L. lift-II.- ~ fiw—ma/ O mam ( 1 i'.‘ ‘l - I‘llvl!‘ lull II, [I I. A! ll... lull II. II‘ I'll-If} [ I I IW ud'hrl' l. .b .V ' II I ’ - '4 I '3 ” IIII III! «I: ‘ - -‘ {.I I. I 1O!\.\ ‘1 . ) yflq LIBR A R Y Michigan State University .I. H.-. . .i .3 -Vri WI nfiumikwlktvhtbrw m i I .I .III‘O‘ i '{Iliiv MA .. .ii ‘uluii‘i‘lllll‘ll-III i... I'll THE IMPLICATIONS FOR A GRADUATE TRAINING PROGRAM IN THE PREPARATION OF PUBLIC SCHOOL ADULT EDUCATION ADMINISTRATORS BASED ON AN ANALYSIS OF ADMINISTRATIVE PRACTICES OF DIRECTORS IN SELECTED MICHIGAN COMMUNITIES by William Marion Cave AN ABSTRACT Submitted to the School for Advanced Graduate Studies of Michigan State University of Agriculture and Applied Science in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Teacher Education College of Education 1957 9/ .» 1‘ 1 i. i '7 . Approved LJ/ [24/1/1444 f: [gel/[$2M 2 WILLIAM MARION CAVE ABSTRACT This study was concerned with analyzing the adminis— trative duties and responsibilities of public school adult education directors in selected Michigan communities. A complementary objective was to draw from the findings those which have significant implications for the formulation of a proposed graduate training program for adult education directors. Twenty-five public school-sponsored programs were selected. The sampling was purposive; selection was based on an expert judgment criteria. The methodology employed by the investigator consisted of (l) the structured inter- view, (2) direct observation, and (3) informal interviews. The personal interview was focused upon the administrative leader of the local program, the director of adult education. Direct observation of the programs in action was made by the author, while informal interviews were carried on with adult education administrators, adult teachers, custodians, and members of adult education advisory councils. The major findings of this study were as follows: 1. The adult education programs studied have taken on what might appropriately be termed a "service" character. As such they were highly sensitive and adaptive to the expressed interests of their clientele. 2. The basic administrative orientation of the local adult education directors was "other-directed" or 3 WILLIAM MARION CAVE ABSTRACT community-centered. The study indicated that, although all directors were generally responsible for program adminis- tration and organization, they tended to minimize the relative importance of these internal functions in favor of external, non-institutional factors. 3. Programs were found to be marginal in status. As a result, directors were insecure and seemed to be some- what detached from the regular public school staff. A. The primary role of the adult education director was one of service-~service to clientele and to significant community agencies and organizations. The role of service was the basis upon which directors legitimized their program. It was generally concluded that acceptance for most adult education programs in this study was sought on service premises. 5. Public Relations emerged as the most important operational area in terms of program growth and development. The findings of this study suggested that prospective administrators in the adult education area be given an inter- disciplinary kind of training. Implications were that a training program should include the disciplines of Sociology, Psychology, Political Science, and Education. THE IMPLICATIONS FOR A GRADUATE TRAINING PROGRAM IN THE PREPARATION OF PUBLIC SCHOOL ADULT EDUCATION ADMINISTRATORS BASED ON AN ANALYSIS OF ADMINISTRATIVE PRACTICES OF DIRECTORS IN SELECTED MICHIGAN COMMUNITIES by William Marion Cave A THESIS Submitted to the School for Advanced Graduate Studies of Michigan State University of Agriculture and Applied Science in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Teacher Education College of Education 1957 a: _,,/ {3? . U"- 0&3 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The author wishes to express his sincere appreciation to Dr. Harold J. Dillon, Professor of Adult Education, who as his Major Professor and Doctoral Committee Chairman rendered invaluable counsel and inspiration throughout the course of this investigation, and from whom the idea for this thesis originated. To Dr. Walter F. Johnson, the writer expresses his gratitude for the many helpful suggestions and scholarly criticism he has provided. Grateful acknowledgment is also due to Dr. Wilbur B. Brookover, Professor of Sociology and Head of the Division of Educational Research, and to Dr. Cecil V. Millard, repre- sentative of the graduate council. The writer extends his thanks to Dr. John Useem, Head of the Department of Sociology and Anthropology, for consenting to serve on the writer's guidance committee in the absence of Dr. Brookover. This study would not have been possible without the valuable assistance of those public school adult education personnel who cooperated so willingly in providing the requested data. To them, the author wishes to acknowledge his indebtedness. Finally, to his wife, Ann Cave, the writer is pro- foundly grateful for her patience, understanding, and moral support without which this project would have been impossible. TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER I. THE NATURE OF THE PROBLEM. Introduction . Statement of the problem . Background and need for the study The social setting. The adult education movement Basic assumptions. . Scope and limitations of the study . Scope of the study. . . Limitations of the study. Definition of terms Importance of the study. Organization of the thesis. II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE Introduction . . . Historical factors . Public school adult education. The adult education director Professional training Summary . III. PLANNING AND CONDUCTING THE STUDY . General Methods of the study . Construction of the instrument. Determining the sample Analysis of data Summary . IV. ADMINISTRATIVE PRACTICES IN ADULT EDUCATION-- PART I . . . . . . . . . Introduction . . . . . . . . . Marginality . . . . . . . The enrollment economy . . Low degree of professionalism . Administrative orientation of directors Status of director . Organization procedures. Introduction. Planning . Selection of classes PAGE H 21 23 26 29 33 37 38 42 AA A? CHAPTER V. Formulation of the course of study. Registration procedures . . . . Summary. Administrative functions: : : Introduction . . . . . . . . . . Selection of teachers . . . . . Criteria for selection. . . . . . . Supervision of instruction . . . . Supervision Teacher evaluation In- service training. Assistance to directors . Custodial procedures and relations. . Facilities. The administrative role Separation of authority--a possibIe adminis- trative trend Introduction Background of. . . . . . . . Diffusion of . . . . . . . . . Management practices . . . . . Introduction . . . . . . . . . . Finance. . . . . . . Fees. . . The adult education budget . . Payroll. . . . . . . . . . . Records. . . . . . . . Ordering of materials ADMINISTRATIVE PRACTICES IN ADULT EDUCATION-- PART II . . . . . . . . . . . . . Community role . . . . . . . . . Introduction . . . . . . . . . Co- -sponsorship . . . . . . . . . The service concept. . . . . The significance of co- sponsorship. . . Belonging to community organizations . . Adult education advisory councils Summary. . . . . Adult guidance and counseling The scope of guidance services. Introduction . . . . . . . . . Adult counseling. Informational counseling . . . Educational counseling. . . . . . . Vocational counseling Personal counseling. Referral . . . . . Community referral ZlOO iv PAGE 69 71 73 74 74 76 80 81 84 87 92 98 .104 .104 .105 .107 .110 .110 .111 .116 .118 .119 .121 122 1211 .12A .l2A .125 .128 132 .134 .140 .146 .147 .148 .148 149 .149 .150 .151 .151 .152 .154 CHAPTER PAGE Orientation procedures for teachers and adults. . . . . . . . 155 The need for guidance services . . . . . 159 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . 161 Public relations . . . . . . 161 Public relations and the community . . . 163 Additional responsibilities in the public relations area . . . . . . . . . . 167 Promotion. . . . . . . . . . . . 167 Publications. . . . . . . . . . . 168 Speeches . . . . . . . . 168 Inter- -agency communication . 169 The role of the director in public relations. 169 Public relations as a legitimizing instrument for adult education . . . . . . . . 171 VI. THE BACKGROUND AND TRAINING OF MICHIGAN PUBLIC SCHOOL ADULT EDUCATION DIRECTORS . . . . . 176 Introduction . . . . . . . . . 176 Background and training. . . . . 177 Past experiences in adult education activities. . . . . . . 183 Past educational experiences . . . . . 183 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 VII. IMPLICATIONS FOR A PROPOSED GRADUATE TRAINING PROGRAM FOR ADULT EDUCATION DIRECTORS. . . . 186 Introduction . . . . . 186 Implications from suggestions in the literature . 188 Implications from the background and training of adult education directors . . . 189 Implications from the opinions of directors of adult education. . . . . 190 Implications from the analysis of adminis- trative practices . . . 197 Implications from the general findings of the study. . . . . . . . . . . . 202 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204 VIII. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS . . 205 Statement of the problem . . . . . . . 205 Importance of the problem . . . . . . . 205 Methodology. . . . . . . . . 206 Summary and conclusions. . . . . . . . 208 The general findings . . . . . . . . 208 Organizational procedures . . . . . . 211 CHAPTER Administrative functions. Management practices Community role Adult guidance and counseling Public relations Summary of program philosophies Recommendations . . . General recommendations . Suggestions for further research BIBLIOGRAPHY. APPENDICES . Appendix A. Appendix B. Appendix C. TABLE II. III. IV. VII. VIII. IX. XI. XII. XIII. XIV. XVI. XVII. XVIII. LIST OF TABLES Per Cent of Directors Who Belonged to One or more Community Organizations. Status of Directors Methods of Program Planning. Initiating Sources of Classes in Adult Education . . . . . . . . . . . . Final Authority in Selection of Adult Classes. Ideal Methods of Selection of Classes Supervisory Assistance Methods of Class Supervision . . . . . Methods of Teacher Evaluation In-Service Training Techniques. Techniques Used for Creating Harmonious Relationships between Custodians and Staff Personnel Percentage of Budget Derived from Four Main Sources of Finance . . . . . . . . Financial Support for Adult Education--Choices of Adult Education Directors. . . . . Responsibility for Ordering of Materials . Reasons for Desirability of Co-sponsorship as Expressed by Adult Administrators Are Classes Co-Sponsored with other Agencies?. Is Co-Sponsorship Desirable? Directors' Perceptions of their Roles with Respect to Community Agencies . . . . PAGE 54 56 63 65 66 68 82 83 86 88 96 113 115 122 127 128 128 130 TABLES XIX. XXII. XXIII. XXIV. XXV. XXVI. XXVII. XXVIII. XXIX. XXXI. XXXII. XXXIII. XXXIV. Directors‘ Perceptions of their Roles in the Community as a Member of the Staff of the Public School. . . . Comparison of most Frequently Mentioned Roles. Community Organizations Directors Belong To Degree of Responsibility Assumed by Advisory Groups . . . . . . . . . . Comparison of Ideal and Real Methods of Orientation . . . . . . . . . . Probable Functions of a Counseling Service as Expressed by Adult Directors. Community Agencies and Organizations with which Directors most Frequently Came in Contact. . . . . . . Role of the Director in the Public Relations Area. . . . . . . . . . . . . Michigan Public School Adult Education Enrollments . . . . . . Length of Time Directors Resided in their Community . . . . . . . . . . Length of Time Director Has Held Present Position . . . . . . . Directors' Ratings of the Relative Importance of Adult Education Operational Areas as they Relate to Training Programs . . Frequency of Relative Position of Operational Areas with Respect to Training Recommendations . . . Suggestions by Directors for a Graduate Program Designed to Train Future Adult Education Leaders. . . . . . . . . . . Percentage of Times Specific Recommendation for Training was Made-~Five Most Common Areas Basic Philosophy of the Programs as Indicated by the Directors . . . . . ,. . viii PAGE 131 131 137 142 159 160 165 170 180 182 182 192 193 195 196 220 CHAPTER I THE NATURE OF THE PROBLEM Introduction Adult education in America has become a formidable and burgeoning part of the educational family. Although it has been characterized by both a sporadic and amorphous nature, it has now evolved into a significant social movement, in- filtrating into most aspects of American society. The rationale for this movement has a sound, logical basis. The education of adults must always be a fundamental concern to a free, democratic society. It is axiomatic that democracy cannot survive without an enlightened, in- formed populaCe. This ideal can best be achieved through the medium of a well-organized program of continuing edu- cation for all age levels of people, encompassing all segments of society. Historically, the leadership for adult education pro- gramsemerged out of the ranks of the various social, ciVic, fraternal, religious, and professional organizations. These were primarily special interest groups, concerned mainly with the pursuance of their own goals and objectives. This particular pattern created an impulsive sort of adult edu- cation, one which lacked an organizational structure of any 2 degree of perpetuity. Until the termination of World War I, these sporadic-kinds of ”make—shift” programs were charac- teristic of American adult education. The "Americanization" movements of the post World War I era witnessed the entry of the American public school into the sponsorship of a remedial-type program for adults. This move provided the springboard for future expansion and greater interest in lifelong 1earning on the part of the public schools. Today the American public school has emerged in the leader‘s role in the establishment and promotion of organized adult education programs. The justification for this study is based upon the impending significance of the adult education movement under the auspices of the American public school. It is because so little is known of the nature of administrative practices in public school adult education that such a study was under- taken in the first place. Statement of the Problem It was the primary purpose of this study to ascertain through personal interview, direct observation, and follow- up the duties and responsibilities of public school adult education directors in specified administrative areas; and to draw from the findings those which have significant implications for a graduate training program in adult edu- cation. This study then was designed to serve two important purposes: (1) to analyze the administrative functions of an adult education director within the framework of public school-sponsored programs; (2) to utilize the results of the analysis as a basis for a possible graduate training program for future adult education administrators and directors. It is sincerely hoped that the results of this research will assist public superintendents and their boards of edu- cation in understanding the breadth and scope of the adult director's position. Such an understanding might result in a more objective job description for public school adult education administrators, giving the position much needed status, stability, and direction. Background and Need for the Study A number of social forces are contributing to the significance of adult education as a factor in modern society. The impact of these forces make adult education as important today as the need for universal education for children was over a century ago.1 The purpose of this section of Chapter I is to describe the socio-cultural milieu out of which the need for adult education emerges, and to provide the back- ground which points up the relevance of this study. 1Report of Curriculum Committee on Adult Education and Community Colleges, Michigan Department of Public Instruction, May, 1956. 4 The social setting. A number of present conditions in contemporary American society are converging to give an un- precedented degree of prominence to adult education. First of all, most doubts concerning the educability of adults have been erased by an accumulating body of scientific data. Second, adults are more than ever before prizing education as an instrument for the cultivation of personal competence. Third, the changing tempo of the modern world has created a need for a keener understanding of international and domestic affairs.2 6 Fourth, in this list, the technological and industrial progress have shortened the average working day. As a result, there is an increase of leisure time, and an in- creasing demand for more adult activities. And finally, changing and often conflicting values in modern urban society have caused humans to become somewhat detached from the more traditional institutions, the family and the church, and 2"It is, of course, trite to emphasize the need for adult education; but it is hard to see how, at any time in the years ahead, a sound foreign policy can be developed by America unless America has almost universal adult education in its most effective form. Whatever we do by way of helping children understand the current international scene will soon be rendered out—of-date by the rapid tempo of domestic and world affairs. Only constant study and analysis of the var- ious problems will enable citizens to function effectively as voters and public servants." See Ernest O. Melby, Admin- istering Community Education (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1955), p. 35. 5 turn their needs to other agencies and institutions-~namely, the public school.3 I. In all probability the most significant of the con- ditions cited concerns values. In this context, some soci- ologists identify these changing and conflicting values as the sociological bases for adult education.u Social scien- tists have long recognized that when core values are in conflict, there is a tendency for people to become socially disintegrated. Linton portrays the social disunity that accompanies value conflict in the following analysis: When a culture is changing rapidly, as our own at present, the alternatives may become so numerous that they overshadow the universals. . . . Each new trait, as soon as it is accepted by any part of society, draws certain traits which were formerly universals. . . out of the core into the fluid zone. As the content of the core is reduced, the culture increasingly loses pattern and coherence. Such a fluid, disorganized condition within a culture has repercussions upon the society which bears it. It is the common adherence of a society's members to the elements which form the core of their culture which makes it possible for them to function as a society. Without a wide community of ideas and habits, the members of a group will not react to particular stimuli as a unit nor will they be able to cooperate effectively.5 3For an excellent treatment of the impending social role of the school, see John R. Seely, R. Alexander Sim, and E. W. Loosley, Crestwood Heights (New York: Basic Books, Inc., 1956), passim. “Charles P. Loomis, and Others,Rura1 Social Systems of Adult Education (East Lansing, Michigan: Michigan State PEess, 1953). pp. 2-3. 5Ra1ph Linton, The Study g£_Man (New York: Appleton— Century, 1936), pp. 282-284. An elaboration of Linton's thesis can be made by describing the nature of contemporary society. American urban society has been categorically referred to as the 6 industrial-secular type. This kind of society is highly dynamic, with technocracy and industrialism heavily con- tributing to the complexity of the social fabric. In addi- tion, the sphere of the secular is being continually enlarged, reaching out into all aspects of social life. In such an industrial—secular society mingle people and ideas from all over the world in a large-scale, imper- sonal type of relationship. Here in modern urban society exists a great variety of competing, and even incompatible, ethical standards and culture models. Here, social life has become atomized and the individual is characteristically rudderless and confused. As the great French sociologist, Durkheim, so aptly phrased it, a condition of anomie, or normlessness, pervails. Lloyd Allen Cook depicts this phenomenon in the following observation: From all evidence at hand it can be concluded that no young people in our history have been so detached from their culture, so thwarted in normal processes of community identification as those maturing in the immediate past or current present. 6Ely Chinoy, Sociological Perspective (New York: Doubleday and Company, Inc., 1954), pp. 31-40. 7Lloyd Allen Cook and Elaine Forsyth Cook, A Sociolog- ical Approach to Education (New Y0rk: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1950), p. 280. Furthermore, there are no indications that adults are any more socially integrated into their communities than youth. Hence, differences of race, of religion, of political affiliation, of economic and social status were brought more sharply into focus, creating diVisive factors which appear to be thwarting each other in community effort and inter- personal relationships. Walter Lippman had this to say about the sociological basis and the societal need for continuing education: All over the world, but most particularly in the countries where civilization is supposed to be most advanced, there are collected in great cities huge masses of people who have lost their roots in the earth beneath them and their knowledge of the fixed stars in the heavens above them. They are the crowds that drift with all the winds that blow, and are caught up at last in the great hurricanes. They are the people who eat but no longer know how their food is grown; who work and no longer see what -they help to produce; who hear all the latest news and all the latest opinions but have no philosophy by which they can distinguish the true from the false, the credible from the incredible, the good from the bad. Is it surprising that as civilization has become more streamlined, democracy has become more unworkable? For these masses without roots, these crowds without convic- tions, are the spiritual proletariat of the modern age, and the eruption of their volcanic and hysterical energy is the revolution that is shaking the world. They are the chaos in which the new Caesars are born. . . . This feeling, which pervades the great urban centers, that all things are relative and impermanent and of no real importance, is merely the reflection of their own separation from the elementary experiences of humanity.8 8Walter Lippman, in a syndicated article in the public press under date of November 3, l938,cited in Edward G. Olsen, and Others, School and Community (New York: Prentice- Hall, Inc., 1954), p. 7. w (I) . ‘. . r- V‘i’: . Qg ‘ -0 ‘ I t. a,‘ -I ,v _ ‘w ‘fi.l 4. . s F. L. “ p F'l ‘9' A‘. ,n- .-‘ "P .‘P‘ W x .. n . v I c s .. z . v '. \~ g. Q . \I I Q. The lack of opportunity for self-expression of the individual has made it imperative that some means be found of retaining the values and benefits inherent in close association and of making self-realization possible. Thus, purposeful organization of social forces must be accomplished so as to create an adjustment of relationships between the people and to insure the highest level of economic, social, physical, and spiritual well-being to the individual. This is the ideal, the utopia, that professional adult educators pursue as the ultimate goal. The implications of societal changes in value orien- tation for the field of adult education are tremendous. Social scientists, philosophers, and educators alike have termed the re-education of the adult an imperative for human survival. H. G. Well's remark some twenty years ago that the world must choose between education and catastrophe is rapidly becoming gospel. Joseph K. Hart, the great social philosopher, portrayed the importance of adult education in the modern world when he said: We may as well admit that it is not the education of children that can save the world from destruction; it is the education of adults; it is the adult who must be released from his provincial mindedness, his animistic prejudices, his narrow customs, his obsolete habits; it is the adult who must be given the chance to become free in a world of science, tolerance, human sympathy and intelligent organization.9 9Joseph K. Hart Adult Education (New York: Thomas Y. Crowell Company, 19273, Preface viii. . .‘ ‘ t'.¢-* ‘I ‘I 1 1 ‘1 1 . ‘.\ ~ .'~r--‘ ._ ‘- .‘,-_ . ~ : '-...l L h ‘- i C. Tv . “w K. i . A.‘ n— V. ‘ t i I - .. ’«sfl . i. I :--4._ n C - K:| l N J \ ‘ u. v..:_ k. . Q at. -v —.~ .‘. r 9 The preceding discussion presents a very brief analy- sis of the sociological bases for adult education in con- temporary American society. It also provides the social climate for this thesis. Out of the social setting arises the present need for continuing education in all segments of American society. The Adult Education Movement American adult education has not been of a single and systematic character, but rather it manifested a combination of sporadic and scattered impulses on the part of both private and public organizations. In general, the early movements of American adult education began in the early 1800's, and expressed the simplicity and the vitality of American life. However, with the advent of modern techno- cracy, it was compelled to adjust to the cadence of a dynamic and highly complex society. Today, adult education in America is expanding at an unprecedented rate. Probably the most significant features of this movement are its universality and almost impetuous nature. In virtually every sector of the nation-—in rural, urban, and metropolitan communities—-organized programs under the auspices of the American public school have been established.10 The fact that public school adult education lOHomer Kempfer, Adult Education (New York: McGraw- Hill Book Co., Inc., 1955), pp. 5-7. .L. 10 programs are mushrooming is testimony to the awareness and sensitivity of the American adult to the need for continuous educational experiences. A brief glance at the recent statistics provides some significant data which point up the relevance of this study. Benjamin Fine, a pioneer in the movement, has indicated the rapid growth of public school adult education in the fol- lowing statement: Adult education in this country is now at an all-time high. Throughout the United States, schools and community colleges are putting greater emphasis than ever before upon study programs for adults. Nearly 5,000,000 are enrolled in such classes--an increase of almost 2,000,000 in four years. Figures compiled by the Adult Education Association of the United States show that over 35,000,000 adults partici- pated in general adult education courses and activities in the year 1954.12 In Michigan alone, the enrollment in pub- lic school-sponsored programs for 1955-56 was 317,829, an increase of over 60,000 more than for the years 1954—55.13 A significant outcome of this expansion has been the emer- gence of a unique and responsible school administrative position--the Director of Adult Education. I llBenjamin Fine, "Education in Review,‘ New York Times, Sunday, October 5, 1952. 12William J. Valade and Sophie V. Cheskie, "Adult Education in Michigan," Michigan Educational Journal, No. 17, ?May 1, 1957, p. 396. 13 Ibid., p. 396. '. ‘4 4. _ ‘ "‘ r, . v‘v . -,_. 2 ‘2. .. ~. ‘ r,“ . I“ ‘ ID. .1 11 The diffusion of adult education throughout modern society has been accompanied by a number of problems. Many of these are centered around leadership. Others are related to the dynamic nature of the adult education movement which has inadvertently created a considerable amount of confusion and lack of direction. Houle described the basis of this confusion in the following analysis: American adult education is far from being as coherent, consistent, and highly channeled as is the case in England. It is like the United States itself: decentralized in its control; built up from a hundred different sets of assumptions and directed toward a thousand different goals; some-what needless of why they are done; given to fads and over emphases quickly followed by boredome and disillusionment; incorporating an amazing number of cultural and ethnic value systems; operating in geographic and social environments of great diversity; incredibly deep and incredibly shallow; un- coordinated, unintegrated, and often loudly contradictory. It is also, at least to the American, exciting and challenging beyond.anything with which it may be com- pared anywhere else.1 In spite of an incoherent, inconsistent pattern, the public demand for adult education grows in intensity. The cultural basis for this demand was identified by Kempfer when he observed: Primarily the demand reflects response to basic stimuli in our culture which arise directly from the impact of science and technology on our human insti- tutions, and which are likely to grow stronger with the passing years. As a result of this impact great numbers of adults want to learn, and there is little reason to believe that the present accelerating interest w111 soon decline.15 \ lLleril O. Houle," and Knowledge Shall be In- Cmased," Adult Education, September, 1953, p. 187. 15Kempfer, op. cit., p. 8. IlllllLlllllll ill . . . . e n. . . . . .. r . .»~ ..A . . .. v.. 2‘ . w .2 a. m p». i. . .~. 1 ... . . w" .... 1.. v. . "q It A .z .1. . x. 7 ad AM. A . O. - «NJ N\~ .fl‘ » c Ahw ~,.,\ 1 2 .«a ‘l. ”a .wd :- 2. E. «I. ,u :— p. 12 Public school personnel, unprepared and inexperienced in the adult education area, were unable to cope with the demand for continuing education. The result was the emer- gence of a myriad of program types, characterized by frag- mentation of curriculum and a general lack of administrative direction. The duties, responsibilities, and role of the administrators of these programs have been nebulous. In essence, the administrative practices of directors of adult education have been largely undefined and ambiguous. Basic Assumptions Before undertaking the actual implementation of this study, three basic assumptions were made that had significant bearing upon the methods and techniques utilized. These assumptions were: 1. The Public School Adult Education movement has now reached a point of development where it is sufficiently organized to be studied systematically. 2. The Adult Education Director's duties and respon- Sibilities will be distributed mainly among the following Operational areas: a. program organization b. program administration 0. management practices d. guidance services e.i public relations -r-"- c- .4“- _-'-‘- 'r’V! .1 .-.