. : W A STUDY (IF THE RELATIONSHIP OF g ; " THE IIIus'Ici TEACHER’S SELF {0mm I; ; j; Io THE STUDEIIrsA: :rrqu WAR IMUSIC_LEARNIN Dussertatmn for the Degree 70f FPh‘ D ‘" IIIIIIA LIBRARY ”“73; Michigan State 7 University IIIQIIIILQILII/[Illlflllill " ; .1 ~., -9531} This is to certify that the thesis entitled I A STUDY OF THE RELATIONSHIP OF THE MUSIC 7 TEACHER'S SELF-CONCEPT TO THE STUDENT'S ATTITUDE TOWARD MUSIC LEARNING presented by James R. Hughes has been accepteaflttxards fulfillment of the requir; ents for ' Music Education ' Ph a Do degree '1 / I---——---‘~ Qt) $Iee Q”. Vit‘ WC“ Vt: ‘5 ABSTRACT A STUDY OF THE RELATIONSHIP OF THE MUSIC TEACHER'S SELF-CONCEPT TO THE STUDENT'S ATTITUDE TOWARD MUSIC LEARNING BY James R. Hughes Purpose of the Study This study investigated the relationship between seventh grade general music teachers' self-concept and three other classroom variables. The classroom variables were: (1) student attitude toward the general music class and teacher; (2) teacher attitude toward the general music class and the students; and (3) the type of verbal inter- action occurring in the general music classroom. Other concerns of the study were the relationships between the observed variables and the teacher's race and years of teaching experience. Procedure The present study included a sample of 32 general music teachers and 739 seventh grade general music stu— dents from junior high schools and middle schools located in southern Michigan. The teachers and students comprised Classrooms in which general music was a required subject C§VL~ \4) :ie seventh g: mic-economic SI urban school 2;:ipated in the :: supervisors. Self-con szcres on the [e azzizudes were .5 tznesota Teache h 'Isre ierived frc Sudan: Attitude \ were compiled f I niysis in eacl Interaction Anaj \ Spearma ‘33 the Study v :1 ‘I‘Sions: i~ Teacher SUCCESS tend tc tudes t @Qfiflé James R. Hughes in the seventh grade. The sample was drawn from various socio-economic settings and from both rural, suburban, and urban school systems. The teachers voluntarily par- ticipated in the study without pressure from administrators or supervisors. Self-concept data were obtained from the teachers‘ scores on the Tennessee Self Concept Scale. Teacher attitudes were determined from scores achieved on the Mhnmsota Teacher Attitude Inventory. Student attitudes were derived from totals expressed on the Minnesota Student Attitude Inventory. Verbal interaction data were compiled from one hundred minutes of interaction analysis in each class using the Flanders System of Interaction Analysis. Conclusions Spearman rank-correlation coefficients computed for the study variables supported the following con— clusions: 1. Teachers perceiving themselves as adequate and successful in their interpersonal relationships tend to have students who express positive atti- tudes toward their teachers. 2. Teachers who have integrated self—concepts and a high degree of self—acceptance will tend to have students who express positive attitudes toward that teacher and his class. 0‘ 0 Teachers body, st and sex: adequac interac Teacher What th ticize less d5 ————’*‘"“wr James R. Hughes 3. Teachers who maintain negative concepts of their body, state of health, physical appearance, skills, and sexuality tend to use questions and student ideas in their verbal interaction to a greater extent than those teachers who hold positive concepts of the same areas. 4. Teachers with a positive self-concept and a low degree of conflict in their personalities will tend to be more empathic, encouraging and praising in their verbal interaction than other teachers. 5. Teachers with a high sense of personal worth and adequacy also lessen their use of direct verbal interaction. 6. Teachers who are very definite and certain in what they say about themselves will tend to cri— ticize and give orders and commands more than less definite teachers. 7. Teachers who criticize themselves severely will tend to criticize others to the same degree. 8. Teachers who tend to perceive themselves posi- tively also achieve a high degree of teacher- initiated student verbal interaction. 9. Teachers with a high degree of self-satisfaction or self-acceptance also experience a decreased use of student—initiated verbal interaction in their classes. I .3. '__4 C73 0 Teachers dents a2 instru01 Teacher: exlubit praise, v‘ . I Asen St Classes also ex Student Classes exPerie convers When bc Class 5 exPress Black t SatiSfe White I action TeaChe] ience l 10. ll. 12. l3. 14. 15. l6. 17. James R. Hughes Teachers with more positive attitudes toward stu— dents also tend to give more verbal commands and instructions. Teachers whose classes possess positive attitudes exhibit a greater use of verbal empathy and praise, and also use student ideas increasingly. When student attitudes are negative, the teacher tends to employ a high degree of direct verbal interaction. Classes in which students' attitudes are positive also express a high degree of teacher-initiated student verbal interaction. Classes in which student attitudes are negative experience a higher degree of confusion, extraneous conversation, and disorganization. When boys express a negative attitude toward the class and its teacher, the teacher tends to express positive attitudes toward the student. Black teachers express a higher degree of self- satisfaction or self—acceptance than white teachers. White teachers use more indirect verbal inter— action than black teachers. Teachers with a greater amount of teaching exper— ience lessen their use of self—criticism. M IL“. Teachers experien toward t Teachers experier interact criticis confusic Teachers rence a2 initiat: l8. 19. 20. James R. Hughes Teachers with a greater amount of teaching experience tend to have students whose attitudes toward them are more positive. Teachers with a greater amount of teaching experience tend to decrease their use of verbal interaction encompassing orders, directions, and criticism. Their classes also experience less confusion and disorganization. Teachers with greater amounts of teaching exper- ience also increase the incidence of teacher- initiated student verbal interaction. A STUDT TEACH: 1“ par A STUDY OF THE RELATIONSHIP OF THE MUSIC TEACHER'S SELF-CONCEPT TO THE STUDENT'S ATTITUDE TOWARD MUSIC LEARNING BY - 2“ D: b James RI Hughes A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University. in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY College of Arts and Letters 1974 The writ ssxszance giver. me: Dr. Rob Erieiewald, Dr. Ziefer. Specia 393%: r. Roi: £1595 the PIEPB iiserhaker of a assisted in the 3'“ t° my Wife, "are indispensii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The writer expresses sincere appreciation for the assistance given him by the members of his doctoral com- mittee: Dr. Robert Sidnell, chairman, Dr. Russell Friedewald, Dr. Robert Erbes, and Professor Robert Unkefer. Special recognition is given three significant people: Dr. Robert Sidnell, who patiently advised and Guided the preparation of the dissertation; Mr. Joseph Wisenbaker of the Office of Research Consultation, who assisted in the preparation and analysis of the data; and to my wife, Barbara, whose assistance and forbearance were indispensible . ii I. VERVILA lntrc The P heed Ques: Hypo: Defi: M5301 LimiI From 11. AEIIIEII I lntn Self Teac Co *UF—l VJ Ihte Atti Summ 111' CRITERI Varj TEnr Mim Minx FlaI TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter I. OVERVIEW OF THE PROBLEM . . . . Introduction. . . . . . . The Problem . . . . . . . Need for Study . . . . . Questions To Be Answered. . . Hypotheses . . . . . . . Definition of Terms . . . . Major Assumptions . . . . . Limitations . . . . . . . Procedure. . . . . . . . II. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE . . Introduction. . . . . . . Self— Concept. . . . Teacher Variables Pertaining to Concept. . . . . . . . Teacher Perceptions of Self. Training and Self— Concept . Personality Traits and Evaluation of Others . . . . . . . Interaction . . . . . . - Attitudes. . . . . . . . Summary . . . . . . . - III. CRITERION INSTRUMENTS. . . . - Variables To Be Measured. . . Tennessee Self Concept Scale Minnesota Teacher Attitude Inventory. Minnesota Student Attitude Inventory. Flanders System of Interaction Analysis. Page H 25 25 33 37 48 55 59 63 101 120 124 124 125 129 133 136 " 'o V L33? t6; homers Revie Prese Reiat Y. SUMMARY, AD RE Concl Impl Reco: “\H‘ip FrzaDIx CIiterion I ‘9. \I I P v.-.) J C, L r1 ..D BIBLI Chapter Page IV. ANALYSIS OF THE DATA . . . . . . . . . 143 Review of Procedure . . . . . . . . 143 Presentation of Data . . . . . . . . 144 Related Data. . . . . . . . . . . 166 V. SUMMARY, FINDINGS, DISCUSSION, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS. . . . . . . . . 175 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 Findings I O I O O O O O O O O O 179 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . 185 Self-Concept and Teacher Attitude. . . 185 Self-Concept and Student Attitude. . . 187 Self-Concept and Verbal Interaction . . 190 Relationship of Dependent Variables . . 197 Related Questions . . . . . . . . 200 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . 202 Implications. . . . . . . . . . . 205 Recommendations. . . . . . . . . . 206 APPENDIX Criterion Instruments . . . . . . . . . . 208 SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . 224 iv e... .5. .J. (7‘ ‘1 no. to ”A o Flanders' (FIAC) Observer Spearman the var . Spearman the var Spearman the vaz Spearman the Va] SPEarman the vaI ' SPearman the va: Spearman the va the V3 the Va the V3 Spearman the va Spearmar the V5 _ _. ___—._v— —--v——-v—v— __~ . ____ ._.._ ___‘.___. _ Table ’_| o 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. LIST OF TABLES Flanders' Interaction Analysis Categories (FIAC) o o o Observer reliability coding data . . . . . Spearman Rank Correlation Coefficient between the variables of Hypothesis I . . . . . Spearman Rank Correlation Coefficients between the variables of Hypothesis II . . . . . Spearman Rank Correlation Coefficients between the variables of Hypothesis III. . . . . Spearman Rank Correlation Coefficients between the variables of Hypothesis IV . . . . . Spearman Rank Correlation Coefficient between the variables of Hypothesis V . . . . . Spearman Rank Correlation Coefficient between the variables of Hypothesis VI . . . . Spearman Rank Correlation Coefficients between the variables of Hypothesis VII. . . . . Spearman Rank Correlation Coefficients between the variables of Hypothesis VIII . . . Spearman Rank Correlation Coefficients between the variables of Hypothesis IX . . . . . Spearman Rank Correlation Coefficients between the variables of Hypothesis X . . . . . Spearman Rank Correlation Coefficients between the variables of Hypothesis XI . . . . . Spearman Rank Correlation Coefficients between the variables of Hypothesis XII. o o o o Page 128 141 144 145 146 147 148 148 149 151 155 157 159 A. Spearman the var m . Spearman the var Spearman the var »’ . Spearman the var (,0 ,A \o Spearman the va: Spearman the va: N ._. Spearman the va N SPéarman the va w Spearman the va 4* Spearman race a N U! Spearman Years variat ax Spearmar the HE and SE 7' SPeermar SelecI Categ( Table 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. Spearman Rank Correlation Coefficient between the variables of Hypothesis XIII . . . . . Spearman Rank Correlation Coefficients between the variables of Hypothesis XIV . . . . . Spearman Rank Correlation Coefficients between the variables of Hypothesis XV . . . . . Spearman Rank Correlation Coefficients between the variables of Hypothesis XVI . . . . . Spearman Rank Correlation Coefficient between the variables of Hypothesis XVII . . . . . Spearman Rank Correlation Coefficients between the variables of Hypothesis XVIII. . . . . Spearman Rank Correlation Coefficients between the variables of Hypothesis XIX . . . . . Spearman Rank Correlation Coefficients between the variables of Hypothesis XX . . . . . Spearman Rank Correlation Coefficient between the variables of Hypothesis XXI . . . . . Spearman Rank Correlation Coefficients between race and selected variables. . . . . . . Spearman Rank Correlation Coefficients between years of teaching experience and selected variables . . . . . . . . . . . . Spearman Rank Correlation Coefficients between the mean achieved by boys and girls on MSAI and selected variables . . . . . . . . Spearman Rank Correlation Coefficients between selected TSCS Subscales and selected FSIA categories . . . . . . . . vi Page 160 160 161 161 162 163 164 165 165 166 167 168 171 ho mu: grasp of s :I encourage 5 aéeaocratic c 3351C teacher' Czassroom beha tell? Does ti sonnet: his ( if any edUCau ‘JJ P'Qtential EffI relatio“ships CHAPTER I OVERVIEW OF THE PROBLEM Introduction Two music teachers of equal intelligence, training, and grasp of subject matter may differ in their ability to encourage student motivation and learning; to achieve a democratic classroom atmosphere; and to engender posi- tive student attitudes toward music learning. Part of the difference may be accounted for by the effect the teacher's self-concept has on his students. Does the music teacher's self—concept influence, not only his classroom behavior, but the behavior of his students as well? Does the phenomenon of self-concept effect the teacher's interpersonal relationships, his classroom conduct, his goals, his accomplishments? Is the teacher‘s self—concept a viable concern of the music educator—— or any educator? The teacher‘s self—concept should be a concern of any teacher training program because of its potential effects upon other classroom variables. These relationships are the major focus of this study. The pur relationship be 11(1) the stc teacher att gettern which c After I schools, the w: HPeared to be “-5 Others werI Isacher traini: iefeating for I are devastati: “a Situation J0 in Some Ca While academic Work, frustration an :eacher traini indeed' diScou hsuecessful t EsamarElinal We! field If salteSteem The Problem The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between the music teacher's self-concept and (l) the students' attitude toward music learning, (2) teacher attitude, and (3) the verbal interaction pattern which occurs in the general music classroom. Need for Study After teaching for many years in the public schools, the writer observed that some beginning teachers appeared to be successful in their teaching experiences and others were not; even though they had received similar teacher training. While such unproductive results were defeating for the unsuccessful teacher, they were even more devastating for the students who found themselves in a situation where academic motivation was difficult, and in some cases impossible. While the students were being cheated in their academic work, the unsuccessful teachers experienced frustration and self-doubt. After investing heavily in teacher training, these unsuccessful teachers were, indeed, discouraged. The course of action for the unsuccessful teachers was either to remain in education as a marginal teacher or to give up, seeking employment in other fields. Either choice could result in a loss 0f Self—esteem for the teacher. The outcome of such a teacher dilemma lens and the t In time self-concept, a a important c] has important a artitude, and 1 notion of the author to becox which were des: 303.09“. ThES< results which °539051tive Sllievexnent, a EXploi learning Situa Enhancing noti pSyChological if Cohtent; eV 1‘: is overemph fight be less teacher dilemma would result in a loss for both the stu- dents and the teacher. In time it became obvious that the students‘ self-concept, as well as the teacher self—concept, was an important classroom variable. Student self-concept was important as it related to academic achievement, to attitude, and to inter-personal relationships. The con— viction of the self-concept's importance prompted the author to become involved in several studies in hyponosis which were designed to improve student attitude and self— concept. These activities produced extremely encouraging results which reinforced the confidence in the potential of a positive self-concept as it related to academic achievement, attitude toward learning, and interaction. Exploiting the psychological possibilities of a learning situation presents exciting new techniques for enhancing motivation toward music learning. Utilizing psychological techniques does not minimize the importance of content; even though, some early research indicates it is overemphasized.l In fact, concern for motivation might be less of a problem if content could be taught ‘5‘— 1Frank W. Hart, Teachers and Teaching (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1 pp. -Sl; Paul WittYr "An Analysis of the Personality Traits of the Effective Teacher, " Journal of Educational Research 40 (May 1947): 662- 71, Arthur T. Jersild, "Characteristics 0f Teachers Who Are 'Liked Best' and 'Disliked Most', " Journal of Experimental Education 9 (December 1940): hanore Self' to learn ab°Ut w his Persma: studen' activated ma: activated to d :5 some even listen intentl :o achieve the activation, a However, diver should be a si stantly aware individuals wt :usic differer Resear Studies confii cOucept's role Pllers propose he self~concu If this premi: our one kind ill internal, 2 Wham . fix (Host | in a more self—related manner. No one is highly motivated to learn about those things which appear to be unrelated to his personal life. Students are always motivated, but they may be motivated toward different ends. Some students are motivated to disrupt music classes, some miss school, and some even drop out. Other students are motivated to listen intently, set music goals, and study diligently , to achieve them. With this apparent diversity in student motivation, a music teacher's task may appear hopeless. However, diverse motivational attitudes toward learning should be a signal to the teacher that he must be con- stantly aware of himself and his students as unique individuals who respond to and interpret the world of music differently. Research literature is adequately supplied with studies confirming the dynamic quality of the self- concept's role in motivation. Combs and Snygg, and Rogers propose that the maintenance and enhancement of the self-concept is a primary motive behind all behavior.2 If this premise is accepted, there appears, then, to be only one kind of motivation——a kind which is both personal and internal, a kind which is present at all times, no \— 2Arthur W. Combs and D. Snygg, Individual ; Behavior, 2nd ed. (New York: Harper & Row, Publishers, I 1959 r chaps. 17, 18; Carl R. Rogers, Client-centered ‘ gggaggy (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, I965}, pp. 433- matter the act mtivated; in not be motivat it can never b Quoting Combs as 'An insatia 3f the self; 1". self, of which The teacher ma internal drive fllfilling dr; dent arrives a advantage by , Indiv. allElmer whicj filemselves, dISSOuance 0C \ 3 ~ Arth ’Xelopment ( anion, 1962): 4 Arth PSYCh 1 and Ge " APril leptufl SoHue Flinn T7 matter the activity. Combs believes "People are always motivated; in fact, they are never unmotivated. They may not be motivated to do what we would prefer they do, but it can never be truly stated that they are unmotivated."3 Quoting Combs further, he described the nature of motivation as "An insatiable need for the maintenance and enhancement of the self; not the physical self-—but the phenomenal self, of which the individual is aware, his self-concept."4 The teacher may interpret this phenomenon as a basic internal drive toward self—fulfillment. Such a self- fulfilling drive is usually established before the stu- dent arrives at school and should be considered an advantage by the teacher.5 Individuals are internally motivated to behave in a manner which is consistent with the way they perceive themselves. Festinger proposes in several sources that dissonance occurs when we act in ways that are inconsistent 3Arthur W. Combs, Perceiving, Behaving, Becoming, Yearbook of the Association fer Supervision and Curriculum Development (Washington, D.C.: National Education Associ— ation, 1962), p. 85f. 4Arthur W. Combs, "Some Basic Concepts in Per— ceptual Psychology," paper presented at the American Per- sonnel and Guidance Association Convention, Minneapolis, Minn., April 1965, p. 8. 