—Y INFORMATION-SEEKING. BPIIIIIIII LEADERSHIP. IIIID SENSE 0F POWERLESSIIESS FDR DIFFERENT ISSUES THESIS FOR THE DEGREE 0F Phi} MIEHIGIIII STATE UNIVERSITY SHIRLEY [unison MARSH 1967 ‘ z " A. , L! s If? Y IIIlllIllIlIllIlIIIIIIIIIIIIIllIlllIillIIIHIIIIIHII A 3 1293 10383 4325 Univtz-xty This is to certify that the thesis entitled INFORMATION-SEEKING, OPINION LEADERSHIP, AND SENSE 0F POWERLESSNESS FOR DIFFERENT ISSUES presented by Shirley Eckerson Marsh has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph.D. degree in Communication Date __ 0-169 ‘ K—zea ‘ .. DA~0779911 ' " 013 ‘ p .. k C .lu '- i it v IA INFORMATION-SEEKING, OPINION LEADERSHIP, AND SENSE 0F POWERLESSNESS FOR DIFFERENT ISSUES 11': By Shirley Eckerson Marsh AN ABSTRACT OF A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Communication 1967 ABSIILOI memos-me, armor woman, an ms: or mamas FOR ‘; ' nrmmr ISSUES " "’7 ' By Shirley Bekerson Marsh The study of personal influence over the past twenty years has consistently produced evidence of the importance of face-to-face interaction in opinion formation and decision-making as related to mediated sources of information. Few studies have investigated information-seeking in a broad context comparing mediated and inter- personal sources for more than one issue and for a general population sample. There was need to examine the interplay of influence from *~\~‘__L several sources on more than issue, focusing attention on some, factors which predispose information-seeking behavior by an individual. Thus, the objectives of the research reported in this thesis 1. To exnmine the relationship of four variables -- opinion leadership, sense of powerlessness, interest, and gregariousness -- to the extent of information-seeking. To examine the relationship of four variables ;- opinion leadership, sense of powerlessness, interest, and gregariousness -- to the degree of interpersonalness in information-seeking. 3. To determine whether the relationships between the four variables and (1) extent of information-seeking, and (2) degree of interpersonalness, hold true for different areas. Data were collected from five hundred adults, a random sample, in the state of Nebraska via personal interviews by trained interviewers. The data gathering instrument was developed within the theoretical framework of the research. Some measures were constructed specifically for use in this research while others utilized questions and scales from previous studies. Validity checks were made by correlating scale ___ items with scales which had been validated by other researchers. Correlational techniques were used to remove the effects of the control variables -- life cycle, sex, community size, education, and socio- economic status. Zero-order and partial correlation was the major statistical method used to test the empirical hypotheses. Pearsonian production moment correlations were computed in the multiple correlation analysis. Information-seeking was the dependent variable of the research defined as the degree to which a receiver (person) utilizes mediated and inter-personal communication channels to obtain ideas, advice, or information about a specific issue. Two issues were studied: a public affairs issue (taxation) and a social issue ( women working). The research focused on the four independent variables considered to be predisposing factors in information-seeking behavior: Opinion leadership, {defined as a person who himself indicates t he influences the opinion and behavior of other individuals through personal contact; a ,3: I ” £533: of pgggglessnesa, defined as a feeling of lack of control over the outcome of public or social issues and a low expectancy that one's own behavior can alter them; 3. Issue interest, defined as a psychological involvement of the individual with an issue which facilitates awareness and action; and 4. Grggariousness, defined as the extent of an individual'a formal and informal social contacts with other people. Eight hypotheses guided this research inquiry. The ma§or findings are: l. The extent of information-seeking is positively related to opinion leadership for both issues. 2. The degree of interpersonalness of information-seeking is positively related to opinion leadership for both issues. 3. The extent of information-seeking is negatively related to sense of powerlessness for the taxation issue but not for the women working issue. The degree of interpersonalness of information-seeking is 4. negatively related to sense of powerlessness for both issues. 5. The extent of information-seeking is positively related to the degree of issue interest for both issues. 6. The degree of interpersonalness of information-seeking is positively related to the degree of issue interest for both issues. 7. The extent of information-seeking is positively related ‘0 sregariousness for the taxation issue but not for the women working issue. . -; 8. The degree of interpersonalness of information-seeking was, .jg,3p sy J M M w. a t c k .u 7 o ‘I r t n INFORMATION-SEEKING, OPINION LEADERSHIP, AND SENSE OF POWERLESSNESS FOR DIFFERENT ISSUES BY I’l . ShirleyKEckerson Marsh A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Communication 1967 .1. )‘ \uu TR. "R- d Name I, Cw; ul‘l'n.‘ _ "RR, 1” I'd Mum DIST! «innit! 9f the z”Faust-ant. of Conu- ; .. ‘ ,mgollege of Comication Arts. Michigan RR“ express :y .91...“ ;:_.. ,.. ‘ .4 a. mugs:- Mvsruty. 1!; partial fulfillment of the g . pr, “fissures-pro for the Doctor of Philosophy degree. “'- "- " ‘ W n irector of Thea 1; Guidance Comittee; W, Chairman A J's _ I wouldeike to express my appreciation to the administration aadeaculty of the Department of Communication, the College of communication Arts and Michigan State University for leadership of my entire graduate program. The Guidance Committee, Dr. Fred 8. Siebert, Dr. Hilton Iokeach, Dr. James Shaffer and Dr. John F. A. Taylor have been a con- The stant source of intellectual stimulation and encouragement. chairmen, Dr. Everett N. Rogers, has been particularly helpful in the design and implementation of the entire research project. His personal warmth and enthusiasm for learning and research have been invaluable. R The research project from which the present data were obtained ' ' was conducted under the sponsorship of the Office of Adult Education Research, University of Nebraska. Dr. Alan B. Knox, director of this office during the period 1964-66, gave generously of his own time and the resources of his research unit to make possible this research. It was a part of a more encompassing study of Adult Interests of Nebraska ' People. Without his cooperation and concern for my academic future, f’ this would not have been possible. I have a deep sense of gratitude to all these people, Dr. Helcolm thLean now at The State University of Iowa, Dr. Harold E. Jones and Vice President Glenn Beck at Kansas State University, my faculty in the Department of Home Economics Extension at Kansas State, fellow graduate students, and friends who have made many contributions during the anxious phases of my graduate program. My parents, Mr. and Hrs. Ray Eckerson, have been a continuing source of inspiration and motivation in my academic pursuits. I am indebted to them and thank them. Finally, I thank my typists, Phyllis Revell and Jan Daniels, who have so ably brought order to this document. Their patience is amazing. ix TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter Page I. m “Sm PmBLm O O O C C O O O O O O O O O O O U 1 The Problem 1 Objectives / 5 Rationale ' 6 Implications II. meTUAL FWRK O O I I C O O I O O O O O I O O I 10 Information-seeking 10 ’ Opinion Leadership 12; Sense of Powerlessnesa 15 Issue Interest 20 Gregariousness 21 Control Variables 22 Issue Differences 22 III. mmommGY O O O I O O O I O O O O O O O I O 0 I O O 26 Nebraska As a Community 26 Data Collection and Sample 28 Characteristics of the Sample Population 33 Instrument Development 41 The Measures 43 Information-seeking [43 Self-designated Opinion Leadership (457 Sense of Powerlessness 47 Issue Interest 48 Gregariousness 49 l Life Cycle 49 Sex 49 Socio-economic status 49 Control Techniques 50 . Hypothesis Testing 51 51 Statement of General and Empirical Hypotheses Chapter Iv. FINDINGS I O I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I General Hypothesis I General Hypothesis II General Hypothesis III General Hypothesis IV General Hypothesis V General Hypothesis VI General Hypothesis VII General Hypothesis VIII Consistency of Findings Across Issues V. SUMMARY AND DISCUSSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Summary Discussion of Hypothesis Tests Discussion of Issues Discussion of Measures APPENDIXAOsomeoee‘eesseCesssessosse Interviewer Training APPENDIX B I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I Sections of the Instrument Utilized in the Present Thesis APPENDIX c I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I Scaling Procedures and Data Tables BIBLIOGRAPHY........gooeeeeseeesaeee xi Page 56 71 85 133 164 184 LIST OF TABLES Attrition of the 1961 Sample in the 1965 Data Gathering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Social and Demographic Characteristics of the SamplePOpulation.u.......-....-. Measurement of Independent and Dependent Variables . Findings Regarding the Empirical Hypotheses . . . . Is the Hypothesis Confirmed? . . . . . . . . . . . . xii Page 34 35 42 56 69 29 I I I I I I I. I In I I. I, I I I w n >m‘umflhIIIIIIIIIIIII m m .u m m a Breakdownof8-plebytducetion. ... . CHAPTER 1 THE RESEARCH PROBLEM The Problem A basic notion underlying communication research is that human beings participate in interactive experiences within a symbolic environment. This participation tends to influence different human beings in different ways. There is an interplay of influences as an individual forms opinions, makes decisions, or engages in other F behaviors. The total of these interactive experiences at any one “r point in time can be conceptualized as constituting the communication situation. Within communication research, one important concept is influence. Investigation of the processes involved in the flow of ideas from source to receiver is an important task for communication researchers as they endeavor to understand the nature of influence. One of the key questions underlying the present investigation is: "Is influence as encountered via information-seeking specialized according to issues?" Two assumptions are basic to the present research: 1. Interaction may involve influences from a source by way of both interpersonal and mediated communication channels. (2. All interactions are motivated and inhibited by pre- d18P081ng factors unique to the individual receiver. \) 2 The emaication situation, within the framework of the present lies-arch. involves the reason subject to unmet by advice, ideas or ‘Wiiilhrmation which is relative to an ISSUE, via interpersonal or .. unlisted swims in making a promos. This basic model suggests an interplay of influences from several sources on a single issue. It acknowledges the inadequacy of looking at either mediated 25 interpersonal channels of influence separately. It points up the necessity of analyzing patterns of exposure to source of influence when seeking to explain ' " an individual's channel selection on a particular issue. The present model encompasses the elements of a basic , communication model developed by Berlo,1 the s-MeC-R model. His model treats source, message, channel and receiver as separate units of analysis. Berlo's more general model does not specifically account for multiple types of each element, for a time dimension, or the interaction process among his model's elements. The concept of a channel of influence is central to the model presented here. For the purposes of the present research, communication channel will be defined as a vehicle for the flow of influence which eminates from interpersonal or mediated sources and has an effect on some decision made by an individual.2 The individual in this study is called the "information-seeker", and is further designated as an opinion leader or as a non-opinion leader. 1D. K. Berle, The Process of Communication, New York: Holt, Rinehsrt, and Winston, Inc., 1960, p. 72. 2Talcott Parsons, "On the Concept of Influence;" Public W1. Vol. 27, Spring, 1963, pp. 37-92. This reference includes comments by James Coleman and Raymond Bauer and a rejoins: by . 1 ,.!‘r°°“" According to Parsons: "Influence is a way 05 h3'1fl8." 9‘3'9’". .ng the attitudes and opinions of others through intentional (4-~r«" ” til} eerily rational) action -- the effect may or may not heath “#35; Fuel or to prevent a change." .- L‘i «.wf' . ‘ ‘ I'V _ ‘ ‘.‘.._. fl . ‘ . . . ~ 7. h-‘. v‘ r -' ~* f:..\'I\r.- .‘1kAHJL ‘" 3 Although‘a generalised concept of influence is central to this Iii?“ of research, only the channel of influence is a research variable iii‘the present study. The use of channel implies the existence of s 'sslree and, within the present context, can be regarded as synonomous with source, in that the two cannot usually be distinguished empirically. The information seeker is connected to the issue by a series of inter- actions via the channels. Initial contact with the issue creates an awareness at time 1 and sets the interaction process in motion. The influence process takes place within a social context . where a broad range of social interaction may occur. Through interacting with mediated or interpersonal sources, an individual becomes aware of an issue. Once aware, it is probable that an individual, , in time, will be confronted with the necessity of making a decision. Decision-making suggests a dynamic, rather than a static, state. The decision-making process involves a sequence of behavioral events, i.e., interactions of person with channels, and change of relationships . and conditions throughout the sequence of events. The process is characterized by a search for information, ideas, or advice, instrumental in making the decision. When using such a model for analysis, the researcher can detect the patterns of interaction and describe them. The explanation of the Patterns and why they evolved, havever, must rest on further analysis of the predispositions of the person involved and the dimensions of the issue in question. Any person will be limited as to the range of possible decision alternatives by such factors as: .w.. -;.:.;.'.i‘m....“~~ .m' ‘ (III-s ;r_. » , - '- -~ ~- A, fie rash of possible decision alternatives; , -‘ 2a '- _ 2. be alternatives that he actually perceives; 3. His own predispositions; ’ 4». The limitations of his socio-cultural environ-ant (seeming that the environment is not one of normleasneas); 5. The availability of channel sources; and 6. Imediate limitations, e.s., resources of time, energy, ability, money. Parsons3 stated that influence does not occur within a closed cyst-a. It is a means of persuasion which brings about a decision to set. lie draws an analogy between money and influence, regarding both as a "circulation medium," both as symbols. Parsons viewed influence as a symbolic medium of persuasion, detected by recognition of some symbolic act or component of action on the part of an actor which col-unicates a generalized basis of which trust, in more specific intentions, is requested and expected. The basic model just described fits Bauer's4 criterion of a transactional model, one in which feedback is viewed as an invitation to “make another offer." Feedback in the model is conceptualized as information-seeking. Information-seeking is the initiation of contact $7.8 person with one or more commication channels carrying information about an issue.5 31bid. l“Information-seeking is further defined in Chapter II. 51bid. 5 g - I To conclude, influence as a Indian inplies an intentional channil . 'esninnication involving a positive sanction and sons node of ‘qunrsuesion.6 This scold suggest that there is an issue of concern to Krebs informationnseeker. The term ”issue" implies the existence of a '~ topic with pro and con alternatives on which individuals would be likely 'to have a position. When the position is taken, a decision has been , ands. Objectives This research is designed to examine exposure to mediated and interpersonal communication sources for different types of issues. It is further intended to determine the relationship of this exposure to opinion leadership, sense of powerlessness, interest and gregariousness. The objectives are the following: 1. Toiexamihe the relationship of four variables -- opinion ;$IEadership; ease of powerlessness, interest, and filed 5‘ . , ‘W "7 ._.::,. \ Ere/823929” "‘L ‘2, reeéégfffiw 2. ,0 examine\the relationship of four variables -- opinion leadership, sense of powerlessness, interest, and gregariousness -- to the degree of interpersonalness in information-seeking. 3. To determine whether the relationships between the four variables and (1) the extent of information-seeking, and (2) the degree of interpersonalness, hold true for different issues. 61bid. ghostly produced evidence of the importance of face-to-face , interaction in ppinion formation and decision-making in relation to igdlated sources of information. In many investigations of the two- step flow hypothesis, the interrelationships of personal influence and mass communication have been the central focus.7 The research on personal influence is the main source of interest and inspiration for the present research. Previous research has generally looked into one issue at a time or one type of communication channel at a time and has compared various aspects of information- _§e§kingrbehavior. Katz and Lazarsfeld8 did compare communication behavior on more than one issue and type of channel, but their research context was limiting. They studied a population of women in a semi- metropolitan setting. Their work has been the basis for much later research. The present research was designed to counter the limitations of previous studies by looking at information-seeking in a broader context, from both mediated and interpersonal sources in a general papulation sample and for two issues. The research investigates 7Joseph T. Klapper, The Effects of Mass Cammunication, Glencoe, Illinois: The Free Press, 1960. 83. Katz and P. P. Lazarsfeld, Personal Influence: The Part Played by People in the Flow of Mass Communication, Glencoe, Illinois: The Free Press, 1955. Their findings are referred to throughout the Present research. 7 theoretic interests about the concept of personal influence by using an information-seeking measure to index probable effects of contacts with interpersonal and personal channels. Information-seeking, as a dependent variable, is uniquely operationalized in the present research. Three measures which allow comparison of information-seeking from mediated and interpersonal sources, are used.9 In addition, a comparison between two contrasting issues, one of which a public affairs and the other a social issue, is made. The information-seeking measures permit an examination of frequency of information-seeking contacts, detection of the number of different channels sought, and a determination of the degree of interpersonalness in information-seeking contacts. This latter measure is a unique contribution of the present research. The combination of independent variables in this study has not been previously applied in a research study. Although issue interest, opinion leadership and gregariousness were used in the classic Katz and Lazarsfeld study of personal influence, the measures of these variables in the present research are more refined.10 Previous reported research has not used sense of powerlessness as an independent variable to predict the nature of information-seeking. 9These measures are fully explained in Chapter III. lolbid. 8 1 Implications f The strategy of influence is important to persuasive communication, and the concept of influence is fundamental to an analysis of information-seeking activity. In examining the nature of an individual'a search for information on different types of issues, one can better compare ways in which channels of influence are specialized for different types of issues. In turn, this provides guidelines for selection of channels to be used for introducing messages into a communication network. As empirical evidence is gathered on patterns of information-seeking and the effect of related variables, understanding of the nature of the influence process increases. The general theme of alienation in contemporary life, is a significant one. Further insights into this concept (particularly one dimension, sense of powerlessness) gained by examining it within a communication framework should add new knowledge about this variable and its behavioral referents. Further investigation of the interplay between mediated and interpersonal communication sources adds a new dimension to the literature on the two-step flow of communication. Data from the present study provides an indication of the relationships between opinion leadership and powerlessness, a relationship not previously investigated. Information-seeking behavior, as measured in this study, can be used as a basis for comparing communication behavior of different types of persons relative to different issues. These ‘ iii-Iii “'6’; _-. ,. Wanting ,Lu. "" a" .u ' JFK"? ‘ ‘ Mar...“ ; ixflwsm. . .. "'. '7. ’17- -r.’ w - march centered amuml Lu‘ 'nrmfi that --q" (0 mpiu. Thu may; a b ' . k presumae‘." ct: r' l‘:. ' l M bi‘fi'f'. 4. 4..-; g} 8‘! M t':- e ‘Juun u ‘;:.=:J. 0:; _“ -u of $5.3. Information-Seeking Early communication research centered around the theme that . mass media “did something" to people. The media were felt to be all- M, .‘9 H , j N's- 3)" ”Q 4 effects, once exposed. It now seems clear that the media are not \ ' powerful, and people presumably were helpless in their control of all-powerful in bringing about attitudinal changes. The question which researchers now pose is: "What do people do to the media?" Concern has shifted to the "person" variables which enter into the flow of communication and to the dynamics of the transaction which takes . place. Given the present position, that people control the use of mediated and interpersonal communications and that gratifications are unique to the individual, researchers should look at the variables which account for individual differences in information-seeking. The investigation of sociological and psychological factors as predispositions to information-seeking has been limited. There is a standard core of demographic variables included in most studies, such as age, sex, socio-economic status, ethnic background, and stage in the life cycle. Diaz1 examined seVeral socio-psychological l \\ \, .;r\\ , a f }Jnan Dias Bordenave, The Search for Instrumental Iggormation Ling; Farmers of the Brazilian northeast, A Thesis, Michigan State varsity, l 66. 11 c straits of the Brazilian Northeast. lunsrous_diffus_9n stu:ies, “\W Ingersz reported,_hgve eramined_differences in information-seeking behavior on the part of opinion leaders and non-opinion leaders. The classic lots and Lasarsfeld3 study of personal influence included gregariousness and interest as two important predisposing factors in the prediction of information-seeking behavior. , rrgldah14 operationalised information-seeking as a response to crisis messages which would induce persons actively to search out information from a Civil Defense agency. Dias5 defined information- seeking similarly, as a search for instrumental information needed in k decision-making to improve some aspect of the farming operation or t9 improve present knowledge._ For the purposes of the present research, information-seekigg is defined as the degree to which a receiver utilizes mediated and interpersonal communication channels to obtain ideas, advice, or information about a specific issue. Interpersonalness, though a popular term used in talking about communication behavior, is not clearly defined by investigators whose works have bearing on this research. Researchers tend to \— ZE .M. Rogers, Diffusion of Innovations, New York: The Free ._________________________ Press of Glencoe, 1962 3E. Katz and P. F. Lazarsfeld, Personal Influence: The Part Played by People in the Flow of Mass Communication, Glencoe, Illinois: The Free Press, 1 55. 4V. C. Troldahl, R. Van Dam and G. B. Robeck, Information Seoki Duri a National Crisis, Department of Communication Research RfiPort, East Lansing: Michigan State University, July, 1964. SOP. Cit. n r . w - . . ._“.J‘-. VMK. H. ‘01": 14’ .a ’9—5- v‘Im'...-'a..d' ‘n‘ 12 dichotomirs interpersonal information sources and mediated information sources. There was no evidence found to indicate that information- eeeking has been analysed in terms of a ratio between interpersonal and mediated sources. Degree of interpersonalness is defined as the ratio or relationship of an individual's use of interpersonal communication channels to use of mediated communication channels. The present research focuses on four independent variables as predisposing factors in information-seeking behavior: opinion leadership, sense of powerlessness, issue interest, and gregariousness. Eight general hypotheses provide the central focus for the investigation. Opinion Leadership First, it is hypothesized that: GH 1: The extent of information-seekipg is positivelz related to self-designated opinion leadership= GH 2: The degree of interpersonalness in information-seeking is negatively related to opinion leadership, As a matter of background, it is appropriate to look at some empirical investigations of the "two-step flow" hypothesis, which was stated as: "Influences stemming from the mass media first reach 'opinion leaders' who in turn, pass on what they read and hear to those of their everyday associates for whom they are influential."6 Findings from the voting analysis, The People's Choice, led to the original hypothesis.7 _________________ 5B. Kata, "The Two-Step Flow of Communication: An Up-to-Date Report on an Hypothesis," Public Opinion Sparterly, Vol. 21, Spr1ng, 1957, p. 61-78. 7P. P. Lazarsfeld, B. Barelson, K. Gaudet, The People's Choice. .g"-' New York: Columbia University Press, 1948. Specifically the findings~}i‘ n " were: (1) personal contacts appeared to be both more frequent ang,w*; I ” ,.Leffective than mass media in influencing voting decision; (2) ya " ' --Is at every level of society were very much like per - v-; and (3) opinion leaders were found to be.;~t;; ‘ QVIIII Indie than the filiflihflfihmdflnuh_ _u:bhm.w 'FP ”i l3 lagers8 pointed out that research evidence suggests a nulti- élésep flow where opinion leaders influence other opinion leaders, who ‘ -;ia turn influence their followers. The distinction of leaders and non- leaders is necessary to any application of the two-step flow idea, as is the differentiation of both interpersonal and mediated sources of influence. Troldahl9 reconceptualised the two—step flow hypothesis by ' including a balance theory notion. His viewpoint implied that the second step of the two-step flow would be initiated only by those persons whose predispositions were in conflict with media messages to which they were exposed. Schulman10 also reformulated the statement of the two-step flow hypothesis using balance theory. He purported to correct two conceptual problems, first by specifying the conditions under which opinion leaders link the unexposed (or non-opinion leaders) to the mass media, and second by including analysis of the content of the interpersonal communication flow. Since the Decatur study, communication researchers have tended to focus the attention of their investigations on a single type of subject matter (i.e., an issue relative to a certain type of source). The part played by opinion leaders has been widely 80p. cit. ‘ 9v. c. Troldahl, a Field Egerimental Test of a Modified ‘ 'Two-step Flow of Communication Model, Paper presented to the Association of Educators in Journalism, Lincoln, Nebraska, August, 1963. This, incidentally, was just one aspect of his . ‘c 11...:.._ 106.1. schuimn, The Tho-Ste Plow n othesis of m. cm- " 1F munication: A Reformulation Usipg Cogpitive Dissonance Theorz, A.Thesia '1 V . Stanford University, 1965. 14 piiififihs.p.:.. It is noted that investigation of mass media influence eiiii- a large share of the communication literature. There is a scarcity of research where the information-seeking behavior of the sine group of individuals is compared on different types of issues.12 Much of the research inspired by the Decatur study of personal influence has pursued information-seeking activities relative to public affairs issues and technological innovations. One of the important findings of the Kate and Lazarsfeld13 study of personal influence was that interest and opinion leadership differed from issue to issue. The fact that one person emerged as an opinion leader on one issue, they assumed, had no bearing on the liklihood , that the same person would be a leader on another issue. They reported little evidence of generalized leadership on all issues. However, it is the opinion of Marcus and Bauer14 that the question of whether there is generalized opinion leadership from issue to issue is open to question and not yet fully answered. Their recalculation of the Kate and Lazarsfeld data on two and three-area opinion leadership shows different results than originally reported. They point out that their recalculation shows a 11Researchers such as R. Merton, H. Lionberger, E. Wilkening, G. Beal, E. Rogers, E. Xatz, and P. Lazarsfeld, to name a few, 12The Decatur study investigated communication networks of a sample of women in the community on four issues: fashion, marketing, public affairs and movies. 1302. cit" p. 332-334. 14A. 8. Marcus and R. A. Bauer, "Yes: There are Generalised Pfisinion Leaders,“ W Vol- 28. 3m“. 196%., _ 91,1 8. 0 ' '7: 3‘:- An‘. d... ' -. -64} -761. H n,’.£, ‘ '} 15 ”what consistent, occurrence of leadership in any two areas that iiiéfeeter than that which would be expected to occur by chance. |;éi§§!rdina to these researchers, it is of theoretical importance to {aghmugflhe relationship of being a leader in one area or in several areas, since it does bear on an additional characteristic of opinion leadership. It is of practical importance to know the probability of recurrence of opinion leadership in additional areas once such a person has been identified. The question seems worthy of further investigation. Opinion leaders, as pointed out by Rogersls, are those indi- viduals from whom others seek advice and information. Merton16 characterizes the opinion leader as one individual in a face-to-face exchange between two individuals in a social system. The opinion leader exerts influence upon the other individual which results in a change of behavior. For the purposes of this research, an opinion lands; is defined as a person who himself indicates that he influences the opinions and behaviors of other individuals through personal contact. At times an opinion leader will be referred to as an influential. Sense of Powerlessness Another predisposing factor germane to the explanation of information-seeking behavior is a person's sense of power over the various issues that affect the circumstances of his life. It seems logical to assume that individuals will vary in their feelings of .._.___.______.__ 150p. cit., p. 208 $4 16R. K. Merton, Social Theory and Social Structure, Glencoe, Illinois: The Free Press, 1957, 387-420. 