significantly different from leadership in Eitable mature community. The findings related to this hypothesis, Presented and discussed in the previous chapter, proved this hypothesis true. AS teas shown in Chapter V, leadership in a fringe area is different. Yet this very difference stresses the importance of the idea of community. In attelflpting to understand the social structure of a fringe school district this study revealed a developing community which lacked the unity and cohesiveness of a nature social unit. The peOple who made up the commmity, due to varied origins and backgrounds, were too recently neighbors to have shared the community's heritage. As citizens, many were not, even conscious of the community as a social system. Nor did they ITecognize a social policy as the possible framework for a common ”Ode of life. Indeed the contrast might well be that of the rugged pioneer individualist seeking life's satisfactions outside a social te - sys m ‘ These factors constitute a continuing force toward fragmentation in . Of terests in the developing fringe community. The obv1ouS lack 01' 1h? 11:8 mflfiflcient basic service institutions has a degenerating effect on the feeling of community in the fringe. In the face of a lack of community cohesiveness and unity in fringe areas, doubts arise concerning the developing of communities there. Though the fringe community lacks unity, the findings reported in Chapter V indicated that a core of ethi- cal, moral, and religious values, as the core elements of American culture, serve as a common basis of agreement. When peOple, as lay citizens, work for an improved community on the basis of these core ele- ments, a sense of unity and cohesiveness becomes apparent. The fast disappearing rural community culture also still provides a cohesive factor for maintaining the sense of community. Community studies have shown that fringe areas are not alone in their lack of community solidarity. America's industrial superiority today was made possible because men were free to either succeed cu-fail. The freedom of the pioneer era has been changed as industrialism changed society's way of life. Such advances in a technical sense have far outstripped our social sciences, leaving society far behind in the human relations side of life. According to Melby, "Human life has changed more in the past forty years than in all of human history."1 These changes present a fringe society, in addition to the particular fringe prOblems, with the kinds of prob- lems common to all segments. .According to Melby these are a very real de-emphasis of the family, an emphasis upon materialism rather than the 1Ernest O. Melby, Class notes in Theory and Practice of Administration, Spring Term, 1957. 1’49 core values of culture, and a definite "other-directedness" emphasis so evident in the "keep up with the Jones'" philosophy. These changes in American society‘s milieu have created social conflicts that are incom- patible with our democratic cultural elements of fraternity, equality, and lib erty . THE COMMUNITY SCHOOL CONCEPT These developments have resulted in a one-sided advancement of society so that society today faces an ever-increasing gap between technolo gical advances and the comparatively slight advance in human relations . It is in this culturally unbalanced setting that the com— munity school concept has been developing. The review of literature in Chapter II pointed out that the school has been viewed increasingly as a positive and dynamic force in helping to stimulate, assist, and give leadership to community development programs concerned with the improve- ment of community living. The review also indicated that the comrmmity school concept has now been applied in social environments other than the rural culture where it first became meaningful as a socially cohesive and unifying force. Schools in small cities, suburban areas, and in large urban areas are now making an application of the community school concept. Success seems dependent upon many variables. One of the most significant long-time experiments concerning the community school was conducted in the state of Michigan under the sponsorship of the Kellogg Foundation. This experiment, known as the Michigan Community School Service Program, ,. .. ‘ .H. ‘5 new ‘0‘ «\V ‘5. z. lSO attempted to gain a better understanding of the potentialities of the community school as an institution for community improvement. The community school definition accepted for this study was pre- pared by the Michigan Committee on the Instructional PrOgram of the Community School as reported in Alvin Loving's2 thesis. The two basic criteria are supported by ten constructs:3 which describe ten roles, six supporting the first criterion and four supporting the second criterion. The complete definition also presented in Chapter II is given here to facilitate easy reference. A. The community school serves and enriches society 1. By surveying community needs and resources 2. By giving initial leadership to constructive community improvement projects 3. By helping to develop a sense of community, both in children and adults b. By expanding and diffusing leadership throughout the community 5. By practicing and promoting democratic procedures 6. By coordinating all constructive efforts to improve community living. B. The community school reflects and involves community resources in the school's instructionalyprggram 1. By using human and material resources in the instructional program. RAlvin D. Loving, "Crystallizing and Making Concrete the Community School Concept in Michigan Through Study of On-Going Community School Practices," Unpublished Ed. D. thesis, Wayne University, Detroit, Michi— gan, 19514, P- 3. 3For a definition of constructs see p. 39, Chapter II. 151 2. By building the curriculum around major human problems 3. By involving all persons concerned in planning and appraising the school program h. By being genuinely life-centered as a social institution The definition stated in action terms came out of the contribu- tions of twenty-five community schools in Michigan. As Loving points out, "In Michigan a fractional approach to the community school concept has developed all over the state, sometimes in just a classroom, some- times in a school, sometimes in a community, but rarely in all three." The degree to which the ideal of the concept will be reached depends upon the educational leaders' comprehension of the significance of community in the classroom and the total program of the school. THE COMMUNITY SCHOOL CONCEPT: A DESIGN AND A REALITY Any theoretical design when put into practice seldom reaches the intended level of perfection. For this reason the discussion to follow is not intended as an evaluation of the Warren Public Schools. Rather, the discussion is intended to show that the community school concept has a theoretical application as well as a ppactical application in the gghools of fringe communities. There is bound to be a gap between theoretical and practical application. This gap need not be an indict- ment against society but rather, if viewed in proper perspective it can serve a very useful purpose. ‘Loving, _p. cit., p. 2. 152 At no time in history has man been able to function at the level of The ideals. There would be two ways to narrow this gap: one would be to lower the ideals and accept a status 922, the other would be to raise the level of practice toward the ideal. The lowering of ideals would eliminate the goals to which society might aspire. The result of a gtatg§.qgg acceptance would be a stagnate sterile society. On the other hand, to use Plato's5 allegory of the cave, "Everything we see or sense is only a shadow of the real thing." Every school pro- gram, patterned after the community school concept, is a representative of the ideal. The ideal cannot of itself be changed, but the representa— tive of the ideal can be improved or altered. Out of the theoretical conception or design ideas continue to be created that have application in the practical sense. In the discussion to follow the gap between the suggested ideal and the actual application should be viewed as the area in which creative and dynamic educational leadership finds its oppor- tunity. .Another clarification should be made: that the suggested ideals are oriented to the fringe community not only as described in the find- ings of this study, but also as they may be applied to fringe communities anywhere. Though the resources and physical features are different, fringe communities are similar in many ways including the type of social system, the acceptability of change, the diffusion of leadership, kinds SFrancis MacDonald Cornford, The Republic of Plato, New York: Oxford University Press, 1955, pp. 227-31. 153 e of social institutions, and the emerging fringe type culture. The suggested ideals came from the definition reported and described by Loving and those given by other authors. These ideals were synthe- sized and reported here by the author in relation to conditions considered peculiar to developing fringe communities. Only those ideals of the community school concept that have a special application in a developing fringe community were included. Others,having application in every community school, apply in fringe schools of course, but were not dis- cussed. ,— I In accord with the findings of the Michigan Study, no one program can be complete or be expected to serve as an ideal, but a part of the program may serve as an incentive or objective for any fringe school. As a re-emphasis, this study, being concerned mainly with leadership, does not suggest that the examples taken from warren Schoolis program were the only accomplishments of the school in that area, but rather they are used to show that the community school concept has application and can be effectively implemented in fringe schools. The Michigan Community School Concept's Criterion was stated as follows: The community school serves and enriches society. Criterion I was crystallized and made concrete by six constructs stated in.action 6O. B. Wilson, "Functions of Leadership for Rural and Rurban Schools," Speech.delivered at the A.A.S.A. Convention, Atlantic City, February, 1957. p- h- 7Maurice F. Seay and Ferris W2 Crawford, The Community School and Community'Self Impppvement, Lansing Department of Public Instruction, 195K 15b 8 terms in Loving's dissertation. These constructs describe a community school's role in community improvement programs. The effective teaching of democratic principles also becomes more important in the community school's citizenship education role. The first construct of the Michigan Community School Concept was established as: The community_school serves and enriches society by, surveying community needs and resources. In fringe communities due to their constantly changing material and human resources, this service by a community school can fill a vital need. Such information is used to identify community needs, facilitate planning on a community level, and provide, when disseminated to the teaching staff, important resource information to make the school‘s curriculum vital. Such a project could well be a part of the social studies curriculum of the school on an annual basis since the fringe community's changing resources make invalid the information collected the previous year. In the ideal situation this kind of project would involve teachers and students, but would also include lay citizens, particularly those concerned with planning and community development. Such adult partici- pation would legitimize the procedures in the minds of skeptical citi- zens. .An additional and important aspect of fact finding surveys to citizens is that the surveys highlight economic needs of the whole community; Once highlighted, significant economic problems can'become _— 8Loving, _p. cit., p. 3. 155 the basis of high school and adult education class discussions as the community seeks solutions. When community planning begins an action program, which often follows a fact finding survey, the project usually has the cooperative support of most citizens. The life of the entire community tends to be better because neighbors understand one another and there is a new vista to be reached and surpassed. In the Warren School District, according to the principal, one such survey was conducted "some years ago" on the subject of opportunities for youth. When the teacher left, nothing further came of the project. A year ago, as part of the warren School Community Project, community information used in this study was collected. The second construct of the concept was stated: The community, gphool serves and enriches society_by giving_initial leadership to con- structive community improvement_projects. In fringe schools educational leadership can more easily be a part of the leadership structure and many times may be a part of the decision making group. In such instances the educators stimulative leadership can serve a dynamic purpose in helping others to help themselves as the educational leader provides information, ideas, and enthusiasm for the enterprise under discussion. This is more readily possible since leaders in fringe communities more willingly accept the help of resource people. Educational leaders, due to their tieining and experience, generally have access to many more resources than the citizens. 156 The success of these kinds of community efforts helps give citizens confidence in the school and in turn opens avenues for leadership train- ing and personal stimulation on a human relations level. Not all the progress in such projects can be measured in material gains. As someone pointed out, "nothing succeeds like success," and in this respect an educational leader's contribution may be the most important he can give. The effective use of interested, capable, and democratically trained student leaders may serve as a stimulus to citizen groups and to the school‘s program. warren*s contribution under this construct has been rather signifi- cant due in part to the individual educational leaders and also to com- munity acceptance of an active decision making role on the part of the school board to promote worthy community improvement projects. An example is the present community school indoor swimming pool being constructed at the high school. The superintendent of schools pointed out that five years ago when he suggested a swimming pool for joint use nothing happened; yet, today it has become a reality due to his stimulative leadership in the citizen group that carried the project to completion. Many other similar projects have become a part of this school community due to school-community cooperation. It is under this construct that the author wishes to suggest imple- mentation of the group centered leadership training suggested by top leaders as discussed in Chapter V. It is under conditions such as these that volunteer lay citizens can be given democratic group-centered leadership eXperience most effectively. According to Gordon, 157 Most groups in our culture are operating far below their maximum potential. An effective group would be one which provided the opportunity for its members to develop new skills, that is to increase their own potential. A group experience could be made a growth experience for individuals, so that the potential of the total group would always be increasing. There is a tendency to overlook the more long range criterion of how much the group is enhancing its members or develOping future leadership, how much each individual is encouraged to develop and increase his own potential.9 This development of the community's human resource potential is an important aspect of the educational leader's stimulative role. The come munity school following this group-centered lay participation policy is providing a good foundation for the community‘s democratic ideals and provides an effective leadership training device which does not require camouflaging which was suggested by leaders in warren. The third construct as stated was: The community school serves and enriches society by helping_to develop_a sense of community, both in children and_adults. There is no more important meaning of community than in relation to the peOple who make up its population aggregate. To many peOple who live in developing fringe communities their personal and social attachments are actually located in the urban area from which they came. In.such a setting the community school has an important role to play in helping to develop a sense of community among newcomers. Many groups within the school can work to help accomplish this socializ- ing orientation role. Definite projects by the P.T.A. can help welcome new people: rotating room mother techniques at the grade levels, P.T.A. companion programs, and assigning newcomers as members of every committee. 