5Donald L. Avila and William W. Purkey, "Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation: A Regrettable Distinction," Psychology in the Schools 3 (July 1966): 206—08. I” the belief which we res?“ 3327-! then' is with our self-1 trough our be} When t self-concept V Stat there mig :usi: learning ieir achievin single method any appropria Lie appropriat in the teacher environment. elegy will not confirm that r ilflloritarian: iifferences; e with the belief we hold about ourselves.6 The manner in which we respond to people, tasks, roles, and environ- ment, then, is consistent with what seems to be consistent with our self—image. Our self—concept is expressed through our behavior. When the multiplicity of teacher, student, and self—concept variables are considered, it becomes apparent that there might be no best way of responding to students' music learning needs any more than there is a best way of their achieving those learning needs. Instead of one single method of teaching and learning, there seem to be many appropriate ways of teaching and learning. Whatever the appropriate method may be, it would seem to depend on the teacher, the student, and especially the current environment. Research suggests that a specific method- ology will not always be successful. Existing data7 confirm that methods which are more democratic than authoritarian; which provide for adaptation to individual differences; encourage student initiative; urge individual and group participation; and stimulate "self" involvement 6Leon Festinger, A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance (New York: Harper & Row, Publishers, 1962), pp. 3—31; Festinger, "Cognitive Dissonance," Scientific American 207 (October 1962): 93-107. 7Ned A. Flanders, Teacher Influence, Pupil Atti- tudes and Achievement: Studies in Interactibn Analysis, Final Report, Cooperative Research Project No. 397 (Minneapolis, Minn.: University of Minnesota Press, 1960), rill probably a attitude and ac :ltlis type, a acapability of isneeded. Flexibl existential pr mlity, outl :unicates a ze ‘eacher posses lie host succe: ind music lean heMiler who is Students with tril’els far be lubecom thei Assumj have a determj “51° teacher, ““3 might in dark. Shoo it come“ an Mans dtm will probably achieve positive results in both student attitude and achievement. In order to encourage methods of this type, a flexible, totally dedicated teacher with a capability of planning around people as well as ideas is needed. Flexible, total music teaching is ultimately an existential process. A process which reflects the per- sonality, outlook, ideals, and background of the teacher, who may claim objectivity, but in reality exhibits the subjectivity of his work and thinking. A good music teacher not only knows his subject, he radiates and com- municates a zest which goes far beyond the content. The teacher possessing the most knowledge is not necessarily the most successful with students in terms of motivation and music learning. Instead, it may be found to be the teacher who is so involved with his work that he fills students with the kind of zest for music learning that travels far beyond the classroom and enables students to become their own best teachers. Assuming that the teacher variables just mentioned have a determining influence on the effectiveness of any music teacher, it would seem that teacher training pro— grams might well reexamine the direction of their cur— ricula. Should the music teacher's training be aimed at content and performance alone? The teacher training Programs at most institutions emphasize academic areas and self-conc that changes ‘ interpersonal atilled to otl Mover, has a it not also be training? A : and Student t, b“ Poorly tr intelections. Escher train leaching. Wh this would he \ 81m °f Certain p. cm and neglect the teacher/student interpersonal relation— ships which research indicates may be of greater or equal importance in student attitude and achievement. Critics of personality training suggest that this is an area that cannot be altered successfully or that it is not the domain of the training institution. Remarks such as these completely disregard the work of Carl Rogers and others who are deeply committed to personality and self-concept modification. Other critics believe that changes in teacher personality will occur only after the person assumes his classroom duties. This type of rationale supports an on-the—job training program in interpersonal relationships, a rationale which might be applied to other aspects of teacher training. Experience, however, has shown this concept to be inefficient; might it not also be inefficient when considering personality training? A recent study indicated that most teachers and student teachers were well prepared academically, but poorly trained in the effective use of teacher—student interactions.8 The study further stated that half the teacher trainees possessed personalities ill—suited for teaching. When consideration is given to the effect this would have on student approach-avoidance behaviors 8Louis M. Heil, Modifying Behaviors (Self-Concept) of Certain Prospective Teachers (Brooklyn, N.Y.: Brooklyn College, 1962). relationships shady is addr situation. 5 Ships between attitude and in academic c “M119, no ca involving the attitude, stm been found. ‘ uniuse in the "ill. hopeful 3150 as a has f"tum music What Salf-ooncept dent attitude bitlleen the t toward music learning and the effect teacher personality would have on student personality, self-concept, attitude or achievement, it presents a rather bleak picture of general music classrooms. Recognizing the less than adequate interpersonal relationships that now appear in most classrooms, this study is addressing itself to a specific aspect of this situation. Scientific studies have explored the relation- ships between student self-concept and achievement; attitude and achievement; teacher attitude and achievement in academic classrooms. This research will determine the correlation between these variables in classrooms dedi— cated to aesthetic education--music classrooms. At this writing, no correlational studies in music classrooms involving the variables of teacher self-concept, teacher attitude, student attitude, and verbal interaction have been found. The results from this study, then, will be unique in the literature of music education. These data will, hopefully, serve as a guide for future studies and also as a basis for restructuring teacher training for future music teachers and for in—service programs. Questions To Be Answered What relationship exists between the teacher's self-concept and the teacher's success in terms of stu— dent attitude? There may be a significant relationship between the teacher's success and the phenomenon of sistent with theselves. or full real‘ Such success Some theIll-selves fc 'ith which th demand a more in mrsonalit t0 msist per Stlonger for behavior witl We a negatu‘ \ Pres Personality l lO self—concept. This study will show the degree of that relationship, but will not attempt to predict or infer single causal relationships. The writer believes that individuals possessing a negative self—concept perform in a manner which is con- sistent with their negative and defeating beliefs about themselves. As a result of this consistency, success or full realization of the human potential is hampered.9 , Such success may be measured in terms of achieving a . positive student attitude toward music learning, estab- i lishing a democratic classroom atmosphere which stimulates the student mind, or achieving an indirect verbal inter- action pattern in the classroom. A fear of success, then, would be consistent with a negative self—concept. Some individuals avoid finding out more about themselves for fear of having to give up a self-concept with which they have grown comfortable. Success may demand a more thorough knowledge of self which may result in personality changes. Most people have an inclination to resist personal change, but the resistance is even stronger for an individual who cannot visualize a changed behavior with his current concept of self. Individuals with a negative self-image are hesitant to find out more 9Prescott Lecky, Self-Consistency: A Theory of Personality (New York: Island Press, 1945). ““‘“““ LA success, f are very much Vidual, the n the greater t failure. For becoming com] Writer belies 0f fear due i refuge in be: their peers. Masla inPulse to ii lotentialiti StOP short 11 about themselves because they fear having to make a pos— sible change toward more personal maturity. Maturity implies many things. It may indicate a certain degree of independence, a capacity for self— discipline, a certainty about goals and values, and a motivation toward some level of achievement. Greater maturity means greater responsibility and for people with a negative self-concept this is frightening. Fear of success, fear of moving on to higher levels of personal realization are maintained primarily because the fearful doubt their ability to sustain a high level of performance if it is achieved. Fear of success, fear of greater maturity, and fear of failure are very much related. The more successful the indi- vidual, the more people expect of him. Consequently, the greater the expectancy, the greater the chance of failure. For many there is just too great a risk in becoming competent, for then, much is expected. This writer believes many music teachers possess this sense of fear due to their poor self-image, and that they find refuge in being neither too far ahead nor too far behind their peers. Maslow suggests that although we all have an impulse to improve ourselves, to actualize more of our potentialities, and proceed toward fulfillment, many Stop short of developing their fullest potential because of what he ca] 'evasion of or he's best tal Not only a possibilit flict and in other 1 Certainly honest, v: has lookec to be awa: toward sa or men? 1 intellect admire al true, the fect, the make us it jealous 0 usually to and self- :‘ear of matur ittualization Stdndable fee that eventual Once Of Olll’ Capabi that image. lll’e Self‘ima tern of “urea claserOm per \ 10 Fargorial 6:2: 1 lIbi 12 of what he calls a "fear of one's own greatness" or the "evasion of one's destiny" or the "running away from one's best talents."lo He states further that: Not only are we ambivalent about our own highest possibilities, we are also in perpetual . . . con- flict and ambivalence over these same possibilities in other people, and in human nature in general. Certainly we love and admire good men, saints—- honest, virtuous, clean men. But could anybody who has looked into the depths of human nature fail to be aware of our mixed and often hostile feelings toward saintly men? Or toward very beautiful women or men? Or toward great creators? Or toward our intellectual geniuses? . . . We surely love and admire all the persons who have incarnated the true, the good, the beautiful, the just, the per- fect, the ultimately successful. And yet they also make us uneasy, anxious, confused, perhaps a little jealous or envious, a little inferior, clumsy. They usually make us lose our aplomb, our self-possession and self-regard.ll Fear of maturity, fear of success, and fear of self— actualization resulting from self-doubts are under- standable feelings, but these same feelings are the ones that eventually lead to self-defeat. Once our feelings have imprinted the blueprint of our capabilities on our mind it is difficult to change that image. This writer believes that a consistent nega- tive self—image guides many music educators into a pat- tern of unrealized potential which results in uninspiring classroom performance and in music students that are _ 10Abraham H. Maslow, “Neurosis as a Failure of Personal Growth,“ Humanitas 3 (Fall 1967): 153-69. lllbid., p. 164. :ored at an ea: hsis for the l Other , uhe analyzed :eacher's self :5 verbal inte he teacher's :ems of verba between the te attitude towar between the te teaching exper he teacher ' s The 51 “5' These a1 Hr , W There wil teacher I S measured ] SFUdents I “new W There Wil teachers. measured tgaChEr ' s mined by l3 bored at an early age. This rationale, then, is the basis for the questions to be answered in this research. Other questions to be answered and relationships to be analyzed: What relationship exists between the teacher's self-concept and the teacher's success in terms of verbal interaction? What relationship exists between the teacher's self—concept and the teacher's success in terms of verbal interaction? What relationship exists between the teacher's self-concept and the teacher's attitude toward his class? What relationship exists between the teacher's self-concept and his length of teaching experience? What relationship exists between the teacher's self-concept and his race? Hypotheses The study was designed to test twenty-one hypothe— ses. These are: Hypothesis I: There will be a significant correlation between the teacher's total self-image score (P+N Score) as measured by the Tennessee Self Concept Scale and the students' positive attitude score as measured by the Minnesota Student Attitude Inventory. Hypothesis II: significant correlation between the There will be a teachers' total self-image score (P+N Score) as measured by the Tennessee Self Concept Scale and the teacher's total indirect verbal interaction as deter— mined by the Flanders System of Interaction Analysis. HVDOtheSiE w There will teacher's measured t the teache determinec Analysis. Hypothesi: There wil teacher's measured the total by the g Hypothesi \- There wil teacher ' 5 measured Cthgory Anhiysis . \— H” 1% There wi] teaCheI I 5 measured teacher I s Attit \ude l4 Hypothesis III: There will be a significant correlation between the teacher's total self-image score (P+N Score) as measured by the Tennessee Self Concept Scale and the teacher's total direct verbal interaction as determined by the Flanders System of Interaction Analysis. Hypothesis IV: There will be a significant correlation between the teacher's total self-image score (P+N Score) as measured by the Tennessee Self Concept Scale and the total student verbal interaction as determined by the Flanders System of Interaction Analysis. Hypothesis V: There will be a significant correlation between the teacher's total self-image score (P+N Score) as measured by the Tennessee Self Concept Scale and Category 10 of the Flanders System of Interaction Analysis. Hypothesis VI: There will be a significant correlation between the teacher's total self~image score (P+N Score) as measured by the Tennessee Self Concept Scale and the teacher's attitude score of the Minnesota Teacher Attitude Inventory. Hypothesis VII: There will be a significant correlation between the teacher's Subscale scores of the Tennessee Self Con- cept Scale and the students' attitude score as measured By the Minnesota Student Attitude Inventory. Hypothesis VIII: There will be a significant correlation between the teacher's Subscale scores of the Tennessee Self Concept Scale and the teacher's attitude score of the Minnesota Teacher Attitude Inventory. aymthesi: There wili teacher's cept Scal‘ interactii Interacti There wil teacher ' 5 cent Scal 1'_ interac t1 Interacti Hypothesi There wij teacher ' : cept Scal ,\ as oeten Am There wi teacher ' Cept Sea In w New There wi Tsacher m Inve w 15 Hypothesis IX: There will be a significant correlation between the teacher's Subscale scores of the Tennessee Self Con- cept Scale and the teacher's total indirect verbal interaction as determined by the Flanders System of Interaction Analysis. Hypothesis X: There will be a significant correlation between the teacher's Subscale scores of the Tennessee Self Con- cept Scale and the teacher's total direct verbal interaction as determined by the Flanders System of Interaction Analysis. Hypothesis XI: There will be a significant correlation between the teacher's Subscale scores of the Tennessee Self Con- cept Scale and the total student verbal interaction as determined by the Flanders System of Interaction Analysis. Hypothesis XII: There will be a significant correlation between the teacher's Subscale scores of the Tennessee Self Con— cept Scale and Category 10 of the Flanders System of Interaction Analysis. Hypothesis XIII: There will be a significant correlation between the teacher's total positive score of the Minnesota Teacher Attitude Inventory and the students' total positive score of the Minnesota Student Attitude Inventory. Hypothesis XIV: There will be a significant correlation between the teacher's total positive attitude score of the Minnesota Teacher Attitude Inventory and the teacher's total indirect verbal interaction as determined by the Flanders System of Interaction Analysis. Hypothesis There will teacher' 5 Minnesota total dire Hypothesis There will teacher's Minnesota student ve Flanders E Hypothesi: There wil teacher' 5 10 total Aw. l6 Hypothesis XV: There will be a significant correlation between the teacher's total positive attitude score of the Minnesota Teacher Attitude Inventory and the teacher‘s total direct verbal interaction as determined by the Flanders System of Interaction Analysis. Hypothesis XVI: There will be a significant correlation between the teacher's total positive attitude score of the Minnesota Teacher Attitude Inventory and the total student verbal interaction as determined by the Flanders System of Interaction Analysis. Hypothesis XVII: There will be a significant correlation between the teacher's total positive attitude score of the Minnesota Teacher Attitude Inventory and the Category 10 total of the Flanders System of Interaction Analysis. Hypothesis XVIII: There will be a significant correlation between the students' total positive attitude score of the Minnesota Student Attitude Inventory and the teacher's total indirect verbal interaction as determined by the Flanders System of Interaction Analysis. Hypothesis XIX: There will be a significant correlation between the students' total positive attitude score of the Minnesota Student Attitude Inventory and the teacher's total direct verbal’interaction as determined by the Flanders System of Interaction Analysis. Hypothesis XX: There will be a significant correlation between the Students' total positive attitude score of the Minnesota Student Attitude Inventory and the total student verbal’interaction as determined by the Flanders System of Interaction Analysis. ' c Hypothesr. There will students' Minnesota 10 total < Analysis. Terms sad to be cl instrument an ldent 53 he sees hi & he feels abou C: his body’ Mora] \ 591!” from a r relatiOnsh-lp he .ISon’ and 1 P m yidhalu S Sent l S a perSOn ‘ tron his bodv Hypothesis XXI: There will be a significant correlation between the students' total positive attitude score of the Minnesota Student Attitude Inventory and the Category 10 total of the Flanders System of Interaction Analysis. Definition of Terms Terms used in the Tennessee Self Concept Scale need to be clearly defined as they are used in that instrument and in the present study. Identity.—-The individual describes what he is as he sees himself. Self-Satisfaction.--An individual describes how he feels about the self he sees. Physical Self.--The individual presents his View of his body, his state of health, his physical appearance. Moral—Ethical Self.-—The individual describes the self from a moral-ethical frame of reference-~moral worth, relationship to God, feelings of being a "good" or "bad" person, and satisfaction with one's religion or lack of it. Personal Self.--The variable reflects the indi— Vidual's sense of personal worth, his feeling of adequacy as a person and his evaluation of his personality apart from his body or his relationships to others. Famil of adequacy, refers to the to his closes Solis urelation t u a more ger adequacy and People in ger Varia :easure of ti from one area Dist] \ available Ch< another aspen Way One SeeS SubJ'ect is v< about hiHISelg T a set or respm lectls approi to agree or ‘ 18 Family Self.--This factor reflects one's feelings of adequacy, worth, and value as a family member. It refers to the individual's perception of self in reference to his closest and most immediate circle of associates. Social Self.--This is another "self as perceived in relation to others" category but pertains to "others" in a more general way. It reflects the person's sense of adequacy and worth in his social interaction with other people in general. Variability.