- -._-. l A STUDY OF PROFESSIONAL AND COMMUNITY LEADERSHIP ROLES AS THEY ARE ASSUMED BY PUBLIC SCHOOL TEACHERS IN SELECTED SCHOOL DISTRICTS IN MICHIGAN Thesis for the Degree of Ed. D. MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY ROBERT DEAN HELLENGA I963 ~ , Cum-.5”... —. This is to certify that the thesis entitled A STUDY OF PROFESSIONAL AND COMMUNITY LEADERSHIP ROLES AS THEY ARE ASSUMED BY PUBLIC SCHOOL TEACHERS IN SELECTED SCHOOL DISTRICTS IN MICHIGAN presented by ROBERT DEAN HELLE NGA has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ed. Do degree in Education ,,/ s 4 was; 4/. #2, Major professor Date June 20, 1963 LIBRAI Michigan 5 Universit ABSTRACT A STUDY OF PRUFESSICBAL ALD COMMUNITY LEADERSHI} HOLES AS TIIEYARE ASS LINED BY PUBLIC SCIiOCL TEta'JIiEHo D. SELECTED SCHOOL DISTRICTS Ih MICHIGAB by Robert Dean Hellenga Purpose of the Study The purpose of this research was to study the extent of certain leadership activities engaged in by public school teachers in selected Michigan school districts, and to determine the degree to which teachers assumed certain leadership roles in professional educational organiza— tions and in community organizations in these districts. It was believed that certain variable factors influence leadership patterns, and an analysis of the influence of these factors upon teacher leader- ship in these communities was made. Thgggy and Hypotheses in the Study The theoretical base upon which this research was initiated was stated: The teaching profession remains today, as before, a relatively impotent direct leadership force in the community setting outside the classroom, and the tendency toward change is initiated by stimulus outside of the profession. Seven basic hypotheses were tested through the research process, and they were stated as follows: 1. Opportunities for community service, as evidenced by the acceptance of definite leadership responsibilities, tend to increase as the teacher takes on additional duties and responsibilities in the community's school system. 2. Suburban communities, with extensive housing develop— ments, tend to have more teachers as recognized community V 7. Robert Dean hellenga leaders than do heavily industrialized communities, or small stable communities. There is a significant relationship between outstanding teachers, as recognized by administrators, for profes- sionalism and service, and the degree of influence these teaChers exert in community affairs. Community influence and active participation in community affairs as exerted by teachers, tends to be restricted to smaller social organizations, religious organizations, and services directly concerned with young pe0ple and children. Athletic directors, coaches, and music directors tend to exert a stronger leadership influence in communities than do teachers in the academic disciplines. Men teachers tend to exercise a stronger interest and greater participation in professional activities out- side the classroom than women teachers. Secondary teachers tend to exercise a stronger interest and greater participation in both professional and community activities outside the classroom than elemen- tary teachers. Review 91; the Literature A review of the literature in the field of leadership was con— centrated on studies and opinions made by authorities on the profes- sional and community activities of teachers. Studies involved the extent of participation by teachers in these activities, together with professional and personal restrictions, occupational and social status, role expectations, and the relative influence of public school teachers throughout many areas of the United States. Procedures in the Study The research methods consisted of: l. The selection of six Michigan school districts, repre- senting the major sociological divisions of urban, suburban, and rural areas, to serve a SpeCific area of study. Robert Dean hellenga The development of a structured interview schedule for selected administrators and teachers in these districts, and questionnaires for 104 selected teachers in two of the six districts. The personal interview with 6 superintendents, 2 assistant superintendents, 22 elementary teachers, and 33 secondary teachers, to obtain factual and subjective data to test the hypotheses, and to draw further conclusions from the analysis of this data and from previous research analysis in the literature. An analysis of the data supported the acceptance of hypotheses 1, 3, A, and 6, but did get support the acceptance of hypotheses 2 and 5, and these were rejected. Iypothesis 7 could not be sufficiently validated, and no conclusions were drawn. Further significant findings in the study were: 1. In addition to these findings, research were outlined, and recommendations for consideration districts, institutions of higher learning, Teachers tended to give more emphasis to professional leadership activities outside the classroom than they did to community leadership activities. Teachers were generally not considered to be community leaders. Teachers did not tend to be active as political leaders. Teachers who were active in community leadership activities were almost invariably active in profes- sional leadership roles, but professional leaders were not necessarily community leaders. Teachers who lived in the community where they tanght tended to exercise a greater role in community affairs. Teacher-leaders in rural areas tended to remain for a longer period of time in that type of community than did teacher-leaders in suburban areas. various implications for further by school and communities were made. A STUDY OF PROFESSICLAL AND COMMULITY IEADERSHIP RLIES AS THEY ARE ASSUMED BY IUBLIC SCHOOL TEACHERS IN SELECTED SCHOOL DISTRICTS Th MICHIGAL Robert Dean Hellenga A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State university in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DC'CTOR OF ED UCATIGV College of Education 1963 ' @290“: Mai/a4 I ; AdmovLEDGI-ams The writer takes this opportunity to express appreciation to certain individuals who have in so many ways helped to make this study I possible. Dr. William H. Roe, graduate advisor and chairman of my doctoral committee, has given encouragement and performed invaluable acts of assistance throughout this study. His constant help throughout the course of graduate study at Michigan State University is gratefully acknowledged. Dr. Floyd G. Parker has given great encouragement throughout this study, and his friendly inspiration during the past two years has helped to smooth many rough Spots. Dr. Willa Norris and Dr. Walter E. Freeman, both members of my doctoral committee, have given graciously of their time to give helpful advice. Dr. William V. Hicks, Director of the Student Teaching Program at Michigan State University,has assisted in providing new and valued experiences in student teaching work. Many administrators and teachers in the school districts in~ volved in this study generously gave time and encouragement, and with- out their help this project could not have been completed. .Many of my associates in the College of Education have given many helpful suggestions and moral encouragement. my wife Charlotte, and children David, Nancy, Dale, Susan, Gary, and Steven, have struggled through this endeavor with me, and provided constant inspiration, love, and encouragement. ii AS IT. CivILIJ-SLXB'QL T . . LIST CF CRAPHS . . Chapter I. SLTT {G TILEI—tbks o 0 Introduction . Purpose of the Study . heed for the Study . . . Dimension of the Protlem Assumptions and hypotheses limitations of the Study Methods and Irocedures Defin tion of Terms. . Summary and Conclusions. II. TABLE OF OF THE PRCLIEM. C CI» El. TS A mgvrsw (r rauncacmn STUDIES IL m. LITERATURE. The Teacher's Role as a Professional leader. The Teacher's Role as a Community leader . . . . The Ibsition of Influence of the Teaching Profession. Summary of the Literature. . . . . III. Introduction historical Background of Study . Research Methods Construction of the Research Selection Procedures The Interview Process. . Questionnaire Procedures Implications of Procedural Problems in IV. AIIALYSIS Oi" DATA. Introduction . O O O O O 0 Instruments . . . O O O O C O O C O O O O O O O O O O 0 this J O O O O O I O O O O O 0 METHODS AKD PRCCEDURSS. A Descriptive Analysis of Factual Data Types of School Districts Studied iii 0 O 4 ‘11' CLCtJ '\‘1\NI—‘ 46 47 C / C J 57 Cl 65 s7 TAIL?) CF ‘CQ\TEH.T.5——Conty.ued Chapter Characteristics of School Administrators Interviewed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Characteristics of Teachers Interviewed. . . . . . Factors Relating to Interviewees Concepts of Influence and leadership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . frofessional leadership. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Community Leadership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . d‘nmarization of Respondents Concepts of Teachers leadership Roles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Relationships between Findings in this Study and the Hypotheses'l‘ested.................. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Testing of the Hypothesis. . . . . . . . . . . . . summarization of Hypotheses Testing. . . . . . . . V. CCLCIUJIQNS, IMIIJCAITIhS, AREAS FOR FURTKER RE“EARCH, “I‘D P—ECODQ‘LSI‘IJJJXTIQIJ o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o htrOdLICtion O I I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O I I ConCIUSiOIISo O O O O D O O O O O O I O O O O C C O 0 Factors Relating to Teacher‘s Professional leadera ship Activities and Acceptance of Community Leadership Roles in Sampled Districts . . . . . Factors Jeen as Otstacles or Restrictions to Teacher's leadership Activities, Both in the irofession and in the Community . . . . . . . . Factors Which Indicated the Degree of Importance Which Teachers Attach to their leadership Responsitilities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Variable Factors Which Affected the leadership Activities of Teachers. . . . . . . . . . . . . Implications in this study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Areas for Further Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Recommendations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B H LICCITIJHJIIY. o o o o e o o o o o o o o o o O O O O O O O O 0 AP Eli DH 0 a o o . c n a o o a a n o o o o o o o o c o o o o o Page \) \j) \o (W \1 \Q \o \W \f‘, b“ C) \O (a H O 0C 108 108 I24 126 126. 129 120 "C v) 131 1‘2 34 136 / Cl ’ I: (k. Table 10. ll. LIJT CF TAB his Factors Related to Total Number of Teachers and Total Lumber of Teacher Interviewees in Each Sampled School District. . . . . . . . . . . . . . humber of Questionnaires Distributed and Completed by Districts 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 O 0 Characteristics of School Districts . . . . . . . . . Factors Relating to Characteristics of Teachers . . . Comparison of Teachers Influence and Power Structure 0 Ages 0 o o o o o e o o o o o e e 0 o o o o e o 0 Factors of Teacher Membership and Teacher leadership Roles in Professional Organizations. . . . . . . . Factors Comparing Professional Leadership Activities with Assigned Extra Curricular Responsibilities. . Responses of Interviewees Toward Subjective Ieer Identification Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Responses of Interviewees Toward Subjective Method of Selecting Department heads . . . . . . . . . . . . Factors Related to Age Ranges of Identified leaders LB' Districts 0 O O O O O C O O O O O O O O O O 0 Factors Related to length of service of Identified leaders by Districts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Extent to which Teachers' Advice and Counsel was Regarded in the Community. . . . . . . . . . . . Factors Involving Role of Teachers in Community . . . Factors Affecting the Activities of Teacher Respondents in Professional and Community Organizations. . . . . Administrators Responses to Questions Rebarding Identi— fication of Outstanding Teachers and their Community Influence. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ‘7 Page \7 C\ 81+ 80 E57 \0 \l 03 110 115 LIQ'T CF TAELILJ-wjontmwsg Table Pa' 16. Teachers Respondent Comments on Community Activities of Peers 0 O O O O O O C O O O O O O C O O O O O O O llr] 17. Responses to Questions Relative to Leadership and Influence of Special Teachers. . . . . . . . . . . . 12$ vi 3. \ 1AM *d C) u.) ”4 LIJT C r Relationship of Type of Community to: (1) Percentage of Teachers Livinb in Community V TV 1 w - '- v ‘. , - ~. ’ "acre umxlcéeu (2) Estimated lercentage of Staff who were Community leaders 0 O C O O O I O O O I O O O O O O O 0 Character of Replies from Teachers Regarding the Extent of Teacher Involvement in Community ACtiV’itieSo C O O O O O D O O O O O C O O C O D Numter of leadership Personnel Among “espondents ktdicated L3, Self IdentifiCfltiOn. o o o o o o o o a c‘ u.) I C ( I )b 122 CHAPTER I SETTING CF THE PRCBIEM I-W This topic concerned itself with a profession; one which has existed nearly as long as man himself on the earth. Its membership has been legion, and the composition of this membership has been so diversified that each race, nationality, or religious body which has existed may claim its share of professional educators. The influence of such a profession upon the course of the progress of man can never be measured,but it would not seem untruthful to state that the course of history would have been entirely different without the contributions of educational workers. These workers were, and probably will continue to be, known as "teachers." The earliest conception of a teacher has taken different forms. He may be seen as a slave in Ancient Greece, who, because of ability and knowledge, was designated by Grecian nobles to instruct their chil— dren in the rudiments of language and the affiliate arts. As a contrast, one may conceptualize teachers in the same vein as Jesus Christ, Socrates, Horace Mann, and untold others, whose learned sayings and noble examples have become heeded and followed as time passes. Other examples, such as the colonial schoolmaster, the English headmaster, and the Prussian drillmaster, exemplified the strict discipline and the demanding leadership characteristics of the times in which they lived. -1- -2- All of these examples, and they can be magnified, illustrated degrees of influence and leadership. They were all members of the same profession, but only a few in history out of millions have left their names in the books of the ages as outstanding leaders. However, there have been few people in the past, and certainly even fewer today, who have escaped the influence of the teacher and the profession to which teachers have ascribed membership. II. Engpggg 91 the Study The basic purpose of this study was to analyze the role of the public school teacher in leadership activities. This role assumed two distinct forms: 1. The teacher as a leader in his profession. 2. The teacher as a leader in his community. It was first assumed that the teacher exercised a definite leadership force in the classroom or instructional area. He or she has motivated, directed, guided, and instructed those students assigned to that classroom or instructional area. These responsibilities covered the basic reason for employment and had first call on the teacher's time and energy. This research concerned itself specifically with the role of the teacherlgutsjdg of the teaching assignment. In the area of professional leadership, this included three distinct facets: 1. leadership roles in any recognized professional education organization. Examples included such roles as: an officer, a committee member, or a representative at the local, state, or national level. .o-d' -3« 2. leadership roles within the internal organization of the school, exclusive of designated administrative assignments. An example was a departmental chairman. 3. Leadership roles which were not officially recognized by definite office or title. Exanmles included such teachers who exerted strong influence in a system, although they did not hold an office. The second form of leadership role which was analyzed dealt with the community leadership function. Examples of this type included: 1. An officer or committee member of any civic, professional, or service organization in the community. 2. A special appointee to a community board or commission to study problems and needs of the community. 3. A political office holder, whether elective or appointive. An important factor in this total analysis of the professional and community leadership roles of teachers involved direction. Abili- ties, interests, and energies of teachers must be directed, and this study was concerned with the extent of their direction. These questions were suggested: 1. Were they directed solely toward planning, organizing, and managing instruction within the classroom, to the general exclusion of other activities? 2. were these energies and interests diversified sufficiently to include definite leadership activities outside the classroom setting? 3. If the latter qmstion was answered in the affirmative, were these teachers primarily active in professional leadership pur- suits, or did they involve themselves more extensively with community activities? r— -4- This research study was not content merely to obtain Yes or No responses, but attempted to determine m they were answered in a cer- tain manner. The procedure employed for this purpose involved the interview of selected public school teachers and administrators in a sampling of school districts in Michigan. These responses, and their implications, will assist other researchers to conduct further depth studies in this field. III. mm It seems reasonable to assume that the training and experience of a fully certificated teacher should equip him or her to exercise some special influence upon a person or group. The process of selection of candidates for teaching, the specialized training, and the subsequent practice in the field, would tend to produce a person skilled in com- municating ideas and skills to others. It can be established, statistically speaking, that combinations of pacple with these qualifications would logically be able to exert a powerful force in our society. According to the latest population estimates (January, 1963), there are 188,045,000 American citizens living under the Stars and Stripes, both here and abroad.1 or this number, there are an estimated 1,504,000 public school teachers2 or a ratio of 125 to 1. This ratio would decrease still more if private and parochial school teachers were included in the total. W, (United States a Population Estimate, January, 1963) . 