9Thomas Gordon, Group-centered Leadership, New York: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1955, p.37. . t’t, “"5 I“, , 3M“ W 9:. u ‘ \1 r"- "'h-- a V Nun.” . hr “ “A9,: my- “2", ““3 L1 7\ \ / a ’ / 5,1 / I ’j to» , / v ,‘u ,/' t C: ,‘L A“, .M M “N H‘K\S \; '\ 158 Mfithin the school there should be a student policy formulated of making new students feel at home, of making them a functional part of the school program, and of using their previous experiences as a means of enriching the instructional program. A further suggested ideal would be for the community school through a school newspaper or community public relations program to publicize information about community functions of all types. The school can serve as a coordinating and facilitating agency for youth and adult social groups. Out of such a beginning many community councils have been started and now serve to develop an ever larger sense of community through community festivals, athletic contests, and other programs. In Warren the school serves as the first community link for new- comers. A common pattern may have develOped; at least this kind of experience was related more than once in the researcher's experiences there. The new family*s first contact came through the children in school and was followed by a contact from the room mother and/or a special invitation to P.T.A. The next community experience came out of a desire for children to be with playmates in church or community functions. In.a short time newcomers who had become involved referred to warren as their home. For some peOple the sense of community became real in a few months; for others this experience took two years or more. iLn warren developing a sense of community was consciously encouraged and extended by its schools, churches, and community council. In a very real sense this kind of community action is a vital part of making democracy meaningful . no,” '. ’ . ' " \ F no... an.“ _ v ”f ""‘r~'o., <5; ”um... ';' v u... 0,3. .. Av . A '- n-.-."_ V\. C. . u. ."‘ A r u u “5.1 as \ \ I!” v t ‘ \‘x . .1 I A. 'n ‘s‘. 159 The fourth construct was stated: The community school expands and diffuses leadership throughout the community. The role of educational leadership overlaps here with the previous constructs discussed. The community school when supported by an advisory council is in an excellent position to assist in expanding leadership. The suggested ideal here is that, as an advisory council sets up study groups and committees, training sessions in leadership and effective group work can be made a part of the planned procedure. A further ideal would be that students as well as adults be involved in these procedures. A steering committee, while operating on an administrative basis in its planning and redirecting procedures, can evaluate leadership processes as well as the results of accomplished work. If such a program is developed on a definite and planned basis while solving meaningful and important problems, leaders will learn leadership lessons that are permanent. Such a leadership training prOgram at Warren had not been consciously planned, but there was considerable evidence that leaders were being helped indirectly. The fifth construct was stated: The community school serves and enriches society by practicing and promoting democratic procedures. Of all the constructs of the definition this one is most difficult to describe or suggest as an ideal. At no time in American history were the democratic ideals more real than during the pioneer era. The fringe community, often exemplifying a similar atmosphere, can offer the same opportunities. Among these would be group-centered leadership based on 160 a faith in people, a democratic atmosphere in the school for staff and students alike, and a real attempt to involve students, parents and teachers in planning the school's curriculum, new facilities, and an adult education program. An important aspect of such a community program would include the involvement of people in cooperative work on real community issues. Only as democratic experiences become real on the individual's level do they have a lasting effect. The warren school-community has not been as active under this con- struct as it might have been. The only emphasis in the school of a democratic nature has been in the area of teacher planning of new school buildings. A lay advisory council was attempted on one occasion but failed. Democratic procedures have been applied only in an indirect fashion. The sixth construct was stated: The community school serves and enriches society by coordinatinggall constructive efforts to improve community living. The suggested ideal in a fringe community would be a community planning and developing agency beyond the often suggested community council. The ideal suggested would be a high level governmental, school, and community group whose purpose is community planning and deve10pment. It would be composed of lgy_citizens who, though in formal positions of tOp leadership in civic, business, and social groups, would work together using democratic procedures and methods in solving the immediate problems and in developing long time plans. This planning and coordinating group would be close enough to the sources of community authority to accomplish constructive community improvement. Included ‘i‘v-w on ~ 9» . _ .4 “'4 Ms. L. ' I . Q «- "5337‘ m. .4 -. unis-... ~.5,v . J .. c'fl? rrsr Y . "‘ "9.. H ‘1‘! A “*m "-"— «I . \- -?;‘“‘§_~,A‘x TX, 161 among these problems are such important items as new industry, expansion of present businesses, and other economic developments. A proper emphasis on such problems in light of a potentially challenging area means an improved community living for everyone. In warren such a group was organized in June, 1956, as the Coordinat- ing Council for Community Development. The initial meeting was called by the school board and much of the council's leadership to date has been furnished by educational leaders. Its accomplishments can be expected to influence a wider territory than the school district. Normal protocol considered, this was an extreme departure from custom. The change in social policy and leadership structure of the warren fringe community may have been the factor which allowed the group to work effectively. A community council was organized under the leadership of the superintendent of schools seventeen years ago. As a coordinating agency for social functions and less immediate social prOblems this group has functioned effectivelyu At present the assistant superintendent of schools is chairman of the council. In a fringe community the suggested coordination ideal would be an important unifying and cohesive force. Yet without question, effective democratic leadership and vision are essential. The second criterion of the definition of the community school is supported by four constructs describing in action terms Michigan‘s Community School Concept. From all evidence it appears that the imple- mentation of the community school concept within a school is much more difficult than the implementation of the concept in the community. :- o. :.....__., .. -, . \ :rg ... “.... I“ 3"H‘ ‘" ‘m‘. g. ‘ / <- “2 w. a ‘5'... 162 According to Loving's findings, Community school programs in Michigan have been primarily community-centered programs rather than school-centered. The initial leadership came from the schools, but only in rare instances did it remain with the schools.10 Since the ideal of the community school concept is to improve instruction for boys and girls, the second criterion is discussed with this thought in mind. The second criterion was stated as follows: The community reflects and involves community resources in the school‘s instructionalgprogram. Stimulated by an advisory council-determined, community-centered curricu- lum, the school would provide teachers with lists of resources available in the community. Included would be lists of people who could make a contribution in certain portions of the school's curriculum. Such lists would need to be revised regularly and kept in the school‘s instructional materials center of the library. Current factual information about the community would be supplied to each teacher by the social studies classes11 as a part of their community and citizenship training. The instructional materials center could duplicate and disseminate materials about the larger communities of the county, state, nation, and the world. Such a program of creativity and self help would be possible at a low cost if the teachers and students worked together. 'Within the warren schools, field trips are encouraged on a limited basis even though school buses are available. Libraries in all the 10Loving, _p. 923;” p. lhO. 11The process is described under construct one of Criteria I, p- 151:. 163 schools provide materials in books or magazines but no materials center for facilitating a community approach has been established. The second construct of the second criterion was stated: The com- mmnitygschool builds the curriculum around human problems. Using the life adjustment approach the suggested ideal would emphasize human problems of health, social integration, home and family living, social graces, citizenship, and vocational choices on a community basis and at the age and grade level where they would be most apprOpriate. The wider community is as important in such studies as the one close at hand. Fringe communities may have special opportunities for studying human affairs in these respects since new resources often emerge out of the solving of difficult problems. Human needs especially in the areas of health and social integration are very real in fringe communities and can serve as an interest base at all grade levels. There is no question that the key to such an approach would be a creative teacher in whose vision such problems are an important part of the subject matter. The author is not acquainted with a planned program of such a nature in the warren Schools. Undoubtedly creative classroom teachers are doing veny effective teaching in these areas. The school on an organized basis is carrying out an experimental program in mental health and has been Very active in the Macomb County Health Association. The superintendent of schools was one of the leaders responsible for the organization of the county program. He still serves in an advisory capacity on certain projects. 16b The third construct of the second criterion was stated: The com- munity school involves all persons concerned in planning and appraising the school program. The ideal in planning and appraising the school program is based upon the democratic approach. The planning here refers to a community reflected curriculum developed cooperatively with students, teachers, parents, and school administrators. Resistance to such planning is usually evident on the part of the teachers and staff but must be overcome if the most effective curriculum and program is to be provided for boys and girls. Fringe communities can move readily, accept, and promote such cooperative planning and appraising since they are not as bound by tradition. The school program in warren has tended to remain traditional to a large extent in Spite of many added programs such as mental health, a visiting teacher, class-to-sickroom instruction by telephone, and special programs for handicapped children. The fourth construct of the second criterion was stated: The com- munity school is genuinelyglife-centered as a social institution. The ideal suggested here involves a prOgram extending beyond the school day and into the life of the community. The ideal of community centered adult education will have a much more important place as fringe communi- ties are affected by automation, shorter work weeks, and a maturing social system. The community philOSOphy of adult education expresses this ideal most aptly as follows: 165 The point of focus of all adult education must be the community. While the ultimate objective may be the maturing of human person- ality, the human personality exists somewhere, not everywhere, and that point of existence for adult education is in the community. The community is a collection of people and the institutions and environment which they have created and use in common. The relation of all the adults of the community to each other, to their institu- tions and environment, creates and gives rise to the problems in other ways than educational: e.g., resignation, force or manipula- tion and exploitation of each other. The educational process is more difficult and must be learned and has relatively little effect when only a few individuals of the community understand it. Adult education must, therefore, be concerned with the growth of under- standing of all the people of the entire community, not only in relation to the personal and private welfare of isolated individuals, but in relation to the use of the educational process of solving problems by the community as a whole. Until this lesson is learned by adults in their immediate communities, they are as illequipped to deal with the problems of a large and more remote envirOnment as a merchant several times bankrupt in Operating a neighborhood grocery store is to manage a chain store system.12 Such a philOSOphy when put into practice can make a community school genuinely life-centered. warren schools have in the past conducted only a limited program of adult education. Only during the war period did the school tend to become really life-centered. Out of this very vital experience warren Schools developed their community-wide social and recreational prOgram, but adult education has been only a minor part of the schools? prOgram. If the preceding ideals of the community school emerge, a vital force will have been created in man's continuing efforts to reach his goal of the "good life." The fact that the ideals have not been achieved need not cause man to deviate from seeking the good of improved living for all. 12WA Phi1080phy of Adult Educétion," Adult Education.Associ- ation's Committee on Social Philosophy .Adult Education 2'1 2- April, 19 52 . ’ ‘4 3 3h, 166 THE ROLE OF THE WARREN SCHOOL IN THE FRINGE The school reported here as a community social institution played an important leadership role in community development. Such information differs quite sharply from the usual conception of the role of the school. The changing role of the school gave rise to a second hypothesis: Thatthe school as a social institution has a different, more important {gle to play in a fringe communit . It now becomes the primary purpose of this chapter to determine whether or not the school in the warren fringe community has a different community develOpment role to play than a school in a mature more stable rural or urban community. In the study to this point the analysis has shown that in a fringe area the leadership structure is different due not only.to the fragmenta- tion of community but also to the impact of the newcomers, the industrial deve10pment, and a lack of effective communication within the social system. Leadership too is a changing phenomenon; so that in and of itself leadership cannot accomplish its community development role. Leadership, as has been shown, is effective only as it has the support and active help from the lay people at the base of the social pyramid. In a similar fashion schools as social institutions are effective only in so far as they have the support of the community they serve. 