--This factor provides a simple measure of the amount of variability, or inconsistency, from one area of self-perception to another. Distribution.--This variable is a summary score of the way one distributes his answers across the five available choices in responding to the items of the Scale. It is also interpreted as a measure of still another aspect of self—perception: certainty about the Way one sees himself. High scores indicate that the SubjeCt is very definite and certain in what he says about himself while low scores mean just the opposite. True False Ratio.--This is a measure of response Set Or response bias, an indication of whether the sub— jeCt'S approach to the task involves any strong tendency to a9ree or disagree regardless of item content. It can also he consiC Tron this at)?1 individual i5 by focusing OI acconplish the hat he is n_01 size that the salanced emplc self and elim. M correlated wi however, they responses to 3 £15 responses perception. Total \ tom amount Sigh scores 1 Them Confl the oppOSite reflections 0 2eTalille item these SCOIes 5C TS: which he . . Iceptmn t0 19 also be considered from the framework of self-theory. From this approach high True False Scores indicate the individual is achieving self-definition or self-description by focusing on what he is and is relatively unable to accomplish the same thing by eliminating or rejecting what he is ESE° Scores in the middle ranges would indi- cate that the subject achieves self—definition by a more balanced employment of both tendencies—-affirming what is self and eliminating what is not self. Net Conflict Scores.—-These scores are highly correlated with the True False Score. More directly, however, they measure the extent to which an individual's responses to positive items differ from, or conflict with, his responses to negative items in the same area of self- perception. Total Conflict Scores.--This factor reflects the total amount of conflict in a subject's self—concept. High Scores indicate confusion, contradiction, and general conflict in self-perception. Low scores have the Opposite interpretation. The conflict scores are reflections of conflicting responses to positive and negative items within the same area of self—perception. These scores are not to be confused with the variability Scores, Which reflect fluctuations from one area of self- Perception to another. This 1. The i are a study to t1"; 2. The s SEVEI‘ in pt The 5 Progressive l fitting the f< Tough thein Classrooms a: LTPOSSible t< Ellowed for , SChe< Visiting Ma 1’ .1 (I) LeVery da‘ Jive influen Subj, could not be 20 Major Assumptions This study assumed the following: 1. The instruments and methods employed in this study are adequate and suitable to the purposes of the study. (See Chapter III for information relative to the criterion instruments.) 2. The sample of the study is typical of a group of seventh grade general music students and teachers in public schools in Michigan. Limitations The study examined the different classrooms at Progressive periods in time. Some classrooms were visited during the fourth week of school and others all the way through their twelfth week of school. With this number of classrooms and the resulting commuting distances, it was impossible to control this variable within the time span allowed for the study. Scheduling in some schools prevented a comparable Visiting plan in each classroom. Classes in some schools met every day, some met every other day. This could well have influenced student attitude and teacher attitude. Subject matter being studied in the classrooms, Of CourSe, varied from teacher to teacher. This Varlable COuld not be controlled in this study. Of related concern Was the differing philosophies and Objectives reflected by the teachers. Stude in the mm the study. Phys 21c; inner-Ci iition which Stud not be contr and neighbor study. Stud possibility. The through self question. T the results fhmtobe A l: ESE 0f only the observe: fines of the the use of . lhOUgh an 0: Small range limitation. 1hr limitat. Tins, bu vation. An 21 Student background in music differed considerably in the various schools. This variable could also effect the study. Physical facilities were extremely varied from the old inner-city schools to modern suburban schools——a con- dition which may have influenced the results of the study. Student socio-economic factors, of course, could not be controlled in this study. Integration, busing, and neighborhood schools may well have influenced the study. Studies reviewed in Chapter II expand upon this possibility. The inventories used in the study obtained data through self—reporting--a technique some researchers question. Through his observations, the writer believed the results were valid and the reliability level was found to be quite high. A limitation of the interaction analysis was the use of only one observer even though the reliability of the observer was found to be acceptable. Within the con— l fines of the study and the resources of the researcher, the use of a team of observers was not feasible. Even though an observer will generally fluctuate within a small range of reliability, the use of one observer is a limitation. An observational situation has the potential fOr limitation. Efforts were taken to avoid such limi— tatiODSr but not all subjects react equally under obser- vation. An observer would have difficulty predicting normal classroom be? toreact less uesence. w area: self dent anal one teac self Spec the inte F011 use Chec leve The full Was 22 classroom behavior, however, the student—subjects seemed to react less than their teachers to this observer's presence. Procedure 1. A review of the literature was conducted in the areas of self—concept and specifically teacher I self-concept, teacher attitude as well as stu— dent attitude, and verbal interaction and its analysis. 2. Standardized instruments for measuring the var- iables were examined, and two were selected-- one to measure the teacher's attitude toward teaching, and the other to measure the teacher's self-concept. 3. Specialized instruments were selected to measure the student's attitude toward the class and verbal interaction occurring within the class. 4. Following training and field experience in the use of interaction analysis, the researcher was checked for reliability until an acceptable level was reached. 5. The teacher population was selected in the following manner: A random telephone canvas was made of the junior high schools and middle schoo to de cours schoc teach time appo: Duril cuss invi visi lone the time The With Phrp Duri the in} The iste Seve pub: 23 schools in the Southern half of lower Michigan to determine if the school offered a required course in seventh grade general music. If the school required music in the seventh grade, the teacher was contacted by telephone during which time the study was briefly discussed and an appointment for a personal visit was arranged. During the personal visit, the study was dis- cussed in greater detail and the teacher was invited to participate. All the teachers visited agreed to participate except one. The lone dissenter was advised to decline because the building principal feared parent repercussions as a result of the study. Visiting dates and times were scheduled during the personal visit. The researcher discussed the study in detail with each building principal assuring that the purposes of the study were completely understood. During this visit, permission was obtained from the principal before proceeding with the study in his building. The finalized battery of inventories was admin— istered to the study sample in cooperating seventh grade general music classes of thirty-two public schools. During the data-gathering period whic conc 1973 four cond twer whic eact TEE; T335 thil they the £355 by t vis: inte 9‘ Den ihtl teal N. Coh 24 which began the first week in October 1973 and concluded with the mid-winter break in December 1973, the writer visited each classroom during four consecutive class periods. The researcher conducted a verbal interaction analysis for twenty-five minutes during each class period which resulted in two thousand analyses for each classroom. The teacher inventories—- Tennessee Self Concept Scale and the Minnesota Teacher Attitude Inventory--were presented to the thirty-two teachers during the first visit so they would have adequate release time to complete the instruments. The Minnesota Student Attitude Inventory was administered to the 739 students by the writer during a portion of the final class visit. 8. The resulting data were tabulated, analyzed, and interpreted. 9. Detailed results of each inventory and the verbal interaction analysis were returned to each teacher participating in the study. 10. Conclusions and recommendations were drawn. Ther: introspectiwl ina remote . about their ihenselves. that man bec logical self scribes reco 55 Spirit, p of the hiddl bl Stressing “1 Which it Ahi (JF- '\ ‘t‘ lhg Came j W1 CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE Introduction There is a probability that some of our more introspective ancestors, while circled around a campfire in a remote cave, devoted a portion of their time thinking about their fears, their desires, and how they perceived themselves. During this early period it is conceivable that man became interested in his nonphysical, psycho— logical self. With the coming of written history, early scribes recorded their awareness of self in terms such as spirit, psyche, and soul. Theologians and philosophers of the Middle Ages developed further the concept of soul by stressing its immortality and superiority to the body in which it dwelled. A highlight in man's concern with his nonphysical being came in 1644, when the French mathematician and philosopher René Descartes produced his Principles of Philosophy.1 Descartes theorized that doubt was the \— _ lRené Descartes, Principles of Philosophy: A Discourse on Method (New York: E. P. Dutton & Co., Inc., 1912). 25 nin tool of to doubt tha doubted, he Other sevent locke, Hume, ideas about the period u self interch reanings or confusion wi into the pre literature w lent in the however, scj to the Probl Reg; Of Self. mos Standing acl Writings eX] M19 mind C 0‘ 990 deve; 26 main tool of disciplined inquiry, and yet he was unable to doubt that he doubted. He maintained that if he doubted, he was thinking, and consequently, he must exist. Other seventeenth century philosophers such as Spinoza, Locke, Hume, Berkeley, and Leibnitz contributed their ideas about man's nonphysical dimensions. Writers of the period used terms such as mind, soul, psyche, and self interchangeably with little concern for differential meanings or related scientific study. Uncertainty and confusion with regard to the concept of self extended into the present century. Even today, as this review of literature will show, unanimity of thinking is not preva— lent in the area of self-concept. At the present time, however, scientific studies are addressing themselves to the problems and potential of the concept of self. Regardless of their position concerning the concept of self, most scientific writers today recognize the out- standing achievements of Sigmund Freud in his prolific writings explaining the internal processes and organization of the mind.2 Freud studied the self through his concept of ego development and functioning. His daughter Anna 2Sigmund Freud, Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud, st. ed., vol. 5: "The Interpretation of B?EEE§"?‘VSIT 7: "The Handling of Dream Interpretation"; vol. 19: "The Ego and the Id" (London: The Hogarth Press and Institute of Psychoanalysis, 1962); Freud, New Intro— ductory Lectures on Psychoanalysis (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, Inc., 1933); Freud (1938), An Outline of Psycho— analysis (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, Inc., 1949TT— furthered th given to its hot the Fre alike the sel in their doc In 5 hum of the tific conce; chology was disciplines. l«‘Y be founc FUbliShed ix less of Sel: The concept Edging fror in time. A One of the , “Moor. 27 furthered this concept of ego with increasing attention given to its use in therapy.3 Munroe has pointed out that the Freudians and neo-Freudians were reluctant to make the self an important entity or to give it importance in their doctrine of psychoanalytic psychology.4 In spite of the impact of Freudian theories, the turn of the century revealed much interest in the unscien- tific concept of self, this at a time when American psy- chology was finally being accepted by the other academic disciplines. An indication of the interest in the self may be found in William James' Principles of Psychology published in 1890 in which his chapter on "The Conscious- ness of Self" was the longest in the two-volume work.5 The concept of self and other psychological theories arising from this period had arrived at a crucial point in time. A confrontation among them was unavoidable; one of the theories would predominate in American psy- chology. In such a polarizing atmosphere, most psycholo— gists selected a certain system, organizing "schools" 3Anna Freud, The Ego and the Mechanisms of Defense (New York: International Universities Press, Inc., 1946). 4Ruth L. Munroe, Schools of Psychoanalytic Thought (New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, Inc., 1955). 5William James, Principles of Psychology, 2 vols. (Magnolia, Mass.: Peter Smith, 1890). based upon 1 uilitant in unrestrainec emphasized l envisioned of explorin and stresse claimed tha while only study. The Victorious American ps "liCh turne direction x. Psychology. C0n5ciousne b“ f0rtune the adVocal attent‘mn 1 of the 192( \ i _ 6J( nstltute: 7 28 based upon that selection. These "schools" tended to be militant in their partisan support demonstrating unrestrained hostility to opposing ones. The Freudians emphasized unconscious motivation, introspectionists envisioned the process of introspection as a technique of exploring consciousness, gestaltists valued insight and stressed the selective perceiver, and the behaviorists claimed that all other schools studied consciousness while only observable behavior was suited for scientific study. The behaviorism of J. B. Watson and others emerged victorious in the psychological conflict.6 As a result American psychology was given a new direction—-a direction which turned to observable stimuli and response, a direction which classed the self as beyond the scope of psychology. Internal constructs such as self, mind, consciousness, and awareness were thrust into obscurity, but fortunately, not oblivion. Wylie reminds us that the advocates of behavioral psychology paid little attention to the concept of self during their supremacy of the 1920's through the 1940's.7 _ 6John B. Watson, Behaviorism (New York: People's Institute Publishing Co., 1925 . 7Ruth C. Wylie, The Self Concept: A Critical Survey of Pertinent Research Literature (Lincoln: Uni— ver51ty Of Nebraska Press, 1961), PP- I—2. he" Educ by prevailin assume domin theorists re cated in tux Sigmund he and J. B. We neasurable 1 interest in The entirely to 0f theories Seif~litera or even ref lronp that dart, respo they failed tireless, th 0f the twen DEWEY! and / 29 Education in America has always been influenced by prevailing psychological theories. When new theories assume dominance on the psychological horizon, educational theorists revise their positions. Educators have advo- cated in turn William James with his emphasis on self, Sigmund Freud with his belief in unconscious motivation, and J. B. Watson with his concerns for observable and measurable behavior. When American psychology lost interest in the self, so did education. The demise of self-theories cannot be attributed entirely to the efforts of behaviorists. In his review of theories about the self, Diggory has pointed out that self—literature rarely described scientific experiments or even referred to experimental activity.8 The small group that continued to espouse self-theories were, in part, responsible for their limited influence, because they failed to actively support experimentation. None— theless, the concept was supported during the early part of the twentieth century, by such men as Cooley, Mead, Dewey, and James.9 8James C. Diggory, Self-Evaluation: Concepts and itudies (New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1966), pp. 1- 0. 9Charles H. Cooley, Human Nature and Social Order (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1902); George H. Mead, Mind, Self, and Society (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1934); John Dewey, Democracy and Education (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1916); William James, Principles of Psychology (New York: Henry Holt & Co., 1890). The head's p self as dev nent. Pers psychology iables.10 point of pe entire stri self-actual 0f Maslow v nore extens Of self-co] his own St) the self--. \ in 11 (New York: 12 Book Compa 13 {New York: HASIOWI "P The Self: hikes New 99- 232.56 14 Island pre 30 The concept of self became a major part of George H. Mead's philosophy of society, for he conceived of the self as developing through interaction with the environ- ment. Personality was determined by forces of social psychology rather than biological or behavioral var- iables.lO Lewin conceived of the self as the central point of personality which provided consistency for the entire structure.11 Goldstein12 visualized a process of self-actualization becoming the forerunner of the works of Maslow who pursued the concept of self—actualization more extensively.13 Prescott Lecky developed the concept of self—consistency through investigations with many of his own students.l4 Bertocci proposed two aspects of the self——the self as object, "me," and the self as 10Mead, 92. cit., pp. 1-8, 253—73. llKurt Lewin, A Dynamic Theory of Personality (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1935), pp.’107—13. 12Kurt Goldstein, The Organism (New York: American Book Company, 1939), pp. 5-30. l3Abraham H. Maslow, Motivation and Personality (New York: Harper & Row, Publishers, 1954), pp. 35-58; Maslow, "Personality Problems and Personality Growth," in The Self: Explorations in Personal Growth, ed: C. Mous— takas (New York: Harper & Row, Publishers, 1956), PP. 232-56. l4Prescott Lecky, Self—Consistency (New York: Island Press, 1945). subject, "I- of self-enha lsinq theori psychothera} Eilgard, adr supported t] aself-refe: acohesive hllport was and conceiv thus, contr Diggory obs \ . 15p 390 and Per 91‘99. 16 New Publi 17. Interviews, June 1948) : \- o S 374:82. e] 31 subject, "I."15 Murphy studied the sources and types of self—enhancement and their relationship to society.16 USing theories of the self in counseling, Raimy considered psychotherapy a means of altering the self-concept.17 Hilgard, addressing the American Psychological Association, supported the concept that all defense mechanisms suggest a self-reference, and stated further that the self may be a cohesive force in problems of motivation.18 Gordon Allport was an ardent advocate of the self in psychology and conceived of man as both rational and purposeful, 19 thus, controlling his life through his aspirations. Ifiggory observed "The fact that the new psychologists 15P. A. Bertocci, "The Psychological Self, The Ego and Personality," Psychological Review 52 (Jan 1945): 91-99. l6Gardner Murphy, Personality (New York: Harper & Row Publishers, 1947). 17Victor C. Raimy, "Self-Reference in Counseling Interviews," Journal of Consulting Psychology 12 (May— June 1948): 153-63. 18Ernest R. Hilgard, "Human Motives and the Con- cept of Self," American Psychologist 4 (Sept. 1949): 374-82. 