2National Education Association, "A Minimum Standard of Quality Education," W: 1+0= December, 1962: PP- 99-104- —5- Che should be able to assume that these one and one-half million trained teachers would exert positive forces which tend to better society. But numbers alone do not tell the whole story. The question which should be answered is, "How many of these teachers exert leader- ship forces of a direct nature?" There appeared to be a great concern among educators regarding the image of teachers in society. The public would not generally re- gard individuals as influential leaders if these individuals were members of a profession which had a neutral, or even negative image. Regardless of the dedication and the ability of the individual, the obstacles to effective recognition of leadership by the general public might have been very difficult to overcome. let us examine a stereotype of an American school teacher as viewed by the general public in a novel: In our culture, education is prized, but educators tend to be condemned. Ihderstanding of this dilemma can be gained by an analysis of the teacher in the American novel. The study shows that teachers appear in large numbers in the American novel, and that their characterizations are stereotyped. The incidence of women teachers is twice as great as that of men, indicating that teaching is primarily thought of as a woman's occupation. The male teacher is the object of a social attitude that is markedly ambivalent. In school, he is usually regarded with affection and respect. Outside of school, he is treated as a familiar stranger. It is expected that he will be in the community, but not of it. His ascribed role insists that he be solitary, effeminate, and impractical. In order to assume this role successfully, the teacher must achieve failure as a man. The female teacher is also the recipient of an ambivalent attitude. In school, she is predominantly regarded with affection. Out of school, however, she, too, is regarded as a familiar stranger. She must participate in certain in- stitutionalized activities, but she cannot enjoy warm inter- personal relationships. Restrictions so lhmit her heterosexual —6- relationships that she is customarily characterized as either a young, unmarried woman or an old maid. In brief, to be- come a teacher is to surrender womanhood. If these statements were valid, what did this do to the "positive forces" concept of our profession? Certainly it precluded a thorough analysis of our selection process, our training methods, administrative organization, and above all, our professional responsi- bilities as teachers. Another illustration which referred to teacher influence was pertinent at this point. Hunter stated: "Social workers, teachers, etc., are not in the stream where major policy voices can be heard. They are fourth class citizens in the power structure."4' Che may con— clude from this statement that teachers are not considered influential in major community policy decisions. The research in the field of educational sociology as outlined in the literature, together with the verbal eXpressions of many peOple, indicated that Hunter's statement is very close to the truth. A fur- ther investigation might find one asking the question, "Was it important to the profession and to society that teachers assume or do not assume, leadership roles in community activities?" From the point of view of the professional educator, this writer took the position that it was not only desirable, but necessary, that a teacher assume responsibility in both the profession, and in 3Arthur Foff, "The Stereotype of the American School Teacher as Viewed in the American Novel, (unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, Stanford University, 1958). 4Floyd Hunter, Communitx Powe; Structgze, University of North Carolina Press, 1953. -7- the work of the community. There were,however, many obstructions and limitations whichkmd.n3be considered. This study was designed to point them out, and to draw relationships between the professional and com— munity obligations of teachers, and their primary responsibilities in the classroom. IV. Dm‘ psion of the Problem The basic concern in this study was to investigate six Michigan school districts, and to concentrate this investigation on the leader— ship activities of the teaching personnel within them. The problem then became one of analyzing and comparing whether the reaponses of teachers and administrators to Specific interview questions were con- sistent with previous research on teacher leadership. The study was restricted to an analysis of leadership activities of the classroom teacher, and did not consider the administrator or supervisor in this category. There were four distinct facets to the problem: 1. The identification of teacher leaders by both administrators and fellow teachers. 2. The classification of identified teacher leaders into selected categories. 3. The classification of verbal perceptions which these respondents relate toward the leadership role of teachers, as it pze - aptly exists in their own sghgo; districts. 4. The emerging development of certain trends which will tend to promote a more dynamic teaching society, and a more positive "teacher image" in the community, state, and nation. O" i“ ‘4 a.__________# -8— The analysis of the questionnaires and the interview findings concentrated on certain variables which were presented. These variables included: 1. Age ranges of teachers who were identified as professional and community leaders. 2. Their length of residence in the community. 3. Their teaching experience in the profession and in the community. 1.. Their teaching assignments (elementary or secondary). 5. Their areas of Specialization (Examples: English, Science, Coaching). 6. Their extra-curricular assignments. 7. Their sex and marital status. 8. The growth pattern of the community. 9. The composition and size of the community. Each of these variables had an effect upon this study and must be examined carefully to properly evaluate the basic purpose of this research, which was to analyze the role of the public school teacher in professional and community leadership activities. V. t o s d H these This Stud One basic assumption became apparent as the role of the teacher was further explored: In the viewpoint of the citizenry of any community, the teacher was expected to assume certain responsibilities for the academic training of the young citizens of that community. These respon— sibilities have been eXpressed or implied, but each community m a teacher to be able to impartknowledge within the area of specialization in which he or she was trained. (a a» 4’ i, H__—. _.__—___,._._ fl... ’3 “r - 4mm '4 m2.-',... ~ 6 v v ._ ~— -9- From this point on, however, the role of the teacher was rela- tively vague, and varied from community to community. There were degrees of community expectations, and there were further degrees of teacher response to these expectations. The question then became: "Were teachers employed.2n;y to teach and be a member of a professional group, or did their horizons of duty extend to other leadership roles?" There was a great deal of conjecture regarding the role of the professional teacher, and indeed, the entire school complex as an in— fluential factor in our society; Che authority identified five organized special interest groups in each recognized community: the religious man, the patriot, the businessman, the common man, and the good citizen,. . . . Each group would like the school to adOpt its own particular image as the preferred one.5 But all of these groups were not equal in influence and strength in each community; therefore, educators find it difficult to make choices in terms of time and good conscience as to which community role or roles they should accept. Cason further stated that "school leadership cannot meet this Challenge by choosing sides, by adding up the wishes of the various pub— lics, or by assuming an autonomous role."6 He referred here to school leaders in an administrative or policy making capacity such as: superin- tendents, principals, board members, etc. This statement, however, does have implications for teacher leaders as well. All educators must fl; 5Ernest W. Cason, "The School and Its Publics," Educatigngl lggflgzghip, 17:270. February, 1960. 6Ibid., p. 271. —lO— realize that there were certain common elements which were basic to the needs of society, and there was a common ground where all peOple in— terested in the perpetuation of that society, or the improvement of it, must meet. This study was designed to study the role of the teacher only, to the exclusion of the administrator's responsibilities. Adminis— trators' ideas, questions, and comments were employed to help to clarify this major purpose and obtain the necessary information on their teachers. The nature of this study, with regard to its structure, therefore, required that certain basic assumptions be made: 1. That the method of selection of communities represented an adequate and impartial cross section of Michigan School districts which serve community interests. 2. That the method of selection of teachers for interview purposes was impartial and objective. 3. That the purpose of the study would be fulfilled after a thorough process of analyzing the data and drawing valid conclusions from it. If these assumptions on the structure of the study were accepted, attention would be directed to the establishment of a theoreti— cal framework and hypotheses which could be tested. At this point a theory was preposed which will be deeply ex- plored in this study: The teaching profession remains today, as before, a relatively impotent direct leadership force in the community setting outside the classroom, and the tendency toward change is initiated by stimulus outside the profession. Certain hypotheses were preposed which would test the various dimensions of the problem. The interview technique, as previously ‘U -11. described, was used to test these hypotheses, and comparisons were made with previous studies found in the literature. These hypotheses were: 1. Opportunities for community service, as evidenced by the acceptance of definite leadership responsibilities, tend to increase as the teacher takes on additional duties and responsibilities in the com— munity's school system. 2. Suburban communities, with extensive housing developments, tend to have more teachers as recognized community leaders than do heavily industrialized communities, or small stable communities. 3. There is a significant relationship between outstanding teachers as recognized by administrators for professionalism and service and the degree of influence these teachers exert in community affairs.7 4. Community influence and active participation in community affairs as exerted by teachers tends to be restricted to smaller social organizations, religious organizations, and services directly concerned with young people and children. 5. Athletic directors, coaches, and music directors tend to exert a stronger leadership influence in communities than do teachers in the academic disciplines. 6. Men teachers tend to exercise a stronger interest and greater participation in professional activities outside the classroom than women teachers. 7. Secondary teachers tend to exercise a stronger interest and greater participation in both professional and community activities than elementary teachers outside the classroom. V 7Everett V. Manchester, "A Study Concerning Identification of Pbtential.leaders Among Classroo Teachers," (unpublished Ed.D. dis- sertation, Colorado State College, 1961. w"- -12- It was believed that the research which has been done in the field of teacher leadership activities, together with the findings in this study would judge these hypotheses to be valid. Although the theoretical base upon which some of these statements were made may give cause for concern regarding the "teacher image," this concern may cause both teachers and administrators to adopt a more positive approach toward professional activities beyond the scope of the classroom. VI. Limitations of the Study There were several procedural limitations which had to be made so that the study could be more manageable. These limitations were all recognized as important. They include: 1. Only third and fourth class school districts and only public schools were to be included in the sample. This eliminated: (a) Detroit, Grand Rapids, and Flint; (b) all primary school districts; (c) all private and parochial schools. This immediately eliminated 25 per cent of the public school teachers from the population, together with all non-public school teachers. 2. Six school districts out of 815 third and fourth class districts were sampled. One-thousand sixphundred and sixty-six public school teachers were represented in these districts, and 55 were inter— viewed in depth. The small number of both districts and teachers was a limiting factor. 3. The use of the interview technique may have been a limita— tion, since it became necessary to rely primarily upon subjective data for an analysis of pertinent information in this study. -13- A. Church and religious affiliation data was not sought as a part of this study. It was assumed that a majority of teachers had some role in church or religious activities, and this type of information would have suggested further study on a greater depth basis. An additional limitation which was recognized dealt Specifically with type of leadership. This study assumed that administrators were leaders, but did not assume the same for teachers. The first assumption could have been a limitation, since it may have been that the adminis- trator was not a leader in some communities. In this connection Brookover stated: "The superintendent and principal are eXpected to make decisions and to provide leadership for the teacher group."8 This was an eXpected role within the school frame- work, but it Ciid not always extend into the community with the same degree of authority. The final limitation which was recognized indicated that admin- istrators in the school systems chosen for interviews could not fully identify the complete roster of professional staff leaders. In larger systems, the superintendents and even the assistants in charge of employment and supervision were unable to name specific leaders or may have identified people who were not true leaders. VII. t d Procedur 3 There have been comparative studies made of the extent of teacher participation and membership in both professional and community organizations, but it was believed that no study in Michigan employed 8Wilbur B. Brookover, in collaboration with Ordan C. Smucker, and JOhn F. Thaden, A Sgciglogy 9f Education, American Book Co., 1955, p. 190. -14- the stzygtuggg_intg§gigy to eXplore the extent of teacher leadership in some detail. This was the principal method used in this study. A secondary method employed to cross check the answers received in the interviews involved the use of a brief.ggg§tiggna;;§, adminis— tered to a sampling of teachers in two of the districts studied. An outline of procedural steps which were used to develop these methods are listed in the order in which they were taken: 1. A Structured interview questionnaire was developed to be administered personally to superintendents and teachers in selected Michigan school districts. This interview was designed to identify teacher-leaders within the systems to be sampled, and to obtain perti- nent information on the nature of the schools and of the community. 2. A Pilot study was conducted in two school districts to de- termine whether the interview technique would be feasible, and what procedures should be followed in visiting a school and establishing a good rapport with its personnel. 3. A stratified random sampling of school districts to be studied was completed, and these were to be representative of all third and fourth class school districts in Michigan. 4. letters of request and explanation were sent to the superin- tendent of the districts to be studied.9 5. Supportive letters of explanation were sent from the office of the major professor guiding this study, to superintendents in two of the six districts.lo 9Appendix A. letter to Chief School Administrator of District. 10 . A pendix B. Letter from Ma or Advisor to Chief School Administragor. j -15- 6. Interviews were conducted with the superintendent and/or assistant superintendent in the districts to be studied.11 7. Selection of teaching personnel to be interviewed was com- pleted through the joint efforts of the administrators of the district's schools and the interviewer. 8. Interviews were conducted with these selected teachers.12 9. A questionnaire was deve10ped for the express purpose of cross checking information received in interviews.13 10. The questionnaire was administered to a random sample of teachers in two of the six districts studied. 11. The data were analyzed according to classification of answers received. Tables and Graphs were developed to indicate the extent that certain variables influenced the results. Opinion informa- tion was stated as nearly verbatim as possible, and classified. A complete resume of both methods used and the procedures followed in the development of this study will appear in Chapter III. An analysis of the data will be found in Chapter IV. VIII. Definition of Terms Certain definitions were considered to be applicable to Specific terms used in this manuscript: lgggggghip - A process of influencing the activities of an organized group in its efforts toward goal setting and goal achievement 11Appendix 0. Schedule A. 12Appendix D. Schedule B. 13Appecdix E. Schedule c. ~1é~ which related directly to the organized group and its goals.14 jzgfgsgign§;_1gagg£§hip - Professional leadership in this study referred specifically to appointive or voluntarily assumed obligations outside the classroom or instructional area. These responsibilities and duties were assumed‘nithin the teaching profession, and directly involved teachers in a recognized official position, or in some dis- tinguished organization which directs its efforts toward the profes- sional growth of its membership. ngmgnigy_lg§ggzghip - Community leadership in this study referred specifically to a process whereby the teacher assumed certain official positions and organizational responsibilities within the community where he or she worked and/or lived. These organizations were responsive to the values of the community, and teacher—leaders may represent themselves as citizens, may represent an organized pro— fession, may represent the school district, or any combination of the three. Influe _g — The exercise of a moral of a social control over the actions of others; controlling or directing power not based on authority, but on social, moral, financial, or other form of ascendancy. These first four terms are used most extensively throughout this manuscript. The following terms are used less frequently, but enough to merit special explanation: QQEIHELLX — Consists of people who live in a more or less contiguous area, and are engaged in such social processes and relation— ships as may normally arise in the pursuit of the chief concerns of a 1(“Ralph M. Stogdill, "leadership, Membership, and Organization," Psychological Bulletin, 47:2, January, 1950. -17- life. Basic concerns, then include industry and trade, the education of citizens, provision for healthful living, and the promotion of Spiritual growth. Around each of these concerns is woven an intricate wet of social cooperations, conflicts, and accommodations which constitutes the essentials of community.15 leads; - A person whose behavior stimulates patterning of the behavior of some group. By omitting some stimuli, he facilitates group action toward a goal or goals whether the stimuli are verbal, written, or gestural.16 In our Specific context, an individual who is self motivated to give constructive direction to others, and through this chain reaction process, to achieve an acceptable solution to each specific problem. fogs; Structure — A group, organization, or combination of organizations which holds a controlling influence in community affairs, and directs the major program of the community. frcfegsio; — An occupation usually involving relatively long and Specialized preparation on the level of higher education, and governed by his own code of ethics. firgfiessignal ggpgnization - In this context, an organization which restricts its membership to officially certificated professional educators at the local, state, and national levels. Enggssigng; — The concern for the vocation of teaching, so that it may increasingly be known as a profession rather than a craft, lgflngyclgpgdia of the Social Sciences, Edwin H. A. Seligman, Editor, Vol. IV, 1937, p. 103. 