13 14 Studies by Lynd, Hollingshead, and others have shown that the school 13Robert Lynd and Helen M. Lynd, Middletown, New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company, 1929. 14A. B. Hollingshead, Elmtown's Youth, New York: and Sons, Inc. , 1919. John Wiley and 167 in.a stable mature community plays a minor role providing the basic cultural transfer traditional in human society. The basic assumptions accepted in this study have served as con- stants against which the various sub-hypotheses, as variables, have been contrasted. The fourth assumption basic in this chapter was stated: The school as a formal institution plays a minor role in the leadership structure. As a point of clarification, assumption four becomes the constant for both the second major hypothesis and the fourth sub-hypothesis which is stated and supported starting on page 169. The fourth sub-hypothesis gives supporting evidence for the second hypothesis and was used in Chapter VI for that reason. The schobl as a social institution plays a minor leadership role in stable mature communities because culture and tradition have so defined the school's role. According to Pierce, As one examines the many ramifications of community traditions one finds them permeating group-to-group relationships, demanding that certain services be rendered and certain functions be performed.15 The findings of Hunter16 in Regional City point out that in a city, institutions such as family, church, and schools are subordinate to the interests of policy makers. Educational leaders were found in the lower limits of power in a uniform position with church and cultural leaders. 17 Such leaders were called upon only in relation to specific projects. 15Pierce, 22: cit., p. 127. 16Floyd Hunter, Community Power Structure, Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1953, p. 82. 1'7I‘Did., p. 92. 168 Among the institutions of Regional City, education and religion were ranked near the bottom.18 Miller's19 findings confirm those of Hunter in the smaller com- munity, 2,500-7,SOO, when he reported that educational leaders were in the lower echelons of leadership. They served in the facilitating or functional roles. The school as an institution seldom found a place in community health action. In Bouma's study,20 the institutional role of the school in a medium sized city in Michigan was minor, due, first of all, to a minor traditional cultural role, and secondly, to the higher prestige rating of the parochial school over the public schools. In Gettel's21 recent findings in a small midwestern city, the school's role as a social institution was not assessed, except to state that educational leaders were not a part of the decision making power group. One man, the superintendent of schools, was sometimes called in to help on specific projects indicating a facilitator role. This person, though, was rated as a leader by the lay citizen sample. 18Ibid., p. 98. 19PaulA. Miller, "A Comparative Analysis of the Decision Making Process in Community Organization Toward Major Health Goals," Unpub- lished Ph. D. dissertation, Michigan State College: East Lansing, Michigan, 1953. 20Donald Herbert Bouma, "An Analysis of the Social Power Position of the Real Estate Board in Grand Rapids, Michigan," Unpublished Ph. D. thesis, Michigan State College: East Lansing, Michigan, 1952. 21Gerhard Gettel, "A Study of Power in a North Central State Community," Unpbulished Ph. D. thesis, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, 1955. 169 In contrast to the findings of these studies, the school in a developing fringe community, surrounded by a changing social climate, the fourth sub-hypothesis was stated: The greatest articulation of leadership revolves around the school. Articulation in this study refers to "a junction or joining of the various leadership segments of a social system." Such articulation can encourage more democratic leadership. The author here refers to the initiator role of educational leadership in which individual leaders are involved. This results in the freedom and stimulus for dynamic creative functions in solving their community's problems. The early findings from the random sample survey showed that lay peOple saw their schools as very good and valued both the high school and elementary schools of the community at a high level. The respondents did not see schools as a problem area but instead occasionally commented favorably. Leaders were handed a card on which were listed the eight major community organizations. They were then asked to rank the organizations as to their actual ability to influence decisions concerninggcommunity improvement. The results of the leader's rating, Table XVI, showed that 'Warren Schools received eleven first choice votes and six second choice votes. Thus the schools occupyed the tOp institutional leadership role by'a considerable margin. The church ranked second in a leadership role with four first choices and six second choices. This was probably because the community was highly churched (91 percent); the community had an active church program and all of the leaders were themselves church members. 170 TABLE XVI RANK ORDER OF WARREN'S SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS Question: How would you rank the following groups as to their actual ability to influence decisions on community improvement? Organizations Ratings of potential influence 1 2 3 h S 6 7 8 Rotary Club 1 O h 3 6 5 1 Community Council 2 6 h 5 l 2 O warren Schools 11 6 O O l l O O warren Churches h 6 b O 3 O 1 O warren Township Planning Commission 2 O 6 5 2 2 7 O Organized Labor 1 o 2 2 2 u 7 0 Industry 1 2 1 b 3 S b O C.C.C.D. O O O 1 l l O 8 Note: Ratings often included a tie vote and such votes were recorded at the rank checked by the respondents. The school's leadership role was checked later using this question: "In a stable community the school as a formal institution tends to play a minor role in community development; would you say that this is true in warren?" The unanimous negative response again indicated a validation of the findings in the ranking question just reported. Table XVII summarizes the analysis of the leaders' interpretation of the schools‘ role in community development. At this point the skeptic or the traditionally oriented may readily question these findings since the research is based upon only a single study; The researcher defends this by taking the position that, though fringe communities may differ in many ways, the leadership structure, of ...“..- 171 TABLE XVII SCHOOL‘S ROLE IN COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT Role Number 1. The school is the key 15 2. The school is a socializing force 15 3. The school focuses on the local area 13 h. The school by central interest lifts community 13 5. The school is an articulate center 12 6. The school provides citizenship training 6 7. The school needs more on 3 R's 1 necessity a feature in any social system, tends to be similar in fringe communities because of the similarity of forces having a bearing upon it. Fringe communities by their very nature are neither stable nor mature. Newcomers who are unaware of local tradition and culture have as their leader images those in formalized positions of authority. Because of the different value systems, residents do not have a common base upon which to evaluate their leaders nor the community's progress. According to Carl C. Zimmerman, "New communities are almost universal in the lack of any formal or informal restraints as found in the older stable com- munities."22 In such situations social change based upon expediency becomes a common element of the community‘s social policy. Similarly, the community’s social institutions, if they have alert and responsible leadership are moved into important leadership positions. It is under 22Carl C. Zimmerman, "The Evolution of American Community," American gournal of Sociology, h6:809-17. 172 conditions as those just described that capable leaders in the social institutions of a community may be found in positions of top leadership, either by force of community social pressures or compulsion of personal convictions about obvious needs. The table on page 95 shows four edu- cational leaders in community decision making roles with two of the school board members, leader twenty-five and leader thirty-eight, also members of the top leadership pyramid. The religious institutions are repre- sented by two pastors, leader seven and leader twenty-two, and the local parish priest, leader twelve. In view of the actual variations in the social milieu possible in developing fringe communities, the researcher wishes only to point out that responsible social institutions have potentially a different more positive role to play in their communities. Whether or not such role choices are made will depend on current leadership's courage, vision and conviction, or upon the social environment of the fringe community itself. Supporting evidence comes out of a recent sociological study by John R. Seeley and his co-workers. The study was made in a fringe suburb of Toronto, Canada. According to their comment, The community of Crestwood Heights is literally built around schools. In the absence of any large commercial center, the schools assert the community as a physically organized entity, as a psycho- logical reality, and as a social fact.23 .As a final check concerning the functional role of the school in the warren fringe community, a third question concerning the school's 23John R. Seeley, R. Alexander Sim, and Elizabeth W} Loosley, Crestwood Heights, New York: Basic Books, Inc., 1956, pp. 22h, 23h. «Mi 173 role in community development was asked during the second depth interview. The summary shown in Table XVIII indicated that in the years since the school district reorganization of l9hO, the school as a social institu- tion has played an increasingly more important role. TABLE XVIII THE SCHOOL'S ROLES AS LEADERS SEE THE SCHOOL ‘7— Question: As you think of the warren School in this rapidly developing fringe area how do you feel regarding the role the school has played in community develOpment? Roles Number Positive responses 1. School is doing well 16 2. School is filling needs well 12 3. Fills role of socialization 12 h. Focuses attention on community needs 12 5. Takes leadership in community affairs 12 6. Best institution for community development 10 7. School focuses on moral needs and citizenship 8 8. School sees the light 7 9. Has kept up with times 6 10. Has c00perated with parochial school 2 ll. Especially good in elementary education 2 Negative responses 1. Lacks adult education 3 2. Needs a stronger secondary program 3 3. School trys to do too much 2 h. Community development isn't the school's job 2 5. Needs a nursery school 1 17h The evidence presented here is corroborated by that in Seeley's Crestwood Heights study. According to their statement, It is not by accident that Crestwood Heights has literally grown up around the school. . . . Crestwood Heights and the school are one and the same. The School is the center of the community and eve:ything_revolves around or within it.24 The findings of both studies reinforce the author's personal observ- ations and experiences of the past ten years when he lived and taught in the fringe communities outside of Duluth, Minnesota. There seems to be little doubt that sub-hypothesis number four has been proved valid. warren's leaders agreed that community planning was an important community concern. When asked to name the stimulant of their interest for community planning, eleven leaders indicated that the school had been the stimulating agent, as compared to five who became interested due to the need for adequate utilities and services. One person, though, felt that planning was ineffective in a fringe area since plans were usually out of date in one to three months. This forthright observation may well be the reason many fringe developments so often have no planning, and according to the adage, "Just grow like Topsy." 'While social change in general has been responsible for the present elevated institutional role of the Warren School, educational leadership, through initiating action, has given positive emphasis toward community lurity.and cohesiveness. There are several factors within the physical :makedup and social milieu of a fringe community which permit dynamic creativereducational leadership. First, the public school is the one 241bid., p. 2h. 175 community institution in contact with all locality groupings and social levels of the community. This factor alone places the school in the position of "common denominator" and opens many avenues of communication not open to others. Secondly, the school because of its athletic and recreational facilities has become the recreational and socializing center of the community. The warren School District, due to its spatial location, is territorially a part of five governmental units. The one way in which people were able to provide youth and adults recreational and socializing facilities was through supporting public school programs. Present facili- ties are rapidly becoming overcrowded but policy and precedent have been set whereby citizens can find an answer to a vital area of community improvement. In various stages of construction at present are an indoor school-community swimming pool, facilities for an artificial ice skating and hockey rink, expanded playgrounds and ball fields, and community athletic shower and equipment storage facilities separate from those used by the school but still within the school itself. The new elementary schools include social facilities that can be used by children, youth, or adults. The final factor placing the schools in an advantageous position comes not so much out of the fringe itself but rather out of American society's doctrine of progress and its implicit faith in education's potential as a means of social upward mobility. Society's rapid techni- cal development has championed success, and has validated change as the accepted pattern of culture. This is true particularly in a fringe 176 community. Because of the parents' urge to give children a better chance than they had, they have not conditioned their children to the rigorous standards of social conduct. This responsibility they have delegated, intentionally or otherwise, to the school. Because the school, in turn, has reacted favorably to society's implicit faith in education, this added socializing function has become a part of the school's program. As described in the Crestwood Heights study, The family has delegated most of its function as a socializing agency to the school. The school having recognized the need accepted the challenge and, being now a more and more important respository for communal values, must take it as its duty to trans- mit these values.25 The school‘s institutional role then is more vital in a developing fringe community because in an area that lacks unity it stands as a potential unifying, cohesive force. Already possessing society's mandate for action, the school needs only the stimulation of community support to move ahead in this different and more important leadership role. {A principal function of educational leadership in fringe communities is to help peOple design their own distinctive school. When top leaders of the warren School District were asked the question, "What role would you say the school should play in community development?" their responses indicated a wide variety of roles. The roles assigned confirmed previous personal observations and lay citizen interpretations of their schools. The roles expected of the warren Schools by top leaders appear in Table XIX. 25Seeley, _p. git” p. 2hl. 177 TABLE XIX ROLES ASSIGNED WARREN SCHOOLS BY TOP LEADERS Roles Number Positive 1. Central force for community development 2. Socializing agency plus social center . Citizenship training . Leadership . Community planning Recreational center . Moralizing and integrating force . Adult education . Cultural development \ooo-qoxmtrw WWO\O\\JCD\OGDCD Negative 1. No role in community planning ' 1 Of the roles assigned, only two could be typical of those in the traditional school of the stable community. These traditional roles would be citizenship training and cultural development. The other added roles assigned to the warren Schools are for the most part already a part of the school's program, and an accepted part of the school community‘s social policy. In light of the evidence just presented and the more detailed discussion validating sub-hypothesis four, the author considers the second hypothesis proved as true: that The school as a social_ institution has a different, more important rple to play in a fringe community. 