19Gordon W. Allport, Personality; A Psychologigal Interpretation (New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, Inc., 1355); Allport, "The Ego in Contemporary Psychology," E§ychological Review 50 (July 1943): 451-68; Allport, Becoming (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1955); Ailport, Pattern and Growth in Personality (New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, Inc., 1966). vere able tv and notivat the latter ‘ ught be so Cli concepts of were too re The outstan his written therapy knc centrality lolical sel \ 20. and Studies 21( RScorded In nillues," Av lation of 1 on): 35: l°uvhton n ““95 of , 32 were able to argue substantive matters of learning theory and motivation with the heirs of the behaviorists made the latter pay attention, and finally to agree that there might be something to the idea of self after all."20 Clinical psychologists eventually objected to the concepts of behaviorism, discovering that its theories were too restrictive to explain most human behavior. The outstanding voice in this group was Carl Rogers. In his written works, Rogers formulated a system of psycho- therapy known as "nondirective," which was based on the 21 centrality of the self. He described the phenomeno- logical self as a social product which resulted from 20James C. Diggory, Self-Evaluation: Concepts and Studies (New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1966), p. 56. 21Carl R. Rogers, "The Use of Electrically Recorded Interviews in Improving Psychotherapeutic Tech— niques," American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 12 (July 1942): 429-39; Rogers, "Some Observations on the Organi— zation of Personality," American Psychologist 2 (Sept. 1947): 358068; Rogers, Client-Centered Therapy (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1951); Rogers, "The Character— istics of a Helping Relationship," Personnel and Guidance Journal 37 (Sept. 1958): 6-16; Rogers, Counseling and Psychotherapy: Theory and Practice (New York: Harper & Row, 1959); Rogers, "A Theory of Therapy, Personality, and Interpersonal Relationships, as Developed in the Client— Centered Framework," in Psychology: The Study of a Science, ed: S. Kock, vol. 3 (New York: McGraw—Hill Book Company, 1959), pp. 184-256; Rogers, "The Therapeutic Relationship: Recent Theory and Research," in The Shaping of Personality, ed: G. Babladelis and S. Adams (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice—Hall, Inc., 1967); Rogers and Robert F. Dymond, Psychotherapy and Personality Change (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1954); Rogers, Freedom to Learn (Colum- bus, Ohio: Merrill Publishing Co., 1969); Rogers, On Becoming a Person (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company? 1961). interpersona for positive need for sel influence on been labellv 0th in reintrod‘ education. deider, Pat aclearer p our interpe Sin reaPheared society, A then he Sta In very Without many p5 tw0 dec They he as if t aTlcilla iation, mVolvE elabore have a Mar 33 interpersonal relationships. Rogers recognized the need for positive regard from both oneself and others, and the need for self-actualization. Because of his cohesive influence on earlier self theories, Roger's approach has been labelled "self theory." Other notable personalities have been influential in reintroducing the concept of self into psychology and education. The works of Combs and Snygg, Brookover, Heider, Patterson, Diggory, and Coopersmith have given a clearer perspective of the dynamics of the self in our interpersonal relationships. Since World War II, the concept of self has reappeared with new vigor influencing all facets of society. Allport aSSessed the situation accurately when he stated that: In very recent years the tide has turned. Perhaps without being fully aware of the historical situation, many psychologists have commenced to embrace what two decades ago would have been considered heresy. They have reintroduced self and ego unashamedly and, as if to make up for lost time, have employed ancillary concepts such as self-image, self-actuali— zation, self-affirmation, phenomenal ego, ego- involvement, ego-striving, and many other hyphenated elaborations which to experimental positivism still have a slight flavor of scientific obscenity.22 Self—Concept Many writers supporting the self theory of psy— chology have formulated a definition of the self which 22Allport, op. cit.. pp. 104-05. is conpatik developed a ceived of i beliefs whi belief with points are and dynamic says: A persr his. '. ten of The sel it is 1 nificar world a of all me PSYCh< 5911:. One feelings al aim“? of The fi: glam udes, object Side on more 0: \ 23 lo I . l RC” 1 70 Teachers C; 34 is compatible with their views and background. Purkey developed a composite definition of the self when he con- ceived of it " . . . as a complex and dynamic system of beliefs which an individual holds true about himself, each "23 belief with a corresponding value. Two important points are projected by this definition: it is organized and dynamic. Jersild portrays the self clearly when he says: A person's self is the sum total of all he can call his. The self includes, among other things, a sys— tem of ideas, attitudes, values, and commitments. The self is a person's total subjective environment; it is the distinctive center of experience and sig- nificance. The self constitutes a person's inner . world as distinguished from the outer world consisting of all other people and things.24 Some psychologists propose two distinct meanings of the self. One meaning defines a person's attitudes and feelings about himself; the second regards the self as a group Of psychological processes which influence behavior. Hamachek explains that: The first meaning can be looked at as a self-asf Object definition, as it conveys a persofi’E—Etti— tudes, feelings, and perceptions of himself as an Object. That is, it is as if one could stand out- side of himself and evaluate what he sees from a more or less detached point of view. In this \— 23William W. Perkey, Self Concept and Schiil Achievement (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice—Ha , Inc., 1970 I p. 7. 24Arthur T. Jersild, In Search of Self (New Yorg: ——|———'—I—'——_'_—_—_- . Teachers College Press, Columbia Uaner51tYr 1952): P sense, i The secc definit: in the 1 process ceiving Expressing ‘ relative va individual. :ovard sele others. Co 0! nodifyin concluded t entirely on alludes to I a bY one rest. handson lete, a Vivant, Philam exPlore the thi werk m and lac (Rent 01 rest my seeker IByiew which . thereu] Carryi1 II a Psycl \ 25 35 sense, the self is what a person thinks of himself. The second meaning may be called the self-aseprocess definition. In other words, the self is anoer, in the sense that it includes an active group of processes such as thinking, remembering, and per- ceiving.25 Expressing the self is a complex phenomenon. Beliefs of relative value and ultimate worth are maintained by every individual. These beliefs cause feelings of superiority toward selected peers and feelings of inferiority toward others. Considerable energy is devoted to maintaining or modifying our beliefs of self-adequacy. William James concluded that how a person feels about himself rests entirely on what he backs himself to be or do. James alludes to this concept in the following passage: I am not confronted by the necessity of standing by one of my empirical selves and relinquishing the rest. Not that I would not, if I could, be both handsome and fat and well-dressed, and a great ath- lete, and make a million a year, be a wit, a bon- vivant, and lady-killer, as well as philosopher, a philanthropist, a stateman, warrior, and African explorer, as well as a "Tone-poet" and saint. But the thing is simply impossible. The millionaire's work would run counter to the saint's; The philosopher and lady-killer could not keep house in the same tene— ment of clay . . . to make any one of them actual, the rest must more or less be suppressed. . . . So the seeker of his truest, strongest, deepest self must review the list carefully, and pick out the one on which to stake his salvation. All other selves thereupon become unreal, its triumphs real triumphs, carrying shame and gladness with them . . . I, who for the time have staked my all on being a psychologist, am mortified if others know more 25Don E. Hamachek, Encounters with the Self (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1971), p. 8. psycholt the groi me no 5. lovlames f pared himse esteem grow ourselves s The low we feel perceive ou selves as i expectation interrelate tant than 1 ever, depey three Phenc iht‘ir red]. some striv. idiions Of our Chosen Our concep Self-COME. posseSses dents: but \ 26 (New York; 36 psychology than I. But I am contented to wallow in the grossest of Greek. My deficiencies there give me no sense of personal humiliation at all.26 wa James felt depended in large measure on how he com- pared himself to others. Feelings of self-worth and self- esteem grow in part from.our perceptions of where we see ourselves standing when compared to our peers. The self-concept is a very personal possession. How we feel about ourselves is dependent upon how we perceive ourselves as really being, how we picture our- selves as ideally wanting to be, and how we view the expectations others have for us. These processes are interrelated and complex, no one of which is more impor- tant than the other. The direction of one's life, how- ever, depends upon the emphasis placed on any one of the three phenomena. Some achieve inner harmony by expressing their real self, others seek the ideal self, and still some strive to express themselves by achieving the expec- tations of their peers. The extent to which we fulfill our chosen expectations will, in large part, determine our conception of personal success or failure. The self-concept is a dynamic and organized construct which possesses great potential not only for teachers and stu- dents, but for all people. 26William James, Principles of PsycholOQY: vol. 1 (New York: Henry Holt & Co., 1890), p. 91. Mu: astudent': the studen‘ problems. the lives v lnusic te student fe significan nate a Stu llnsic teac ‘ Strengths ; conings. nay be dea harsh and Prevents t and deVelo Th Selfmme Stu‘ient ac in an earl Children is the follow huh suai 900d temps attractine 37 Teacher Variables Pertaining to Self-Concept Music teachers exert a tremendous influence on a student's self-concept, especially as they pertain to the student's ability to think about and to solve musical problems. Music teachers become significant—others in the lives of their students for a variety of reasons. A music teacher may be the only person who makes the student feel of value and worth. Other teachers may be significant because it is their responsibility to eval- uate a student's ability and to record that evaluation. Music teachers can assist students to recognize musical strengths and abilities or he can emphasize their short- comings. A student coming from a positive home atmosphere may be dealt a crippling blow if he is subjected to a harsh and rejecting teacher. This kind of music teacher prevents the student from developing in an inquisitive and developmental atmosphere. The research literature revealed several teacher self-concept and personality variables which relate to student academic performance and self—concept. Jersild in an early study discovered that elementary school children when describing teachers liked best mentioned the following teacher personality characteristics: human qualities as a person--sympathetic, cheerful, good tempered; physical appearance, grooming, voice—— attractive neat, pleasant manner of talking; traits as adiscipli: tent, did joined in teacher--e nitted exp tended to teaching a projects i enthusiast favorites \ 27 tho Are I1 ZE Needs Thr: Teachers" 1971); Che of Teaches] CeiVed pm [Ph-D- dis Effects 04 38 a disciplinarian or director of the class—~fair, consis- tent, did not scold or shout; participation in activities-— joined in or permitted games or play; performance as a teacher--enthusiastic, resourceful, explained well, per— mitted expression of opinion.27 High school students tended to pick characteristics which had a bearing on teaching ability; younger students valued interesting projects introduced by the teacher. Teachers who were enthusiastic, sensitive, and understanding were the favorites of pupils of all ages.28 Freese and West 27Arthur T. Jersild, "Characteristics of Teachers Who Are 'Like Best' and 'Disliked Most,'" Journal of Experimental Education 9 (December 1940): 3 - . 28Evelyn Jean Shoemaker, "Satisfaction of Student Needs Through Humanistic Attributes of Personality in Teachers" (Ph.D. dissertation, The University of Wisconsin, 1971); Charles T. McDonald, "The Influence of Pupil Liking of Teachers, Pupil Perception of Being Liked, and Per— ceived Pupil Socio-Economic-Status on Classroom Behavior" (Ph.D. dissertation, The University of Texas at Austin, 1972); Gordon Ascher, "Teacher Job Satisfaction: The Effects of Teacher Personality and the Educational Environ- ment of the School" (Ed.D. dissertation, The State Uni— versity of New Jersey, 1971); Florence Richter Barton, "Do Teachers Cause Dropouts? A Study to Determine Attitudes, Personality Characteristics, and Teaching Behaviors of Teachers Who Are Effective With Dropout Students" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Utah, 1972); Harvey M. Hummel, "The Relationship Between Success in Teaching and Certain Personality Factors, Persistance in Teaching and Edu— cational Attainment of Experienced Secondary Teachers" (Ph.D. dissertation, The University of Minnesota, 1972); Frank C. Emmerling, Jr., "A Study of the Relationships Between Personality Characteristics of Classroom Teachers and Pupil Perceptions of These Teachers" (Ed.D. disser- tation, Auburn University, 1961); Alf I. Eikaas, "A Study of Personality Dimensions Related to Teacher—Pupil Rap— port" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Minnesota, 1957). discovered students.29 teachers mc of the ado] students (11' study indic teacher's F of the teat 51' the tea( results coj teacher pe] Vic ‘10 Positive Ception, a} teachers' 1 one of the: their 10W1 the Positi‘ to be the 1 Ii”dings a1 39 discovered similar attitudes among rural high school students.29 A popular belief today is that younger teachers more fully understand and appreciate the problems of the adolescent. There is a common conception that students dislike teachers who give low grades. This study indicated that students were able to consider the teacher's personality and interactions apart from age of the teacher, the sex of the teacher, grades assigned by the teacher, and years of teaching experience. These results coincided with Jersild's reminder that a positive teacher personality was of vital concern to most students. Violette found that art students gave high ratings to positive teachers in affiliation, nurturance, intra- ception, and rated them low in aggression.30 The positive teachers' ratings of themselves revealed nurturance as one of their highest traits and aggression as one of their lowest. Judges involved in the study also rated the positive teachers low in aggression, and it appeared to be the most significant trait in the study. Violette's findings also revealed significant relationships between 29George T. Freese and Charles K. West, "Con— gruence, Empathy and Regard: A Comparison of Adolescent Ratings With Teacher Self-Rating," Adolescence 7 (Winter 1972): 525—29. 3oMargaret G. Violette, "A Description of the Personality Structure of Six Art Teachers in Relationship to Verbal Behavior, Teaching Technique, and Instructional Content" (Ph.D. dissertation, The Pennsylvania State University, 1972). personalit) exhibited a self-conce; Col ing teache: Sane evideu interest 1: villingnes. criteria ft Th personal c identified '10 fall in and intere like a dif dents? Se teacherls to Student \ 31 C°n§idere¢ S°°l\etu 51 40 personality and teaching behavior. The study further exhibited a significant correlation between teachers' self-concepts and those held of them by others. College students also seemed to prefer encounter- ing teachers with positive and enthusiastic personalities. Some evidence suggested that students rank a professor's interest in his students and their concerns and his willingness to give them attention as one important criteria for evaluating an instructor.31 The studies reviewed thus far have been examining personal characteristics of teachers that students have identified as desirable. These characteristics seemed to fall into four categories--warmth, patience, tolerance, and interest in students. Did these personal qualities make a difference in the actual performance of the stu- dents? Sears discovered positive relationships between a teacher's personal interest in and a willingness to listen to student ideas and the creativity shown by the students.32 31W. A. Bousfield, "Student's Ratings on Qualities Considered Desirable in College Professors," School and Society 51 (February 1940): 253-56. 32Pauline S. Sears and Ernest R. Hilgard, "The Effect of Classroom Conditions on Strength of Achievement Motive and Work Output of Elementary School Children," in Theories of Learning and Instruction, ed: Ernest Hilgard, Sixty-third Yearbook of the National Society for the Study Of Education (Chicago, 111.: University of Chicago Press, 1964), p. 195. togan foun an unusual school stu teachers h affected t studies wo personalit St to interac Personalit from achie that the v with an t that were Certain t} Vc fuIther b3 41 Cogan found that warm and considerate teachers received an unusual amount of original poetry and art from high 33 school students. In another study, Reed observed that teachers higher in their capacity for warmth significantly 34 These affected their pupil's interests in science. studies would indicate a relationship between teacher personality and student behavior. Student achievement has been related positively to interaction between different teacher and student personalities by Heil, Powell and Feifer.35 Using scores from achievement tests as their criterion, they found that the well-integrated teachers were most effective with all types of students. Teacher personality types that were fearful and turbulent were successful only with certain types of students. Vonk clarified the teacher-pupil relationship further by determining certain internal or perceptual 33Morris L. Cogan, "The Behavior of Teachers and the Productive Behaviors of Their Pupils," Journal of Experimental Education 27 (December 1958): 899124. 34Horace B. Reed, "Implications for Science Edu- cation of a Teacher Competence Research," Science Edu- cation 46 (December 1962): 473-86. 35Louis M. Heil, M. Powell, and I. Feifer, Char— acteristics of Teacher Behavior Related to the AchiEVEfient Qingfferent Kinds of Children in SeveraIIElementary ‘““ Grades, U.S. Office of EducatiOn Cooperative ReseafEh Progect No. 352 (New York: Brooklyn College, 1960). frames of 1 6 4 ness.3 I correlated riveness w negative v effectiven rather the ness to ex With havin ing neanin ‘mqueness self rathe ends Iathe Of the tee aPillared 1 iiVeness. N< COnCluded to the tee; 42 frames of reference which related to teacher effective- ness.36 It was found that teacher effectiveness was correlated with a positive rather than a negative View of self. The study also discovered that teacher effec— tiveness was correlated with a positive rather than a negative View of self. The study revealed that teacher effectiveness was positively related to identification rather than alienation, and openness rather than closed— ness to experience. Effective teachers were identified with having broad rather than narrow purposes, discover— ing meaning rather than giving information, expanding uniqueness rather than seeking conformity, disclosing self rather than concealing self, and seeking student ends rather than seeking their own ends. These dimensions of the teacher's internal or perceptual organization appeared to be necessary correlates of classroom effec— tiveness. Norris, Passmore and others in separate studies concluded that teacher success was significantly related to the teacher's self—concept.37 Norris found in addition 36Herman G. Vonk, "The Relationship of Teacher Effectiveness to Perception of Self and Teaching Purposes" (Ph.D. dissertation, The University of Florida, 1970). 