3‘ 16 ‘ 'piier or the feeling that their behavior affects outcomes of events. This is particularly relevant to the whole information-seeking process. Iithout a sense of mastery and the belief that his action makes a difference, a person would not actively seek information and utilize it in reaching decisions relevant to the issues. It also seems logical that individuals feel more powerless about some issues than others. than a sense of powerlessness does exist, it would follow that the person might altogether avoid any contact with that issue. This is highly relevant to the explanation of communication behavior and needs to be further explored to determine its theoretic significance to a communication point of view. Therefore, it is hypothesized that: GH 3: The extent of information-seeking is negatively related to a sense of powerlessness. GH 4: The degree of interpersonalness of information-seeking is negatively related to a sense of powerlessness. Sense of powerlessness is one dimension of alienation as explicated by Seeman.17 His definition of alienation as a sense of ngggrlgssness is: “The expectancy of probability held by the individual that his own behavior cannot determine the outcomes or reinforcements he seeks." The individual feels a separation from effective control over his own destiny, a helplessness or sense of '1 ‘. Q 17M. Seeman, “On The Meaning of Alienation,“ American Y Sociological ReviewI Vol. 24, December, 1959, pp. 783-791. he < postulated five key components of alienation: powerlessness, meaninglessness, normlessness, isolation and self-estrangement. His analysis Operationalized components in terms of social learning of ”expectancy" and "reward value." l7 giagp.naed for purposes other than his own. In the present research ‘lhjnln's conceptualization of sense of powerlessness is adopted for Ms. A basic belief that fate or luck determines outcomes has been 18 felt such discussed by social scientists for a long time. Veblen a belief was characteristic of an inefficient society. Though he was not concerned with the discussion of individuals in his Thgggy of the Leisure Class, he suggested that belief in fate or luck was linked with low production and general passivity. Fatalism has over time received considerable attention by anthropologists in studies of peasant societies. Niehoff19 defined fatalism as a belief that man's destiny is partially influenced by external forces which are largely unknown and are partially or entirely beyond his control. Fateful causation, he says, appears to have two facets, one stemming from the supernatural order and other merely an unknown force which affects men. The concept of alienation, according to Rotter, Seaman and Liverant20 , provides a natural bond between sociological and psycho- logical interests. Evidence of the bond is that the idea of alienation and the idea of internal-external control are concerned with antecedents and consequences of the individuals' sense of powerlessness. These researchers point out that there appear to 18T. Veblen, The Theory of the Leisure ClassI New York: MacMillan, 1899; and Modern Library Edition, 1934. 19A. Niehoff, "Discussion: Fatalism in Asia," Anthro olo- gical Quarterly, Vol. 39, No. 3, July, 1966, pp. 244-253. 208. Rotter, M. Seaman, and S. Liverant, "Internal ve. External 3;;5. Control of Reinforcements: A,Major Variable in Behavior Theory,“ _ Fi'35. , Vol. 2, ed, n, F. Sashburne, PergamgA _;‘ ;,u¢ H .. 18 .533 (1‘3"; ideas: regarding some broad characteristics of persons who .1 . , L144»; 5 on low on a belief dimension or continuum of internal vs. m1 control. For example, at one end of the continuum would be an indi- vhlsal who believes strongly in external control. He is relatively passive in his attempt to change himself or his environment. He feels the world is overwhelmingly complex and that he has very little power to control its effects on his life. Such an individual would feel helpless and would not actively seek to better either himself or his position. _’As an information seeker, he would attend to a few interpersonal or mediated information channels and would not contact the ones he did httend to often. 3 ' ‘ At the opposite end of the continuum is an individual who believes y strongly in internal control. He believes that his environment and . the world about him can be controlled. He is active in his search for . information to enable himself to adapt to his environment. He seeks information from all possible interpersonal and mediated information channels and makes frequent contacts with those available. These persons would generally tend to be opinion leaders, and perhaps innovators. Toward the middle of the continuum falls the individual who believes the world is somewhat controllable. Although control is limited, he feels he can gain greater understanding of it and b increase his own satisfaction. He has some feeling of adequacy and confidence. His information-seeking would tend to favor a few channels where he has learned to trust the information received. 19 *i ‘ , elf-it can a. as . mugging factor underlying 'fifiVii‘ , ionpseekimg is to become knowledgablawand develop greater -fidtstsal control, alienation is an important predispositional factor. Isa-en and lvansz1 found that individuals who differed in degree of alienation likewise differed in the amount of objective knowledge they acquired about their life situation. High alienation accompanied limited knowledge. In an important sense, knowledge-acquisition (i.e., information-seeking) was irrelevant when persons believed that fate, luck, chance, or external forces, rather than their own behavior, controlled the fall of events. These researchers found a } correlation of -.31 between knowledge and sense of powerlessness, significantly different from zero at the one percent level.22 Individuals who are “luck” oriented or "fate" oriented tended to be passive and were less likely to seek information. If an individual sought information, it was likely that he believed he had the power to control events through acquiring knowledge. Only one dimension of alienation, powerlessness, is analyzed in the present research. It has not been investigated in this manner in previous communication studies. In one study, Carter and Clarke23 reported using measures of anomie, which is regarded by 21M. Seaman, and J. H. Evans, ”Alienation and Learning in a Hospital Setting, " American Sociological ReviewI Vol. 27, December, 1962, p. 773- 781. 221__b1d. , p. 778. 23R. E. Carter and P. Clarke, ”Opinion Leadership Among . Educational TV Viewers, " American Sociological Review, Vol. 27, 6, ' PP. 792-799. 20 as the normlessness dimension of alienation.24 However, Alienation as a " _~ they did not relate it to information-seeking variable has been of major concern in voting studies,25 but generally of much less importance in communication research For the purposes of this research, sense of powerlessness is defined as a feeling of lack of control over the outcome of public or social issues and a low expectancy that one s own behavior can alter them. Issue Interest It is hypothesized that: an 5: The extent of information-seeking is positively related : to doggee of issue interest. : GH 6: The degree of interpersonalness of information-seeking is positively related to degree of issue interest. Interest was one predisposing factor to information-seeking investigated by Katz and Lazarsfeld.26 Interest can be regarded as The synonomous with salience for the purposes of this research interest factor proposed here is one of a generalized nature. It is related to importance of the issue to the individual some evidence See L. Stole, 24The scale most used was deve10ped by Stole. ," American Sociological ”Social Integration and Certain Corrollaries 1956, pp. 709 716; and R. E. Carter and vol. 21, December, iP. Clarke, "Leadership Among Educational Television Viewers, ” 1962, pp. 792-799. American Sociological Review, vol. 27, December, 22M. B. Levin, The Alienated Voter: Politics in Boston, New York: 1960; "and M. B. Levin and M. Eden, Political Public Opinion anrterlx, Vol. 26, Hblt-Rinehart and Winston, Strategy of the Alienated Vbter, 5Pring, 1962, pp. 47-63. 2402. cit., pp. 325-327. ..; _ ,.-.7""‘v;‘l : .‘v-s" r , 21 | ' ' indicating the presence of decision-making activity on the 'ftpy's¢~the.individual, and the performance of some behavioral act Tii‘llting from a decision which has been made. It might also be regarded as an indicator of receptivity to information relevant to the issue of interest. Interest is defined for this study, as a psychological involvement of the individual with the issue which facilitates awareness and action. This implies that an individual attends to certain stimuli in his environment and relates his information-seeking behavior to the stimuli he perceives. Gregariousness The fact that all communication takes place within a social context poses a strong argument for consideration of the social contacts of persons in any information-seeking study. Therefore, it is hypothesized that: GH 7: The extent of information-seeking is positively related to €2§F99 of gregariousness. GH 8: The degree of interpersonalness of information-seekipg is positively related to deggee of gregariousness. Gregariousness is defined as the extent of an individual's formal and informal social contacts with other people. Researchers using the concept have indexed it in various ways. Katz and Lazarsfe1d27 found gregariousness to be significantly related to _____ 27oz. cit. pp. 226-233, 242-244, 259-269, 287-289, and 299-302. 22 - .. v . “.i”t_illllfllss.- They assessed gregariousness, using two indicators, WW ; . of friends an individual use and on number of organisations i ’Wffieh»he.belonged and used a self-designating opinion leadership ysaasars. A complete discussion of how they measured these two nostisblss is in Chapter 3. Control veriables There are certain variables which communication research has established as likely to have effect on the present hypotheses. The effect of these variables should be controlled or removed. In the present study these control variables are age, sex, marital status and number of children (family life cycle), education, socio-economic status, and community size. These are expected to be related to information-seeking, but are not of theoretic interest_in the present { ," analysis. k if Issue Differences There is strong evidence that information-seeking activity is different for different issues. A large portion of previous research Discussion of political activity has dealt with public affairs issues. is obviously different from movie-going activity, as has been illustrated by’xatz and I.azarsf.eld.28 Two contrasting issues are selected for the present study: (1) job opportunities for women, and (2) broadening the state (Nebraska) tax base. It is assumed that these two issues will reveal different -—_———— 28%. cit., p. 334. 23 f'cj? of communication behavior. The activities and opportunities for i iiiifib.in the labor force is regarded as a salient and timely social ; .. aih.'issue, and the tax base problem as a salient and timely public affairs . I g issue. At the same time these are two quite different issues for a population of adults in Nebraska. The nature of the issues chosen for the study are classified b' as a social issue and a public affairs issue.29 The social issue focuses on a controversial aspect of the role of women, e.g., the working wife and mother. The public affairs issue focuses on a controversy in state government. Since the data were gathered during the 1965 state legislative season, it seemed logical to select an issue which was a ; subject of debate during this period. Prior to the pilot study for the present research, a third, personal, issue was included. The topic of fashion was chosen to provide a partial replication of the Katr-Lazarsfeld study of personal influence. Due to several problems which appeared during the pilot study, the issue was dropped. The Katz-Lazarsfeld study sampled only Women, and although fashion questions were modified for use with men as well in the present inquiry, the interviewers found the men 29Public affairs issues are those which relate to matters controlled by decision-makers in government. In some instances these may come to vote of the people. This would be the individual's ultimate control over public affairs issues. In other instances an individual might influence officials who would be deciding the outcome of the issue. Social issues are those which relate to matters controlled by the individual within their immediate environment. They may be related to broader trends in society but the individual has decision-making power in the outcome of the issue. 24 0 ”(fully reluctant to give answers. Their reaction was one of general rein-st to an: about clothing and fashion. .. I . There was evidence of ubarrassment on the part of both men and women respondents. The topic seemed to be clouded by several factors: (1) their general reaction was that they could not afford to buy clothes (average income level in Nebraska is less than $3,000 per year), (2) they felt that one should not worry about what one wears, ' and (3) their feelings were linked to overweight problems and other physical shortcomings. In short, the issue sewed confounded by other variables for the present respondents. The issues of job opportunities for women and a broadened tax \ base seened adequate in the pilot study, and so were selected for the main data-gathering. According to the President's Report on the Status of Women,30 more than 75 per cent of the American women are currently employed outside the home, for some extended period in their lifetime. But there remain prevalent attitudes that they should not be pursuing these employment roles. This is the basis of the social issue, which is an opinionated topic of conversation in many social settings. Though the trend in society is toward a larger percentage of employment of working women, it is not congruent with the middle class value of "a woman's place is in the home." Neither social tradition nor social institutions have changed with the trend. Women find themselves on both sides of the fence, both defending their right to define the contemporary role, and clinging to the traditional role. 303. Peterson, President's Report on the Status of Women, Washington D. 6.: Depath of Labor, 1964. 25 Based on the accounts of the 1963 Nebraska legislative session from state senators, there seemed to be agreement that the issue of a broadened tax base would be one of extreme controversy and lengthy discussion during the 1965 legislative session. Senators agreed that some decisions would have to be made, and that there would likely be a high degree of communication between legislators and their constituents regarding the issue. In short, it seemed evident that there would be opportunity for exposure to these two issues via interpersonal and mediated com- munication channels at the time the data were collected for the present research. The reasons for selecting two different types of issues to be researched are substantiated by the position taken by Schulman31, in his reformulation of the two-step flow hypothesis, that the communication context should be more clearly specified. Comparison of information- seeking in two different issue contexts should reveal interesting and important contrasts and should determine whether the relationships of the variables hold true for different issues. 3102. cit., p. 1. m 111 mm This chapter describes the social environment in which the research was conducted and the characteristics of the sample population. The methodological procedures used in ‘ L * drr‘ot-“t, data- collection, hypothesis-testing and analysis, are presented. Nebraska As A Continuity In examining the nature of an individual's search for information on different types of issues, it is important to look at the environ- ment within which the search takes place. Nebraska is celebrating its centennial year in 1967. Though this century-old state is currently and historically an agrarian state, employment has been gradually shifting from agriculture to industry. A substantial portion of the industry, as would be expected, is ag- releted. There are 82,000 farmers and ranchers in the state, operating over 48 million acres of agricultural land. The average farm size in 1965 was 590 acres, over 70 per cent larger than it was 30 years ago when there was a peak number of 135,000 far-ms.1 The official population count of Nebraska in April, 1960, was 1,411,330.2 The projected population estimate at the time data for the 1'Annual Report of the Nebraska Department of miculture and Inspection, Lincoln, Nebraska: Nebraska Department of Agriculture and Inspection, 1963-64. 21!. 8. Bureau of the Census, Census of the United States: 1960 Pmlation. 26 .9: - «I A 3.» n ‘ ~ fin-‘w ‘3 L ‘ . . E .al'. ".1: ' 27 Wu were’gathered (1965) was 1,503,000. During the period- . 1‘1960, there was an increase in the State's population of 6.5 jféfbkn5‘. The 1960 Census revealed that 54.3 per cent of the population ' mum urban and 45.7 was rural. Urban population increased by ‘vliifilfia-and rural population declined by 58,328, the net increase being 85.820ipersons. The recent shifts of population from rural to urban have been influenced by several aspects of social and technological change. The technological advances in farming methods and mechanization have enabled fewer persons to produce more food and fiber. Increasing amounts of goods and services are being provided in growing industrial cities. People are moving to more densely populated areas to take advantage of the job opportunities there. Nebraska's manufacturing ‘ industries have undergone great expansion in recent years, from 1954 ‘ to 1963, adding value representing an increase of 88.5 per cent.3 As a result members of families may be living in parts of the state far removed from each other. Increased mobility facilitates frequent job shifts. In a state like Nebraska, this ultimately results in fewer people in rural and small town areas who are customers for small town business. The growing suburban areas become a more likely area for successful small business and industry to operate. Coupled with the population shifts are increasing numbers of children and longer . life expectancy. 3U. 8. Bureau of the Census, Census of Manufacturers: 1954, 19§§i engF Bipartment of Commerce. ‘;M’t:i¢ A..- ‘ an a ‘ v... “ . 28 , . , ~1 :‘iajttc i seaport. the distribution of population within lebtalka fi,wj*‘ ,, ty, at indicated by the u. 3. Census of 1930 and 1960.“ In ‘iTrl, there were 540 incorporated places in Nebraska, 43 of these path over 2,500 population. Three out of five had a population of less , ‘thsn 500 people. ‘ The foregoing discussion points out that Nebraska is fast beconing urbanized and that more than half the population is now living in urban areas (52 per cent in cities over 2,500). At the same time the decline in rural farm population is countered by an increase in rural non-farm, a group expected to have increasing influence in the social climate of the state. Non-agricultural rural residents will not only take up more space in rural areas but the movement to open country creates such problems as fire protection, school systems, local government, public utilities, and job competition to list a few. Data Collection and Sample A random sample of 1,500 persons was drawn for a research project conducted in 1961 by the University of Nebraska, Office of Adult Education Research.5 The 1,500 adult respondents were selected by area probability techniques and constituted a representative cross- section of the total adult population of Nebraska between 21 and 69 years of age. The 93 Nebraska counties were categorized according to the similarity of these demographic variables: sex, age, marital status, 41b1d., 1930 and 1960. 5Alan B. Knox, The Baseline Study of Adult Participation in Nebraska - A Longitudinal Study, A Report prepared by the Office of Adult Education Research, Lincoln: University of Nebraska, 1962. Towns (under 2500) 20% Small Towns (under 2500) 24% 3 Figure 1: Distribution of the Population of Nebraska ' by Community Size in 1930 and 1960 (‘1' u" ‘w Maine, occupation, and income of the adult residents. Iron reuniting category of counties (in some cases one or two counties), .3 rare selected for their similarity to each other and for their lepresentativeness of the group of counties from which they were drawn. A proportionate number of respondents were selected from each of the resulting 21 sample counties, so that the sample population of 1,500 would represent the total adult population of the state (See Figure 2). A comparison of the characteristics of the adults in the 21 sample counties with the total adult population in the state revealed that differences did not exceed half of one per cent. Using enumeration lists of the households in each county, a table of random numbers was utilized to select two representative ' samples. Each included the number of names required to represent that area in the total census (i.e., sample size was proportionate to total population). The second sample was used for replacing respondents who were average, who had moved, who had died, or who refused to be interviewed. Three callbacks were made before the subject was replaced. A probability table was used to select the respondent from all eligible adults in the household, so that a variety of household roles would be 3 adequately represented in the total sample. The interview schedule for the 1961 study was pretested in a Nebraska county which included a small city. One hundred twenty-three persons were interviewed in the 1961 pilot study. The sample included a representation of city, small town, and rural dwellers, approximately Proportional to the total for the state. oxmuunuz ca ooaucoou uaoaum "N unswah . . ._ H _ fl .. m m m _ u .. w u «52:... m n u n v n _ 50010:: " -.l.-.r-i-J. ” m _. m . m n n “ . . . r-. 2-..: . 1.-.- L. -- .7.-- -- -_.. .. .-..--.T-i..-- . . . . _ _ - zilri. -.Ll| -.-..— "inordi— n mzun.‘ _ n _ .T- w _ 31.3 m .. . _ . . _ _ nos :52. . M .. w . u _ _ _ . :35 .T .I .31. i. - 2.- ..... .-\.---.-.\:.. .-..-.4../.-.-.-.-.. 3.1... . 1-1..-- {-5.1 - l- 2.--.-- .II --.J _ _ . _ _ _ . u _ _ u mm: .6563: w _ L. is. M m rousing. _ u . . . . m _ n _ 12...}... _ W . x... _. . _ n _ Kmemf. . Infill-1T - ll . ..... I.“ \ “t... ---|W.-..I.-- ll... .I--.-.l-.1--. T - - .- 1- ll. r_ _ - ----.-m¢mo2=cm \: _ u m _ _ . . 2.2.8 .. _ . . .... . . _ . -- -- _ if...- 5.... .5... . .. -.- . . .. . . _ .. .. . .q worms-o _...i.-- —- -3--- -- -.1i -u-l 1. .7 - l-.....1i-.- il . _ . _ . _ u m _ . . _ . H _ .. .. .. _ _ _ __ _. " 4........... .leii: .4 I--.x-w.-I-- .1. _ J ........ Ill . _ H n H M v n _ . _ m _ ”LegumLSum _ h w . _ M m r . _ ...-.--..-.-u..r....-..i!..-.r.--.-..- - III-l ill .......I- LI - - rl. I _ I. . _ 4.. I. _ n _ . _ _ m 0 “ fl ._ XJON— .23 . . r ._ no. .. 395% _....-..-.--- L. w _ _ n _ ._ . _ . m . _ _ _ . \\-. ._.:-| _ m a . /:L m _ m __ _ . . .r _ t" 32 0 '55?F';,the 1960 census figures and found to be representative on such ppeienecouomic variables as sex, age, marital status, formal education, igfi- upation, and income. No differences beyond one-half of one per cent lere_f§und. Data were collected by 25 experienced interviewers. Before going into the field, they were given approximately twenty hours of interviewer training (see Appendix A). This training included complete explanation of each section of the structured questionnaire which they were to administer in the homes of the respondents. The 1965 pilot study was used as a training experience for the interviewers before the main study data collection. The 1965 pilot study sample included the same persons selected for the 1961 pilot study. Eighty-six interviews were completed and constituted the pilot study sample. The major purpose of the pilot study was to screen items for use in the final questionnaire and to provide a basis for analysis of the data in the final sample. The pilot study data were gathered in March, 1965, and analysis was completed in April of 1965. Interviewers were instructed to make three call-backs before they considered the respondent to be inaccessable for the interview. If the respondent was not found after the third contact, no replace- ment was made in the sample. At the completion of the data collection period, May 1 to August 20, 1965, one final effort was made to interview those respondents who had been unavailable earlier. Table 1 shows the attrition of the 1961 sampge in the 1965 data-gathering. [our hundred two subjects constituted the total sample for the present -;4;1f1~7 .5‘ ‘ in: . “1‘". .3 2-8:; ‘ 33 characteristics of the Sample Population The social and demographic characteristics of the population under j( study, relevant in terms of the present analysis of information-seeking, ‘ are shown in Table 2. ‘ ., There are slightly more women than men in the sample. Fifty— one and one-half per cent are women and forty-eight and one-half per cent men. linety-seven per cent of these are white, and three per cent Negro and other races. The youngest respondent is 25 and the oldest is 73. Median age was 43 years. Looking at statistics on marital status, eighty-five per cent are married and ten per cent single. In cities, eight out of ten adults are married and in towns and rural areas nine out of ten adults are married. About one in ten of city families had no children compared with one out of twenty living in towns or rural areas. Average number of children is 2.17 per family while there are 2.09 adults per household. For married adults in the total state, the average is 2.8 children per family. There are a larger proportion of older adults in rural areas who have large families. Young adults had about the same number of children regardless of where they lived. Looking at the education levels of the sample, mean education is approximately 11.5. This would tend toward a higher education level than the general education level of the state's population. Figure 3 shows a percentage breakdown of education levels. In Nebraska the trend in the past 50 years has been toward more ' education. This is noticeable in urban areas where highly educated youth tend to migrate and where many jobs may require a higher level . 0f education. TABLE 1 Attrition Of The 1961 Sample In The 1965 Data-Gathering Reason for Dropout Pilot Study Main Study N 1 N Death 3 2.4 10 2.0 Mbved out of the state 7 5.7 24 4.8 Refusal 9 7.3 44 8.8 Not located 6 4.9 15 3.0 Not available 3 2.4 5 1.0 Questionnaire not usable 9 7.3 - - Usable questionnaire 86 70.0 402 80.4 Total 123 100.01 500 100.01 TABLE 2 Social And Demographic Characteristics Of The Sample Population Percent Characteristic of Sample ,1N=402) 1. race white 97.02 negro 2.7 other 0.3 2. sex male 48.5% female 51.5 3. marital married 85.0% status single 7.7 widowed 5.2 separated 0.8 divorced 1.3 4. adults at one 6.9% home two 79.6 mean . 2.09 three 11.1 four or more 2.4 5. number of unknown 9.0% children none 9.7 one 12.4 two 22,8 three 19.9 four 12.6 five or more 14.6 6. age 25-35 years 16.91 (XP48.68) 36-45 27.4 median 8 43 46-55 23.9 56-65 20.5 66-75 11.4 7. education 0-8 years 23.6% mean - 11.5 9-11 years 17.4 median = 11.0 High SChool Grad. 33.3 12 + non-college 8.4 1-3 years college 9.9 College Grad. 4.5 Post Grad. Work 3.0 8. community farm 37.51 size Under 2,499 20. 2,500-9,999 7. l0,000-49,999 50,000 and over TABLE 2 (Continued) Percent Characteristic of Sample (N=402) 9. years in 0-5 years 17.21 community 6-10 15.9 mean ' 14.7 11-20 21.8 median = 20 21 plus 45.1 10. socio-economic Upper-Upper .32 status Lower-Upper 5.7 Upper-Middle l4 . 6 Midd 1e-Hidd 1e 33 . 5 Lower-huddle 34.4 Upper-Lower 10.7 Lower-Lower .8 11. number of not known 22.81 organizations none 4.8 mean - 2.3 one 26.8 two 16.6 three 13.1 four 9.2 five +' 6.7 12. overall com- Read newspaper munication most every day 85.01 behavior Watch TV most every day 78.0 Hobby, engaged in at least monthly 73.0 Read magazines regularly 68.0 Listen to radio most every day 64.0 Listen to recorded music at least weekly 32.0 Read one or more books past year 35.0 Read six or more books past year 18.0 Used library, past three months 12.0 37 An overall ranking of the sample population was made according to a three factor index of socio-economic status based upon the individual's occupations, educational level, and residence rating. Thirty-three per cent of the population is in the middle status category while twenty per cent of the sample population is above the middle status category and 46 per cent below. Only 11 per cent in the low status category and 6 per cent above. Almost four out of ten college graduate men are in professional occupations. Less than one in ten women college graduates are in these occupations. Using the census breakdown of "professional, technical, and kindred," these occupations included accountants, chemists, clergymen, college professors, engineers, lawyers, librarians, nurses, physicians, social workers, and teachers. Thirty-seven and one-half per cent of the respondents lived on farms and 31 per cent lived in metropolitan areas of over 50,000 people. Just over 45 per cent of them had lived over 20 years of their life in the same community and 17 per cent had lived there five years or less. A cursory analysis of the overall communication behavior of the respondents reveals that 85 per cent read newspapers almost every day, 78 per cent watch television almost every day and 64 per cent listen to radio every day. They belong to an average of 2.3 organizations. These characteristics of overall communication behavior of the sample population are relevant background for the analysis of the theoretic interests of this research. One of the assumptions underlying the research, is that individuals would have opportunity for exposure to communications messages about the two issues upon Which the research inquiry was focused. Amount of Education 1 0-8 years 23.6 9-11 years 17.4 J h.s. grad 33.3 12 + non-col. 8.4 1-3 years col. 9.9 col. grad. 4.5 post grad. ‘ 3.0 _J Figure 3: Percentage Breakdown of Sample by Education (Moan education level is 11.5 years) 39 In the inquiry, respondents were asked to nominate one source of information they preferred about "Nebraska's state problems" and "activities of women outside the home." .As a source about state problems newspapers, television, and professionals are the top three nominated as preferred sources. The top three for information on.women are newspapers, professionals, and a tie between spouse and magazines. The top three mediated sources are newspapers, television, and magazines for both issues. The tap three interpersonal sources for the taxation issue are professionals, spouse, and male friends and for the women working issue, professionals, female friends, and spouse. Though preferred sources were nominated, this did not necessarily mean that the individual reported actual infor- mation-seeking from that source. Since personal influence is of major theoretic interest the present research, a report on characteristics of the individuals who are influentials for the sample population is important. Interpersonal sources of information are then central concern for the researcher. Not all respondents report conversations in regard to the two issues, taxation and women working. They were asked to think over their activities during the"past two weeks or so" -- people they had talked to or things they had seen or heard about the "issue of changing the state tax base from property tax to some other method of taxation” or about "the issue of women who are employed outside the home." Approximately one-fourth of the total respondents report conversations on both issues. This one-fourth is not composed of the same individuals for both issues. They tended to talk to friends most, regardless of the issues. Forty-one per cent report conversations with friends 40 about taxation and 47 per cent report conversations with friends about working women. A greater proportion of men are reported in regard to taxation and in regard to women working, women are more frequently reported. Conversations with relatives are about the same for both issues, roughly 35 per cent reporting conversations with relatives. Reports on length of conversation indicated that individuals tended to spend more time discussing the taxation issue than the women working issue. Respondents were asked which persons had given them the best information or advice about the issue and then queried about the person they named. In discussing taxation, roughly one-fourth indicate that the person who had given them the best advice was a person whom they had never met before. Only one in ten are friends and one in five are non-job acquaintances. On the other hand, close friends are attributed with giving the best information on the women working issue by more than half the respondents, and nearly one-fourth indicated that best information came from a "fairly close friend." More than 15 per cent indicated that the person nominated was a codworker. Very few indicated that non-job acquaintences or persons they had not known or seen before had given them "best" information. Ninety-two per cent of the respondents indicated that influentials for the women working issue tend to be persons well known to them, compared to only 29 per cent for the taxation issue. Eighty-nine per cent of the influentials on the taxation issue are men, but for the women working issue 74 per cent were women. Influentials for the taxation issue tend to be older and more highly educated than influentials for the women working issue. The average 41 age of influentials is 51 for the taxation issue and 40 for the women working issue. The average education of influentials is 14.0 for the taxation issue and 12.9 for women working issue. When asked how concerned their "preferred" interpersonal source was about the improvement of the state tax structure, 56 per cent of the respondents answer "very concerned" and 36 per cent answer "fairly concerned." When queried about the up-to-dateness of the persons views of problems in state government taxation were, 63 per cent answer "very concerned" and 28 per cent answer "fairly.