- I --« -_ ‘ ~> 0" h. b ‘-r-} ..,_'. v 1"" Cy __‘ ,. ‘J ‘w. l3 3. A knowledge of the general and specific adminis- trative practices of public school adult education directors is necessary to provide an appropriate basis for the organ- ization of a graduate training program for potential admin- istrators of adult education. Scope and Limitations of the Study Scope of the study. This study was directed at anal- yzing the duties and responsibilities of public school adult education directors in selected Michigan communities. The implications of such a study were to be related to a proposed graduate training program for potential adult edu- cation leaders. The scope of this investigation was largely limited to the manifest opinions and descriptions by respondents of their administrative functions in specified administrative areas. Few provisions were made in the questionnaire design for collection of data concerning the latent aspects of the administrators' roles and responsibilities, although some (iata of this nature were obtained through the informal inter- \Eiews. The structured interview was the primary technique employed. Limitations of the study. The sample in this study was .limited to twenty-five public school programs of adult education. These programs had much in common, namely: 14 magnitude in relation to community population, high level of class retention, enthusiastic teaching and administrative staff, a diversified, yet well-balanced curriculum, and a high degree of community involvement in the planning and implementation of the program. These factors of communality should be taken into consideration in generalizing the findings to other public school adult programs. Since this study involved the use of the perSonal interview, it is recognized that some degree of subjectivity was inevitable. The conclusions and accompanying impli- cations reached were necessarily based upon the individual statements rendered by the administrative leaders of each program studied. During the period in which this study was being carried out, several of the selected programs were in a state of transition with respect to personnel structure. It is therefore possible that data collected from these programs did not reflect the exact organizational or admin- istrative practices at that time. Further limitations of this study were implied in the txasic assumptions stated in Chapter I. De finition of Terms Adult education. A succinct but inclusive definition fbr‘ adult education has been provided by Essert. There are two broad types of adult learning. One of tIhese is, of course, learning from consciously planned, T -. . . u an r.‘ r.‘ I. . .. . ..4 r to o . r—— .L. u I»-.. :i .3118? 15 purposefully organized learning situations. These constitute what is often called, "adult education," which consists of individual and home-study plans, classes, forums, and other group-study plans. The other broad type of adult learning is that which occurs in day-to-day experience. The Director of Adult Education. The director is com- monly referred to in this thesis as the administrative leader of the public school adult education program. It was assumed that the director would be responsible for all phases of administrative and organizational procedures per- taining to the total operation of the program, as well as to a variety of additional procedures and practices unique to each individual program. Adult. For purposes of this study, an adult will be referred to as an individual beyond the compulsory school age who is not registered in the regular public school day— time program. Role. For purposes of this thesis, Hartleys' defi- .nition of social role is used. They define it as follows: Accordingly, to include all aspects of role require- ments, we must define social role as an organized pattern of expectancies that relate to the tasks, demeanors, values, and reciprocal relationships to be maintained by persons occupying specific membership positions and ful- filling desirable functions in any group. 16Paul L. Essert, Creative Leadership 93 Adult Edu— EEEELQQ (New Ybrk: PrenticeéHall, Inc., 1951), p. v. S 17E. L. Hartley and R. E. Hartley, Fundamentals pf ~2£2£21 Psychology (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1952), p.486. 16 Leadership. Gordon defines leadership in the fol- lowing manner: Leadership can be conceptualized as an interaction between a person and a group, or; more accurately, be- tween a person and the members of a group. Each participant in this interaction may be said to play a role, and these roles in some way must be differentiated from each other. The basis for this differentiation seems to be a matter of influence-~that is, one pgrson, the leader, influences while the others respond. Importance of the Study This study is an attempt to delineate the actual duties and responsibilities of an adult education director within the framework of public school educational philosophy and practice. From such an analysis, this writer seeks to identify those administrative practices which have signi- ficant implications for a graduate training program in adult education. The accelerated growth and development of any area within the confines of public school education inevitably creates complex problems for the professional educator. Public school-sponsored adult education has not escaped the inuflications of this generalization. The impetuous nature <1? the adult education movement has created a multiplicity CM? new administrative problems, differing somewhat in nature arui in scope from those confronting traditional public H 18Thomas Gordon, Group-centered Leadership (New York: Oughton-Mifflin Co., 1955), p, 51. - K - 17 school education. One of the purposes of this study is to identify these problem areas, and point out the methodology utilized by professional adult educators in dealing with them. Recent evidence from research in the area of adult education indicates that the major problem is the lack of professionally qualified personnel to assume positions of leadership as directors and administrators of public school programs.19 There are probably two logical explanations for this shortage in trained personnel: one can be attributed to the failure of higher institutions to modify or broaden their administrative training programs to encompass the area of adult education. Many colleges and universities have instituted classes in adult education at the graduate level, but only a few have actual programs designed speci- fically to train adult education leaders. The second reason for the critical shortage of trained personnel is the nebulous nature of the adult education director's administrative functions, thus making it extremely difficult to define or delimit the scope of the position. T2) the author's best knowledge, no professional literature tuas been written expressly for the purpose of analyzing or d91iining the role of the adult education administrator as he \_ 19Harry A. Overstreet and Bonaro W. Overstreet, Leaders €93 IAdult Education (New York: American Association for Adult ducation, 19417, p. 3. ~o “w.- r-.l ‘ V‘ ‘ 18 carries on his various duties and responsibilities. There is a need for information of this type to which public school officials and other professional educators can refer in attempting to understand the duties and responsibilities of directors of adult education. This need is entirely com- prehensible when one considers the manner in which new programs have mushroomed throughout the nation. Because of this lack of information and because of the nebulous nature of the administrative functions in adult education, individuals are often selected as directors who prove inadequate and unsuited for the position. This is most unfortunate, not only for the individual selected, but even more so for the community involved. For this type of a position requires an extremely competent individual-~one who possesses maturity, vision, administrative ability, and a personality that is capable of adjusting itself to the myriad of roles and expectations of the community which he serves. The adult education directorship is not an adminis- ‘trative stereotype; neither is it burdened with tradition. Chi the contrary, it is a comparatively new and unique admin- jfistrative position, determined by and dependent upon the TKNEds, interests, and desires of the adult populace which 143 serves. In this respect, it offers wide divergence from tr‘aciitional school administrative positions.20 x T 20Paul H. Sheats and Others, Adult Education (New YOrk: he Dryden Press, 1953), pp. 146-147. 1.1.0.2.. 19 The need for professionally-trained leaders in public school adult education is pressing. The job of training such leaders is the task of institutions of higher learning. However, valid, empirical data must be made available to these institutions before their staffs can be expected to fulfil the existing need. These staffs have to be informed—- to know and understand what the director does on the job, hgw and why he functions, and what kinds of pglgs he has to assume in order to deal effectively with the multitude of community agencies and organizations he invariably encounters. It is hoped that the results of this study will prove valuable in the formulation of a practical training program for prospective administrators of public school adult pro- grams based on the practices, techniques, and personal views of those individuals now actively engaged in administering such a program. Organization of the Thesis This chapter has presented the social setting for the study, a statement of the problem, a brief background and fused for the study, the limitations and scope, a definition 01‘ terms, and the importance of the study. In Chapter II the review of the literature relevant to ‘this study is presented. This consists of a brief histxarical basis, a summary of public school adult education, a re“porting of studies made and books written with respect 20 to the administration of adult education, and a look at higher institution programs in the field of adult education. Chapter III consists of a discussion of the method- ology and procedures utilized in carrying out this research. This includes the processes of formulating the questionnaire, establishing the sample, carrying on the interviews, and analyzing the data. Chapters IV, V, and VI represent the content and the ‘"findings” of the study. Each chapter is devoted to a presentation and a discussion of the findings. Chapter VII is concerned primarily with the major implications of the results of the study-for a possible graduate training program. Chapter VIII includes a summary of the major findings with accompanying conclusions and some suggestions for ;further study. t, ., '.‘ ‘I - H. ‘ofl \ .,_‘_ - ~ r. V .a ' L. I‘m-d. L ._ o‘d- (I) t I. 7) CHAPTER II REVIEW OF LITERATURE Introduction Adult education exists in every complex culture in the world. It appeared in America in organized form after the Civil War in the evening schools, the Chautauquas, and the Lyceums. However, the specific classification of these programs as adult education did not come into general usage until after 1924. Both voluntary and public school adult education had already made substantial progress by the time it waS‘"1abeled." To be sure, the term Adult Education is a relatively new name for an old practice; for the education (If adults has been going on from time immemorial. Actually, it: was the first form of education to be definitely estab— lisflqed in America. The American community began, quite earily, to develop the instrumentalities of a more systematic Educ ation for adults . The English treated elementary schools with indif- IfEErence; and they devised to educate leaders to the tennents of the state church, so far as religion might 80, and who would sympathize and agree with the English ‘aIfilstocracy, so far as politics was concerned. In like "Miruder, New England leaders were solicitous for that -k1Jfi£i of education which tended to maintain the existing religious beliefs and to preserve their.own leaderships.1 \\ n Education (1908), p 16 1W. Carlton, Economic Influence U o ' : cited in Joseph K. Hart, Adult Education (New YOrk: T homafs 'Y. Crowell Company, 1927)° \c . . . e .l. .a . i. . r . . u c t . . .. 3. ..a .p. A“ 1. v1. » . . . ../.‘ t. . . P. . ‘ r. c c. . W . A a A 01* r . r—c up ‘Lx inf. . . .NN r“ s . . . .vJ v n I I. . 5.: a . nil: .QIU...IU -‘l. ml. . it. (a... In... "L p‘ ’C u 22 The preceding quotation depicted the early feelings of colonists toward the education of adults. Unfortunately, within the last century, education has become more or less identified with schooling. As a result, it has been devoted almost exclusively to the age levels of childhood and adolescence. The adult generations have not been considered in the category of "need." Ironically, this pattern has taken place in a century of unprecedented social and indus— trial change--a century that by specific design should have devoted a major portion of its energies to the education and re-education of adults for intelligent living within a com- plex society and a changing world. World War II indicated the imperfection for a demo- cracy 0f any scheme that identifies education with schooling, and.that limits either schooling or education strictly to The post-war period further demonstrated that the This youth. tnnnan race must really educate itself, or perish. fatrtor, together with the great sociological changes taking please in society, fanned the flame and gave credence to the adult education movement. The field of adult education is now an accepted member of ttna growing educational family. As a result of universal reooémfiiidon and the subsequent integration of adult education into fine total public school program,literature pertaining to adU1t' eeducation began to appear with regularity in the form of textboo‘ks,educational publications,and various periodicals. How— ever: th - e area concerned with administration of public school 23 adult education has been noticeably devoid of literature. Moreover, there has been very little research reported which could be considered relevant to the duties and respon- sibilities of public school adult education directors. In view of the preceding discussion, the author has analyzed, briefly, the historical factors that provided the cultural background for the modern movement in American adult education, together with the creation of the adult education director's position in the public school program. Historical Factors American adult education has not been of a single or systematic character.2 It was never a folk movement like that undertaken in Denmark; it never assumed the form of a movement for the intellectual improvement of the "working class" as in England; nor has :it ever been so vital a concern of the government as to iIMiuce a concerted attempt to propagate a political philos— Optny as manifested in Russia and in pre-war Italy and GeITnany. It has, as a matter of fact, assumed--superficially at ZLeast--a formless character. This is readily under- Staruiable when one visualizes the tremendous variety of ageTICHies, purposes, and people with whom the movement has beer: Eissociated. In reality, in spite of apparent lack of \_ BOOk :ELyman Bryson, Adult Education (New York: Company. 1936), p. 13. American a .‘ 3..., .ofi a , :11. ‘ .L. l‘ .5“ r . .1 24 direction, adult education has penetrated into more phases of American culture than in any other nation. In addition, the American adult education enterprises have been voluntary, and have expressed the complexity and vitality of American life. Bryson lists four institutions, none of them uniquely American but all indigenous in development and in character, which played significant roles as historical forerunners of the modern movement. These are the lyceums, the Chautauquas, the correspondence schools, and women‘s clubs.3 The lyceums were genuine adult education enterprises, and formed a common part of the social life before the establishment of the public schools. Some historians contend that the American public school received popular support because of things said and done at lyceum meetings. Josial lflalbrook listed among the things he though lyceums could do, '"tc> increase the advantages and raise the character of exidsting district schools."4 The chautauquas created interest in many types of aduJ_t education: music, art, drama, study groups, and CuPrwent issues and problems. By virtue of its reading Cirklltes and recommended lists of books, the influence of \ 31bid., pp. 13-17. Cha 4John S. Noffsinger, Correspondence Schools, Lyceums, §g£fi§§%i_gga§ (New Yerk: The Macmillan Company, 1926), pp. O iii141illllll . .. .. .. t . o . H. . a. . v. p u . L» e . .A a a A 4 w L. alt .... um .—.. «1 a _ .n . .o. v... .._. u... a . ~.. «1. .7. .. . x I_. «L -- . VA d v k: A" C; r L. x e at: A: ~ . » Ill] 25 the Chautauquan Institition on the adult population has been great. The third institution, the women's clubs, has proven to be one of the most remarkable of all historical agencies of adult education. Technological advancements in America brought about basic sociological changes in the home, and deprived the householders of their economic functions, thus providing the impetus for the origin of these clubs. No other agency can claim the success at adult self-improvement as the Women's Clubs of America. The last institution that Bryson cites is the corres- pondence schools, a carryover from European formal education. The legacy of these unique institutions lies in the results of'their long campaigns to arouse and stimulate people to a realization of the advantages of continuing education. IIt is significant to note that prior to World War II, there Vfiare more people enrolled in commercial correspondence COLLPSGS than there were in all the higher educational insti- tutions of America. 5 Kempfer cites the following milestones in the histor- 10511 development of American adult education.6 Year Occasion 1661 Earliest reference to evening schools, New Amsterdam (New YOrk) 5Bryson, op. cit., p. 22. H111 Efiomer Kempfer, Adult Education (New YOrk: McGraw- BOOk Co., 1955), p76. Year 1826 1833 1859 1873 1874 1876 1883 1911 1914 1917 1918 1918 1924 1926 1926 1932 1933 1935 1936 1940 1942 1946 1947 1951 1951 26 Occasion First lyceum started First tax-supported library Cooper Union forums opened in New York City Society to Encourage Studies at Home founded Chautauqua institution founded University extension movement The Correspondence University founded at Ithaca, New York State Board of V0cational and Adult Education established Smith-Lever Act established the Extension Service in U. S. Department of Agriculture Smith-Hughes Act established vocational edu- cation in public schools for adults and youth above fourteen First full-time state supervisors of adult education appointed First vocational rehabilitation law Department of Adult Education established by the N.E.A. American Association for Adult Education National Home Study Council organized Des Moines selected for 5-year forum experiment Federal emergency program of education started for youth and adults American Y0uth Commission organized by American Council on Education Federal forum project inaugurated by U. S. Office of Education V00ational and military training established for youth and adults through national defense plan Armed Forces Institute established UNESCO founded National Training Laboratory in Group Develop— ment organized by N.E.A. Adult Education Association of United States organized Fund for Adult Education established EHEELiiischool Adult Education The preceding discussion of the literature has made the a(iult education movement. littlLe: mention of the role of the American Public School in Historically, up until World 27 War I when the schools were made the instrument of an impulse to "Americanize" the large immigrant sections of the nation, the public school maintained what Sheats has termed a "scarcity theory" of education. However unethical the pressures exerted in Americanization on the school were, nevertheless, they served as a potent factor in breaking down the traditional attitude of professional edu- cators toward community education.7 With the decline of ardent nationalism at the end of World War I, the high interest in Americanization pro- grams waned. The decrease in the number of immigrants and the subsidence of wartime hysteria were chiefly respOnsible for decrease in interest. Moreover, a striking change took place in the attitude of both teachers and students. Classes 'were created to keep alive old world handcrafts, foreign languages became popular, folk festivals were held, and innnigrant students were encouraged to take pride in the Culxture of their native-lands. Such basic changes in curri- CUIia, coupled with the fact that Americanization classes W9rwe being attended more and more by native-born citizens, made; it evident that the term "Americanization" was no longer appropriate. Hence, a great deal of the work came to I“? called by the more inclusive term, "adult education." \ '7Sheats, and Others, op. cit., passim. 28 The concept of adult education as predominantly a remedial activity has been superceded by concepts of service much broader in their application to community needs. The perception of adult education as a lifelong process of learning has been characteristic of both the literature and the thinking in the field for the last decade. This line of thought affected the philosophy of both higher education and the public school. In the latter, the influences of these new concepts of service created a renaissance in the attitudes of public school officials toward their roles and responsibilities in community education. In an attempt to formulate a statement of consensus of professional workers in the adult education field, McClusky ;proposed three administrative responsibilities of the American public school for the organization and adminis— tration of adult education: They are (1) to provide such exiucational facilities and services as it can offer more effectively than other agencies, (2) to cooperate with and assyist non-school agencies with an educational function to 1171<2:t:‘*ea.se the value of their educational services, and (3) t0 ilake or to see that some other agency takes chief respon- Sibjdlityfor the coordination of the non-school educational aeti\fiities of the community, unless some other agency is effe<2txively carrying on such leadership.9 \ 81bid., pp. 144-174. SCho 9Howard Y. McClusk , "'Adult Education and Public ()J~S," University of Michigan School pf Education Bulletin, 16:65~69, February, 1945. ax. . ...| Iflflulidflclnbu 1&1... . “wan“ 29 The responsibilities of the public school are further expressed succinctly, and to the point in the following statement: Public schools in a democracy are responsible for meeting the educational needs of all the people of any age group when such needs are consistent with the public interest and public welfare. This responsibility does not require the duplication of educational facilities controlled by non-public groups already satisfactorily meeting educational needs nor the elimination of such non-public organizations. However, the responsibility requires the public schools to act as the judge of the adequacy of other educational organizations. This latter provision exists in part in the right given most stage departments of education to accredit or to refuse to accredit public or private schools within their jurisdiction.10 Thus far, an attempt has been made to trace the historical factors that led to the present movement in public school adult education; and to provide somewhat of a historical basis for the creation of an adult education administrative position. The Adult Education Director Perhaps the most comprehensive discussion of the functions of an adult education administrator was presented by Snow. He enumerated the director‘s responsibilities as follows:11 lOSheats, and Others, op. cit., p. 146. 1 Robert H. Snow, Community Adult Education (New Yerk: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1955), pp. 42:43. “r «‘L . 3O (1) Conferring with individuals and advisory groups to evaluate the program; to plan modifications of pro- gram or to outline new activities. (2) Interviewing prospective instructors or group leaders. Contracting volunteer leaders. (3) Briefing leaders who have undertaken assignments. Working out instructional plans with leaders and other interested persons. (4) Assembling study materials and equipment. Pro- ducin locally prepared materials. (5 Arranging for use of facilities. Scheduling activities. (6) Publicizing activities. Arranging for regis- tration of participants. 7 Supervising activities in progress. 8 Conducting in-service training for leaders. 9 Maintaining communications necessary for program operation. (10) Conducting evaluation procedures through assessing reactions of participants. ll Collecting and accounting for fees. 12 Preparing and administering budgets. l3 Examining and purchasing supplies and equipment. Keeping inventory lists. 14 Handling payrolls. 15 Reviewing written reports and correspondence. 16 Keeping many types of records. 17 Planning cooperatively with other community agencies. 18 Maintaining information and referral services. 19 Preparing reports. 20 Interpreting the program to the community. In discussing the need for trained leaders in adult education, Snow has this to say: There is a growing awareness of the need for compet- ent full-time organizers and administrators in the adult education field; with ample training and expeffience to qualify them for this type of public service. Since most of the director's tasks involve intimate associations with other people, Snow felt that the admin- istrator must have skill and insight in human relations, l21bid., p. 39. 31 be tactful and diplomatic, and exercise infinite patience. Furthermore, he must display foresight in organizing pro- jects, be businesslike, and have a high degree of emotional stability. Human Relations, Snow cited, as the outstanding prerequisite of a successful public school adult educator. Debatin feels that the adult director should have a far-reaching, comprehensive training in education. In addition, he should have a keen knowledge of administration and organization. His office staff should be selected with care, for these people will be dealing directly with adults and must be able to cope with the problems and the situations they will inevitably face. Debatin cites supervision, mem— bership in various community organizations, orientation, the maintenance of records, scheduling, and in-service training as other responsibilities of the adult education director.l3 Spence and Shangold found that directors generally had responsibility for planning the program, securing the teachers, organizing schedules, publicizing the program, keeping records, and were active in public relations and community activities. The amount of responsibility delegated by the superintendent varied, particularly with respect to the budget. They found also, in analyzing the administrative 13Frank M. Debatin, Administration 2; Adult Education (New Yerk: American Book Company, 1938), pp. 229-254. 32 duties of the director, that the following types of activi- ties were most prevalent: (1) Survey of existing facili- ties for adult education in the community to determine needs and the part of the public school in the total program; (2) Securing of expressions of desires of adults for contents of the educational program; (3) Assistance in securing com— petent instructors and adequate facilities for the program; (4) Registration of attendance and enrollment records and of necessary reports to local board of education and State Department; (5) Making of accurate payroll reports to board of education; (6) Supervision of building during hours of classes; (7) Guidance and counseling of students; (8) Evaluation of effectiveness of program through observation, student reactions, etc.; (9) Promotion of desirable cultural as well as vocational activities; (10) Follow-up of students to determimareason for drop—outs.lu Some professional adult educators approach the functions of a director with a much broader perspective. Essert ex- emplified this approach in the following list of functions: 1. Keep abreast of the best knowledge and practices in the field. 2. Extend public school services to other adult education agencies, clubs, andstudy groups, in materials, program planning and educational consultations. 3. Identify voluntary group associations and imple- ment their efforts to develop educational objectives. l”Ralph B. Spence and Benjamin Shangold, Public School Agult Education lg New York State, 1944-47 (Albany, New YCrk: University offiState of N. Y. Bulletin No. 1391, May 1, 1950). .1 I..,,. a 33 4. Organize, evaluate and reorganize the public school program in the light of changing needs. 5. Develop and service a community adult-counseling and group-life center in cooperation with other agencies.1 Professional Training Houle reports that teachers' colleges and university departments of education have not yet assumed the respon- sibility for the professional training of administrators of adult education activities. He states that a great deal of this needed training is accomplished elsewhere in academic circles--in schools of business, library service, agricul- ture, and home economics, while an even larger amount is sponsored on an in-service basis by operating agencies through formal courses.l6 From an inquiry into the content of university course offerings in adult education, Houle found that the major emphases fell into four major categories: First, to provide an understanding of the basic nature of adult education or of the adult education process; second, to indicate the in- fluence of social factors and trends in creating adult needs; third, to enumerate and describe the agencies and their areas of service in adult education; fourth, to indicate how adult educators can solve certain specific problems which they encounter. ‘ 15Essert, op. cit., pp. 183-184. l6Cyril O. Houle, Opportunities for the Professional my 2: Adult Education, Adult Edu. Bulletin, April, 1947, pp. 100-107. -a I ‘f~-. ‘0'“... ' -'r>! .. n“ ,- 1 _. I‘ ¢.. l u.- ., r H“: J. . u n. ‘ p .. ~ I’v~ V'AL‘ . V. . k. y: L' o ,. O yAv k _. “a LI Vb “ ~ ,. ,. ‘ 34 Transposed or interpolated into curriculum areas, these would likely fall under philosophy and history of adult education, sociology and social psychology, and the organization and administration of adult education. No mention was made of such areas as guidance, public relations, or leadership training. In essence, the overwhelming majority of those universities responding offered what might properly be considered "survey" or orientation classes. In this study by Houle, several responses by profes- sors indicated the immediate need for training leaders. One such respondent replied as follows: The training of adult education directors seems to be our most pressing need in the state of Michigan at present. They are asking for help from institutions of higher learning which they, themselves, should be able to render. Our big task, therefore, is to furnish laboratory situations in which they can learn certain democratic techniques under guidance. In another more recent study of professional training programs in adult education, Hendrickson and Spence provided some relevant data also pertaining to this area.18 In this study, a survey was conducted among all institutions which, according to professional journal lists, have offered pro- fessional training in adult education during any of the past five summers, plus all land-grant colleges and univer- sities with enrollments exceeding one thousand. Information l71bid., p. 105. 18Andrew Hendrickson and John A. Spence,“Professional Training Programs in Adult Education," Adult Education, Sept- ember. 1953, pp. 191-192. 35 was requested concerning courses, seminars, workshops, and institutes for the 1952-53 academic year, designed parti- cularly for training in adult education. Included also was a listing of degrees available to individuals specializing in adult education. The authors reported that 75 per cent of the 96 insti- tutions had responded. The responses revealed that 41 in- stitutions were including professional adult education offerings in their 1952-1953 academic year programs. Four- teen offered degrees to persons desiring to specialize in adult education, with provisions for both master's and doctor‘s degrees. In addition to those institutions awarding degrees, 27 provided special offerings for adult education training. These ranged from non-credit institutes to a total of twelve semester hours of work. Several of the 27 colleges and universities offered adult education as a minor area of specialization, while the University of California was the only school which reported extension and correspondence courses in the field. Hendrickson and Spence also found a wide variety in the numbers of offerings. The most pOpular approach was through the media of individual problems and research. Other common types of offerings listed were general survey Courses, methods, adult psychology, group procedures, sem- inars, administration, and field experience.19 \ 19Ibid., p. 192. 