16Alvin W. Gouldner, "Studies in Leadership," harper, 1950, pp 0 17.18 s ~18- involving distinctive expertness and high competence resulting from theoretical study and knowledge as well as a practical mastery of teaching techniques.17 figlg — Behavior patterns in functions eXpected of or carried out by an individual in a given societal context.l8 Rural Society - Comprising all persons residing in open country, or all persons connected directly with agricultural occupations, or all persons residing in administrative units of less than 2,500 persons.19 ‘égbgcpgg - Cne of a cluster of communities immediately surround- ing the central city. Characteristics include fewer people occupying more land than established cities, and having fewer major institutions than established towns; since the city performs part of their community functions. May be characterized as industrial suburbs and residential suburbs.2O Teach; - An individual trained in the art of instruction of children in both specialized and general areas of knowledge. A person whose primary function is classroom, laboratory, or some other specialized area of instruction. IX. 5 agx and Conclusions The profession of teaching denotes special skills and compe- tencies which are assumed by dedicated people, and transmitted by these 17D’ct' Educatio , Carter v. Good, Editor, 2nd Edition, 1959’ p0 4150 lilpiu.. p. 471- 1 ' o the s c 1 So , Edwin R. A. Seligman, Editor, Vol. IV, p. 433. 201bi§., p. 469. -19. people to millions of children and adults. This study eXplored the role of the public school teacher as a leader outside the classroom setting. It was restricted to the State of Michigan, and dealt with leadership activities in which teachers engaged when they were not working directly with students in the environs of the public schools. The theoretical base upon which this study was made dealt with the impact or force that teachers exert in our society. The theory advanced in this report stated that, "The teaching profession remains today, as before, a relatively impotent direct leadership force in the community setting, and the tendency toward change is initiated by stimulus outside the profession." Several hypotheses were proposed in the study, each of which required a closer inspection of the impact, or presence of certain variables upon the leadership role of the Michigan public school teacher. Research studies were examined, and comparisons with findings in the study were made. The primary method used in gathering data was through the struc- tured interview with the administrators and teachers in the public schools. A follow-up questionnaire to teachers in two of the districts studied through the interview was employed for cross checking purposes, and was considered to be a secondary, although necessary procedure. A sociological approach was employed. Relationships of members of a recognized profession to the community where this profession was practiced were of vital importance. Research studies indicated that more work has been done in the role of the teacher in the community than teacher's activities in his or her professional organizations. These studies will be examined in detail in the following chapter. O CHAPTER II A REVIEW OF BACKGROUND STUDIES m THE LITERATURE Studies centering on the identification of leaders have been numerous in the field of sociological research, and have been particu— larly valuable in the fields of business, industry, and the government services. The identification of leaders in the field of education has come about more recently through the growing impact of the field of educational sociology. This science, which reviews the role of the educator in a modern and changing society, has gained stature and recognition through stimulating research findings. The great emphasis in the field of leadership, prior to 1950, was on the "traits" of leaders. It centered on the "great man" approach. The individual possessed characteristics of personality and perseverance, often coupled with a "noble birth," which stamped him as one who can influence others to an unusual degree. One author stated: "Leadership is characteristic of an individual, and is largely independent of the situation."1 After making 124 studies of leadership situations he further listed seven traits which were empirically related to leadership. These are listed as: (1) Physical and Constitutional Factors; (2) Intelligence; (3) Self Confidence and Self Assurance; (A) Sociability; (5) Will; (6) Dominance; and (7) Surgency.2 “ 1R. M. Stogdill, "Personal Factors Associated With leadership; A Survey of the Literature," JOur al of Ps'cholo* , 25: 36, I946. 21bid., po. 41-42. -20- 'W' -21- While many of these characteristics may be consistently present I". had 0 among leaders, they may also be present among non—leaders. Resear not indicated any consistent correlation among them, and leadership was considered to be too complex to fit into a pattern of traits. In recent years educational leaders and writers have tended to emphasize the situational approach to the study of leadership. The situational approach to leadership may be defined as follows: leadership among individuals in a group situation depends primarily upon the type or characte: of that situation. One situation will bring out the leadership demands for one or a few individuals whose abilities permit them to take charge in that particular situation. A different situation will demand other leaders. The emphasis on the methodology employed in this paper was on the situational approach, particularly in the structured interviews with teachers and administrators. Although the situational or group approach was highly favored, there were certain high correlations between leadership traits of self confidence and self assurance, and successful leaders in any group.3 The caution one must have taken was not to assume that the great man, possessing most or all of the success traits, would consistently be a leader in any situation. HalpinA warned against confusing leadership with "bigness" or "best." He stated "the fact that a person accepts an assignment as leader and assumes this role tells us nothing about the "effectiveness" 30. A. Gibb, "leadership," d 00k 30 ' 1 Ps hoio~ , II ed. Gardner lindzey, (Cambridge: Addison—Wesley Publishing Co., Inc., 1954), p0 8860 AAndrew W. Halpin, "The Behavior of leaders," Educational leadership, 14: 172, December, 1956. -22- of performance in the role; how effectively the person concentrates on the solution of group problems . . . he may be effective in different ways such as establishing group morale, but ineffective in solving problems. . . .5 A classic example of the earlier importance given to the traits required by individuals to be leaders was illustrated by another writer who emphasized sincerity as a prerequisite for true leadership. He stated: ho device or technique of leadership can substitute adequately for sincerity on the part of the leader. (1) Sincerity of the leader begets the confidence of his followers, (2) Sin— cerity prolongs the influence of the leader, and (3) Sincerity in the leader enhances his own moral courage. Since true leadership, that which motivated others to achieve Specified goals and purposes through group action, cannot always be identified by leaders having certain traits, or not all situations produce leaders, it was assumed that both were important in this study. The situation approach was emphasized, however, since the study con- cerned itself with situation analysis in six separate school districts and many individual schools within these districts. For the purpose of organization, the review of various studies in books and articles was divided into three separate, although related topics. These were: 1. The teacher's role as a professional leader. 2. The teacher's role as a community leader. fxfbid . , p. 171,. 6Dorman G. Stout, Teacher and Community (World BOOk Company, 1941), p. 223. -23- 3. The position of influence of the teaching profession as a comparison with other fields of endeavor. I. The Teacher's Role as a Professional leader The initial point of reference was to assume professional status for teachers. As a profession, therefore, certain organizational patterns have been established which give structure, solidarity, and purpose to it. One further assumed that professionalism incurred reaponsibility, and responsibility implied a sense of direction and purpose. Dr. Corey, speaking to a luncheon meeting of the Fhi Delta Kappa educational fraternity, stated: "Teaching is the pre—eminent profession for'leadership. leadership is imperative. Human beings are eager to be led. There is a natural response to leadership."7 Through a study of some of the changing principles of educational administration, as recently outlined by Morphet, Johns, and Heller,8 it may be surmised that teachers have greatly increased their opportunities to become professional leaders. The accepted autocracy of the adminis- trator's position has gradually given way to democracy. For example, the authors listed several new or emerging principles pertinent to this point: 1. Leadership was not confined to those holding status positions. 2. Responsibility, as well as power and authority, can be shared. T _ 7Arthur F. Corey, "leadership in a Corporate Society," khi Delta lama. 35. April. 1954, p. 259. 8Edgar L. Morphet, R. L. Johns, and Theodore L. Roller, “Eggs- Ce, $222§l_éémini§££nii22, (Englewood Cliffs, h.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1959 ’ pp. 64.670 -24- 3. Unity of purpose was secured through consensus and group loyalty. 4. The situation, and not the position, determined the right and privilege to exercise authority. 5. The individual in the organization was not expendable. These emerging theories would tend to encourage teacher partici- pation in the professional societies. Teachers have less occasion to fear repercussions, and may operate in a "threat reduced" atmOSphere. Since these principles were new, and their implementation has been slow in most of the smaller and more traditionally oriented schools, it was reasonable to suggest that a freer participation in professional organizations would be found in larger school districts. ouch organizations should encourage freedom of thought and expression, and their activities would represent a broader selection of teachers as active participants if they operated in a threat free setting. Continuing on the premise that people desire leadership, another aspect of the teacher's role was observed-~that of a promoter and a reinforcer of community enterprise. An earlier statement to this effect was made by Crutchfield: "He leads best by discovering and helping to develop local leaders among the people themselves."9 This saying emphasized the power of influence, or the "power behind the throne" which educators can wield, and which may be quickly implemented by their followers. For example, a teacher of social studies may strongly influence a student politician or a Speech teacher an 9Ethel L. Crutchfield, "The Development of Leadership in Pro— Spective Teachers," Peabody Journal of Education, 9: May, 1932, p. 362. -25- outstanding debater. In the community a teacher could be a lay minister or a recreation director-~other examples of helping others to help themselves. Consistent with this philosophy, Quiggle reiterates five basic concepts with implications for teacher leadership.10 1. Teaching is a process of helping people do things to and for themselves. 2. A teacher should function as a catalyst. . . . 3. Things don't just happen; they are caused. A. Teaching improves as teachers improve. 5. leadership in education . . . represents a constant process of releasing human potential. Individuals will not be truly involved unless what they think and what they say actually counts. Steinbroo}:ll made a study of 90 elementary classroom teachers in Indianapolis and found that, among teachers chosen as successful by their consultants and principals, participation in professional or- ganizations was much more extensive than among those who were judged to be unsuccessful. These selections were subjective, but the study did tend to confirm that there was a definite relationship between a teacher labeled "successful" by others and the chance that he or she will participate in their professional organizations. 10Robert H. Quiggle, "My Changing Concept of leadership in Education," fidupation Digest, 24: May, 1959, p. 20. llRoy S. Steinbrook, "A Study of Some Differences in Background, Attitudes, Experience, and trofessienal Preparation of Selected Elementary Teachers with Contrasting Success Records," (unpublished Ed.D. dissertation, Indiana University, 1954). ’\ met)— Another study by Manchester12 recently indicated that adminis- trators tended to select "good" teachers as potential administrators, based primarily on the similarity of values, attitudes, and behavior characteristics which the administrators themselves possess. They were ypt chosen on the basis of personalit;--a factor which again emphasizes the situational approach. The Manchester study also dealt with the subjective judgments of administrators and teachers. A teacher found it difficult to generate enthusiasm in others for professional causes, unless he himself was strongly concerned about the product which he was promoting. In this case, the product was his profession; and the concern was with the a.titude of the members toward it. A study which should be reviewed at this point had no direct relationship with the study outlined in this thesis, but related to the factors of enthusiasm and satisfaction in teaching. Chase13 made a detailed and extensive study of 1,784 teachers in 200 systems in 43 states and found: 1. Teachers in elementary schools tended to be somewhat more enthusiastic about teaching than secondary school teachers. 2. Women teachers were slightly more enthusiastic than men. 3. Married teachers were slightly more enthusiastic than single teachers. 4. Teachers rated by administrators as superior tended to be more enthusiastic. lgEverett V. Manchester, "A dtudy Concerning Identification of Potential leaders Among Classroom Teachers," (unpublished Ed.D. dis- sertation, Colorado dtate College, 1961). lerancis 3. Chase, "Factors for Satisfaction in Teaching," lhi Delta Kappan, hovember, 1951, 33: p- 127- dry -41- S. The extent of satisfaction tended to increase with the years of service in the s stem. 6. The extent of satisfaction tended to increase with salary and the amount of salary increases. These were all situational factors which had implications for leadership. It was difficult to imagine an individual, no matter how capable, who could truly lead, unless there was a confidence born of enthusiasm and satisfaction exhibited by a leader toward his or her group. The focus of attention on leadership had quite naturally centered on leadership activities of administrators. Many were in in- fluential positions within the professional organizations of Richiban and the nation. As such, they were vitally involved in improving the quality of teachers who were entering the profession; and their in- fluences may hate teen Dreater than the classroom teacher because of broader experience in decision rakinb. A recent study of the Research and rutlications Department of the Michigan Education Association indicated that 41 of the loo delegates to the M.E.A. Representative Assembly who answered the inquiry question— naire were servinb in administrative positions in the school districts. This was slightly over one-fifth of the total. Another indication of administrative leadership potential in professional organizations in Michigan as reported by the M.E.A. showed that 13 out of 63 members of standing committee members of the M.E.A. were administrators, and d of the 63 were college or university staff members or representatives of the Department of Public Instruction. Forty-two standing committee members were classroom teschers-a figure which represents two-thirds of the total.14 Zlese fiaures would indicate that the ratio of administrators to teachers in professional organisational work as represented by the Michigan Education Association was consideratly Libher than the actual ratio of administrators to teecwers in our putlic schools. Brookover states: "There have been attempts to gain profes- sional status through organizaticns and the establishnent of profes- sional codes of ethics. Organizations have usually been dominated ty administrators and higher status teachers. . . . Because the hither status persOus dominatinb the organizations have failed to take the lead in obtaining help for the teacher, they have not vreatl 15 “A the feeling of unity or identification. Each of these studies and statements from recognized authorities in the field of educational sociolog; had strong implications in this story. The interviews which were conducted with teachers substantiated a great deal of this feeling of domination by administrators, and were outlined in Ckapter V. II. Ibo Teacher's Role as a Community Leader "Community" to many people meant many things, depending on their perspective. To the teacher, the community represented parents and citizens who formed an identity toward a common purpose—-the education 14Study by Thomas J} horthey, special.Assistant in Research, Michigan Education Association, Lansing, Michigan, 1963. lSWilLur B. Brookover, A Sociologx of Education, (New York: American Book Company, 1955), pp. 260—261. -29- of children. But to the sociologist who studied community from an objective point of view, it represented a conflict and a continual clash of interests. In 1929, a series of case studies revealed that "the modern community tends to become a web of interest groups . . . when something needs to be done for all members of the community, these interest groups come forward to represent their stake in the project . . . where men are alert and progressive, they will never be free from such interest clashes. . . .16 It was previously noted that many factors were directly related to enthusiasm and satisfaction in teaching. Such satisfaction with the role of teaching had a direct relationship to the degree of conflict which often existed between the role which teachers eXpected and desired to play, and the expectations of the community toward this role. A study by Cetzels and Cuba17 in 1954 illustrated the frustra- tions of these conflicting roles. A questionnaire administered to 344 teachers in 18 schools in 2 states brought forth a 48 per cent returned reaponse, and certain findings of importance. These include: 1. The teaching situation in many areas was characterized by role conflicts. 