“ Similarly, when respondents were asked how concerned their "preferred" source was about the improvement of woman's role outside the home, 56 per cent answer "very concerned" and 44 per cent answer "fairly concerned." On up-to-dateness 56 per cent say the persons views are "very" up-to-date and 46 per cent say "fairly." Instrument Development Several variables have been shown to be theoretically linked to information-seeking behavior. These variables are presented in Table 3 with a brief statement of how each was operationalized for the purposes of the present research. Two contrasting issues were selected for this research: taxation and women working. Throughout the research these two issues were studied as separate problems. Comparisons are made on the basis of the total sample rather than on the basis of individuals within this sample of the population. Following is a discussion of instrument development and the measures used. TABLE 3 MEASUREMENT OF INDEPENDENT AND DEPENDENT VARIABLES* Independent Variables Dependent Variables l. Extent of Information- Seeking 1. Opinion Leadership* op: 7-item self-desig- nating opinion leadership scale 0p.l: Frequency Index: 0ne_point for each information-seeking contact op.2: Channel Index: One point for each dif- ferent channel sought 2. Degree of Interpersonalness in Information-Seeking op.l: Interpersonalness Index: Ratio of personal to mediated channels 2. Sense of Powerlessness l. " 0p: 7-item sense of powerlessness scale 2. " 3. Issue Interest** 1. " op: score based on 6 issue interest 2. " questions 4. Gregariousness l. " op: score based on 7 questions regarding 2. " friendship and organizational activities *The control variables are: age, family life cycle (marital status and number of children), education, level sex, comr munity Size, and overall, seeio-economic status education level, occupational level and rating of residence). **Ca1culated for each issue. 43 The data-gathering instrument in the 1965 study included items developed on the basis of the theoretic framework of the present research. Some measures were developed specifically for use in this research. Other measures utilized questions and scales from previous studies. Appendix B contains the complete sets of questions utilized to measure each concept. The opinion leadership scale and sense of powerlessness scale were modified for the present research. Items were selected after analysis of the pilot study data. The index of interest and index of gregariousness were patterned after the Katz-Lazarsfeld study of personal influence.6 The information-seeking measures, while similar to those used in other communication studies, are handled in a unique fashion. All measures were pretested in the pilot study and modi- fied on the basis of the results of their use in the pilot study interview schedule. Both dependent and independent variables, with the exception of gregariousness and general sense of powerlessness, were measured for each of the issues under study, women working and taxation. The Measures 1. As previously defined, information-seeking is the degree to which a receiver utilizes mediated and interpersonal communication channels to obtain ideas, advice or information about a specific issue. Information-seeking was indexed according to the number of contacts with mediated and interpersonal channels. Three indices were used: 602. cit. Katz and Lazarsfeld. 44 a frequency index, a channel index, and an index of degree of interpersonalness. The frequency index allowed one point for each information-seeking contact. The channel index allowed a point for each different channel used. The degree of interpersonalness in information- seeking was a ratio of the number of interpersonal to mass media channels used. Frequency Index: Frequency + Frequency Mediated Interpersonal or F = Fm_+ F1 Channel Index: Number of Different + Number of Different Mediated Channels Interpersonal Channels orC=Dm+Di Interpersonal- Number of Different Interpersonal Channels ness Index: Number of Different Number of Different Mediated Channels Interpersonal Channels or I = D1 (100) Dm + Di As an example of how the index operated, a respondent's answers to the questions on the taxation issue are scored: Q. Did you talk to anyone about this? A. Yes. Q. To whom did you talk? A. My wife and my boss. Q. Q. 45 How many conversations with each? (In the past two week period) A. A couple of times with my boss and half a dozen times with my wife. (score 8 points) Have you heard any speakers who made comments about this topic? A. Yes Could you tell me their names or their positions? A. One was some fella from the University and the other was Senator X. (score 2 points) Did you see or read any newspaper ads or articles? A. Sure...there's something in the paper almost every day. About how many? (During the past two weeks) A. Oh...at least a dozen or so. (score 6 points) Did you see or read any magazine ads or articles? A. Oh...three or four, I guess. (score 3 points) Have you seen or read any books about this issue? A. No. (score 0 points) Have you seen any TV programs or commercials about changing Nebraska's tax structure? A. One, about a week ago. (score 1 point) Have you heard any radio programs or commercials? A. No. (score 0 points) Have you received anything directly through the mail other than newspapers or magazines? A. No. (score 0 points) 46 Q. Have you gotten information in ways that we've not mentioned about the tax issue? A. I don't think 80. (score 0 points) D1 (100) Scoring: F = Fm + F1 C = Dm + Di I 3 Dm 4: D1 F = 10'+ 10 c = 3 +.4 1 = 3 (100) 7 I = 44 For this respondent then, the Information-Seeking Frequency score is 20, the Channel score is 7 and the Ratio of interpersonalness is .44. 2. Opinion leadership was previously defined as a person who himself indicates that he influences the Opinions and behavior of other individuals through personal contact. Self-designated opinion leadership was measured by a modification of Rogers' six-item self-designation opinion leadership scale7 and Katz and Lazarsfeld's two-item scale.8 Previous research reported reliability of the two measures. The Rogers six-item opinion leadership scale yielded a split-half reliability of .703. The Katz-Lazarsfeld two-item scale yielded a split- half reliability of .486 for public affairs opinion leaders and .563 for fashion opinion leaders. The measure in the present research added one item which did not appear in either the Rogers scale or the Katz-Lazarsfeld scale. It is: "About how many people you know look to you for advice or opinions about . . . ." 7Rogers, and D. Cartano, "Mathods of Measuring Opinion Leadership," Public Opinion Quarterly, Vol. 26, Fall, 1962, pp. 435-441. 802. cit. E. Katz and P. Lazarsfeld, pp. 376-377. 47 The combined seven item scale used in this research was validated against the Rogers and Katz-Lazarsfeld scales. Appendix C gives full information about scale analyses and validation procedures. 3. Sense of powerlessness has been defined as a feeling of lack of control over the outcome of public or social issues and a law expectancy that one‘s own behavior can alter them. Sense of powerlessness was indexed by using a scale of sense of powerlessness. The scale is a modification of those developed and used by Seeman and Evansg, Nettlerlo, clarkll, Dean12313, Neal and Rettig14, and Purlin.15 Fifteen items were selected from these scales to be tested in the pilot study. After analysis of the pilot study data, seven items were selected for use in the main study. Each item presents a dichotomous choice with one alternative indicating sense of powerlessness; for example: a. In mz_case, getting what I want has little or nothing to do with luck. 9Liverant, S., Rotter, S. and Seeman, Ms, Social Reaction Inventory, Research Report, Columbus, Ohio: Ohio State University. 10Nettler, Gwynn, "A Measure of Alienation”, American Sociological Review, 22, December, 1957, pp. 670-677. 11Clark, John P. "Measuring Alienation.Within A Social System", American Sociological Review: 24, December, 1959, pp. 848-852. 12Dean, Dwight G., "Alienation and Political Apathy," Social £25353, Vol. 38, March, 1960, pp. 185-189. 13Dean, Dwight G., "Alienation: Its Meaning and Measurement,“ American Sociological Review, Vol. 26, October, 1961, pp. 753-758. 14Neal, Arthur G., and Rettig, Solomon, "Dimensions of Alienation Among Manual and NonAManual Workers," American Sociolggical Review, Vol. 28, August, 1963, pp. 599-608. 15Purlin, Leonard 1., "Alienation From Work: A Study of'Nursing Personnel," American Sociological Review, Vol. 27, June, 1962, pp- 314-326 . 48 b. Many times, we might just as well make our decisions by flipping a coin. In addition to the measure of general sense of powerlessness, five questions relative to each issue were asked in the pilot study to provide a specific measure of the individual's sense of powerlessness on each issue. In this way the concept of powerlessness could be examined separately for each issue as well as in general. An example of the type of questions used is: "How much influence do you feel you have over your state Legislators if you talk to them or write to them about your feelings on taxes and spending? Very much, quite a bit, some, very little, or none at all?" These items were also analyzed. Each item was compared with the general sense of powerlessness measure, and found to be highly correlated (.60 or higher) with it. Since the correlation was positive and fairly high, only the general measure of powerlessness was selected for use in the main research project. 4. Interest, as defined for this study, is a psychological involvement of the individual with the issue which facilitates awareness and action. Issue interest was indexed by five questions which indicate the importance of the issue to the respondent, an indication of recent decision-making activity regarding the issue, and the performance of some behavioral act connected with the issue. Items somewhat different for each issue were selected on the basis of item analysis of pilot study data. One of the questions in the measure, for example, was: 49 Do you feel it is very important, fairly important, slightly important, or not at all important to be up- to-date on....problems of taxation and spending which face the Nebraska unicameral legislature during the present legislative session? 5. Gregariousness has been defined as the extent of an individual's formal and informal social contacts with other people. Qgegariousness was indexed by the number of organizations to which the respondent belongs, the friendships which he reports, and the contacts he has within the family. Frequencies were converted to standard scores (similar to Katz-Lazarsfeld study) items which are included in the present measure and summed to give a single 16 gregariousness score for each individual. 6. Life-cygle was indexed according to sex, age, marital status, and number of children. Five stages of the family life cycle were utilized: (1) young marrieds, no children, (2) married, young children, (3) married, children school aged and above, (4) married, children no longer at home, and (5) retired. 7. §£§_was indexed as male or female. 8. Socio-economic status was indexed by a three factor index. This index is based upon the individual's occupational and educational level, and by the interviewer's rating of his residence. As with the gregariousness items, frequencies were converted to standard scores and summed to give a single score. The scores were then divided into seven categories from high to low socio-economic status. These ranks ranged from upper-upper to lower-lower categories. 1602, cit., Katz and Lazarsfeld, pp. 370-372. 50 Additional questions were tested in the pilot study for use in the final project to provide interpretative data. One set were intended to index communication source effectiveness. In the pilot study, four questions were asked for each issue: 1) Of all the sources of information and advice you've mentioned, which do you consider the most helpful? 2) Of all the sources of information and advice you've mentioned, which do you consider the most reliable? 3) Which do you consider the most objective? 4) Which do you prefer as a source of information about...? Analysis of the pilot study data showed the respondents tended to nominate the same source on each question. It was reformulated into one question for the main project: "Of all the sources of information you've mentioned, which do you prefer as a source of information about....taxation or job opportunities for women?" Control Techniques A validity check on the Opinion leadership scale and the interest scale items was made by correlating the Katz-Lazarsfeld and Rogers scales with the sets of items used in the present research. All correlations were significantly different from zero (.098 = .05 level of significance). See table 7 in Appendix C. 51 The powerlessness scale used in the present study was submitted to Guttman scalogram analysis.17 A random sample of 100 subjects was drawn from the 402 total sample population. Pilot study items were previously anhlyzed by Guttman scaling and by a percentage method of item analysis (see Appendix C). Correlational techniques were used to remove the effects of the control variables from the hypothesized relationships between dependent and independent variables. After the multiple correlation was computed, partial correlations were run controlling on specified variables. Coefficients of correlation were transformed to 2 values and a t-test was performed to determine significant differences between the zero order and partial correlation. Correlations were significantly different at the five per cent level if the z score difference exceeded 0.0707 for a sample of 402. Hypothesis Testing Zero-order and partial correlation were the major statistical methods used to test the empirical hypotheses in this study. This method allows determination of the contribution of each independent variable in explaining the dependent variable. Pearsonian product moment correlations were computed in the multiple correlation analysis. Statement of General and Empirical Hypotheses General Hypothesis I: The extent of information-seeking is positively related to opinion leadership. 17L. Guttman, "The Cornell Technique for Scale and Intensity gzalysis," Education and Psychological Measurement, Vbl- 7: 1947: PPo 7-249 0 52 lgmpirical Hypothesis Ia: Information-seeking frequency scores are positively related to opinion leadership scores on the taxation issue. Empirical Hypothesis Ib: Information-seeking channel scores are positively related to opinion leadership scores on the taxation issue. ‘Empirical;Hypothesis Ic: Information-seeking frequency scores are positively related to opinion leadership scores on the women working issue. Empirical Hypothesis Id; Information-seeking channel scores are positively related to opinion leadership scores on the women working issue. General Hypothesis II: The degree of interpersonalness of information-seeking is positively related to opinion leadership. ‘gppigical Hypothesis_;;p; The ratio of interpersonal to mediated information-seeking channels is positively related to opinion leadership scores on the taxation issue. Empirical Hypothesi§_IIb: The ratio of interpersonal to mediated information-seeking channels is positively related to opinion leadership scores on the women working issue. General Hypothesis III: The extent of information-seeking is negatively related to sense of powerlessness. Empirical Hypothesis IIIa: Information-seeking frequency scores are negatively related to sense of powerlessness scores on the taxation issue. 53 Empirical Hypothesis 1;;2; Information-seeking channel scores are negatively related to sense of powerlessness scores on the taxation issue. Empirical Hypothesi§_;IIc: Information-seeking frequency scores are negatively related to sense of powerlessness on the women working issue. Empirical Hypothesis IIId: Information-seeking channel scores are negatively related to sense of powerlessness scores on the women working issue. General Hyppthesis IV: The degree of interpersonalness of information-seeking is negatively related to sense of powerlessness. Empirical Hypothesis IVa: The ratio of interpersonal to mediated information-seeking channels is negatively related to sense of powerlessness scores on the taxation issue. Empirical Hypothesis IVb: The ratio of interpersonal to mediated communication channels is negatively related to sense of powerlessness scores on the women working issue. General Hypothesis V: The extent of information-seeking is positively related to degree of issue interest. Empirical Hypothesis Va: Information-seeking frequency scores are positively related to issue interest scores on the taxation issue. Empirical Hypothesis Vb: Information-seeking channel scores are positively related to issue interest scores on the taxation issue. Empirical Hypothesis Vc: Information-seeking frequency scores are positively related to issue interest scores on the women working issue. 54 Empirical Hypothesis Vd: Information-seeking channel scores are positively related to issue interest scores on the women working issue. General Hypothesis VI: The degree of interpersonalness of information-seeking is positively related to degree of issue interest. Empirical Hypothesis VIa: The ratio of interpersonal to mediated information-seeking channels is positively related to issue interest index scores on the taxation issue. Empirical Hypothesis VIb: The ratio of interpersonal to mediated information-seeking channels is positively related to interest index scores on the women working issue. General Hypothesis VII: Frequency of information-seeking is positively related to degree of gregariousness. Empirical Hypothesis VIIa: Information-seeking frequency scores are positively related to gregariousness index scores on the taxation issue. Empirical Hypothesis VIIb: Information-seeking channel scores are positively related to gregariousness index scores on the taxation issue. Empirical Hypothesis VIIc: Information-seeking frequency scores are positively related to gregariousness index scores on the women working issue. Empirical Hypothesis VIId: Information-seeking channel scores are positively related to gregariousness index scores on the women working issue. 55 General Hypothesis VIII: The degree of interpersonalness of information-seeking is positively related to degree of gregariousness. Empirical Hypothesis VIIIa: The ratio of interpersonal to mediated information-seeking channels is positively related to gregariousness index scores on the taxation issue. Empirical Hypothesis VIIIb: The ratio of interpersonal to mediated information-seeking channels is positively related to gregariousness index scores on the women working issue. CHAPTER IV FINDINGS General Hypothesis I General Hypothesis I states that: The extent of information- seeking is ppsitively related to opinion leadership. Empirical Hypothesis Ia: Informstion-seeking_freguepgy scores are positively related to opinion leadership scores on the taxation issue. This empirical hypothesis is confirmed. Correlation between information-seeking frequency and opinion leadership is .391, which is significantly different from zero. Table 4 shows that the partial correlations between information-seeking frequency and opinion leadership, when the effect of the five control variables is removed, are also all significantly different from zero. Therefore, the frequency of information-seeking about the taxation issue is positively related to opinion leadership. Empirical Hypothesis Ib: Information-seeking channel scorgg areypositively related to opinion leadership scores on the taxation lease; This empirical hypothesis is confirmed. Correlation between number of different channels and opinion leadership is .399, which is significantly different from zero. Table 4 shows that the partial correlations between number of different channels and opinion leader- ship, when the effect of the five control variables is removed, are 56 xllllllllllllllilllllllr. 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Therefore, the number of channels from which information is sought about the taxation issue is positively related to opinion leadership. Empirical Hypothesis Ic: Information-seeking frequency scores are positively related to opinion leadership_scores on the women workimg_issue. This empirical hypothesis is confirmed. Correlation between information-seeking frequency and Opinion leadership is .368, which is significantly different from zero. Table 4 shows that the partial correlations between information-seeking frequency and opinion leadership, when the effect of the five control variables is removed, are also all significantly different from zero. Therefore, the frequency of information-seeking about the women working issue is positively related to opinion leadership. Empirical Hypothesis Id: Information-seeking channel scores are positively related to opinion leadership scores on the women working issue. This empirical hypothesis is confirmed. Correlation between number of different channels sought and opinion leadership is .132, which is significantly different from zero. Table 4 shows that the Partial correlations between number of different channels and opinion leadership, when the effect of the five control variables is removed, are also all significantly different from zero. There- fore, the number of channels from which information is sought about the women working issue is positively related to opinion leadership. Thus, all four empirical hypotheses are confirmed. The extent of information-seeking is positively related to opinion 58 leadership on both the taxation issue and the women working issue so General Hypothesis I is confirmed. General Hypothesis II General Hypothesis II states that: The degmee Of interpgrsonal- ness of information-seeking is positively_ie1ated to opinion leadership. Empirical_gypothesis 11a: The ratio of interpersonal to mediated information-seeking_channels is_positively related to ppinion leadership scores on the taxation issue. This empirical hypothesis is confirmed. Correlation between the ratio Of interpersonal to mediated channels and opinion leadership is .209, which is significantly different from zero. Table 4 shows that the partial correlations between ratio of interpersonal to mediated channels and opinion leadership, when the effect of the five control variables is removed, are also all significantly different from zero. Therefore, the ratio of interpersonal to mediated information- seeking channels, from which information on the taxation issue is sought, is positively related to opinion leadership. Empirical Hypothesis 11b: The ratio of interpersonal to mediated information-seeking_channels is_positiveiy related to opinion leadership scores on the women working issue. This empirical hypothesis was confirmed. Correlation between the ratio of interpersonal to mediated channels and opinion leadership is .311, which is significantly different from zero. Table 4 shows that the partial correlations between ratio of interpersonal to mediated channels and opinion leadership, when the effect of the five control variables is removed, are also all significantly different 59 from zero. Therefore, the ratio of interpersonal to mediated information channels from.which information on the women.working issue is positively related to opinion leadership. Thus, both empirical hypotheses are confirmed so General Hypothesis II is confirmed. The degree of interpersonalness of information- seeking is positively related to Opinion leadership on both the taxation issue and women working issue. General Hypothesis III General Hypothesis III states that: The extent of information- seekingyis negatively related to sense of powerlessness. Empiiical.HypothesipZEiia:Aiigigrmation-seeking_frequengy,cores are neggtiveiy related to sense of powerlessness scores on the taxation 13222:. This empirical hypothesis is confirmed. Correlation between information-seeking frequency and sense of powerlessness is -.259, which is significantly different from zero. Table 4 shows that the partial correlations between information-seeking frequency and sense of powerlessness, When the effect of the five control variables is removed, are also all significantly different from zero. Therefore, information-seeking about the taxation issue is negatively related to sense of powerlessness. Empirical Hypothesis IIIb: Information-seeking channel scores are negatively related to sense of powerlessness scores on the taxation issue. —————n 60 This empirical hypothesis is confirmed. Correlation between number of different channels and opinion leadership is -.298, which is significantly different from zero. Table 4 shows that the partial correlations between number of different channels and sense of powerlessness, when the effect of the five control variables is removed, are also all significantly different from zero. Therefore, the number of channels from which information on the taxation is sought is negative related to sense of powerlessness. Empirical Hypothesis IIIc: Information-seeking frequency scores are negmtively related to sense Ofypowerlessness on the women working issue. This empirical hypothesis is confirmed. Correlation between information-seeking frequency and sense of powerlessness is -.099, which is significantly different from zero. Table 4 shows that three out of five partial correlations between information-seeking frequency and sense of powerlessness are significantly different from zero, when the effect of the five control variables is removed. Therefore, frequency of information-seeking about the women working issue is negatively related to sense of powerlessness. Empirical Hypothesis IIId: Information-seekingychannel scores are negatively related to sense of powerlessness scores on the women working issue. This empirical hypothesis is 222 confirmed. Correlation between number of different channels and sense Of powerlessness is -.051, which is 22E significantly different from zero. As is shown in Table 4, none of the partial correlations between number of 61 different channels and sense of powerlessness are significantly different from zero, when the effect of the five control variables is removed. Therefore, for the women working issue the number of channels from which information is sought is mpg negatively related to sense of powerlessness. Thus, since three out of four of the empirical hypotheses are confirmed so General Hypothesis III is confirmed. It can be said that the extent of information-seeking is negatively related to sense of powerlessness on the taxation issue and on the women working issue. General Hypothesis IV General Hypothesis IV states that: The degmee of inter- personalness Of information-seeking is negatively related to sense of powerlessness. Empirica1 Hypgthesis IVa: The ratio of interpersonal to mediated information-seeking channels is negatively related to sense ofypowerlessness scores on the taxation issue. This empirical hypothesis is confirmed. Correlations between ratio of interpersonal to mediated information-seeking channels and sense of powerlessness is -.l92, which is significantly different from zero. Table 4 shows that the partial correlations between ratio of interpersonal to mediated communication channels and sense of powerlessness, when the effect of the five control variables is removed, are also all significantly different from zero. Therefore, the ratio of interpersonal to mediated information-seeking channels is negatively related to sense of powerlessness on the women working issue. 62 Empirical Hypothesis:;Vb: The ratio of interpersonal to mediated communication channels is negativelyyrelated to sense of powerlessness scores on the women working issue. This empirical hypothesis is‘pgg confirmed. Correlation between the ratio of interpersonal to mediated information-seeking channels and sense of powerlessness is -.033, which is 225 signifi- cantly different from zero. As is shown in Table 4, when the effects of the five control variables are removed, none of the partial correlations are significantly different from zero. Therefore, the ratio Of interpersonal to mediated information-seeking channels is 225 negatively related to powerlessness and the women working issue. Thus, since only one of the two empirical hypotheses are confirmed, General Hypothesis IV is mpg confirmed. The degree of interpersonalness of information-seeking is not negatively related to sense of powerlessness. General Hypothesis V General Hypothesis V states that: The extent of information- seeking is positively related to degiee of issue interest. Empirical Hypothesis Va: Information-seeking frequency scores are positively related to issue interest scores on the taxation issue. This empirical hypothesis is confirmed. Correlation between information-seeking frequency and issue interest is .319, which is significantly different from zero. Table 4 shows that the partial correlations between information-seeking frequency and issue interest, when the effect of the five control variables is removed, are also all 63 significantly different from zero. Therefore, for the taxation issue, information-seeking frequency and issue interest are positively related. Empirical Hypothesis Vb: Information-seeking channel scores areypositiveiy related to issue interest scores on the taxation issue. This empirical hypothesis is confirmed. ‘Number of different channels sought and issue interest are correlated .330, which is significantly different from zero. Table 4 shows that the partial correlations between number of different channel frequency and issue interest, when the effect of the five control variables is removed are also all significantly different from zero. Therefore, the number of channels from which information is sought about the taxation issue is positively related to issue interest. Empirical Hypothesis Vc: Information-seeking frequency scores are positively related to issue interest scores on the women working issue. This empirical hypothesis is confirmed. Correlation between information-seeking frequency and issue interest is .212, which is significantly different from zero. Table 4 shows that the partial correlations between information-seeking frequency and issue interest, when the effect of the five control variables is removed, are also all significantly different from zero. Therefore, for the women working issue, information-seeking frequency and issue interest are positively related. Empirical Hypothesis Vd: Information-seeking channel scores are positively related to issue interest scores on the women workimg issue. h 64 This empirical hypothesis is mpg confirmed. Correlation between number of different channels and degree issue interest is .063, which is‘ppp significantly different from zero. As shown in Table 4, when the effect of the five variables is removed, no partial correlation between information-seeking channel frequency and degree of issue interest is significantly different from zero. Therefore, for the women working issue, the number of channels from which information is sought is not punitively related to issue interest. Thus, three out of four empirical hypotheses are confirmed, so General Hypothesis V is confirmed. It can be said that the extent of information-seeking is positively related to degree of issue interest. General Hypothesis VI General Hypothesis VI states that: The degree of interpersonalness p§_information-seeking is positively related to degmge of issue interest. Empirical Hypothesis VIa: The ratio of interpersonal to mediated information-seeking_channe1s is positiveiy related to issue interest index scores on the taxation issue. This hypothesis is confirmed. The correlation between ratio of interpersonal to mediated channels and degree of issue interest is .185, which is significantly different from zero. Table 4 shows that the partial correlations between ratio of interpersonal to mediated channels and degree of issue interest, when the effect of the five control variables is removed, are also all significantly different from zero. Therefore, for the taxation issue, the ratio of interpersonal to mediated channels is positively related to issue interest. 