2'1““ 1......) .c-h. . 6,, .. a" I .- p o ..p_ -.g_- ‘( 'I a r.) 36 Although the survey revealed a noticeable increase in institutional interest in the adult education area, still, the variety of course offerings manifests the tremendous fluidity of the adult education curriculum. This trait, in itself, is not an indictment of curricular trends, for in many instances, flexibility is desirable. It does seem, however, to indicate a degree of disparity between the pressing needs of public school adult education and what higher institutions are doing about it. Most competent observers of the public school scene feel that the profes- sional training of adult education administrators is the primary need. A survey conducted by Dillon and Tomlinson was directed toward identifying director training and qualification. The authors of this study observed: Services alone do not make up an adult education program. The quality of personnel selected to imple- ment the program is of prime importance, for the ultimate fate of all programs in adult education is determined to a great extent by the personal qualities and professional training of the director and his staff. The most immedi- ate crisis appears to be the lack of professionally qualified individuals who are imbued with the personal qualities necessary to assume leadership roles as directors of adult education.20 The results of the survey by Dillon and Tomlinson also divulged a number of areas in which respondents felt the adult administrator should have professional training. They 20Harold J. Dillon and William H. Tomlinson,'"The Adult Education Director--His Qualifications and Training," COllege pf Education Quarterly, April, 1956, p. 3. . a L. . ._. .. . . .C .; A . . . . a... ~\~ 37 listed, (1) the psychology of adult learning, (2) the philo- sophy of adult education, (3) administration, organization, and supervision of adult education programs, (4) promotion and public relations, (5) guidance and counseling, and (6) research. The authors concluded from the survey that the director should have had considerable classroom experience, some administrative training, be a fluent speaker, and be ably qualified to interpret educational programs and evaluate results. Summary This chapter has presented a series of historical factors which set the stage for the modern movement in adult education, and paved the way for the emergence of the American public school in the leadership role. A unique administrative position evolved from this broadening of public school education philosophy--the director of adult education. Little professional materials have been pub- lished concerning this position, and no studies are known, at this time, in which an actual "job analysis" of the director's administrative functions has been carried out. In addition, only a few higher institutions in America have graduate programs designed specifically to train adult education leaders. Those programs that are mentioned in the literature do not appear to be functional. CHAPTER III PLANNING AND CONDUCTING THE STUDY The major purpose of this study was to analyze the duties and responsibilities of public school adult education directors in specified administrative areas. The assumption was that such an analysis provides an appropriate basis for a proposed graduate training program designed to train pro- spective leaders in the field of adult education. It was {felt that such a study would prove valuable to those public school systems contemplating the establishment of an organ- ized program for adults as well as to those higher insti- tutions currently seeking a basis for curriculum content relevant to the training of future adult education leaders. Epneral Methods of the Study 'The field research for this study was carried out between January, 1956, and June, 1956. The area covered was limited to the lower peninsula of Michigan. The adult edu- cation programs selected for this study wens twenty-five in number. The sample was purposive, and was limited to public School-sponsored programs. The nature of the data being sought made it necessary tO first identify a number of major organizational classifi- cations into which adult education administrative practices 39 might be placed. A review of the literature pertaining to administration, together with considerable discussion of this problem with professional adult educators, prompted the writer to begin with five main categories of administrative procedure as the major organizational divisions of this thesis. They were: 1. Program Administration Organization Procedures Management Guidance Services Public Relations UIJZ‘UJFD In addition to the five major categories listed above, two more areas of investigation were added during the process of refinement. With the major problem identified and the general areas of investigation determined, the question of treatment of data became primary. A quantitative approach was decided Upon. Study of the research techniques most adaptable to the normative survey indicated that the personal interview might be most appropriate to elicit the kinds of data desired. Several other factors also tended to have a bearing on the choice of research technique. First of all, as Young points out, the interviewer has the advantage of personal contact Which often results in the revelation of attitudes or in- fixrmation not otherwise obtainable through the mail-type 4O questionnaire.l Second, the very nature of the study nec- essitated the procurement of numerous factual details in addition to opinions. Third, personal contact with the adult education directors permitted the investigator to observe programs, to collect data and materials relating to curricu- lum and other areas, and to carry on informal interviewing. Finally, the professional experience of the writer in the field of adult education gave him valuable contacts with many of the leaders of the public school movement in Michigan. This close affiliation with adult education leaders has helped to keep the investigator abreast of the problems, issues, and trends current in the field. Because of this professional relationship with program administrators, it was felt that the personal interview technique would yield the most complete data. The problem of sampling is also handled more appro- priately by this technique. Jahoda comments on this point as follows: Surveys conducted by personal interview have an additional advantage over surveys conducted by mailed questionnaires in that they usually yield a much better sample of the general population. Many people are willing and able to cooperate in a survey when all they have to do is talk.2 lPauline V. Young, Scientific Social Surveys and Research (New Ybrk: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1949), p. 245. 2Marie Jahoda, and Others, Research Methods ip Social Seience, Part I, Basic Processes (New Yerk: The Dryden Press, 1951), p. 159. \L..|i¢ 2.5.. an! .i .. I I. as b.l|:.\c.s .“r. .i 41 The interviews were conducted on a schedule basis, with an attempt made to observe the program on the same day as the interview. Formal interview lengths varied from two and a half to five hours. The rapport established with the respondents was excellent in view of previous professional relationships enjoyed by the investigator. In addition to the formal interviewing method, direct observation and informal interviewing were other techniques used during the course of the study. Observation provided the investigator with an opportunity to witness the enthu- siasm generated by the program as well as a chance to eval- uate the organizational structure and general administrative patterns. Informal interviewing was of great value in attaining some knowledge of administrative problems. This highly flexible procedure was most useful in exploration. Its value in research lies in its adaptability to the real problems of respondents rather than having them answer a fixed set of questions. Definitions of the situation then emerge that appear to constitute an accumulative index of administrative orientation. Data gathered in this informal manner can be controlled by indirectly cross-checking the answers of different respondents. In an effort to complete the research without a dis- tOrted view, the investigator discussed the adult programs in each community with students, teachers, members of advisory councils, and staff members. Various significant alga. .’.. 411,14“ Mil dla 1 J”! In! I «it: .. o . . I“ h“ a Hm. . . t ‘I‘ 42 comments and opinions arising from these discussions were integrated into the content of this thesis. Construction of the Instrument3 The major research instrument used in this study was the structured interview questionnaire. Such a question- naire serves two major purposes: First of all, it must be designed so as to translate the research objectives into specific questions. The answers to these questions will then provide the data necessary to test the hypotheses or 4 Each explore the area set by the research objectives. question must, therefore, convey to the respondent the idea required by the research objectives. In addition, each question must obtain a response which can be analyzed in terms of the research objective. The second major function of the questionnaire is to provide assistance to the interviewer in motivating the respondent to communicate the required information.5 It is important to recognize that the questionnaire contributes Inuch in determining the character of the interviewer-- 3See Appendix A. “F. Festinger and D. Katz (eds.),‘"The Collection of Data by Interviewing," Research Methods ip the Behavorial §giences (New York: The Dryden Press, 1953)] pp. 340-341. 5 Ibid., pp. 340-341. 43 respondent relationship, and consequently, the quantity and quality of the data collected. This point is often over- looked in questionnaire design.6 The questionnaire design must flow logically from the specified research objectives. It must anticipate the analysis of the data. The key to the utlimate success of the above criterion is Comprehensiveness.' The most important problem in questionnaire design is its comprehensiveness. This factor was uppermost in the investigator's mind when he drafted a tentative instrument with five major categories or areas of study, together with a section devoted to the background and training of adult education directors. Alto- gether, there was a total of eighty—seven items of sub- categories included on the original questionnaire. This was revised several times during the pretesting period. The instrument was refined by submitting it to several doctoral seminars in adult education at Michigan State Uni- versity. The students enrolled in these advanced seminars critically appraised the questionnaire, and made valuable contributions to its refinement. As a result of their sug- gestions, another major area was added to the instrument. This area involved the role of the director in the community, 6Ibid.,pp. 340-341. 7F. Mosteller, Pre-Election Polls of 1948, Report to therCommittee on Analysis of Pre-Election Polls and Forecasts Ukew Yerk: Social Science Research Council, l948),p . 149. 44 and brought the final item total up to ninety-eight. The doctoral seminars also were of valuable assistance in editing the phraseology of the questionnaire, changing and deleting numerous sub-categories and items. The revised instrument was then presented to a group of professional adult educators who made minor modifications and.changes. A pretest of the questionnaire was made by Selected individuals from colleges and universities, from time Kellogg Center for Continuing Education at Michigan Stilte University, from the Michigan Department of Public Insrtruction, and from the public school field. The instru- merrt was then deemed ready for usage. In its final form, the questionnaire was both Strnictured and open-ended, with the major emphasis on the Both techniques yield valid data if utilized cor- latter. Pecrtly. The matter of choice appears to be entirely situa- ticnlal. Lazarsfeld contends that a consensus between the two techniques characterizes good research. Good research consists of weaving back and forth lC>€3tween open-ende interviews and the more cut-and- dJPied procedures. QEEEEEggning the Sample According to the most recent statistics released by ““3 I"’Iichigan Department of Public Instruction, there are \ Inf}? 8Paul F. Lazarsfeld, "The Controversy Over Detailed I’Views-mAn Offer for Negotiation," Public Opinion QEEEiES:§_y, No. 8, 1944, p. 60. 45 currently 200 general adult education programs in Michigan functioning under the auspices of the public school. Out of this total, approximately twenty-one have full-time adult education directors whose sole responsibility is the admin- istration of the adult program. The remainder have either a part-time director, or the school authority has taken the responsibility on as an additional duty. This latter ,pattern is characteristic of the nation at large. Many of ‘Uuese programs operate purely on a marginal basis, and are alnuast completely self-liquidating. Some of the larger Citxies in Michigan have programs which amount to little mOITE than an adult evening school, carrying on a remedial- type program. After consultation with College of Education faculty menfloers from Michigan State University, purposive sampling Wafi decided upon as the most logical method for the study. Thiis decision was predicated on the fact that a significant DEIwnentage of adult education programs in Michigan are in the (Jrganizational phase. It was felt that a realistic pictlxre of the adult education director‘s duties and respon- sibi-li.ties could better be obtained through studying the more'established programs in the state. The sampling was basQCi on an expert-Judgment criteria. The criteria used for ml‘esytablished program were as follows: (1) magnitude Of t he IDIVDgram in relation to community population; (2) high de gIREEE of class retention; (3) high level of staff and 46 administrative enthusiasm; (4) a diversified, yet well- balanced curriculum; and (5) degree of community involvement in the planning and implementation of the program. Twenty-five adult education programs were selected. Sixty-five per cent had individuals who occupied the position of adult education director on a full-time basis. This represented approximately eighty per cent of the total number of programs in the state having directors of adult education. The expressed opinions of a large number of Judges of varying merit are probably of less value than the Judgment of a selected few experts, who clearly under- stand the question and are qualified to answer it appropriately.9 Thee above quotation shows the writer's sentiment toward the ljxnitations placed on selection in the study. The public Scruool programs selected were represented, in the main, by prtnninent adult educators who have had the benefit of a 'Picti, diversified experience level in the problem area. Tl’1€?Se administrators were capable of supplying mature OpiJlions with respect to the many phases of the study. fifiééggsis of Data The data gathered through personal interviews by the author'were analyzed systematically by a committee of adVariced graduate students, selected by Dr. Harold J. Dillon, \ Theo 9Eric R. Baber, "A Critical Appraisal of Internship 311(3r51es and Practices Relating to the Professional Prepar- n or Educational Administrators" (unpublished Ed.D. 1953?Ptati%n, School of Education, Michigan State University, : p. . -. CW‘“ A.‘¢..~ 9 nu. ‘ fi . -n‘. I a 6n: .y... Us?! ,. 5.... a 'v.» - 5“. a ‘r‘ ~13 -n I. 2 VI ‘ M- ‘- o y . . . a \. h .V s -. N h .‘r ‘x .,r v. ,. 's ’ . a», 5 u s \f ‘\. \ A7 Professor of Adult Education at Michigan State University. This committee, cooperating with the author, made a detailed analysis of the data by tabulating it according to the admin- istrative categories provided by the questionnaire. Com- parisons among programs were made in order to identify practices common to all programs as well as to identify those unique to individual programs. V The remainder of the data compiled from informal interviewing and direct observation were integrated into the thesis by the author. Summary The methodology utilized in this study is based on two factors: (1) the realization that public school- Sponsored adult education in Michigan is in the developmental stage; and (2) the close affiliation the writer has had over a period of years with leaders in the adult education move— ment, The first factor served to validate the selection of puI‘DOSive sampling as a means of identifying programs to be StUdied; the second justified the use of the personal inter- View technique as the major research instrument. In addition, direct observation and informal interviewing were supplemen- tary techniques employed. TWenty-five Michigan communities were selected on an H 3 W8. 8 bOth structured and open-ended. It was designed to m .s: ... II .qilr 1! if, 48 analyze the duties and responsibilities of the director in the areas of administration, organization, management, guidance, and public relations. In addition, one sector of the instrument was devoted to the background and training of the respective administrators, while still another was concerned with the role of the director in the community. CHAPTER IV ADMINISTRATIVE PRACTICES IN ADULT EDUCATION PART I Introduction Organizational research is frequently productive of administrative anxiety,l since research may prove to be disturbing to an organization. The likelihood of this increases when organizations are somewhat insecure. In general, this study revealed three major impediments to the professional growth and development of public school adult education in Michigan which greatly contributed to a sense 0f insecurity among program directors. These were: (1) marginality of the operation of adult programs; (2) the dependency of public school programs upon what might be termed an "enrollment economy"; and (3) the relatively low degree of professionalism found among its teaching person- ne1,2 An awareness of these factors is basic and essential in Order for one to more clearly understand the nature of administrative practices in public school adult education. \\____ Pract lRobin M. Williams, Jr., "Applications of Research to Revi 1‘36 in Inter-Group Relations,‘ American Sociological ‘51", 18 (February, 1953), 78-83. feren 2Clark uses these terms in a similar context with re- Burtoce to California public school adult education. See; n R. Clark, Adult Education in Transition (Berkeley: Uni __ versity of California Press, 1956), passim. 50 Marginality. The results of this study have indicated that the adult education programs studied tended to be sustained on a marginal plane. As such, they were generally supported on a year-to-year basis. Criteria for resumption of a program were based on its success in terms of enroll- ment and general community acceptance. Complete identifi- cation and integration with the regular public school program were observed in a minority of cases. 'Marginality was a leading cause of insecurity among adult directors, and contributed to the large degree of program fragmentation observed in this study. The enrollment economy. Data from this research have pointed out that from thirty to forty per cent of the funds necessary to maintain programs were obtained from regis- tration fees. Most programs, then, operated on a semi-self- 1iquidating basis. The significance of the "enrollment economy" lies in the dependency of programs, in general, upon Class enrollments for survival. Without this source of firlancial assistance, the majority of programs studied would not have been able to operate. This factor was complementary to that of marginalityo Law degree of professionalism. The third major im- Dediment to growth was the relatively low degree of’profes- s 10“EU-ism found among adult education teachers, in general.3 \— sionalBThe expression, "relatively low degree of profes- 1em," implies a comparative framework. In this 1.1—- ».h. ,. - ‘F! .; 51 It follows that adult education teachers cannot be consid— ered a distinct work group, inasmuch as employment is only part-time and usually temporary. The effect has been that adult education personnel seemed to be somewhat isolated from the regular public school teaching force. As will be seen in this thesis, the results of a low degree of profes- sionalism were manifested in the difficulty encountered by directors in attempting to maintain consistent standards in the various administrative areas. The three major impediments cited in the preceding discussion were characteristic of the Michigan public school- Sponsored adult education programs included in this study. Their relevance to the basic objectives of this study was emphasized by the subsequent effect they have had on the administrative practices of local directors. The remainder of Chapter IV will be concerned with the basic administrative orientation of adult directors, and the Various aspects of the organizational—administrative fufictions as they were perceived of by directors. Wative Orientation of Directors The basic orientation of the Michigan adult education direct(Dr‘s interviewed presented an interesting contrast to that characteristically found among public school adminis- trators . Directors generally tended to face outward, toward Mplied comparison is to the professional stan— da Scfigs and formal codes established among the regular public 01 teachers. 11".) a .. samba. . I .irfv ll lflil. I... cw. I‘ ~ 52 clientele and community groups, and less inward toward in— stitutional pressures and traditional rules. Diffuse goals and insecurity, among other things, fostered this sensitivity to outside demands. These factors, together with the pres- sures of the enrollment economy, lay the basis for a strong "other—directed" orientation on the part of program directors. In essence, the pressures of the job itself forced "other- a directedness" regardless of character type. The real significance of the "other—directed" orien- tation was manifested by the kinds of administrative prac- tices the directors perceived of as being most important. In descending order of importance, these were: Public Relations, Administration, Community Involvement, Organi- zation, and Adult Counseling. In California, where public School adult education has achieved stability and status, the administrative orientation of adult education adminis- tr'ator‘s is evidenced by the following description: \. to “In this context, the term “other-directed" is utilized icaie fer to the basic orientation of a work role. Sociolog- the Studies of administrators have indicated a tendency for ceprtl t3O be 'inner-directed."‘ David Riesman uses these con- Boeis to depict the types of human character in contemporary direiic; ." As contrasted to "inner—directed" behavior, ' other- Speci ed is sensitive to outside influence and cues. Of direcil significance in this thesis is the fact that other- the (1 ed behavior can be the product of mandates as against ictates of personality. See David Riesman, The Lonely Cr & (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1950), passim. r4. .—. fixv "v it. 53 In Los Angeles we like to have principals organize and direct the program in the various communities. We want the principal to be one who has extensive community contacts. We want him to be enthusiastic, to be a promoter; to be an evaluator; to be one who is alert to organize and develop any proper educational program, in any place at any time, which will serve the adult com- munity in which his school is located.5 The preceding quotation might easily be transposed lJltO a similar set of expectations for Michigan adult edu— caizion administrators. Interviews disclosed that directors werwe expected by their superiors to canvass their communi- t1£PS in search of new ideas for their programs. They were expxected to participate in community associations, and be present at community affairs. They were supposed to be ef- fecrtive "public relations" men, constantly promoting good conununity relations and establishing a positive public image. Theb’ were also expected to be "joiners," especially of infjnlential community organizations. The model administrator seemed to be the promoter-type, the Culez who could go out into the community and "sell" his pr08r11n1 to the people. This he accomplished by playing the Pole C>I7 service to all kinds of religious, social, civic, ppof953fiiional, and public agencies. The"other-directedness" of ad111:t administrators was further emphasized by the fact t hat SEB‘Venty—six per cent of them belonged to one or more 0 . f the‘ \Harious organized social and civic associations or \\—————-— City SSE. Manfred Evans, "Adult Education in Los Angeles Cflools, 1948-49," New Los Angeles School Journal, 32, N 0- 3(October 18, 1948):H' A.A.— A~ “~-.‘- 1 .1... F.» . L. . . .. .. . ~ A . v¥c -. g a H ‘1. v 54 agencies existing in their community. Table I gives a clear picture of the degree of directors' affiliations. TABLE I PER CENT OF DIRECTORS WHO BELONGED TO ONE OR MORE COMMUNITY ORGANIZATIONS Directors Belong Exert Leader- Belong to One or More Active In ship In Only 76% 68% 60% 32% It is important that one obtains a clear picture of the basic administrative orientation of Michigan directors in order that subsequent descriptions of their administrative functions will be more readily understood. The out—going, other-directed characteristics of directors were indicative 0f the general pattern that administrative practices assumed throughout the study. From all available sources of data, it was apparent that the administrative orientation of the prngam directors was basicly commiiy-centered, and was the pI‘Oduct of role mandates as opposed to the dictates of personality. Wi‘ Director In twenty of the twenty-five programs studied, the a dult education director was directly responsible to the s Uper’intendent of schools. The degree of authority actually e xhibited was minimized but, nevertheless, it existed. In 55 cities where a community college development was emerging, the adult education program became its major branch and fell under the administrative Dean of the college. This transi— tion has already occurred in a number of Michigan communi— ties. Some observers of the present adult educational scene feel strongly that the adult education program should be divorced administratively from the superintendent's auth- ority. However, this break from traditional administrative structure was observed only where a community college has developed. The accelerated growth of public school adult education and the emphasis placed on its ultimate societal value have given increased status to the adult education director. In larger school systems, the director held a staff position eQuivalent to that of a secondary principal or, as in some Systems, was given the title of assistant superintendent of Schools. Where the adult program was a branch of the com— munity college, the director usually had the title of assistant dean. Table II shows the equivalent rank and Status of program directors. A further indication of the growing status of the director- was reflected in the centralized location of his office in the same building which housed the offices of those belonging to the Board of Education and the super- intendent. On the surface, this may appear to be a somewhat tr ivial point. However, in the determination of status, the *A.- - .. “W .. A...“ “.- U.‘ . I 'V‘LL. ( ! \L f\‘ 56 IMDcation of office in relationship to the locus of authority hens extremely meaningful. In the case of an adult education zuhministrator, it signified proximity to the main lines of (xxmmunication, and usually an assurance of some degree of participation in the decision-making process. TABLE II STATUS OF DIRECTORSl Number'« '1. v r a v..- ‘9 'a 61 and to incorporate them into the actual administration of the program. It was axiomatic that finance and personnel preceded operation. Hence, the thorough planning of these two functional areas served to anticipate and prevent sub- sequent problems of an administrative nature. This study revealed little program planning in the traditional sense of the term. The drift of programs, in most instances, was found to be relatively uncontrolled. This can be partially explained by the fact that student choice played a significant role in course determination. This position of dominance by the student body over profes- sional personnel (with respect to influence on program con- tent) was a central, defining characteristic of the programs studied. The implication of this dominance simply denoted that the lay side of the layman-educator relationship had a Significant influence. The value of a lay advisory council to assist in the planning process thus became apparent. If the director was able to perceive of his appropriate role in dealing with these Councils, his position as leader was greatly enhanced. EVen then, the "catering" relationship of the adult school t0 its clientele precluded the probability of an adminis- trator ever completely dominating curriculum content. This implied that planning, as well as the adult school organ- ization itself, adapted to the currently expressed interests Of t he general student population. Therein lies a partial I u~.—-s ‘_.,_.- ;__x ._—._,_.____. _ _.—— -4 c 1 rep- .f’ . ,- ..u-~u-- . . pm! “I .x.....‘- C , ‘4. .1" , «-J- h ., b I A: .,__ . ’F' ’c ; ‘“‘-H » -_'. ._. . q” . ' " .- . l ' "O .. --~. .. ‘ .— ‘.-_ . " s. I .I') 62 explanation for the fluid character of the adult education curriculum. In general, the study indicated that the basic plan- ning was carried out cooperatively with the director and his immediate staff. However, because of the unpredictable nature of adult education, administrators have discovered through experience that the widest possible participation on a community basis in the planning process yielded the most effective results. In communities where a lay advisory council had been organized, its primary function lay in the cooperative planning of the total program. Various approaches, however, were used in planning. Table III shows the frequency of these planning approaches by Percentages. In all probability, methodology was depen- dent upon the dynamics of the community involved and the leadership qualities of the director. Some programs made rather extensive use of outside agencies for consultation, While Others utilized only public school personnel. The pattern appeared to be entirely situational. Directors felt that planning should be democratically Carried Out. The inference was that “others" besides staff Should participate in the planning process. In twelve of the twenty-five programs studied, the directors were able to rely LIDon the consultation of advisory councils in plan- fling the total program. Some administrators called in SOQ1 a1 agencies and service organizations for assistance. A 63 This was particularly true of large city programs, while the small town and rural programs depended more on the pro- fessional staff for planning purposes. TABLE I I I METHODS OF PROGRAM PLANNING Participants in Program Planning Per Cent Director and Administrative Staff 44 Director alone 16 DiI‘GC tor and Advisory Councils 12 Direc tor with Coordinators and Department Heads 16 Director and Teachers 01* Direc- tor and Community Groups 16 Director and Superintendent of Schools 12 ‘ In summation, the following represents a summary of the bEELsic principles upon which program planning was pre- dicatéd: (1) it. was based on the needs and interests of adults; (2) it was planned in cooperation with represen- tative community groups; (3) the program was considered an int egr‘al part of the total community educational program; ( LL ) it was functionally related to the regular public school pmgpam The planning process, regardless of how it was carried on ’ was vitally related to the organizational patterns of the pr‘Qgram. 