178 WARREN LEADERS INTERPRET THEIR SCHOOL'S ROLE As this study was planned and carried on through its various stages a central thought has carried through. The thought, in view of a fringe community‘s changing, flexible, but developing social pattern, was that the community could become either a "good" community or a "bad" community. ‘What happens would be based upon what residents of the community believed to be "good" physically, morally, and socially. In a developing social 1 system what leaders believe becomes even more important since they have much to do with shaping the social policy. Pierce also points this out, "Leading citizens in communities have much to do with the way people live. The power of some 'to have their way' is often extensive."26 In the discussion to follow, though top leaders evaluate their schools, the important consideration to this study is that they have accepted the positive dynamic type of leadership given by the edu- ~ cational leaders. The school in its community developmental role has projected a portion of the community school philOSOphy but has not reached the ideal in any one segment. What leaders feel or perceive to be the schools 1 position can serve only as a guide to what might be accomplished in other developing fringe communities. The interpretation of any theoretical design when put into practice seldom reaches the intended level of perfection. Because this is true the dijnnission to follow, in which the warren Schools are evaluated by 26Pierce, pp. cit., p. 5h. 179 the community‘s tOp leaders according to their interpretation of the community school, is not intended to measure how Michigan‘s community school program is applied in the warren Public School. Rather the dis- cussion is intended to show that in the minds of warren's tpp_leaders the community school concept has application and can be effectively implemented. As part of the interviewing technique, intended as a device to help establish rapport and create an informal situation, the researcher handed the leader being interviewed a six by eight inch card on which were pictured at opposite ends of a continuum a traditional school and a community school. The traditional school was pictured on an island separated from the community as portrayed by Olson. 7 The community school shown at the opposite end of the continuum was pictured as working with the community in many ways. Respondents could discuss the topic in detail and in several cases did so relating particularly their own experiences in the traditional type school. An interesting observation made during the rapport establishing stage of the interview was that leaders often related the community school concept to the warren Schools. This seemed unusual since, to the author's knowledge, the warren Schools were not known as Community Schools but as the warren Consolidated Schools or the warren Rural Agricultural Schools. During the interview which followed, references were sometimes made to the card, but at no time other than during the opening discussion did 27Edward Olson and others, School and Community, Second Edition, New York: Prentice Hall, Inc., 195D, p. 11. 180 the researcher intentionally refer to the community school concept. An emphasis was indicated on each occasion that the conceptual ideal was not important in itself but that the researcher was interested in what they really felt about their schools. ‘When top leaders were asked, "How do you feel regarding the role the school has played in community development?" leaders' responses indicated a positive emphasis on the school's role in the community supporting Criterion I. (Table XVII, page 171) The majority of responses indicated that top leaders felt that the schools had a responsibility in the community areas other than in just the transfer of culture and the teaching of skills. The negative responses include those of two individuals who saw the school in the traditional role. One response pointed out in regard to the warren School's active role that where he lived before "the school stayed where it belonged." In response to the question, "w0uld you say that the warren School luas taken too much or too little initiative in encouraging community development?" the majority of leaders felt that the school had not been active enough or was doing just right as it was. Two leaders felt that the school was too active paralleling their response to the previous question, The responses to the open ended question are summarized in Table XX. 'Leaders in this case saw evidence that Warren Schools could improve within.thelschools by adopting parts of the community school concept. 181 TABLE XX HOW LEADERS FEEL ABOUT THE SCHOOL'S INITIATIVE IN ENCOURAGING COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT Comment Number Positive 1. The school has promoted a real program 13 2. School leaders have been community leaders 8 3. The school has shown vision 7 h. The school's ideas have been good 5 5. The school's airport leadership was good 5 6. The school moved as fast as people would allow h Negative 1. The community school concept hasn't affected the school curriculum 2. The school could still do more 3. The school has pushed ahead too far The next set of questions relating to teachers and their roles in the community attempted to determine the leader's perception of the teacher‘s role. The results in this instance were of value only in tfluit they revealed that leaders could see the potential help teachers could give but at the same time teachers were excused for the following reasons: (1) teachers do not live in the school area, (2) teachers need help in.working with adults, (3) peOple don‘t ask teachers, and (fly).administrators meet the peOple and do not give teachers a chance. -t seemed to the author that in response to these questions the leaders fell; generally that teachers were not prepared to meet parents and that 182 if a community school concept were put into effect teachers would need special training in community work and in working with adults. As one leader commented, "Teachers are specialists in teaching children but are uneasy when they are asked to work with adults." As questions were focused upon certain elements of the community school concept, the purpose was to find out just how far top leaders would go in supporting a community school program. Table XXI summarized leaders responses concerning student involvement in community improvement projects. It was anticipated that leaders would approve this part of the community school concept. TABLE XXI STUDENT INVOLVEMENT IN IMPROVEMENT PROJECTS _;1 Question: Should the school provide opportunities for boys and girls to become involved in community improvement projects? Yes 16 , No 0 , Yes and No 2 . Reactions to Improvement Projects ' Number . It would be realistic lO . This would be good 10 . Helps develop a good attitude Very good way to teach .At one time more active in this area than now . Opportunities for people in community too NOWthH WWC‘UIW . Real citizenship training 183 In answer to question twenty-five, taken almost directly from construct one of community school definition, leaders were almost unanimous in their approval. A summary of their reactions found in Table XXII shows several interesting factors: (1) leaders feel that this kind of training would be good for students and teachers, (2) teachers would need training if this kind of teaching and working with adults outside the school would be successful, (3) that a problem could arise if effective communications were not employed, and (h) some leaders recognized too that some citizens would object because this would be a new role for the school. TABLE XXII SOCIAL STUDIES FACT FINDING SURVEYS Question: Wbuld you object to having social studies classes make fact finding surveys concerning the social and economic needs of the community? Yes 0 , No 16 , Yes and No l . Reactions Toward Survey Number l..A community school approach would work 16 2. anrld make school community more real 12 ,3.'W0uld need in—service training since people and staff aren't working together now 13 11.]ias double value--helps students and teachers 10 5. I would favor this very much 11 6. Most schools don't do it 11 7. Will help keep students in school 10 8. People feel children should get education in school 3 9. Good communication with parents will be essential 10. Business peOple would object and feel it a frill l 18h Question twenty-six drew a mixed response as expected since, in this case, top leaders might be asked questions later on that would not be easy to answer. The question was intentionally worded so that it would be easy for a leader to say no. Table XXIII shows the summary of responses. TABLE XXIII USE OF SCHOOL FUNDS FOR COMMUNITY PLANNING Question: Do you feel that the expenditure of school funds to help provide for community planning would be a wise use of public funds? Yes 10 , No 3 , Yes and No 7 . Reactions to Use of Public Funds Number Positive 1. Justifiable on basis of research and planning plus an experimental approach 11 2. Surveys do effect whole community 11 3. would help the community school approach to citizenship 10 h. A joint study is justifiable 7 5. O.K. if it will save money later on 7 Negative 1. O.K. only if it is for education 5 2. Use only if people approve 3 3. School and other government units are separate 1 1 h. Schools should collect own taxes 185 The reaction of leaders closely connected with public responsi- bilities was somewhat surprising to the author because the anticipation had been that they would respond negatively. The negativeresponses came from leaders who had the traditional orientation concerning schools. Though leaders were undecided on the use of funds for community planning if proper usage of funds were assured, there would be little objection. In View of the high acceptance rating of the school by the lay citizens as indicated in the random sample study and by the leaders in this study it was not surprising that few new services were requested. All three new programs suggested are under consideration of the board of education. Table XXIV summarizes the responses to question twenty-seven. It should be noticed that adult education and vocational education were at the top of the list for expansion. Neither prOgram had been expanded recently according to the teachers in these areas indicating close observance of the schools needs by the top leaders. SUMMARY The interpretation of the Warren School's community development role was favorable and suggested to the author an acceptance of the community school concept. First of all, the top leaders do not object to the expanded community role of the warren Schools. They would in like manner approve a more community-centered curriculum and the kinds of activities suggested in the conception of a community school in a fringe area. 186 TABLE XXIV NEW OR EXPANDED SERVICES Question: ‘What kinds of services not now provided by the schools would you suggest? New services Number 1. Help exceptional children 5 2. Community college h 3. Nursery program h h. Don't know of any 7 5. Schools do too much now 2 Programs that need expanding Number . Vocational education 10 . Adult education . More community-school participation Citizen and leadership training . Mental health Recreation Nomt‘wmp [\DDJE'NNW High school curriculum revised and expanded A second factor important to educational leaders is that the indi- vidual leaders felt that the school had a large responsibility in provid- ing for socialization of newcomers. Since newcomers are common to all fringe communities, this is a role the community school could well be expected to serve. A final factor which should be noted is that leaders did not feel that teachers were well enough prepared to assume the role that might 187 be expected of them in the community participation program suggested in the community school concept. As has been shown in this chapter, the warren School is in a dif- ferent leadership position than is true of the school in a stable mature community, and the role expectation of the school has changed. The school has assumed a leadership role in community affairs. It is filling a new role in socialization of newcomers. School leaders have become active in the decision-making level of community affairs and thus have a part in helping determine the new social policy of their community. This community leadership role has been accomplished by a school- community leader who in his affairs has exemplified the dynamic, group- centered leadership ideal suggested as most beneficial in such a setting. In fringe settings educational leaders have a choice concerning the role they will play and the kind of leadership they will provide. In this pioneer social area of the American culture today, B. O. Wilson has this to say of democratic leadership. we can have the type of leadership which will help the rurban people to become self~conscious communities--communities feeding persons into our cities who are educated as members of a free, self governing society; people with a vitality which comes from the experience of living in the pure air of political freedom; citizens who wflll.carry to the city the wisdom of an informed people-products of a distinctive rural and rurban education; people who will appre- ciate the role of the citizen in implementing free public schools.28 .As Mr. Wilson points out fringe communities through their schools have a unique contribution to make to society. 