65 Empirical Hypothesis VIb: The ratio of interpersonal to mediated information-seeking channels isypositively related to interest index scores on the women working issue. This empirical hypothesis is confirmed. Correlation between ratio of interpersonal to mediated channels and degree of issue interest is .197, which is significantly different from zero. Table 4 shows that the partial correlations between ratio of interpersonal to mediated channels and degree of issue interest, when the effect of the five control variables is removed, are also all significantly different from zero. Therefore, for the women working issue, the ratio of interpersonal to mediated information-seeking channels is positively related to issue interest. Thus both empirical hypotheses are confirmed so General Hypothesis VI is confirmed. The degree of interpersonalness of information-seeking is positively related to degree of issue interest. General Hypothesis VII General Hypothesis VII states that: Freqmgngy of information- §peking is positively related to degree of gregariousness. Empirical Hypothesis VIIa: Information-seekingyfrequency scores are positively related to gregariousness index scores on the imxation issue. This empirical hypothesis is confirmed. Correlation between information-seeking frequency and gregariousness is .165, which is significantly different from zero. Table 4 shows that the partial correlations between information-seeking frequency and gregariousness, when the effect of the five control variables is removed, are also 66 all significantly different from zero. Therefore, for the taxation issue, frequency of information-seeking is positively related to gregariousness. Empirical Hypothesis VIIb: Information-seeking channel scores areypositively related to gregariousness index scores on the taxation issue. This empirical hypothesis is confirmed. Correlation between number of different channels sought and gregariousness is .150, which is significantly different from zero. Table 4 shows that the partial correlations between number of different channels and gregariousness, when the effect of the five control variables is removed, are also all significantly different from zero. Therefore, for the taxation issue the number of channels from which information is sought is positively related to gregariousness. Empirical Hypothesis VIIc: Information-seeking frequency scores are positively related to gregariousness index scores on the women working issue. This empirical hypothesis is confirmed in part. Correlation between information-seeking frequency and gregariousness was .097, which is ppp significantly different from zero. However, when the effect of the five control variables is removed, three of the partial correlations, as shown in Table 4, are significantly different from zero. Therefore, it cannot be said that, for the women working issue, information- seeking and gregariousness are positively related. Empirical Hypothesis VIId: Information-seeking Channel scoggi are positively related to gpggariousness index scores on the women working issue. 67 This empirical hypothesis is mpg confirmed. Correlation between information-seeking channel frequency and gregariousness is .073, which is not significantly different from zero. Table 4 shows the partial correlations between information channel frequency and gregariousness when five variables are controlled. None are significantly different from zero. Therefore, the number of different channels from which information about the women working issue is sought is not positively related to gregariousness. Thus, since three Of the four empirical hypotheses are confirmed wholly or in part, so General Hypothesis VII is confirmed. It can be said that frequency of information-seeking is positively related to degree of gregariousness for both the taxation and the women working issue. General Hypothesis VIII General Hypothesis VIII states that: The degree of inter- pggsonalness of information-seeking is positively related to degree of gregariousness. Empirical Hypothesis VIIIa: The ratio of interpersonal to mediated information-seeking channels is ppsitiveiy_related to ggegariousness index scores on the taxation issue. This empirical hypothesis is confirmed in part. Correlation between ratio of interpersonal to mediated channels sought and gregariousness was .093, which is mpg significantly different from zero. However, when the effect of the five control variables is removed, one of the partial correlations, as shown in.Table 4, is significant. Therefore, because of lack of enough significant 68 correlations, the ratio of interpersonal to mediated information-seeking channels is mpg positively related to gregariousness for the taxation issue. Empirical Hypothesis VIIIb: The ratio of interpersonal to mediated information-seeking channels is_positively_re1ated to ggggpriousness index scores on the women working_issue. This empirical hypothesis is ppp confirmed. Correlation between ratio of interpersonal to mediated channels sought and gregariousness is .082, which is pg; significantly different from zero. As shown in Table 4, no correlations were significantly different from zero when the effect of the five control variables is removed. Therefore, the ratio of interpersonal to mediated informationpseeking channels is not positively related to gregariousness on the women working issue. Thus, since both of the empirical hypotheses are not confinmed, General Hypothesis VIII is not confirmed. The degree of interpersonalness of information-seeking is positively related to gregariousness for both the taxation issue and the women working issue. Consistency of Findings Across Issues The results of empirical tests of the hypothesized relationships between dependent and independent variables in this research have been presented in this chapter. Five of the eight general hypotheses which examined relationship of four variables -- opinion leadership, sense of powerlessness, interest, and gregariousness -- to extent of information-seeking and degree of interpersonalness in information- seeking are confirmed. Seventeen of the twenty-four empirical hypotheses are confirmed. Table 4 presents all findings regarding 69 the empirical hypotheses of the present study. Appendix C contains a complete set of correlations for all empirical tests of each hypothesis. It also contains a full report on scale analyses. Table 5 summarizes the confirmation of general and empirical hypotheses for both issues, 6 taxation and women working. It is readily noted that the pattern of relationships between the four variables consistently supports the hypothesis on the taxation issue, but is not so consistent on the women working issue. Seven of the eight general hypotheses were totally confirmed on the taxation issue while only four of the eight are totally confirmed on the women working issue. Eleven out Of twelve statistical hypotheses are totally confirmed on the women working issue. There is agreement on confirmation of both general and empirical hypotheses-for the relationship of the two independent variables -- opinion leadership and degree of issue interest -- to both extent of information-seeking and degree of interpersonalness. All relationships are positive and the correlations are significantly different from zero (with one exception). The positive correlation between degree of issue interest and frequency of information-seeking on the women working issue is not significantly different from zero. The relationship of sense of powerlessness to both extent of information-seeking and degree of interpersonalness is supported in the predicted negative direction for the taxation issue. For the women working issue the relationship between extent of information- seeking and sense of powerlessness is supported. However, the corre- lations between sense of powerlessness and both the number of different channels sought and ratio of interpersonal to mediated channels are not 6?}? TABLE 5 Is The Hypothesis Confirmed? Taxation HOmen WOrking Both Hypotheses Issue Issue Issues OH I yes yes yes [B Is yes EH Ib yes EH Ic yes EH Id yes GH II yes yes yes EH IIa yes EH IIb yes GH III yes no yes EH IIIa yes EH IIIb yes EH IIIc yes EH IIId no GH IV yes no no EH IVa yes EH IVb no GH V yes yes yes EH Va yes EH Vb yes EH Vc yes EH Vd no GB VI yes yes yes EH VIa yes EH VIb yes GH VII yes no no EH VIIa yes EH VIIb yes EH VIIc no EH VIId no 696 (Continued) TABLE 5 Is The Hypothesis Confirmed? Taxation Women Working Both Hypotheses Issue Issue Issues GH VIII no no no EH VIIIa no no EH VIIIb Total confirmed GH 7 4 EH ll 6 5 Total not confirmed GH 1 4 l 6 3 Total tested 8 3 12 12 8 70 significantly different from.zero, thus, not supported. Therefore, it cannot be said that the hypothesized relationships between extent of information-seeking or degree of interpersonalness in information- seeking is totally supported on the women working issue. The relationship between gregariousness and extent of information- seeking is supported for the taxation issue but not for the women working issue. The relationship between gregariousness and degree of interpersonalness of information-seeking does not hold true for either issue. CHAPTER V SUMMARY AND DISCUSSION Summary The present research examined exposure to mediated and interpersonal communication sources for two different types of issues -- a public affairs and a social issue, namely taxation and women working. The relationship of four variables, opinion leadership, sense Of powerlessness, issue interest, and gregariousness, to the extent of information-seeking and to the degree of interpersonalness in information-seeking for the two issues was determined. This research was designed to examine exposure to mediated and interpersonal communication sources for different types of issues. It was further intended to determine the relationship of this exposure to Opinion leadership, sense of powerlessness, interest and gregariousness. The objectives are the following: 1. To examine the relationship of four variables -- opinion leadership, sense of powerlessness, interest, and gregariousness -- to.the extent of information-seeking. 2. To examine the relationship of four variables -- opinion leadership, sense of powerlessness, interest, and gregariousness -- to the degree of interpersonalness in information-seeking. 71 72 3. To determine whether the relationships between the four variables and (l) the extent of information-seeking and (2) the degree of interpersonalness hold true for different issues. The sample for the present study (1965) was 500 persons, randomly drawn, from.an original random sample of 1500 persons (1961) in the state of Nebraska. In 1961 the larger sample was checked against the 1960 U. 8. Census1 figures for Nebraska's population. It was found to be representative on such socio-economic variables as sex, age, marital status, formal education, occupation, and income. The sample of 500 drawn in 1965 was also checked against the 1960 U. S. Census. Both sample populations were found to be representative, no differences beyond one-half of one per cent. Data were collected via personal interviews by trained interviewers. .A part of their training was collection of data for the pretest of the study. The interview schedule was pretested on a random sample (N=123) from one Nebraska county. The county chosen was not a part Of the sample for the final study and was chosen because there was a large city, a small town, and rural dwellers there, approximately proportional to the total for the state. Eighty-six interviews were completed and constituted the pilot study sample. Four hundred-two interviews were completed and constituted the final study sample population. 1Op. cit. 73 Information-seeking was the dependent variable of the study, defined as the degree to which a receiver (person) utilizes mediated and interpersonal communication channels to obtain ideas, advice, or information about a specific issue. Information-seeking was operationalized as frequency of information-seeking (number of contacts with a mediated or interpersonal source) and degree of interpersonalness (the ratio of interpersonal to mediated sources). The research focused on the four independent variables considered to be predisposing factors in information-seeking behavior: 1. Opinion leadership was defined as eminating from a person who himself indicates that he influences the Opinion and behavior of other individuals through personal contact. 2. Sense of powerlessness was defined as a feeling or lack of control over the outcome of public or social issues and a low expectancy that one‘s own behavior can alter them. 3. Issue interest was defined as a psychological involvement of the individual with an issue which facilitates awareness and action. 4. Gregariousness was defined as the extent of an individual's formal and informal social contacts with other people. ’Within the framework of the present research, the communication situation involves the PERSON subject to INFLUENCE by advice, ideas, or information which is relative to an ISSUE, via interpersonal or mediated CHANNELS in making a DECISION. An implied definition of influence within this model is that force which via mediated or interpersonal channels, affects a response (from the person) which is, namely, information-seeking. 74 Eight general hypotheses guided the research inquiry. Twenty-four empirical hypotheses were tested. The major findings are: GR 1: The extent of information-seeking is positively related to opinion leadership. This hypothesis was confirmed for both the taxation issue and the women working issue. 5311;; The degree of interpersonalness of information-seeking is positively related to opinion leadership. This hypothesis was confirmed for both the taxation issue and the women working issue. 53;;15 The extent of information-seeking is negatively related to sense of powerlessness. This hypothesis was confirmed for the taxation issue but not confirmed for the women'working issue. l§§_fl; The degree of interpersonalness of information-seeking is negatively related to sense of powerlessness. This hypothesis was confirmed. $3141; The extent of information-seeking is positively related to degree of issue interest. This hypothesis is confirmed for both the taxation issue and the women working issue. ‘§§_§; The degree of interpersonalness of information-seeking is positively related to degree of issue interest. This hypothesis was confirmed for both the taxation issue and the women working issue. 75 GH 7: The extent of information-seeking is positively related to gregariousness. This hypothesis was confirmed for the taxation issue but not the women working issue. ‘§§_§i The degree of interpersonalness of information-seeking is positively related to degree of gregariousness. This hypothesis was 225 confirmed for either the taxation issue or the women working issue. Discussion of Hypothesis Tests ‘As outlined in the objectives of this research, the relationship of four variables -- opinion leadership, sense of powerlessness, interest, and gregariousness -- to extent of information-seeking and degree of interpersonalness of information-seeking have been examined. A comparison of information-seeking from mediated and interpersonal sources for two different issues, a political affairs issue and a social issue, was made. General Hypothesis I predicted that the extent of information- seeking was positively related to opinion leadership. This hypothesis was confirmed. There was a significant positive relationship between opinion leadership and extent of information-seeking for both the taxation issue and'women working issue. The higher the opinion leadership score, the more frequent were the information-seeking contacts. A.closer look at the data reveals that correlations on the taxation issue were consistently higher on mediated than on inter- personal sources, while for the women working issue correlations were slightly higher for the interpersonal sources. This would indicate 76 that opinion leaders tended to get more information from mediated sources in regard to taxation but more from interpersonal sources on the women working issue. The number of different channels sought on the taxation issue increased as the degree of Opinion leadership increases. This was also true of the‘women working issue but this increase was proportionately greater for the taxation issue than for the women working issue. This would indicate that the type of opinion leadership for the two issues would vary, that on a public affairs issue, the breadth of contact with information channels might be a more important factor than it would for a social affairs issue. General Hypothesis II predicted that the degree of inter- personalness of information-seeking is positively related to Opinion leadership. This hypothesis was confirmed. As Opinion leadership increases, so does the interpersonalness Of information-seeking. However, the ratio of interpersonal to mediated channels is higher for the women working issue than for the taxation issue. That is, interpersonal sources on the women working issue is more frequently sought than are mediated sources by those persons scoring high on opinion leadership. Indications are that for the social issue, individuals appear to have frequent contacts with fewer channels and the channel sought would more often be an interpersonal channel than a mediated channel. Opinion leadership activity for both the taxation issue and the women working issue reflects information-seeking through both mediated channels and interpersonal channels. Infommation- seeking contacts are similar on both issues, but there is an 77 indication from closer examinations of the data that interpersonal contact was more frequent when individuals were seeking information on job opportunities for women than on matters Of taxation. Consistent with findings from the previous research cited, opinion leadership can be considered as one variable which has bearing on information-seeking through both mediated and interpersonal channels. This relationship would indicate that the self-designated Opinion leader would account for increasing amount of interaction with channels of influence as his personal influence was broadened to affect other opinion leaders or non-opinion leaders. For the two issues in question, it would appear that opinion leaders might play a larger role in affecting people on the social issue, since the amount of interpersonal contact was greater than for the public affairs. General Hypothesis III predicted that the extent of information- seeking is negatively related to sense of powerlessness. This was confirmed for the taxation issue but not for the women working issue. This prediction held that those persons who felt a lack of control over the issues in question would tend to be low frequency information-seekers. As their sense of powerlessness increased or as they felt increasingly powerless to do anything about an issue, information-seeking would decrease. The research found this to be so, for both the taxation and the women working issue. However, for the women working issue, sense of powerlessness did not tend to lower the number of channels sought. In search for some explanation as to why there were differences in results for the two issues, clues might be found in the nature 78 of the issue itself. The greater personalness of the social issue might lead people to search out personal sources. Information from people who were concerned about women in their worker role, might be more credible in that type of information-seeking situation. Another clue might be found in the nature of the general sense of powerlessness measure. The items in the measure itself tend to suggest those aspects of life that are outside one's immediate environment and therefore thought to be less easily controlled. A ‘woman, interested in her own job opportunities, or a man interested in his‘wife's job opportunities, for example, might feel in complete control of the issue. They personally would determine the amount or type of information necessary to cape perhaps with impending decisions about it. It might also suggest that the necessity of information- seeking might be connected with an immediate decision, and in case of job opportunities might only go as far as looking for listings themselves. In other words, for the women working issue, information- seeking might occur only when a decision was to be made and at this time people become a more important source of information than mass media. General Hypothesis IV predicted that the degree of inter- personalness of information-seeking is negatively related to sense Of powerlessness. This was found to be so for the taxation issue. The more powerless a person felt, the less contact he had with interpersonal sources. This perhaps indicates that persons who have a high sense of control would also send to be the persons who would tend to seek out persons to make influence attempts. 'When decisions are to be made about taxation, persons who felt they 79 have some say in the matter would be likely to talk to other persons to discuss the issues. Those who felt they could not affect the issue would tend to be apathetic and dismiss the issue perhaps completely. W was not confirmed for the women working issue. Actually this is a surprise, because this issue could be considered closer to the individual than the taxation issue, particularly if some woman in the household was employed outside the home. However, as an objective tOpic, it may be that, for the general population, it isn't an issue they feel is necessary to discuss with peOple whether they are or are not required to make decisions about it. W predicted that extent of information- seeking is positively related to degree of issue interest. This hypothesis was confirmed for the taxation issue. For the women working issue, the empirical hypothesis on frequency of information-seeking was confirmed but was not confirmed on number of different channels. It seems reasonable that persons who are interested and concerned over an issue in question.would search out people to talk to about it or would attend with interest to messages in the mass media. However, the data would suggest that for the women working issue the highly interested person may be having a lot of contact with a few channels in a search for information. This might indicate that there are fewer channels available on the women working issue than on the taxation issue. The strong correlation between interest and channel scores on the taxation issue and the lack of significant correlation on the women working issue might reflect a definite lack of interest in the issue itself. 80 ngeral Hypothesis VI predicted that the degree of interpersonalness of information-seeking was positively related to degree of issue interest. This hypothesis was confirmed for both the taxation and the women working issues. The examination of the interpersonalness ratio, which is significant for both issues, would further lead to a conclusion that interpersonal sources are more important for the women working issue. Since the frequency Of contacts for the women working issue is highly significant, the greater prOportion of the contacts must be interpersonal ones. Interest then on that issue could result in an issue that is more often discussed with people than a public affairs issue, such as taxation. The information search might end with discussion rather than leading to a variety of sources from other mediated channels. General Hypothesis VII predicted that the extent of information- seeking is positively related to degree of gregariousness. This hypothesis was confirmed for the taxation issue but 222 confirmed for the women working issue. Previous research has consistently linked gregariousness with information-seeking. Gregariousness suggests a social dimension -- seeking out peOple. Persons concerned about the taxation issue would tend to be seeking information from some "inside" communication .channels that perhaps exist only in some social settings where officials of government tend to be. What appears in mass media would not be complete enough to satisfy the person who wanted to make his voice heard with persons who make decisions about taxation. For the women working issue there was no support for linking information-seeking with gregariousness. This is a finding which is 81 contradictory to the finding of Kata-Lazarsfeld's2 study of women. They found gregariousness to be a factor in personal influence. It could be that, in a general population, information-seeking on the women working issue‘would be less a factor of actual numbers of contacts with channels, than seeking out the most significant channel. Generpl Hypothesis VIII predicted that the degree of interpersonalness in information-seeking is positively related to degree of gregariousness. This hypothesis was not confirmed for either issue. Since communication does take place within a social context, particularly person to person communication, it would be expected that a person's gregariousness would be an inherent factor. In this research, however, this did not appear to be so. This research would tend to indicate that the degree of interpersonalness is not related to information search. Search for information could not be equated to a need for being with people. In our highly gregarious society, perhaps this is no longer a factor crucial to persons coming in contact with relevant information sources. In societies where transportation and communication networks are less developed, people would be apt to depend more heavily on peOple as a source of information. In such societies, the need to be with people might be equated with need for information-~perhaps for survival. 20p. cit. 82 Discussion of Issues The two issues, taxation and women working, chosen for this information-seeking study were considered to be timely and likely to be a topic of conversation and concern. The data were gathered during the 1965 legislative session, during which taxation was a lively debate issue. ‘A bill was passed during that session changing the tax base from a straight property tax to a combination of property-sales- income. This was voted upon in November, 1966, and was repealed by the voters. It is again a subject of debate in the current (1967) legislative session. During this period of time there was also a lot of discussion about the role of women due to the activities of the President's Committee on Status of‘flomen and the governor's committee. More stories appeared at the time of the data collection in current magazines and television debates, particularly about Betty Friedan's controversial book The Feminine Mystique. The two issues were thought to be different in nature -- a public issue and a social issue -- and to vary as to degree of concern by the individual. When the subject of taxation was introduced to the respondents in this study they were asked what the source of state taxes should be. Only 15 per cent responded a "property tax." The remaining 85 per cent thought some other form -- sales, income, or a combination -- would be more apprOpriate. Since property tax was the current system of taxation, this response indicated that the great majority of people had thought enough about the situations to indicate a dissatisfaction wdth the system in operation. The issue interest scores reflected this concern. Out of a possible interest score of 20, the mean score was 12.6 with about one-third of the respondents scoring 15 or higher. 83 There was indication that interest in the women working issue was likely to be lower. Using number of women working (self-reported or reported by husbands) as an indicator of salience, roughly 32 per cent were employed part or full time -- 20 per cent full time and 12 per cent part time. It would have been well to further question as to whether the women had recently worked, though not currently employed. Discussion of the Measures measures utilized in this study were unique to this study, though based on measures used previously by other researchers. The measures of information-seeking frequency, including three components, tell more about an individual's search for information than a simple frequency count of exposure to communication. It allows talking about the total intake of messages as well as a separation.of mediated and interpersonal sources. The measure of the dependent variable then could be considered an improved one. The measure of Opinion leadership could not be considered an improvement. However, the one question added might be considered to increase total information on the self-designated opinion leader. The same comment can be made about the issue interest measure and the gregariousness measure. The sense of powerlessness measure, although a valid measure, tends to have a slight bias toward the more global issues. This could explain the significant findings on the taxation issue and lack of significant findings on the relationships of extent of information-seeking and degree of interpersonalness of information- seeking and sense of powerlessness. 84 To sum.up, the measures used in this research served satisfactorily for the purposes of this research, but most could be improved in future research. Findings reported in this research have shown that opinion leadership, sense of powerlessness, issue interest, and gregariousness are variables which can explain in part a person's search for information on the taxation issue and the women working issue. It is safe to conclude that they*would be relevant to any issue upon which an individual might focus a search for mediated and interpersonal sources of information. It“ The research would indicate that the relationships Of these four variables, to extent of information-seeking and degree of inter- personalness in information-seeking hold true for different issues. Since the study population was a random sample of one entire state, findings are generalizable. Additional research is needed to further test the inter- relationships of variables in this research on other issues. It would add significant data, if case study follow-up could be made on the total communication behavior of a sample of persons who scored high and low on the four independent variables of this research in relation to the dependent variable. The Katz-Lazarsfeld3 study of personal influence has provided an intellectual base for the bulk of research in this area. Since this study was done more than fifteen years ago, it would seem.that a second comprehensive study, a more refined version of the first, would be a valuable contribution to the literature. 