37Billy E. Norris, "A Study of the Self—Concept of Secondary Biology Teachers and The Relationship to Student Achievement and Other Teacher Characteristics" (Ph.D. dissertation, Ball State University, 1970); Wynoka S. J. Passmore, "An Investigation of the Relationship of Self— Concept and Selected Personal Characteristics of Student to its rel correlatio semester h teaching c experience be closely covered at lhigh gra to self-cc Ir school adn 0f the scl The total Threw Study. Tl Feeling 5, Self! Fain: fliteness i \ Teachers t tition’ Nl 43 to its relationship to teaching success that a significant correlation existed between teacher self-concept and semester hours of psychology, education, and to student teaching course work. The number of years teaching experience and the number of dependents also appeared to be closely associated with self-concept. Passmore dis- covered other factors related positively to self-concept. A high grade point average was found to relate closely to self-concept while age seemingly had no correlation. In an Iowa-based study using 137 teachers and 104 school administrators, Ramsey compared the self-concept of the school personnel and the general population.38 The total self-concept score and twelve Subscales of the Tennessee Self Concept Scale provided the data for that study. The Subscales of Self Criticism, Identity Self, Feeling Self, Physical Self, Moral Ethical Self, Personal Self, Family Self, Social Self, Variability, and Defi- niteness about self were all used. The teachers and Teachers to Success in Student Teaching" (Ph.D. disser- tation, North Texas State University, 1970); Warren G. Bennis, "The Process of Understanding People," in Inter- personal Dynamics: Essays and Readings of Human Inter- actions, ed: Warren G. Bennis (Homewood, 111.: The Dorsey Press, 1968), p. 732; Anthony S. Mixer and James L. Milson, "Teaching and the Self," The Clearing House 47 (February 1973): 346-50. 38Marl E. Ramsey, "Self-Concept Among Selected Iowa School Teachers and Administrators as Measured by a Self Report" (Ph.D. dissertation, Iowa State University, 1971). administra‘ self-conce} trators, a: to be sign teachers. No between te Cropper re self-conce democratic their clas concept of lack of re may have c Significar ThomPSon j affect the Ker1tuckv 1 \ 3S Somalit , Teahher 8‘ mm“: To 41 Teacher B ”he. at: 44 administrators were found to be significantly higher in self-concept than the general population. The adminis- trators, and particularly the superintendents, were found to be significantly higher in self-concept than the teachers. Not all studies reflected positive correlations between teaching success and personality variables.39 Cropper reported that there was no relationship between self-concept of teachers and either the percentages of democratic procedures or affective content exhibited in their classroombehavior.40 The study used a global concept of the self which may have accounted for the lack of relationship. Specific components of the self nay have correlated with the selected variables more significantly than the global treatment of the self. Thompson indicated that self-concept did not appreciably affect the supervisory performance of Fayette County, Kentucky teachers who were supervising student teachers.41 39Vincent J. Melograno, "Effects of Teacher Per- sonality, Teacher Choice of Educational Objectives, and Teacher Behavior on Student Achievement" (Ph.D. disser- tation, Temple University, 1971). 40Ardeth P. Cropper, "Categories of Observed Teacher Behavior as Related to Reported Self-Concept" (Ph.D. dissertation, The University of Arizona, 1971). 41Howard A. Thompson, Sr., "A Study of the Relationship Between the Self-Concept of Secondary Super— vising Teachers and Their Supervisory Performance as Measured by Student Teachers" (Ph.D. dissertation, George Peabody College for Teachers, 1972). The total $5.12 was more meani teachers a between se rated "M concept sc suggested tore posit Sc between te Process ma 45 The total self-concept score of the Tennessee Self Concept Scale was used in the correlation. Possibly, the Tennessee Self Concept Scale Subscale scores would have indicated more meaningful relationships. Koger comparing music teachers and nonmusic teachers found little relationships between self-concept and the teacher-student relationships rated "I-Thou."42 The study relied upon the total self- concept score of the Tennessee Self Concept Scale. As suggested before, the Subscale scores may have indicated more positive relationships. Schultz and Wolf in a study of the relationship between teacher, behavior, self-concept, and the helping process made three conclusions: 1. Teacher facilitative behavior as represented by the sample was viewed as minimally integrated. 2. Teacher self-concept as measured did not yield evidence indicative of positive feelings toward self in the area of promoting constructive interpersonal relationships with children. 3. No relationship was found between teacher facilitative behavior and perceived self— concept. The subjects indicated that they felt quite unsure of their abilities in facilitative behavior; therefore, 42Mildred N. Koger, "Best Teacher-Student Inter— personal Relationships: Their Relationship to Self-Esteem and the Frequency of the Dialogical Relation Among Music Teachers" (Ph.D. dissertation, The University of Florida, 970). 43Edward W. Schultz and Judith Wolf, "Teacher Behavior, Self-Concept and The Helping Process," Psychology 1n the Schools 10 (January 1973): 75-78. '” , . . "it are functi able to dj with theoz that teach experient: success a.‘ cation as The resul‘ be lackin SuPport t to increa action, has in th 0f the in Concept i Shown a s and faci] '1 and behax inflIIencj related 3 tended tt \ 46 . "it seems reasonable to assume that teachers who are functioning at lower facilitative levels are less able to discriminate a relationship posture consistent 44 This study suggested with theoretical expectations." that teachers would profit from " . . . didactic and experiential training to increase the probability of success along the critical dimensions of affective edu- cation as it relates to the relationship process."45 The results of this study indicating accountability to be lacking in teacher facilitative behavior would lend support to the proposition that teachers receive training to increase their capabilities in facilitative inter- action. The self-concept instrument used in the study was in the experimental stages. The experimental nature of the instrument may have influenced the data. A self- concept instrument of recognized validity may well have shown a significant relationship between self-concept and facilitative behavior. These studies indicated that teacher personality and behavior did have a dynamic potential in terms of influencing students for better or for worse. In a related study, Sears found that teachers who liked pupils tended to have pupils who liked each other.46 Ravitz 44mid. 4SIbid. 46 Sears and Hilgard, op. cit., pp. 182-209. discoverer teacher 5 the class where the supportiv have high cited see identific behavior teristics I Seems cle teachers tive teac have a Se 47 discovered that a positive relationship existed between teacher self-acceptance and his acceptance of pupils in 47 the classroom. Spaulding found that in classrooms where the teacher was "socially integrative" and "learner supportive" the students tended to be more positive and 48 This and other research have higher self-concepts. cited seems to indicate that through imitation and identification the teacher becomes a model for appropriate behavior and the students reflect those personal charac- teristics most dominant in the teacher.49 In spite of the negative in-put, the evidence seems clear when it comes to describing good or effective teachers on the basis of personal characteristics. Effec- tive teachers seem to reflect a sense of humanness. They have a sense of humor, are fair, empathic, more democratic than autocratic, and seemingly relate easily and naturally 47Leonard A. Ravitz, "Teacher Self-Acceptance Related to Acceptance of Pupils in the Classroom" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Maryland, 1957). 48Robert L. Spaulding, Achievement, Creativity, and Self-Concept Correlates of Teacher-Pupil Transactions inElementary Schools, U.S. Office ofmfiducation CooperaEIVe Research Project No. 1352 (Urbana, 111.: University of Illinois, 1963). 49Ervin F. Holle, "Teacher EffectiveneSs: A Study of the Relationship Between Teacher Personality Characteristics and Anxiety in Elementary Pupils" (Ed.D. dissertation, The University of New Mexico, 1971). to student teachers 5 spontaneom Hz concept a1 students a turns tow. and self-a who relatb The study exuressio evictional Stable te Character and Cheer Said they exPressed rePorted might be “Wes (1 48 to students either individually or in a group. Effective teachers seem to create an environment which is open, spontaneous, and adaptable to change. Teacher Perceptions of Self Having cited research regarding teacher self- concept and personality characteristics as perceived by students and as they affect students, the review now turns toward teacher perceptions of their own personality and self-concept. Ryans' study involved 6,000 teachers who related their perceptions of teacher characteristics.50 The study detected a difference between self-related expressions of high emotional stability teachers and low emotional stability teachers. The more emotionally stable teachers were more apt to report the following characteristics: (1) frequently named self-confidence and cheerfulness as dominant traits in themselves; (2) said they liked active contact with other people; (3) expressed interest in hobbies and handicrafts; and (4) reported their childhoods to be happy experiences. As ndght be expected, teachers with lower emotional stability scores (1) had unhappy memories of childhood; (2) seemed 50David G. Ryans, "Research on Teacher Behavior in the Context of the Teacher Characteristics Study," in antemporary Research on Teacher Effectiveness, ed: B. J. Biddle and W. J. Ellena (New York: Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1964), pp. 67-101. not to Pr and autho C b_e_ac_h_eg. thenselve ll mrron-ommrrmomcomo—o-mo'om '71 teachers Self‘COIuc mg- The the Same \ 5 T w 49 not to prefer contact with others; (3) were more directive and authoritarian; and (4) expressed less self-confidence. Combs in his book, The Professional Education of Teachers, referred to several studies which addressed themselves to the way good teachers see themselves. 1. Good teachers see themselves as identified with people rather than withdrawn, removed, apart from, or alienated from others. 2. Good teachers feel basically adequate rather than inadequate. They do not see themselves as gen- erally unable to cope with problems. 3. Good teachers feel trustworthy rather than untrustworthy. They see themselves as reliable, dependable individuals with the potential for coping with events as they happen. 4. Good teachers see themselves as wanted rather than unwanted. They see themselves as likable and attractive as opposed to feeling ignored and rejected. 5. Good teachers see themselves as worthy rather than unworthy. They see themselves as people of consequence, dignity, and integrity as opposed to feeling they matter little, can be overlooked and discounted.51 From these findings it may be implied that good teachers saw themselves as good, adequate people. Their self-concepts were positive, optimistic, and self-accept- ing. The self-perceptions of a good teacher would be the same as a good person in any vocation. Much evidence SlArthur W. Combs, The Professional Education of Teachers (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, Inc., 1965), pp. 70-71. has repor productiu as adequa ii traits of no differ themselve to their positive between 9 Also, goc self~asse Strengths were just and peter ation and t0 teache C s. °f formal 50 has reported that any person was apt to be happier, more productive, and much more effective when he saw himself as adequate.52 King investigated the self-reported personality traits of university instructors and found that there was no difference in how good and poor instructors accepted themselves and how they viewed their real self in relation to their ideal self.53 Both showed congruency and a positive View of self. No difference in means appeared between good and poor instructors in self-actualization. Also, good instructors were self-willed, self-expressive, self-assertive, open, honest, and cognizant of their strengths and capabilities. Generally poor instructors were just as self-actualizing (releasing full capabilities and potentialities) as good instructors. College affili- ation and number of years of teaching seemed unrelated to teacher effectiveness. Sex, age, highest degree earned, rank, and years of formal education did make a difference in the King 52Mixer and Milson, op, cit., p. 350; Bennis, 92. cit., p. 732. 53Alma P. King, "The Self-Concept and Self— Actualization of University Faculty in Relation to Stu- dent Perceptions of Effective Teaching" (Ph.D. disser- tation, Utah State University, 1971). study an instruct< nostly ft had rece: years of lower th; those Wht who had a educatior traits o 399, sex Of 333 64 graduate teachers rePorted to be 1e reliant, inenting attribut 51 54 Those study and also in an investigation by Wurtz. instructors rated high by students were those who were mostly female in sex, younger in age (average 39), who had received a masters degree with an average of seven years of university education and a professional rank lower than a professor. Those rated low by students were those who were mostly male, older in age (average 47), who had a doctorate degree, eight years of university education, and a professional rank of professor. Anderson probed the self-perceived personality traits of teachers in a cross-sectional study based on age, sex, and teaching level.55 Her samples consisted of 333 education undergraduates, 94 dismissed under- graduates because of academic failure, 198 student teachers, and 175 experienced teachers. The self- reported characteristics were that male teachers appeared to be less outgoing and abstract, more dominant and self- reliant, more self-opinionated and practical, more exper- imenting and less tense than female teachers. Differences attributable to Sex were more crystallized for teachers 54Philip J. Wurtz, "An Investigation of the Mul- tiple Effects of Self-Concept and Other Independent Variables in the Prediction of Teacher Job Satisfaction" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Kansas, 1973). 55Gladys M. Anderson, "Personality Characteristics of.Aspiring Teachers and Experience Teachers: A Discrimi- nant.Analysis" (Ph.D. dissertation, The Ohio State Uni- versity, 1970). than for the young cated tha submissiv self-opin less tens euotional tive, gro between f has found conservat integrati Elllected feuale se POinted t reserved more Self dale Stlld Ilethale st femaleS g- tin' trt teachers thtUreSc than Were rePotts j 52 than for student teachers and undergraduates. Contrasting the youngest and oldest female groups, the study indi- cated that the younger females were less abstract, more submissive and serious, more spontaneous, sensitive, and self-opinionated, more imaginative, self-integrated, and less tense. The group of teachers ages 30-39 were more emotional, the most dominant, adaptable, shrewd, conserva— tive, group-dependent, and the most tense. Discriminating between female teachers and female student teachers, it was found the undergraduates were more reserved, naive, conservative, had lower ego strength, and lower self- integration, and were less tense. Tenseness which was expected to decrease with age did not do so. In comparing female secondary and female elementary teachers, evidence pointed to the fact that secondary teachers were more reserved and dominant, more serious and spontaneous, and more self-reliant. Comparing male undergraduates and male student teachers with female undergraduates and female student teachers, the study indicated that the females were more outgoing, abstract, submissive, sensi~ tive, trusting, and had lower ego strength. Student teachers had higher ego strength, were more serious, venturesome, self—assured, integrated, and more tense than were undergraduate students. From these self— reports it becomes evident that teachers' self—perceptions are as va studying similar f A Safran co there was using pra the train trainee's Hungernan further 1: to any 5e skill tha U the more Would eVa \ 5 Trainees, lEdd). di 5 State Uni 5 197w. 5 Ship PGIE Michigan, 53 are as varied as student self-conceptions. Kozlowski, studying student and experienced teachers, reported similar findings.5 As a result of diverse teacher personalities, Safran concluded from a related study of counselors that there was a need for training in self-awareness of needs using practicums, small groups and role playing; and that the training program must be flexible and geared to the trainee's growth needs as they related to self—concept.57 Hungerman concurred with these findings and concluded further that the ability to be empathic may not be related to any set of personality dynamics. Empathy may be a skill that has been learned.58 Using YWCA group leaders, Bean discovered that the more positive the self-concept the higher the leader would evaluate his own total performance.59 The study 56David K. Kozlowski, "A Comparison of the Author- itarian and Child Centered Responses of Teachers, Teacher Trainees, and Non—Teachers to Simulated Classroom Problems“ (Ed.D. dissertation, Wayne State University, 1972). 57John S. Safran, “A Comparison of the Personal Preferences and Self—Concept of Empathic and Non—Empathic Counselor Education Students“ (Ph.D. dissertation, Wayne State University, 1972). 58J. Michael Hungerman, "The Relationship of Sen— sitivity to Others to Certain Selected Personality Char- acteristics" (Ph.D. dissertation, Kent State University, 1970). 59Mabel G. Bean, "Self-Concept and Group Leader— ship Performance“ (Ph.D. dissertation, The University of Michigan, 1970). also rev ceived s the lead Aleader positive who had iornance group's leader t very evi t0 becom in becom Percepti Society. PerceiVe oPtimist in their Uni\Iersi aPOSiti to be hi ferentia their be that tho tend to with 10w 54 also revealed that the less differential between per- ceived self-concept and ideal self-concept, the higher the leader would evaluate himself on his performance. A leader who had leadership training would evaluate less positively his competency for group leadership than one who had no training. A leader's perception of his per- formance in a group was found not to be related to the group's perception. Therefore, the necessity for the leader to know how to get feed-back from the group was very evident. Such feed-back would allow his perceptions to become more realistic and would aSsist the individual in becoming a more effective leader. The research literature revealed that a teacher's perception of self is as diverse as any other segment of society. Those individuals judged to be good teachers perceived themselves as positive, self—accepting, and optimistic. Good teachers viewed themselves as adequate in their social interaction and professional behavior. University instructors, whether good or poor, maintained a positive, congruent View of self—-a self that appeared to be highly actualized. Individuals with little dif- ferential between their real and ideal self evaluated their behaviors most highly. The research data suggest that those teachers with high self—concepts will also tend to judge their performance higher than individuals With low self-concepts. Teacher evaluations of their L‘ r - performar ceptions behavior of perce in self-a the self school g that a 1 effect it academic school, Signific biiity f accelera resPepsi Ship rol academic mom Whi to the t with inc \ the Gm“ 55 performance do not necessarily reflect the same per- ceptions as student evaluations of the teacher's behavior. The literature suggests that such diversity of perceived self-concept indicates a need for training in self-awareness. Training and Self—Concept Hughes found that leadership training influenced the self in several ways.60 Experimenting with a high school group of Naval Junior ROTC cadets, he reported that a leadership role was found to have a significant effect upon growth in positive self-concept and upon academic achievement. Chronological age, class in school, sex and ethnic background failed to show any significant effects. The program provided greater sta— bility for noncollege bound students, and it demonstrated accelerated growth in personality traits, particularly responsibility. Recognizing the influence of a leader- ship role in the growth of positive self—concept and in academic achievement, it may be suggested that a class— room which optimizes leadership opportunity is superior to the traditional classroom. Leadership involvement seemed correlated highly With increased perception of self-esteem as evidenced by ‘— 6OOrval D. Hughes, "The Influence of Leadership in the Growth of Positive Self-Concept" (Ph.D. dissertation, The University of New Mexico, 1970). the stud relation behavior Human Re Californ relation This wor relation also a r reductio of anger training Concept, study.63 gram usi Effects tedchers \ Self~Est LabOratc fornia' 56 the studies cited. Leventer, in a study to explore the relationship of attitude change to emotional and behavioral change that occurred in participants of a Human Relations Training Course at the University of California, Los Angeles, discovered a significant relationship between participation and self—concept.61 This work produced evidence that suggested not only a relationship between participation and self—concept, but also a relationship between participation and the reduction of fear and the reduction in the expressions of anger. Evidence cited indicated that participatory training positively influenced the perceived self- concept.62 Tuttle expanded upon this concept in his 63 The subjects participated in a training pro— study. gram using video tape analysis sessions with the following effects upon the self-concept: (l) the more effective teachers became more positive in their perceptions of 61Esther A. Leventer, "The Interrelationship of Self-Esteem, Fear, Emotionality, and Behavior in Training Laboratories" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Cali- fornia, Los Angeles, 1969). 