25B. O. Wilson, President, National Association of County and Rural Area Superintendents, Speech, "Functions of Leadership for Rural and Rurban Schools," A.A.S.A. Convention, Atlantic City, New Jersey, February, 1957. p- 6- 188 It is within the visionary potential of the fringe community school ideal, as a companion to stimulative educational leadership, to create a school-community relationship conducive to a democratic atmosphere in which improved human relations would lead to a satisfying and enriched life. The practical level of achievement in any endeavor is so often the result of previously accepted goals. In this discussion the ideals may seem to be beyond the potential of the fringe community's resources or abilities; yet, the stakes in human resources for the generations ahead will depend upon the communities that are developed in the imme- diate future . CHAPTER VII A SUMMARY OF FINDINGS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR EDUCATIONAL LEADERS INTRODUCTION This study is concerned with leadership in a developing fringe community as compared with leadership in stable and mature rural or urban communities. The research then endeavored to determine the leadership role of the school as a social institution in a changing social system. The study was based upon the warren School District, geographically located in the northeast fringe area of Detroit, Michigan. The case study approach was used to give the study depth and provide a clearer bench mark of the leadership structure in a fringe community. The study itself covered a period of eight months beginning May 28, 1956, and ending January 27, 1957. The warren School District has an area of thirty square miles and an estimated population of 16,500. The school district is a part of the industrial fringe development of Detroit, Michigan, and has a potential population of 100,000 by 1965. Through the use of valid sociological techniques and procedures a social profile was developed showing the leadership structure and the value orientations. The community-wide leaders who were identified through the use of the snowball technique included a base group of 189 190 16h leaders, a second echelon of forty leaders, and a top group of seven- teen decision-making leaders. The additional data came out of forty depth interviews conducted with the seventeen top leaders. Included in these interviews were com- munity attitude scales, rating scales, and sets of focused questions. The data were analyzed at various stages in the study so that unexpected findings could be validated or discarded. Because the sample was small, data were not put on I.B.M. cards. The interviews with community-wide leaders provided an understanding of the community procedures as well as the leader's attitudes toward the school and their interpretations of the role of the school in community development. A SUMMARY OF FINDINGS The working hypothesis for this study was stated: Leadership in the warren fringe area is significantly different from leadership_in a 'stable mature community. The findings supporting this hypothesis are summarized in the following statements: 1. The warren leadership structure was different from the leader- ship structure in a stable mature community in that it was diffused and dispersed, with ineffective communication. The leadership hierarchy had a broad base with a pyramidal structure that was broad and flat when compared to the leadership structure in a stable mature community. 2. IO. 11. 191 There were three neighborhood sub-communities1 within the school district. They had similar leadership structures with educational leaders in each area holding important leadership positions. Formalized authority was a prime determinant of lay respondents' perception of the communitydwide leader's position. . Educational leaders held four of the top ten leadership positions with three other positions held by church leaders. Labor, business, and industry did not hold key leadership posi- tions in the warren fringe community. . Leadership roles pivoted about the institutional problems of facilities, services, and finances. . Leaders tended to change roles with the situation, indicating a flexibility and an adaptability not usually found in stable mature communities. . The attitudes of leaders in warren about their community were different from those held by community residents. . The attitudes of leaders were positive toward change as indicated by the Bosworth Scale2 and were in cases individualistic, parallel- ing a kind of leadership common to America's pioneer era. The community leaders had a positive attitude toward newcomers and resource people. Community progress in the warren School District was measured in terms of expediency rather than planned goals and objectives. 1See map, p. 11h. 2For Bosworth Scale, see p. 131. 192 12. Warren's leaders accepted outside help readily, often applying the expert's advice directly to the immediate problem of con- cern. This study revealed no specific findings which disproved or negated the hypothesis. Yet certain relevant findings showed that there are similarities when leadership in a fringe community is compared to leader» ship in a stable mature community. Such relevant findings are summarized in the following statements. 1. The core values of American culture, such as the ethical, moral, and religious elements, remained as balancing, stabilizing in- fluences in both types of communities. 2. A high proportion of the leaders in each type of community were church members. 3. Community-wide leaders in both types of communities were, within their own interpretation, concerned with the "common good" for people in their social system. .A second working hypothesis related to the first hypothesis was :aaated: In the warren fringe community the school as a social institu- tiLHI has a different and more important role to play than in a stable mature community. The findings supporting this hypothesis are summarized in the following statements: ‘1. Schools were valued as important and placed in a favorable position both by lay citizens and top leaders. 22. Leaders ranked the school as the most important social institu- tion in influencing decisions concerning community improvement. 193 3. Churches were ranked second in their ability to influence decisions concerning community improvement. h. From l9hO on, the school played an increasingly important role as a social institution, until at the time of the study, the school was the key institution of the community. 5. The school served as a stimulant for community planning, com- munity development, good citizenship, improved sociolization, and leadership. 6. Educational leaders, through stimulative action, gave positive leadership toward community unity and cohesiveness. 7. The school had a large responsibility in providing for programs that would make newcomers feel at home. 8. Leaders accepted the larger role of the school in a developing community and felt that the community school concept would be very useful in fulfilling this role. This study revealed no significant findings which negated or dis- ‘proved the second hypothesis. The following statements, describing the social situation in the Warren School District, summarize the findings and serve as points of reference for the implications of this study. '1. The social system, due to social change and a fluidity of ‘population, lacked effective communication, had a diffused leadership pattern, and was not well stratified according to social class. These factors caused a lackof community co- hesiveness and unity. 19h 2. Due to the lack of a definitive social policy and a desire for community cohesiveness, social forces had moved the school into different and more important social and leadership roles. The school found itself as the center of community activities. 3. Effective leadership, termed group centered democratic leader~ ship, was the key to community growth and development. There was a need for a greater number of effective leaders. There was a need for leadership training through experience, and the kind of democratic atmosphere and social culture in which improved human relations lead to a satisfying and enriched life. h. The school in its community development and leadership roles had applied successfully several constructs of the Michigan Community School Concept. Present leaders saw in the community school con- cept a means of improving their schools. ' IFPLICATIONS FOR EDUCATIONAL LEADERS IN FRINGE COMMUNITY SCHOOLS ‘While it is recognized that the implications are based on the find- ings irla.single school district, the degree and extent of similarities lmecween fringe areas make possible their application within the frame- 'work of education.and the concept of the community school. The impli- catixnas are also based upon the educational leader's acceptance and willingness to pursue the community development function of the school as a social institution in a developing fringe community. The outcomes of'tflris study, may point to implications of significance for educational 19S leaders in schools of developing communities in the fringe areas of America's metropolitan centers. These implications for educational leaders are grouped according to these five sub-headings: (1) the social situation of a developing fringe community, (2) the new social and leadership role of the school as a social institution, (3) the established need for an adequate number of trained leaders, (h) the top leaders' acceptance of the community school concept and their suggestion for implementation, and (5) graduate schools preparing educational ad- ministrators for schools in fringe communities. Educational Leaders. According to the study's interpretation, educational administrators are either "leaders" or "dominators" depend- ing upon their own personal relations with others. In this study the role of the educational leader was found to be that of a group-centered type of democratic leader who through his leadership frees people to be creative and is cooperatively tolerant of others in the solution of common community problems. This implies that the educational leader he, first of all, concerned with the growth and full potential develOpment of students, his staff, and the citizens of the community. His second concern would be with the mechanics of administration as related to his job . The author does not wish to imply that administrative responsi- bilities are unimportant, but rather to urge that the education leader maintain his democratic leadership role in proper perspective. The implications discussed will be limited to those which have application to educational administration in fringe community schools. 196 IMPLICATIONS: SOCIAL SITUATION The social situation as described in the summapy points out factors that have resulted in a lack of community cohesiveness and unity, Such a social situation appears to indicate: 1. The educational leader needs a clear understanding of the social structure. . He needs to know the processes used in accomplishing community objectives. . He needs to know as much as possible about community background, history, and still more about the immediate past. . He needs to know what leaders and lay people feel about the school and what they would accept as the role of the school in community development. . He needs to know and understand the relative positions of com- munity organizations and institutions. . He needs to help develop an appreciation in people for their community, preferably through the establishment of a "we" feel- ing through the promotion of community-wide activities. He needs to help all groups promote an open mindedness toward newcomers and an appreciation of them in order to help prevent a social cleavage. He needs to recognize the potentials of the school as a unify- ing force in an area that lacks unity. 9. 197 He needs to identify the positive values of the varied cultures and by a community effort attempt to preserve the best of each. (Example: Brownell's work in the Montana Study) IMPLICATIONS: NEW SOCIAL AND LEADERSHIP ROLE The new social and leadership role of the school seems to suggest (it is recognized that the school is but one of many groups working in the community): 1. The educational leader needs to stimulate the develOpment of long time plans as well as plans to solve immediate problems. He needs to assume responsibility and to participate in helping citizens develop a new social policy. . He needsto help provide for developing effective community- wide communication. This may include transportation as well as written or oral communication. . He needs to help coordinate plans of government, social, and civic agencies through an over-all planning and coordinating council or commission. He needs to help coordinate all constructive efforts intended to improve social relations and develop a community feeling. He needs to help coordinate social functions and give stimula- tive leadership to community-wide festivals and functions. He needs to promote interest, hobby, and study groups as part of an adult education program, and cooperate with others in pro- ‘Viding community recreation, youth opportunities, and an extension of social agencies from metropolitan areas. 8. 9. 10. 198 He needs considerable flexibility so that he can utilize dif- ferent and changing human resources. He needs a positive, realistic concept of the role of the school in community development. He needs to use effective two-way communication and trust the wisdom of informed citizens. IMPLICATIONS: LEADERSHIP TRAINING The establishment of leadership as the key to effective community development, and the great lack of trained leaders suggests to the edu- cational leader that he needs to recognize: l. A need for informal, yet intentionally provided leadership training. The need for democratic leadership that frees people to be creative, encourages critical thinking, and develops an appre- ciation for and an understanding of democracy. A need for a willingness to c00perate and to work with citizen neighbors, whoever they may be, toward an improved culture. A need for a human relations centered philosophy of working with people. A need for participation and involvement of citizens in a leadership training program, as they are solving pertinent community problems. A need for an evaluation of group-centered leadership training, as well as an evaluation of community progress. 7. 199 The need for the support of many groups outside the school. IMPLICATIONS: COMMUNITY SCHOOL An acceptance by community leaders of the concept of the community school suggests to educational leaders: 1. 3. h. S. 6. 7. The need to develop a community-centered curriculum applicable to the community which the school serves. The need for an expanded adult education program adaptable to needs determined by lay citizens. . A need for surveying of community needs and resources annually to keep community materials and information up to date. A need for in-service training of the staff to help develop competence in using available community resources. A need for the application and promotion of democratic processes in the classroom as well as in staff and community relations. A need to help make teachers feel at home and assist them in becoming a part of the community. A need to provide for community resource guides, field trip guides, and lists of resource people. . A need to provide for an instructional materials center in each school, preferably in conjunction with the library. A need for an honest, factual, and realistic public relations program intended to interpret the school at a human relations level. ZOO 10. A need for involving lay citizen groups in planning, facilitat~ ing, and evaluating the varied phases of the community school program as put into practice in a developing fringe community. IMPLICATIONS: GRADUATE PROGRAMS Graduate schools prgparingypotential educational administrators should be aware of the kinds of experiences suggested for educational leaders. The general findings of this study as they relate to a possible advanced program for school administrators may be grouped into four areas of probable curricula: (1) formalized instruction, (2) field Observation, (3) experimentation and research, and (h) the internship or externship. The above categories represent a framework through which jpotential administrators may develop some of the competencies needed to successfully administer a community school in a developing fringe community. Some of the competencies suggested by the study were: 1. The ability to survey, analyze, and study communities and neighborhoods in relation to the citizens' interpretation of the role of the school. 