30p. cit. APPENDIX A: INTERVIEWER TRAINING INTERVIEWER TRAINING Twenty~five interviewers, seventeen men and ten women, completed training in February, 1965, to administer the complete set of questions in the Nebraska Adult Interest Research project. As a part of their training, they conducted experimental inter- views. Each worked during the pilot project to complete their training for the research project. Pilot project data were gathered in.March and analyzed in April, 1965. During this period, interviewers were counseled on their strengths and weaknesses by the project directors. Some assisted with the coding operation. There were one hundred twenty-three persons to be contacted in the pilot project. Eighty- six usable questionnaires were obtained. Thirty per cent of the respondents were not available because they had moved out of the state, had died, were not located, or refused. A schedule of interviewer training follows, along with teaching materials used. A system of work-triads was used during the training in which two people actively worked and the third person observed. 86 87 SCHEDULE FOR Interviewer Trainee Sessions NEBRASKA ADULT INTEREST STUDY MONDAY, February 22 1:30 - 4:00 p.m. Room 232 1:30 - 2:00 p.m. Outline of Interview Schedule Purpose of Questions and Mechanics of Recording Responses ~.Alan.Knox 2:00 - 2:10 p.m. Training Questions Regarding Notes on Interviewing - Alan Booth 2:10 - 2:20 p.m. Introduction to Role-Playing, Role-Performance Interviewer, ReSpondent, Observer - Alan Booth and Shirley Marsh 2:20 - 2:25 p.m. Assignment to Triads - Shirley Marsh 2:20 - 3:05 p.m. Interviews - Staff Observers, Alan Booth, Arden.Grotelueschen and Shirley‘Marsh 3:05 - 3:15 p.m. Introduction to Discussion of Role-Performance - Alan Booth 3:15 - 4:00 p.m. Discussion - Staff and Trainees Assignment to be Given: Trainees to Interview Three Persons Not in Group Assignments to be Completed: Reading of Notes on Interviewing 88 TUESDAY, February 23 1:30 - 4:00 p.m. Room 232 1:30 - 1:40 p.m. Assignment of Special respondent role and Assignment to Triads - Shirley Marsh 1:40 - 2:25 p.m. Interviews - Staff Observers, Alan Knox, Shirley Marsh and Arden Grotelueschen 2:25 - 2:50 p.m. Discussion of role performance - Staff and Trainees 2:50 - 3:00 p.m. Assignment of New Respondent Role - Shirley Marsh 3:00 - 3:05 p.m. Assignment to Triads - Shirley Marsh 3:05 - 3:35 p.m. Interviews - Staff Observers, Alan Knox, Shirley Marsh and Arden Grotelueschen 3:35 - 4:00 p.m. Discussion of Role Performance - Staff and Trainees 89 THURSDAY, February 25 7:00 - 9:30 p.m. Room 519 7:00 - 8:00 p.m. Outline of Total Interview Schedule Purpose of Questions and Mechanics of Recording Responses -.Alan Knox, Alan Booth, Shirley Marsh 8:00 - 8:15 p.m. Introduction to Interviewer reliability - Alan Booth 8:15 - 8:45 p.m. Mock Interview of Selected Sections of Interview Schedule - Alan Knox 8:45 - 9:30 p.m. Demonstration and Discussion of Differences in Interviewer Reliability - Alan Knox,.A1an Booth, and Shirley Marsh Assignment to be given: Interview to be given to two people outside Training Group. Learn full interview schedule. ,Assignment to be completed: Three interviews of people out- side the Training Group. SATURDAY, February 27 9:30 - 12:00 N Room 519 9:30- 9:40 a.m. Assignment of new reSpondent role - Alan Booth or Shirley Marsh 9:40 - 9:45 a.m. Assignment to Triads - Shirley Marsh 9:45 -ll:00 a.m. Interviews - Staff observers, Alan Knox, Arden Grotelueschen Alan Booth, Shirley Marsh and 11:00 - 12:00 a.m. Discussion of Role Performance - Staff and Trainees 9O MONDAY, March 1 1:30 - 4:00 p.m. Room 232 1:30 - 2:15 p.m. Outline of interview schedule to be used in pilot project and review of interviewer manual - Alan Knox, Alan Booth and Shirley Marsh 2:15 - 2:25 p.m. Assignment of new respondent role - Alan Booth 2:25 - 2:30 p.m. Assignment to Triads - Arden.Grote1ueschen 2:30 - 3:30 p.m. Interviews - Staff Observers, Alan Knox, Alan Booth and Arden Grotelueschen 3:30 - 4:00 p.m. Discussion of Role Performance Assignment to be given: Learn revised schedule and manual Assignment to be completed: Two interviews of people outside Training Group. TUESDAY, March 2 1:30 - 5:30 p.m. Room 232 1:00 - 3:00 p.m. Mock interview using entire interview schedule - Alan Knox 3:00 - 5:30 p.m. Discussion of recording responses - - Alan Knox and Alan Booth form and reliability Assignment to be completed: Learn interviewer manual 91 THURSDAY, March 4 7:00 - 9:30 p.m. Room 519 7:00 - 9:30 Explanation of expense vouchers, use of state cars, etc. - Alan Knox and Grotelueschen Other questions - Staff AAssignment to be completed: Two interviews with people outside Training Group 92 THE OBSERVER'S TASK 2/22/65 Your main task is to ”listen-in" on the interview. Notice both the good and bad interviewer techniques as well as the smooth or trouble- some situations which arise during the interview. Make descriptive notes of behavior which interferes with getting accurate information. DO not write interpretive notes, just describe what you observe. Our discussion of role performance will rely heavily on the material you provide. The following questions are to be used as a guide in your observation: 1. How smooth was the interviewer's first encounter with the reapondent as he gained entry into the home? Did he get into the interview situation as quickly as possible? 2. How were the interviewer's manners during the interview? Did he "talk down" to the reSpondent? How did he handle the respondent's reluctance to answer some questions? How did he handle the moments when the respondent wanted to delay by talking? 3. Did the interviewer ask all the appropriate questions exactly as stated in the questionnaire? Did he have the . questions well enough in mind that he wasn't tied to reading the interview schedule word for word? When there were probes, did he probe in such a way that he didn't lead the respondent to an answer? Did the interviewer seem apologetic about asking some questions? 4. In general, did the interviewer seem to reflect the . importance of the project? Did he seem self-confident? Dld he appear to enjoy the entire interview situation? 5. In general, did the respondent seem to have a cooperatipe h attitude throughout the interview? If not, what do you fee tde interviewer did, either to provoke this non-cooperativeiattitu e or to promote a cooperative one? What could the interv ewer have done to alleviate the situation? 93 6. Was the general tone of the interview situation conducive to the best interview possible? Was the situation a comfortable one? Did the interviewer get the best reSponses he could from the respondent? What sort of feelings do you think the respondent and the interviewer had after the interview was over-- good, bad or indifferent? 7. Was the interviewer's exit smooth or awkward? What sort of "mind's eye View" does the respondent have of the interviewer after the interview is over? As you Observe the interview situation, try to be as passive as possible. .Any noticeable reaction you may have may influence the behavior of both the reSpondent and the interviewer. If possible, remain enough in the background that your presence is not obvious. Stay out of the line of sight of both interviewer and respondent. Be prepared to relate in detail any part of the interview you think will be helpful to the entire group. ##### 94 PEOPLE YOU MAY ENCOUNTER....... In the course of your interviewing you will come in contact with many different kinds of people. But you will tend to encounter some types of people who will present interview problems. We‘ve characterized some of these types so that you might recognize a variety of difficult interview situations and prepare in advance for handling them effectively. This is not to suggest that you should "pigeonhole" people into these categories. The characterizations are definitely stereotypes. There are general ways you might want to use these characterizations: 1) You can imagine using the characterizations as a guide, working out introductions to these people and handling technical sections of the interview schedule during an interview. 2) You can ask a friend to role play, using the characterizations. Your friend can provide valuable insight into the way you are perceived by the reSpondent. The protected practice you get with a friend may permit a more objective analysis of yourself than you may encounter in the field. 3) You can refer back to the characterizations when you want to discuss a particularly difficult interview problem.with the staff. These may give you ideas of how you can present your problem.verbally. NAIS 2/27/65 95 PROBLEM: "The Slow to Understand" This person is willing to COOperate but has a hard time remembering the questions. He asks for many repeats and says he "doesn't know" a lot of the time. He has a hard time making up his mind and often takes off on tangents. Many of the questions he simply doesn't understand, and from time to time he feels uncomfortable because he doesn't. He has a difficult time expressing himself when he does have an idea. Malegpersonality sketch: You are a 35 year old factory worker. You have a high school education but had some difficulties. You have a wife who works part time as a cook and maid to make extra money. Your three children are all in elementary school. You don't give much thought to your job or to advancement. Your biggest fear is that you might be laid off. You depend on the Union to take care of your problems. You have a vague notion of the fact that lots of things are happening in.the world but you feel they are beyond your control - so, generally, you ignore them. You tend to live from day to day. Egmale personality sketch: You are a thirty year Old waitress at a downtown cafe. You live near the heart of the city with a husband who is employed by a city construction firm. Neither of you has finished high school. You have two children in their early teens. You love to talk but somehow don't see meaning in.mnch except the day to day activity of people about you. You work long hours and have very little time to do much beyond taking care Of the physical needs Of your family. NAIS 2/23/65 96 PROBLEM: "The Critic." This person is eager to cooperate but is critical of everything about the interviewer's intent in his questioning, as well as the purposes of the study. He rebels at many points, objecting to the way questions are asked, or that they are an invasion of privacy. Though he is terribly difficult about the whole interview, he still wants you to hear hip opinion. Female personality sketch: You are unmarried, 23 years old; one who aSpires to a career in business, preferably in the fashion field. You like to think of yourself as one of the intellectual elite. You have a college degree and many active ”cultural” interests. Other people tend to view you as "pseudo-sophisticated." In general, you feel women are down-trodden and discriminated against. You have had several jobs in quick succession since college and each time made unsuccessful attempts to work up. Male personality sketch: You are a rancher in western Nebraska - about 45 years old and quite successful. You have lots of friends - just like you. You all feel that the rest of the state ignores you and your problems. You aspire to be self-sufficient. You're a leader locally, quite dictatorial and opinionated. You are quite well-informed on political and economic problems. You are especially concerned with those things which affect the cattle business. NAIS 2/23/65 PROBLEM: 97 ”The Skept ic ” This person is very reluctant to concede to the interview—~— skeptical about you and everything about the interview. He insists on proof of your identity and complete explanation of the purposes of your visit. The distrust continues through the entire interview. He frequently refuses to answer on first asking. He is generally unfriendly. Male_personali§y sketch: You are a railroad trainman, just over fifty. NO college education, very little community contact. You work long hours to support your family of a wife and five children, ages 13 to 23. You pay little attention to things which do not directly affect you. You tend to be pretty much of a grouch. You are skeptical of the whole world and the intent of everyone in it. Female personality sketch: You are a housewife around 60 years old. You live in a rundown part of town and from time to time throughout the years you have been on the welfare rolls. You tend to be critical and skeptical of your family, friends, and society in general. 'They" make unreasonable demands and have all the advantage in life. Your husband is a janitor in a nearby school and your only son lives down the street. He is a day-laborer and is home half the time drawing unemployment. You are generally unfriendly and hesitantly cooperative. You are impatient for the interview to end and question it constantly. NAIS 2/23/65 PROBLEM: 98 "The Un-cooperator" This person is generally uncooperative. He is easily distracted and breaks the interview at any opportune moment, simply won't settle down to the task of thinking and answering. Often gives answers that are not offered as alternative response-~or refuses to make a choice. Avoids questions or gives a simple answer as an "easy way out." Female personality sketch: You are an older woman, around 60, much too senile for your age. You tend to have the general attitude that you're too old to do anything, that no one wants old people around. You have very few interests of your own. You spend most of your time thinking and worrying about your children and your grandchildren. In general, you are unmotivated and passive, sort of "marking time." Your husband is a retired farmer and is still quite active. Neither you nor your husband finished high school. Male personality sketch: You are an unemployed construction worker about 55. You have not finished high school. Your wife is employed as a nurse. Her wages keep the family going. You have two grown children. You are interested in various spectator sports and this is your major leisure time activity. In general, you just don‘t like to be bothered by other people outside your family. mus 2/27/65 99 PROBLEM: "The Overcooperator" This person is impressed with the importance of the interviewer and immediately sees him as a person who can help.§£fl solve his own problems. He tends to seek approval of the interviewer through the answers he gives. He is eager to give the interviewer what he wants and often asks if he is giving the right information. In general, this person tries to set up a dependent relationship with the interviewer. Female personality sketch: You are attractive, in your late thirties. You are an English teacher in the local high school, a college graduate. You married below your own education level and status level, and have Often regretted it. You have one child, a boy who is now in college. You constantly push your husband, a used car salesman. You constantly strive to make friends among higher status groups and go out of your way to meet important people. Male personality sketch: You are about 45, a clerk in a city office. .Although you've had some college education, and are reasonably intelligent you have been unable to advance in your job. You constantly do extra things to make "brownie points." You live in a suburban area and belong to many groups but are constantly a "worker" rather than a "leader." Your wife clerks in a down-town store. You have five children, of high school and college age. NAIS 2/23/65 PROBLEM: 100 "The Shy One" This person really doesn't want to be interviewed, simply because the thought of it scares him to death. The sound of his own voice and what he might say frightens him. He is cooperative but tends to talk in an almost inaudible voice into his lap. The situation improves and he relaxes a little as the interview progresses. Female_personality sketch: You are 40 years old and have never been beyond fifty miles of your own home. You are a protestant fundamentalist and all your activities center around your church and the peOple there. Your husband is employed as a clerk in a small store. Neither of you has a high school education. You tend to be extremely introverted and find very little about you to be happy about. The only thing you look forward to is "life after death." Your only daughter has just left home to attend a small church college. You have very few friends and spend most of your time at home. Male personality sketch: You are a quiet guy, very bright, college educated and a successful researcher for an industrial development corporation. You are 30, unmarried, and live with an elderly mother. You are very uncomfortable with people, and reticent about subjects outside your special area. You have several hobby interests but few close friends. You are wrapped up in your research and devote most of your energies to it. was 2/27/65 101 PROBLEM: "The Dawdler" This person has all the time in the world and meditates about everything you ask him. He insists on a slow pace and has a hard time making up his mind at times. He tends to talk things over with himself before voicing a final answer. He is somewhat aware that he is slow and "holding you up" but doesn't seem to be able to move any faster. Male personality sketch: You are a congenial farmer about ready to retire. You have a high school education. You tend to be quite satisfied with your own comfortable surroundings and plan to retire on the farm. Your wife is a hard-working Danish lady who has devoted her whole life to her family and the farm. Your only son has just got a doctorate in Agriculture. You think this is good but don't quite understand the ramifications. You have three grandsons who delight you. The world has become too complex for you but you aren't going to worry about it. Femalegpersonality sketch: You are an unmarried elementary school teacher in your mid-forties. You have a keen interest in educative activities and take active roles. ' You are attractive, kind of "sweet old-maidish' and have a very active social life mostly with your female friends. You tend to think about lots of things but have difficulty taking any positions. NAIS 2/27/65 102 PROBLEM: "The Rusher” This person is always in a hurry. He is cooperative but wants to "get things over with." His responses are quick and brief, talks a minimum. ,At many points he is impatient while the interviewer records responses or moves into the questions. He often anticipates questions and begins to answer before the interviewer finishes asking the question. Femalegpersonality,sketch: You are a college educated professional woman about 35. You are very busy and have very little time for extra projects. Your husband is a successful young business executive. You are preoccupied with the problems of your job and have very little time for social activity which is not job related. You are modestly successful. You are aware of political, economic, and social problems and have a "world view." You are also sensitive to the personal problems of those about you. Malegpersonality sketch: You are an extremely successful business man, self-educated and attractive at 38 years old. Your business is your life, and you Spend most of your waking hours promoting it. You are reSpected and liked by your customers. You Spend quite a lot of time keeping physically fit, by participating in various indoor sports. Your wife is a socialite but you consider this unimportant. As a result you go your separate ways. You're a good guy, always in a hurry. NAIS 2/27/65 103 PROBLEM: “The Curious " This person is very bright and informed. He is as curious as can be about the whole research project the interviewer is working on. He asks the interviewer many informed questions about the project and about why some of the questions are asked. He is familiar with research and the value of public opinion polling. He wants to discuss things with the interviewer, just because he is interested and sees the interviewer as an interesting person to talk to. At times he asks personal questions of the interviewer. Female personality_sketch: You are a 40 year old homemaker in a small town of 2500. You have seven youngsters, ranging from 2 to 17. The oldest is a junior in high school. Your husband has a small supply business and makes around twelve thousand a year. You live in a large old roomy house, modestly furnished but attractive. You are well organized, and have lots of friends and interests. You organized Great Books in your little town, are an avid reader and president of the Library Board. You are very aware of problems of the community and up to date on local and state political problems. You are alert to the needs of each of your children and about the services within the community which affect them. gage Personality Sketch: You are a young marketing executive in your early thirties. You have a master's degree and are constantly involved in some additional educational activity. You are broad minded and have many interests. You are well traveled and are aware of the problems of the world. You have recently married and your wife is completing an advanced degree at the present. You have no children. You are very active, have many friends of varying types. You are successful in your job, not actively pursuing advancement but will get there because you are competent and work well with people. NAIS 2/27/65 PROBLEM: ”The Ideal One” This person is no problem. He treats the interviewer courteously and does whatever he can to complete the interview as quickly and as effectively as possible. His answers are informed, direct, and complete. The danger for the interviewer is that the rapport he establishes may be too complete and there may be a temptation to be too eager to cooperate with the respondent. Once the relationship becomes a friendly one, the interviewer may have some reservation about asking some of the questions, and as a result, affect the quality of the interview. Female personality sketch: You are a charming, middleaged woman in your early fifties. Your husband is vice-president of a large well-known insurance firm. You are not without talent of your own. You are active in many civic projects, have a full social calendar and have several hobby interests which you actively pursue. You are a creative person and try to be an inspiration to those about you. In general you are gracious and considerate of the interviewer at all times. Male_personality sketch: You are a distinguished public official in your early forties. You are highly respected by people in the political arena and your co-workers for your competence, honesty, and hard work. You are very humble about your contributions. You are well educated and have a wealth of experience in the fields of business and education as well as in politics. You are active in community affairs and are constantly involved in community betterment projects. You have two children, both in college. Your wife is also civic minded, and is a registered nurse. She is involved in many projects revolving about her professional interests. NAIS 2/27/65 1. 105 NOTES ON INTERVIEWING I. General Comments No interviewer may delegate his task of interviewing to anyone else. Such a procedure would destroy standardization of interviewing since substitute would not have had the same training, and would therefore render data non-comparable. Know the Questionnaire thoroughly. (a) WOrding: Try to memorize the wording of the questionnaire, preamble to questions, each question, their order and the response categories, etc. (b) Intent: Know the precise purpose of each question and sub- question. This will be particularly useful (1) when it is necessary to use synonyms for ambiguous words or when it is occasionally necessary to re- phrase unclear sentences. (ii) when it is necessary to clarify sections of a long and complicated question, and thus avoid going back to the beginning and repeating the question word for word. A knowledge of the intent of each question and the precise wording of the questions also facilitates a smoother flow, a conversational presentation, and allows the interviewer to focus his attention on the respondent, all of which encourages an informal atmosphere rather than a test situation. The informant should not be required to waste any of his time waiting between questions. While the interviewer is recording the answer to one question, he should ask the next one so that the respondent can be thinking it over. . Dress and Appearance. Appropriate appearance of the interviewer helps him to secure the schedule information and to create an impression favorable to future co-operation. Interviewers should be reasonably neat in appearance but it is well to avoid appearing so neat that the housewife refuses admission to her dusty or disorderly home for fear of being censored. Similarly, it is best not to appear too prosperous. There is evidence for the view that plainly attired interviewers are likely to be more successful than others. A. 106 Youthful looks constitute a definite drawback. The more mature an interviewer appears, the greater the degree of acceptance by respondents, generally speaking. To avoid being mistaken for sales persons, interviewers SHOULD NOT carry brief cases. A supply of manila folders is available for all questionnaires, response sheets, instructions, etc. When to Call upon Respondents: The following table may be used as a rough guide for determining the best time to set for calling upon respondents: "At Home and Awake" Monday-Friday, Coast-to-Coast Averages. Eastern Standard 1 1 Time: - Any Man: Any Woman: 10:00-10:30 a.m. 23.1 80.1 2:00- 2:30 p.m. 17.9 64.5 5:00- 5:30 p.m. 27.3 70.1 7h30- 8:00 p.m. 63.2 85.0 There is, of course, likely to be a greater proportion of men at home during the daytime in rural areas, than in urban areas. The time of day which is most productive for interviewing depends primarily upon the type of person to be reached. Men are seldom found at home during usual working hours but are more likely to be found at home during evenings, Saturday afternoons, or Sundays. In small communities, if most of the workers are employed in one or two large plants which operate on day and night shifts, daytime calls may reach a significant proportion of men at home. Calls around noon are not resented by most night workers since they usually have had their morning sleep. Punctuality, ’ It is extremely important in those instances where specific appointments have been made with respondents, that the interviewers present themselves at the respondent's home, PUNCTUALLY. 0n the Doorstep: Knock on door or ring bell BRIEFLY. After knocking, wait a reasonable length of time before doing it again. DO NOT appear impatient. If there is still no reply after knocking two or three times, try the back or the side door (occupant may be in kitchen, or have radio loud and be unable to hear front door bell). Occupant may also be in the garden (weather permitting). 107 After knocking on door, step back three or four paces, so as to avoid the appearance of "pressing" the door, or that of a salesman intent on placing his foot in the door. This also enables a cautious occupant to see who is calling before Opening the door. Opening_Remarks: (a) "Good morning" (with a smile), or similar greeting for the appropriate time of day. (b) Then proceed to tell whom he represents and that he would like an interview. These introductory remarks should be BRIEF but should satisfy most respondents that a harmless "study" is being made. Suggested example of introduction: 1 "Good Morning. I'm from the University of Nebraska - I believe you received a letter from them asking if I could call on you. - We're working on a survey of the whole of the state of Nebraska and I'd like to get a few of YOUR ideas. It won't take very long. By the way, here is my identifi- cation card." (We've visited with you before) Words such as "Survey," "Statistics," "Opinion Poll," "Research," and phrases such as “not interested in names," "there's nothing personal in this study, we only want statistics," "University Research," and "families all over the state are giving this information," may convey the desired impression of a statistical survey which will not harm the interests of the respondent. DO NOT use words such as "investigation," or phrases like: "Are you busy?," "Would you mind answering some questions?," or "Could you spare a couple of minutes?” The latter give the respondent an opportunity of turning down the interviewer. You should assume that the respondent would be interested in the questions because he usually is and is also usually flattered by being chosen to be interviewed. (c) Immediately after the greeting and identification, the interviewer must make sure that he is talking to the proper party, viz: the respondent selected. What to do when no one answers the door. See appropriate section in "Notes on Interviewing - 2. Specific Instructions on Completing Questionnaire." What to do when address assigned is, or appears to be, non-existent. See appropriate section in "Notes on Interviewing - 2. Specific Instructions on Completing Questionnaire." 10. 