62Passmore, op. cit.; Bean, op. cit.; Leventer, op. cit.; Hughes, op. cit. 63Roland L. Tuttle, Jr., "The Effect of Video Tape Self-Analysis on Teacher Self-Concept, Effective— DGSS, and Perceptions of Students" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 1972). their on tive int {3) perc bore pos effectit certaint less eff defensii tajors y The Unit in self- Supervis exyerier SuPervis Cain d1: ticiPatc ina “tr ideal St ever, H( self~cor \ indent “he, 15 i“ Self- Vallles ( S ip PR 1972). 57 their own identity; (2) both the effective and ineffec- tive interns decreased in their physical self-concepts; (3) perceptions of the personal self became significantly more positive for the more effective teachers; (4) the effective interns became significantly stronger in their certainty about their perceptions of themselves; (5) the less effective interns became significantly more subtly defensive. Burgy reported that 133 elementary education majors participating in a student teaching program at The University of Iowa experienced perceived increases in self-concept.64 The increase occurred only if the supervising teacher had six or more years teaching experience, however. Scheduled observations by the supervisor also reflected an increase in self-concept. Cain also cited increased self-concept through a par- ticipatory program.65 Education students participating in a "training-on-the-job" program, experienced higher ideal self-concept at the conclusion of the study; how— ever, no increase was present in the perceived real self-concept. Cain concluded that direct, personal 64Dianne R. Burgy, "A Study of the Effects of Selected Situational Components on the Self-Concept of Student Teachers" (Ph.D. dissertation, The University of Iowa, 1972). 65Robert B. Cain, "An Investigation of Changes in Self-Concepts, Role Concepts, and Self—Actualizing Values of Interns Participating in an Innovative Intern- :hip Program" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Miami, 972). experien part of of time ‘ ing stud cation t nificant showed t concept candidat personal concept training Concept. fears an Courses and pers Slate gr 0f Self. particig IESQarCt per5011a] extended \ Self‘Cor at the tatiOn' 58 experience with children and teachers should be a vital part of teacher training, although the necessary length of time was unclear. Bostwick stated that teacher train— ing students who participated in an interaction communi- cation training-learning program also experienced sig- nificant effects on the perceived self-concept.66 Results showed that as two-way talking decreased, expressed self- concept also decreased. As two-way talking decreased, candidates were less inclined toward self-other inter- personal relationships. In other words, expressed self- concept decreased as participation decreased. The research literature showed that participatory training had a significant positive effect on the self- concept. Participatory training also reduced trainee fears and expressions of anger. Special teacher training courses clarified the student's perception of his identity and personal self. Leadership training tended to accel- erate growth in personality and increased the perception of self-concept. Observing the positive influence of participatory training upon the self-concept, several researchers proposed that teacher training should include personal experience with students and teachers over an extended period of time. 66Janis L. Bostwick, "An Interaction Approach to Self-Concepts of Candidates in Teacher Education Programs at the University of California, Berkeley" (Ph.D. disser- tation, University of California, Berkeley, 1966). perceivr personal others. nificant others a tively, tive ide self as study, j in their here nor teachers five on Others} Opinions CldSsI-cx administ liking 1 more fa\ \ G, Pad 6 do 9 w 59 Personality Traits and Evaluation of Others Not only do effective and ineffective teachers perceive themselves differently, but they also reflect personality traits differently in the way they evaluate others. Richmond, Mason, and Padget discovered a sig- nificant relationship between one's self-concept and how 67 When they viewed others posi- others are perceived. tively, they also considered themselves to have a posi- tive identity, desirable behavior, and an acceptance of self as a person and as a member of a group. In their study, it was also reported that males and females differ in their perceptions of themselves and others. Females were more trusting than males. Ryans noted that "good" teachers rated higher than “poor" teachers in at least five different ways with respect to how they viewed others.68 The good teachers had (1) more favorable opinions; (2) more favorable Opinions of democratic classroom behavior; (3) more favorable opinions of administrators and colleagues; (4) a greater expressed liking for personal contacts with other people; and (5) more favorable estimates of other people. Good teachers 67Bert 0. Richmond, Robert L. Mason, Jr., Harry G. Padgett, "Self-Concept and Perception of Others," gournal of Humanistic Psychology 12 (Fall 1972): 103-11. 68 Ryans, op. cit., p. 88. also ex: student; few per toward t teacher duties . ineffec centeret believe to crit People ‘ toward . that: Cer Who intt helj is v in tea the Cla ten and Climbs ’ how any COUld b‘ the fol \ 60 also expressed the opinion that there were very few students who were difficult behavior problems, that very few people are influenced in their opinions and attitudes toward others by feelings of jealousy, and that most teachers are willing to assume their full share of extra duties outside of school. The characteristics that distinguished the ineffective teacher group suggested that they were self- centered, anxious, and restricted. The poor teachers believed that most parents' visits to school were made to criticize the teacher and that a large proportion of peOple were influenced in their opinions and attitudes toward others by feelings of jealousy. Ryans cautioned that: Certainly the research has not settled the question, who is the good teacher? However, there are some interesting suggestions here--some clues that may help to identify "good" and "poor“ teachers if one is willing to accept the kind of definition employed in this research. Such a definition indicates that teachers are "good" if they rank very high among their colleagues with respect to such observable classroom behaviors as warmth and kindliness, sys- tematic and business-like manner, and stimulating and original teacher behavior.69 Combs, investigating the perceptual differences between good and poor teachers, suggested that good teachers could be distinguished from poor ones with respect to the following perceptions of others: 691bid., p. 90. highly POtenti had cor in the SEHSe p more ea in thei 61 l. The good teacher is more likely to have an internal rather than external frame of reference. He seeks to understand how things seem to others and then uses this as a guide for his own behavior. 2. The good teacher is more concerned with people and their reactions than with things and events. 3. The good teacher is more concerned with the subjective-perceptual experience of people than with objective events. He is more concerned with how things seem to people than just the so-called or alleged facts. 4. The good teacher seeks to understand the cause of people's behavior in terms of current thinking, feeling, beliefs, and understandings than in terms of forces exerted on them now or in the past. 5. The good teacher generally trusts other people and perceives them as having the capacity to solve their own problems. 6. The good teacher sees others as being friendly and enhancing rather than hostile or threatening. 7. The good teacher tends to see other people as being of worth rather than unworthy. He sees all people as possessing a certain dignity and integrity. . 8. The good teacher sees people and their behav1or as essentially developing from within rather than as a product of external events to be molded or_ directed. He sees people as creative and dynamic rather than passive or hurt. How we perceive others has been shown to be highly dependent upon how we perceive ourselves. If a POtential teacher liked himself, trusted himself, and had confidence in himself, he would likely see others in the same light. Research has told us what common sense has always told us, that students grew and developed more easily when the teacher projected a trust and belief in their capacity to develop their potential. 70Combs, op. cit., p. 55. achiever among bc children be among positive the more feelings research effectiv regard, Ways: Ptr geiated 1960) : I 62 Does a positive view of others influence student achievement and behavior? Davidson and Lang found that among boys and girls in grades four through six, those children with positive self-images were more likely to be among those who perceived their teachers as having positive feelings toward them.71 They also found that the more positive the perception of their teacher's feelings, the better was their academic achievement. Five interrelated behaviors were detected from research about how effective teachers differed from less effective teachers when perceiving others. In this regard, effective teachers were pictured in the following ways: 1. They seemed to have a more positive view of others. 2. They were apt to View others as critical, unfriendly people but they preferred to see them as friendly and worthy. 3. They were able to see things as they seemed to others. 71Helen H. Davidson and Gerhard Lang, "Children's Perceptions of Their Teacher's Feelings Toward Them Related to Self-Perception, School Achievement and mber Behavior," Journal of Experimental Education 29 (Dece 1960): 107-18. cated th aspects the self behavior concept Of this interact; on Studer for Sett: his Verbs althOugh Study Exp assumed g SOClety “ 63 4. They saw students as individuals capable of doing for themselves when they felt trusted, respected and valued. The literature reviewed for this section indi— cated that the self-concept is interrelated with all aspects of personality. Teacher personality, especially the self-concept, seems to be reflected in teacher behavior. The apparent relationship between self- concept and behavior would tend to support the hypotheses of this study. Interaction The personality of the teacher through daily interaction can be either a positive or negative influence on students. The personality of the teacher is responsible for setting the emotional climate of the classroom through his verbal and nonverbal interaction with the students although not all would concur.72 Segal in a philosophical study expressed the belief that teacher-student interaction assumed greater significance in modern technological society which has increased the individual's sense of 72Mogens Jansen, Paul Erik Jensen, and Peer Mylov, "Teacher Characteristics and Other Factors Affecting Classroom Interaction and Teaching Behavior," International Review of Education 18 (March 1972): 529-38. estrange assumes learning and reac‘ the conc‘ must be must be action, acting a Teacher towards a positi A review and Mylo howeVEr ’ must pas can be d School 3 estrangement and alienation.73 Human interaction, then, assumes a therapeutic power. Therefore, teaching and learning must be connected to "becoming"--the adjustment and readjustment of personality. Segal asserts that the conditions of significant interaction are: (1) There must be real interest in interaction; real life problems must be prevalent for teacher and student within inter- action, (2) Teacher and student must be really themselves, acting according to their real authentic feelings, (3) Teacher and student must possess empathic understanding towards one another, (4) Teacher and student must possess a positive regard towards one another, like trusting. A.review of recent interaction research by Jansen, Jensen, and Mylov seems to support these four hypotheses.74 Segal contends that the most important condition, however, is that interaction between teacher and student must pass through the medium of transaction which itself can be divided into subject matter, cultural content, and 75 school setting. Hence, interaction is a three-way process--teacher, transaction, student. Interaction 73Baruch B. Segal, "A Philosophical Analysis and Construction of an Ideal Model of Teacher Student Inter- action in Present Mass Society" (Ph.D. dissertation, State University of New York at Buffalo, 1970). 74Jansen, Jensen, and Mylov, op. cit., p. 537. 75Segal, op. cit. between medium , of scho and stur climate fullest perform in total must be implicat former l sonalitj beside, ObleCtl\ System c efunctj believir asSessir based up phi1030; which be stantly stantly 65 between teacher and student which passes only through the medium of feelings is incorrect with respect to realness of school environment, nor can it be that the teacher and student create first a psychological, emotional climate. Interaction, then, must be performed to its fullest through total transaction. If interaction is performed also through feelings, they must be pervasive in total transaction. The types of knowledge involved in the transaction must be not only of the information but also of the self- implication type of knowledge. The latter includes the former but goes beyond it, because it attaches the per- sonalities involved emotionally as well as intellectually, beside, information type of knowledge is not completely objective. The transaction, then, must involve both a system of beliefs as a noun, and believing as a verb, a functional involvement. Both properties of belief and believing mean also value and valuing, appreciating and assessing. It requires the medium of transaction be based upon, and completely involved in, an organized philosophical system of evidential values and beliefs which bear scientific and, or logical validity, con- stantly tested and retested in real experience con- stantly criticized and revised. Teacher-student interaction through the medium of transaction can be performed only by an ideal teacher who possesse insight scientit not poss The role he recoq places a teacher with str diverse evidence are betr are SP6< aChiever Classrrx in that 66 possesses sensitive awareness, as sense saturated with insight and intuition, where the latters are analyzed scientifically, in the naturalistic-pragmatistic sense, not possessing a supernatural or ontological grounding. The roles and individuality of teacher and student must be recognized by all interacting personalities. This places a great responsibility of humanness upon the teacher and student. Undoubtedly there is not one best way to interact with students due to their varied personalities and diverse learning styles. However, research has exhibited evidence that there are some interaction techniques that are better than others. Studies have shown that there are specific things a teacher may do to increase both achievement and self—concept. Staines, in a study exploring the self in the classroom, asked the following questions: 1. What part do teachers play in the development of the child's self? 2. Can teachers change a student's self-concept if they try to do so? 3. If they can, what methods of teaching produce what kinds of self-picture? 4. Is it possible to distinguish between teachers in the frequency and kind of comments which they make about a student's self?76 . 76J. W. Staines, "The Self-Picture as a Factor in the Classroom," British Journal of Educational Psy— cholooy 28 (June 1958): 97-111. The has an effe interac aspect nentary class. as choc their c themsel' to reco. to me each Stt to Ms Positivt entll’ u: YOT're - Very 90( Look at than ar.‘ TheSe S‘ alld Ski his met] 67 The basic assumption of the study was that teachers have an effect on the child's emerging self through their interaction styles, since the teacher is an important aspect of the learning environment. To test his assumption, Staines paired two ele- mentary classes for age, intelligence, and socio-economic class. Teacher A assisted students to perceive themselves as choosing individuals responsible and accountable for their choices. It was intended that the students see themselves as adequate and responsible, and still be able to recognize their strengths and weaknesses. In order to create this image, Teacher A became acquainted with each student and assessed his self-image and its relation to behavior. In order to help the students achieve a positive and realistic self-picture, the teacher appar- ently used such somments as the following: (1) "Jack, you're tall, help me with this."; (2) "Mary, you're very good at solving addition problems."; (3) "Good boy! Look at this everyone!"; (4) "You're better at English than arithmetic."; (5) "You're a fine one, you are." These statements pointed to specific strengths, assets, and skills. Teacher B was an equally effective teacher, but his methods did not incorporate the variables of self- concept. At the conclusion of the twelve-week experi- mental period, Teacher B's students showed greater signs of inse improve The stu may be time to to clas study i tudes, studies covered Procluct Provide the fai reflect t0 swiu action (3) The hesis O ShOuld , tivity , Take re. The Fla: \ lttitud db: 1 F1; Whoa] 68 of insecurity, while Teacher A's class showed greater improvement in standardized reading and number tests. The study reveals that equally good academic achievement may be obtained even when the teacher devotes extra class time toward enhancement of the self-concept. Probably the most familiar investigation related to classroom interaction was done by Flanders.77 His study investigated teacher influence styles, pupil atti- tudes, and resulting achievement in seventh-grade social studies and eighth-grade mathematics. The study dis- covered four noticeable teacher behaviors in the more productive classrooms. (l) The teacher was able to provide spontaneously a range of roles that varied from the fairly active, dominative supervision to a more reflective, supportive role. (2) The teacher was able to switch roles at will rather than pursue a single inter- action style to the exclusion of other possibilities. (3) The teacher was able to bridge the gap between diag- nosis of a given situation and the course of action he should take. (4) The teacher was able to combine sensi- tivity and critical analysis so that he was able to make reasonable diagnoses of the current conditions. The Flanders study suggested that teachers who were —— 77Ned A. Flanders, Teacher Influence, Pupil Aggitudes and Achievement: Stgdies in Interaction Analy- sis, Final‘Report, Cooperative Research Project No. 397 Tfiinneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1960). able tc from th were he learned to do t studies works i have re sidered of inte one of unlike study, and var teacher who Wer comPreh 69 able to provide flexible interaction styles, by shifting from the direct to the indirect depending on the situation were better able to create climates in which students learned more. The students of teachers who were unable to do this learned less, a result confirmed by many 78 While Flanders' studies, including Anderson and Ishler. works in interaction analysis have been influential and have resulted in many studies, he should not be con- sidered the first educator to study the possibilities of interaction. A study by Barr in 1929 was probably one of the earliest.79 His techniques were not too unlike present—day investigation in the area. In his study, detailed stenographic records, observation charts, and various time charts were kept on forty-seven superior teachers of social studies in high school and forty-seven who were ranked below average in teaching skills. A comprehensive list of thirty-seven teacher and pupil 78John R. Anderson, "Classroom Interaction, Aca- demic.Achievement, and Creative Performance in 6th Grade Classrooms" (Ph.D. dissertation, Michigan State University, 1972); Margaret F. Ishler, "A Study of the Verbal Behavior of Creative and Less Creative English and Social Studies Student Teachers" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Toledo, 1972). 