6L1 Selection of classes. As was previously indicated, the adult education curriculum was, to a large extent, student-dominated. Possibly, this was true to a lesser degree of the community college, which offered considerable college-level, credit classes. In the main, the dominance of the clientele over curriculum content was closely related to what professional adult educators termed the “elective System." That is--the student could take whatever he desired, whenever he desired! An extreme elective system PI‘OVides a program intrinsically chaotic with pronounced trends toward trivialization and a lowering of standards.10 Adult education administrators, by and large, were committed to this "‘cafeteria‘" type of program. With respect to this pOint, Clark made the following observation: A haphazard program development is a concomitant 0f the relationship between clientele and school, Stemming from the tendencies of the organization to cater to the unstable, popular interests of adults.11 One of the primary responsibilities of the adult edu- cation director was in the selection of classes. Methodology u sed in this process varied considerably among directors. Th e Selection process was divided into two phases: (1) the in itiat ion of suggestions and procedures influencing the \._—_ ment lORichard Hofstadter and C. DeWitt Hardy, The Develop- fi: 311$ M of Higher Education in the United Stat—rs w York: Columbia University Press, 19523, pp. 53-54. 1 1Clark, op. cit., p. 86. 65 selection of classes, (2) the final selection of those classes which were to be offered. The empirical evidence gathered from this study associated with the first phase divulged a variety of initiating categories which were broken down by percentages as follows: TABLE IV INITIATING SOURCES OF CLASSES IN ADULT EDUCATION Initiating Category for Selection of Classes Percentage Adult Education Directors 26.9 Former and Present Students 20.6 Past EXperiences with Classes that proved to be highly successful 17.4 Community Agencies and Organizations 17.11 AdUlt Education Staff and its Teachers 9.8 wiscellaneous 7.8 0.1 0 Reaponse'" \ Closer scrutiny of Table IV reveals some interesting relationships. Although 26.9 per cent of classes were initiated by directors, there are actually three other Categories which reveal definite student dominance. They are those initiated by former and present students, those Sliggested because of previous success in the program, and those initiated by community agencies and organizations. The first two categories are interrelated; the third merely I’efflects the desire of special interest groups to satisfy the needs and interests of their own members. Student in- flue nee thus accounted for 55.14 per cent of the initial 66 suggestions for the selection of classes. These figures, compiled from interviews carried on with twenty-five adult education directors, tended to substantiate the "student dominance" theory. The contrast between the initiating sources and the final authority in the selection of classes proved highly Significant. This is shown by the following percentage breakdown: . TABLE V FINAL AUTHORITY IN SELECTION OF ADULT CLASSES Classes Selected By Percentage \ é‘dUlt Education Director 51.7 ooPeI‘atively by the Adult Education Director Co and his Staff 211.3 mmurlity at Large 10.3 "Dela-l Agencies and Community Organizations 10.3 eSponse" 3.4 23‘; The compilations cited above, when contrasted with the results of the first phase in the class selection process, Clearly indicated the imposing role of the director in final curriculum determination. Whereas in the first phase there was 8. Variable assortment of initiating sources with student influence predominant, the second phase of the class selection procesS depicted a definite diminishment in interaction and balance between the categories. The result was that the director emerged as the final "say" in the selection of Clas Ses to be offered in the adult. education program. “an“. \ x5: as...» 7‘. .w . J! v: t.... {A ..,i c- '4 an ‘\ ‘4 I v a c I I 67 This analysis appeared to be contradictory to the propcnsed theory of "clientele determinism" of curriculum. In renality, it was not. First of all, the study revealed no tewzhniques whereby the student could participate in the final selective process. To a certain extent, advisory councils could be interpreted as representing the students. Howetmary only A8 per cent of the programs had operating (muncils. 'The rationale for decision-making was, of course, embedded in the dependency of programs upon enrollment for survisve11. The selection of the right classes was crucial to DPOEHPaIn success, and was obviously made on the basis of what ciirectors thought students would actually enroll in. In tfliss sense, decisions with respect to class selection were axstually made indirectly by students. A further contrast that can be illustrated in the Study involves a comparison of the real methods in class selection (as shown in Table V), as opposed to the ideal methods as conceived by the directors through interview. The PeSUItS of the query, "Who should determine the courses?," disclosed the statistics shown in Table VI. TPhe most striking contrast in the percentages presented is rwaI‘l4ected in the comparison between the 51.7 figure in Phase. II of the selection process showing the percentage of Dmgpams in which the classes were finally selected by the dire . ctOI‘, as opposed to a percentage of only 5.8 shown by 68 TABLE VI IDEAL METHOD OF SELECTION OF CLASSES Ideal Method of Selection ' Percentage Cooperatively determined by the director and the community 52.9 Adult education advisory councils 27.0 Director and his staff 11.7 Director alone 5.8 Students should select them 2.6 —_k the Same respondents when queried as to "how classes should be Se lected" shown in Table VI. This comparison merely illustrated the marked disparity that existed between the procedures administrators generally utilized under realistic Conditions, and how they latently felt with respect to the same processes. The crux of the implication here is that adult education directors apparently were aware of the desiI‘ability of a cooperatively determined curriculum, but were lmable to reconcile it on a realistic basis. In analyzing the area of class selection, it seems logical to hypothesize that the disparities between "how Classes are selected" on the one hand, and "how classes Should be selected" on the other, were due, in part, to the ins ecuI‘ity of the adult education director. 69 The role of the adult administrator in the class selection process, then, was one of adaptation to student demand. Essentially, this amounted to a catering relation- ship to program clientele in order to maintain adequate enro l lment . Formulation of the course of study. 0n numerous occasions during the course of this study, the research had to be directed toward topics of prosaic concern. These topics were generally not calculated to arouse investigative alertness. Yet, an analysis of them was absolutely neces- sary to provide, as in this case, a realistic picture of the director's role in various administrative areas. Deter- minat ion of courses of study was clearly an example of this particular point. The question of who is responsible for the formulation of CCurses of study in adult classes showed that this area Was Clearly a function of the individual teacher. Fully 66'6 per cent of directors stated that the teacher alone had the responsibility for course content; 18.4 per cent mplied it was the responsibility of the heads of the depart- ment Of the specific subject area; 7.4 per cent asserted that it was a cooperative venture between teachers and stu- dents . However, the contrast between "who formulates the co upSes of study" and the final approving authority PPOVidEd so met‘hing of a dilemma. Whereas 66.6 per cent of the 70 teachers were solely responsible for the courses of study, only 16.6 per cent were involved in any way with final approval of the course content. Again, the director emerged as the final authority in fifty per cent of the cases. The majority of directors of adult education felt that the ideal method of arriving at an accepted course of Study was to have it worked out cooperatively between the responsible teacher and his class. This procedure, they maintained, would insure the utmost consideration of the desired goals and objectives of the students in addition to making the teacher‘s job much more enjoyable and satisfying. It is interesting to note, however, that only 6.7 per cent of the programs studied utilized this technique. It was apparent from the interview responses that di- rectors did not perceive of this area as one of major responsibility. In fact, several respondents pointed out that the adult education curriculum was so broad and diver- sified that no administrator could hope to achieve the knowledge and experience necessary to delve into course Content. Yet, the fact that the directors proved to be the deciding authority in 50 per cent of the cases as to what Was ac tually going to be taught, indicated a certain degree of I“eluctance on their part in delegating this prerogative to the teaching staff. The significance lies in the fact that 1The administrator did exert a great deal of authority Ove P WIfiat was being taught, and was obviously greatly “Vi .1lln.”ll.’.;hllz‘ NIH: I 71 influenced by what he perceived to be the expectations of the s tudent population . Registration procedures. One of the most prevalent problems of the adult education director is devising an effective plan for registering students. The characteris- tics of a successful registration are exemplified by the preciseness and expediency with which it is carried out, together with the individual satisfaction of the student in being able to enroll in the classes of his choice with a Minimum of conflict and delay. The method of registration eTTID-'LC>:y‘ed varied almost directly with the magnitude of the program. The two most popular types of registration disclosed by this study were the individual class registration and the centralized group type of registration. Of the twenty- fiVe communities studied, 43.2 per cent carried on their registration via the individual class method. Briefly, this type Was characterized by each student going to the class of his choice and registering with the instructor. The advantage of the individual class registration centered in the personal relationship it established between teacher and student in advance of the initial class meeting. The informal nature of this type of registration could theore- tically create the rapport necessary to insure an '"adult" atmoSphere in the classroom and is com 1 tel in accord , p e y Wit h an informal philosophy of adult education. 72 Centralized group registration was characteristic of 37.8 per cent of the programs surveyed. This was especially true of the larger city programs. It consisted essentially of all registration taking place at a convenient, centrally located facility. The advantages of this type of regis- tration were two-fold: First, it relieved the individual teacher from excessive clerical work in the form of col- lecting fees and keeping records; second, it was a much more expedient method since it was administratively centralized. The question as to which type proved most satisfactory to the Student is debatable. Two other methods of registration that were revealed in the analyses of the study have not been discussed. Some 13-8 per cent of the programs studied had registrations Which were carried on by the adult education director. Obviously, this occurred in relatively small communities Where the enrollment precluded the necessity for either of the tWo previously mentioned methods. Others utilized the mail as a method of registering. This occurred in 5.4 per Cent Of the communities surveyed. Directors stressed the importance of sparing nothing to haVe all available personnel and equipment at registration. The a~Ciage "striking while the iron is hot ‘" appeared entirely , , appliGable to registering adults. Another principle observed by eJ'Cperienced adult educators with regard to registration tee hrliclues was concerned with duration. They felt that, in- 73 or‘der to insure highest efficiency, registration should be l(elbt as short as possible. Yet, to enable those adults with difficult problems to have ample time to solve. them, there should also be opportunity for consultation well in advance of the commencing of classes. Registration procedures, in general, were character- ized by a "business-like" atmosphere. The filling out of class cards, the payment of fees, and numerous other clerical- ty'pe activities are burdened with details. Such details, when unobtrusively but adequately handled, indicate good business acumen.' Adults expected this from public school authorities and became easily disgusted and impatient when their- expectations fell short. Summary. This section has presented the organizational functions of an adult education director. These included pmgram planning, the selection of classes, the formulation 0f Courses of study, and registration procedures. Planning was done mainly by the professional staff, except in those ins'fEELI'Ices where the chief administrator has organized an adVisory council to assist him. The selection of classes I‘epl‘esented an interesting phenomenon. Ideas for courses may have come originally from a variety of sources; but in Order 150 implement these ideas, a number of potential stu- dents muSt have manifested some degree of interest in them. Th1 S 1mplied that the students indirectly made the decision 714 as to what courses actually would be offered. Courses of study were conceived by the teaching staff, but approved by the adult education director. Centralized and individual class registration were the most frequently-mentioned methods. These two types were characteristic of large-city programs for the most part, while registration carried on by the ad- ministrator was indicative of small-town and rural communi- ties. Registration procedures were largely determined by program mangitude and facilities. SECTION 2 Wtrative Func tions Introduction. The administration of adult education encompasses a wide variety of interrelated practices and Procedures, For purposes of clarification, this section is COncePned with those aspects of the administrative function that pertain to teacher selection, supervision, evaluation, and in—service training. In addition, such major consider- ations as custodial relationships, the use of facilities, ClePical assistance, and the "administrative role" of the d ipector are treated as important aspects of the adminis— trat 1 V9 function . Selection of teachers. In all probability, the most 1m p0Ptant task facing the administrator is the selection of tEa Cher‘S. In no branch of education is the success of the 75 program so noticeably dependent upon the individual teacher as it is in adult education. The absence of a "captive" audience, the diversity of adult interests, and the unique relationship between teacher and student make it imperative that teacher selection be accomplished with the utmost discretion. Yet, in some of the programs studied, teachers were selected almost haphazardly with very little regard to the multiple array of factors that enter into the selectivity process. In the programs studied the process of teacher se- lection was clearly the responsibility of the director of adult education. Little in the way of formal selection was disclosed. Program administrators, in general, have detached their methods of teacher selection from the formalized procedure of the daytime school. As a result, individuals Who Were normally delegated the authority for teacher se- lection now played only a routine-processing role in the adult school. The informal interview was the most frequent means of teacher selection. Although many factors came to bear on the Selection process, the actual decision rested with the director. In each of the programs studied, the local di- PectOr. had the authority to hire anyone he deemed capable or being successful as a teacher of adults. The certification of adult teachers also followed a 81 "11131? flexible pattern. Little profesflonal PPE‘JOb 76 training was necessary. When such training was essential, orientation programs provided it. The procedure was simple and expedient. Upon the recommendation of the local di- the State Department of Public Instruction certified rector, the applicant's competencies to teach in the local adult education program. The implication of such a system of teacher selection and certification leads to considerable speculation. Ob- Viously, the director had complete freedom to select teachers on the basis of his own assessment. of their quali- fications to teach. He must, out of necessity, choose his teachers on the assumption that they will prove acceptable t0 the adult-class environment. The rationale, therefore, .fOP the informal interview was predicated on the highly SUbJective nature of the selectivity process. Clark feels that the informalizing of the selection process is a response to the adult organization's strong dependence upon a hetro— gene-Dug, loosely-committed clientele . 12 Criteria for selection. The criteria used in teacher SelGCtion, included a variety of qualifications and personal assets . Foremost on the list was that of the teachers' subJect matter acquisition and skill, which was named by 92 Del" cent of the respondents as a prerequisite. The feeling manifested here was that the adult teacher must have, \—__ lelbid., p. 87. 77 above all else, control of the subject matter in his spe- cialized area, regardless of its nature. In short, the teacher should approximate the "expert" distinction. Second to a knowledge of subject matter was the per- sonal attribute of "a pleasing personality," cited by 88 per cent of the directors. Admittedly, personality is a rather intangible term. Respondents, however, expressed it in terms of flexibility, pleasantness, understanding, and sense Of humor. They felt that the possession of a personality pleasing to the average adult was an indispensible element leading to successful interaction between teacher and class. Enthusiasm and initiative upon the part of the teacher appeared in 52 per cent of the interviews as essential critePia. Also appearing in 52 per cent of the replies was the teacher's knowledge of and interest in adults. This trait was obviously difficult to identify and evaluate, and would likely appear with greater frequency if it were possible to recognize it more easily. The experience, back- ground’ and training of the teacher received recognition on only 48 per cent of the interviews. Ironically enough, in the hiring of regular public school teachers, these same three factors serve as the main criteria in the selectivity proCQdLlres. Completing the analysis of criteria utilized by adult education directors in the selection of teachers were social and eMOtional maturity, named by 24 per cent of the directors; 78 the technique of the "informal approach" in the teaching of adults, 20 per cent; and a miscellaneous category which numbered 12 per cent. It is clear from the preceding discussion that two prerequisites (control of subject matter and a pleasing personality) stand out as the most important criteria in the selection of adult teachers. It should be clearly discerned, however, that these two qualities were not always corollaries of one another, although they remain firmly entrenched as ideal objectives in the selectivity process. At the same time, respondents emphatically asserted that no teacher could hope to appeal to adults without possessing qualities of both prerequisites to some degree. The other 31" qualities mentioned fared poorly in relationship to the leaders. Yet, on an individual basis, any one of them might I"a’pr’e‘.S1ent a primary choice of any one of the administrators. It is apparent that the role of the director in teacher selection was an important one. The director was expected to hire teachers who had the knowledge to attract students and who possessed the personality to hold them. To a cer- tain ext-ent, recruitment was based on a personality formula, Since directors perceived of personality characteristics as being On an equal plane with knowledge of subject matter in the Se16ction of teachers. The tendency toward extroversion in teachers was reenforced by some of the terms respondents USe d in describing desired personality characteristics. 79 Such terms as “outgoing," "informal-type," "dynamic," "flexible," and others were common throughout in portraying desired attributes. In order to understand the predominantly intuitive and subjective nature of the selection criteria, it is very im- portant to understand the significance of class size in determining the teaching staff. The marginal status of adult education had forced the administrator into a position 0f dependence upon class enrollment for survival. This pat- tern has fostered the emergence of a clientele-dominated selection system, and renders a centralized, impersonal selection procedure veritably impractical. The size of the teaching staff is therefore highly correlated to class en- P0llment. Two interesting observations can be made with respect to the previous discussion of teacher selection procedure. The first deals with the selection process itself. His- torically, most teachers of adults became so by selection rather than by pre-service training. In many instances, it was even common practice to turn over adult groups to anyone willing to accept the burden of responsibility for them- This type of selection has been termed "selection by irreleVane ,, y, since it had nothing to do with either the teacher“ s expertness in subject matter or his insi ht i t - g n o hum an behavior.13 The fact that this study showed gtpertness \h for Adl3Harry A. Overstreet and Bonaro w. Overstreet, Leaders \ ~& Education (New York: George Grody Press,19415, p.31. 1' ““519...‘ 0 II; 1:. ‘1’d 80 in subject matter as the foremost basis for teacher selection demonstrated, to a limited degree, a wholesome attitude of administrators toward a more professional attitude in teacher selection. The second observation arose from informal discussions with directors, several of whom have been active in the field for thirty years or more. They stressed willingness 0n the part of teachers to be a "learner" as an indispen- Sible quality. Too often, they maintained, older teachers Without adult experience are asked to teach adult classes only to find that they have lost their audience after a few Sessions. This trait, willingness 1:2 be: a learner, did “0t appeal“ in the analysis of selection criteria, but seemed to be a latent feeling upon the part of some directors which unconsciously entered into the selectivity process. It was brought out by £223 of the more experienced directors. Teacher selection, in summation, was accomplished on a highly informal basis. The informal interview provided the major means, while expertness in subject matter and _a_ W personality constituted the most frequent qualities 1189 d as criteria in selection. §upervision of instruction. Supervision of instruction has long been an integral part of the administrative function in education. It is no less so in adult education. Although 31.1 De:t‘Vision answers to a multiplicity of services and specific 81 functions, its long-range goals are always epitomized by the facilitation and the improvement of instruction. Hence, supervision must always be concerned with the ultimate ob- Jective-—that of the very best in teaching performance. Responsibility for supervision in adult classes was vested in the director of adult education. However, de- pending on the size of the program, it was generally delegated to the Staff. In some situations, staff was designated as the heads of departments or curriculum coordinators; in Others: it consisted of the building supervisor or the diI‘ec’cor himself. Educational supervision may be performed in a 1'1ulrlber of ways, but it most nearly approximated an in- formal nature in this study of the administration of adult education. §§upervision. The need for supervision of adult edu- Cation activities was intensified by the limited advance prepar‘EEition teachers received in this field. Some Of the programs included in this study had as high as “my per Cent lay representation on the teaching staff, most of whom had little, if any, previous training or experience in teaching, , Directors felt supeI’ViSiOn was necessary to mainta-:ln a spirit of unity and concerted effort on the part of the entire staff. The scope of the supervisory functions varied directly Wit h 1the amount of additional duties the director performed. 82 In the relatively small programs, the director carried on his supervisory activities in addition to administering all phases of the program. Supervision, in this instance, developed into a series of routine checks each night to make certain classes were functioning smoothly. In the large, well-organized programs, supervision was a full-time respon— sibility of one or more persons. Under these circumstances, a supervisor either had general oversight of learning groups 0f Similar type, or he assumed responsibilities for all aCtiVi ties conducted at a given adult education center. vaLr‘iations of both kinds of supervision were observed in this study. Several programs solved the supervisory prob- lem by engaging the aid of department heads and coordinators from the regular daytime program. Table VII shows the 801«II‘C'es of supervisory assistance and the frequency with Which they occurred . TABLE VII SUPERVISORY ASSISTANCE ‘ SOupce of Supervisory Assistance Frequency Used \ fiommlty School Directors Aeads of Departments Diea Coordinators A I'GCtors alone Nisrilstant Directors I g t principals nteI‘nes K F4 t-‘OV—‘NCDUIH 83 Succinctly, the supervisory activities consisted of the following: (I) informal discussions with teachers; (2) direct supervision, to diagnose apparent weaknesses of in- experienced teachers and to offer remedial help if needed; (3) appraisal of existing program through the observation of activities, analyses of reports and records, and conducting SUPVGYS; (A) share responsibility for assembling study materials, and organizing resources; and (5) to serve as a source of ideas and assistance for individual teachers. Table VII shows the frequency of techniques used in super- vision. TABLE VIII METHOD OF CLASS SUPERVISION N Method Used Frequency Used \ gfi‘e’gal visitation l Previd‘remedial type e and assist with curricular materials observation SEE: appraisal education director not respon- sible at all UU «D‘KOUW (DUI \ 'The most significant supervision trend revealed by this Study Was that toward decentralization of supervisory respon— Siblelties. The common procedure was to appoint an experi- enced adult educator in charge of a large adult center or a SPO up Of smaller ones. He was then designated as the night 8A principal and given the authority for the administration of the program. This practice occurred in thirty-two per cent of the programs studied. It was more characteristic of large city programs where more than one adult center may be found . The value of decentralized supervision was centered in the opportunity it afforded staff personnel to concentrate on other important, more neglected aspects of the program. In addition, it brought the supervisor closer to the instruc- tion 8.1 program and increased the prospect of a more valid appraisal of its total effectiveness. In summation, supervisory functions in public school adult education were clearly a major responsibility of the pI‘ngam administrator. The organizational patterns of SUper‘Vision were somewhat vague and undefined, although dire(ltors considered this area of major importance. As Compared to the formal structure of regular, daytime pro- cedUI‘es, supervision in Michigan public school adult programs was consciously informal in nature. The role of the director in this area was predominantly one of service to the teaching staff . @cher evaluation. One logical culmination of the s Uper’Vifi’iory process is teacher evaluation. In adult edu- c ation, the assessment of a teacher's proficiency has proved ex tremely difficult. Traditional methods of evaluation-- EVa lua*tlLOn check lists, formal supervision, conferences--have 5“! it 1.: x, v It....:t.l K. .vouflfi i. a F 85 not been feasible. In addition, there are no systematic or tested techniques to replace the traditional methods. Historically, attendance has been the evaluation criterion. Teachers have been judged successful or unsuccessful on this basis . Because of the importance of attendance, failure to cope with the problem of class retention constituted failure in the teaching role. Table IX exhibits by percentages the frequency with which directors employed various evaluation techniques. It was no ted that class retention ranked third in terms of evaluative criteria, only eight percentage points behind the leader, personal visitation. The influence of the clientele in the evaluation area was further demonstrated by the fact that forty-eight per cent of the respondents utilized W reaction as an evaluative method. In View of the above analysis, two observations can be made: (1) because class retention still represented a signi- ficant percentage of the evaluative criteria, fading atten- deuce was likely to bring the imputation that the teacher lacked the ability to hold her audience; (2) the kinds 0f eVallua’tional patterns that arose from the pressures of en- I‘Ollment and attendence would seem to indicate that the individual teacher was necessarily dispensable. It was also significant to note the absence of a- OI‘mal check list or evaluation sheet normally used in pilb lic sichool teacher appraisal. ‘fl-‘§p “Sm. .