108 What to do when Respondent is unable or refuses to be interviewed. (a) (b) (e) (d) When respondent is deceased - See appropriate section in "Notes on Interviewing - Specific Instructions on Completing Questionnaire." When respondent is sick: (1) (11) When ment When (i) If sickness is serious and likely to be of long duration, see appropriate section in "Notes on Interviewing - Specific Instruction on Completing Questionnaire." If sickness is not serious and respondent is likely to be well enough to answer questions within a relatively short period, endeavor to arrange appointment for later interview, or indicate you will contact him about that time. respondent has visitors - endeavor to arrange an appoint- for a later date. a respondent objects: While over 901 of respondents are exceedingly co-operative when they learn that a statistical survey is being conducted, a few object to giving information and have to be "won" over to the idea by the interviewer. If interviewers are aware of and anticipate the types of remarks which interviewers may make, they can have ready answers to forestall definite refusals. The interviewer must be able to "size up" the respondent and to decide quickly whether to postpone the interview or try to get it before the respondent feels even more strongly that he or she does not wish to co-operate. Some of the objections most frequently met are classified as follows: Those indicating the respondent does not wish to be disturbed at that moment: “I haven't time" "I'm too busy" "I can't spare that much time" "I'm going out" "Someone is sick in the house" If the interviewer has indicated how long the questions will take and the respondent is still too busy, the interviewer should try to set another time - a definite time, if possible, e.g., "Will you be in at 3 o'clock this afternoon?" I'll be in this neighborhood then and would certainly appreciate it if you would let me drop in," or "If you have no objections, I'll come over in a day or two," and then set a specific time. (ii) (111) (1V) 109 Remarks indicating respondent is not sympathetic to surveys: "I'm not interested" "I don't care to give any information" "It's my own business what I do or think" Try to find out why respondent has this attitude. (a) Does he or she object to the University sponsoring the study? (b) Is he or she afraid his or her confidence will be violated? If so, try to convince her of the anonymity of the survey data and of the fact that no names are taken. "We are not interested in you as a person - this is a state-wide study," and "We send the results into the Central Office in Lincoln - so no one will see them here." (c) Does he or she think he or she has something to lose? Assure respondent that it will not hurt him or her to give the information and it will be a favor to you, since you are making a living at surveying. (In some instances, it's part of your education) Remarks which suggest that respondent will answer only if required by law to do so: "Is it compulsory to tell you?" "Do I HAVE to answer those questions?" "Is this necessary?" The interviewer should assure the informant that co- operation will be appreciated but that the giving of information is not mandatory. If the reason for refusal cannot be anticipated, use a number of appeals such as: "The results will be in statistical form." "Other families are co-operating." "The study is being made in towns and cities all over the state." "We are not interested in names." "It will take only about 50 or 60 minutes." etc. Questions indicating suspicion of the survey: "Are you selling something?" "What is the information going to be used for?" "Who did you say this is for?" "Why didn't you go next door?" In this last case, a frank statement of the sampling process often satisfies the respondent. For example: "we just draw or choose one out of every thousand people in each county in the state at random, and yours happened to be the one we drew." 110 Occasionally the respondent becomes suspicious only after he has begun giving answers and realizes that he hasn't found out what it's all about. A suggested explanation might be: "My name is . I'm working for the University of Nebraska. They undertake many of this kind of survey all over the state to find out people's ideas. And you know the only way to find out what people think is to ask them. It's interesting, don't you think?" And then get on with the interview. (v) Attempts to put off the interviewer. "I never give out information until I've talked with my husband." "Leave the blank and I'll look it over and let my husband see it." "Leave the form and I'll mail it in." In most such cases, the interviewer had better call again in the evening and explain the survey to the husband. It is more difficult for the husband to turn down the interviewer than it is to tell his wife that she should give the blank back to you and tell you that he (the husband) does not want to be bothered with such stuff. (For suggestions as to how to deal with respondent who insists upon filling the form out himself, or insisting that he look the questionnaire over before he answers, see items 11 and 12 below.) (vi) In opinion surveys, informants may lack confidence in their ability to "pass a test" on a subject. They will ask questions such as: "What kind of questions?" or "What is it all about?" Interviewers should EQT_mention the specific subject of the survey until inside the house and immediately prior to the questions (as in the proper order in the questionnaire), since he may say that he knows nothing about it. If he were asked the questions, however, he might answer them all without realizing they were on the subject about which he had just professed ignorance. Sometimes the respondent says: "My opinions aren't worth anything," or "I don't read up on things much," or "Better ask someone else." The interviewer should explain that this is not a pobl of experts, that these are not "right" or "wrong" answers, and that the surveyors just want to find out what average people think. To be sure, many objections are unvoiced, but a keen interviewer will soon learn to recognize the symptoms and to answer objections which are on the informant's mind. If the more detailed explanation does not seem to satisfy the respondent, the interviewer should be able to sense this fact and should proceed with the interview without giving ll. 12. 13. 111 any impression other than complete confidence that co—operation will be gladly given when the matter is fully understood. Very often, when respondents see the type of questions asked and the manner in which the replies are recorded, their resistance breaks down. The process of "selling the interview" will depend to a large extent upon the interviewer's approach as well as upon the respondent. Some respondents can be appealed to by humor - "give the information to get rid of the 'pest' interviewer." By appearing amazed that anyone would refuse, the interviewer may make the respondent feel silly for holding out. Many devices for making friends and influencing people may be applied in securing the co-operation for the interview. As a last resort, the interviewer can put away the questionnaire and say: "If you don't want to answer the questions, would you mind telling me how you felt about the earlier interview." How to deal with the respondent who asks to be allowed to fill out the questionnaire himself. Politely refuse, and thank him for his offer of help, but point out that the method of recording his answers is extremely complicated and that it would take hours to explain it to him. A suggested reply is: "That's very kind of you to offer to help me but I'm afraid that the method we use for recording your answers is rather complicated - in fact, it took me weeks to learn this job - and it would take a very long time to explain it. But I'm sure it wouldn't take very much of your time to run through the questions. ." As a last resort, you can shift the blame on to the Central Office by saying that your Central Office will not allow you to do this. How to deal with the respondent who asks to see the questionnaire before he answers the questions. Politely refuse, pointing out that there are a number of pages of written material, and that the way in which the questions are written is rather complicated and includes a lot of material which is not questions but instructions to you as the interviewer. Your reply might go something like this: "I hope you don't mind, but I think it would take up less of your time if I asked you the questions because this schedule is rather complicated and includes a lot of instructions to me as the interviewer which is scattered among the questions, and it would take quite a bit of time sorting it out." Getting into the house of the respondent. Every attempt should be made to complete the interview inside the respondent's house since such surroundings usually provide a more informal and conversational situation in which to conduct the interview. 112 It is to be expected that most respondents will invite interviewers into their homes without the latter prompting them. However, there will also be occasions when such is not the case and it is therefore suggested that interviewers might politely suggest that the interview be conducted inside the house in some such way as follows: "This interview will go on for some minutes and you might be more comfortable if you could sit down while I ask you the questions.” Or, "If you don't mind a suggestion, this interview would be more comfortable for both of us if we could sit down." "If it would not interfere with what you are doing, perhaps we could sit down while we fill this out?" If the interviewer senses that a suggestion on his part to go inside might be met with some resistance on the part of the respondent (particularly in the case of male interviewers visiting women who are alone in the house), the interviewer might find it convenient to begin the questionnaire and ask a couple of the socio-economic questions, and then break off and say: "It occurs to me that it might be more convenient or comfortable for you if we finished these questions off inside?" ***** The Interview. 14. Privacy for the interview situation. As a rule, the presence of a "listener" or witness is not conducive to frank, uninhibited responses. Neighbors, friends or relatives occasionally will be encountered in the home of a prospective respondent and though he may not be willing to admit that their presence disturbs him, the interviewer should either try to secure privacy or set another date for the interview. A second essential condition of the interview is that there be no effective distractions or disturbing interruptions. Constant ringing of a telephone, people coming and going, the crying of a baby, loud-voiced conversations, and numerous other situations occasionally encountered may necessitate the postponement of the visit, since such a situation may lead the respondent to give inaccurate information unintentionally. On the other hand, it is often true that a housewife, for example, may give an excellent interview while carrying on routine household tasks such as ironing, washing dishes or stringing beans. The mere fact that the interviewer has offered to conduct the interview while such tasks are being performed may cause the housewife to agree to being interviewed. If the questions are interesting to her, she may stop working of her own accord and give full attention to the interview. The interviewer must try to sense situations and decide whether to go ahead or to make a return visit. 15. 16. 17. 113 Eliminate social distance between Interviewer and Respondent. At all costs avoid creating the impression that you are "talking down" to the respondent. Accept him as your equal. Use appropriate language, manner and general approach depending on the type of respondent with which you are dealing. Pay deference to pig interests, hip hobbies, hip mode of life, hip point of view, .EEE conventionalities, etc. If a respondent offers you a cup of coffee (or better still teal), accept with sincere thanks. A refusal on your part to do so might be interpreted by him as snobbishness! AEEélé 2E REELIE. II idli- Talk Slowly at all times. Because of the difficulty of the subject-matter of the interview, because of the long questions, because people have different accents and idiomatic speech, there will be plenty of opportunities for being misunderstood by the respondent. Constantly watch your speed in speech and check it to SLOW. Remember! A misunderstood question will almost always give us a checkmark in a response category which is invalid. Creating Rapport. Because of the type of interview you will be conducting, a very important element in every interviewing situation is the personal relationship between the interviewer and the respondent. "Rapport" is the term used to designate the personal relationship of friendliness and trust that provides the foundation for good interviewing. The impression made by the interviewer upon the respondent in the course of his introduction will to a considerable degree determine the rapport that will develop. The more natural the approach, the better. Simplicity of dress, a level of language suitable to the occasion, and sincere interest in his work and in his respondent's point of view will gain acceptance for the interviewer as a person to whom the respondent can talk on a basis of common understanding. Sometimes the interviewer may feel that the introductory process alone has not established him firmly enough to proceed at once with the interview. The most common procedure in such cases is to talk about some topic in.which both the interviewer and the respondent have an interest. Discussion of the weather, the latest football scores, or the respondent's garden, and making friends with the dog or children are some of the things which help ease the situation. 1A good rule in building rapport is to_get the respondent started talkipg about thinggpwhich he knows and in which he is interested. 18. 19. 114 Occasionally during an interview a question may be reached which breaks rapport because it causes embarrassment or because the respondent cannot answer it. It is often wise at such points to break away from the interview schedule and discuss something off the subject to allow the respondent to regain composure and to reassure him about the interview. It is important, however, that such topics be outside the scope of the questionnaire so that nothing the interviewer says will influence the rest of the interview. Interviewers are frequently surprised at the suspicions which respondents entertain. In a survey of population fertility, for example, one respondent confessed to the interviewer that she thought the government was trying to find out how much room she had in her house so they might force her to house people working in a nearby munitions factory. Another respondent said she thought the survey was for the purpose of finding childless couples who could be compelled to adapt European refugee children. The more skillful the interviewer, the more likely he is to bring these suspicions into the open and to allay the fears which the respondent may be harboring. Two things are necessary for a successful interview: (1) The respondent must think the survey worthwhile, and (ii) the respondent must have friendly feelings towards the interviewer. It is not enough to get the respondent to answer the questions, the interviewer must get him interested and enthusiastic about the questions so that he gives accurate answers. The introduction to the questionnaire, which has been written out for you, will, we hope, facilitate the achievement of the first above goal. We now give a few "Do's" and "Don'ts" to help you achieve the second goal. Sincerity; Flattering comments about the respondent's house, furniture, garden, children, pets, or prowess in some respect are good for developing rapport, BUT THEY MUST IMPRESS THE RESPONDENT AS BEING SINCERE ON YOUR PART. It is better not to make pg! flattering comments at all than to— make them and convey the impression that you are saying them for the purpose of making an impression on the respondent. Do not Argue with a Respondent: NEVER, NEVER, NEVER disagree or argue with a respondent on any matter, whether it is related to the questionnaire or not! The best policy is to agree with the respondent on all occasions, but if there are some views expressed by a respondent with which you simply cannot agree, then make some ambiguous reply which either makes you appear to agree or is non-committal. Some suggested comments, to get you out of a hole are: 20. 21. 22. 23. 115 "That's certainly a point of view that ought to be considered." "I think many people would agree with you." "I've heard many people express the same view as yours." "Well, you know that had never occurred to me before." "There are certainly many points in favor of that point of view.“ "That point of view certainly needs some thinking over." Remember! Our motto should be: "We seek to Understand, not to Judge!!" Be Calm and Composed at all times. D0 NOT SHOW surprise, anger, amusement or any other emotion from.which the respondent can infer disagreement. This applies especially to his responses to the questions you ask him. ALSO BEWARE of the intonation of your voice and your facial expression, - these may reveal sentiments of yours which will aggravate the respondent. Don't talk too much: Avoid talking too much. Avoid monopolizing the discussion. Avoid talking too much even when the respondent encourages it. In the last case, enter into the discussion by all means, but endeavor as soon as possible to bring the conversation around to the questionnaire without making it too pointed. Too much talking wastes time and the more you talk, the more your own views will become apparent to the respondent, and if these are not in agreement with his, then it may reduce his friendly feelings towards you and ruin the interview. Show Interest in Respondent: Always show interest in your respondent and what he is saying. Never indicate you are bored by flipping through the pages of the questionnaire, or by abandoning him as your focus of attention. If the respondent is talkative and you would like to get him to return to the questionnaire, do not use the technique of showing boredom to do this! (See Item No. 23 below.) Be a good Listener! How to deal with Lengthy Digressions. When you feel that a discussion has strayed far enough from the questionnaire, or has gone on long enough, try fully and unobtrusively to bring the discussion.back to the questionnaire. Perhaps something the respondent says will have some remote connection with a topic covered in the questionnaire, when.you might say: "Well, as a matter of fact, we have a question on that very point in the questionnaire. It will come up again in a minute." or "That's similar to a question we'll get to in a few minutes,“ or "That's very interesting and certainly very important in connection 24. 25. 26. 116 with the question we're dealing with; Now. . . . . . . ," or the interviewer may sum up what the respondent has been saying very briefly and then refer back to the question, as follows: "So you feel that. . . . .now what about. . . . Keep Interview within reasonable time period. Both in connection with digressions on the part of the respondent and with your own speed of administration of the questionnaire, it should constantly be borne in mind that all interviews should be rogghly of the same duration. The type of questionnaire which we shall be using will be one which leads to fatigue on the part of the respondent in many cases. Fatigue, on the part of interviewer and respondent alike, is an extremely important factor in reducing reliability of responses. In order to keep fatigue to a minimum, and to hold it roughly constant in all interviews, the time period of the interview should be not less than and not more than . The "Smart-Aleck." Try to be patient with this kind of respondent. Ignore his attitude at first and try to stress the importance and the seriousness of the project and our desire to secure his honest opinion. However, DO NOT assume the role of the school teacher reprimanding a naughty pupil! If this does not succeed in changing his attitude, you might indicate to him that this is your way of earning a living, and your job depends upon completing successful interviews. If you find it is impossible to make any impression on the respondent make an appropriate note on the Response Sheet, complete the interview and try hard to get as reliable responses to the sociometic questions as possible. (See: "Notes on Interviewing -2. Specific Instructions on Completing Questionnaire.") Asking the Questions. (a) Relaxed conversational atmosphere. The interview should proceed on as informal and relaxed a plane as the degree of rapport permits, and the interviewer should avoid creating the impression that the interview is in any sense a quiz or a cross-examination. ‘He should keep the schedule in sight during the interview, glancing at it before asking each question, and then putting the question to the respondent in a natural and conversational tone of voice. Each question should be asked in a manner implying that it presents an interesting topic and one about which a good conversation can be centered. Give respondent plenty of time for reply - tell him.he can take his time. 27. 117 (b) Use Same Wording for all Respondents: Questions should be asked in the way in which they are worded on the interviewing schedule. As it is essential that the same questions be asked of each person interviewed, the interviewer should make no changes in the phrasing of the questions. Research and experience have shown that all people in a sample must be asked the same questions in the same way. People's answers are strongly influenced by the wording of a question. In order to be absolutely sure that an interviewer will not bias the results of the survey, the questions have been written out exactly as they must be asked. (c) Use Same Order of Questions for all Respondents. Questions should be asked in their proper order. Because the answer to one question tends to condition the answer to the next, the same order of questions should be followed each time. (d) Omissions from Questionnaire. It sometimes happens that a respondent amplifies his reply to a question in such a way that he anticipates the answer to one that appears later in the interview schedule. When this occurs, the interviewer should repeat the respondent's answer, given previously, when the appropriate question occurs on the questionnaire. (e) If for any reason the interviewer finds it necessary to depart from the wording or the order of the schedule, he should make the appropriate notation on the Response Sheet. (See: "Notes on Interviewing - 2. Specific Instructions on completing Questionnaire.") StimulatingiDiscussion. The interviewer should make no comments in the course of the interview that will influence the answers of the respondent. However, in order to obtain full discussion of the topics on the schedule and in order to bring to light the respondent's reasons for his particular opinions, the interviewer should make use of certain devices to encourage his respondent to talk. Such devices should be introduced casually and unobtrusively as a natural expression of interest in what the respondent is saying or is about to say. The following are some of the methods that have proved most successful in practice. (a) An expectant pause on the part of the interviewer after the respondent has replied briefly to a question. This is often enough to convey the impression that the respondent has merely begun answering the question and will bring forth an amplification of the topic. 28. 29. 118 (b) Brief Assenting_§9mments, such as "Uh-huh," "Yes," "I see," or "That's interesting," which are very natural to social conversation and fit into the interview very conveniently may be used frequently. (c) Neutral questions may_a1so be used, if unobtrusively put, in order to elicit fuller responses. "Why do you think that is so?" "I'd be interested in your reason for that," or "Just how do you mean?" are examples of the type of questions that may be introduced in order to encourage the respondent to tell why he feels as he does. (d) Summarizipg_what the respondent has just said is an especially useful device for helping him clarify his attitudes and prompting him to enlarge upon his statement. Summaries should carefully follow the respondent's attitudes and reflect them in the light in which he sees them. (e) Repeating the question is a useful device when the respondent seems unable to make up his mind or when he strays away from the topic. How to deal with Ambiguous Responses. The dangers inherent in trying to clear up an ambiguous response are that the respondent may feel inferiour when he cannot make himself understood, or that the interviewer is endeavoring to trap him in an inconsistency. Both of these impressions will tend to stifle free expression of opinion on the part of the respondent for the remainder of the interview. Don't show the respondent that you are utterly confused. Try to give the impression that there is just some little point that is unclear to you. Try to make some sense out of his response by reformulating it into the most likely point of view. If your reformulation turns out to be incorrect, then apologize to the respondent and take all the blame for the misunderstanding. For example: "Your point of view is then that . .(Summary)," (Respondent rejects reformulation), then: "Oh! I see. Of course, how stupid of me!" Respondent's Inconsistencies. Avoid pointing these out to a respondent, unless you feel it may have been caused either by the respondent misunderstanding the question, or your misunderstanding his response. In such cases, pose the inconsistency to the respondent carefully. DO NOT convey the impression that you are trying to third degree the respondent, or to be superior by pointing out his illogicality. 30. 119 A respondent should never be inconsistent, only misunderstoodl! Again, take the blame by saying that it is your fault for misunderstanding the response. "Don't Know" Responses. Since this response category has a peculiar "magnetic" quality for a large number of respondents, interviewers should make special efforts to be absolutely certain that a respondent really doesn't know, before checking this response category. When a respondent says that he does not know or does not have an opinion on the question, the interviewer should know when to "force" an opinion on the question and when to accept the "Don't Know" reaction. Following are some of the reasons why persons say they do not know: (a) They may be thinking aloud - they may not have thought about the question before, but will reach a decision if given time. Such persons say, for example: "Well, I don't exactly know. ." (b) Lack of information on the subject. (c) Lack of understanding of words or phrasing of the question. Sometimes if the question is repeated, an answer will be forthcoming. (d) No conception of what the issue is, or what type of answer is expected. If repetition of the question fails to bring a response, this is usually the reason. (e) Inability to decide between alternatives. Such cases may merely require time. (f) Fear of possible consequences should the respondent's opinion come to the attention of persons in power over him. A guarantee of confidential treatment of responses may help in such cases. (g) Belief that it is not his province to hold an opinion on the subject - that it is up to those "in the know," or "in authority" to handle the issue. Such people should be encouraged to express their own views. minority view. The ita e at ex ressin an unpopular or (h) Hes me P g n" line may be useful "Everybody has a right to his own opinio for such cases. The interviewer may obtain an explicit h as "there aren't any right or wrong ce to say what (i) Fear of being wrong. answer by remarks suc answers; we just want to give people a chan they think." 31. 32. 120 When all other efforts have failed, the interviewer may solicit an explanation by a comment such as, "Would you mind telling me why you feel you can't answer?" It is important to ascertain why the respondent has replied "Don't Know." When the reason for this response has been obtained, the interviewer may then use the appropriate technique listed above. RecordingAInformation. Complete and specific instructions will be given for the procedures to be adopted in recording the information obtained during the interview. (See:. "Notes on Interviewing - 2. Specific Instructions on Completing the Questionnairell) Takinginotes. Each question on the interview schedule will have its appropriate response categories duly specified, so that the amount of note taking that will be required will be relatively small. However, there are several places where space has been left for the inclusion of qualifications which the respondent makes to his response and for other comments which may be relevant. As a general rule, everything that pertains to the objectives of a question should be noted down under the appropriate question number on the Response Sheet. Digressions may, however, be omitted if they have no bearing upon the question and contain nothing which serves to throw further light upon the respondent's attitudes toward the topic under consideration. The interviewer will have to exercise his judgment in deciding to what extent the contents of such digressions are relevant to the aims of the interview. Any comments which the interviewer adds to the scheduled questions to obtain further insight into the respondent's thinking should also be jotted down. For purposes of analysis it is often desirable to differentiate between the part of a reply that was spontaneous and the part that came in response to the interviewer's prompting. To obtain a faithful record of the respondent's attitudes, the interviewer should take notes on his replies to each question where necessary, numbering them consecutively. If the interViewer can take notes in shorthand, so much the better; if not, he must be sure that his necessarily condensed jottings accurately summarize the respondent's answers and in the respondent's own words. Besides recording the gist of the respondent's answer, the interviewer should also make an attempt to catch the phrases, tricks and peculiarities of speech characteristic of the particular person so that something of his individual personality will be reflected in the interview and give it color and animation. Even the most hastily taken notes Should be sufficiently full so that the interviewer will be able to 33. 34. 121 reconstruct the answers as a true reflection of the respondent's opinions. Notes taken during an interview should be expanded immediately after so that a clear impression will be retained. For the purposes of maintaining rapport, the interviewer should keep attention centered upon the respondent and not become absorbed in his notebook, nor should he pause too long in his notetaking while the respondent waits for the next question. With a little practice the interviewer can readily acquire the knack of taking notes deftly while at the same time he keeps the conversation moving. (Not apply to several questions where detailed verbatum notes are essential) It is important to review the notes after the interview and amplify. Checkigg_Response Sheet. At the completion of the interview, the interviewer should make a thorough check of the Response Sheet in order to see that he has a response for every question on the questionnaire. End of Interview: Deciding when all pertinent information has been secured and the interview should be terminated requires experience and judgment. "No interview which is still yielding applicable facts should be summarily ended even though information sufficient to fill in the questionnaire has been obtained". . . . .Since no time should be . wasted, the interviewer must decide when he has obtained an adequate reply, and can leave. The problem of achieving diplomatically a quick exit is not always an easy one. Once the informant has become thoroughly interested in the survey topic or in recounting her hopes or troubles to a willing listener, breaking off the interview may prove difficult. The plea of "an appointment" at a specified time in the near future is a plausible excuse for a seemingly hurried departure which frequently proves successful. By standing up and going toward the door as he thanks the informant, the interviewer can sometimes bring the interview to a close. If the respondent continues to talk, the interviewer may say he has quite a few calls to make but would like to come back sometime. Whatever device is employed, the interviewer should leave the informant with a feeling of pleasure at having co-operated in a worthwhile undertaking, and with a willingness to be revisited in case "some points were overlooked." At all events, remember to express thanks for their co- 0peration and help. Remind respondent that the report from the earlier visit will be sent in about a month. 35. 122 Keep Responses Confidential. In order to avoid even the slightest possibility of being accused of breaking faith with our pledge of complete secrecy and anonymity of respondent's responses, DO NOT discuss material covered in any interview with anyone outside the project staff. Reporters, local politicians and V.I.P's, should be politely referred to the Centra1 Office. Our Mbtto: "Be Like Dad, Keep Mhmll" 123 NAIS 1965 NOTES ON INTERVIEWING II. Specific Instructions on Completing an Interview A. GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS 1. For each interview to be completed, the interviewer will a. Sign up on the control sheet at Room.526 Nebraska Hall indicating an intent to obtain X interview, by checking out the RESPONDENT RECORD FORM.for respondent X. (Out of town interviewers can arrange to do so by mail on the main project.) Read over the "Summary of Respondent Characteristics" at the end of the RESPONDENT RECORD FORM. Clarify with project staff any points on which you may have questions. Obtain an interview packet, including 1) an Interview Schedule Face Sheet 2) an Interview Schedule 3) an Interviewer Rating Form 4) any additional information on R's house location (In practice the foregoing steps will be performed for several potential interviews at the same time, the number depending on the number of hours that the interviewer plans to spend during the following few days, the number of respondents still to be interviewed within the area of the state to which the interviewer plans to go, etc.) Record on the RESPONDENT RECORD FORM, the interviewer's progress toward completing the interview, including 1) under point 6, any additional directions from directories, other interviews, etc., about locating and contacting the respondent. Point 60 will indicate if it is possible to phone for an appoint- ment. 2) under point 7B, the date on which the RESPONDENT RECORD FORM was checked out from the office. (If a phone call is made, note date in point 70. When the completed interview schedule is returned to the project office, note date in Point 7D.) 3) Write name of interviewer, in pencil, at lower right corner of RESPONDENT RECORD FORM. 4) Under Point 5, note progress at first and, if needed, subsequent visits, using the code categories listed following Point 5. For non-completed interviews coded k, fill out the temporary refusal form to indicate reason and circumstances. Unless it is a categorical refusal, this form will provide a basis for follow-up, in an attempt to complete the interview, possibly with another interviewer. 