2. The ability to anticipate the expectations of significant com- munity groups and organizations. 3. The ability to organize suitable in-service training activities which develop appropriate community understandings and appreci- ations among staff members. 201 h. The ability to help identify the needs, interests, and desires of youth and adults and to meet them through a community- centered curriculum including adult education. 5. The ability to recognize leaders among lay groups and encourage them so they will be enthused and willing to serve voluntarily on citizens' advisory councils and committees. 6. The ability to integrate adult education, recreational, and social programs with the regular daytime program of the schools. 7. The ability to work with staff, citizens, and students in developing the community's own distinctive community school. 8. The ability to provide a type of leadership training while working with citizen groups that will inspire confidence and a greater faith in, and understanding Of, democracy. The general findings seem to indicate that there is a much greater :need for developing skills and techniques Of working with peOple on a luumin relations basis. There seems to be a need for developing compe- 'tencies in group work particularly in the area of leadership training_on tine participatory_leve1, including group dynamics, "role" playing, and «affective communication techniques. In View Of the competencies needed t5; educational leaders in fringe communities, the changing role Of the school administrator, and the informal nature of work with citizens, 'therwe seem tO be several curricula changes necessary to adequately trajli school administrators for community schools in develOping fringe communities . l. 202 GENERAL IMPLICATIONS CONCERNING SCHOOLS IN DEVELOPING FRINGE COMMUNITIES Though the results Of the study did not indicate an Obvious social cleavage between rural and urban residents in warren there is sufficient evidence in the review of fringe research to indicate that such cleavage can be a distinct social problem. . Fringe residents and leaders are apparently willing and some- times are anxious to accept help from resource persons or "experts". This seems to indicate a failure on the part of leaders to capitalize on the excellent human resources avail- able for building good communities in fringe areas. Community self-improvement programs have pointed out that only as people are involved and participate in solving their own community problems is lasting improvement made in the human community. It appears that where educational leaders fail to accept the mandate of leadership, other less desirable leaders will take over, and the school will sometime in the future find itself in an even less effective position in the social structure than is true today in a stable mature community. . It seems to be true that as the fringe community matures the school will be called upon to fill a less responsible role. Yet even as the community matures, the school, due to its active leadership role in community development as well as the expanded adult education program, will occupy a more important role in the mature fringe culture than in a stable rural or urban com- munity. 203 5. In developing fringe communities in particular, it seems to be a responsibility of community schools to Offer expanded programs, whenever feasible, in adult education on a community college basis, or in an extended thirteenth and fourteenth year program. The demands of society, automation, a shorter work week, and an increased number Of retired people may eventually make this imperative. SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH In the course of this investigation, a number of pertinent questions were raised which were beyond the intended purposes of the study. The data collected and presented here are but a beginning in the study of leaders and the leadership role of the school in a fringe community. .A few of the more pertinent suggested studies for further research are given here: 1. This study has served to give only a bench mark picture of 2. leadership in the Warren School District. A fUrther study of the same community should be made in two to four years to note what actually takes place in the leadership pattern and the role of the school as a social institution. A study should be made of a number Of fringe community schools in Michigan from the point of view Of the educational leader. This would make specific and explain further the findings of this study in relation to the educational leader's role in a developing fringe community. Such a study could be particularly 20h helpful if appraoched from within the social structure of the school. 3. The researcher often felt that a more thorough study of the lay citizen's interpretation of the role of the school in a fringe community would be particularly helpful. Since lay citizens come from many cultural backgrounds and bring with them urban as well as rural value orientations concerning the school, such findings would be valuable to educational leaders. Such infor- mation would assist them in understanding youth and adult re- actions to the day-school program, adult education, the social and recreational activities, and potential bonding issues. h. If the community school concept is intended to implement and make meaningful the democratic concepts, educational leaders should know more about the successful methods and techniques now used by teachers and administrators in community schools to implement these concepts. 5. There is a definite need for a study Of curriculum development in fringe community schools. Such a study needs to be made to specifically determine methods and techniques used in the development, kinds of emphases included, and the resource materials provided to implement a community-centered curriculum. ffhis study was an attempt to describe and evaluate the school and community, viewing these from the community viewpoint rather than from inside the school. The school was seen, through the eyes of community- wide leaders, as having accepted and played effective community 205 development and leadership roles. The evidence given in this study suggests that such.roles as a part of a fringe community's social policy provide educational leaders opportunities for dynamic, stimulat— ing, and creative leadership that can make fringe communities better places in which to live. The findings of the study point toward an education—centered community in which the community school as an effective tool in the hands of educational leaders can assist all groups in develop- ing an improved and more desirable human community. BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY BOOKS Angell, RObert C. Inte ation of American Society. New York: McGraw- Hill Book Company, Inc., l9hl. Biddle, William W} Cultivation of Community_Leaders, New York: Harper and Brothers, 1953. B0gardus, Emory S. Spgtplpgy, New York: The Macmillan Company, l9h3. Bogue, Donald J. 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Middletown in Transition. New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company,fil937. MacIver, R. M. Society. New York: Farrer and Pinehart Inc., 1937. web of Government. New York: The Macmillan Company, l9h7. McKenzie, R. D. The Metropolitan Community. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1933. Melby, Ernest 0. Administering Community Education. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall Inc., l955i7 Morgan, Arthur F. The Small Communit . New York: Harper and Brothers, 19h6. Moreno, J. L. Who Shall Survive. New York: Harper and Brother, l9h2. Ogden, Jean and Jess. These Things we Have Tried. New York: Harper and Brothers, l9h6. Small Communities in Action. New York: Harper and Brothers, —TIT9. Olson, Edward and others. School and Community. INeW'York: Prentice-Hall, Inc., l95h. Second Edition, Pierce, Truman M., Edward C. Merrill, Jr., Craig Wilson, and Ralph B. jKimbrough. Community Leadership for Public Education. New York: ‘Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1955. Pigors, Paul J. Leadership or Domination. Boston: Houghton-Mifflin Company, 1935. Small Town Renaissance: A Story of the Montana Poston, Richard Waverly. Harper and Brothers, 1950. Study . New York: Sanderson, Dwight. The Rural Community. Boston: Ginn and Company, 1932- 4 411 _..._..._r 209 Sanderson, Dwight. Leadership for Rural Life. New York: Association Press, l9h0. Rural Sociology and Rural Social Life. New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1982. Sanford, F. H. "Leadership Identification and Acceptance," in H. Guetzkow (ed.) Groups, Leadership, and Men. Pittsburg: Carnegie Press, 1951. Seay, Maurice F. and Ferris Crawford. The Community School and Community Self Improvement. Lansing: Department of Public Instruction, 195H} Seeley, John R., R. Alexander Sim, and Elizabeth w. Loosley. Crestwood Heights. New York: Basic Books, Inc., 1956. Simpson, Ray Hamill. A Study of Those Who Influence and Those Who are Influenced in Discussion. Bureau of Publication, Teachers College, COlumbia University, New York: 1938. Stiener, Jesse F. Community Organization. New York: Appleton-Century Company, 1930. Sutherland, Robert J. and Julian L. WOOdward. Introductopy Sociology. Chicago: J. B. Lippincott Company, l9h0. Tyler, R. W. The School and the Urban Community. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, l9h2. Imarner, Lloyd W. Democracy in Jonesville. New York: Harper and Brothers, l9h9. Pwirren, H. C. Dictionary Of Paycology. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1938. Vkrrren, Ronald L. Studyinngour Community. New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1955. Vflest, James. Plainville, U.S.A. New York: Columbia University Press, 19145 . hkiLfbien, Seymour L. The Decline of a Cotton Textile Town. New York: Columbia University Press, 19hh. Ziimnerman, Carle C. The Changing Community. New York: Harper and Brothers, 1938. -—c- M4.-. m 210 PERIODICALS Aguilar, Jose V. "Development Of Community School Concepts in Other Countries," The Community School. Fifty-second Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, Part II. Chicago: University Of Chicago Press, 1952, pp. 212-227. Alinsky, S. D. "Community Analysis and Organization," American Journal of Sociology, h6:707-808, 19h1. Bales, Robert F. "The Two Tasks Of Leadership," Adult Leadership, 6:h9—52, June, 1956. Beegle, J. Allan. "Characteristics of Michigan's Fringe Population," Rural Sociology, 12:25h-263, September, 19h7. Bierstedt, Robert. "An.Analysis of Social Power," American Sociological Review, 15:730-38, December, 1950. Breckon, Edith M. "The Rebirth Of a One Room School," Education in Rural Communities. Fifty-first Yearbook Of the National Society for the Study of Education, Part II. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1952, pp. 12h-128. Bressler, Marvin and Charles F. westoff. "Leadership and Social Change: The Reactions of a Special Group to Industrialization and POpulation Influx," Social Forces, 32:235-2h3, March, 195h. Collier, Abram T., "Business Leadership and a Creative Society," Harvard Business Review, 31:29-38, January, February, 1953. Dawson, Howard A. "A Blueprint for Progress," Phi Delta Kappan, 3hz62, October, l95h. ZDickinson, James A. "Antecedents Of the Community School Concept In the Utopian Theories," The Community School. Fifty-second Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, Part II. Chicago: University Of Chicago Press, l953,p pp 238-250. French Jr. , John R. P. "Leadership, A Dynamic Redefinition, A Conclud- ing Comment," Journal of Educational Sociolpgy, l7: h36- -7, March, 19th Gibtns, Cecil. "The Principles and Traits Of Leadership," Journal of .Abncrmal and Social Psygholpgy, h2:267-28b, l9h7. GriJm, Edgar L. and Eugene Richardson, "The Michigan Community School Service Program," The Community School. Fifty-second Yearbook of 'the National Society for the Study of Education, Part II. Chicago: ILniversity Of Chicago Press, 1953, pp. 195—211. 211 Hanna, Paul R. "The Community School and Larger Geographic Areas," The Community School. Fifty-second Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, Part II. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1953, pp. 228-237. Haskew, L. D. and Geneva Hanna. "The Organization and Administration of the Community School," The Community School. Fifty-second Yearbook Of the National Society for the Study of Education, Part II. Chicago: University Of Chicago Press, 1953, pp. 127-133. Heynes, Robert W. "Effects of Variation In Leadership on Participant Behavior in Discussion Groups," Adult Education (London), 21:109-111, December, 19h8. Henderson, Leon W. and H. B. Nutter. "The University Of Florida, roject in Applied Economics," High School Journal, 25:318-20, November, December, 19h2. Hiller, E. T. "The Community as a Social Group," American Sociological Review. 6:189-202, l9hl. Hooker, Elizabeth. "Leaders in Village Communities," Social Forces, 2:60h-lh, June, 1928. Jennings, Helen Hall. "Leadership~aA Dynamic Redefinition," Journal of Educational Sociology, 17zhO3-33, March, l9hh. Knickerbocker, I. "Leadership: A Conception and Some Implications," Journal of Social Issues, h:23-h0, l9h8. Knoblauch, A. L. "Leadership," Secondary Education, 13:2h-25, April- June, 19h7. Imasswell, H. D. "The Comparative Study of the Elite," Hooker Institute Series, Series B No. 1, January 1952, p. 2. Imnrine, Sol. "An Approach to Constructive Leadership," Journal Of Social Issuag, 5:h7-52, Winter, l9h9. Ixrvely, Charles E. "The SociOlOgical Significance of the Rural Urban Fringe," Rural Sociology, 18:168-79, June, 1953. Dknyes, Tom. "Flint Has a System," Lions International, May, 1956, a reprint. McKain, Walter C. and Robert G. Burnight. "Sociogical Significance of the Rural-Urban Fringe," Rural Sociolpgy, 18:108-109, June, 1953- 212 Morrill, Maurice B. "Clothing, The Sloan Experiment in Vermont," Clearing House, l9:h29~3l, December, 1938. Muntyan, Milosh. "Community School Concepts: A Critical Analysis," CommunitytSchool. Fifty-second Yearbook Of the National Society for the Study of Education, Part II. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1953, pp. 31-h7. Nisbet, R. A. "De Bonald and the Concept of the Social Group," Journal of the History_of Ideas, 5:315-31, 19bb. "A Philosophy of Adult Education," Adult Education Association's Committee on Social Philosophy, Adult Education, 2:32-3h, April, 1952. Pierce, Truman M. and Craig Wilson, "Research in County Educational Administration," (The Cheatham County Study) The School Executive, 72:96-106, March, 1953. Rodehaver, Miles W. "Fringe Settlement as a Two Directional Movement," Rural Sociology, l2zh9-57, March, 19h7. Seay, Maurice R. "The Community School: New Meaning for an Old Term," The Community School. Fifty-second Yearbook of the National Society for the Study Of Education, Part II, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1953, pp. 1-13. Smfijfli, ChristOpher. "Social Selection in Community Leadership," Social Forcee, 15:53o~35, May, 1937- Stodgill, Ralph, "Personality Factors Associated with Leadership," Journal Of Psychology, 25:39-h8, 19h8. IJseemn John, Pierre Tangent, and Ruth Useem, "Stratification Of a Prairie Town," American Sociological Review, 7:33l-h2, June, 19h2. Whirriner, Charles K. "Leadership in a Small Group," American Journal of Sociology, 60:361-9, June, 1955. Zimmerman, Carl C. "The Evolution Of American Community," American .Journal Of Sociology, h6:809-17, May, 19hl. UNPUBLISHED MATERIALS chuma, Donald H. "An.Analysis of the Social Power Position of the Real Estate Board in Grand Rapids, Michigan," unpublished Ph. D. thesis, East Lansing: Michigan State University, 1952. 