‘iu l .t I IV. or eh . w. , . hJ . P # a. 3““ r0 8 zo>p5m mmocm moonpoz é moped: nudmoo< coauomom soapsmpom mpomusoo HmspomcH ICOHummSG zuficsssoo quUSpm mosopmmcoo mmmHo HMGOmhom ewe e3 SH ea e3 _ ems _ _ use TABLE IX METHODS OF TEACHER EVALUATION 87 In summary, the functions of the director in the eval- uative area were obviously extremely limited“ An objective look at public school adult education in Michigan would seem to indicate that a sound systematic evaluation process is relatively impractical so long as programs remain on the "fringe" area of institutional acceptance. Class retention as a major measuring stick in teacher evaluation is inevi- table in the light of constant pressure to maintain class size. Mervice training. Although fifty-six per cent of the directors indicated that they were responsible for an in-service training program, it was evident that this area was in its infancy with respect to professional growth and development. None of the communities studied carried on an e}‘E’fensiL\re in-service training program. Forty-four per cent of administrators conceded the lack of a well-defined in- Serv1ce program as one serious weakness of their programs. It was One of the most frequently mentioned "needs" in pub- lic SChool adult education as revealed by this study. The need for in-service training has been gaining momentum for a number of years in the adult programs of Michigan. Directors of adult education too long have depended upon securing what they assumed to be reasonably, WElquualified adults, and having them learn largely unaided e JOb. It would be difficult for directors to justify, 88 on the basis of greater proficiency as an instructor later on, the loss of clientele suffered while the new teacher was learning. This factor alone signified the importance of in-service training for adult teachers. Formalized in-service training was conducted most frequently by general meetings, orientation programs, Special courses in professional betterment, and workshops. The methods used displayed no particular relevance to the magnitude of the programs or to any other of their multiple characteristics. In short, in-service programs were '"in- diVidualized" in terms of convenience and expediency for the staff. Table X shows the distribution of in-service techniques in terms of usage and effectiveness. TABLE X IN-SERVICE TRAINING TECHNIQUES ‘ giggids Used for In- Rank In Rank in Frequency Ce Training Effectiveness of Usage \ Pr Geggissional courses 4 5 Work 8.1 meetings 1 2 ConfSl'lops 3 3 Claszr‘ences 2 ll Orientvisitation 6 6 8“tion meetings 5 1 \ The general meeting type of in-service training was Carr led on either by a departmental representative or a guest , SBeaker who was engaged to cover some area of concern lo “at, ”‘u-"--—- . I" I... no u 1., . IOA. 89 to all . This latter technique was most effective. Directors testified that they had much more success in obtaining atten- dance from their staff if a noted authority addressed the group. The general meetings were rather formal, and were characterized by the lecture and panel-type techniques. The orientation type of in-service approach is dis- cussed in greater detail in another section of this thesis. Briefly, this technique was carried on informally through the medium of a social hour. Teaching methods, classroom procedures, and other pertinent topics were discussed under _ the most. informal circumstances. Directors appraised these social hours as highly effective forms of in-service training. They occurred in twenty-four per cent of the programs Studied. Volunteer leaders were generallyoriented in this manner. Special courses in professional betterment are a PGIatively new innovation in adult education in-service training. Essentially, these courses were designed for the adult education staff, but anyone teaching in the program could enroll in them. These special courses had an addi- tional incentive, since they usually were taken for credit. One of the communities included in this study pioneered this particular method and has enjoyed unusual success. , In One adult education class alone, the program referred to had repbes entatives from labor, management, the professions, eduCat ion, and city government. The major purpose of these 90 special courses for professional betterment was directed at broadening the perspective of adult leaders, and increasing their instructional efficiency with adult classes. Usually, these courses were conducted on a seminar basis. The di- rector attempted to engage the services of a group of well- known adult educators, who acted as resource people for the class duration. The emphasis was on the solving of local problems in all areas of adult education. Twenty per cent of the directors felt that the work- Sh0p had the greatest potential of all in-service training techniques. The theoretical basis of a workshop is pred- icated on the assumption that all participants come prepared to Contribute, participate, and share in its dynamic, and democratic qualities. Many respondents termed the workshop tecm'lichze as the ideal method because of its unusually high participation rate. However, time limitations and other pr“hibitive factors limited the actual implementation of the Workshop to a comparatively few programs. It should be pointed out that stimulating a group of lay teaChers to attend lectures, meetings, and workshops: and to take professional advancement courses in adult edu— Cation presented many more complications than it would Ordinarily for professional teachers. Most of the lay teachers have become expert in some craft or field of knowl- edge either by making a hobby of it or by making a living at 1 t' Teaching represented, for the most part, something lily." fi —-—-~ 5‘... h- -_ prvv - 91 of a sideline activity to them, and not their primary live— lihood. As such, in—service training techniques were offered at convenient times and places, strove for excellent teaching or stimulating discussion, and were conceived as being immediately useful to the teacher. The Overstreets identified the significance of in- service training for adult teachers in the following ob- servation; All experienced directors know that the difference between a good teacher and a mediocre teacher is usually nothing more than a matter of attention habits. The one notices and takes into account human elements that the other either overlooks or counts as unimportant. But once an intelligent person has the significance and the drama of these human elements pointed out to him, he is often able to change his habits with amazing 114 Pa~pil.dity, for he sees something he did not see before. It was apparent that in-service training did not aim at the creation of subject experts. Presumably most teachers had Varying degrees of competency before the local director invited them to teach in his program. As pointed out in th e preceding discussions, the major function of in-service tr aiming was to salvage those experts who might otherwise be lost to . the program because of teaching ineptness, which be comes the direct result of inattention to subtleties of human re sponse that demand attention in all adult education cla ' Sses . The director's function in the in-service area Was to provide the most effective kind of media whereby the \— l b'IbidU pp. 32-33. 92 adult teacher could learn most appropriately how to recog- nize the expectations of adult students and deal intelli- gently with them. Assistance to directors. As in most areas of edu- cation, the field of adult education is also undermanned. Directors repeatedly complained of the lack of clerical and Supervisory aid. Percentages based on empirical evidence obtained from this study verify the lack of assistance. In the realm of clerical aid, seventy-six per cent reported that at least one clerk was made available to them for such things as typing, mimeographing, filing, etc. However, with at least twenty-four per cent of the directors doing all Of their own clerical work, it would not appear pre- Smptuous to assume that a significant portion of their time was COnfined to detail. Forty-four per cent of the directors had Supervisory help in their programs. Usually this source Of asSistance was comprised of heads of academic departments and COOPdinators of vocational and other fields. Neverthe- less, it relieved the administrator of a considerable degree Of his Supervisory functions, and afforded him the oppor- tunity to devote his time to more neglected spheres of re- Sponsibility. Thz’Lrty-six per cent stated that they received admin- istrative help from such key figures as the public school busin e83 managers, program coordinators, and assistant 93 directors of adult education. Still others replied that the night high school directors removed considerable of the administrative burdens from their shoulders. Finally, six- teen per cent of the replies fell into the miscellaneous category. These consisted primarily in the personage of counselors, adrrlinistrative internes, and others who con- tributed to the administrative and supervisory implementation 01‘ the program. There is a final observation which appears to be applicable to this analysis of clerical and administrative aid. This concerns the significant contribution of the secretary to the program. Directors estimated that between fifty to sixty per cent of their time was spent away from the office. Hence, the importance of a secretary who was able to deal effectively with people cannot be underesti— mated. Administrators of the three largest programs studied 1ndicated that their secretaries were equally as important to the program's vitality as any individual on the staff. This point is readily conceded when one considers the acces’sa-bLIlity and availability of the secretary, and her general familiarity with such details as scheduling, in- Structol‘s, Iclasses offered, etc. The value of a competent clerical staff was emphasized by 301119 of the comments made by directors with respect to the Pole of their secretaries. One such director remarked: H My 3 - e‘QI‘et-ary actually serves as Director of the Program 911 fifty per cent of the time. She can handle the adminiss trative details as well as I can, and knows much more about where classes are meeting and at what times. Actually, her knowledge of the program releases me so I can get out into the community more." As evidenced by this portion of the study, there was a high correlation between the size of the program and the degree of assistance rendered by the director. In relatively large programs, the details were absorbed by clerical assistance. This afforded the director an opportunity to work more closely with community groups and increased the pI‘OSpeC ts of a more effective interpretation of the adult program . glistodial procedures and relations. The administrative procedures dealing with the custodians proved to be a minor pPOblem area in twenty—four per cent of the programs. The major» difficulties involved scheduling. Except in cases Where the board of education has made special provisions for a night custodial staff, the relations between adult edu- Cation personnel and the custodians were often sensitive and strained - Informal talks with custodians revealed a number of incidences, which contributed to ill feeling. Custodians resented being forced to adjust their clean—up schedules to the night classes. They complained about the conditions in 95 which adult teachers left their rooms, and were especially indignant about cigarettes being thrown on the floors. They disliked "running errands" for teachers, and often tried to avoid direct contacts with the adult education teachers as much as possible. The general picture of relationships between custodians and the adult staff was anything but bright . Since this situation posed a potential problem area, the director of adult education was compelled to take steps to alleviate it. The study uncovered several techniques which helped smooth out the differences. Most administrators forwarded a schedule of classes in advance to the head custodZlan to avoid conflicts in room assignments. In addi- tion, bulletins were sent to the teachers instructing them to leaVe the rooms in the same condition as they found them in, and to call upon the custodian only if absolutely neces- Sary. The most unique technique for improving 911inC Pelations with the custodian was the establishment of a "Coffee hour" for the students to which the custodial staff was welcome, free of charge. This gesture produced amazing PesUlts - It identified the custodian with the program pI‘Oper, and helped create an entirely different attitude toward the teachers. Whenever informal social hours of this nature have been experimented with in adult education , they have proven highly successful. Table XI exhibits the techn iques used by directors in creating harmonious rela- tions hips with the custodial staff. AIII-._i 96 TABLE XI TECHNIQUES USED FOR CREATING HAPMONIOUS RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN CUSTODIANS AND STAFF PERSONNEL Techniques Used Frequency Of Furnishing of schedules to custodial staff of classes, rooms, and times held 9 Inclusion of custodian in "coffee break" 2 Personal contact with custodian to establish good public relations Identifying custodian with the program The problem of human relations with the custodial staff should not be treated lightly. The custodian is a key figure in any Smooth-functioning adult program. Some of the tasks he pe1"fOl"rr1ed in addition to his regular cleaning responsi- bilities were: (1) the opening of all classrooms to be used; (2) the servicing of teachers with supplies, materials, etc.; (3) assisting in supervision of the halls at night; (4) interpreting the adult education program to the community. It was Surprising how influential directors felt the cus- todi an Was among certain community groups. For this reason fifty‘six per cent of the directors felt the custodian Should be identified with the program on the same basis as a regular staff member. In all but one of the programs, the custodian was paid by the 1Goal board of education. Arrangements were made 97 whertflay"the custodial staff was enlarged to cope with addi- tional work brought about by the use of facilities in the eveniilg;. Also, schedules of the regular night staff were rearranged in some cases so as not to conflict with the adult classes. The latter was not a popular method. Custo- dians; vuere not receptive to changes that affected their daily routine, either at work or at home. In general, the custodian was responsible to one of two people, the head custodial supervisor or the night building director. The attitude of the custodian toward the DPOgram was, to a large extent, a reflection of his relationship toward his superiors. The investigator en- countered attitudes of disgust, resentment, indifference, and complete cooperation. Each time, the particular atti- hide manifested was traceable to the p011C1PS laid down by the imtnediate superior, and to his personal relationship With the building custodians. The area of custodial relations is often overlooked in the administration of public school adult education, but no StUdy of the director‘s role would be complete without some discussion of the prOblems involved in dealing with this area- To the author's way of thinking the most noteworthy Contrlbthion of the directors toward an understanding of Custodial relations was their concern over the "feeling of belOrlgirigness" the janitor must have toward the program. This Q0 Cern was manifested in the directors' efforts to 98 identify the custodian with the program and the staff through the use of the techniques described earlier in this section. Facilities. Early research in public school adult education indicated a reluctance upon the part of public school officials, to make their facilities available to the Public. The traditional school adroitly averted any form of collusion with society dedicated to the re-education of adults. Instead, it referred all problems and proposals dealing with adult education to community agencies and organizations already carrying on programs of their own. The one exception occurred when citizen groups, with the aid of the goveMent, forced the Americanization program upon the public school. This was the beginning—-the initial break through-~of present day public school adult. education. Since that time, and more especially in the last decade, the trend has been toward the use of school facili- ties for adult education classes. The “community education" Concept has captured the imagination of many Michigan school Systems - To illustrate this phenomenon, ninety-two per cent or the a-C1ult education directors interviewed stated that all pUblic School facilities were at their disposal for utility in carrying out their expanding program. As a matter of faCt’ the board of education in the great majority of pro- grams provided the facilities, the utilities, and the 99 maintenance free of charge to night programs in adult and continuing education. Directors were queried as to the reasons for this departure from tradition in the use of school facilities. Their responses fell into three categories. Sixty-four per cent stated that it was the philosophy of their board of education and the school system to provide such facilities; twenty per cent attributed this policy to the superintendent of schools‘ particular interests; and twelve per cent stated that this change was due to changing community expectations and a changing school role. Four per cent of the programs used facilities other than public school buildings as adult centers. An interesting trend has emerged from the extensive use of School facilities by the‘community. School super- intendents and their boards of education are now giving Serious consideration to the feasibility of building dual- purposG schools--for adults and children alike. As a direct result 01‘ its adult education program, one of the communi— ties studied has built eight new elementary schools within the last five years complete with dual—purpose facilities. Included among the facilities were a community room, a neigthrh ood library, a large auditorium, an arts and crafts room, and a community gymnasium. In all the programs studied, the directors were re- Spons ible for the buildings in which adult classes were held. lOO Kn this respect, their main functions were concerned with the scheduling and distribution of facilities to the various community organizations engaged in co-sponsorship with the local program. Once again the idea of service acted as the medium of psychological support and legitimation for the program, First of all, there was no assessment for the use Of public school facilities. Secondly, the local director 01" his staff cooperated with the sponsoring agency or group in assuming responsibility for the numerous details involved in initiating adult classes. The major purpose of directors offering public school facilities to special interest groups and community agencie was not brought out in the data. Numerous explanations COUld be advanced. However, it was apparent that adminis- tI‘ators were attempting to create a favorable impression 1”Ward their programs, and were using influential agencies and Organizations because of their accessability to a greater clientele. The creation of a favorable public image was a fundamental objective of most of the adult programs in eluded in this survey. Th\e administrative role. The main purpose of Section 2 o f this chapter was to analyze the duties and responsi- bll ities of the director in the general administrative area. ughout this entire presentation the role of the director peCif‘ic administrative areas has been either directly lOl alluded to or inferred. It is imperative that the adult education administrator be cognizant of his proper roles and be fully prepared to carry them out. Kurt Lewin has provided the classical psychological framework out of which the term, role, gains its major implications. Lewin des- cribes this framework as follows: Society is characterized in part by sets of ex- pectations, which its members come to incorporate in their personalities. In fact, when an individual acts in accordance with, or in opposition to, the expec- ta’cions of some other person or social group, his _bEhavior is social. As long as an individual's ex- pectations are realized, life goes along smoothly, and he feels more or less secure. But when expectations begin to be thwarted in considerable numbers over a con- Siderable period of time, individuals become uncertain. eiI‘ morale may drop if the uncertainty continues, and this will lead to decrease of productive efforts. In addition, personal conflicts will increase, and 30018.1 tensions of all sorts will be brought to the Sm"face of community life.1 SOcial science research in the area of teacher role has indicated that the teacher is likely to behave or react 1 n terms of the expectations which he thinks his significant ot here, have of him in a particular situation.16 Furthermore, his subsequent role performance will be socially acceptable and 11'1C‘3l1‘l.v1c1ually satisfying only to the degree that he is 1 Harper 5Kurt Lewin, Resolving Social Conflicts (New York: and Bros., 19487, p. 110. l which E ouis Andrew Doyle, "A Study of the Expectancies bErs ementary Teachers, Administrators, School Board, Mem- (mpl’lbl Parents Have of the Elementary Teachers' Roles" D. 12 ished Ed.D. thesis, Michigan State University, 1956), 102 correct in his perception of these expectations. The same type of analysis would be applicable to the behavior of the adult administrator. As pointed out previously, the di- rector' 3 basic orientation was "other-directed." The implication is that his significant others would likely be those individuals or groups whose expectations dicate the direction of his role, and upon whose react-ions rests the degree of internal satisfaction that the director receives from his role performance. Significant others then would include those leaders of civic and social organizations and agencies upon whom his program is dependent, members of his adult advisory councils, his adult teaching staff, and his 1"medlla’tze superiors. The adult education director's role was a difficult one. Besieged, on the one hand, by a loosely-committed Clientele, and on the other hand, by an equally uncommitted execu’cive authority, the director was compelled to reconcile these diSparities by perceiving of his proper role and playing it accordingly. The administrative role varied considerably in accor- dance W1th the anticipated ends. Broadly speaking, however, this study indicated that the service function provided the most 11"‘ldividual satisfaction to the directors, as well as the highest degree of social acceptance. Adult education adminis'trators at all levels presented their programs as a com unity service. The service role was a basis for 103 legitimacy--hence, a basis also for perpetuity. So long as directors were able to attract sizeable numbers to their program, their positions were secure. The service role enabled the adult education program to penetrate the organized group structure of the community, and enlist the support of numerous public agencies and other civic and social organizations.17 This approach served two important purposes: (1) It legitimized the public school adult program as a service agency to the community; (2) It made available to the director a much greater clientele, since all community organizations and agencies have a cer- tain degree of influence over their members. Interviews with directors confirmed their changing administrative role. Fifty-six per cent of the respondents C0n091V9d of themselves as primarily a "coordinator" of community adult activities. They felt that community Service Was the heart of their program. Sixteen per cent did “Qt favor the coordinator concept, but viewed their own program as paramount. However, several of these offered Classes in (go-sponsorship with other agencies. In all, s - ixty bl. {SI flfl‘ i. lO7 twckground.of this trend toward disassociation is predicated on the historical and sociological properties of the adult education movement itself. Diffusion of. The trend toward disassocition was most evident in those communities supporting a community college. Under the administrative structure of a community college, the director of adult education was responsible only to the dean of the college. The director's relationship to the superintendent of schools varied with the individual com- munity, but generally, it was purely a professional one. There were usually no lines of authority, although in some administrative arrangements the positions appeared in a staff relationship. Most observers of this trend envisioned it as a step in the right direction. The feeling was that by virtue of Inacing the adult education director on a professional level with the superintendent of schools, two major objectives were realized! First, the resources, facilities, and per- sonnel of the public school were available to the adult education program; second, the director of adult education was in a relatively autonomous position, and thus was able to develop his program independent of the public school Staff. The implication was therefore, that the adult edu- cator assumed the ideal position to effect a_close liaison luth.the community in the realm of programming, policy 108 curriculum, and co-sponsorship of adult classes. This type cfl‘administrative structure greatly increased his mobility. lhmther it increased the level of professionalism is a matter of conjecture. It is difficult to access the relative diffusion of fins trend on a national basis because of the concentration mullimitations of this study to Michigan public school adult education. However, in view of the national dimen- sions of the community college movement, it is highly probable that disassociation of authority will eventually prove to be the most effective way to administratively structure adult education departments. The main point to consider in accessing the signifi— cance of this trend is whether it will carry over into the Public school adult education programs lying outside the range of influence of a community college. It may well be that complete disassociation will prove to be administra- tively unfeasible in these systems, and that a change in the Staff relationship bringing greater prestige and status to the director will be forthcoming instead. This prognos- tication was advanced by several of the administrators interviewed in this study. The rationale for this point Of View could not be determined from the available data. HOwever, based on the sociological properties of adult education, the following three factors must be taken into consideration: (1) the tremendous growth and diffusion of 109 adult education into all aspects of American society; (2) the resulting prestige and status of adult education to- gether with the recognition by social scientists of its impact upon the general public attitude toward the American public school; and (3) the growing tendency of adult edu~ cation administrators to shift their base of operations from the school to the community at large. Several communities in Michigan have taken forward steps in administering adult education programs through a community council operating independently of the board of education. The administrative structure in this novel idea was unique. The director's position in this kind of an arrangement was one of almost complete autonomy. He was responsible only to the council. The probability of this trend becoming universal in the context of public school adult education has significant implications for the professional training of prospective administrators in this area. It seems logical to assume fr‘ominference that disassociation will place local di- rectors in a more autonomous role. Lines of authority are likely to be even more faint than they are at the present time, It also appears likely that the adult administrator will find himself confronted with the organizational struc- ture 0f a community with which to deal, and an organized school system, only incidentallY- 110 If such should become the case, traditional training tnograms for administrators will need careful study to determine their adequacy. It would not be surprising if they were found to be inadequate to meet the impending needs cfi‘professional adult educators. The "other directedness" cfi‘the present administrators, the changing administrative role of the director, and the informal characteristics of administrative practices, as evidenced by this study, tend to substantiate the above observations. SECTION 3 'Management Practices Introduction. This chapter has been primarily con- cerned with the duties and responsibilities of the adult education director in several interrelated areas of organ- ization and administration. In this respect, management is certainly one of the areas of prime consideration. The division of management in public school education is ex- tremely important to a basic, sound administrative structure. For as social interpretation becomes more effective, so will the demands of the people become increasingly greater toward the efficient management of the public schools. The problems of management which confronted the director of adult education differed only in degree from those of secondary and primary education. The underlying lll principles were the same for both. In essence, management in both arenas manifested a marked homogeneity both in the nature of its problems and in the methodology of its pro- cedure s . Finance. Probably the most perplexing problem con- fronting the adult education administrator was that of finance . There is no segment of the administrative task in adult education in which there is greater chaos in the fun- f‘ damentals.dO Basically, this chaos refers to the under- lying concept of proper attitudes with respect to such a question as to who should pay for adult education--the consumer, the school system, the state, or who? In fact, the chaos in many instances resolves itself into a final condition in which there is no budget at all and no plan of financial organization other than a haphazard, fortuitous functioning of several existing departmental budgets toward an undefined goal.21 Most writers and professional practitioners support the belief that financial support for program administration, faCilities, super-vision, and equipment Should be borne by th e local board of education. It was obvious from data at g hered in this study that adult education programs in \\— 20 (New Yori?ank Debatin, Administration of Adult Education ' American Book Company, 19387, pp. 331-356. flg. , p. 331. 112 Michigan had not achieved this ideal. However, grants from the board of education were on the increase, and directors seemed surprisingly optimistic over the future. Characteristically, the categories into which most adult education budget sources were broken down consisted of four: state aid, registration fees, philanthropic funds, and the board of education. This did not mean that adult education received aid from no other source, but indicated rather that the four enumerated categories were the main ones from which the overwhelming portion of finances were obtained. Table XII represents a comparative delineation of the percentages of the total budget derived from the four main sources of monies. It is no less than fair to say that the board of education‘s contribution to adult edu- cation was decidedly greater than the percentages indicated on the graph. For in addition to supplying a sizeable portion of the instructional expense, the board underwrote the major operational costs. These included the lighting, heating, and maintenance of the buildings used for adult classes. Forty-four per cent of the respondents expressed the feeling that the state aid subsidy was merely a token fee, and should be increased in accordance with the tremendous increase of adult education programs throughout Michigan. Undoubtedly, their point was well taken, for the 300,000 appropriation in Michigan for adult education looms TABLE XI I PERCENTAGE OF BUDGET DERIVED FROM FOUR MAIN SOURCES OF FINANCE lO-2O 21—40 41-60 61 ~80 State Aid — lo—2o -— el-uo — ill—6O -- 61-80 R9851 S ’6 ration Fees —— 10-20 Phila‘rlt-hr'opy ‘— 21-40 _.