2. The nature of role conflict was systematically related to certain differences among schools and among communities. 3. The existence of role conflicts must be taken as evidence that the teacher role was imperfectly integrated with other roles. 16Community Conflict, "A Formulation of Case Studies in Com— munity Conflict," The lgguiry,,1929, p. 13. 17.1. W. Cetzels and E. 0. Cuba, "The Structure of Roles and Role Conflict in the Teaching Situation," 3922231 of Educational M221. 29: September. 1955. pp. 30-40. 17"" -30. A. There were different reactions among teachers to the extent of their being troubled by role conflict in teaching. These were related to personal characteristics of teachers. This study indicated that conflicts were inevitable in the schools, as well as in the community at large. These conflicting roles which the teacher was expected to play were often disintegrating rather than challenging. They should be reduced for the good of the teaching profession and for society. The emphasis toward a high status position for teacher found in most of the literature was a direct antithesis of the expected role of the teacher, both by educational leaders and by influential business and professional leaders. For example, Flury described the "teacher's professional education these days as on the mental level with the local clergyman, the physician, and the attorney. This suggested that the teacher should assume a more active role and exercise his opportunities for community leadership and participation.18 On the other hand, studies by lewin, Couldner, and lipset indicated that "high status school leaders were expected to be relatively unreSponsive to change, being more concerned with maintaining the status quo."19 The earlier literature almost invariably referred to the teacher as a member of the feminine sex and further indicated the importance of teachers as members of social organizations. There was little indica~ tion that members of teaching staffs should become identified in any power struggles or champion causes which "rocked the boat." In 1936, 18Henry Flury, "The TeaCher as Community Member," Journal of Education, 129: 249-250, October, 1946. lgMelvin Seaman, Social Status mg Leadership, 1960, p. 15. -31- Boutelle stated: "For the sake of the profession, a teacher should identify herself with some social organization in the community."20 later in the same year Elliott wrote: "Some teachers are so busy worry- ing about the politics of job holding and pursuing what they consider to be the influential people, that they have no time left to do what the community pays them for."21 In the same context Elliott stated, "the teacher should carefully avoid making any inference that there is any great need for leadership."22 However, following World War II, the emphasis changed and writers exhorted teachers to assume active community participation in leadership roles. An example of this change was made by Denemark in an editorial in 1952. he stated: "To those who hold that teachers only partially can exercise their rights as citizens because of their obliga— tion to be objective-—to be neutral--we should point out the impossi— bility and the undesirability of such a requirement . . . perhaps what we want instead is an active, vigorous involvement of the educator in the civic affairs of the community, but along with his, a fuller recognition of his own preferences and biases.23 Two studies completed within the past ten years were somewhat indicative of teachers' participation in community activities. q A I 7‘. I . I “Uhargaret A. soutelle, "Teachers and seeial Organizations," _§hio Schools, 14: 113, April, 1933. (Idodfrey E. Elliott, "Teacher-Community Relationships," The ‘ o ... _‘ I ‘Q bchool Executive, 55: 441, August, 153s. 43Ceorge W. Benemart, "Teachers are Citizens," Lducational leadership, 10: 2-3, October, 1?§3. ’3 Jefferson“4 studied a community of 4,:u0 and found that amorg Au teachers answering a questionnaire a total of 223 community organization is 53 memberships per person. More teach-rs U) memberships were found; thi participated in professional activities referring to in-service roles than any other activities. Religious organizations received slightly less allegiance. Cne significant conclusion was that some teachers over joined organizations, while others belonged to virtually none. A more recent and significant study was completed in 1958 among 90 industrial arts teachers in houston, Texas.25 The authors listed 100 organizations, such as professional education, adult education, religious, etc. In only two of these types did these teachers play extensive leadership roles--these being religious and recreational. The significance established by the authors was that the professional organi- zations had extensive nominal membership but limited participation and leadership. Additional significance was noted when luncheon and benevolent organizations, containing highest community leadership per- sonnel, had only nominal membership by teachers. A limitation in this study was that men only, and industrial education personnel only, were studied. An interesting study analyzed by Barnes26 in an Illinois town of 3,500, revealed that teachers were not leaders in small community affairs L 24Joyce land Jefferson, "Teacher Participation in Community Ac- tivities and Organizations," fiations schools, 50: 77-79, hov., 952. 25H. B. Steele and H. R. Bottrell, "How Much Community Participa- tion," Phi Delta fiappan, February, 1958, pp. 229-233. 26John B. Barnes, "Barriers to Community leadership for Teachers{' Phi Delta flappgn, 38: 59-61, November, 1956. -33- because they could not surmount five basic hurdles to true leadership. These hurdles, which have been met successfully by the town leaders, were: 1. Belonging to an organization in the community. 2. Considering the community as a permanent home. 3. Owning a home. 4. Stability of marriage. 5. Steady and continual employment. The author contended that the teacher must surmount these five barriers to be a community leader. He stated: "Teachers are fat with leadership theory and ability, but lean with practical experience." In each of these studies cited, it should be noted that teachers really did not exercise leadership which denoted much influence over a community. A Rational Education Association publication recently issued a statement on an ethics problem which was significant to this study. In answer to a superintendent's request for an opinion on a question of a teacher’s declining to serve as a member of a Community Chest Planning Committee, the findings were: 1. Teacher had 40 students in class plus attendant duties. 2. Additional 8 to 10 hours weekly involved with no added compensation. 3. Teacher had declined to serve. The Ethics opinion was that community participation was en- couraged, but the teacher's first duty was to his family, secondly to himself, and then to the profession. The first professional duty was to the students. The teacher‘s refusal was justified.27 ‘ 27"Participation in Community Activities," Ethics Cpinion ho. 33, B.E.A. JOurnal 513, November, 1955. -34- A nationwide sampling of 2,870 teachers revealed that only 4 per- cent were officers or sponsors of any civic group, less than 1 per cent were in economic interest groups, about 4 per cent were in fraternal orders, 7 per cent in groups involved in leisure pursuits, and less than 1 per cent in patriotic societies and political droups. This extensive study was conducted in 1941 by Greenhoe,28 and no evidence had presented itself that any perceptible changes in these percentages would be present in 1963. This study will have particular reference to these factors. On the other hand, studies by Lichliter,29 Greenhoe,30 and Beale,31 illustrated the pressures on the community school teacher to conform to communitv codes of behavior, participate in religious ac- tivities, and refrain from such social activities as smoking in public, attending a public dance, or making political Speeches. These studies were completed from 18 to 34 years ago, and there have been some changes in community attitudes in recent years. Haer32 made an interesting study of teacher roles as viewed by the public in Washington dtate. This survey, completed in 1953, inter- viewed 480 citizens; and the findings which were most pertinent to this study dealt with the question, "If you were a member of the school board, w 2aFlorence Greenhoe, "Community Contacts and Participation of Teachers," American Council on Public Affairs, 1941, pp. 64-65. 29Mary Lichliter, "Social Obligations and Restrictions on Teachers," Sggial Review, January, 1946, p. 17ff. 30Greenhoe, op, cit., p. 51. 31Howard Beale, "Are American Teachers Free?" (Charles Scribner's Sons, 1936). 32John 1» Haer, "The Public Views the Teacher," _ournal of Igacher Educatigg, 4: deptember, 1953, pp. 202-204. -35- would you employ a man or woman who smoked moderately, drank moderately, went to dances, or was politically active." The significant data re- vealed that people were much more tolerant of male teachers than female teachers, and metropolitan area respondents were more tolerant than rural residents. Similar responses were obtained in a study by Phillips”;33 studying responses to teacher behavior by 3,109 students from 75 high schools in Indiana. Although these studies had no direct relationship to the topic of leadership, the indication was clear that any negative factors affect- ing the public image of the profession would adversely offset the oppor- tunities afforded teachers to provide community leadership. The general conclusions regarding the teacher's role in community activities, as found in the literature were: 1. Teachers were restricted by time and professional reSponsi- bilities to consistently interest themselves in community work. 2. The community eXpected the teacher to assume leadership of a social or recreational nature, but did not expect him or her to become strongly involved in civic, political, or economic organizations. 3. Teachers exercised little real leadership in the community, concentrating their activities in church, social, and school improvement roles. 4. Educational leaders themselves were in disagreement over the extent to which teachers should exercise leadership. The emphasis ‘ appeared to be toward the establisnment of community coordinating ’2 ’Beamon M. Phillips, "Community Control of Teacher Behavior," Journal of,Teacher Education, 6: December, 1955, pp. 292-300. '3 J -3;_ councils; or5a1i22ations which were to be forned iron Ci er ent bro 4p: to unite on the Solution of cannon problems, includin; those of educa- ‘w o :1; 1r - ~ $ I): 4 1 ' tion. nenzlik and van ualen and frittel” felt tint teacners com- munity activities should be concentrated on this t " PM- 3 ml: ' J‘ T 0 , 111. 11.8 EOololOI. Ci .» ,‘éltyggeje .3 ”‘1 r“ F 1‘ ' - \‘ (J... Lu‘? :6 LC. .11,er ”04 {3.3.3134} LJ. ije period prior to and curin5 Lorlf war II, a t re of depres— sion and then a stronb economic recovery throubh war preparedness and f‘J' full production, witnessed a chanoe c taintin5 Ly top educators re- Lardin5 the teacher's public imabe. The pro5ressive spirit had cauuht the country, but it had not Spread to include relaxin5 of the social taboos on teachers. Many educators condenned this sutniscion to putli pressure, and the lack of professions ism amonb its memtership. Moehlnzn sta ed: "Teachers as a 6roup are usually conservative, . . . compared with the scientific and pro5ressive spirit shown in business, public education appears +0 be standing still . . . ."50 Hill, in a somewhat more blunt style stated: "We are doing a miserable job of putlic ‘40 relations; we air our dirty linen n public, our tenire record is lad e o '2‘ and we pay allegiance to too many or5anizations."/7 34?. E. Henzlik, "Our 1 ole in lmpro dyin5 corrunities " dchool nxecut re, 35: 21-23, Nag, 19 37. E m r) ‘ ' "‘ ' ’“becbold E. Vanualen, and nonert d. crittell, Teachm' , , (Allyn and Bacon, Inc., 1959), p. 363. 36Arthur B. Moehlman, "The Teacher; the School's Envoy to the Public," Lations schools, 5: p. 47, January, 1930. 37George E. Hill, "The Teachin5 Profession zind the 1 utlic,‘ School d Societ‘, SC: p. 496, hovenber 21, 19n2. 3 ' l . ¢‘., » ‘r 4- ..,‘ ° 1— '+ .- .1». Lo studj or article nae -een .cun» in the literataxe Vhitd clearly indicated that iFe teacher was an inflneziial person in 1 tcicl 'nterestirg stud: of the leadership pattern of a recently cr5ari2ei frin5e district near Detroit, Fichi5ir. This research, completed in 1957, indicated that 3 of 17 persons who were considered to be top leaders, were educators, and 2 of these 3 were administrative personnel. The other educator was a visiting teacher, who also was a member of 14 community organizations. It should be noted that the scnoel served as a coordinating agency for many community activities, as this community eXperienced early growing pains. Other studies which were considered significant at this point included a Centerville study by Koopman39 and a community power struc— ture by GarstensonjvO The Centerville study was conducted in a Midwest community of 10,000 and concerned itself with community atti- tudes and desires toward their teachers. Although the actual purpose was to determine whether the community wished their teachers to employ democratic methods of instruction, some interesting results were ob- tained on the teachers' role and reSponsibility to this community. A summarizatlon of results are: 38Cyril Merton Milbrath, "A Study of leaders and leadership in a Developing Fringe Community with Implications for Educational leaders in Fringe Community Schools," (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, M.$.U., 1957. 39Margaret 0. KOOpman, "The Teacher's Role in Che Midwest Com— munitv," Educational Research Bulletin, 25: 91-7, April, 1946. 40Blue Allen Carstenson, "A Method for Studying How People Per- ceive the Power Structure in their Communities as Tested in Five Michi- gan Communities," (unpublished Ed.D. dissertation, Univ. of Mich.,l956. 1. Teachers tended to confine their leadership to the school. 2. Only half of the teachers sponsored boys and girls clubs, voted in local elections, or did voluntary community work. 3. The community work which teachers accept was restricted to war work, church work, or work with children. Koopman,4l took no stand on the rights of a community to demand more from its teachers, but did point out that the type of work which they did in the community would not be considered as influential. It was important to note that professional peeple, white collar workers, and homemakers were considered most democratic, while business people, unskilled workers, and retirees were least democratic. The term democratic in this study referred to acceptance of the social and curricular program of the community's schools, which involved outlay of additional money to provide these increased services. Carstenson studied five communities in Michigan to determine how citizens viewed the power structure in their communities. Popula- tion in these communities ranged from 7,000 to 22,000. The findings of Carstenson had particular value to this study, since indications were that the power structure varies greatly from community to community, that groups were more often seen as high power than individuals, and that service clubs were consistently ranked among the very highest power sources. Teachers, as a group, were not mentioned as having high power in any community, although superin- tendents of schools were consistently ranked in the influential group. His basic assumption was that "those in high power know the others of high power better than do those lower in the power structure.”2 Alhoopman, Qp. cit., p. 95. AZCarstenson, Op cit., p. 21. -39. Conclusions drawn from these studies indicated that teachers, either as individuals or in groups, were not recognized as high power influences, since they were not known as such by those who had this status. The question of the prestige of teachers had not been linked with the discussion regarding influence. There was, however, a definite connection between prestige and influence; with particular regard to our definition of leadership. The horth—Hatt study of occupational pres- tige was completed in 191.7,43 and these findings were considered to be important: 1. Out of as occupational grougs listed, the public school teacher ranked 36 from the tep. (College lrofessor ranked 7). 2. With regard to class structure, school teachers were ranked by the representative sample of adults as follows: a. believed teachers to be in upper class — 13 per cent. b. Believed teachers to be in middle class - 53 per cent. 0. Believed teachers to be in working class - 31 per cent. d. Believed teachers to be in lower class - l per cent. A later study conducted in Ohio by Rettig and Pasananick,44 was related to a comparison of status and job satisfaction. This study in 1959 surveyed 400 professional people, (40 were public school teachers) and 110 lay people in the upper middle and lower middle social classes. 43Joseph A. Kahl, "The American Class structure," (Rinehart and Company, 1957), pp. 72—76. L4dalomon Rettig and Benjamin Pasamanick, "status and Job satisfaction of Public School Teachers," School and Society, 67: Narch 14, 1959, pp. 113—116. -49- The professional people surveyed, in addition to the teachers, were psychiatrists, psychologists, social workers, and nurses. The data revealed that the public school teacher had a signifi— cantly lower professional status, although his aspiration level was higher than that of other professions. The high status sepirations of the teacher appeared to be unrealistic and stifling. In the eyes of the lay public, the teacher had higher status than many of the other professionals in the study, but his low status among other professionals gave him a great deal of frustration in job satisfaction. Another study of professional status of teachers by Terrien45 revealed that, although teachers were almost universally accorded professional status, only 44.3 per cent regarded them as high profes- sionally as others on the professional scale, and only 32.1 per cent recognized their salary as comparable with other professions. After viewing a public and professional appraisal of teacher status, one should examine the teaching profession as an occupation which would either attract or deter qualified people from entering it. Richey and Fox 46 made a study of 1,615 college students, mostly fresh- men, who were asked to consider reSponsible persons in their community whom they knew best, and compare them with public school teachers. The information gathered revealed that teachers rated high in background, ability to work with others, and industriousness, but were 45Frederic w. Terrien, "who Thinks What About Educators," American Joggnal g; dociglggy, 59: September, 1953, pp. 150-158. 