124 f. When the interview is completed, the INTERVIEW SCHEDULE FACE SHEET should be completed, in the following way. 1) transfer information to the top of the face sheet, from the RESPONDENT RECORD FORM. 2) use Area A, for notes that may be helpful in locating the reapondent or rescheduling the remaining portion of a split interview. 3) use Area B, for messages to project staff, especially calling attention to questions the interviewer may have raised on through the interview schedule. 4) use Area C, to keep a record of the steps between completion of the interview and checking the completed schedule into the project office. 5) areas D and E, will be used by coders and key punch operators during the processing of the schedule. Ask questions in order. When unavoidably changed, note how and why. Anticipgted questions. When reSpondent, in answering an earlier question, also answers a later question, note his reply in appropriate section, and that he anticipated it. When later question comes up, summarize the reply so R can either confirm, modify or reject. Ask questions as worded. Where substantially different wording is necessary, note this in schedule under the question. Recording answers. Your purpose as an interviewer is to record accurately, completely, and briefly as possible, the answer that the respondent gives to each question in the schedule. This requires, of course, that the question be as clear as possible, that you understand the question, and that you record the answers effectively. We have provided pre-coded responses where this was possible and Space to write replys where this seemed best. No matter what we have provided by way of form for a reply, its purpose is to help you obtain and record an effective reply, one that will convey R's meaning to someone besides yourself. For each question this process can be aided by the following: a. Make sure 123 understand the question b. Know the wording of the question so you can concentrate on saying it as naturally, clearly, distinctly and meaningfully as possible c. For pre-coded questions, neatly and accurately check, or write in, the appropriate category number. Where this is not sufficient to convey the meaning of R's reaponse, add a note under the question or on the opposite page next to the question. (Clearly indicate with which question each note goes) d. For open ended questions, record the essence of what R said in response to the question, using his phraseology and wording wherever possible. If long reply is relevant, note it in some detail, using back of previous page (left hand sheet) and additional paper if needed. 125 If probe seems needed, but has not been provided, think in terms of the purpose of the question. natural as possible. quent reply. Make probes as Note both the probe and the subse- The judgments you will have to make on the interview rating fimnm will sometimes help suggest a useful probe. f. Make a note of it, whenever you use a probe, either provided by us or created by you. 6. Interviewer Reactions. It is essential that you remain as neutral as possible during the interview. Many R's will be looking for even subtle signs of approval or disapproval from you. Remember, we seek to understand, not to judge! ‘Bganching of questions. From looking over the interview schedule it should be clear that not all questions are to be asked of any one R. To facilitate moving through only questions that do apply, we have provided "branching instructions" at the points where there is an option. Each "B" note says in effect . . ."for all people who are in:§ category (or who answered this question in a certain way), go directly to question Z, Questions marked by * or ** are to be asked of only part of the total R's. (See more detail on branching in the section on Organization of the Interview Schedule). Don't know responses. When an R answers don't know or the equivalent, it is important to find out tactfully if they really don't know or if this is just a way of giving them- selves time to think the question through or mildly trying to avoid doing so. If the person really doesn't know, this is an acceptable reSponse and for pre-coded items should be checked NA 9 for no answer). If it would seem that R should have information or an opinion, an expectant look, a short pause, a neutral comment to provide time to think, a rephrasing of the question or a gentle probe will usually bring forth a valid response. Don't press too hard, however. R's will tend to give an answer (Opinion type questions eSpecially) just to get off the spot and an erroneous response is worse than an NA. Qppompletable interviews. There will, of course, be some instances where the interview cannot be completed, because you can't find the house, no one ever answers the door, or the R is deceased or too sick to be interviewed. In these instances note this information on the face sheet. In the case where the R died or left home, the number of adults in household would be decreased by one and, if any remain, a new R selected by the selection chart on the face sheet. In some instances, however, the R will be unable to cooperate fully, because of physical condition or personality (a smart aleck). In these instances, rapidly complete the schedule, noting especially the demographic information (age, occupation, education, etc.) and note R's behavior on the interviewer rating fonm. B. PHONE CALLS T0 RESPONDENTS 1. It will be possible to call some R's who were most cooperative in the earlier study to make an appointment. 126 2. In general, calls will be made by the person who plans to conduct the interview. 3. In making the call, say, in effect (use your own words): "Hello, is (respondent) there?" (if Speaking, continue. If there, talk with; if not, talk with any other adult residing in the household). ”This is (person calling). I'm.working on a University of Nebraska survey; I believe they wrote to you about it a week or so ago. (pause briefly for some kind of confirmation). I'm in the area now and thought I'd call and see if it would be convenient for me to stop by and visit sometime (indicate preferred time)? (If the R seems cooperative and receptive, make an appointment. If not, and if objections are raised try to deal with them tactfully. If R seems about to decline the interview, say something like. . .) "Yes, I understand. I just thought I'd call and see if there was some time that was more convenient, for you. Thank you very much. Good Bye." (then continue the conversation on the door step of R's house). If the person indicates some resistance to the idea of being interviewed, tactfully try to reassure him and determine the basis for this. We can then follow-up more effectively. 4. c .Mraocsnunss 1. No answer at door - wait a while before knocking or ringing again. Then try a second or third time. On the chance that someone is home but did not hear you, possibly due to the radio playing, knock or ring at side or back door. If no one seems to be home, and if convenient, check with a neighbor to find out when the R will most likely be home, and note this on the Record Form. Non-existent address - If on the listed street and near or in the block, check with people who live there, for directions. In smaller towns or rural areas, check informally at the post office or county extension service office at the county seat. /::2\ If still no luck, check back at project office. 3.) Change in wording - If it is necessary to alter the wording '"' of a question, or to rephrase it so that the R will better understand, make a note of the wording you used, in the margin or on the back of the preceding page. The "smart aleck" - Since this is a reinterview of persons whom we successfully interviewed before, it is not necessary to obtain responses to any specific questions in case the interview must be terminated before it is completed. Deceased Respondent - Just try to find out approximately what year and month the R died. Sick Respondent - If short term, obtain estimate of when R would be available for interview. If long term, (for main project, not well enough until after May 15th, note this and we'll probably not try again this time around.) 2. 4. S. 6. 127 INTRODUCTION TO THE INTERVIEW--The first few minutes of contact with an R are very important and should go as smoothly as possible. There are several steps that should occur quickly and smoothly in a very few minutes. You should make certain you're talking with the person you want to interview, introduce yourself, identify the purpose of your visit, give R a chance to gain composure and to ask you in for the interview. The following statements are examples of what you might say at various points in the introduction. You will want to adapt what you say to changing circumstances. Remember that the primary purpose of this period is to establish rapport, to encourage R to enter the interviewing experience in a spirit of cooperation and interest. 1. Opening statement "Good (evening), is (respondent) here? (When talking with R) I'm from the University of Nebraska. I believe you received a letter from them.a week or so ago, asking if I could call on you? (pause for reply) We're working on a survey of the whole state of Nebraska, and I'd like to get a few of your ideas." "Oh, here's my identification card." (Give R a chance to look at the card and more importantly reflect on the situation and decide to ask you in) ”By the way, my H name is - 2. WORDS TO AVOID WORDS TO USE a. research, study, report, inquiry, investigation.. ........... survey b. average people........... ...... ....cross-section of people c. interview schedule.. ..... ..........guide d. want to ask you some questions ... .......... . ....... ..need to learn more about Nebraska communities e. may I interview you . ......... .....we'd like to get some of your ideas f. how we can improve conditions under which people live .... ..... how Nebraska might become an even better place in which to live. 3. If R asks what the purpose of the survey is, say . . "The survey is trying to find out what a cross-section of Nebraskans think about how Nebraska might become an even better place in which to live." 4. If R wonders phy he was chosen, say . . "I think you'll be interested in how you were chosen as one of the more than 1,000 Nebraskans we're visitin with. You see, in trying to find out what people all over the state think, we don't talk with everyone, but we try to talk with men and women of different ages and in all walks of life, just as they do in the Gallup surveys. 5. 10. I” / 128 What we did was to get lists of all the people living in various counties throughout the state, and we ran down these lists, choosing about one out of every thousand names at random, and it turned out that your name was one of the ones we picked." If R says . . . "I'm too busy. Why not talk with someone who's not so busy. . . say a. "This won't take too long, and I think you'll find it very interesting." b. (If R persists) "I realize you're busy. We wish we could sometimes, it would make this job somewhat easier. But, we want to talk with a real cross-section of Nebraskans and if we did talk with the person next door who's not so busy, what we'd have is the ideas of just those Nebraskans who aren't very busy!" If R says . . "I'm very busy, how long will this take, say . . . a. "It varies from person to person. If you're short for time, let's get right to work on this and it won't take too long." b. (If pressed, say) "Oh, probably up to an hour or so, depending on how fast we move along." If R starts complaining about his "pet peeve" . . . indicate that this survey is a wonderful way of getting hig_views known. If‘R fails to ask you in, ask . . . ”Where would it be most convenient for us to talk?" ;§.R asks, mention that a summary of the survey will be sent to all who have cooperated, that it is at the printers now. If R clearly is not going to be interviewed, as a last resort, put the schedule away and say . . . "Thank you very much for your c00peration last time; we really appreciated it. We'll be sending the book along in a few weeks. Good Bye." E. CLOSING THE INTERVIEW After the last question has been asked and answer recorded, there are several steps remaining to get you back out to the car and on your way. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Indicate that the questions are all over, probably by closing the notebook and putting the pencil away. Provide a brief period of informal conversation about the experience, so that if R wishes he may bring up any points he feels strongly about either about the topics discussed or the experience of being interviewed. Thank R.warmly for his cooperation, expressing how much we appreciate the time and effort he has contributed to making Nebraska an even better place in which to live. If R has questions about the project, the Continuation Center or the University, answer them as best you can. Make a note of important unanswered questions and we'll write to them. Do not tell R the names of any R's and if he asks, reassure him that you will tell no one that you talked with him. 129 If R asks about the report from the earlier visit, indicate that it will be mailed in the next month, that it has taken this long to summarize the ideas of more than 1,000 peOple. If when you have completed the interview you have the feeling that there may be some gaps in your notes, take the time there to quickly review and fill them in. ORGANIZATION OF THE INTERVIEW SCHEDULE The interview schedule has been prepared to make it easier for the Interviewer to accurately record information. In organizing the schedule, several standard procedures have been used that should be well understood by each Interviewer. Some of the major procedures and symbols related to the flow of questions during the interview are listed below. R - the capital R means reSpondent, the person being interviewed. I - the capital I means interviewer (you) ITEM - the term item refers to each question or other means of acquiring information, including both the question and the categories or other means of recording a response. CAPITALS - with few exceptions, material all in capital letters is instructions to the interviewer and is not to be said to the Respondent. Many of these instructions relate to the process of branching by which each Respondent is asked only those questions (Items) that apply to him. BRANCHING - the process of skipping over the questions (Items) that do not apply is facilitated by the following symbols and procedures. B - the capital letter B, stands for the word branch or "to go". Q - the capital letter Q, stands for the word question. They are usually used together in parenthesis to the left of a response category for a pre-coded question, as illustrated in the following example. 274. Do you own any widgets? Yes ......1( ) (B to Q. 280) No ......2( ) (In this example, R's who own widgets should be asked Q. 275-279 that apply only to widget owners. For R's who do not, the Interviewer (I) is reminded as he checks the No bracket for Q.274, to skip on to Q. 280) INDENTING - As a way of helping to remind the I. that a given question is to be asked of only the R's who gave a certain answer to the preceding Q or series of Q's, the Q to be asked of only some of those reaponding to the previous question is indented several spaces. (IF YES) - Another way in which the R's to whom a Q is to be asked is indicated, is by (IF YES) or (IF NO) following the Q number but preceding the question. 130 * - The asterisk is also used before the Q number to indicate that that question is to be asked of only some of the respondents. In general, all Q's that begin at the left margin and are without an asterisk are to be asked of all R's. 6. OPEN-ENDED ITEMS - Some of the items are asked in a form that does not specifically anticipate the content of the response. In almost all instances these Open-ended items will be followed by one or more horizontal lines that indicate the amount of detail that should be recorded for each open-ended item. If insufficient space was provided, use the margin and back of the preceding page. a. POST CODING BY CODER - Responses to all open-ended items require post-coding by someone. All items that can be coded as well or better by someone other than the interviewer will be post coded by a coder in the project office. For some of these items, the code categories appear in the schedule, set off from the items by two horizontal lines and identified at the upper left corner of the box by the phrase POST CODE in capitals. Those items to be post coded by a coder have a C (for coder) preceding the phrase POST CODE (e.g. C-POST CODE) b. POST CODING BY I - For some items it is important that the interviewer do the post coding, because he has the most complete and accurate knowledge upon which to select the appropriate category and because knowing that he will later post code the item, sensitizes him to obtain sufficient information during the interview to be able to do so. In some instances the I can not only record responses to Open ended items but also check or enter a post code category in the appropriate brackets. In other instances this will occur after the interview is complete and the I has left the premises. In the later instances, the post-coding can be done in the process of reviewing and editing the schedule to assure accuracy and completeness. 7. PRE-mDED ITEMS -L)Most of the items are set up in pre-coded form, especially for the main project. In pre-coded items, following the question, along the right margin of the page, is a series of reaponses. The phrases listed in the series of responses, stand for the range of responses that we expect from all respondents. In most instances we expect that what the R says in response to the question will clearly fit into one of the pre- coded list of phrases. a. COMPLETENESS - In some instances we can anticipate all of the possible responses (e.g. number of hours per day a person spends on some activity). In other instances, we can anticipate only most of them. In these later cases, there is usually an "other" category, with a line extending to the left on which the I should specify the unanticipated response. For all items, when the pre-coding does not provide an Opportunity to accurately record the R's answer, write in his comments in the margin or on.the back of the preceding page, and bring this to the attention nf the proiect staff. va- --- —v_"‘-- 131 b. QUED and NON-QUED - Some pre-coded items, list the alternative responses in the wording of the question (e.g. Do you attend movies frequently, sometimes, or almost never?) These are Qued items, because you provide a list of Ques from which the R selects the one that he considers most accurate. For the Non- Qued items, the R asks the question in open-ended style but records the response in the pre-coded categories (e.g. About how many times a month do you attend the movies?) If the pre-coded categories are not included in the form of the question, they should not be read by the I. However, when the R has answered, if his answer fits into one of the pre-coded categories, then it should be recorded. If not, the I should obtain clarification so that an accurate reSponse can be recorded either in the pre- coded categories, in the other category, or in an Open-ended type note in the margin. c. RECORDING RESPONSES - In most pre-coded items, the reaponse should be recorded by placing a horizontal line clearly in the brackets to the right of the phrase that applies. ( ) The key punch operator will then punch the number to the left of that bracket into the column of the IBM card to which that item has been assigned, as indicated by the number to the right of column of brackets for that item. TIME SPENT ON THE PROJECT It is in the interests of both the project timetable and the project budget, that the interviewing be completed as soon as possible. However, because the interview is the most crucial link in the entire project, it is essential that each interviewer spend sufficient time on each interview. This applies to time spent before, during and after visiting with the respondent. Before you meet the respondent, it is important to make certain that your interviewing materials are in order, that you are familiar with the general background information on the respondent, and that you have scheduled your time to arrive at R's home at a time when he or she is most likely to be available for an interview. iDuring_the interview, it is important to take sufficient time to establish rapport so that the R-cooperates as fully as possible in providing the requested information. During the interview, the pace should be fast enough so that the R's interest is maintained, but slow enough so that the R feels relaxed and the I records complete and accurate information. .At the conclusion of the interview, the departure should be paced to allow the R to eXpress some additional ideas if he wants, and to provide the R with as positive an attitude as possible toward the interview. 132 .After the interview, when the I has returned to his car, room, etc. it is important to review the schedule for completeness, accuracy and legibility, to do the post coding to be done by the interviewer, and to complete the interviewer rating form. Interviewers can contribute to the efficiency of the inter- viewing effort, and can keep costs down, by selecting larger blocks of time for interviewing, by planning a series of interviews in a given time period in a way that allows substitution, and by skill in completing interviews at the first visit and in arranging appointments for call backs. It is anticipated that each interviewer will average at least ten hours per week on interviewing during the main project. There is no maximum number of hours other than the limits set by available R's to be interviewed, and the 1's personal time commitments to job, family, and to college course work. For college students, course work comes first, even if it necessitates withdrawing from the project. APPENDIX B: SECTIONS OF THE INSTRUMENT UTILIZED IN THE PRESENT THESIS SECTIONS OF THE INSTRUMENT UTILIZED IN THE PRESENT THESIS The questionnaire used in the Nebraska Adult Interest study was comprehensive. The length of interviews ranged from forty-five minutes to three hours. It included questions relevant to interests of three researchers. The questions of interest to the present study have been selected from the entire schedule and are reproduced here. The interviewer rating form at the end of the questionnaire 'was filled out by the interviewer just after leaving the interviewee. As each schedule was examined, this form‘was used to evaluate the quality of the data itself. For example, if the questionnaire seemed incomplete or incoherent, the researcher could examine the rating form and find evidence of a difficult interview situation. The rating form also served another function. It kept the interviewer alert to his own keenness as an observer and as an objective party in the interview. 134 135 INFORMATION SEEKING ISSUE I: Taxation Now...I'd like you to think over some of your activities during the past two weeks...people you've talked to...things you may have seen or heard about the issue of changing the state tax base from property tax to some other method of taxation. 1. Did you talk with anyone about this? Yes ........ 2( ) 30 NO ........ 1( ) NA . .S( ) a. (IF YES, ASKz) To whom did you talk? Spouse ..................... ( ) 31 children ................... ( ) 32 (PLACE IN BRACKETS THE brother/sister ............. ( ) 33 NUMBER OF PERSONS IN THAT other relative ............. ( ) 34 CATEGORY WHO WERE MENTIONED. male friend ............... ( ) 35 IF NONE, LEAVE BLANK) female friend ............. ( ) 36 sales person ............... ( ) 37 (How many conVersations professionals (tchr., lwyr., with each?) cnslr.) .............. .( ) 38 co-worker .. .............. .( ) 39 employer (supvr. prsnl.)...( ) 40 group or organization ..... ( ) 41 (Specify) other ..................... ( ) 42 (Specify) 2 Have you heard any speakers who made comments about this topic? Yes ..... .. l( ) 43 NO ........ 0( ) NA . .S( ) (IF YES, ASK:) Could you give me their names or positions, please? (RECORD THE NUMBER OF SPEAKERS IN BRACKET 44) ( ) 44 IF 9 0R.MORE CODE 9 3. Did you see or read any newspaper ads Or articles? (IF YES, ASK:) About how many? no ........... NA ....... 136 Did you see or read any magazine ads or articles? (IF YES, ASKz) About how many? Have you seen or read any books about this issue? (IF YES, ASK:) About how many? Have you seen any TV programs or commercials about changing Nebraska's tax structure? (IF YES, ASKz) About how many? -2 ...........2( ) -4 ...........3( ) -6 ...... ..... 4( ) 7-10...........S( ) more than lO...6( ) NA.........S( ) midi-'33 nOOOOOOOOOOO... l l .............3 2 .............4 3-4 ...........5 more than 4 ...6 NA.........S n l 2 3-4 ........... 5 6 ........... 7-10........... more than 10... NA......... Have you heard any radio programs or commercials? (IF YES, ASK:) About how many? Have you received anything directly through the mail other than new3papers or magaZInes? (IF YES, ASKz) About haw many separate pieces of mail? 4 7-10000000000005 more than lO...6 no.............l( ) l-2 ...........2( ) 3-4 ...........3( ) 5-6 ...........4( ) 7-10...........5( ) more than lO...6( ) NA.........S( ) o ..... . ....... l( ) 46 137 9. Have you gotten information in ways that we've not mentioned about the tax issue? Yes........3() (IF YES, ASK:) What ways? NO ........l( ) NA......S() POST CODE 10. Of 311 the sources of information SPOUSE ...............01( ) and advice you've mentioned, which CHILDREN .............02( ) ‘ppg do you prefer as a source of BROTHER/SISTER .......O3( ) information about Nebraska's state OTHER RELATIVE .......O4( ) problems? MALE FRIEND...........OS( ) FE1~IALE FRIEND. ........O6() (NOTE: RESPONDENT MUST SALES PERSON .........07( ) CHOOSE ONLY QN§_SOURCE.) PROFESSIONALS (TCHR., LWYR., CNSLR.).......08( ) CO-WORKER.............09( ) EMPLOYER (SPVSR., PRSNL)...............lO( ) GROUP OR ORGANIZATION.........11( ) SPEAKERS .............12( ) NEWSPAPERS ...........13() l~'IAGAZII\IES.............14() BOOKS.................15( ) II) POST CODE: RECORD IN TELEVISION ...........l6( ) COLUMN BRACKETS S4.AND RADIO ....... ...... ...17( ) 55 TWO DIGITS FROM THE DIRECT MAIL...........18( ) CATEGORY CHECKED. OTHER.................l9( ) (IF RESPONDENT GIVES A CHOICE IN Q. __. BACK ON PAGE ___DEALING WITH WHO THEY TALKED WITH, OF PEOPLE OTHER THAN FAMILY OR RELATIVE, THEN PROCEED WITH Q. __3 IF NOT, GO TO Q. __.) 11. You've said you talked to and got information from (PERSONS MENTIONED IN Q. __ ) during the past two weeks about Nebraska's tax problems. (IF RESPONDENT HAS GIVEN MORE THAN ONE PERSON ASK Q. __J IF ONLY ONE, GO TO Q. __.) 12. Which Of these persons have given you the best information or advice about Nebraska's tax problems? (ROLE OF PERSON DESIGNATED) 13. In general, what did you talk about? 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 138 About how long did you talk? a few minutes... ....... 1( ) about 30 minutes ....... 2( ) about one hour ........3( ) 2-3 hours....... ....... 4( ) 4-9 hours.. ......... ...5( ) 10-19 hours............6( ) 20-29 hours..... ..... ..7( ) 30 or more ......... ...8( ) NA . . ..S( ) .As a result of this conversation...would Yes........l( ) you say you changed your mind about anything No ........2( ) concerning Nebraska's tax problems? a. (IF YES) ASK: What sort of ch Don't know ange? How well do you know this person? ( Is the person a man or a woman? About how Old is this person? close friend ..........6( ) fairly close friend....5( ) acquaintance (non job) .................4( ) co-worker (non close friend) ..............3( ) had not met him before........... ..... 2( ) other ...... 1( ) specify) NA ........8( ) Man........l( ) Woman......2( ) NA......S( ) under 15 years.1( ) 15 to 20 years ........2( ) 21 to 30 years ........3( ) 31 to 40 years ...... ..4( ) 41 to 50 years ..... ...5( ) 51 to 60 years ........6( ) 61 to 70 years ....... .7( ) over 71........8( ) NA ...... S( ) tkdflwo... 19. 20. 21. 22. 139 About how much formal education does he/she have? What does he/she do for a living? (OCCUPATION OF HUSBAND IF WIFE IS NOT EMPLOYED) less than 8th grade....l( ) some high school.......2( ) high school graduate ..3( ) post H. S. ed. other than college ....... ...4( ) some college ..........5( ) college degree (4 years)................6( masters degree ........7( doctorate.......8( don't know ..0( NA ........S( VVVVV How concerned is this person about the improvement of the state tax structure of Nebraska...very concerned...fairly concerned... not very concerned...not at all concerned? How up-to-date would you say this person's views of problems in state government taxation are ...very up-to-date, fairly up-to- date...not very up-to-date...or not at all up-to-date? very concerned .........4( ) fairly concerned .......3( ) not very concerned .....2( ) not at all concerned ............ .l( ) NA .........S( ) very ...................4( ) fairly .................3( ) not very ...............2( ) not at all .............1( ) NA .........S( ) 140 INFORMATION SEEKING ISSUE II: Women Working Now...I'd like you to think over some Of your activities during the past two weeks or so...people you've talked to...things you may have seen or heard about women who are employed outside the home. (IF R SEEMS HESITANT OR CONFUSED USE THIS PROBE: FOR EXAMPLE, PROBLEMS OF AVAILABILITY OF JOBS, CREDIT FOR EFFORT ON THE JOB, ADVANCEMENT, PAY, ACTIVITIES OF WORKING WOMEN, ROLE OF WOMEN, STATUS OF WOMEN, ETC.) 1. Did you talk with anyone about this? Yes.........2( ) No ......O..1( ) NAOOOOOOOS( ) (IF YES, ASK:) To whom did you talk? (PLACE IN BRACKETS THE NUMBER OF PERSONS IN THAT CATEGORY WHO WERE MENTIONED, IF NONE, LEAVE BLANK) (How many conversations with each?) Spouse ................. children ............... brother/sister ......... other relative ......... male friend............. female friend........... sales person ........... professionals ( tchr., lwyr., cnslr.) ........ co-worker............... employer (supvsr., persnl.)............... group or organization... (Specify) A AA AA AAAAAAA V VV vv VVVVVVV __._.otherOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO (specify) 2. Have you heard any speakers who made comments about this topic? Yes......... 1( No .........0( NA.......S( VVV (IF YES, ASK:) Could you give me their names or positions, please? RECORD THE NUMBER OF SPEAKERS IN BRACKET 25. If 9 OR MORE, CODE 9. 141 Did you see or read any neWSpaper ads or articles? (IF YES, ASKz) About how many? no ............. l( ) 1-2 .... ..... ..2( ) 3-4 ...........3( ) 5-6 ...........4( ) 7-10...........5( ) more than lO...6( ) NA.........S( ) Did you see or read any magazine ads or articles? (IF YES, ASK:) About how many? Have you seen or read any books about this issue? (IF YES, ASK:) About how many? Have you seen any TV programs or commercials about women and their activities outside the home? (IF YES, ASKz) About how many? no ..... ........l( ) 1 .. ..... ......3( ) 2 ...... ....... 