213 Bosworth, Claud A. "A Study of the Development and the Validation of a Measure of Citizens' Attitudes Toward Progress and Some Variables Related Thereto," Unpublished Ph. D. dissertation, University of Michigan, l95h. Cousino, Paul K. "Social Attitudes Toward Certain Curricular Issues in warren Township." Unpublished Ed. D. thesis, University of Michi- gan, 1951. Dickinson, James A. "The Community School Concept in Education." Unpublished Ph. D. dissertation, Ohio State University, 19h2. Gettel, Gerhard F. "A Study of Power in a North Central State Community." Unpublished Ph. D. thesis, Michigan State University, 1956. Goodson, w; R. "The Community School Concept." Unpublished Ph. D. dissertation, University of Texas, 1951. Loving, Alvin D. "Crystalizing and Making Concrete the Community School Concept in Michigan Through Study of On-Going Community School Practices." Unpublished Ed. D. thesis, wayne University, Detroit Michigan, 195h. Meaders, Donald. "Practices Advocated by Selected National Agencies and Organizations for Implementing Local Programs of Vocational Agriculture, 1836~195b." Unpublished Ed. D. dissertation, Michigan State University, 1957. jMichigan State University warren School Community Study, July, 1956. Milleny Paul A. "A Comparative Analysis of the Decision Making Process in Community Organization Toward Major Health Goals." Unpublished Ph. D. thesis, Michigan State College, 1953. Rhuityan, Milosh. "Community School Concepts in Relation to Societal Determinants." Unpublished Ph. D. thesis, University of Illinois, 19h?- Ihaslund, Robert A. "The Origin and Development of the Community School Concept." Unpublished Ph. D. dissertation, Stanford University, 1951. Passow, Arron Harry. "Group-Centered Curriculum Leadership." Unpub- lished Ph. D. thesis, Teacher's College, Columbia University, 1951. Wagner, Marlowe Ervin. "A Comparative Study of Leadership Attitudes Held by Teachers and Community Leaders in Certain Representative Minnesota Towns." Unpublished Ed. D. dissertation, University of North Dakota, January, 1955. 21h White, James Eugene, "Leadership and Social Structure in a New York Rural Community." Unpublished Ph. D. thesis, Cornell University, 19h8. Whetten, N. L. and w. C. McKain. "Suburganization and Metropolitan Growth." An address, WOrkshOp for Chamber of Commerce Executives, Michigan State University, 1955. Wilson, 0. B. "Functions of Leadership for Rural and Rurban Schools," Speech delivered at the A.A.S.A. Convention, Atlantic City, February, 1957 . BULLETINS AND REPORTS .Anderson, W3 A. "Social Change and an Urban Fringe Area." New York: Cornell University, Rural Sociology Publication 35, February, 1953. "Basic Community Survey." Bulletin No. 30lh, Instructional Service Series, Lansing, Michigan: Department of Public Instruction, 1939. Blizzard, Samuel W. "Research on the Rural Urban Fringe, A Case Study." State College, Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania State University, Paper No. 1802, 195h. Blizzard, Samuel W. and William F. Anderson. "Problems in Rural-Urban Fringe Research: Conceptualization and Delineation." Progress Report 89, State College, Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania State College, November, 1952. Ilasworth, Claud . "Community Inventory." East Lansing: Michigan State University, Department of Community Services, June, 1955. ‘The Committee on the Program of the Reorganized School, "The Community School Program Self Evaluative Check List." Department of Public Instruction, Lansing, Michigan, 1956. Thiaminger, Douglas. "Measuring the Effectiveness Of Your Community." Cornell Agricultural EXperiment Station Bulletin, hhh, 19h0. Ifilorida Citizens Committee on Education, "Education and the Future of Florida." Tallahassee: Florida Citizens Committee on Education, March, 19h7. Iiuiex of Adjustment and Values, "Basic Assumptions Concerning How Com- munities Grow and Develop." Michigan State University, 1956. 215 McKain Jr., walter C. and Nathan L. Whetten. "Occupational and Indus- trial Diversity in Rural Connecticut." Bulletin 263, Storrs: Storrs Agricultural Experiment Station, University Of Connecticut, November, 19h9. Nelson, Charles W. and Harry L. Stone. "New Management Deve10pment and Community Planning: A Three Part Leadership Training PrOgram." Industrial Relations Center, University of Chicago, 1955. Sanderson, Dwight. "Locating the Rural Community." Extension Bulletin NO. h13, Ithaca, New York: New York State College Of Agriculture, Cornell University, 1939. Sanders, Irwin T. "Alabama Rural Communities, A Study of Chilton County." Alabama College Bulletin, Vol. 33, NO. 1A, Montevallo, Alabama, l9h0. . "Preparing a Community Profile." Bureau of Community Service, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky: Community Series Bulletin NO. 7, May, 1952. Seay, Maurice F. and Leonard E. Neece. "The Sloan EXperiment in Kentucky." Bulletin of the Bureau Of School Service, Vol. XIV, No. b, Lexington, Kentucky: University of Kentucky, June, l9hh. Seay, Maurice F. and William J. McGlothlin. "Elementary Education in Two Communities of the Tennessee Valley: A Description of the Wilson Dam and Gilbertsville Schools." Bulletin Of the Bureau of School Service, Vol. XIV, NO. 3, Lexington, Kentucky: University of Kentucky, March, 19h2. "The Story of Holtville." A Southern Association Study, Nashville, Tennessee: Cullom and Ghutner Company, l9hh. 'flJsing Resources of the Community to Build a School Program." Alabama Department of Education, Bulletin NO. h. Montgomery, Alabama: State Board of Education. VkirkshOp proceedings, Second Meeting Of Annual Convention of the Association Of Southern Agricultural WOrkers, Memphis, Tennessee, February, 1951. APPENDICES APPENDIX A 217 TOP LEADERS INTERVIEW SCHEDULEFDBCEMBER 1956 The interview is strictly confidential and.will be used only for research purposes. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. As you look back upon the Warren school community, did you ever feel a need for community planning? When? Specifically, what brought it to your attention? How would you rank the following groups as to their actual ability to influence decisions on community improvement? 3. Rotary Club 9. Warren City Planning Commission b. Community Council f. Organized labor 0. The Warren Schools 3. Industry d. The churches of the community h. C.C.C.D. As you look ahead to the future will any groups' potential ability to influence decisions tend to increase? Are there other groups that should be mentioned? What are the major community problems in warren? Which are most important? It has been shown sociologically that stable communities tend to be conservative and view outsiders and resource people with suspicion; Wculd you say that this is true of Warren? Why do you feel this way? If we are to note community development we usually do so in terms of commonly accepted goals and objectives. ‘WOuld.ycu say that people in warren today have such a common basis for measuring community progress? Could we say that community progress tends to be measured in terms of immediate needs or short time goals? According to surveys in stable communities, position in the leadership structure is based upon social class, influence, and length of community residence. Since Warren is in a developmental stage, would you say that this is true here? Does a person's occupation make a difference as to a leader's position? Do you feel that leadership is a key factor in effective community planning? If so, do you feel that warren at present has developed the kinds of leaders who can do this kind of planning? 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 218 How would you suggest that adequate leadership be developed and maintained in the years ahead? In a stable community the school as a formal institution tends to play a minor role in community development. Would you say that this is true in warren? What role would you say that the school should play in community development? What function are churches carrying out in community development? Could they play a more active role than at present? Do they have a role to play in leadership develOpment? In some communities the top leaders make the decisions and then ask the school board or city council to make the decisions legal. In other words, the legal action simply rubber stamps a previously decided issue. Do you feel that this kind of leadership takes place in Warren? Do you feel that this type of leadership is desirable? Why do you feel this way? In the definition of leadership we agreed that a democratic leader might play several leadership roles in effective participation. On the basis of your experience would you say that leaders in Warren tend to be this kind of leader? Would you feel that a leader's role tends to change with the situation and that he may be an expediter in one case, a composer in another, and a harmonizer in still another? Who would you feel is the most important person in making decisions for community improvement? Why? Bosworth Scale administered at this time in the interview. Time alloted - 15 minutes. The interviewer will mentally recheck questions to reassure himself before continuing the interview. 14. 15. 16. When did community development become interesting to you? What relationships do you have with other community leaders? Do these relationships tend to remain formal? Do you enjoy working with community projects? Do you find that once a person has been recognized for community interest that others expect him to continue to accept such responsibility? 17. 18.' 219 Do you feel that most leaders are interested in the common good of the peeple? Do you find that leadership accomplishments tend to serve a leader's personal needs as well? How do you picture yourself as a leader? SECOND INTERVIEW Start with interpretation of the community school. Use cards to bring out specific points. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 28. What kind of community do you think Warren will eventually become? Will it be like the urban area of Detroit or will it be different? From your experience of living here, why do people move into a fringe area? As you think of the Warren School in this rapidly develOping fringe area how do you feel regarding the role the school has played in community develOpment? Would you say that the Warren School had taken too much or too little initiative in encouraging community develOpment? Do you feel that the present teachers in Warren are sufficiently active as members of the community? Are they really effective in community affairs? Should the school provide Opportunities for boys and girls to become involved in community improvement projects? How could this be arranged? Would you object to having social studies classes make fact finding surveys concerning the social and economic needs of the community? Do you feel that the expenditure of school funds to help provide for community planning would be a wise use of public funds? What kinds of services not now provided by the schools would you suggest? Should any programs now provided be expanded? The results of the previous interview would seem to indicate that leadership will be a key factor in community development. Would you be in favor of some type of formal leadership training such as given for Boy Sccut leaders or Y-Teens leaders? 29. 30. 220 Among the community groups, which ones could or would sponsor such classes? In many cases citizens question the advisability of public school peeple running for public office? Do you feel that such opinions are justifiable? Can you explain why the public would feel this way? APPENDIX B -1“ I 222 MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY Code Number WARREN SCHOOIr-COWUNITY PROJECT GENERAL INF‘ORBMTION Date Amount of Time Interviewer I NI‘RODUCTION I am from Michigan State University and am part C name) of a group studying the Warren School District. We are visiting families who live here in order to get first-hand information from them about the Warren community. We would like to get your answers to some questions so we can get the information we need. These questions are being asked of each family we interview and the information given is strictly confidential. We will use the information given to us by each family to build as complete a picture as possible of your community. First, I would like to ask you some questions for general information about your family and household . General information 1. Number and ages of Adults in household. (Circle person giving information.) Ages Husband Wife other ) (other ) ( 20-29 hO-h9 3CL39 ._______ ...—.... ‘_______ SO-up ‘ —‘i (1) (2) (3) (h) (S) 2. Ages of children livitg at home 3. Husband's occupation Wife is occupat ion h. 5. 9. 10. 223 -2. Local Schools children. ‘Warren Public Parochial Other attend (check) Schools or “Private School Name of community where your family usually a. Shops for food: Distance in.miles b. Shops for clothing: Distance in miles c. Shops for household appliances Distance in miles d. Does its banking . jg ,_ Distance in miles e. Goes to church Distance in miles ‘__ Yes No Are you and your (husband, wife) registered voters? Husband Wife Does your family usually have its recreation in the Warren Community? Yes No (comments if any) How long have you lived in the'Warren School District? Years mos. How long have you lived at your present address? Years . . mos. Dc you.own.your own home? Yes Rent Live with relatives 224 MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY Code Number WARREN SCHOOL-COIMUNITY STUDY PARTICIPATION IN ORGANIZATIONS Date Amount of Time Interviewer (check) Head __ Spouse __ INTRODUCTION Now I would like to ask you a few questions about the groups or organizations of which you are a part. Please think in terms of all the associations members of your family have had with groups of other people. These will include such f3_rr_ug_al_ groups as: Neighborhood associations, home- makers, service club, lodge, ctmrch, bridge club, park board, city council, etc. Also are included such informal groups that meet more or less regularly for game, coffee, cakes, sports, baby sitting, car pool, shopping, etc. Your answers will pertain to participation by members of your family during the last gig {993323. (For easy transcription start with person responding, then husband or spouse, than children.) Wrganization Member Tamil number arm group or or group in which participating times member at- organization members of family a. husband tends meetings or a. formal have participated dur- b. wife gets together b. informal ing last six months c. children each month 1. 2. 3. h. S. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. (enter others on back) 225 MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY Code Number WARREN SCHOOL-OOM’IUNITY STUDY LEADERSHIP IDENTIFICATIOi-I Date Amount of Time Interviewer INTRODUCTION We are trying to get as complete a picture of this school-community as possible within a short time. We all know there are some people in every community who are active and understand the community. These people we usually reccgnize as leaders whether they hold office or not. We would like for you to name eight general leaders in the Warren com- munity. These may be men or women, officers or non-officeholders. They should be people you think of as leaders of the whole communLy. NAME OF PERSON After leaders are named, please give the title, if any, or (List all eight leaders first) area in which each person named is a leader. Select area of leadership from list below 1. 