46Robert W. Richey and William H. Fox, "How do Teachers Compare With Other Community Members," Educatignal Research Bulletin, 27: December 10, 1948, pp. 238-241 and 247-248. -41- low in personal qualities of personal radiance, personality, and friend— liness, and in other qualities of practicality, originality, and Open- mindedness. This study has definite implications for teacher training institutions. The self perception of teachers toward their profession was analyzed in a study be Terrien47 in 1955. He surveyed "Port City" through an interview technique, and responses from 100 teachers re- vealed that 32 per cent thought themselves well rated by the community, and 70 per cent thought that the public expected better conduct of them than other occupational groups. Terrien concluded: "In truth, teachers constitute a kind of conscience on society, and their status is that of the conscience; recognized as fundamentally important, but neglected as much as possible." In self analysis, this study indicated that the dominant influence on their conduct was security, and they tended to avoid such actions which threaten this security. In effect, they supported the very policies which held them in check. It appeared that teachers occupied a niche in the social strata which was still somewhat above the average. Consistent with this posi- tion, teachers had accepted positions of socio-community responsibility which was also well above the average for the community populace in general. In this respect, leadership functions were utilized by the teachers who exerted them, as a possible means to gain greater strength of position. A Texas study and a Pennsylvania study outlined to what extent teachers were involved in social affairs. 472Frederic W. Terrien, "The Occupational Roles of Teachers," Jourggl of Eduggtioggl Sggiglggy, 29: September, 1955, pp. 14-20. -42- The Texas report48 covered two large cities, and briefly stated, related the following information: 1. In Austin, 59 per cent of the teachers were active in the fine arts life of the city. This presumed an interest in those cultural activities which were almost exclusively within the province of the upper strata of society. 2. In San Antonio, from reports completed by 676 teachers, it was determined that: a. There were a total of 679 club offices held by these 676 teachers; many in dual jobs: b. There were 125 current Club Presidents, outside the profession, among San Antonio teachers: c. There were 14 trustees on Boards of Education among them: d. There were 160 Sunday School teachers among the group. A recent study in Pennsylvania,49 involving 66 communities in 22 counties, used the Chapin social participation scale50 to determine the total mean participation of teachers in social roles in the community. To give more validity to the results of the study, three types of communities were selected from each county. One was large, one 48M. K. Hage, Jr., "Teacher - Community Stalwart," The Texas Qgtlgok, 40: 19—20, October, 1956. 49Roy C. Buck, "The Extent of Social Participation Among Public School Teachers," Jgggng; 92 Educgtional Sociology, 33: 311-319, April, 1960. 50F. c. Chapin, Emrimntgl game 3; Sociological Research, (Harper and Brothers, revised, 1955), pp. 275-278. -43- medium, and one small. A total of 17 teachers were interviewed in each population center, with a total of 1,107 interviewed. The basic findings pertinent to this study were: 1. The total mean participation score for all teachers re— porting was 49.7, which was above the mean score of 46 for a group of "natural leaders" in a representative urban sample. 2. Trimary and junior high teachers scored lower than did the high school teachers in academic backgrounds. Guidance teachers scored highest. 3. Chly in age group 20—24 was there any lowering of social participation. 4. Males were slightly above females in social participation-— 51.2 per cent to 48.2 per cent. 5. In communities of 100,000 or over, there was less social participation. The percentage total in these communities was 40.9. While none of the immediately preceding studies discussed the quality of the participation of teachers or the extent to which the teacher was an influential person in affairs beyond the school, it was concluded that the assumption of such socially acceptable roles was an indication of confidence in the teaching professional by the community. Buck51 concluded from his study that the teacher remained a status position of significance in the value orientation of the community. The literature published within the past ten years and the studies made to support the findings indicated a trend toward social participation by teachers; and, although they did not occupy a wide 51Buck. mien” p. 319. -44. influential status when compared to business leaders, there was a significant reSpect for the ability of teachers to handle positions of social leadership and responsibility. IV. ngmary 9f the literature This chapter has summarized the content of research, and the opinions of certain authorities in the field of leadership training, on the concept of teacher's leadership role in both the profession and the community. The first area of investigation dealt with the teacher's role as a professional leader. Research in this area emphasized the relationship between administrative leadership to that of their teachers and close correlation was indicated. dome indication per- sisted that professional organizations which serve the profession had a tendency to be dominated by administrators, although the extent of this supposed domination had not been substantiated in fact. The second research area dealt with the teacher's role in the community. Despite differences among the conceptions of authorities regarding the extent of the teacher's expected role, the great bulk of evidence points to the fact that teachers' community work was very much restricted to social, religious, and student group advisories and Sponsorships. They were consistently and conSpicuously absent in civic and economic clubs which usually determined the direction the community would take. The last area of inquiry in the readings dealt with the posi- tion of influence of the teacher in the community. In conjunction with the teacher's community role, evidence was quite clear that teachers were not in the hierarchy of power, but were rather initiators of the policies established by those who were influentials. The influence of the teacher was usually confined to the school, and this pattern was rarely changed . CHAPTER III METHODS AND PROCEDURES I. itr This study attempted to determine the extent of leadership activities of classroom teachers' professional educational organiza- tions, and in community organizations concerned with progress and deveIOpment. Attention was centered on ”leadership," as the precess of WW 6 t o sf 0 - i It was noted in the previous chapter that a substantial nunber of community studies had been made which directly or indirectly re- lated to the role of the teaching staff in the community. Considerably less attention had been given in the literature of the relationship of a teacher's professional leadership activities to his other responsi— bilities, both in the classroom and in the society where he lives. Both the interview method as the primary source, and the questionnaire method as the supportive source, were employed to obtain factual and subjective data in this thesis. Interviews were conducted with selected administrators and teachers in six school districts in the sample, and questionnaires were submitted to selected teachers in two of the six sampled districts. The interviews were structured, in order to obtain a continuity of responses for a more objective analysis. This chapter will be concerned with a detailed explanation and summarizaticn of the methods and procedures which were employed. These ~46- -47. involve a historical background of the study, an explanation of the research methods used, an outline of the instruments employed, how and why they were constructed, and the process by which they were admin- istered. The selection procedures involving both types of districts and classification of teachers will be outlined together with the pro- cess of collecting information to be analyzed. The final section in this chapter will deal with the problems and limitations involved in the collection of all data, and the im— plications in the objective evaluation of this study. II. r l c o d S Educators, sociologists, political scientists, and many other professional peeple have been interested in, and somewhat concerned with, the total dimensions of leadership in our society. Great educa— tional leadership has been exemplified by such stalwarts as William T. Harris, William R. Harper, G. Stanley Hall, Charles T. Eliot, and Booker T. Washington. More recently, such names as Ernest O. Melby, James W. Conant, and Robert M. Hutchins have stimulated the thoughts and actions of educators and laymen alike. These people were and are great leaders, and they have strongly influenced the profession and our total society for several generations. These leaders have largely represented the area of higher education, since they have served in these capacities for most of their academic life. It has been rare that school administrators achieve national or even state wide recognition by society, although many were recognized as leaders by their academic society. These administrators were usually recognized as leaders in their community, primarily -48- because of their position, and also the personal and professional at- tributes which enabled them.to achieve that position. It was assumed that classroom teachers, as individuals have had virtually no national or state wide status as leaders. This study was designed to explore the extent of this leadership within the community, as well as within professional education ranks. A great deal of the literature in the field of education has been centered on administrative leadership. This was natural, but if it was assumed that our profession was concerned with stimulating others to grow and to develop, there ought to have been a certain num- ber of our classroom instructors who have taken active roles in this development. Interest, therefore, centered on these classroom teachers, and the part which they played in professional and community leadership. The theoretical base of this thesis stated that classroom teachers had little or no direct influence in our society outside the classroom. Past research tends to substantiate this. There was little or no indication in the literature reviews that classroom.teachers were recognized leaders. Corey1 had stated that ”teaching is the pre- eminent profession for leadership." Quiggle2 had indicated that "a teacher should function as a catalyst." It was assumed that classroom teachers functioned as leaders in their classrooms, but it was ques- tionable whether this leadership could usually be transferred to the other areas under consideration; the profession and the community. It was also questionable whether this catalytic action actually took place outside the school. lCorey,.gp,_Qit., p. 259. 2 Quissle. MIL. p- 20- ~49— It was believed that certain variable factors had an influence on the extent of the leadership and the influence of teachers. These variables were considered to be extremely important in determining the content and the depth of involvement of these teachers in certain activities. These were: 1. Age ranges of teacher leaders. 2. Their length of residence in the community. 3. Their teaching experience. 4. Their teaching assignment (elementary or secondary). 5. Their area of specialization. 6. Their extra curricular assignments. 7. Their sex and marital status. 8. The growth pattern of the community. 9. The composition and size of the community. III. 39“th Vgthggs This type of study was particularly adaptable to a descriptive analysis of opinions gathered from a depth interview technique, struc— tured to provide a uniformity and a continuity to the questions, and yet flexible enough to permit a free exchange of ideas which could be quickly recorded. The methodology in the structured interview was not as inflexible as would generally be employed. Che of the advantages of this method, according to Van Dalsn and Meyer,3 is stated: 39.0mm B. Van Dalen and William J. Meyer, W W (McGraw Hill Book Company. 1962 ), p. 259. ’\ -50. "These interviews are more scientific in nature than un— structured ones, for they introduce the controls that are required to permit the formulation of scientific generali- zations.’l This type of interview also has its limitations, according to Van Dalen and Meyer:4 "The necessity of collecting quantified, comparable data from all subjects in a uniform manner introduces a rigidity into the investigative process that may make it impossible to probe in sufficient depth." In addition to the interview method, a simple, one page ques— tionnaire was designed to test the responses of the interviewees for validity and reliability. The format was similar to the structured interview with much less detail. This was a supportive method, and was administered to a random sampling of teachers in two of the six districts studied. The specific purpose of the questionnaire was to substantiate the information obtained in the interview, relating to the accuracy by which teachers identified their peers as leaders. Were the interviewees really teachers who were leaders, or were they well enough acquainted with the school and the community to identify those who were? Could these leaders readily be identifiable as such, or was their influence that of a strong man behind the scenes, or an older statesman? Had the people who were interviewed accurately stated the teacher's role in the school and community? Did factual data given under both inter- view and questionnaire methodology coincide in accuracy? The questionnaire had an informational cover sheet which ex- plained its purpose. The type of questionnaire was a combination open 41mg . -51. and closed form, with both fact and opinion requested of the respondent. Each of these respondents was contacted individually by the building principal after they were selected. They were given two or three days to complete it, and it was then returned to the principal's office, or handed directly to the researcher at a prearranged time. The purpose of the questionnaire was explained carefully to the building principal, but not to the respondent. It was the feeling that the cover letter would be sufficient for explanation. WWW Although the primary emphasis of both the interview and the questionnaire was to obtain free opinions from respondents, it was necessary that other data be secured to serve as variables. The inter- view was structured into four categories, and these categories were employed in both administrator and teacher discussions.5 They include: I. Personal Data on Respondents. A. Questions 1 - 4.inclusive. Schedule A. (Administrators) 1. How long have you been associated in any capacity with this school system? 2. How long have you been the superintendent (or assistant superintendent) of this district's schools? 3. Are you directly engaged in the employment of teaching personnel? Yes No . 1.. How many teachers are presently employed in this system? (Exclude principals, supervisors, administrative assistants, etc.) B. Questions 1 - 8 inclusive. Schedule B. (Teachers) 5Complete Interview Schedules (Schedules A and B) may be found in Appendix. -52- What is your teaching responsibility in this school system? What additional assignments or responsibilities have been given to you by your administrator, or have you volunteered to assume in connection with your teaching position? Do any of these duties and responsibilities carry any significant administrative responsibilities? Yes no e How long have you been teaching? How long have you taught in this school system? How long in this particular building or any previous building on this site? Do you make your residence in this school district? Yes he . Are you a member of a professional organization, such as the MiE.A., h.E.A., A.C.E.A., or some particular discipline state and/or national organization? If so, please list each one. II. Identification of Teachers who are Professional leaders. A. Questions 5, 7, and 10. Schedule A. 5. 7. 10. Can you identify any teacher(s) on your staff whom you regard as a master teacher, and whom you feel would be so regarded by other staff members and administrative personnel? What position(s) do they hold in the school? (Please identify also by sex.) Are there teachers on your staff who are particular leaders in professional activities? (Examples: M.E.A. representative or officer, Teacher's Club officer, T.E.P.S. representative, A.C.E.A. representative, or any other professional activities or organizations with which you are acquainted.) Can you identify which identified community leaders are also professional leaders? B. Questions 9 through 21 inclusive. Schedule B. 9. Who are the local leaders, if any, of these (professional) organizations? Please identify by name and position in district. 10. ll. 15. 16. l7. l8. 19. -53- Do you exert any leadership role in any of these organi- zations beyond membership status? If so, what position(s)? Are you a member of a local faculty club, or some equivalent organization, as distinguished from an af- filiation with a national or state organization? If so, please state name of organization. Who are the local leaders of any of these organizations? Please identify by name and position. Is this school system organized into departments? (Examples: Social Studies, English, Primary Grades, etc.) Yes No Partially (record to what extent) Can you identify the heads or chairman of your depart- ment, and the chairmen of at least two other departments in the school? Please state names of each person and name of department. Can you identify by what means these individuals are chosen for these positions? a) Administrative appointments? b) Selection by faculty committee with approval of administration? c) Any other method or combination used? Ch what bases, to the best of your knowledge, are these people chosen for the positions of responsibility and leadership? (list as many as possible of the reasons for selection.) [Examp;g§: strong initiative, dynamic personality, strong organizational ability, length of term in service, enthusiasm, deliberative judgment, ability to get along well with others, etc. Do any student groups or organizations have a direct role in the selection of heads or chairmen of depart— ments? Yes No Do all of the leaders identified by yourself, live in this school district? Please list exceptions, if any. What are the age ranges of any of these leaders identi- fied by yourself? Below 25 25 to 35 35 to 45 ."