__. ill-6O "' 61-80 10 I 5 10 — 10-20 — 21-40 —41-60 —--61-80 Board 0 f ducal: ion 1L 114 progressively smaller each year. This is primarily because new programs have emerged with great rapidity. Hence, since the legislative appropriation has remained static, state reimbursement has decreased proportionately. Programs have thus been forced to rely more and more on other sources of financial aid--namely, fees. Because of the universal concern over finance among adult education personnel, this study posed two rather phil- osophical questions toward the directors, the aim of which was to determine if a consistent philosophy prevailed among them with respect to finance. The first query attempted to ascertain the feeling as to the ideal methods by which adult education should be financed. Table XIII represents the mHNiments of adult education directors on the financial Support aspect of adult education. In this analysis, thirty-two per cent selected regis— tration fees as their first choice for program support; twentY-eight indicated the board of education as the primary Source; twenty per cent listed state aid as first choice. The least mentioned source of funds was the philanthropic, HEntioned as a first choice in only four per cent of the Cases. In view of the comparative low esteem that philan- thropy as a source of funds was held, it might well be hypothesized that public school adult education directors prefer to follow the pattern of primary and secondary educators in attempting to keep adult education devoid of 115 TABLE XIII FINANCIAL SUPPORT FOR ADULT EDUCATION CHOICES OF ADULT EDUCATION DIRECTORS Choice Percentage First 32 Second 24 Third 8 Fourth A From Registration Fees Choice Percentage First 28 Second 8 Third 16 Fourth 8 From Board of Education Choice Percentage First 20 Second 36 Third 12 Fourth O From State Aid Choice Percentage First 4 Second A Third 12 Fourth O From Philantrhopic Sources 116 individual influence or special interest groups. Yet, paradoxically enough, one of the nation's outstanding adult education programs (also included in this study) was sup- ported almost entirely by philanthropic funds. It is entirely possible that future expenditures in public school adult education might be derived proportionately nwre from non-public sources. Certainly this would be a distinct possibility in the event that adult education con- tinues on a marginal basis. It was found that on a national scale adult education received only 1.9 per cent of the day school expenditures. Approximately fifty per cent of the budget of the public school adult education programs are underwritten by state aid.22 Table XIII also shows the four choices of directors in the order of their preference. It is apparent from the respective percentages shown that adult educators generally favor financing their programs through some type of self- 1iquidating method with state aid as a supplementary source 0f assistance. Fees. The second query attempted to discern the féelings of directors with regard to whether adult education Should, from an ideal standpoint, be free of charge. This is a controversial issue among professional adult educators. Fine emphasized this point in the following remark: x Sun 22BenJamin Fine, "Education in Review," New York Times, day, October 5, 1952, 117 The most controversial issue facing many groups of public school adult education people today is whether fees should be required for courses. Some communities feel that a fee gives the adults a sense of belonging and a greater appreciation for the program. On the other hand, there is a general agreement that no on should be barred because of inability to pay fees.2§ The general feeling has been that adult education is log- ically a part of the total public school program, and there- fore, should be free of charge. However, ninety-six per cent of the administrators interviewed felt that a modest fee should be charged. The rationale for this feeling might well be classi- fied as psychological. Directors felt that the fee tended to give the enrollee a degree of responsibility and'Vbelong— ingness" toward a class. They strongly believed that the program was more highly respected and appreciated when a fee of some sort was charged. Some administrators asserted that they had tried consistently to initiate courses that were devoid of entrance fees. Usually they met with failure. The only types of classes that seemed to respond to the no- fee inducement were those that appealed to the general pub- lic, such as forums, and those which involved the family "in toto." The oft-heard axiom, "you don't get something fbr nothing," appears entirely applicable to this whole discussion concerning fees. 23 Ibid. 118 The adult education budget. Management involves de- .tail. Such items as budgetary considerations, payrolls, materials, and general finance can turn a school system into administrative chaos if they are not properly managed. In the managerial area, the budget loomed as a major concern of the director. In theory, the budget is an educational plan Which attempts to Justify the proposed program on the basis of need, available finances, and future educational trends . 24 Directors felt the adult education budget should not be a mearlingless document conceived merely to meet the formal requirements of the board of education. Instead, they felt it should be flexible and realistic so as to meet the val"ying, emerging interests and needs of the community it SerVeS. Adult education budgets were usually arrived at coop- eratiVely. The general procedure was for the director and his Staff to prepare a detailed budget and submit it to the office of the superintendent of schools for approval. It was then presented to the board of education for formal affirmation. The budget was generally detailed enough to give School officials the specific information they desire, and broad enough to insure a degree of flexibility and adaptability \. 2’4 United Arvid J. Burke, Financing Public Schools .13 the \ S\t§~_§e_§ (New York: Harper and Brox., 1951), pp.ZI38-Lm5, 119 The relationship of the adult education budget to other divisions of the total public school program was a matter of grave concern to a majority of directors inter- viewed. In the past, very little consideration was given toward financing an educational program for adults. Admin- istrators adhered to the "scarcity theory" of re-education for adults, believing that if adults desired a program, they Should pay for it. However, the modern movement in Wblic School adult education has largely contributed to a PEVGI‘Sal of previous administrative practices. When queried as to the degree of satisfaction or dis- satisfaction directors had with respect to their budget, forty—e ight per cent replied that they considered it my 3% thirty-two per cent termed it satisfactory; only eight per cent called it inadequate; twelve per cent had "no COl'l‘l.1’nent." The high percentage (eighty per cent) of respondents who viewed their budget as satisfactory or better reflected the increasing tendency of public school Officials to give due recognition to the importance of the adult education program as a potent force in the formulation of a fa~V<>rab1e public opinion toward education. As a result, appropriations to adult education via the board have shown a tremendous increase in the last decade. From all indica- tiOn 8’ this trend will persist. M. Several other important aspects of manage- ment eme I“ged from this study. Succinctly, they might be 120 classified as clerical. The first of these was the prep- aration of the payroll. In the larger programs of a highly centralized administrative structure, the payroll fell under the jurisdiction of the Business Manager. The function of the director here was to certify the number of hours each teacher spends in instruction and to relay that information to the payroll section. This was usually accomplished by means of a standarized blank filled out by the teacher, and certified by the director or a member of his staff. Payment was either made every two weeks with the regular school pay- roll, or it was transacted on a semester basis. If the latter method was utilized, payment was made in a lump sum. In addition, the routine and red tape were considerably lessened . In the smaller school systems where there was no business manager, the director of adult education was directly responsible for processing of the payroll. Since many pPograms which operated on a relatively small scale were self_supporting, teachers were often not certain of teaching; a class until it had met at least once. This procedul‘e was a check to insure enough money from fees to cover instructional costs. Needless to say, the director Who Was associated with the smaller school SyStem was often burdened with managerial detail. It was to his advantage to ha Ve had some knowledge of office procedures, of business 121 practices, and general clerical knowhow. He should also have been familiar with the state aid formula. Records. Adult education directors were also held resmm1sijole for maintaining records on payrolls issued and on class hours taught. Many installed personnel data cards on theixr ‘teachers in order to familiarize themselves more with truenl. In some states, such as Michigan, certification is necessary before a teacher can direct a class of adults. The consequence of failing to comply with such a directive was the loss of state aid reimbursement. 111, programs where the night high school offered courses finwcr“3C13_t, the director was accountable for all grades and tre‘n*‘3C=I".‘.’LI:)ts. However, the trend in the programs studied was1x3 1?eelease an interested teacher from a portion Of his teaChillég load to assume the directorship of the night high> EthOl- This teacher then became, in effect, the night Inuld131ég jprincipal, being responsible for all activities lmld 1:1 ‘the evening in that particular school. Several 0f the programs included in this study have experimented with this‘lrlixque technique. Interviews with the administrators Of theSe programs have indicated that this new venture was highly Successful. This trend was observed in twenty per‘ Cent of programs. ‘Urhieretanding of basic certification procedures was esse ntia-l to the adult administrator and often saved him a great deal of grief over a period of time. It was also helpful for him to be able to maintain and interpret school records and other related data. Ordering of materials. The last of this rather ex- tensive list of managerial clerical functions concerned the ordering of such items as textbooks, instructional materials, etc. There was no conventional pattern; however, theoret- ically, the administrator was responsible for the total operation of the program. Therefore, ultimate accountability for having sufficient instructional materials rested with him. In programs of considerable magnitude, this task was delegated; in smaller ones the director assumed full Obligation. Table XIV demonstrates the division of respon- sibility in the ordering of adult education materials as reflected in twenty-five Michigan public school programs. TABLE XIV RESPONSIBILITY FOR ORDERING OF MATERIALS (Textbooks, Instructional Materials, etc.) Sources of Responsibility Frequency Of Occurrence N Business Off ice and director 08% Eigcggr and staff 24% Board 0gird-inators and supervisors 16% C t education and director 04% ngcfigiéze "bookstore" 01% through director 44% A \ 123 In summation, the area of Management was concerned primarily with finance procedures and those activities of a more clerical nature. Financial support of programs gen- erally was derived from registration fees, state aid, the board of education, and philanthropic sources. Respondents considered their budgets satisfactory, and favored regis- tration fees as their primary choice for program support. Other responsibilities of directors included budget— making, payroll preparation, certification, the maintenance of records, and the ordering of instructional and related materials . Experience in financial matters, a knowledge 0f the State aid formula and certification procedures, and familiarity with business and clerical practices were impor- tant assets to the successful director. It was apparent that the managerial responsibilities or the adult administrator were intimately related to the welfare of the total program. Such important procedures as financing, budgeting, and clerical routine made a significant COhtr'ibu’tiorl to the over-all stability, efficiency, and morale of the program. Administrators lacking training or experience in these areas were at a distinct disadvantage. CHAPTER V ADMINISTRATIVE PRACTICES IN ADULT EDUCATION PART II SECTION 1 Community Role Introduction. It has been frequently hypothesized by professional adult educators that program success largely is dependent upon the administrator's role in the communityl" in effect, his ability to win the respect and confidence of peOple and to perceive of the expectations of the numerous community agencies and organizations carrying on adult edu- cation programs of their own design. The basic orientation of directors interviewed in this survey would seem to em- phasize the importance of community role. The "other- direc"CeCiness" of the average director has tended to dis- a ssociate him from traditional institutional practices. At \\__ l to purpose of this discussion it seems a ropriate latiggept Cook' s definition of "community" as. P(ya) a popu- essing aggregate, (b) inhabiting a conti uous area, (c) poss- basic Se heritage of common experience, d) having a set of (r) able mrice institutions, (e) conscious of its local unity, pliblic 0 act as a whole in solving problems involving the Encyclop Cal See: Lloyd Cook, "School and Community," W of Educational Research (New York. The Mac- O'y'jh’lDéan 1941), pp. 1000— 1005. 125 the same time, the pressures of marginality and the enroll- ment economy have placed him in a position of dependency upon the adult populace. The public image that is created by virtue of his role adaptation will thus have a signifi- cant bearing upon the eventual success of his adult education program- The major purpose of this section of Chapter V is to describe the various aspects of the administrators' roles in the community as they perceived of them. Co—sponsorship. One of the distinguishing character- istics of American adult education has been the variety of agencies and organizations which have been associated with its historical development. It was previously pointed out. that these community groups often lacked perpetuity in their adult programs because of their unstructured, impulsive nature. It has only been in recent years that public school adult eCiuc ation personnel have recognized the potential of these agencies and organizations in furthering the develop- ment of local programs. The "servicing" of community groups and OI‘ganizations in the adult education area is termed W. CO"Sponsorship of adult education classes is a rela- tively new trend in public school adult education. Essen- tially, this consisted of a cooperative arrangement between the public school program and a community organization that dESire d to offer a specific class or a series of classes for 126 adults. The public school adult education director acted as a "coordinator" or as a "liaison" between the school and the orighuatxing agency. Specifically, the director offered his servicess :hi the manner of providing facilities, instructors, publicii:3r, and even in the organization of the course material . C)f‘ the twenty-five programs in Michigan that this study iliczluded, sixty-eight per cent were presently offering couraes inn co—sponsorship with other community groups. fflwse Ilrwograms varied all the way up to fifty per cent co- sponsorweci classes. Although thirty-two per cent were with- (MN'co-8130nsorship, still ninety-six per cent of those partiCLtlalr directors interviewed considered the process highlydesirable. The general feeling was that co-sponsor- ship‘of' euiult classes tended to bring the program closer to the Vitéil. needs and interests of the people.. In essence, this percuedure appeared to most closely approximate the methods 'Mfllereby the desires of the people were most nearly satisfieniW. Many directors indicated that community organ— izationf5 IReflected the real needs of the people. In this r espeCt: tfliey felt Justified in building their programs aI'Ound t he I! concept of co-sponsorship." The reasons why dir eCtOI‘s (gonsidered the concept desirable are shown in Table XV TABLE XV REASONS FOR DESIRABILITY OF CO-SPONSORSHIP AS EXPRESSED BY ADULT ADMINISTRATORS 127 Reasons Given by Respondents Frequency of Reasons Helps sell the program 8% Creates favorable image 16% Brings program closer to the people 16% Factor in recruitment 8% Aids in interpretation 20% Prevents duplication of educational effort 12% Better public relations 33% Spreads the range of values and accomplish- ments throughout community uz Improves local program 8N Lends status to program 20% Provides homogenous grouping of interests and needs .1 lx‘\.l llalll I1": 128 Tables XVI and XVII below indicate the extent of co— sponsorship that occurred in the selected programs, together with the desirability of this practice as expressed by the administrative leaders of the various programs. TABLE XVI ARE CLASSES CO-SPONSORED WITH OTHER AGENCIES? o 20 no 60_ 80 100 68% 20% 12% Yes No Declined to Answer TABLE XVII IS THIS DESIRABLE? o 20 no 60 80 100 [ 96% A96 Yes No The service concept. Chapter IV indicated the general administrative role as one of‘"service;" This implied that the adult administrator was constantly seeking to ascertain COnsumer preferences, and then adapting programs to these desires. The adaptation, however, was not merely programmatic. 129 It was noted that the basic relationship between student and the teaching staff exemplified a rela- schoo l was altered; tively low degree of professionalism; and administrative orientation was primarily "other—directed." Service, how- ever, was the principal constituent of all these character- istics. What the preceding paragraph denotes is that a fun- damentally different kind of educational agency has emerged-- namely, that akin to a service organization. Accordingly, a new type of administrator has also emerged-~one who offers to the adult community an educational program based on the COnceDts of service and agency coordination. ‘ This study has indicated that directors generally Conceived of their role with respect to other community Organizations as one of service. They considered it ex- tremely important to render their facilities and staff available to all service clubs, agencies, and community Organizations interested in promoting adult education Classes . Out of necessity for survival, cooperation has Pepi aced competition. Public school adult education di- PeCt (DPS interviewed in this survey adopted the philosophy that the school is only one among many agencies interested in a dVaJ'loing the cultural and educational stature of adults. AS a Pegult their programs were planned and executed 3 130 The ways in which local directors perceived of their roles with respect to the various community agencies and organizations are shown in Table XVIII. It was noted that three basic themes were reflected: service, cooperation, and coordination. Directors generally distinguished between these three roles in their responses. No attempt was made by the author, however, to pursue this distinction. TABLE XVIII DIRECTORS' PERCEPTIONS OF THEIR ROLE WITH RESPECT TO COMMUNITY AGENCIES Number of Times Perceived Roles Mentioned \ Community coordinator eI’vice COODeration Interpretation Conununication Liaison relationship ~\____‘ FJH JEIUUJOUUCD Table XIX shows the various ways in which directors Derc91Ved of their roles as representatives of the public SCthl administrative staff operating in the total community. I t was interesting to note the contrast in perceived Poles be tween Tables XVIII and XIX. This can best be illus- trat ed by comparing the three most mentioned roles which direc tors considered applicable to their situation. [See Table I: .] I. .l ..illl , l 131 TABLE XIX DIRECTORS' PERCEPTIONS OF THEIR ROLES IN THE COMMUNITY AS A MEMBER OF THE STAFF OF THE PUBLIC SCHOOL Numbe r o f Time s Perceived Roles Mentioned Service 7 Public relations 9 Liaison 3 Interpretation 13 Create favorable image 1 Stimulate civic responsibility l Referral agent 1 Catalytic agent 1 TABLE XX COMPARISON OF MOST FREQUENTLY MENTIONED ROLES \ Roles with Respect R01 tgscwith Respect Most Most to their Positions A OITmlunity Frequently Frequently on the Public gel'lczies Mentioned Mentioned School Staff \ 8837‘] 1 Ge l3 l3 Interpretation COop era-tion IO 9 Public relations Communi y COO ' Pd inator 8 7 Service 2‘ 132 It was apparent that directors did differentiate be— tween the roles that they assumed in order to fulfil the expectations of community agencies and organizations, and the various roles they assumed as representatives in the community of the public school staff. The most frequently mentioned roles in each of the two areas, service and interpretation, are, from a functional standpoint, basically different concepts. The data therefore suggests that directors were sensitive to this differentiation of role, and exhibited the necessary adaptations in terms of the way they defined their local situation. The significance of co-sponsorship. The most obvious result of co-sponsored classes was the access it afforded to clientele. It would seem logical that most co-sponsoring agencies would have considerable influence in reaching a Specific public. In so doing, co—sponsoring organizations served as the most effective medium for student recruitment the director had. At the same time, most community agencies or organizations possessed trained, experienced personnel within the ir ranks who were excellent prospects for adult teaching. It was pointed out that some programs recruited a Significant percentage of their teachers from the lay COmmunity. Hence, both recruitment of students and teachers were enhanced by the co-sponsorship of adult classes. Directly related to the above discussion is the Dossib ility of co-sponsoring organizations providing course 133 conterrt and courses of study for their classes. Since most cmmmuruitJy agencies are, in reality, special interest groups, it WOLLICi seem that they would be desirous of furthering this innaresst: through the control of subject matter. Some organ- izatiomles, such as the Red Cross, insisted upon supplying its own teeacihers and using its own prescribed courses of study. This unis; not an unusual occurrence in programs having a high degmee c>f‘co-sponsored classes. fiTkuere is still another element which pointed up the Signiffi<3zance of co-sponsorship. This was concerned with the adding of prestige to the director‘s program. When im- Imrtanrt (organizations or agencies certified or co-sponsored an adttl t: class, the prestige of the co-sponsoring agency vms atrt<3rnatically reflected in the local adult education PTOEPEunM. The lending of organizational prestige to the directc>r*'s program was a constant stimulus to the programs that were engaged in co-sponsorship. TV"? last point with respect to the significance of CO-Spontualeship concerns legitimizing the program. Margin- ality inq:l;ies that acceptance of the program by the com- munity 143 (essential to survival. In this respect, co- Sponsorsylilp proved very important since it provided the most effeOtive mediwm through which the director was able to eStatxlidsh his program as one of community service, pOte “tially available to all who desire it. 134 Over the long run, co—sponsorship means that public school adult education can establish a service relationship to most of the organized groups in a given community. This can be accomplished symbolically by establishing the idea that the adult program is a community program.2 The pro- grams studied were committed to this novel idea, as evidenced by the high frequency with which co—sponsorship occurred in the programs. Belonging to community organizations. The multiplicity of voluntary community associations is a phenomenon of con- temporary society, and has come about as a result of cultural growth.3 The proliferation of voluntary associations has induced a shift in the individual's interaction pattern. This shift has occurred mainly in the changing emphasis from ‘primary types of human relations to an increased emphasis A Included among on secondary types of social organization. these secondary types are the various civic, social, prof- fessional, occupational, etc., kinds of organizations. Their increase in number and variety has been furthered by 2Clark, op. cit., p. 118. 3William F. Ogburn and Meyer F. Nimkoff, Sociology (New York: Houghton-Mifflin Company, 1940), p. 561. 4 f Loomis, op. cit., p. 133. 135 specialization, differentiation, urbanization, and other factors indicative of technological progress and cultural expansion. The significance of these community associations inso- far as adult education is concerned was the recognition of the secondary-type relations as important channels of edu- cation for adults. By gaining access to these channels, the adult education director was provided with a potentially greater clientele, and a partial legitimization of his adult program. This survey indicated that local adult education di- rectors in Michigan were alert to the tremendous potential- ities of voluntary community associations, and were rela- tively in accord as to the kinds of roles they had to assume in order to be accepted by these associations and gain entrance to the adult education channels. In addition to their experiences in educational and related areas, directors divulged wide participation in other adult education activities as members of church, civic, social, and fraternal organizations. Over ninety per cent of the respondents belonged to at least one of the above mentioned categories, exerting considerable leadership and interest in them. The manifest sentiments as to why they belonged to various community organizations centered mainly around their'social attributes. Most respondents indicated that being active in community organizations established a 136 twoamnrcommunication process for them, improved their re- lations with agencies carrying on adult programs, and was hnmluable in the promotion of their own program. The public relations aspect of "belonging" appeared to be the central Hume of most opinions. The significance of belonging to community organi- mfijons appeared to be also manifested in and directly related to the effectiveness of the local adult education Inpgram. In general, directors felt that being affiliated with such organizations as Rotary, Kiwanis, and the Chamber of Commerce brought them in direct contact with the influ- entials of a community, opened up new promotional channels, served as a sounding board for new ideas, and established a closer relationship with the larger community. "Membership" gave the director valuable in-roads leading to co-sponsor- ship of adult classes, and provided him with the ideal media for program evaluation. Some directors expressed the opinion that the real value of belonging to various community groups was the liaison relationship it developed with business and industry; others felt that "belonging" rendered the administrator constantly aware of and sensitive to the emerging and changing needs of society as expressed by the people through representative community and social agencies. Some respondents implied that they were almost com- pletely dependent upon the advice and material aid these 137 organizations provided. A director of one of the state‘s finest programs remarked that being an active participant in community organizations was the key to lay cooperation, and offered the ideal arena for adequate social interpre- tation. This same educator also felt that mutual under- standing was enhanced by participation in community groups, and that this understanding led to basic social problems being aired with unusual frankness and clarity. Table XXI shows the kinds of community organizations directors be- longed to , together with the number of organizations from each type that directors belonged. TABLE XXI COMMUNITY ORGANIZATIONS DIRECTORS BELONG TO ¥ Classific Number of Organizations ation of Or anization g Belonged to by Director \ P PO fessional 1 Church Fraternal Agricul tural u‘Siness SO 0 1al \OIUU'IU'ICDUIUI One of the directorS, possessing thirty-three years EXperience as an adult educator, was quoted as follows: "The SignificanCe of belonging to these organizations is very great. You deal with the people who can make decisions-- leader 3 who have great influence. You are able to coordinate 138 the creative ideas of people on civic problems at the same time they're thinking of them." Although eighty-eight per cent of the directors felt that membership was the key to a dynamic program in adult education together with a wholesome attitude toward the American public school, there were some who deviated sharply £30m this philosophy. These dissenters approached the option of joining community organizations and clubs from two main points of view: First, they expressed the opinion that it was difficult to assume a dualistic role and still remain aloof from serious conflicts. They felt that belonging to various organizations restricted their mobility as an adult educator and confused the people with respect to their loyal- ties. Organizations, they maintained are basically selfish in promoting their own interests. Secondly, the feeling was that a director could not afford to be biased--a "Join all or none at all" philosophy. They believed that the community could best be served by an impartial observer, and that it Jeopardized the impartial role of the director to become a member of several agencies and organizations since it inad- vertently induced conflicts and misunderstandings. It is noted that the preceding described only the manifest sentiments for administnitors belonging to community associations. The latent reasons were not disclosed by the formal interviews. However, it was apparent from informal discussions that many directors were basically insecure. 