2. 3. W h. S. 6. 7. 8. Area in which Person Serves as Leader 1. Commity—wide. 2. Education. 3. Governmental matters. ls. Business affairs. 5. Agriculture. 6. Political matters. 7. Industry. 8. Religious matters. 9. Social organizations (clubs, etc.) 10. Health. 11. Recreation. 12. Labor. 13. Voluntary organizations (e.g. community council). 226 MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY Code No. WARREN salon-COMMUNITY STUDY COWUNITY VALUES: SELF Date Amount of Time Interviewer INSTRUCTIONS INDEX OF COM-'IUNITY VALUES SELF All of us would like to know more about our camunities. Seldom do we have . the opportunity to look at our community as it is or as we would like it to be. Here is a brief list of characteristics which to a certain extent describe local communities such as yours. Please examine all characteristics separately and apply it to your local cannunity. Then do the following three thirgs with 39g characteristic I. Decide how much of the time each characteristic is adeguate in your community. Put one of the five statements at the top of Column I which best describes how much of the time each characteristic is adequate in your canmunity. Place the number which you choose for each characteristic in the blank opposite each characteristic in Column I. II. Now tell how you feel about your community by selecting one of the five statements at the top of Column II which best describes how you feel. Put the number of the statement you have chosen for each characteristic in the blank opposite each of the characteristics in Column II. III. Now tell Mon would like jyour communitLto beideally by selecting of the five statements which best describes how you would like each characteristic to be ideally. Put the munber you select for each characteristic in the blank opposite each characteristic in Column III. Start with the word "friendly“ and fill Columns I, II, and III before going on to the next itan. There is no time limit. MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY WARREN SGHOOLmCOMMUNITY STUDY Code No. 227 COMMUNITY VALUES: SELF Date Amount of Time Interviewer I II III I believe this This is the way This is the way characteristic I feel about this I would like my to be adequate characteristic of community to be Characteristic in my community my community ideally l. Seldcmly l. Very'much dis- 1. Seldomly of some 2. Occasionally like 2. Occasionally 3. About half 2. Dislike 3. About half h the time 3. Neither dis- h the time cmmuni . Good deal of like or like . Good deal of C ties time h . Like the tims 5. Nest of the 5. Very much like 5. Most of the time time EEamEE a Progressive 1. 2. 3. h. 5. o. 7. 8. 9. 10. Friendly Religious Healthy ‘Well planned Accepts new- comers to come munity rHas a pleasing appearance Has good human relations Has good elemen- tary’school programs Has good high school programs Has good shopping facilities Has good leader- ship of community organizations .‘t at! 228 Characteristic SELF -2. I II III I believe this This is the way This is the way characteristic I feel about this I would like my to be adequate in my community characteristic of my community community to be ideally of sons Communities 1. Seldomly 2. Occasionally 30 About half the time A. Good deal of time 5. Most of the time 1. Very much die- like 2. Dislike 3. Neither dis- like or like be Like 5. Very much like 1. Seldomly 2. Occasionally 3. About half the time h. Good deal of the time 5. Most of the time 12. 13. 1h. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. Has good street maintenance Has satisfying family life Has good local official leader- ship Has good school discipline Has good coopera- tion among com- munity organiza- tions Has good industryr labor relations Well served by local business enterprises Well served by local government Well served by organized labor Provides good opportunities for recreation Provides good citizenship training for youth ~0«.- 229 I II III I believe this This is the way' This is the way characteristic I feel about this I would like my to be adequate characteristic of community to be Characteristic in my community' my community ideally of Some 1. Seldcnfly 1. Very much dis- 1. Seldomly 2. Occasionally’ like 2. Occasionally 3. About half 2. Dislike 3. About half Communities the time 3. Neither dis- the time h. Good deal of like or like h. Good deal of time h. Like the time 5.I£ost of the 5. Very much like S.Iiost of the time time 23. Provides good cp- portunities for participation in organizations and groups 2h. Provides economic well being 25. Provides good cp- portunities for young peeple 26. Citizens keep up with important. local issues 27. People take pride in community 28. 1167188 fair taxation 29. Is "politically" minded 30. Peeple interes- ted in over-all community'af- fairs 230 MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY Code No . WARREN BOWL-COMMUNITY STUDY ggNMUNITY VALUES: OTHERS Date Amount of Time Interviewer INSTRUCTIONS INDEX OF COMMUNITY VALUES OTHERS Now we would like to gain a better idea of Wu see other people's views of your community. In completitg this part of the survey, would you think in toms of howi in general1 your local friends feel about your community. Proceed exactly as you did with the previous portion of the survey, only this time, you are asked your feelings concerning Column I What other local people believe about your community as it is now. Column II How otter local people feel about your community. Column III How other local people would like your community to be ideally. Complete Columns I, II and III for each item separately. MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY WARREN SCHOOL-COMMUNITY STUDY COMMUNITY VALUES: Amount of Time OTHERS Code No. Date 231 Interviewer Characteristic of some Communities I Other people believe this characteristic to be adequate This is the way other people feel about this char- acteristic of my III This is the way other people would like my community to be in my ccmmun- community ideally ity l. Seldomly 1. Very much dis- 1. Seldomly 2. Occasionally like 2. Occasionally 3. About half 2. Dislike 3. About half the time 3. Neither dislike the time h. Good deal of or like h. Good deal the time h. Like of the time 5. Most of the time 5. Very much like 5. Most of the time Example: Progressive 7. 8. 9. 10. Friendly Religious Healthy Well planned Accept newcomers to community Has pleasing appearance Has good human relations Has good elemen- tary school programs Has good high school programs Has good shopping facilities Has good leader- ship of community organizations 3 h 232 OTHERS ’2' I II III Other people This is the way This is the way believe this other people feel other people characteristic about this char- would like my Characteristic to be adequate acteristic of my community to be in w ccnmmn- community ideally ity of some 1. Seldomly 1. Very much dis- 1. Seldomly 2. Occasionally like 2. Occasionally Communities 3. About half . 2. Dislike 3. About half the time 3. Neither dislike the time A. Good deal of or like Is. Good deal the time b. Like of the time 5. Most of the 5. Very much like 5. Most of the time time 12. Has good street maintenance 13. Has satisfying family life lb. Has good local official leader- ship 15. Has good school discipline 16. Has good coopera- tion among com- munity organiza- tions 17. Has good industry. labor relations 18. Well served by local business enterprises 19. Well served by local governsnt 20. "all served by organized labor 21. Provides good opportunities for recreation OTHERS 233 -3- Characteristic ofsmm I Other people believe this characteristic to be adequate II This is the way other people feel about this char- acteristic of my III This is the way other people would like my community to be Communities in my commun- community ideally ity l. Seldomly 1. Very much dis- 1. Seldomly 2. Occasionally like 2. Occasionally 3. About half 2. Dislike 3. About half the time 3. Neither dislike the time h. Good deal of or like h. Good deal the time h. Like of the time 5. Most of the 5. Very much like 5. Most of the time time 22 23 2h 25 26 27 28 29 Provides good citizenship training for youth PrOVides good opportunities for participa- tion in organiza- tions and groups Provides economic well being Provides good opportunities for young people Citizens keep up with important local issues People take pride in community Levies fair taxation Is "politically" minded People interesteo in over-all com- munity affairs 234 MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY Code No. WARREN SC HOOD-£0.h LIAUNITY STUDY Date PERSISTENT COIE‘LUNITY COIEERAB Interviewer Amount of Time __ (Check) Head Spouse— INinonucjggh Regardless of how long we lived in a community, we tend to perceive characteristics of the conmunity in which we take considerable ride, and also perceive some problems which give us considerable concern. To complete our picture Of this school-community, please answer these four final questions: 1. What are the three oven-all local gglmunity problems which you feel are of most concern TO YOU at this time? 3. b. Ce For about how long have you felt these problems have been of most concern? a. b. c. 2. What are the three over-all local community problems which you believe are of most concern TO OTHER PEOPLE In the community? 3.. b. 0. _g— 3. What are the three characteristics of the over-all local community which seem TO YOU to be most outstandii at this time? 8. b. 0. For about how long have you felt these three characteristics have been most outstanding? a. be cc b. What are the three characteristics of the over-all local community which seem TO OTHER PEOPLE in the community to be most outstandirg? 3. b. C. APPENDIX C Department of Community Services Continuing Education Services 236 Michigan State College East Lansing, Michigan '3 8 .33 commmm ATTITUDE SCALE 5: e e U» x: Sb CS a°° is as +‘ Q: R: c- -.-1 “+33 1. The school should stick to the 3 3'8 and forget about ”3“ '4 9 on most of the other courses being offered today ___'___'__'___'___ 2. Most communities are good enough as they are without starting any new community improvement programs _'__'_'___'__ 3. Every community should encourage more music and lecture programs _'__'_'___'___ 4. This used to be a better community to live in _'__'___'__'___ 5. Long term progress is more important than immediate benefits __'__'__'_‘__ 6. We have too many organizations for doing good in the community _'__'___'__'___ 7. The home and the church should have all of the responsi- bility for preparing young people for marriage and parenthood _'__'__'__'__ 8. The responsibility for older people should be confined to themselves and their families instead of the community _'__'__'___'_ 9' Communities have too many youth programs ' _'...'_.'_.'__ 10. Schools are good enough as they are in most communities ___'__'__'___'___ 11. Too much time is usually spent on the planning phases of community projects __'__'__'___'__ 12. Adult education should be an essential part of the local school program _'_'___'_'__ 13. Only the doctors should have the responsibility for the ‘ health program in the community _'__'___'__'__ 14. Mental illness is not a responsibility of the whole community _'__'___'_'_ 15. A modern community should have the services of social agencies ___'__'__'___'___ 16. The spiritual needs of the citizens are adequately met by the churches __'___'__'__'___ 17. In order to grow a community must provide additional recreation facilities _'__'___'__'___ 18. In general church members are better citizens _'__'_'__'___ 19. The social needs of the citizens are the responsibility of themselves and their families and not of the community __'__'___'_'___ 20. Churches should be expanded and located in accordance with pepulation growth CI 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 28. 29. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. be c >m> a ° ego £33? a w No community improvement program should be carried on ‘ which is injurious to a business __f__f__f__f__ Industrial development should include an interest in assisting local industry _'_'_'__'__ The first and major responsibility of each citizen should be to earn dollars for his own pocket _'___'___'____'____ More industry in towns lowers the living standards __j__f__j“_f_u The responsibility of citizens who are not actively participating in a community improvement program is to criticize those who are active __'__'___'__'___ What is good for the community is good for me __.________,__, Each one should handle his own business as he pleases and let the other businessmen handle theirs as they please __ __ __ _ _ A strong Chamber of Commerce is beneficial to any community ’ ________.______ Leaders of the Chamber of Commerce are against the welfare of the majority of the citizens in the community __ __ _ _ _ A community would get along better if each one would mind his own business and others take care of theirs Members of any community organization should be expected to attend only those meetings which affect him personally _____ Each of us can make real progress only when the group as a whole makes progress _____ The person who pays no attention to the complaints of the persons working for him is a poor citizen It would be better if we would have the farmer look after his own business and we look after ours All unions are full of communists _____ The good citizen encourages the widespread circulation of all news including that which may be unfavorable to him and his organization The good citizen should help minority groups with their problems The farmer has too prominent a place in our society A citizen should join only those organizations which will promote his own interests Everyone is out for himself at the expense of every- one else CR 41. 42. 43 . 44. 45 . 46. 47. 48. 49. SO. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57- 58. 59c 60. Busy people should not have the responsibility for civic programs The main responsibility for keeping the community clean is up to the city officials Community improvements are fine if they don't increase taxes The younger element have too much to say about our community A progressive community must provide adequate parking facilities , Government officials should get public sentiment before acting on major municipal projects A good citizen should be willing to assume leader- ship in a civic improvement organization Progress can best be accomplished by having only a few peeple involved Community improvement should be the concern of only a few leaders in the community A community would be better if less people would spend time on community improvement projects Only those who have the most time should assume the responsibility for civic programs Living conditions in a community should be improved A good citizen should sign petitions for community improvement Improving slum areas is a waste of money The police force should be especially strict with outsiders The paved streets and roads in most communities are good enough The sewage system of a community must be expanded as it grows even though it is necessary to increase taxes Some people just want to live in slum areas The main problem we face is high taxes Modern methods and equipment should be provided for all phases of city government a 3:8 32”.. that}. sag..aaa Emmi is :5 -———~ flW’t '37“ m MR“??? f?“ '.;.n.‘. AFR-a 8 135.3. ii o I “v ' ‘ , .l ' h I ”mew-.... ~‘* 'I- h ' A, r: 'ME ...--.1,“ .7599: a‘ .fi- :‘ ' If. I: I! . A .3, . v" . ., ‘I, 1 ' 'Z 1‘1}. V k " ~ ‘ I" mi Mw/ 3a -4. ....m - .._ _— nxcwrcaw smTE UNIV A LIBRARIES ll11|WIMW”I”NIW||ll"”WIIIWIINIHIIIHIHI 31293103815134