_. 45 to 55 , _ ,_ 55 t0 65 Above 65 . (In answering this question, I am looking for numbers in each age group, not names.) 20. 21. -54- What length of time have they served in the schools of this community? less than 5 years , 5 to 10 years , More than 10 years . To the best of your knowledge, are there other faculty members in this system who exert specific leadership influence of any type which has not previously been mentioned? As an example, we might be thinking of a teacher who holds no office, or specified additional position at this time, but because of length of ser- vice, or Special Skills, is recognized as influential. He may be called upon for advice, influence school Operations or faculty functions, or serve as a type of fatherly figure. If so, would you indicate this person, and give his or her area of influence or leadership? III. Identification of Teachers who are Community leaders. A. Questions 6, 8, and 9. Schedule A. 6. Would you consider any of these people (master teachers) as definite community leaders? If so, in what capacity do they show leadership, hold office, and direct activities which tend to benefit the community? Are any of these people (professional teacher — leaders) if not named before, community leaders in the sense we spoke of previously? Are there any other teachers on your staff who are active and leaders in community affairs, or hold offices in community organizations? B. Questions 22 through 27 inclusive. Schedule B. 22. 23. 24. To what extent do you feel that you know the true leaders of this community? a) Very well b) Quite well c) Not very well d) Not at all . If you answered either (a) or (b) to the preceding question, to what extent are members of this faculty involved in these community activities? a) Strongly involved b) Moderately involved c) Not too much involved d) Not at all involved . To what extent do you feel that the advice and counsel of teacher members of community organizations is being followed in resolving matters of community wide im— portance? a) Extensive consideration given to this 25o 26. 27. -55- advice. b) More than average consideration given, c) Equal consideration with other members, or d) Little or no consideration in these affairs. Yen have previously identified professional leadership. Are there any of this number, including yourself, who are eSpecially active in organizations which most influence community progress? Please identify. Which organizations in this community do you consider to be the most influential in determining community policy and the execution of it? Are there certain teachers who are not professionally active, and do not play a leadership role in the school or its professional societies, but‘gg play a significant part in community activities which require leadership. Please indicate who they are, and their teaching responsibility. IV. Opinions of respondents dealing specifically with area of teacher leadership emphasis - profession or community. A. Questions 16 and 17. Schedule A. l6. 17. Is it your considered opinion that teachers in general here have a significant leadership voice in this community, with particular regard to major decisions of a community wide nature? Yes No . Would you please give one or more reasons for your answer? Questions 28 and 29. Schedule B. 28. Which statement would best indicate your feelings regarding the teacher's role in this community? a) Teachers in this community enjoy high social prestige, and their counsel and leadership qualities are welcomed by active community organizations. b) Teachers in this community are welcomed, and are respected in their profession, but are usually not considered as community leaders. c) Teachers are discouraged from membership in in— fluential community organizations because of status, expense, time, or other related factors, and as such cannot exert any significant leadership func- tion in the community. -56- 29. Please indicate which statement best describes the role that classroom teachers play, as a means of comparison between professional leadership and community leadership. a) Teachers generally exert more influence within the profession itself, and display more leader- ship in this area. b) Teachers generally exert more influence in the community and diSplay more leadership here. c) There is no significant degree of difference between the two. In addition, administrators were queried regarding the type of community in which the school district was located, with strong regard to the power structure and the stability - growth patterns. It should be noted that questions to the administrator placed emphasis on the structure of the community, while those questions posed to teachers dealt with peer relationships to a greater extent. The basic purpose in this method was to recognize that administrators tended to be more sensitive to community pressures, while teachers were more cognizant of the problems relating to inter group relations. 6 fhe questionnaire (Schedule 0) followed closely the format of the interview. The questions were of a nature which could substantiate or refute the interview responses, without the prompting clarifications of the interviewer to serve as a possible limitation. The last ques- tion, Question 12, was designed to permit the reapondent to eXpress himself very openly, and was purposely rather unstructured to permit this freedom. W- W- In your Opinion, what is the relationship between your conception of an outstanding 6Dee Appendix E. -27- teacher, and the leadership which he or she exerts in the profession and in the community? Examples of the range of opinions and ideas obtained from this question may be found in Chapter IV. V. Selection Procedures Typgs of Districts.--The method used to select the six dis- tricts was a modified random sampling procedure with three basic considerations involved: 1. Where is the location of the district in Michigan? 2. How many teachers are employed in the system? 3. What type of district does it typify-an established urban community, a newer suburban area, or a smaller rural community? It was noted in the limitations of this study that the sampling did not include a full representation of all the urban districts in the state. Time and economic considerations were instrumental in limiting the number of large city districts to a single representative district, and a means of comparison with another urban area could not be outlined. However, both research instruments were used in this particular community, and this factor should give greater reliability to the data received. Two modifications were made in the selection of types of districts. The first was made because the researcher's work outside of this field of study was concentrated in one particular community this past year. The other modification in procedure was determined because a team of Michigan State University specialists had recently completed a school facilities study in the community representing a smaller rural -58— district. The first type of district was a city school district of 100,000 total population, and fit the category of "large urban." The length of time in which the interviewer had close contact to this large district was nine months, and each of the schools where inter— views were conducted were visited from twelve to twenty times during this period. While a great deal of conjecture could be raised on the objectivity of a body of data gathered from people with whom the inter- viewer had worked rather closely, it was felt that this would give a more valid evaluation, and we would not be reading something into a series of responses to opinion questions that did not rightly belong there. The other four districts were chosen by stratified random sampling from different sections of Michigan. Two suburban districts from different sections of the state were selected from a pOpulation of school districts recently develOped around large cities. Two rural districts were chosen from established districts which covered a wider geographic area, although the school or schools themselves were in a town or a small city. No attempt was made to equalize the number of teachers in each group, since this could involve as many as 15 to 20 rural districts to balance one urban district. A representative sample was believed possible through this selection process and it was further believed that this sample was representative of the different types. C is t 0 Tea rs.-—A selective method was employed to choose individual teachers to be interviewed, as contrasted to a random selection of the school system. Once the district where inter- views would take place had been selected, basic criteria were establishai -59. before the chief school administrator was contacted. These criteria, as they apply directly to the selection of teachers, were: 1. 2. The teacher must have taught in the district a minimum of three years. Each school building in the district, excluding special maintenance, non classroom, or non instructional areas, would supply a teacher for interview if feasible. The interviewer would rely heavily on the knowledge of the administrator to select teachers who can give a truly objective picture of the district's faculty leadership patterns, or the further extension of these patterns into the community. However, the superin- tendent or the assistant superintendent was asked if some consideration could be given to certain variables in this selection process. These were: a. Marital status. b. Sex. c. Age. d. Grade or subject level specialization. If the three year minimum eXperience, and the every building contacts criteria were met, the administrator who took the responsi- bility for making the selections discussed with the interviewer the secondary criteria, and together additional selections were made. In- dividuals who made final selections of teachers were: 1. 2. 3. (be large urban district. Building Principal. Two suburban districts. Assistant Superintendents in charge of Instruction. Three rural districts. Superintendent. The number of teachers represented by the school districts sampled was 804 in the large city group, 648 in the suburban area group, and 214 in the group representing the smaller rural areas. -60— Certain minimum and maximum numbers were established prior to the initial contacts with the superintendents regarding the total num- ber of teachers from that district which the interviewer desired as respondents. A minimum of four for the smallest district in terms of the number of teachers to a maximum of twenty for the largest dis- trict, were prearranged figures for the range of sampling of teachers. In this way, each superintendent or his representative knew how many faculty members to contact. The names of districts, and the total number of interviews in each district, are listed in the following table: TABLE 1 FACTORS REIATTLG T0 TOTAl.hUMBER OF TEACHERS AhD TOTAL hUMBER 0F TEACHER—IRTERVIEWEES 11‘ EACH SAMPIED SCHOOL DISTRICT Name of District Number of Teachers Number of Interviewees Kensingtona 52 4 Converse 68 4 Westchester 94 6 Towncliff 272 7 Xavier 376 14 Megapolis 804 20 8Names of all listed districts are fictitious. It was felt that if the preceding criteria were followed closely, any addition to the established minimum number would not give significant additional validity to the data desired. -51- The administrator who selected the staff members for the interview did so on the basis of certain requested information. This was related by the researcher in the process of the administrator interview. 1. It included: Administrators should be willing to permit the teacher to take the time for the interview. They were previously notified that each interview would last from 25 to 35 ndnutes. The teachers should be willing to take the time required for the interview. They were also notified prior to the start of questioning of the length of time needed for formal discussion. The teachers selected should have the following basic qualifications: a) Knowledge of the pattern of teacher leadership in the system. b) Knowledge of the leadership patterns in the community served by the district schools. 0) High regard from the administrator as an individual who exerts influence and/or leadership in the Schools and/or community. (It should be stated here that this influence or leadership was not always, but usually, regarded as a positive factor in the opinion of the administrator.) VI. The Interview Process The Cogpgrgtigp of the Adminigtrators.—-Two methods were em- ployed to contact administrators in the selected school districts. The method used most extensively was to write a letter to the superin— tendend, eXplaining the project in brief form, and requesting an Opportunity to eXplain in greater detail in a personal interview.7 7See p. lb of Chapter I. (Appendix A). -62- The second method employed with those districts with which less personal contact had been previously established, was to request the major advisor on this project to write an introductory letter to the superintendent of the district, indicating the dimensions of this research study, and stating that the researcher would appreciate an opportunity to explain it further in a personal interview.8 In all instances the response from each of the chief school administrators was most gracious, and arrangements were made to con- duct an interview with him at a mutually acceptable time and place. Prior to this interview, a detailed letter was drafted by the interviewer eXplaining the procedure to be followed during the scheduled time in the community. Through this prearrangement it was possible to proceed immediately to the structured interview with the superintendent and/or the assistant superintendent. A three fold purpose was established in the interview procedure with the person or persons most directly concerned with employment and supervision of teachers: 1. To obtain factual information regarding: a) The professional experience of the administrator. b) The number of faculty members engaged in classroom teaching on the staff. c) The extent of the administrative role in the employment of teachers. 2. To secure opinions from the administrator(s) regarding: a) The growth pattern in Community. b) The role of the teacher with special regard to special professional activities. 8See p. 15 of Chapter I. (Appendix B). -63.. c) The extent of teacher influence in the community. d) The power structure areas of influence in the community. e) The relationship of the teaching staff and its pro— fessional leadership personnel, to community leadership activities of this staff. 3. To select staff members for interview who: a) Were able to identify and classify their fellow teachers as leaders and/or influentials in the profession and in the community, or who were themselves recognized as leaders by administration and staff. b) Were willing to exchange these opinions freely and frankly with the interviewer. It was emphasized that selections made under (3) above should be done solely on the basis of objectivity, or as nearly so as possible without pure random sampling. To do this with greater accuracy, the superintendents enlisted the aid of their principals. This was the procedure used exclusively in the single urban district studied. Tele- phone conversations between the assistant superintendent and the build— ing principals in the suburban area schools set the stage for the discussions with teachers in these schools. In the three smaller districts, the superintendent made all the initial contacts, and arranged personally for all the interviews. 1mg Cooperation of the Teacher(s).--A single word could best describe the procedure between interviewer and respondent, and that was infgzmality. Freedom of eXpression was maintained, and the informal atmosphere helped to create this. Although the structured interview was used and certain relevant facts were obtained, a certain amount of flexibility was allowed to permit subjective information to become a most important part of the date. In this manner, the interviewee felt that he or she had a personal stake in the study, and indeed they did. -54- The interviewer's initial purpose was to insure that respon— dents should be cognizant of the intent and the scope of the study. This was not only to be regarded as a personal accommodation to the interviewer to complete a research study, but as an important stimulant to members of a profession to evaluate their public image more closely, and stimulate their thinking on the role of the teacher outside of the classroom. The oral introduction to the interview served to introduce the research goals. This was accomplished only after the principal of the building had made preliminary arrangements with the teacher to meet the interviewer at a mutually acceptable time and place. This was either during a free hour during the day, or after school hours. The teacher was informed that the interview would last about a half hour, although many lasted much longer than originally planned because of the interesting discussion which accompanied the questioning. The formal introductory statements also served to insure to the respondent that complete anonymity would be accorded the individual school district. Persons who were to be identified and those who made the identifications were also given assurances of anonymity. There was no hesitancy to eXpress frank opinions. All responses were recorded in the presence of the teacher respondent. At times, the respondent would ask to look at the recorded answer sheet to review how he had answered the question which immedi— ately preceded. On other occasions, the respondent wanted to refer back to answers given five to ten minutes before. There was certainly no objections to these requests, since such referrals merely seemed to add to the reliability of the statement. In multiple response -o5— questions, the statements were invariably repeated once, and often twice. ho attempt was made to hide recorded answers from the respondent. Che question was verbally inserted into the teacher interview schedule (Schedule B), which did not appear on the recorded page. This question was, "To what degree do you feel that athletic directors, coaches, and music directors-those in the public eye to a greater extent--are influential and exert leadership in the profession and in the community?" It was inserted to test the hypothesis that such teachers exert a stronger leadership role and have more influence in both the school and the community. This question required some extensive ex- planation, and evoked some interesting responses. (See Table XVII). At the conclusion of the interview, the question was usually asked by the reapondent, "Will we get an opportunity to see the results of the study?" For those who inquired Specifically, verbal assurance was given that certain data findings would be made available to them. V II . Qggstiomgige Procedures The questionnaire was administered to a random sampling of teachers in two school districts as a supportive method to validate information. The smallest and the largest districts with regard to both student and teacher population was selected for this purpose, and the method of sampling within each district was different. In the largest district, three questionnaires were distributed to each school building with three exceptions, while in the smallest district, a ~66- sampling of one-third of the number of teachers was taken, and dis- tribution made randomly over the entire faculty. A total of 104 questionnaires were distributed, and 83 were returned. Of the total number, twelve were returned with incomplete information, and nine were not returned at all. The following table gives this data. TABLE 2 NUMBER OF QUESTIONNAIRES DISTRIBUTED AND COMPLETED BY DISTRICTS ‘_ _._. Name of District Questionnaire Distributed Questionnaire Completed Kensington 22 19 Small rural Megapolis 82 64 Large urban The procedure for distribution was not complicated. since each building principal was aware of the nature and the purpose of the study, the distribution and collection of completed questionnaires was handled through that office. These were distributed after the inter- view with the selected teacher in that building had been completed. Steps in the procedure: 1. In Kensington, with 52 teachers, the interviewer contacted the high school principal and requested that he distribute them randomly throughout the entire staff, elementary included. Interview respondents were omitted from this sampling. Within three days these -57- completed questionnaires were returned to the researcher's desk. Three of the 22 questionnaires were not completed. 