4( ) 3~4 ....... ....5( ) more than 4 ...6( ) NA ...... ...8( ) 7-100.000.0000. more than 10... () 2() 3() 5-6 ...........4( ) 5() 6() () O 9 7 Have you heard any radio programs or commerCIals. (IF YES, ASKz) About how many? no..... ....... .l( ) 1-2 ...........2( ) 3-4 ...........3( ) 5-6 ...........4( ) 7-10...........5( ) more than lO...6( ) () 142 8. Have you received anything directly through the mail other than magazines or newspapers? (IF YES, ASK:) About how many separate pieces of mail? no..................l( 1-2 ... ..... ........2( 3-4 ................3( 5-6 ................4( 7-10................5( more than 10........6( ) NA ............S( ) VVVVV 9. Have you gotten information in ways that we've Yes........3( ) not mentioned about Opportunities for working NO . ..... ..l( ) women? (IF YES, ASK:) What ways? POST CODE 10. Of gll_the sources of information SPOUSE... ..... .....01( ) and advice you've mentioned, which CHILDREN...........02( ) .923 do you prefer as a source of BROTHER/SISTER.....O3( ) information about activities of OTHER RELATIVE.....04( ) women Outside the home? MALE FRIEND .......05( ) FEMALE FRIEND .....06( ) SALES PERSON.......O7( ) PROFESSIONALS (TCHR. LWYR., CNSLR.) ...08( ) CO-WORKER .........09( ) EMPLOYER (SPVSR., PRSNL) ...........10() GROUP OR ORGANIZATION .....11( ) SPEAKERS... ........ 12( ) NEJSPAPERSO O O O O O O O .13( ) MAGAZINES .........14( ) WUKS .00000000000015( ) I. POST CODE: RECORD IN TELEVISION.........16( ) COLUMN BRACKETS 35 a 36 RADIO ... ....... ...17( ) THE TWO DIGITS FROM THE DIRECT MAIL .......18( ) CATEGORY CHECKED. OTHER .............19() (IF RESPONDENT GIVES A CHOICE IN Q. _ BACK ON P. _ DEALING WITH WHO THEY TALKED WITH, OF PEOPLE OTHER THAN FAMILY OR RELATIVE THEN PROCEED WITH Q. __ FOLLOWING. IF NOT, GO TO Q. __,) ll. 12. 13. 14. 16. 17. 143 You've said you talked to and got information from (PERSON(S) MENTIONED IN Q. __ on P. __) during the past 2 weeks about women working outside the home. (IF RESPOLmENT HAS GIVEN MORE THAN ONE PERSON, ASK Q ONE, GO TO Q. __) Which of these persons have given you the best information or advice about employment of women outside the home? (ROLE OF PERSON DESIGNATED) In general, what did you talk about? About how long did you talk? a few minutes ......1( about 30 minutes....2( about one hour......3( 2- 3 hours ..........4( 4- 9 hours ..........5( 10- 19 hours ..... .6( 20- 29 hours ........7( 30 or more hours..............8 NA .. ...... ....3 As a result of this conversation...would you say Yes......3 you changed your mind about employment of women don't outside the home? know....2 NO 0.00.01 S a. (IF YES, ASKz) What sort of change? How well do you know this person? close friend........5( ) fairly close friend ............4( ) acquaintance (non job)..........3( ) co-worker (not close friend)............2( ) had not met before..l( ) other..........9( ) (Specify) NA ............S 18 this person a man or a WOman? man............ () y) w°“‘&‘NX::::::::::s€3 . _, IF ONLY 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 144 About how old is this person? 21 31 41 51 61 71 About how much formal education does (he/she) have? some colle college degree (4 years)......6 masters degree.... under to to to to to to or less than 8th grade .......... some high school... . high school graduate.......... post H. S. ed. other than college........ ..... . ..... ...4 ge 15 years ....... .l( ) 20 years ........2( ) 30 years ........3( ) 40 years ........4( ) 50 years ........5( ) 60 years ........6( ) 70 years ........7( ) older ....... .....8( ) ............7( ) doctorate..............8( ) don't know ..... ..... O( ) What does (he/she) do for a living? HUSBAND IF WIFE IS NOT EMPLOYED.) NA .... ....... .S( ) (OCCUPATION OF How concerned is this person about the improvement of the woman's role outside the home...very concerned...fair1y concerned...not very concerned...not at all concerned. How up-to-date would you say this person's views of woman's role outside the home are...very up-to- date...fair1y up-to-date...not very up-to-date...not at all up- to-date. very concerned....4( ) fairly concerned..3( ) not very concerned........2( ) not at all concerned........l( ) NA ....... .....S( ) very.. ......... ...4( ) fairly............3( ) not very..........2( ) not at all........1( ) NA ...... ...... S( ) 145 OPINION LEADERSHIP ISSUE 1: Taxation Do you feel you are generally regarded by Yes............3( ) your friends and neighbors as a good source No ............l( ) of information or advice about Nebraska's NA ........5( ) tax problems? more likely....5( ) about the same, don't know....3( ) less likely....l( ) NA ........8( ) Compared with your circle of friends, are you more likely or less likely to be asked for advice or opinions about whether the state tax base should be changed? several times a week ............5( ) about once a week ............4( ) once or twice a month............3( ) less than once a month............2( ) never, or don't know ............1( ) NA ........S( ) About how often do people ask you for advice or opinions about whether or not the main source of state taxes in Nebraska should be changed? Would it be several times a week...about once a week...once or twice a month...1ess than once a month...or almost never? When you and your friends discuss new ideas about solutions for Nebraska's tax problems, what part do you play? Do you mainly listen or try to convince them of your own ideas? Which happens more often...do you tell your friends and neighbors about something you've heard or seen about the Nebraska tax issue or do they tellgyou about what they've read or heard? About how many people you know, look to you for advice or opinions about whether or not the state tax base in Nebraska should be changed? Thinking back to your last discussion about the State tax base in Nebraska, were you asked for your c inion or did you ask someone e se? mainly listen.....l( ) try to convince them ............3( ) NA ........S( ) I tell them ......3( ) about the same....2( ) they tell me......1( ) NA ........ ( ) none..............1( ) l ................2( ) 2 ................3( ) 3 ................4( ) 4 or more ........5( ) NA ........S( ) asked for opinion.3( ) asked someone else.............1( ) NA ........S( ) 146 OPINION LEADERSHIP ISSUE II: About how often would you say people ask you for advice or opinion about the problems and opportunities for employment of women in jobs outside the home? Would it be several times a week...about once a month...once or twice a month...1ess than once a month...or almost never? Compared to your circle of friends ...are you more likely or less likely to be asked for advice or opinions about the problems and opportunities of women for employment outside the home? Do you feel that you are generally regarded by your friends and neighbors as a good source of infor- mation or advice about the problems and Opportunities for women working outside the home? When you and your friends discuss job problems and opportunities for women, what part do you play? Do you mainly listen or try to convince them of your own ideas? .Which happens more often...do you tell your friends about something you've seen or heard about problems or Opportunities of women employed outside the home 2E do they tell you what they've seen or heard? About how many people you know look to you for advice or opinions about the problems and opportunities for employment of women in jobs outside the home? Thinking back over your last discussion about the problems and opportunities for women employed outside the home, were you asked for your opinion or did you ask someone else? Women Working several times a week.....5( ) about once a week .......4( ) once or twice a month...................3( ) less than once a month...................2( ) almost never, or don't www..u.u.n.u.n.ul() more likely .............S( ) about the same, don't www..n.u.u.n.u.u3() less likely .............l( ) NA .............S( ) Yes ......OOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 3() No....... ..... ..... ......1( ) .S() mainly listen ...........1( ) try to convince them.....3( ) NA .............S( ) I tell them .............3( ) about the same.... .....2( ) they tell me.............1( ) NA .............S( ) no one...................1( ) l to 3 persons ..... ..... .3( ) 4 or more persons .......5( ) NA .............8( ) asked for opinion .......3( ) asked someone else.......l( ) NA ......OOOOOOOS() 147 SENSE OF POWERLESSNESS Now I'm going to read some pairs of statements that people have made about life today. I want you to tell me whether the first or second statement best describes how you feel. (READ EACH PAIR OF STATEMENTS, THEN ALLOW SUBJECT TO RESPOND) Here's the first pair of statements: a. b. For the most part, the individual is master of his own fate 000......OOO.......OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO0.0...0.0.0.0....0001() On those days when Odds are against you, it just doesn't pay to try to do much of anything...........................3( ) NAOOOOOOOOOOOS() (USE THIS PROBE: WHICH STATEMENT COMES CLOSEST T0 DESCRIBING HOW YOU FEEL?) There is very little that people like myself can do to improve world Opinion of the United States .................3( ) I think each of us can do a great deal to improve world opinion Of the United States ............ ..... ..............l( ) NAOOOCOOOOOOOS() In my case, getting what I want has little or nothing to do With IUCk 0.00.00...0....00.0.0.0........IOIOOOOO........1() Many times, we might just as well make our decisions by ......QOOOOOOOOOOO3() flipping a coin........................... NAOOOOOOOOOOOS() When I make plans I am almost certain that I can make themwork.‘......‘OOOCOQOCOOOOO......OOOOOOOOO......O.......1() It's not wise to plan too far ahead because most things turn out as a matter of good or bad fortune anyhow .........3( ) NAOOOOOOOOOOOS() It is only wishful thinking to believe that one can really influence what happens in the world .................3( ) People like me can change the course of world events if we make ourselves heard .................... ..... ...........1( ) NA...........S( ) 148 There's not much use in worrying about things...what Will be, Will be ............................................3() When things don't go well, I try to figure out what I have done wrong..............................................l( ) NA ......OOOOOOOOS() This world is run by the few people in power, and there's not much the little guy can do about it................ ...... 3( ) The average citizen can have an influence on government decisions............. ...... .................................l( ) NA ..............S( ) 149 ISSUE INTEREST ISSUE I: Taxation How satisfied are you with the kinds of taxes the state asks you to pay at the present time? (PROBE: FOR EXAMPLE, PROPERTY TAX satisfied ........ . ...... l( ) GASOLINE TAXES, CIGARETTE OR LIQUOR don't know, no opinion.. 2( ) TAXES.) generally dissatisfied...3( ) extremely dissatisfied...4( ) NA .............S( ) Do you think there needs to be a Yes .....................3( ) change in Nebraska's state tax don't know...............0( ) structure...the things which will No.......................l( ) be taxed as a main source of state NA .............5( ) taxes? Have you recently changed any of Yes .....................3( ) your ideas or made any decisions No.......................l( ) about how the state should spend NA -------------3( ) your tax money or how they should raise the money needed for projects in the state? (IF YES, ASK:) How have your ideas changed or what decisions have you made? Do you feel it is very important, very important...........4( ) fairly important, slightly important, fairly important.........3( ) or not important at all to be up-to- slightly important.......2( ) date on problems of taxation and not at all important.....l( ) spending which face the Nebraska NA .............S( ) Unicameral legislature during the ' present legislative session? (PROBE: FOR EXAMPLE, BUDGETING AND ALLOCATION OF STATE TAX FUNDS...TYPES OF TAXES TO BE LEVIED TO RAISE THE NEEDED MONEY.) How often do you let your state senator very Often .........4( ) know how you feel about taxes and fairly often .......3( ) Spending...very Often...fairly Often... once in a while.....2( ) once in a while...or never? never............... NA .............s€§ Did you vote in the election for Yes.................3( ) Governor, state senators and other No .................l( ) ) state Officials last fall? NA .............S( 150 ISSUE INTEREST ISSUE II: Women Working Are you (is your wife) employed outside FUll time ..........3( ) the home? Part time . ..... ....2( ) NO .................1() (FOR MARRIED MEN, ASK: Is your wife?) NA .... ...... S( ) (FOR ALL WORKING R'S) How many times have you (has your wife) changed jobs in the past five years? more than 5 times .......4( ) three or four times .....3( ) (FOR MARRIED MEN, ASK: Has once or twice ...........2( ) your wife?) have not changed jobs ...1( ) NA. ..... .....5( ) NA, because no wife .....9( ) DO you feel it is very important, very important...........4( ) fairly important, slightly fairly important.........3( ) important or not important at all slightly important.......2( ) to be up-to-date on job not at all important.....l( ) Opportunities for women? NA ........ ...5( ) Have you recently changed any of your ideas about the role of women and their working outside the home? Or have you Yes.................2( ) ever made any decisions in your job No ........... ...... l( ) which may affect women who work and NA...........S( ) their futures? (IF YES, ASK:) What sort of changes in your ideas or what sort of decisions?) Have you (has your wife or any other woman whom you know well) changed jobs Yes.... ............. 3( ) in the past year...trained for a new or No .................l( ) better job...or made any decision which NA... ...... ..S( ) will affect your (her) occupational opportunities in the future? (PROBE...THIS INCLUDES SUCH THINGS AS ADDITIONAL EDUCATION.) (IF YES ASKz) What sort of decision or changes did you (she) make? 151 GREGARIOUSNESS Of all the peOple you know, (GO TO Q. 91) none ...............1( ) about how many do you call close friends? (COUNT COUPLES AS 2 FRIENDS) About how many of these close friends do you get together with at least once a month? When you get together with adult relatives and friends, what two or three topics of conversation do you most often talk about? (PROBE.) a. l or 2 .............2( ) 3 or 4 .............3( ) 5 or 6 .............4( ) 7-9.................5( ) 10-12...............6( ) l3-30...............7 over 31............. NA........... 9 S none . ..... ......... l or 2 ..... ........2 3 or 4 ............. S or 6 .............4 7-9.................5( ) 10-12...............6( ) 13-30...............7( ) over 31... ...... ....9( ) NA...........S( ) VVVV vvv ( ( ( ( ( ( ( About how many of these adult relatives do you get together with, at least once a month? none ..... ..... ..... l or 2 ..... ...... .. 3 or 4 ........... 5 or 6 ............ 7-9................ 10-12.. ..... ....... l3-20............... 21.-30.000.000.000... 31 or more ......... NAoooo ...... .S O I O O \Dmfl 0\ U1 -l-\ u: N H AAAAAAAAAA VWVVVVVVV 152 Aside from work, how Often do you engage in activities, away from home, when pp_member of your immediate family is present? less than once/month...............3 once/month, but not once/week .....2 at least once/week ........ .........1 NA ...............S 153 Hand List to R, CHURCH related group, such as: Board or standing committee Men's or women's group Voluntary service (choir, usher) 29B related association, such as: Farmers Organization, Farm meetings Business or professional association Labor union RECREATIONAL group, such as: Bowling league Woman's club Card club FRATERNAL - SERVICE organization: Masons or Eastern Star Service club (such as Lions or Rotary) CIVIC - POLITICAL group, such as: Parent Teachers Association (PTA) Political party club OTHER organizations Adult leader of a youth program Veterans organization (Legion, Reserve) Board member of a community agency (PLACE THE NAME OF EACH ORGANIZATION ORGANIZATION SCORING BOX. NUMBER AND ASK R TO SELECT PLACE THE CODE NUMBER OF T ACTIVITY, IN A. 154 QUESTIONS ABOUT ACTIVITY IN ORGANIZATIONS ABOUT HOW MANY HOURS DO YOU SPE 1) 3 HRS. OR LESS 2) 4'6 I’IRSO HAVE YOU BEEN AN OFFICER, COMMITTEE MEMBER OR OFFICIAL DURING THE PAST FOUR YEARS? 1) N0 (IF FORMER ORG.) 3) 7-12 4) 13-18 6) 2) YES TO WHICH R BELONGS ON A LINE IN THE IF MORE THAN 6 ORGANIZATIONS, NOTE TOTAL THE 6 HE IS MOST ACTIVE AND INTERESTED IN. HE RESPONSE TO EACH QUESTION THE APPROPRIATE BRACKETS IN THAT ROW.) ASKED ABOUT THE ND ON THIS GROUP IN A TYPICAL MONTH? 0) NA 5) 19-24 0) NA IN THE PAST 4 YEARS ...... .. (IF NEW ORG.) SINCE YOU JOINED........ HAS THE AMOUNT OF TIME YOU SPEND AS A MEMBER OF ( INCREASED, STAYED THE SAME, OR LESSENED? 3) INCREASED 2) SAME l) ORGANIZATION SCORING BOX 25 OR MORE LESSENED 0) NA (List old org. first, then new org. for all org., note former line # in left margin. Tens digit of Line # old org. ( 2 27 Activity Name g 2 31 g 2 35 _I_) 39 g 2 43 ( 2 47 A ( )28 ()32 (>36 ( )40 ( )44 ( )48 Make certain that all new org. are also listed.) ( )29 ()33 (>37 ( )41 ( )45 ( )49 ( )30 ( )34 ( >38 ( )42 ( )46 ( )50 C. POST CODE: ORG. (Round Up) NUMBER OF ORG. (6+ CODE 6)...........( )51 SWACOLO +3 (+CODE 9)....OOOOOOO( )52 NUMBER OF 2's IN COL. B.. ...... ......( )53 A. 155 OVERALL SOCIO-ECONOMIC STATUS Occupational Rating Classified according to the major occupational categories of the U. S. census: 1. Egpfgssioppl, Tpchnicpl, and Kindred -- (Accountants, artists, chemists, clergymen, college professors, engineers, lawyers, librarians, nurses, physicians, social workers, teachers) 2. ggppggng-- (farm owners, farm.tenants, farm.managers) 3. appagprs, Officials, pnd Proprietors, except farm -- (conductors on railroad, floor managers in stores, managers of buildings, managers and executives employed by companies of any size, officials in any level of government, owners of businesses who serve as prOprietors, postmasters) 4. Clgrical and Sales -- (bank tellers, bookkeepers, cashiers, office machine operators, stenographers-typists and secretaries, auctioneers, insurance agents, newsboys, real estate agents, salesmen and sales clerks) 5. Craftsmen, Foremen and Kindred -- (bakers, brickmasons, cabinet-makers, carpenters, electricians, foremen in all types of industries, inspectors, locomotive engineers, machinists, mechanics and repairman, paperhangers, plumbers, shoemakers, tailors) 6. Operatives and Kindred -- (brakemen on railroad, bus drivers, truck drivers, welders, and operators of equipment and machinery in manufacturing, construction, transportation, and business) 7. Service Workers -- (attendants, barbers, cooks, firemen, janitors, policemen, waiters, and private household workers) 8. Laborers -- (fishermen, car washers, longshoremen, lumbermen, farm laborers, and laborers in manufacturing, construction, and business) B. 156 Educational Level Classified according to highest level achieved: 1. 8th grade or less 2. 9-11 years 3. 12 years - high school graduate 4. Technical training - a school, nurses training, G. 1. training 5. 1-3 years of college 6. College graduate - bachelor degree 7. Post graduate work - college level Rating of Residence For houses in towns of 500 or more and in new residential areas and town homes built in country HOUSE Size of house, apartment or trailer Mansion: pretentious, typically over 12 rooms Large: typically 8-12 rooms Medium: typically 5-7 rooms Small: typically 3-4 rooms Tiny: typically 2 or less rooms Condition (Rate primarily the basic structure, secondarily the external finish) 1 2 3 4. |U1 0 Excellent: NO visible repairs needed or made Good: Well repaired, painted recently, good finish Average: Fair repair; possibly in need of minor repairs or some painting In need of considerable repair and refinishing -- repairable Dilapidated: Requiring extensive repairs or restructuring. Extensive deterioration of the structure; in partial ruin Poor: 157 Style (Judge not so much for "beauty” as for degree of profes- sionalism. Rate for the total housing and not for particular type or size. Primarily, architectural style; secondarily, structural material used.) 1. Excellent: Elegant, obviously planned and executed by professional architects and highly competent craftsmen, typically of stone or brick 2. Good: 0f superior quality but not elegant, of wood, stone -—-' or brick ____3. Average: Usual, common, lacking in distinctiveness, typicallwaood frame, possibly with asbestos siding 4. Poor: Seemingly unplanned and awkward in appearance, frequently with composition fireproof siding 5. Lacking: Clearly unplanned and completely lacking in any positive attributes of style -- a shack. Typically of untreated wood or covered with tar paper or corrugated fiber paper GROUNDS Size (Measurement has been indicated in yards to facilitate actual measurement if in doubt. Assume that a pace,.or a large step, is equal to one yard.) landed property, approaching the country estate or farm. Frequently with meadow and/or natural wooded area. At least 5,000 square yards. (e.g., 100 x 50 yards (paces) the size of a football field (one acre). Large: 1500 - 5000 square yards (about 50 x 75 yards) Medium: 500 - 1500 yards (about 16 x 50 yards) Small: (about 16 x 40 yards) Tiny: (16 x 30 yards or smaller) 1. Estate: 0 g . Condition 1. Landscaped: Formal and elaborate, suggesting the full time care of one or more gardeners. Decorative planted trees, many and well-pruned hedges and bushes, spacious and well-groomed lawn, formal flower garden. Occasionally'with swimming pool and similar focal points. 2. Semi-landscaped: Not as fonmal, pretentious nor as elaborate as above but reflecting professional planning. Usually well cared for lawns and gardens but suggesting family care. Some shrubbery but occasionally not*well * pruned. 158 ‘3. Well cared for lawn: No professional landscaping, frequently with occasional hedges, The bushes and small flower gardens. well-cared for lawn tends to dominate the grounds. 4. Poorly cared for lawn: Lawn poorly cropped and frequently with amateur plantings of poorly groomed hedges and bushes. Uncared for lawn or none: Obviously no attempt made to create or maintain a lawn. Yard most frequently cluttered with 5. debris or used as a parking area. For all farms, and villages under 500 in pOpulation HOME AND IMPROVEMENT (HI) (8 or more rooms) Large Houses A. 1. Good condition with attractive landscaping and buildings 2. Medium condition and care in landscaping 3. Good condition; no attempt to landscape 4. Medium condition; as are other buildings needs some paint or repairs 5. Mbst buildings in fair to poor condition, many repairs needed 6. MOst in poor condition; ”run down”, much paint and repairs needed 7. All in very bad condition; deteriorated, dilapidated (6-7 rooms) Medium Houses B. 1. Good condition with attractive landscaping .____2. Buildings in good condition, little landscaping 3. Medium condition 4. Buildings of medium size and condition, outbuildings in poor condition 5. Most in poor condition; not "run down” 6. All buildings in very poor condition C. (5 or less rooms) Small Houses 1. Very attractive with appealing landscaping 2. Good condition; well-kept outbuildings 3. .MOst small, functional, and in good condition 4. Meat fairly adequate and in medium to poor condition *5. All in poor or very poor condition INHHWEEWIMBEER INHHWTHWHLRATnfliFOMM NEEMMEULADUUTIDHERESNBENEMY RESPONDENT'S BEHAVIOR.AND RELATION TO YOU Check as many statements as seem to apply to the respondent. If some statement does not completely apply to the respondent, but sufficiently so that it describes something about him.that occurs at times in the interview, you should decide £25 a Check rather than against it. When you check several statements in one category and one applies far more than the others, check this one twice. For items with (Check one) check the ONE statement that applies most. CARD SIXTEEN never hesitates........l( ) ll 1. Flow ofp§peech (Check one) average"..............2() hesitates frequently...3( ) 2. Laughter (check one) laughs a 800d deal-assess.sooaasooasool( ) 12 does not laugh, but smiles a good dea12() does not smile, 100KB 81me00000000003( ) cries or has tears in his eyes at any point.....o........o........o...u.4() 3. Warmth (check one) a cool person................1( ) 13 a normal friendly person.....2( ) a warm, very friendly person.3( ) Overt gestures to you (Place a ”l" in each bracket that applies) you are asked to sit down and make yourself comfortable...( ) 14 it is left up to you where to sit, i.e. R ignores your needBOOOOOOOOOOOOO00.0.0.0...O.O0.0.000.........OOOOOOOO() 15 R 18 trying to make you feel. at 8388......o......o........() 16 17 offers assistance to you in any form, or offers help......( ) tries to embarrass youOOOO0.0.0.000...O.....O0.0.00000.0Q.() 1'8 you are Offered something to eat or drink.................( ) 19 for appearances of house, and house is neat....( ) 20 apologizes apologizes for appearances of house, and house is untidy..( ) 21 apologizes for appearance of himself and self is neat.....( ) 22 apologizes for appearance of self and self is untidy......( ) 23 if self is disheveled or house in disorder, offers no aPOIOgieSOOOOOOOOOOO...O......OOOOOOOOOI......OOOOOOOOOO( ) 24 Shows feelings 0f resentment or anger at youOOOoooooeooooo( ) 25 (check one) seems somewhat suspicious of you.....l( ) 26 normal trusting relationship.........2( ) 50 Trust 18 very trustful Of youoooooooaooeoooa( ) 160 Interest in Study (check one) seems very interested in study and asks detailed questions...l( ) 27 asks several questions about the study & seems mildly interested 2() accepts interview without many questions, not further interestedOOOOOOOOOOOOO0.00.00.00.000.0.000...0.0.0.00000003() Involvement in Interview (Place a "l” in each bracket that applies) completely absorbed in interview’without noticing distractions( ) 28 evidently interested in interview, occasionally busy with household chores or children or other responsibilities......( ) 29 moderate interest, but cooperative............................( ) 30 eaSily discraCted...0.00.0000.........OOOOOOOOO......OOOOOOOOO( ) 31 is eager for you to leaveoosossssosossososssssososssoassssooao( ) 32 18 reluCtant to let you 80.0.0000.........OOOOOOOOOOOOOO.OO...‘ ) 33 Since a checklist of the above traits never gives a true picture of how a person typically behaves and relates to you, please try to give..in a few sentences or phrases..a thumbnail sketch of what R seems like as a person and how be related to you. Use the checks you have made as a basis and describe what was most outstanding and typical of R. ( ) 34 ()35 ()36 ()37 (>38 Interviewer Rating of Respondent Encircle the number (0-9) of each of the sub-ratings (A-G) that best characterizes the reSpondent. Then look back over your ratings and decide on a single scale rating for Scale H (Master Rating). Place this number in master rating bracket. Then, for each of the sub-ratings, place the number encircled in the right-hand bracket. 161 A. Primagy or personal1 intimate contacts 03 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. ( )39 alone in infrequent contacts; frequent con- almost daily daily ‘world; no perhaps lives alone; tacts or contacts; contacts, family, sees others some; lives with &. helps deter- group relatives or lives with but is function- mine group prObably of or friends. not closely ing as memp action long standing ber of inti- mate groups. operational closely incor- porated into group life; important in determining group action ()41 B. Secondagy or more formal and specialized contacts 0. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 8. 9. ( )40 in no perhaps several more than time filled with groups, one group groups; reg- several many groups; mush no or irreg- ular parti- groups; reading; many reading, ular group cipation, regular par- radio programs; no radio, contacts; some read- ticipation; always on the go; complete occasion- ing or chief inter- or occupied with social ally radio, prob- est, these reading; radio isolation radio ably contacts; favorite much read- games ing; radio; television C. Activities outside groups 9ft 1. 2. 3. 4. . 6. 7. 8. 9. nothing to few activ- some daily preponderance time fiIIed'with 60" ities; has activities, of time in daily activities, too much probably a daily activ- hobbies, plans, free time hobby, but ities, hob- to exclusion of time for bias, etc. group activities group life also 162 D. Attitude of emotional securipy in small group (or religion2 0! 1. 2. 3. 4. SO 6. 7. 8. 9. ( )42 “feels un- some un- feels comp feels feels greatly wanted“, easiness fortably loved beloved; wanted; "nobody about being secure above the gets lavish cares", 'wanted average attention pushed person aside E. Status or feelingof importance 0. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. ( )43 feels looked feels oth- feels he is feels he is feels he down; low ers are in- of some 1mg looked up to is in status; feels different portance, but slightly; position of disrespect to'hhm; no more so shown some high status; on part of disregard than others respect opinions others his opin- sought and ions followed. F. Happiness and contentment 00 10 20 30 4‘s 50 6o 7o 8o 9. (244 unhappy, inclined generally always hap- very happy; disconten- to be un- happy; con- py; conten- exultant; ted, wor- happy; to tented; un- ted; unwor- ”happiest ried, fear- worry; worried. ried time," great ful, frus- some frus- contentment trated trations 163 G. Resolution and fortitude o, 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. (_)45 feels help- feels he has had ups and takes life try, try less; blames not done bet- downs, some as it comes again; self; over- ter because times on bot- no complaints fights back; whelmed by he has not tom, tends to assumes re- doesn't life; talks gotten the blame self or sponsibili- give up; of hard breaks, life others, some- ties; looks personal knocks not changing for what, for dif- on good side; reaponsi- mastered 'worse, worked ficulties talks of dif— bility, hard but not ficulties but take good gotten any- doesn't dwell with bad; where on them; rec- make most ognize must of it; give up some wouldn't things change past. H. Master Ratingppnpersonal adjustment 0. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. ( )46 serious- meager moderate fairly well well-roun- ly malad- social social life; developed ded social justed so- life; if lacks one social life; life of all cially; some emo- type, compen- no serious types; very many gaps tional dis- sates with gaps; posi- good emotion- in social turbance and other types; tive al life; much discontent if emotional reactions reactions. emotional disturbance, disturbance readily ad- justed APPENDIX C: SCALING PROCEDURES AND DATA TABLES VALIDATION OF SCALES Opinion Leadership A.validity check was made comparing the measure used in this research to Rogers opinion leadership scale and the Katz-Lazarsfeld opinion leadership scile.1 Tables 7 and 8 show the zero-order enter- correlations of the scales for both issues. All correlations were significantly different from zero (.098 a .05 level of significance). The items of the scale appear in.Appendix B. Items 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 7 comprize the Rogers scale and Items 2 and 3 comprise the Katz-Lazarsfeld scale of self-designating opinion leadership. In the hypothesis testing, on the taxation issue the Rogers measure consistently produced higher correlations -- eleven out of twelve comparisons. The Rogers and Marsh measures did not vary more than .01 percentage points but the variance between these two measures and the Katz-Lazarsfeld measure was as much as .055 percentage points. The pattern shifted on the women working issue and the Marsh measure showed consistently higher correlations in all comparisons. Again, the difference between that measure and Rogers measure was slight and there was a larger difference between the two (Marsh and Rogers) and the Katz-Lazarsfeld measure. 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