139 The basis for the insecurity stemmed from an array of factors (marginality, isolation, etc.), one of which may possibly be attributed to a divergence from the traditional teacher orientation pattern. Since all of the directors interviewed in this study had previous public school teaching experience, it would seem logical to assume that many had been oriented in typical teacher fashion with respect to their role and subsequent participation in community activities.5 In addi- tion, the sensitivity that directors acquired as former teachers to special community expectations undoubtedly has had considerable carryover into their present positions. If the foregoing assumption is valid, then it would also appear logical to assume that a substantial degree of the insecurity of adult education administrators stemmed ~from a nebulous definition of their role, and uncertainty with respect to the expectations of the significant community reference groups that they now interacted with, and with whom they rarely came in direct contact with as public school teachers. ‘ In view of the preceding discussion, the author believes that the latent reasons for directors belonging to community associations are two-fold: (l) to legitimize their program so that it might attain an acceptable role, 5For an interesting discussion of the teacher's role in the community, see: Brookover, op. cit., pp. 237-253. lAO mKi(2) to create a favorable public image of themselves and the adult education program” It is pointed out, in concluding this portion of com- munity role, that the author does not purport to be able to validate the above on the basis of accumulated data. This arose out of the investigator's general observations, and was one which he deemed relevant to the characteristic pattern of this portion of the study. Adult education advisory councils. One of the techni- ques directors used in establishing better relationships with the community was concerned with the unique role of the adult education advisory council. Ideally, this council consisted of laymen who were representative of the community at large, and who had more than a casual interest in seeing the educational needs of adults satisfied. They were gen- erally selected by the director, and depending upon his leadership and ingenuity, were capable of rendering inval- uable service to the program. The importance of adult education councils was empha- sized in the following summary statement made by the National Education Association on the basis of a study of adult edu- cation in the nation's cities: Cooperation seems to be a key word in the development of a large percentage of existing adult education activi- ties. Adult education councils or advisory committees are in operation. . . . in from one-third to over half of the cities. The councils help to integrate programs and provide a medium for exchange of ideas and information 1141 while advisory committees give representation from other community groups so that the school program is planned in cooperation with other agencies. Out of the twenty-five programs studied, twelve had adtive lay advisory councils. The various functions of these councils were divided into the areas of promotion, planning, implementation, and evaluation. Table XXII exhibits by comparative percentages the ways in which these twelve councils functioned. Directors who worked closely with these councils stressed their dynamic qualities and the eagerness of their members to improve the quality of the program. Of the thirteen programs involved in the study which had no advisory councils, only three directors expressed the opinion that they were of little or no value. Several, however, inferred that their main objection was that councils frequently discarded their "advisory capacity" too readily, and attempted to function in areas which were foreign to them or lay out of their scope. Others felt that their programs were too small to actually profit from an advisory council of the nature described. There appeared to be a direct relationship between the presence of an active adult council and the progressive expansion of the 6Gordon L. Lippit and Helen L. Allison, A Stud of Urban Public School Adult Education Programs 9: the gnIted States (Washington, D.C.: Division of Adult Education service, National Education Association, 1952), p. x. 1&2 TABLE XXII DEGREE OF RESPONSIBILITY ASSUMED BY ADVISORY GROUPS go 60 80 ,“190% Promotion _——r :7 <7 Implementati 0 Planning ‘:::}_ I I i Evaluation l} r V I? I: Fine Arts 00 ~\_ e . ent . agficatiOHB 7.43% High School Academic 181 only a very few institutions of higher learning in the nation offer advanced degrees in adult and continuing education, it is understandable that none of the directors had any formal- ized training in this field. The average director spent a considerable portion of his professional career residing in the community in which he was employed at the time of the interview, indicating a general familiarity with the customs and traditions of the locale and its people which invariably escapes the newcomer. In terms of being able to identify intelligently the needs and interests of a community, this factor manifests far reaching implications. The ultimate success of any program in adult education is to a considerable extent contingent upon the ability of the director to satisfy the consumer demand by meeting the needs, interests, and desires of the people. This difficult task can be accomplished only if the administrator understands thoroughly the social, economic, and political structure of the community he serves. In this connection, it is interesting to note that fifty-seven per cent of the directors interviewed were instrumental in the Original organization of the program they were presently administering. Tables XXVIII and XXIX represent the length of time directors spent in the community in which they were employed at the time of the interviews together with the length of time they have held their present position. 182 TABLE XXVIII LENGTH OF TIME DIRECTORS RESIDED IN THEIR COMMUNITY Years 2 to 5 6 to 10 11 to 15 16 to 23 24 — life TABLE XXIX LENGTH OF TIME DIRECTOR HAS HELD PRESENT POSITION Years .'..., .- -' .__.__,.,... ._ H’n.- ~o~ —. . 2to5 l _A _ .r__..___.sqr..._-...._..q---.--.----—— wu—n-dmv— --‘ ‘ I .. ta 24 Administration Organization Number of times listed among three "Least Important" areas of training Counseling & Guidance Public Relations Community Involvement Others 194 to train future adult education leaders. The results of this query is shown in Table XXXII. As indicated by Table XXXII, the interneship ranked very high along with public relations and administrative training. Table XXXIII shows the percentage of times specific recommendations for training were made in the five most common areas mentioned by respondents. The views of public school program directors suggest that the prospective adult leader have a broad educational background. According to their opinions, traditional admin- istrative training is inadequate. Directors felt that a graduate program in adult education should be multi-discip- linary, encompassing such areas as sociology, political science, and psychology. As the charts clearly indicate, there was a strong sentiment toward the interneship as a training device. The feeling was that this method afforded the prospective administrator an opportunity to become involved in a working situation but not so deeply involved that he was prevented from taking an over—all View of adult education. In addition, theinterneship precludes the possi- bility of inexpertness doing too much harm to a community program. Respondents consistently ranked the area of public relations high, along with regular administrative training. They felt a graduate curriculum should include the history and philosophy of adult education, the psychology of adult TABLE XXXII SUGGESTIONS BY DIRECTORS FOR A GRADUATE PROGRAM DESIGNED TO TRAIN FUTURE ADULT EDUCATION LEADERS Choices Indicated by A. E. Directors 25 Internship Public Relations Administrative , Training Community Coursespi‘ Group Theory Courses Guidance and Counseling 3O 196 TABLE XXXIII PERCENTAGE OF TIME SPECIFIC RECOMMENDATION FOR TRAINING WAS MADE-- FIVE MOST COMMON AREAS 0 2O 4O 60 80 1 i #1 a Internship 76% Administrative Training 6A¢ Public Relations 72% Adult Education Courses 44.4% Guidance and Counseling 36% ‘1. 197 education, the psychology of adult learning, and methods courses. It was the feeling among directors that the suc- cessful adult leader would also fare well as a counselor of adults. In general, the guidance area ranked high. Implications from the Analysis of Administrative Practices It is unfortunate that the preparation of educational administrators in the nations‘s graduate schools of education has not kept pace with the changes that have taken place in the avenige urban community. Courses of study still tend to stress narrowly mechanistic content.6 Few prospective administrators have studied community organization, com- munity power structure, community leadership, or human relations. This is true because, for the most part, graduate training programs in administration are traditionally narrow in scope. In effect, they have been rendered obsolete by widespread changes in American life, by radical changes in the community, and by cataclysmic developments in world affairs.7 The reporting of this study has been primarily devoted to a comprehensive analysis of the adult education adminis- trator's roles, responsibilities, and functions in a public school-sponsored program. It was assumed that what the director did on the Job, how he did it, and why would have 6Melby, op. cit., p. 15. 7Ibid., p. 15. 198 a significant bearing upon the direction a graduate training program for adult leaders should take. The outcomes of this study, considered in the light of the objectives of the research, point to several impli- cations of significance toward the formulation of a graduate training program for adult education administrators. While it is recognized that the following implications must be tempered by the stated limitations of this study, the evi- dence commands serious consideration by those concerned with the alleviation of the shortage of trained leaders in the field of public school adult education. 1. A fundamentally different kind ef administrative orientation would seem £9 2e needed. The suggestion is made that a graduate training program be directed at orientating prospective adult education administrators to the significance of the community and its social organization in the administration of a public school program. This sug- gestion is advanced in view of the fact that adult education directors included in this study were found to be "other- directed" individuals. The result was their basic adminis- trative orientation tended to be community-centered rather than institutional-centered. 2. ‘gesic courses 13 the Organization and Administration of Adult Egucation seem necessary £2 understand the uniqueness in structu§e_g£ public school adult education. Administrators interviewed by the writer pursued many of the conventional 199 practices ordinarily pursued by regular public school admin- istrative staffs. However, it was noted that the various administrative functions of directors differed considerably in scope and in method of approach. More significant, the practices related to an entirely different clientele, and were carried on in light of the service concept. Such a pattern emphasizes the relevance of this implication to a training program. 3. _3 appears from the findings that e proposed curriculum should include ee area devoted £2 the psychology '3: adult learning. Certain factual data about adult learning, deductions concerning the peculiarities of the education of adults, and implications for methods in adult education appear to be necessary elements in the training of the adult administrator. 4. A general knowledge 9f finance, budget-making, and certification procedures seems necessary'ie prevent internal chaos ie the management area. In most cases, the local director acted as the business manager of his program, As such, he was responsible for all financial procedures. In addition he spent considerable time getting his teachers certified so that his program would be eligible to receive the state aid subsidy. 5. Minimum training_le business methods and office procedLUEfli would seem £9 2e helpful 32 the new adult admin- istrator. Nearly all directors had office staffs to superivse 200 and records to maintain. Some training in general business would likely provide the prospective administrator with the necessary background to adopt good business procedures throughout the organization. 6. The findings strongly suggest that prospective directors should have extensive training ie the area 92 Public Relations. The results of this study indicated the importance of program interpretation to the growth of adult education. Human relations, publicity, promorion, and other aspects of communication are vital parts of this area. Public relations ranked high in every respect throughout the course of this study. 7. Sociology, Social Psychology, and Political Science appear to be the most relevant cognate fields of study. Some of the pertinent areas of study within these disciplines which would seem to be of value are: a. social organization b. community power structure c. '"role" theory d. group dynamics e. educational sociology f. cultural anthropology 8. The study indicated that e proposed graduate training program should include orientation courses $3 £23 techniques 93 guidance, lg vocational guidance, and ie the general QEilosophyjef guidance services. Some practical 201 experience in counseling should also be considered, since adult educators are invariably in opportune positions to utilize counseling training in their programs. As pointed out in previous discussions, the most successful adult admin- istrators seem to be those with broad, diversified experience levels and some graduate training in guidance. 9. I; would seem essential that potential adult egucation administrators pe familiar with research techniques. One way in which the local director attempts to discover interests and needs is through the medium of community surveys. Another is through the interview technique. In both of these methods, the directors employs basic research concepts. Most administrators interviewed has a very limited knowledge Of what constituted good research. 10. Some introductory training 1p writing and speech EEEAQ appear pp pe valuable. This study demonstrated the Value of previous training in these two aneas. Publications and Promotion articles were the direct responsiblity of the pPOgram leader. Directors were constantly called upon to make speeches before various community groups and organi- zations. This area is closely related to the field of public relations. 11. The findings pf the study seem £9 indicate that EEEERSEELXe administrators e: adult education should pe -§££QE§SQ the opportunity pg serve ep Interneship ip e public EEEEEl ErOgram. The administrative practices of directors 202 indicated that adult leaders cannot be trained exclusively vnthin academic walls. In order for them to become the realistic, resourceful persons they must be to cope with actual community problems, they should be placed in a working situation under the guidance of a veteran. Hence, the novice learns by doing, but does not wreck the educational venture in the process. Eighty per cent of the respondents listed the interneship among their recommendations for graduate training. Implications from the General Findings of the Study Implications arising from the general findings of this study as they relate to a possible advanced training program may be grouped into four areas of probable curricula: (l) figrmalized instruction, (2) field observation, (3) e5- Eérimental and research, and (4) the interneship. As indicated by this study, the above categories represent the framework through which potential administrators may develop Some of the competencies needed to successfully administer a COmmunity adult education program. Some of the more broad competencies indicated by the StUdy were: 1. The ability to identify and meet the needs, inter- ests, and desires of adults. 2. The ability to anticipate the expectations of SiSnificant community groups and organizations. 203 3. The ability to organize suitable learning activi- ties and to develop appropriate instructional materials to serve the general clientele. 4. The ability to locate and entice appropriate resource personnel to participate and serve in the program. 5. The ability to coordinate a wide range of community activities so as to prevent duplication of effort and develop better educational practices. 6. The ability to recognize leaders among lay groups and enthuse them so they will serve voluntarily on adult education advisory councils and committees. 7. The ability to interpret the program to the general public. . 8. The ability to integrate the adult education program with the regular daytime program. 9. The ability to envision new possibilities in classes so as to appeal to a greater clientele. 10. The ability to win the confidence and respect of supervisors and colleagues from the public school daytime staff. The general findings of this research also tend to challenge the value and relevance of traditional graduate training programs for adult education administrators. In view of the competencies needed by directors, the changing administrative role of program leaders, and the informal nature of administrative practices, it would seem that 204 present graduate curricula in the administrative area are inadequate to meet the impending needs of professional adult educators. Summary This chapter presented the major implications of this study as they related to the content of a proposed training Program for adult education administrators. Implications were drawn from the literature, from the background and training of directors, from the personal opinions of directors, from the study of administrative practices, and from the general findings of the study. While it is recognized that a broad educational back- ground can provide only a base for the development of a director of adult education, still, training programs to prepare leaders in this field are urgently needed. Such programs can serve to develop necessary competencies in prospective administrators, and alert them to the magnitude 0f the task that will confront them when they have programs 0f their own to administer. In general, the results of the study implied that adult administrators should have a broad, liberal training. The data suggested a different kind of administrative orien- tation. From the standpoint of curriculum, the implications DOinted toward four disciplines. They were education, socio- logy, political science, and psychology. The findings sug- gested an inter-disciplinary curriculum. CHAPTER VIII SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS Statement of the Problem This study was designed to serve two purposes: 1. To analyze the administrative duties, responsibi- ties, and roles of an adult education director within the framework of public school-sponsored programs. 2. To utilize the results of the analysis as a basis for a proposed graduate training program for adult education administrators. Importance of the Problem The impetuous nature of the adult education movement has given rise to a multiplicity of new administrative prob- lems, differing somewhat in nature and in scope from those confronting traditional public school education. Recent evidence from research in the adult education area indicates that among the major problems are the lack of professionally qualified personnel to assume leadership roles as adminis- trators of public school programs. The importance of this study is further emphasized by two other factors: (1) There is a need for information con- cerning the functions of the adult education administrator to which public school officials and other educators can 206 refer and which will help them to understand the breadth and scope of the position. In the past, the nebulous nature of tie director%5administrativefunctions has made it extremely difficult to define or delimit the scope of the position. 2. College and university graduate programs in adult education are in the developmental stage. Only a few boast organized programs designed specifically to train adult edu- cation leaders. The basis for a curriculum designed to train such leaders should, to a great extent, emerge from approved practices of those presently administering public school-sponsored programs. The need for professionally-trained leaders in adult education is pressing. The job of training such leaders is the task of institutions of higher learning. It is hoped that the results of this study will prove valuable in the formulation of a practical training program for prospective administrators based on the practices, techniques, and personal views of those individuals actively engaged in administering local programs. W A comprehensive study of the duties and responsibilities of DUblic school adult education directors was made in twentY-five selected Michigan communities. The specific methodology employed was: (1) a structured interview em- ploying an interview outline; (2) direct observation of 207 Lupgrans in action; and (3) informal discussions with admin- istrahors, adult teachers, custodians, and members of adult advisory councils. A tentative instrument was drafted by the writer and presented to several doctoral seminars in adult education at Michigan State University for criticism, suggestions, and refinement. The revised instrument was then presented to a group of adult educators who made minor modifications and changes. A pretest of the questionnaire was made by selected leaders in the field of adult education. In its final form, the instrument was both structured and open-ended. After consultation with College of Education faculty members from Michigan State University, purposive sampling was decided upon as the most appropriate method. Selection of programs was based on an expert-judgment criteria. Twenty- five of the two-hundred organized public school adult edu- cation programs in Michigan were selected for this study. The data were analyzed systematically by a committee of advanced graduate students. This committee made a de- tailed analysis of the data by tabulating it according to the administrative categories provided by the questionnaire. The remainder of the data compiled from informal interviewing and direct observation were integrated in the thesis by the author. 208 Summary and Conclusions The general findings. The major finding of this study is that the adult education programs studied have taken on a service character. As such, they were highly sensitive and adaptive to the expressed interests of their clientele. Evidence of the service character was manifested in the ways in which classes were initiated and maintained, with students indirectly making the final decisions. The service orientation was reflected further in the general adminis— trative role of the director, in the teacher selection process, and in the content of administrative policy. The basic administrative orientation of the local adult education director was "other-directed." The study indicated that, although all directors were generally respon- sible for program administration and organization, they tended to minimize the relative importance of these internal functions in favor of external, non-institutional factors. The result was that the relation between students and the adult school was qualitatively different from the more traditional modes. Another important finding of the study concerned the marginal status of programs. Some of the symptoms of this marginal status are noted below: 1. Programs were dependent upon an "enrollment econ- omy"fbr survival. Student registration fees represented 209 the highest percentage of financial support. Thus, program directors were compelled to "sell" their programs to the public in.hopesof attracting a greater enrollment. This practice has contributed to a sense of insecurity among directors and a strong feeling of isolation from and lack of acceptance by their professional colleagues. 2. In general, adult education programs had no separate plant facilities with which to protect itself against retrenchment. This factor loomed as an important one in the development of organizational stability since it implied that the adult program's educational value was ranked low relative to the total use of school expenditures.l Adult classes were held wherever practica1--in elementary, junior high, and high school rooms and anywhere else where directors were able to schedule meetings. Often, the faci- lities used were not adequate or appropriate for adult use. 3. A third symptom of the marginal status of Michigan programs included in this study was the tendency of 1Clark observed a similar pattern in his study of California public school adult education. "To the extent that the program's educational value is ranked low relative to other uses of school funds, the position of the adult school is insecure. Organizational marginality ie the basic source eg insecurity for the administratiVe branches of adult education. The long—term problem of adult-school adminis- trators is to achieve a 'peer' position. They badly need a parity level, clearly defined and respected by all. The search for acceptance is a struggle for security." See: Clark, op. cit., p. 60. 210 administrators to consider these programs to be of secondary responsibility. Over one-third of the directors were adult education administrators on a part-time basis. If the total number of programs in the state were to be considered, the above fraction would likely be closer to three-quarters. Part-time administration has been a contributing factor to the instability of programs and the insecurity of local administrators. 4. Further evidence of the marginal status of adult education is reflected in legislative action. A mere 300,000 dollars is appropriated to the public schools through a state aid formula. As adult education programs increase in number, appropriations to individual programs decrease. The result has been that programs are more dependent than ever before upon enrollment fees for survival. Directors interviewed termed the present state aid subsidy a "token" fee. A third major finding of the study was that program administrators were essentially‘Vother-directed" insofar as basic administrative orientation was concerned. Their prim- ary role was that of service--service to clientele, and to significant community agencies and organizations. The basic orientation of administrators was manifested in the impor- tance of‘co-sponsorship to program success, in the number guui varieties of community groups directors belonged to, and :hi the interesting patterns that administrative practices assummxi throughout the study. The other-directed orientation 211 was further evidenced by the fact that directors selected public relations as the most important administrative area. Finally, this study revealed that the fundamental goal of most directors was to seek legitimacy, or status, for their programs in order to obtain the necessary support from various significant groups and organizations. It was gen- erally concluded that acceptance for most adult education programs in this study was sought on service premises. A summary of some of the more specific findings and conclusions regarding program organization and administration .follows: OrganizationalAprocedures. l. The major organization functions of the director included program planning, the selection of classes, the formulation of courses of study, and registration procedures. 2. Planning was generally accomplished in cooperation with representative community groups, and was based on the 2 needs and interests of adults. Adult advisory councils often participated in the planning process. 3. The adult education curriculum was largely student- dominated. Decisions with respect to classes offered were made indirectly by students on the basis of what program directors anticipated students would actually enroll in. 4. The ideal method of class selection was conceived Of as being cooperatively determined by the director and the community. 212 5. Teachers were responsible for courses of study, although the adult education director acted as the authority for final approval. Co-sponsoring agencies also entered into this process on a cooperative basis. 6. The ideal method for determining a course of study in adult education was perceived of by directors as being a cooperative venture between the teacher and his class. 7. The most effective kinds of adult class registration were the individual class and the centralized group types. Registration procedures were dependent upon the magnitude of the program and the available facilities. Administrative functions. 1. The basic administrative orientation of public school directors interviewed in this study was community- centered or other-directed. This orientation is in contrast to the institutional or inner-directed type. The pressures of the program director's job forced the "other-directedness" regardless of character type. This term was used, then, to denote the basic orientation of a work role. 2. An important administrative task was the selection of teachers. This was accomplished most frequently through the informal interview. The criteria for selection was based primarily on the candidate's subject matter acquisition and skill, followed closely by the personal attribute of '"a pleasing personality." 213 3. Supervision was carried on most frequently by informal visitation. Because of the informal nature of the supervisory process, administrators tended to minimize supervision as a priority activity. 4. Personal visitation, student reaction, and class retention were the most frequently employed evaluation techniques. Traditional methods of teacher evaluation were not feasible. 5. In-service training of adult teachers was found to be in the developmental stage. Directors who carried on such programs ranked the general meeting method as the most effective. Orientation meetings ranked first with respect to frequency of usage. 6. Relations with the custodial staff provided a minor problem area. Efforts were made by directors to iden- tify the custodian more with the program, and to make him feel that his role in its success was an important one. It was noted that the custodian is often an informed member of the community, and proved valuable in the interpretive process. 7. The service role of the director was exemplified by the community use of public school facilities in ninety- tWO per cent of the programs. 8. Adult education directors perceived of their admin- 1Strative role as one of service. The service role enabled the program director to penetrate the organized group 214 structure of the community, and made available to him a much greater potential clientele. 9. The most significant administrative trend disclosed was that involving separation of public school education from the authority of the superintendent of schools. This trend is a reflection of the drive for status and recognition by adult educators who would like to see this movement com- pletely divorced from institutional pressures and controls. This separation of authority was a reality in those programs studied which fell structurally under the community college. Management practices. 1. Programs received financial support from four main sources: (1) state aid, (2) registration fees, (3) grants from the board of education, and (4) philanthropic funds. Most programs were self-supporting and depended upon registration fees as their major means of support. In most cases, the board of education defrayed all operational and maintenance costs. 2. Programs administrators selected registration fees as their preference for financial support, and strongly felt that modest fees should be assessed for all adult education classes. They felt that people tended to devalue classes offered free of charge. 3. Adult education budgets were the responsibility of the director. Usually, they were arrived at cooperatively by the administrator and his staff. 215 4. Adult education directors also were responsible for the payroll, the maintenance of records, and the ordering of such items as books and other instructional materials. Payrolls were generally handled through the business office; records were maintained by the office—clerical staff; in- structional materials were ordered by teachers through the director. Community role. 1. The technique of co-sponsorship was a determining factor in program success. Sixty—eight per cent of the programs pursued this unique practice. Essentially, it consisted of the "servicing" of community agencies and orEanizations through the medium of the public school adult education program. The result of co-sponsorship appears to be the emergence of a fundamentally different kind of educational agency--one which might appropriately be termed a Service organization. The underlying basis for co-sponsor- Ship was to create a favorable public image of the director and his program. 2. The role of the director in the community revealed Some interesting comparisons. The director's roles with respect to community groups were that of (a) service, (b) COOperation, and (c) community coordinator. Directors' perceptions of their roles in the community as a member of the public school staff were that of (a) interpretation, (b) public relations, and (c) service. 216 3. Co-sponsorship served several important functions as an adult education technique: a. It provided a greater potential clientele. b. It served as a channel for teacher recruitment. c. It provided course content and courses of study for adult education classes. d. It lent organizational prestige to the program. e. It helped to legitimize the program and gain support from important community sources. 4. Directors belonged to a variety of church, civic, social, fraternal, and professional organizations. Respon- dents indicated that "belonging" to community groups was directly related to the effectiveness of their programs. They looked upon these community organizations as sounding boards for new ideas and the media whereby they were able to be in direct contact with the community. 