2. In Megapolis, with 804 teachers, the interviewer met briefly with all the principals of the elementary schools before their regular bimonthly meeting, and explained the purpose of the question- naire. This meeting was arranged and presided over by the assistant superintendent in charge of elementary instruction, and her permission was given to permit the questionnaires to be distributed through the schools. Following the meeting and as soon as possible thereafter, each building principal was contacted in his office. Three question— naires were left with that principal, and he or she randomly distributed them to three staff members. A total of 60 were distributed in this manner, and 53 were returned. The same procedure was followed in the secondary schools, with the exception that a preliminary meeting with the principals was not held. There were 22 questionnaires distributed in the 8 secondary schools, and ll were returned. VIII. Implications of Procedural Problems in this Study Certain limitations had been previously recognized in the interview procedure. Naples and Tyler9 indicated that the data which might be obtained through the process of interview were subject to four limitations relating to the respondent. These were: 1. His experience. 2. His judgment. 3. His accessibility and willingness to divulge the information. 9Douglas Naples and Ralph W. Tyler, Re h Me hods Te c Ezgylemg, (New York: The MacMillan Co., 1930), p. 353. -od- 4. His ability to express himself clearly. Cne additional limitation which might have a bearing on the validity of the study was recognized. Despite the intended informality of the interview situation, in only one instance was a teacher respon- dent previously acquainted with the interviewer. This lack of acquaint- ance could have created a barrier, but it also could have permitted greater objectivity. The primary source of concern was that personal preferences or Opinions would not show themselves in any way throughout the introductions, the interview process, or the general discussion which followed the formal interview. This could easily have been done by voice inflections, facial expressions, or comments on responses. The researcher was fully cognizant of these possible dangers, and attempted to keep the conversation on an objective basis while the interview was in progress. When a respondent asked what the feelings were in some other community, the response was that no conclusions could be reached until all the data was collected and analyzed. It was felt that the interview method was by far the most in- formative method. A need for responses involving opinions of teachers could have been best fulfilled through this procedure. The responsive- ness of every respondent, with two exceptions who were obviously in a hurry and had little or no interests in this study, was gratifying. Such responsiveness also gave far greater opportunities for eXplanation, and far less chance for blank spaces to appear in the document. A per— sistent effort was made to obtain a definite response to every question. CHAETER IV ANALYSIS OF DATA I. Introduction To select a method or methods for analyzing data gives any researcher some cause for concern. Structured interviews rarely pro— vide specific empirical evidence, which may be analyzed and treated in a statistical manner. The purpose and plan of this research method was not determined only by the type of analysis, but also by the type of information which could be gathered. It thus became a descriptive research thesis with both verified facts and Spontaneous Opinions employed in testing the hypotheses advanced in Chapter I. Certainly the basic requirements of any study involves testing what is believed to be true, and comparing that with the facts which previous research and personal experience tells us is true. This was v r ur se th's research re rt an is. The procedures selected were listed as follows: 1. A presentation of descriptive, factual information by means of tables, graphs, and objective statements. This included: a. Types of School Districts studied. b. Characteristics of School Administrators interviewed. c. Characteristics of Teachers interviewed. 2. A presentation of such subjective factors which related to the opinions of both administrators and teachers. These opinions referred specifically to these individual '3 con- cepts of teacher leadership patterns in their school and community. -69- -70- 3. An establishment of the relationship of factual data to opinion data through the medium of charts, graphs, and statements. 4. An examination of both types of information, and relating the findings toward an acceptance or a rejection of the hypotheses advanced in Chapter I. II. sc s 0 Fee D t LMWW Six school districts were sampled for study and all were studied in detailed fashion through the interview technique. Two of these districts were of the legal classification of "third class," and four were classified as "fourth class" districts. Each district had distinguishing characteristics, and the sample was closely representa- tive of all third and fourth class school districts in Michigan. In addition to the six districts studied through interview, two of these school districts were cross checked for reliability in information through the questionnaire technique. Che of these dis— tricts was of the third class and one of the fourth class. Fictitious names were given to all districts and no names were used in the manuscript. This was done to keep faith with both inter- viewees and questionnaire respondents, that complete anonymity would be afforded all respondents who helped in this study. Characteristics of the school districts themselves, as well as of the communities they serve, were listed as factual data which could easily be verified. All six superintendents and two assistant superintendents directly responsible for the employment of teachers, were interviewed. mafia o no nepwuomhoocH I mama npzoho madam smnhznsn mmaaon3oe mcazoum hawpmopn 30a when» ooa toss coma Have: npzono enema cannsnsm woa>aa coma nszono causes . cansen Ampao Haasnv amuse noemoaopmos memo» ma page eszono escape . seamen Amado Hassnv Hausa omuo>noo means an tugs seasons essences flange Haasmv Hausa cosmqwmanx ponmaanmpmm oaaa mo :pmaQH need no chopped apzoho hpfiddasoo mo came moasmauopoawago eozqassoo soanpmfla do oasz MW ea ooe.o New mmsao newsom Hanpaoo meaaoazoa om oom.am sow mmaao stage Hahsaoo swam meaoasmoz o oom.e cam «mafia eases anopmem xenon noapax e oqm.m em mmaao esteem guesses xenon uopmogosmoz m ome.H we mmsao eunuch Hanpaoo use: omuo>aoo N OmN.H mm mmmao summon chopmoz dogmaamnom mqucawzm .oz masonspm mo .oz muonomoa mo .02 cowpwoaMfimmmHo wou4 canmsamooc pownpmaa mo ofimz nBonenHQ qoomom mo nOHHnHmmH04m¢mo m mqmHH anemones mo & «mm m a8 8 T a l 9333“ 9338.69 mflnomemo: neummzopmmi 0203.80 n3 n on 00.... nemesis EH 2:228 mi om: .53 mo mofizaommm message 3 genomes was; Nassau a 355 message mo enigma 3 2. SHEES “a we; ,5 ammzaafimm ng -79- b. One administrator reported that 26 per cent of his staff participated in professional organizational committee assignments on a state or national level. In contrast, community organizational leadership among this staff was estimated to be about 5 per cent and not all of these were considered as top leaders. 0. Strong community leaders were invariably active in professional ranks. Only 2 individual teacher exceptions to this were listed. d. A notable exception to the preceding concepts of teacher leadership, as indicated by four of the administrators, was as follows: "Teachers were generally as active, or more so, as leaders in church and religious or fraternal organizations than their counterpart in business and the professions. This was strongly noted in four of the smaller communities. e. Administrators tended to emphasize this latter point in the interviews, while teachers said little about religious activities of their peers. This could have been attributed to lack of knowledge or interest by teachers on the reli- gious tendencies of their cohorts, while administrators sensed that this was important, and made a point of in- vestigating this factor more closely. 2. fleachers.-All teacher respondents were members of at least one professional organization. In five of the six districts covered, all interviewees indicated that they were members of the Michigan Educa— tion Association. Table 6 gave the professional membership totals, and compared them with the number of active participants in these organizations. An important factor developed in the study of professional leadership roles of teachers. There appeared to be no real consistency in the influence of professional organizations on its membership. As an example, in one district studied, all the interviewees stated that teachers were not an active professional group and that a very loose, intangible relationship existed between the local and the regional and state organizations. There appeared to be little interest —80- on the part of the entire staff toward the total program of the M.E.A. On the other hand, in another district of comparable size and also in a rural area, the professional contributions of all of the interviewees to both the state and the regional M.E.A. were extensive. The entire staff was closely apprised of the activities of the parent professional organization at all levels. This was accomplished through close personal communication between leaders and membership. There appeared to be some definite lack of interest in the National Education Association program. None of the interviewees served on any national committees, nor held any offices at this level at this time, although two had served as an N.E.A. delegate in the past. Of the 55 interviewed, only 32 were N.E.A. members. This represented a 58 per cent membership total among the reSpondents. Teacher respondents tended to hold and retain membership in state or regional professional organizations in their particular teaching interest area. Since the sampling represented most of the subject areas, it was difficult to determine the extent of leadership and responsibility which each teacher took in these categories. How- ever, it was noted that of the 22 elementary interviewees, 16 held membership in some organization outside the local system which have professional objectives in specific areas. Of the 33 secondary inter- views, 30 held such memberships. Examples of such affiliations included: 1. Elementary - Michigan Reading Teachers Association Department of Classroom Teachers American Childhood Education Association -51- 2. Secondary - Michigan and hational Science Teachers Association Department of Audio Visual Instruction Michigan Vocational Agriculture Association Michigan Coaches Association Michigan Business Education Association Michigan Counselors Association Michigan and hational Council of Teachers of English Michigan Music Educators Association Michigan and National Council for Social studies American Educational Theatre Association Although 46 of the 55 respondents held one or more of these memberships, there were only two instances where these people held any offices in these organizations, or stated any other leadership reSponsi- bility on a national or state level. One of these was in the field of the theatre arts and the other in the social studies area. The data in Table 6 became important because: 1. Interviewees were judged by their administrators to be influential and possess definite leadership qualities. 2. Teaching experience in many teaching subject areas was represented. A comparison of the data in Table 6 with that in Table 7 indicated that there was little correlation between responsibility held within the school setting in the form of assigned leadership roles, and elected or appointed professional leadership activities outside the academic setting. The total number of additional assigned reaponsi- bilities assumed by all 55 respondents was 80, or an average of 1.64 -30- assignments per teacher. The total number of leadership roles assumed by these reSpondents in professional organizations was 31, or an average of .56 roles per teacher. The first category or area of responsibility was usually taken for granted, since there were more of these duties and assignments to fill, and they were assigned by the administrator(s). The second type of role had less immediate demand; assignments were made by the member- ship of the organization, and nominees had much more flexibility in accepting or rejecting these assignments without risking rank or position. It was ascertained that of the 10 elementary teachers who assumed leadership in professional organizations, each one of these teachers had a single role; that is, one teacher for one position. In the secondary area, however, of the 21 leadership positions held, 13 teachers held all these positions. Therefore, only 23 teachers out of 55 indicated that they held a professional position outside the school, although these teachers were considered to be among the leadership group by their administrators. This was in comparison with 44 out of 55, who had definite assigned duties. Examples of these assigned duties were: 1. Class advisorships, student council responsibility, adult evening class supervision, department head or chairman, coaching, service squad or monitor sponsor, entertainment chairman, textbook committee chairman, various club sponsorships, transportation manager. Of all the assigned duties, the only additional compensation was given to the transportation manager and the coaches. In the schools sampled, department heads were not given additional compensation. -83- In each interview, respondents were asked to identify, by name and position, the local leaders of professional organizations. Ques— tions 9 and ll of the interview schedule for teachers referred to the identification of local leaders in state, national, and local organ- izations with which the reSpondent was affiliated. Consistent with the feeling that teacher-leaders could recognize and identify their associates in positions of responsibility, another question (Question 14) was posed. Teachers were asked to identify their department heads and other department heads in their school. The principal purpose of this line of questioning was to obtain some con- ception of the amount of knowledge which respondents had regarding their colleagues professional obligations. Questions 15 through 20 inclusive referred to factors other than the name identification of leaders. bpinions were solicited from respondents on factors which involved methods of selection of teacher- leaders. The district of residence, age range, and length of service of these persons were also requested. Responses to these questions were outlined in Tables 8 and 9 as subjective factors. Answers were recorded as giyen to the inter- viewer, and information given was estimated by the respondent. The questionnaire (Appendix E, Schedule C) served as a collaborative in- strument to check reSponses to these questions. Reaponses toward peer identification indicated that teachers had difficulty in remembering their leaders. It was assumed here that many teachers were not strongly interested in their representatives and had taken little role in their original selection. However, on an o.mm a Q H@ H mm on mm mw manpoe 0.0H H o w o m o q N noemonopmoz 0. ms m H 0 o q .H m H 030280 N.eH a o w o m b N n mmwaoszow Q. on m m w m 0 0H om 0H m mHHoammmz H.b o H NH wH n p o w pofl>mx o. a a o H m o H .H m H sandstone am>QH .oon .EmHa mnmgpo .a.m.< .<.m.4 .<.r.z .omn .EmHm snaps no msowgmu IHaneq smog» cH mcowwaNHnmuHo HosmH H:20Hnsu no means a so mmsmwpnowqw. HdMMMWWJ moHom dfigmuowmmH mmoab muowpmmficdunu .monm ea LflgmanEmz mnozommh guflx pmsmwpnmncH cw mfiom Lana mo .0; mhwzowmfi mo & Inopmmm ops: nmmzmH>mqu mm I z MWEHSQH 1.3.qu AEUH nnmmcvfl an omqom mHzanQde ammodmw mad mHmnxmmzmz mmmo¢MH no nachodm o mgmdh .AEozp mo 03p 09 mmqoaon nvzommp mcov meadow“ do popcomonmoh acowkufindwuo Hmooa consap .muonouoe mo soapwhopom admwgofiz wcnsaocfi omH¢m s.mm «H v «m mm mepoe 0.2 a... m. m. N $2223 . o.mN H o m a omnm>coo aw o.mm H H m m anHoszoa o.mq s m «H m mHHoanmoz o.wm HmsaoeHmmni NV m H a w nansmx o.nm AscmeHmonmv H o m H copqumqu £8 5 . 8.0 .5on . 8n .amHm moHom aHemnmemoH oOHHHO qmwmnqwnqmwmwmmw nsHo spHSOQa sOanmHo use on: cosoH>nosaH moHuno eHom HwooH aH aHemnoQsz mnonomoa mo m mozawuaaoulo mHm¢H .zowo macoecmHmwn o.H pm; mnonowop madcsooom mm oHHzB .nowo mucoscmHnmm <.N o>mn muvnowop HH ones» #39 .n9308demmm HwQOHpHpcm can muoeocop hyapGOEoHo one mo HHdnloao mHeowxm - .pcosdemmw oao pmon we own muonoaoa musccooom HH< .moHpsw onmHmmw onoa no oco can keep popapm mooon>uoch mm one mo #4 mo Hmpoa a "mopoz om. HN 0H qo.H No wN mm NN mepoe mm. m. ol mm“ m. m: «l mu ncpmoeopmoz oo.H m H nN.H m o m H onuo>coo mu. N H m<.H m m N m MHHHoczoa W as. 2 m pH 3 o mH m «Hogan»: a. an. m m RH OH NH 0 m .323 m . H H mm. m w H m H :3qu 3.2 Wang . ooh . .2on ommuoSH . con . 50m 1 . con . aon n:0HpmNH:mmno .monm qH vmsoHHquz mpaoEdemm¢ . p030H>noqu muonomoe Hdflumquw mogoHZSfl 3 consume 38382. no names,“ .8 none; moHom QHnmnopuuH no .04 H nma3HH>mmezH mm 1 z naBHHHMHQUAnmm mjDOHmHBo gexm amyaHnnd 25H: nMHHH>HBQ¢ AHmnmeoH HaooH one caches QOHHmNchmuo HchHmmmmonm and GH GOHuwpcomoAQon on Us: mqusaaoo one Amv .Eopmmm Hoozom map cH pmem no: meow ucoEprQop no GOprNHQuwno as Joan wasp moponUQH I hHQQd pod moons 'HIH‘ l!’ machodm 20HHao>cH Has an poz 1 H32 @0595: inaopwuovoz .. Hz UPIHQEH node 03 we: .. H292 @250qu hamdonpn I Hm "maonahm 3. hex H32 HEz Hz Hm H32 H254 HE Hm. H52 H5,“ H2 Ho H32 H292 H2 Hm. H52 Haz Hz Hn H52 H52 Hz Ho / / // I I / I/ are I / / .I a / / muz mnz / / I I we / , H; I I I / I / 1m / / / / / / / / / / INA I / mauz i OH ,llllgmx :15 3»: 332333 8.3580 nopgmnox 8m .. 5 33:23 in SE8 In 8528583 enigma so ages. a; ofiamémm 2984B :9: mains ,8 $8339 N 330 R w mm 3 H 8m 5 238. ma N o m 0 RH 5 how>ux m o m m 0 Am 2v unfiaoesoe . mod 0 m Q 0 Q3” 75 nflflomdmox fit? x o o m < 0 Ac zvnoanenopmoz e o H N A A4 2v onno>soo .2 o m H o 3 a stage nameoe soapwnowfimcoo muonsvz nozpo seepauopfimcoo eofl>©4 poanpmwa mo mesa oz ,8 £33 :33 $303. was. 8 :38 coapanmcwmsoo edge enoz cowpmnocflmcoo Hedda m>fiws0pxm NHHVBEQQ BE. 5 QQBEQmE m5». annzboo a]? flak/m2 PmESEQ mam: Om. Bamaxm anzomnmm On I a Na 5mg. (“3* -75... of eight mentions. Others mentioned more than once included the D.A.Ru the League of Women Voters, the College Club, and the Zonta Club. c. In one suburban district a Tax Study group (anti- school) was particularly effective. This was counterbalanced by a Citizens Advisory Committee for Better Schools, an organization sup- ported by school administrators and school board members. The Board of Education received five mentions in the community as an influential group. This was somewhat significant, since no other reSponse in any district indicated that the Board of Education was a strong organization. Bach community had several service and fraternal organizations, but these served primarily as expediters of predetermined policy. It was evident in this study, and rather surprising, that more teachers did not find these clubs and societies to be very influential. Most respondents felt that such organizations had a primary purpose for existence, with the aims and goals of the membership oriented toward altruistic accomplishments. If schools were promoting a recreational program or a sight saving program, these organizations tended to be more receptive to this type of service than the promotion of a favorable bond issue. This study indicated that teachers who were n23 professionally active were rarely active in community affairs. There were only four separate mentions of such individuals who were recognized community leaders, but who were not professionally active in educational circles. In only one case was the individual active enough to run for a political office. On the other hand, there were two illustrations involving teachers who ran for a political office who were also professional F -93; leaders. Cne was successful and held a township office, while the other was unsuccessful, largely because the party loyalty in that area was traditionally for the other major party. It was previously noted that politics was not a strong issue or concern of the teacher. While a recent magazine article stated that over 90 per cent of the nation's teachers voted in the 1960 national elections, no evidence was found in this study that teachers partici- pated actively in a political role as candidates for office. 3. Profession vs, Community.-—What role does the teacher actually play in the community? This question formed the basis for a single statement selection from among three (Question 28, Schedule B) and tended to show the perception the respondent felt in this matter. Responses to this question were received from all 55 interviewees and recorded by districts. The statements were: A. Teachers in this community enjoy high social prestige and their counsel and leadership qualities are wel— comed by active community organizations. B. Teachers in this community are welcomed and are respected in their profession, but are usually not considered as community leaders. C. Teachers are discouraged from membership in influential community organizations because of status, expense, or other related factors; and as such cannot exert any significant leadership function in the community. Although 20 per cent of the respondents indicated that State— ment A was the best answer to this question, there was considerable doubt that teachers enjoyed "high social prestige." These respondents felt strongly that the teacher's counsel was a highly desirable quantity in the community and that the profession lent a desired HH manpoa mm 0.0H 0 0.00 00 0 00 a! tall II till! .11 . II H¢pm0goamo3 _ 0 0.0 0 0.00 m 0 00 H mw . q mmum>aoo w... .H 0.0 o o. 0 o o 00H oazoe 0 m.sx syBOpm omeflhm «N ma m om .odnspn I asap: nfiaoqmmoi «N o 0 4H .OSH am I H deHOH nan OH 0% N o mafimpm I Hohsm Hmpmmnopmmz . :p3opm chafing L m as e q 6380 I Hesse $5280 . apzopw 0 ma m t q mpsopn I Hausa sepmafimqu upcmpqomnmm mQOHpmNficewno mQOflpsNHqsmho menopaoammm powupmfia pownpnaa .AQ. HOOQUW. an ufiflwaagmfloo 0HOV~ HNCOfimmmMOhfiufl W0 % .HO 0&8 HO mfiaz Samesmamma egg .8 mac 3 $33. 3 83$ manooeommmm mo % mpemeqoamom mo * WAOHHwpoa shoe .seawpmae uses an emxmwswmsqw ewe 03% m .mmepflasoo mpOuw>w< mcomwefio CH mpfipom dado .moflpfi>wgos prqsasoo co wfimsnmsm Heavens mapdej .mmflpfl>fipos muHsSEEoo so wooed; one; nfimsndsma .asassssoo was ea m>asoe was: poahpuae when cw msemeeoammw Has A mwzmpopmoa assowmmomonm empamxm omfls pogosmp mass m . Om ma mm mm o I H masaoe nacho H. II! I . III on 0 ma He .oea .0 I q masses and mqfi3opm OH mm m b when I swansnsn mafiaonzoa mpsopsommmm macapmuwcswho nsoapmnwaswpo mpcmeqomnmm poaupmwa powppnfia an doomed ca newssssoo who: quofimmomonm mo % Ho make mo ofisz so ago ca m>fipo< :H m>Huo< mesmsdnflmm¢ vowed mesme20dmmm go % spamwnomnmm mo % would. deOIIj. a 8d. | I L-J 3.4 ’ J 2. dix out of Al respondents from urban and sutirpen cistricts ) L-Jo were active in one or more community or anizat L) -on~ for a 15 per cent { participation. Only 1c of the Al respondents had served in the com- munity's schools for ten yea s or more. 3. size and type of community appeared to have a great in— fluence on the opportunities which teachers have to become affiliated with community orsanizations. Small communities requested teacher participation much more than did larger communities. 4. The rural area respondents had a total of 24 additional school assignments for a 1.7 assignment per teacher, while urten and suburban area respondents had a total of 56 additional assignments for a 1.4 assignment per teacher. It should be noted that althoueh teachers often participated in community activities, no respondent took any leadership role in power structure organizations such as business and civic cluts. Their community roles were restricted to service cluhs and a--“encies, and local trenches of university groups, to eth,r with church and religious broup work. A strong reservation might have been reds that, althoubh ad£i~ tional duties within the s hool system did play a part in determininb whether teachers Lecame "community active", this factor alone was probatly secondary to the influence of the size and type of coanm; J1. where the teacher was employed. The second hyiothesis stated .4 K4 An analysis of the data, together with interview impressions, strongly indicated that this hypothesis should have been rejected. The opposite tended to be true; the smaller, stable communities recognized their teacher—leaders and utilized their abilities to a far greater extent than did the fast growing suburban areas. In Graph 1, it was noted that from 64 to 80 per cent of the teachers employed in the three smaller schools in the sample were also residents of their respective districts. In suburban areas, this percentage was reduced to 30 to 40 per cent. This factor reflected the continual growth pattern of these communities. Most of these teachers lived in the larger city, which eventually feeds the suburbs. The patterns of influence within the suburban community change more rapidly. In the urban community, approximately 65 per cent of the teach- ing staff resided in the district. Of the 20 respondents from the sampled urban district, only A lived outside the city limits. The implication of the population data for the rejection of the second hypothesis was that to live in a community would encourage a greater participation in community affairs. In only two of the rural districts were teachers considered to be strongly or moderately in- volved in such affairs. It was also true that the third district in that group had a lower percentage of its teachers as community resi— dents than did the others. Additional implications in this study regarding the second hypothesis were: 1. Suburban communities tended toward a greater percentage of l§§d§§§h12_typg§ among its residents. Teachers were but one ~114- representative group out of many who were potential leaders. Many suburbanites had higher educational backgrounds. 2. Since a majority of teachers working in suburban areas were not residents of their working community, the mantle of community re- sponsibility fell more heavily upon other persons. 3. Teachers in suburban areas appeared to have much less identification with the community than those in rural areas. Their interests were more closely allied with their professional objectives. The third stated hypothesis was, "There is e signifieent relationshie between outsteedieg teechere es reeegniged by adminis- trators for professionalism and serviceI eed the gegree efl influenee these teachers exert in community affairs." To develop this hypothesis, the responses of administrators to questions dealing with identification of master teachers and the identi— fication of community leaders were recorded and examined. It was previously noted that the teachers, in general, were not believed to be leaders, but administrators unanimously recognized that a percentage of their teachers had a recognizable influence. The information in Graph 1, Inge 78, indicated two adminis- trators could not determine the number or per cent of outstanding teachers under their jurisdiction. The significance of the administrators' reSponses to these questions centered in the fact that no teeeher yes neged es e comeegitv leeder Rho Efifi neg §l§9 negee ee e mester teacheg. In three of the larger districts, it was impossible for the administrator to identify either with any objective accuracy. However, all administrators stated —115— fiiLElE ADMILIJTHATCRJ' RESPCLSSJ TO QUJJTICLS REGARDILG IDnhTIFICATICL OF OUTQ'TAIuDDvG TEACHERQ‘ AM) THEIR COM-IDLITY II‘aFLUELCE Number or Percentage Number or Percentage Name of of Identified Master of Identified District Teachers Community Leaders Kensington 7 out of 52 (13.5% 2 out of 52 (4%) 4 Male and 3 Female Both Male Converse 20 out of 68 (30%) Most were community Equally divided as to sex leaders Westchester 16 out of 94 (16.0%) 3 out of 94 (3%) 7 Male and 9 Female All Male Megapolis There were a number of No estimate these, but could give no estimate Xavier Approximately 10% No definite community Equally divided as to sex leaders. About 5% community contributors Towncliff Many in this category, Pew were leaders but could give no estimate Sampling_of Administrative Responses: Teachers are not represented on major councils in the community. Teachers do not want to be involved. Profession has status, but does not take an active part in community. Teacher's interests seem to be broader than the community. Many executives live in community with comparable education and higher salary than teachers. These tend to have more influence. how that the community is more established, there is less school participation. Teachers have considerable influence with friends, but not in total community. People in municipal affairs have just not tapped teachers, and teachers have not been volunteering either. .11(,.. that the two types of leadership were rather closely associated with each other. They stated that, although few outstanding teachers were identified leaders, they tended to be very good influences in the community setting. In view of these observations and comments, this hypothesis was accepted. The fourth hypothesis was stated, "Community igfluence and active particieation in cogmunity affairs,,as exerted by teachers, teeds to be gestricted to smaller social organizations, religious greenizetioes, and serviees directly concerned with young people and childree." Four administrators, representing an equal number of school districts, had indicated that "teachers were as active, or more so, in church and social organizations, as any other professional member in the communitv." Teacher respondents could give no direct number of their peers who were active in church or other community work and they were not requested to do so. however, some pertinent comments were made by teacher respondents which related to this point: These are stated in Table 16. It was apparent, tlrough these comments, that teachers generally participated in those activities outside the classroom which gave them enjoyment and satisfaction. There were some indications that teachers in smaller communities worked in those organizations which closely mirrored the values of that community. The reasons were twofold: (1) They tended to live in that community; and (2) their activities were somewhat more restricted by the visibility they had in that community. .._ "v TMHElD TEACI'ER RhsftivDHvT CCTT-flflt} Oh CCPT. U1. ITI AZTIVITIDLJ CF PEER.) Name of Type of District District Comments Pertinent to Hypothesis Kensington Rural ho comments. Converse Rural 1. Most teachers are very active in church a ffairs. a. Ciurch roles are strongly inter- minbled with school activities for most leaders. I 2. 3 ul ches are most influential. Jestchcs ter Rural 1. a bood proportion of our teaw chars are seniors of one or more community organiyaticns. . 1 o '- e f" V ‘ ‘ Leoapolis sanu l. .eaCne's do not .ate m MC in- fluence, but many a e active in church and social groups. 2. Terchers are a little Letter ’ known, but are not influentia ]. 3. Chulch orbiniz ations will ‘nive many teacher participants. 4. Teachers also have leading roles D in soy and Sir Scouts. Xavier ouburban 1. Those who live in the community nre involved in community work, but not many live here. 2. There is such a wide variety of interest that tf;1ohcrs choose what interests them most. hot many are interested in community work. Towncliff duburban l. The courunity expects much from it: teacerry3 O 2. P. T. A. 's are very active and seek teachers ' advice. They do not ask them to do the work. 3. Teachers must limit their ac- tivities to school and church. ~119- The teachers in larger communities were less confined by such close visibility. It was interesting to note that no teacher respondent felt that such community involvement, whether in a rural, urban, or suburban community was mandatory upon them. Furthermore, no teacher respondent expressed dissatisfaction with his or her community affiliations and each implied that such affiliation was entirely a matter of personal choice. The data indicated that the fourth hypothesis should have teen. MM . The fifth hypothesis to be tested was, "Athletic directors, coaches, and music directors tend to exert a strgegeg_lee§egehip_ig- Izluegce in cemm, Lg}; A review of the literature had not revealed any new study on ties th- do teachers in the academic disci lines." the extent of the influence or leadership activities of teachers in different academic or skill subject areas in the public schools. An objective appraisal of this study, as outlined Ly compilations of 50 responses from 6 communities, indicated that there was e9 concrete evidence that athletic directors, coaches, and music directors were more influential, and the hypothesis should be rejected. The teachers questioned represented nearly every sulject area in the schools except the vocational arts. Fifty teachers responded to this special question (See Table 17) which was added to the original interview schedule after it was printed. It appears in verbatim form, together with responses, in Table 17. The basic conclusions drawn from this table and from the com- ments were: -119— 1. Teachers recognized these people were more in the public eye, but did not feel that this single factor automatically constituted special leadership or influential status. Of the 9 persons who stated that these teachers tended to be more influential, all but two em— phasized the role of the music directors, but not the coaches, as having possible special status. 2. ho teacher respondent would say flatly that these people were more highly regarded than the others. 3. The two coaches and the two music directors among the respondents agreed with the majority. They did feel, however, that they probably had more influence with their players or performers than other teachers. The sixth hypothesis stated, "Men teachers tend to exercise a *reater rtici tio in ro essional activities uts d t cl 5 room th do 0 e te chers." Within the profession, female teachers far outnumbered the men at the elementary level, while on a secondary level there appeared to be a near equality in numbers between the two. In Xavier, a suburban community in the study, 83.1 per cent of its K - 6 staff were women, but this ratio dropped to 46.7 per cent in the junior high school and 34.8 per cent in the senior high school. ho percentage breakdowns were made in the other districts, but the indication was that this correla- tion would carry over in the others. In smaller schools, a higher percentage of female teachers in secondary grades was indicated, if this percentage is compared with that in fast growing suburban areas. Graph 3 illustrated the reSpondent's self identification of their leadership activities, and classified these activities by the 2,“;— ‘ ~ -1‘ Afloascmoumog onHHaam mmmHo Roam: cad meUHE nomad . >30 pcwom mwnp Mo thhOnwh m :pHB Hoozom :an AOHCSH wv .Hoozom QH . r 2.25500 1 A NHH O HO“ mm3 Pfi QSD maze QH uoaQSHu3H mo pOH a was on55 and mOHpoHpr go mcowpzoe my .wuNmeggmo AMMHoaom \nHHmaoemmo .oom g .H O @ own upho .0 . 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The respondents were also asked to identify their fellow teachers--those who had no present duties outside their teaching as- signment, but who were considered to be leaders in their profession. A total of 83 separate mentions were made. Twenty-six of these were elementary teachers while 57 were secondary teachers. The breakdown of this information by sex and teaching level was: 20 of the 26 elementary mentions were women—-this represented a percentage of 76 per cent; 9 of the 57 secondary mentions were women—-this represented a 15.8 percentage; 29 of the total 83 mentions were women or 35 per- cent of the total; 54 of the 83 mentions were men or 65 per cent of the total. Conclusions drawn from this data were: 1. Men teachers tended to be more active as professional leaders at all levels of instruction. 2. Teachers who were leaders on an elementary level tended to assume a more limited number of leadership roles per person than did those on a secondary level. 3. leadership roles assumed by teachers on an elementary level tended to Le far different in type than those on a secondary level. Elementary teacher—leaders were more concerned with professional reSponsibility toward improving instruction, while secondary teacher— leaders were more interested in improving salary scales and working conditions for teachers. 4. 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