5. Approximately fifty per cent of the programs had lay adult education advisory councils. The functions of these councils were divided into the areas of promotion, Planning, implementation, and evaluation, Directors generally Stressed the value of these councils as an interpretive agency. Some directors were duly concerned over the probabi- lity of councils going beyond their "advisory" role and funCtioning in areas out of their scope. However, it was pointed out that this unfortunate occurrence generally is the result of an ambiguous definition of role limitations by the administrative leader. ¥ 217 Adult guidance and counseling. 1. This study indicated that guidance services may eventually become an integral part of public school adult education. Directors repeatedly pointed up the need for such services in light of the mounting personal and social problems encountered in their positions as program adminis- trators. 2. Various forms of counseling services were available in over half the programs. In general, these were identified as informational, educational, vocational, and personal counseling. It was concluded that the administrator‘s major role in this area was to act as a referral agent with respect to those problems that arose which lay outside his sphere of competence or responsibility. 3. The most frequent sources of referral were guidance personnel of the public school staff and guidance clinics. It was noted that only four per cent of referrals were absorbed by community agencies and organizations. This sug- gests the possibility that local directors were not aware of the many possibilities for referral existing in their own communities. 4. Orientation procedures for new adult teachers were carried on primarily through general meetings and printed “materials. From an ideal standpoint directors felt that the best approach was through the medium of a "social" hour. 218 5. Respondents considered the need for qualified adult counselors as most important. Other areas of need which ranked high were counseling for the aging and retired, consultants in marriage and family problems, and occupational and vocational guidance with an accompanying testing service. Public relations. 1. A public relations program was recognized by pro- gram administrators as a key factor in successful, effective administration. Approximately one-third of the director's time was engaged in activities of a public relations nature. In terms of administrative areas within the field of adult education, respondents ranked public relations as the most important. 2. The scope of responsibilities with respect to pUblic relations fell into the areas of publications, pro- motions, speech—making, and inter-agency communications. Promotion was mainly carried on through the media of advisory COuncils, newspapers, radio and television. Directors were responsible for all kinds of publications--brochures, sched- ules and pamphlets-~which were instrumental in promoting and publicizing their programs. Speech-making to various COmmunity groups was valuable both as a public relations inStrument and as a method for program interpretation. The funotion of the director in inter-agency communication was to keep agencies and organizations informed of the purposes, 219 objectives, and direction of the local adult program. In this way an harmonious relationship between the school and community groups was established and duplication of effort and program was prevented. 3. The role of the administrator in the public rela- tions area was one of interpretation. Directors were expected to interpret, not only their adult education pro- grams, but the total public school program as well. In addition, directors acted as a liaison between the public school staff and the community. 4. Public relations,with emphasis on the role it played in creating a favorable public image of education, served as a means by which adult education directors legiti- mized their programs to the regular public school staff. Summary ofpprogram philosophies. The grounds upon which an organization defends its philosophy and practices are indicative of its basic orientation.2 This principle was clearly indicated throughout the study. It was apparent that adult administrators did not define their program as one in which professional educators determined standards and differentiated between subject areas. The basis, there- fore, for acceptance of a different type of program structure was predicated on the premise of service. The service model emerged as the dominant philosophy of the programs studied. Table XXXIV shows program philosophies as indicated by directors. QClark, op. cit., p. 122. 220 TABLE XXXIV BASIC PHILOSOPHY OF THE PROGRAMS AS INDICATED BY THE DIRECTORS E J Indicated Philosophy Frequency Mentioned Public service agency 76% Community cooperation 20% Agency coordination 24% Liaison agency 8% Community education 20% Provide leadership 8% Recommendations One of the purposes of this investigation was to analyze the various administrative practices of public school directors of adult education, and to relate these practices to a proposed training program for prospective directors. From extended interviews with the personnel of selected programs, several recommendations emerged. These are divided into general and suggestions for further research. General recommendations. 1. The director of adult education in a public school- sponsored program should have the status, pay, and acknowl- edged authority equivalent to that of the top administrative positions in both elementary and secondary education. He 7’“? 221 should be responsible only to the superintendent of schools (except in community colleges where he is responsible to the Dean) in order to provide maximum articulation and integration with the regular daytime program. 2. The directorship should be a full—time position. Dualism of function tends to minimize the importance of the area considered most marginal. Kempfer states that evaluative studiesshow programs having full-time directors to be superior in all significant respects to programs with directors.3 3. Adult education programs should have a greater degree of financial support from the board of education. If programs for adults are of value, local boards should recognize them more by helping to establish a sounder financial base. Class enrollment will cease to be a major administrative concern only when it ceases to be the leading basis for financing. Stability can only come when adult education programs are supported by a sound financial structure. 4. Adult education teachers should be encouraged-— through in-service programs, workshops, and professional study—-to raise their level of professional competency. A higher'degree of professionalism would tend to raise the adult teaching standards, enhance the sense of commitment, ‘provide grounds for common identification, and increase 3Kempfer, op. cit., p. 296. 222 the probability of control over patterns of behavior within the adult teaching staff. 5. Colleges of Education should seriously consider the formulation of graduate training programs for adult leaders. There is a growing conviction among professional adult educators that the "program" has developed as far as it can with the number and quality of leaders now at its disposal. There is no plausible reason why necessity should not mother social and psychological inventions as well as physical. What America needs most are leaders who can contribute to the feeling within humans of being at home in the modern world.“ Training programs in adult education are inventions that serve to produce such leaders. Suggestions for further research. In the course of carrying out this investigation, a number of pertinent questions were raised which were beyond the scope of this study. Thus, while certain objectives were attained in terms of the accumulated data, they actually constituted only a beginning into the further study of the administration of public school adult education. A few of the more impor- tant avenues for future research are listed below. 1. An analysis of the expectations of regular public school teachers, of public school administrators, of local boards of education, and of significant community agencies “Overstreet, op. cit., p. 188. 223 and organizations toward the roles,duties, and responsibi- lities of adult education directors. 2. A study of the significance of co-sponsorship with particular reference to attitude changes toward public school education. 3. The current status of public school adult edu- cation with reference to the following factors: (a) its degree of integration into the regular public school program, (b) the adequacy and stability of its financial support, (c) the image held of it by the daytime teaching staff, (d) the acceptance of its chief administrator (the director) by his colleagues, and (3) the degree of acceptance of it by the total community. 4. The characteristics of an effective public school adult education program. If this were accomplished, prac- tical means and methods of evaluating such programs might be forthcoming. 5. The social structure of adult education in terms of understanding the underlying factors which cause the administrative practices of this area to differ markedly from those of traditional public school education. 6. A clearer understanding of the effect of marginal status upon the organization and administrative ideology of an adult education program. BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY Adams, James T. Frontiers of American Culture. New York: Charles Scribners, 1944. Baber, Eric R. ‘"A Critical Appraisal of Internship Theories and Practices Relating to the Professional Preparation of Educational Administrators;" Unpublished Ed. D. dissertation, Michigan State University, East Lansing, 1953. Brookover, Wilbur B. A Sociology pl Education. New York: American Book Company,l955. Bryson, Lyman. Adult Education. New York: American Book Company, 1936- Burch, Glen. ‘"Community Organization for Adult Education," Handbook pl Adult Education, ed. Mary L. Ely. New Yerk: Institute of Adult Education, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1948. Burke, Arvid J. Financing Public Schools lg the United States. New YOrk: Harper and Brothers, 1951. Chinoy, Ely. Sociological Perspective. New York: Doubleday and Company, Inc., 1954. . ‘ Clark, Burton R. Adult Education lg Transition. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1956. ngmunily Resources--lg the Guidance Program. Professional ‘Service Bulletin No. 11. East Lansing, Michigan: College of Education, Michigan State University, 1956. 000k, Lloyd Allen. '"School and Community, Encyclopedia pl Educational Research. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1941. Cook, Lloyd Allen and Elaine Forsyth Cook. 5 Sociological Approach pp Education. New York: McGraw-Hill Book COmpany, 1950. Debatin, Frank M. Administration of Adult Education. New * York: American Book Company, 1938. 226 Dillon, Harold J. and William H. Tomlinson. “The Adult Education Director—~His Qualifications and Training," Michigan State University College el Education Quarterly, April, 1956} Doyle, Louis Andrew. '"A Study of the Expectancies Which Elementary Teachers,Administrators, School Board Members, and Parents Have of the Elementary Teachers' Roles;" Unpublished Ed. D. dissertation, Michigan State University, East Lansing, 1956. Ely, Mary L. Adult Education lg Action. New Ybrk: American Association for AdultFEducation, 1936. Essert, Paul. Creative Leadership pl Adult Education. New York: Prentice-Hall, 1951. Evans, E. Manfred. '"Adult Education in Los Angeles City Schools, 1948-1949," New Los Angeles School Journal, 32, No. 3 (October 183—19487. Ferguson, Phillip M. '"Practices in the Administration of Adult Education in the Public Schools of California." Unpublished Ed. D. dissertation, Stanford University, Stanford, 1951. Fine, Benjamin. '"Education in Review," The New York Times. October 5, 1952. Good, Carter V. and Douglas E. Scates. Methods pl Research. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc., 1954. Gordon, Thomas. Grogp—Centered Leadershlp. New York: Houghton-Mifflin Company, 1955. IHallenbeck, William C. "Training Adult Educators," Adult Educational Journal, 7:4-10, January, 1948. Hart, Joseph K. Adult Education. New York: Thomas Y. Crowell Company, 1927. :Hartleyg E. L. and R. E. Hartley. Fundamentals of Social Psychology. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1952. lknudrickson, Adnrew and John A. Spence. '"Professional Training Program in Adult Education," Adult Education, September, 1955, pp. 191-192. Cyril O. " ' and Knowledge Shall be Increased, .gdult Education, September, 1953, p. 187. HOUle , t" 227 Houle, Cyril 0. ‘"Opportunities for the Professional Study of Adult Education," Adult Education Bulletin, April, 1947, pp. 100-107. Houle, Cyril O. and Others. Universities in Adult Education. New York: Columbia University Press, 1952. Jahoda, Marie, and Others. Research Methods lg Social Science: Part l, Basic Processes. New York: The Dryden Press, 1951. Katz, Daniel, Dorwin Cartwright, Samuel Eldersveld, and Alfred McClung Lee. Public Opinion and Propaganda. New York: The Dryden Press, 1954. Kempfer, Homer. Adult Education. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1955. Knowles, Malcolm. Information Adult Education. New York: Association Press, 1951. Kotinsky, Ruth. Adult Education and the Social Scene. New York: D. Appleton Century Company, 1933. Lazarsfeld, Paul F. "The Controversy Over Detailed Inter- .views--An Offer for Negotiation," Public Opinion Quarterly, No. 8, 1944, p. 60. Lewin, Kurt. Resolving Social Conflicts. New York: Harper and Bros., 1948. Lindman, Eduard C. The Meanigg pl Adult Education. New York: New Republic, Inc., 1926} Linton, Ralph. The Study of Man. New York: Appleton- Century Company, 19367 Lippit, Gordon L. and Helen L. Allison. 5 Study pf Urban Public School Adult Education Programs p: the United States. Washington, D.C.: Division of Adult Education Service, National Education Association, 1952. Lockwood, William v. '"Adult Guidance--A Public Responsibility," Adult Education, February, 1953, p, 32, Loomis, Charles P. and Others. Rural Social Systems and Adult Education. East Lansing: Michigan State College Press, 1953. McClusky, Howard Y. '"Adult Education and the Public Schools," Universityjpl'Michigan School pl Education Bulletin, 16:65-69, February, 1945. 228 Melby, Ernest O. Administering Community Education. Engle- wood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1955. Moehlman, Arthur B. School Administration. New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1951. Mueller, A. D. Principles and Methods lg Adult Education. New York: D. Appleton Century Company, 1938. Noffsinger, John S. Correspondence Schools, Lyceums, Chau- tauguas. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1926. Ogburn, William F. and Meyer F. Nimkoff. Sociology. New York: Houghton-Mifflin Company, 1940. Ogden, Jean and Jess Ogden. Small Communities lg Action; Stories pl Citizens‘ Grogps el Work. New York: Harper and Brothers, 1946. Overstreet, Harry A. and Banard W. Overstreet. Leaders for Adult Education. New York: American Association for Adult Education, 1941. Report pl Curriculum Committee pg Adult Education and Community Colleges. Michigan Department of Public Instruction, May, 1956. Sheats, Jayne and Spence Sheats. Adult Education. New York: The Dryden Press, 1953. Snow, Robert H. Community Adult Education. New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1955. Spence, Ralph B. and Benjamin Shangold. Public School Adult Education lg New York State, 1944-1947. Bulletin No. 1391. Albany, N.Y.: University of the State of New Ybrk, May 1, 1950. Tead, Ordway. Creative Management. New York: The Women‘s Press, 1935. ’ Valade, William J. and Sophie V. Cheskie. "Adult Education in Michigan," Michigan Educational Journal, No. 17 (May 1. 1957).*396. Williams, Robin M., Jr. '"Applications of Research to Prac- tice in Inter-Group Relations," American Sociological Reviewz 18 (February, 1953), 78-83. Young, Pauline V. Scientific Social Surveys and Research. New YOrk: Prentice-Hall,‘Inc., 1949. APPENDICES APPENDIX A AN ANALYTICAL SURVEY OF THE DUTIES AND RESPONSIBILITIES OF ADULT EDUCATION DIRECTORS IN THE STATE OF MICHIGAN Section I--Background and Training of Directors: (1) (3) (5) (6) (7) (9) 10 ll l2 (l3) Directors's Name ---------------------- (2) City ......... Full Time Director ------------------ (4) Part Time ...... If "yes to 4: What other duties do you have in addition to being Director of Adult Education? ' Major Field of Specialization in College: PreViOUS Educational Experience; a. Teacher _____________ b. Administrator ------- C. Other ............... Other Significant Work Experiences: --------------------- Past Experience in Adult Education Activities: (Advisory Committees, teaching adult classes, etc.) ............... Length of Time Spent in present Community: ............. How Long have you held your present position? ---------- What part did you have in the origin or the organization of the program you are director of? .................... List the various Community Organizations that you belong to and place them in the column below that best applies: a. Belong to only-—- b.Active in---- c.Exert Leadership in(Why?) What is the significance of these organizations with respect to the effectiveness of your adult education program? 231 Section II——Analysis of Duties and Responsibilities: A. (1) (2) (6) (7) Administrative: To whom are you responsible? What is your status with respect to the public school administrative staff? Where is your office in relation to the public school administrative offices? To what extent does your position encompass the super- vision of adult instruction? Are you charged with the responsibility of teacher evaluation? --------------------------------------------- How is this process carried on? Are you expected to carry on an in-service training pro- gram as a portion of your duties? ----------------------- Would you describe how this is accomplished? To what extent are you free to formulate staff policies concerning adult education? How are the teachers in the program selected? a. Who interviews them? b. What criterion is used in their selection? c. Who has the final say in the hiring? d. To whom are they responsible? In what areas, if any, do you have assistance? a. clerical ------------------------------------------ adm --------------------------------------------- b. . c. supervision ....................................... d. other --------------------------------------------- 232 (10) What procedures do you follow in securing the necessary (11) (12) (4) custodial help? a. Is this a problem area? ----- Why? ----------------- b. How is the custodian paid? c. To whom is the custodian responsible? Are all public school facilities in your school system available to the Adult Education classes? ............. Explain: Are you thought of as being primarily a "coordinator" of community activities? ---------—-—-----7 ............ Please explain: What other duties do you have that might be considered administrative? Organizational Responsibilities: How is the basic planning of the program carried on? What procedures are utilized in the selection of the classes that will be offered? a. Who initiates these procedures? b. Who finally selects the classes? c. Who should determine the courses? Who is responsible for formulating the courses of study? Who approves them? What methods are used in effecting harmonious relation- ships between building principals, custodians, and adult education personnel with respect to the following: (5) (6) (1) (2) (3) (4) (l) a. Scheduling of classes b. Custodian morale c. Priority of facilities d. Usage of classroom materials Would you explain how registration is organized and carried out? Are there any other matters, routine or otherwise, which might be termed organizational? Adult Counseling and Guidance: What are your responsibilities with respect to planning the educational objectives of adults? Do you have counseling services for adult students? ----- a. What types of referral are available to cope with those problems lying out of the sphere of the teacher's responsibilities? b. Are these services utilized by the adult education staff? -------------------------------------------- Do you have an orientation program for new teachers? a. Explain how this is carried on. b. What kinds of orientation programs have proven to be the most effective? c. Why? What other problems do you encounter in the area of adult counseling and guidance? Management: Would you explain your budgetary responsibilities? . .__.-~_w_u_. WH"_ (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (3) 234 How do you view your budget in relation to other divi— sions of the total public school operational program? Satisfactory -------- Very liberal ------- Inadequate ----- What percentage of your budget is made up of the following: a. State aid b. Registration fees c. Philantropic funds d. Other sources What are your duties with respect to the processing of the payroll? What responsibilities do you have in maintaining the records of the following: Payroll Class hours taught Teacher personnel Certification of new teachers . Grades, transcripts, etc. (DQOO‘QJ Are you charged with the responsibility of ordering such things as textbooks, instructional materials, etc.? What is your feeling as to the means by which adult education should be financed? a. Should the classes be free of charge? ------------- Why? ---------------------------------------------- Role in the Community: What is your role with respect to the various agencies that carry on adult education programs within the community? Describe your functions as a member of the public school staff operating in and among community groups. What is the degree of responsibility that advisory groups have with regard to the following aspects of your program? (4) (5) (6) F. (2) (3) (4) 235 a. Promotion b. Planning c. Implementation d. Evaluation e. Other roles How influential would you say lay advisory groups are in exerting their pressure upon such groups as the Board of Education, PTA, and the like? Great---- Some---- Very little---- None---- How many of your classes are co-sponsored with other agencies? IS this a de81rab1e arrangement? ——————————————————————— Why? What is your philosophy with respect to the social interpretation of the adult education program? (service agency, etc.) Public Relations: Generally speaking, what do you believe should be the role of the Adult Education Director in the field of Public Relations? Should this role extend beyond the immediate program? What are its limitations, if any? To what extent does this task of Public Relations associate itself with leadership in the community? What role should the adult education director take with respect to leadership? a. Give the people only what they want b. Cater to the pressure groups and agencies c Attempt to personally lead the community in the betterment of the existing program d. Rely upon the advice of advisory councils What service agencies do you most frequently come in contact with? 236 (7) What agencies or community organizations approach you the most for service, consultation, use of facilities, etc.? (8) Would you indicate your duties and responsibilities in the area of Public Relations with respect to the fol- lowing: a. Publications, brochures, bulletins, newspaper publicity: b. Promotion methods: c. Speeches to clubs, agencies, etc.: d. Inter-agency communications: (9) Estimate the percentage of time that you devote to the following areas in your work as Adult Education Director? a. Administrative d. Public relations b. Organizational e. Community involvement c. Counseling f. Other duties (10) In terms of training prospective directors, list the above areas in the order of their relative importance: (11) What suggestions could you make which might be helpful in devising a college program for future adult education directors: "—5-- 3“»- w: ”7" f- V ' APPENDIX B FIGURE 1 PARTIAL LIST OF COMMUNITY ORGANIZATIONS, AGENCIES, ASSOCIATIONS, AND GROUPS THAT ONE MICHIGAN PROGRAM WAS ABLE TO PENETRATE ON A CO-SPONSORSHIP BASIS Hospital Auxiliaries of: Hurley Hospital McLaren Hospital St. Joseph Hospital Flint General Hospital Flint Osteopathic Hospital T. B. San. Genesee County Hospital Genesee Co. Medical Society Flint Civil Defense Michigan Credit Union League Clara Elizabeth Fund for Maternal Health International Institute Flint Community Music Association Flint Association of Fire and Casualty Agents Flint Institute of Arts American Association of University Women Saint Cecilia Society League of Women Voters Flint Area Dry Cleaners Association Flint Association of Approved Nursing Homes Flint Traffic Club Retail Gasoline Dealers Association of Flint Flint Ministerial Association Flint Child Guidance Clinic Federal Business Association of Flint Association of Parents for Education of Blind Children Flint Committee on Alcolholism Flint Department of Parks and Recreation Flint Goodwill Industries Genesee County Bureau of Social Aid Genesee County Association for Retarded Children Genesee Federation for the Blind, Incorporated General Motors Corporation Red Feather Red Cross Civitan Club FIGURE 1 (Continued) Lions Club Child Guidance Center Kiwanis Club Rotary Club Council of Social Agencies Recreation and Park Board Flint Council of Churches YWCA, YMCA Girl Scouts Boy Scouts Chamber of Commerce 238 239 Administration and Organization 52.8% v—v—w—V—rv Public Relations and Community Involvement \ 31 . 2% Figure 2. Percentage of Time Spent in Various Areas APPENDIX C EXAMPLE OF A JOB DESCRIPTION FOR A DIRECTOR TAKEN FROM A MICHIGAN PUBLIC SCHOOL ADULT EDUCATION PROGRAM Position: Director of Adult Education Department General Job Description: The Director of Adult Education shall be responsible to the Superintendent for the Department of Adult Education. He shall be free to initiate such pro- grams within the schools as are included in the list of functions and responsibilities below, and as are assigned by the Superintendent as delegated authority. He shall by his personal qualifications be highly qualified and on an equal status with the other directors. This status is understood to be on the first level of staff service. Functions and Responsibilities: A. The Director of Adult Education is responsible only to the Superintendent for the duties and responsibilities listed below and others delegated to him by the Superin- tendent. B. The Director of Adult Education shall guide and coordin- ate the efforts and activities within his department. C. The Director of Adult Education shall integrate the adult education program into the total public school program in cooperation with the other directors and the school building principals. 241 Through group projects he shall assist individuals throughout their lifetimes to improve their knowledge and skills as citizens, as parents, as workers, as consumers, and as effective personalities. He shall strive continuously to discover the edu- cational interests and needs of the adults in the community by seeking suggestions and requests: a. From individuals b. From employers, whom the schools can assist with pre-employment training, and up-grading of employees c. From agencies, groups, and organizations con- cerned with the welfare of individuals and of the community as a whole. He shall learn from directors of adult education in other communities about their projects which have been effective, and introduce those which can meet local needs. He shall, when desirable, set up advisory committees of interested citizens to assist him to plan, pub- licize, and evaluate various projects. He shall invite organizations, agencies, and insti- tutions to co-sponsor projects in which they are particularly interested, and to assist with the planning, publicity, and evaluation of the activities. At their request, he shall assist through counsel other organizations and agencies which conduct 10. 242 educational projects for adults, within the limits of his time, energy, and ability. He shall provide counsel to individuals seeking assistance in planning their educational goals. He shall select and engage teachers, leaders, and other personnel, with primary regard to their com- petence and enthusiasm, to provide the services re- quired for the various projects. He shall provide his professional staff with an in- service training program which will: a. Improve their understanding of their adult stu- ents and their needs b. Improve their techniques as teachers and leaders c. Assist them to improve their courses of study, and to plan cooperatively with their students the content to be covered d. Assist them to find and learn to use effectively any instructional aids which are available e. Assist them to develop methods and instruments for evaluating the effectiveness of the project f. Keep them informed of current trends, and of professional books, magazines, and articles which will help them to improve their performance, and add to their personal satisfaction He shall be responsible for registering students in adult education projects. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 243 He shall secure for sale to students such textbooks and supplies as are required. He shall secure the use of the school facilities most adequate for the size and activities of the various groups, at such times as they are not needed for activities of the children. He will, in all cases check first with the principal for availability of the facility, and then file written request for its use with the Building and Grounds office. He may secure the use of facilities other than in the public schools, where the owners are willing to lend them, and when convenience of adult students is better served thereby. He shall do his utmost to cooperate with the prin- cipals and the teachers in his use of their buildings for adult activities, reporting to his teachers the policies of the school and requiring observance. He shall keep administrative and school staffs in- formed of the activities sponsored by the Adult Education Department, that they can help to inter- pret these public school services to parents and others. He shall keep himself informed about the policies and activities of the other departments of the public schools and help to interpret them to the adults in the community. _—- 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 244 He shall work closely with the Director of Vocational Education in the development of adequate programs in vocational and family life education areas, that they will conform to the specifications established for reimbursement by the Vocational Education Division of the Department of Public Instruction. He shall work closely with the President and Dean of the Junior College in the development of those classes and programs in which College students and adults interested in credit will register with the Junior College, and adults nOt requesting credit with the Adult Education Department. He shall prepare appropriate budget recommendations for instruction, materials, consultant services, and conference expenses. He shall keep necessary records and submit appro- priate reports to satisfy State requirements for reimbursement from State General and Vocational funds. He shall be responsible for submitting an accurate statement of instructional expenses for payroll purposes to the Business Office. He shall evaluate the educational program of his department as a whole, and make appropriate reports and recommendations to the Superintendent. LIBRARY ‘ . MICHIGAN STATE urnvc‘nsn'v J :4 EAST LIV-71.74.Eade'JAN . Ah! I'- nut. _ "Y "VJ“ L: mum! _ .5 when... £15.. '1' L"'.' '51:. mi. ' 3'» u” Swami-it'd £11.! Date Due Arg 22 '58 0" J.., - Mo, J’- T'cc 6 13 ~ '5 i - ' T51 s .. — A? _- 15 Jun 59 _- .:H Jail e9 3 'u13;t 3 == - U '1 '1' t .' PIIIIr.‘ 0. (I Demco-293 "111111111111 All