79Arvil S. Barr, Characteristic Differences in Epe Teaching Performance of Good and Poor Teachers of— phe Social Studies (Bloomihgton, Ill.: Public Sohodl Publishing Co., 1929). interac aparti guished Are to ple the This li stateme of true especia inflect good to Aha acc nor a h in} iy' The em; qualiti Ofagc inflent Renders lna St 70 interaction behaviors were considered. The following is a partial list of interaction expressions which distin- guished good from.poor teachers: Are you working hard? . . . Aren't you ever going to learn that word? . . . Everyone sit up straight, please. . . . I'm afraid you're confused. . . . No, that's wrong. . . . Oh dear, don't you know that? . . . Oh, sit down, . . . Say something.80 This list continued through almost one hundred different statements attributed to poor teachers. The feelings of frustration, fear, and exasperation are apparent especially when they are matched with appropriate voice inflections. The characteristic comments made by the good teachers revealed a different emotional quality. Aha, that's a new idea. . . . Are you going to accept that as an answer? . . . I should like more proof. . . . Do you suppose you could supply a better word? . . . Can you prove your statement? . . . Don't you really think you could? . . . I'm not quite clear on that--think a minute. . . . Let's stick to the question. . . . Probably my last question wasn't a good one.81 The emphasis here is on challenge and encouragement, qualities which are positive and reflect the thinking of a good teacher. The above research cited the importance of voice inflection and their effect upon teacher responses. Henderer confirms the significance of voice inflection in a study of 150 fourth grade students and their white, 80 81 Ibid., p. 31. Ibid., p. 33. middle that hr what is effects voice t teacher and am conditi voice t tenders to dime Possibl Produce alizes hhtivat and sen tests 1 my th their 9 \ dent AC of Mass folhanc 1958) : 71 82 The author contended middle class, female teachers. that how something was said should share importance with what is said. The study sought to expand the known effects of voice tone, the feeling expressed in the voice to the students. Study results supported the hypothesis that those teachers whose voice tone is judged warmer, less angry, and anxious will offer higher levels of facilitative conditions to their students than will teachers whose voice tone is judged cooler, angrier, and more anxious. Henderer proposed that the relating of tonal qualities to dimensions of interpersonal functioning posits one possible direction in teacher training that could help produce more effective teachers. Some research shows that a teacher who person- alizes his teaching is apt to be more successful in motivating students. In a study done by Page,83 junior and senior high school teachers returned graded objective tests in one of three ways. The first group received only their grade on the paper; the second group received their grade plus a stereotyped comment such as excellent k 82James M. Henderer, "Teacher voice Tone and Stu- dent Academic Achievement" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Massachusetts, 1971). 83E. P. Page, "Teacher Comments and Student Per— formance," Journal of Educational Psychology 46 (March 1958): 173-81. or let their studen cated group sugges in the SUCCES increa toward Styles learne Teache accept studen were i COhclu direct (lEpreC 0r tea apathy learne \ a Fact 0f w 72 or let's raise this grade; the third group were given their grade and a personalized comment to encourage the student. Test grades on the next objective test indi- cated that group one made the poorest showing while group three received the highest grades. The results suggest that teachers who show an active personal interest in their students' achievement are more likely to be successful than those teachers who are more impersonal. Teacher interaction styles are being viewed increasingly as a causal factor in students' attitudes toward learning. Studying the effects of interaction styles, Flanders simulated classrooms using both a learner-centered and a teacher-centered approach.84 Teachers in the learner-centered classrooms were accepting and supportive in their approach to the students. Teachers in the teacher-centered classrooms were impersonal, directive, and demanding. Flanders concluded that (l) The teacher-centered behavior of directing, demanding, and using private criteria in deprecating a student leads to hostility to the self or teacher, aggressiveness, or sometimes withdrawal, apathy, and even emotional disintegration; (2) The learner-centered behavior of accepting the student, being evaluative or critical only by public criteria, 84Ned A. Flanders, "Personal-Social Anxiety as a Factor in Experimental Learning Situation," Journal of Educational Research 45 (October 1951): 100-10. and be tation health; direct influe: The is knowle: self at would , unaffe. 0f the toward of wild toward ih the erally facili' direct; as aff, \ Variab; 0n Tear 73 and being usually supportive, elicited problem-orien- tation, decreased personal anxiety, and led to emotionally healthy and integrative behavior.85 In a review of thirty-four studies comparing non- directive and directive interaction, Stern compared the influence the two styles had on learning outcomes.86 The learning outcomes studied were the gains in cognitive knowledge and understanding, and attitude change toward self and others. Stern concluded that "In general, it would appear that the amount of cognitive gain is largely unaffected by the autocratic or democratic tendencies of the instructor."87 In summarizing the attitude change toward self and others, he stated that . . . "regardless of whether the investigator was concerned with attitudes toward the cultural outgroup, toward other participants in the class, or toward the self, . . . the results gen- erally have indicated that nondirective instruction facilitates a shift in a more favorable, acceptant 88 This reinforces the theory that as far as affective or self-concept variables are concerned, a direction." “ 851bid., p. 109. 86George C. Stern, "Measuring Non-Cognitive Variables in Research on Teaching," in Handbook of Research 9p Teaching, ed: N. L. Gage (Skokie, Ill.: Rand McNally & Company, 1963), p. 427. 87Ibid. 88Ibid. more m associ Corrobi coverei was a he fou concur of stu host 5 predic in a s scienc achiev direct Style, 74 more nondirective, democratic teaching style tends to be associated with positive changes in student behavior. Corroborating these findings, Tiedeman and others dis- covered that the teacher who was disliked most by students was a domineering, authoritarian person.89 Further, he found that the older the student, the more the dislike. Not all literature reviewed for this study would concur with the conclusions reached by Stern in his review of studies pertaining to interaction and achievement. Most studies differ in their control of variables, and predictors and criteria employed are diverse. Hastings in a study of verbal interaction in elementary school science concluded that indirect teachers' classes did not achieve significantly different from classes taught by direct teachers.90 Regardless of teachers' behavioral style, girls made greater achievement gains than boys. k 89Stuart C. Tiedeman, "A Study of Pupil-Teacher Relationships," Journal of Educational Research 35 (May 1942): 657-64; Christian James Buys, "Effects of Teacher Reinforcement on Classroom Behaviors and Attitudes" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Colorado, 1970); Charles T. McDonald, "The Influence of Pupil Liking of Teacher, Pupil Perception of Being Liked, and Perceived Pupil Socio- Economic-Status on Classroom Behavior" (Ph.D. dissertation, The University of Texas at Austin, 1972); George S. Ticknor, "The Effects of Positive and Negative Teacher Behavior on Student Rating of Teachers" (Ed.D. dissertation, western Michigan University, 1972). 90Hiram I. Hastings, "A Study of the Relationship Between Teacher-Pupil Interaction and Pupil Achievement in Elementary School Science" (Ph.D. dissertation, Uni- versity of Oregon, 1970). Boys, indire classr pupils classr formar demic rooms and cr studer facili reacti their their ehploy teach; ll) us l3) u: Miami] in his of th on pu ho a 75 Boys, on the other hand, were more successful with indirect teachers. Anderson, studying sixth grade classrooms, concluded that creative performance of pupils can be facilitated by the quality of the verbal 91 The promotion of creative per- classroom interaction. formance did not seem to detract from a support of aca— demic achievement. It was further determined that class- rooms exhibiting flexibility facilitated both academic and creative performance. In a study using seventh grade students, Hughes revealed that positive teacher reactions facilitate pupil achievement more than minimal teacher reactions.92 He concluded that teachers should increase their use of appropriate positive reactions and decrease their use of minimal reactions which they commonly employ. Investigating student success, Aspy discovered teacher behavior patterns which promoted student goals: (1) using praise; (2) avoiding the use of criticism; (3) using student-initiated ideas; (4) being aware of meanings a situation has for a student; (5) being genuine in his responses; and (6) showing positive regard for the 91Anderson, op. cit. 92David C. Hughes, "An Experimental Investigation of the Effects of Pupil Responding and Teacher Reacting on Pupil Achievement," American_Educational Research Journal 10 (Winter 1973): 33-37. studen in hig as the action classe no rel teache teache of int the Inc better Neubei tive v Alalm \ 0f Stt 10 (m Modif} Classs 1972) , Verbal Selec' T9xas TEth‘ and s. MeXiCi 76 student as a person.93 Williams showed that achievement in high school geometry classes was positively affected as the teachers increased their use of indirect inter- action.94 Stamboolian, working with industrial arts classes in Dallas, Texas, junior high schools, discovered no relationship between student achievement and the teacher's use of indirect or direct interaction.95 Going a step further Neuberger revealed that teacher-student personality needs determined the type of interaction that occurred.96 The study revealed that the more closely the personality needs coincided, the better the teacher-student interpersonal relationship. Neuberger stated that achievement reflected, in a posi— tive way, the quality of the interpersonal relationship. Alalouf probed teacher-student personality characteristics 93David N. Aspy and Barbara Hutson, "Promotion of Student Success," The Journal of Educational Research 10 (Winter 1973): 33-37. 94Willie E. Williams, "A Study of a Process to Modify Verbal Interaction Patterns of High School Geometry Classes" (Ph.D. dissertation, Michigan State University, 1972). 95John K. Stamboolian, Jr., "The Effect of Positive Verbal Reinforcement Upon Achievement and Attitudes of Selected Industrial Arts Classes" (Ph.D. dissertation, Texas Agricultural and Mechanical University, 1972). 96Wayne F. Neuberger, "Student Perception of Teacher Behaviors as a Function of Teacher Abstractions and Student Interpersonal Needs" (Ph.D. dissertation, New Mex1co State University, 1972). to det Studer confoz Persor sponta that t studer teache classe with s Syster need 1 out t teache Which that 1 adjus be pi dEpen. indie of a el‘lVir Grade Pupil of SC i———r _. i 77 to determine student placement in the first grade.97 Students were classed by teacher specialists as strivers, conformers, or opposers. Based on results of Edwards Personal Preference Schedule, teachers were classed as spontaneous, systematic, or dependent. The study revealed that teacher-student personality variables and teacher- student interaction were important factors in determining teacher effectiveness. It was determined that students classed as strivers attained more academic achievement with spontaneous teachers and more social progress with systematic teachers. Conforming students had the least need for external structure and order. Alalouf pointed out that the opposers‘ impressive gains with systematic teachers point to the opposer students' need for order which was being met by these teachers. The study showed that striving and conforming children can more easily adjust to various teacher personalities, and they can be placed with either the spontaneous, systematic, or dependent type of teacher. The results of these studies indicate that many variables are involved in the creation of a positive, supportive, and democratic classroom environment. Creative and academic achievement are 97Albert A. Alalouf, "The Placement of First Grade Children with Special Attention Toward Teacher and Pupil Characteristics" (Ph.D. dissertation, University Of Southern California, 1972). depend< which < teache: occur ‘ reiati Palfre report action cation to enh but wo self-i subjec also a that s tain t kEEpir basic tiVe13 comeI \ Their (Febn dore ‘ {Engl P. 20 78 dependent upon positive interpersonal relationships which can be achieved mainly through the efforts of the teacher. Recognizing the interpersonal relationships which occur in the classroom, several studies have probed the relationship between interaction and the self-concept. Palfrey through a survey of headteachers discovered self- reported relationships between self-concept and inter- action.98 These teachers, through continuous communi- cation with the pupils and the staff, not only served to enhance or diminish the child's evaluation of himself but would also impart to the pupils in their charge a self-image which reflected the headteacher's highly subjective evaluation of the pupils as "clients" and also as human beings. Borden, Gregg, and Grove found that student behavior would consistently strive to main- tain the self-concept.99 For the students in their study, keeping the self-image intact during interaction was basic to the individual's ability to communicate effec— tively in a given situation. In a study relating self- concept, verbal interaction, and achievement, Mancini ‘_ . 98c. F. Palfrey, "Headteachers' Expectations and Their Pupils' Self-Concepts," Educational Research 15 (February 1973): 123-27. 99George A. Borden, Richard B. Gregg, and Theo- dore G. Grove, Speech Behavior and Human Interaction (Engéewood Cliffs, N.3T£ Prentice Hall, Inc., 19695, p. o ——— ____ A revea seven COI re 79 revealed several significant relationships.100 In seventh grade biological science classes, the females correlated more strongly than the males between self- concept and verbal behavior. It was also found that regardless of achievement level, males tended to cor- relate higher between science self-concept and verbal behavior. This study adds credence to the belief that global self-concept is not always a dependable variable when seeking relationships. Doyle, in a study at Ply- mouth, Michigan, High School, determined that indirect teachers appeared to perceive their students not in relation to what their personality characteristics were, but in relation to what personality characteristics they 101 would like them to have. Indirect teachers did not tend to fragment human beings into isolated personality characteristics. Indirect teachers, or those who lean toward a democratic frame of reference, perceived an individual as a totality; a totality that was responsible, sociable, ascendent, emotionally stable, and capable of vigorous energetic action. On the other hand, direct 100Dino Mancini, "An Investigation of the Relation- ships Between Self-Concept of Ability, Classroom Verbal Interaction, and Achievement of Seventh Grade Pupils in Biological Science" (Ph.D. dissertation, New York Uni- versity, 1972). 101James R. Doyle, "The Relationship of Direct and Indirect Teaching to Accurate Perceptions of Student Per- sonality and Temperament Characteristics" (Ph.D. disser- tation, Wayne State University, 1969). teache of ref less 5 stabil findir adult- which advice self-c result conce; towar< pers01 seeme< abili instr gatio its a testi Stage concl eXPGr \ Behat Shols 80 teachers, or those who lean toward an autocratic frame of reference, perceived students as being more passive, less sociable, more irresponsible, and lacking emotional stability. This response would support Neuberger's finding that students in elementary school prefer an adult—child relationship where the adult assumed control, which allowed the student to come to the teacher for advice.102 Schultz and Wolf correlated the teacher's self-concept and classroom interaction with interesting results.103 Their data indicated that teacher self- concept as measured did not reveal positive feelings toward self in the area of promoting constructive inter— personal relationships with children. These teachers seemed to report that they felt quite unsure of their abilities in this area. It might be suggested that the instrument used to measure self—concept in this investi— gation be utilized in other studies to assess further its ability to estimate this variable. At the time of testing, the instrument was still in an experimental stage. The findings of this study would lead one to conclude that teachers are in need of didactic and experiential training to increase the probability of 102Neuberger, op. cit. 103Edward W. Schultz and Judith Wolf, “Teacher Behavior, Self-Concept and the Helping Process,“ Ps — chology in the Schools 10 (January 1973): 75-78. L“ SUCCBE it re: achiei and t1 the dt the re hehav: all tc impor‘ foste: nologj noncm indepi @zsolr‘I-m'pll—j- Verba (Engl 81 success along the dimensions of affective education as it relates to the relationship process. Interaction seemingly has a relationship with achievement and the self-concept both of the teacher and the student; although there may be disagreement about the degree of that relationship. Several studies pursued the relationship between interaction and various other behaviors that occur in the classroom. It appears that all too often immediate didactic purposes are of greater importance to teachers than the student behaviors they foster by their actions. Torrence asserted that tech— nology and society are advanced more by the flexible, nonconforming, and untidy groups as well as by the independent, active, and assertive groups: It takes little imagination to recognize that the future of our civilization--our very survival-— depends upon the quality of the creative imagination of our next generation. Democracies collapse only when they fail to use intelligent, imaginative methods for solving their problems. Greece failed to heed such a warning by Socrates and gradually collapsed. . . . Instead of trying to cram a lot of facts into the minds of children and make them scientific encyclopedias, we must ask what kind of children are they becoming. What kind of thinking do they do? . . . Do they do some thinking for themselves?104 Investigating teacher perception and classroom verbal interaction, Pellegreno and Williams uncovered 104E. Paul Torrance, Guiding_Creative Talent (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1962), p. 6. nific teach being depen and e teach behav and e are, exemp 0f ma ceded quest cantl actic inclj of wt resp( the g eXth \ "Tea Elem! m 82 data pertaining to classroom behavior.105 The first major finding that emerged from this study was the sig— nificantly greater use of praise and encouragement by teachers following verbalization of girls perceived as being rigid, conforming, and orderly. The passive, dependent, acquiescent girls also received more praise and encouragement. These two findings imply that teachers have a bias as to the type of female student behavior they see as being acceptable. Teachers praise and encourage those girls who do not rock the boat. They are, in a sense, rewarding with attention those who exemplify the "typical" female in our culture. With the active, assertive, and independent group of males, (1) significantly more teacher questions pre- ceded their verbalization, (2) significantly more teacher questions followed their verbalizations, and (3) signifi— cantly more student-initiated responses occurred. The active, independent, and assertive males appeared to be inclined to respond to the teacher's questions regardless of whether or not the teachers intended for them to respond. Even when the teachers withheld acceptance of the active boys' verbalization, it did not tend to extinguish the boys' aggressiveness. The assertive boys 105Dominick D. Pellegreno and Wendell C. Williams, "Teacher Perception and Classroom Verbal Interaction," Elementary School Guidance and Counseling 7 (May 1973): 0-75. seenii gain A sig to dr depen talk teach was r that desir teact and r Teaci convs the ( are bili Prai 0rde tent lati Prai 83 seemingly responded by making an even greater effort to gain acceptance of themselves and their contributions. A significant number of teacher questions was necessary to draw verbalization from the passive, acquiescent, and dependent boys. Little risk was involved in eliciting talk from the pasSive boys. They did not threaten their teachers with too much talk. The teachers' attention was reinforcing for the dependent youths; it seems logical that it could also become rewarding. But is this the desired behavior for young men or young women? The authors concluded that it would be well if teachers would ponder the way in which their preferences and nonpreferences in behavior are expressed to students. Teachers may well go beyond simple verbalization and convey expectation. Classroom stability is founded on the expected. However, academic and affective change are factors in learning. Therefore, learning and sta- bility may not be entirely compatible. While teacher praise or the lack of it may be intended to enhance the orderliness of the classroom environment, it may inadver- tently restrict the student's achieving didactic goals. Buys, studying the effect of behavioral manipu- lations on problem children, discovered that teacher Praise had a powerful effect on classroom behavior.106 106Buys, EB; cit. I" The re praise attitu hehavi attent stanti a stud had is teache dent 1 condu< behav‘ concl- accur was g class butio exhit allot} that 84 he results also suggested that the presence of teacher raise was also reflected in the problem children's ttitude change. The author concluded that deviant ehavior was partially a function of misplaced teacher ttention, and that by redirecting this attention, sub- tantial behavior change could be produced. While behavior problems plague many classrooms, Lstudy by Ishler revealed that creative student teachers ad fewer discipline problems than the less creative :eacher.107 Her study also revealed that creative stu— lent teachers exhibited more verbal behaviors considered :onducive to a creative climate such as more indirect >ehavior and more divergent questions. The author also :oncluded that the creativity potential score was a more iccurate indicator of success in student teaching than was grade-point average. Douglas, observing elementary :lassrooms, discovered that there was a higher distri- >ution of approach behaviors in classrooms where teachers exhibited higher frequencies of indirect behavior.108 In mother study exploring classroom behavior, Marks observed :hat kindergarten teachers in his study had significantly 107Ishler, op. cit. 108Earl M. Douglas, "A Study of Relationships etween Teacher Classroom Behavior and Concurrent Student nterest in Classroom Activities" (Ph.D. dissertation, niversity of New Mexico, 1972). diffe He fo cant fanil behav revea in th tive] fewei negai be e: type: elic obse libe and Affe Vari Texa Beha Per: SYIe Dow: 85 different classroom interactions with their students.109 He found that the students' self-concept had no signifi- cant bearing on their classroom behavior, but that family economic level affected the students' classroom behavior. Tyo suggested that migrant pupils in the . . . llO classroom also influence interaction. Her study revealed that when migrant and nonmigrant students were in the same classroom, the migrant pupils received rela- tively fewer positive verbal interactions, relatively fewer neutral interactions, and approximately equal negative teacher interactions. From studies reviewed thus far, this type of unfortunate teacher behavior might be expected. Teachers do prefer certain personality lll types in students. Teacher personalities seem to elicit classroom behaviors and interactions. Motto, observing twenty college teachers at a small, private liberal arts college, concluded that the behavior of those 109William J. Marks, "Assessment of Self-Concept and Classroom Behavior of Kindergarten Children as Affected by School Environment, Selected Socio-Economic Variables, and Ethnic Group" (Ph.D. dissertation, East Texas State University, 1972). 110Alexina M. Tyo, "A Comparison of the Verbal Behavior of Teachers in Interaction with Students They Perceived as Migrant and Nonmigrant" (Ph.D. dissertation, Syracuse University, 1972). 111Pellegreno and W. C. Williams, op. cit.; Doyle, op. cit.; Schultz and Welf, op. cit. with n influ behav 30m dis: Tea m New 86 with a high degree of empathy toward students was not influenced as extensively by socially unacceptable behavior.112 Most research reviewed in this chapter indicates that the authors recognize the importance of being selec- tive in the use of indirect and direct verbal interaction in the classroom. A few writers, while aware of this importance, stress that being direct or indirect does not resolve the problems inherent in interaction. Being indirect in terms of teaching behavior is not a guarantee of creative teaching. In fact, it is the quality of the indirectness that determines whether the teacher behavior is simple laissez-faire or a planned creative effort.113 The classroom interaction analysis instruments have not asked this important question of quality. As Soar, Torrence, Myers, and Yamamoto suggested, intended indirect teacher behavior such as stimulating discussion, independent thinking, and problem-solving activities are descriptive of the more creative teacher in the language arts.114 These writers suggest that future education 112Joseph Motto, "An Investigation of Some Per— sonality Correlates of Empathy in College Teachers" (Ph.D. dissertation, The University of Michigan, 1958). 113Barbara Haskin and Kevin Swick, "Indirect Teacher Behaviors and the Creative Teacher," Elementary English 50 (April 1973): 544-45; Anderson, op. cit. 114Robert S. Soar, "Teacher-Pupil Interaction, A New Look at Progressive Education," in Curriculum would teach teach behav The t prina deter vario clima till his i letti the a indir depen 87 would do well to give more attention to the quality of teaching behaviors in assessing the creative level of teachers. Many studies have produced evidence that suggests the emotional climate of the classroom will influence the behavior of the students either positively or negatively. The type of climate maintained in the classroom will rely primarily on one variable--the teacher. The teacher will determine whether the climate is supportive for the various personality types in his classroom. Will that climate be one of high anxiety or one of low anxiety? Will that teacher be primarily indirect or direct in his interaction, or will he be flexible in his techniques letting the situation and the personalities determine the approach? Flanders investigated the effects of direct and indirect teacher influence and student intelligence, dependence-proneness, sex and perception of clarity of Development, ed: James R. Squire (February 1972), Year- book of_the Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development (Washington, D.C.: Association for Super- vision and Curriculum.Development, 1972): p. 102; E. Paul Torrance and R. E. Myers, Creative Learning and Teaching (New York: Dodd, Mean & Co., I976); Kaoru Yamamoto, "Does Teacher Creativity Make a Difference in Pupil Learning?" The Elementary School Journal 67 (February 1967): 265376; inst: He fc inte] nific sex c perce ment. the i and s task. signi teacl sensi a fai Studs some by a; isti< lttit [New Effie, Studs hateI 233.3 88 instructional goals on several dependent measures.115 He found no interaction between classroom climate and intelligence or dependence-proneness, but did find sig- nificant interactive effects for classroom climate and sex on student attitude toward school and for student perception of clarity of goals of instruction on achieve- ment. In the same vein, Duffey and Martin investigated the interactive effects of direct and indirect teaching and student anxiety on performance on an academic learning task.116 The most important result of the study was the significant interaction found between trait anxiety and teaching style. The high trait-anxiety subject who was sensitive to threat and criticism will function better in a fairly indirect classroom than will a low trait-anxious student. The authors indicated that mental health per- sonnel in schools should be able to improve performance by appropriate matching of student and teacher character- istics. A matching of student and teacher personalities llSNed A. Flanders, "Teacher Influence, Pupil Attitudes and Achievement," in Teaching, ed: R. T. Hyman (New York: Lippincott, 1968), pp. 251-65. 116James B. Duffey and Roy P. Martin, "The Effects of Direct and Indirect Teacher Influence and Student Trait Anxiety on the Immediate Recall of Academic Material, Psychology in the Schools 10 (April 1973): 33-37. gren of a diff to b and leve grow orde leve woul anxi dict Opti stud pupi tiVe to g data Gong Rec Cit actj ber 89 is receiving more professional support as Munson, Pelle- greno and Williams have indicated.117 Similar conclusions were reached from the results of a study by Soar.118 The study tried to determine if different levels of teacher indirectness would be found to be optimal for pupil growth in reading, vocabulary, and creativity. It was also predicted that decreasing levels of teacher criticism would be optimal for pupil growth in reading, vocabulary, and creativity, in the order stated. Soar also hypothesized that the optimal level of indirectness for pupil growth in creativity would be higher for low anxious pupils than for high anxious pupils. The results indicated that the order of optimal levels for vocabulary and reading was as pre- dicted, but creativity failed to require a less critical optimal level. Both high and low anxious subgroups of students grew more under indirect teachers. High anxious pupils showed a smaller increase of growth under rela- tively direct teachers, and low anxious pupils appeared to grow slightly more under more direct teachers. These data suggest that teacher behavior should shift in 117Harold L. Munson, ElementarySchools Guidance, Concepts, Dimensions, and PractiCes (Boston: Allyn & Bacon, 1975), p.88; Pellegreno and W. C. Williams, op. cit., pp. 270-75. llBRQbert S. Soar, "Optimum Teacher-Pupil Inter— action for Pupil Growth," Educational Leadership 26 (Decem- indi and SUPP tend inc: sign indi indi evic COM be ( but con< the tea con Zat the hig Elz Res De; Cis 9O ndirectness from concrete to abstract subject matter, nd that all teaching should proceed under a relatively upportive emotional climate. Although there was some endency for all pupils to grow more in creativity with ncreased teacher indirectness, anxious pupils differed ignificantly in their re5ponse to differing levels of ndirectness. Low anxious pupils seemed to grow under ndirect teaching more effectively. What appeared to be vident was that when the objective was the learning of oncrete material such as spelling, the multiplication able, or foreign language vocabulary, the teacher should e quite direct and highly structured in his presentation; ut when the objective was an abstract one, such as the oncept of conservation, or new math, or creative writing, he teacher should be highly indirect. The effective eacher, then, would need to be able to shift style as e shifts objectives. If, as Taba and others suggest, thinking skills f pupils are developed by gathering extensive, relevant, oncrete information from which abstractions and generali- ations are drawn, the teacher may be rather direct in me information-gathering stage but indirect in the 119 igher level stages. The more concrete or convergent P; 119Hilda Taba, Samuel Levine, and Freeman F. .zey, Thinking in Elementary School Children, C00perative asearcH_Project No. 13717—5ffice of Education, U.S. apartment of Health, Education, and Welfare (San Fran- .sco: San Francisco State College, 1964). the beha indi in a usef been its corn higl abol aux: reL tha tat tea Stu tai 91 1e learning objective, the more direct the teacher ehavior; the more divergent the objective, the more 1direct the teacher behavior. Soar's study also suggests that students differing n anxiety level will differ in the teaching style most seful for them.120 Since grouping by ability level has sen less than effective, grouping by personality might a more influential. Two studies related anxiety to the teacher and ts effect upon his behavior. Motto, investigating arrelates of empathy in college teachers, found that igh empathy teachers tended to exhibit more concern bout feelings of student hostility and showed less nxiety during interpersonal relations.121 Henderer, elating voice tone to teacher influence, discovered nat the less anxious the voice tone, the more facili— ative the classroom conditions would become.122 This review has been primarily concerned with aacher-student interaction presenting studies relevant > various aspects of that relationship. Increasingly, :udies are appearing which focus on other areas per- tining to interaction. One of these areas is the I; 120Soar, op. cit. 121Motto, op. cit. 122Henderer, op. cit. clas fact cato clas an SUM six dis din in den cla the Spe the 0n di Te 92 Lassroom environment, which, of course, involves many actors including the teacher. In recent years, edu- ators have been weighing the advantages of the open lassroom as compared to the self-contained unit. Dis- anziere investigated the relationship between instruc- ional organization patterns and the supportive behavior E teachers.123 Data revealed no difference in the agree of supportive behavior in open or self-contained lassrooms. The study also revealed no significant nteraction between the instructional organization attern and years of teaching experience in relation to upportive behavior. In a related study, Summers, using ix organizational climates ranging from Open to closed, iscovered that teachers in closed classrooms become more irective.124 As the climate became more closed, teachers I) ordered and gave more verbal commands to their stu- ents, (2) criticized student behavior more frequently, 3) had more silence and/or confusion occurring in the lassroom, (4) relied more and more on authority rather han on logic to maintain classroom control, and (5) pent less time using and expanding the ideas that were '— 123Joseph J. Dispenziere, "The Relationship of he Supportive Behavior of Teachers and Their Instructional rganization Patterns and Years of Experience" (Ed.D. lssertation, Lehigh University, 1972). 124Jerry A. Summers, "School Climate and Classroom eacher Behavior," Contempora£y_Education 44 (January 973) : 171-75. ‘ pres clos take by C roou diff ment than stu< the stu( It) for not inf stu rep 93 esented by students. The authors concluded that . . . as the climate of a school changes from open to osed, a significant deterioration of teacher performance kes place."125 Similar findings have also been reported Campbell.126 Scott, relating class size to the class- om environment, found that there was no significant fference between large and small groups when measure- nt was done in terms of verbal interaction.127 Rather an group size, the most important variable affecting udent verbal interaction was the discussion style of 1e teacher. This study investigated not only teacher— :udent interaction, but also student-student interaction. : was found that during discussion periods, opportunity >r student-student interaction did not necessarily pro- )te it. The authors proposed that teachers need to be iformed of techniques for training students to generate :udent—student interaction. Teacher facilitating and interacting behaviors as apresented by the research of Schultz and Wolf and others 125Ibid., p. 173. 126E. M. Campbell, "The Evaluation of Learning inciples by Some Superior Classroom Teachers," Aus— alian Journal of Education 15 (January 1971): 58-72. 127James L. Scott, "The Effect of Class Size on udent Verbal Interaction in Five English Classes" d.D. dissertation, The State University of New Jersey, 72). was in t dire enco to i conur init ing ing. semi con] mam Tec Pei Ste 94 128 Lack of integration was only minimally integrated. in this behavior suggests that if teachers are to be directly responsible for the implementation of affective encounters with children, training would be necessary to increase their functional capacity in facilitating communication. Studies included in this review have initiated experimental training in interaction with vary— ing degrees of success. Some research indicated little if any change in teacher behaviors as a result of train- .129 Bowman found that student teachers who attended ing Seminar session in interpersonal relationships did not exhibit behavior changes in any significant way when compared to student teachers trained in the "traditional" manner.130 Sheppard concluded after examining interaction 128Schultz and Wolf, op. cit., p. 77. 129Harold E. Bowman, "The Effect of Alternative Techniques for Modifying Student Teacher Behavior During the Field Experience" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Pittsburgh, 1972); Edward L. Thomas, "The Effect of Train— ing in Flanders' Interaction Analysis on the Teaching Patterns of Student Teachers in Social Studies at Mississippi State University" (Ph.D. dissertation, Mississippi State University, 1972); Lillian V. Sheppard, "An Analysis of Classroom Interaction in Elementary Social Studies Classes When Either the Student Teacher of the Cooperating Teacher or Both are Trained in Inter- action Analysis" (Ed.D. dissertation, Northeast Louisiana University, 1972); John W. Buckner, Jr., “The Effects of Training in Interaction Analysis on Teachers' Inter- Personal Behavior" (Ed.D. dissertation, North Texas State University, 1970). 130 Bowman, op. cit. uatr coop char stud nifi ment tra les: few COX) lec tra 95 matrices that untrained student teachers with untrained cooperating teachers tended to develop as many indirect characteristics as those student teachers who were trained 131 He also indicated that all in interaction analysis. student teachers change their interaction patterns sig- nificantly during their student teaching assignment. A regressive trend was discovered by Thomas in an experi— 132 After a four-hour mental group of student teachers. training session, the student teachers (1) talked more in the classroom than the control group; (2) elicited less student talk than the control group; and (3) made fewer indirect statements than the control group. Thomas concluded that the experimental group seemed to revert to a teaching style with which they felt more secure-- lectures, directions, criticism. In a related study, Buckner tried to determine if training in interaction analysis would have any effect on three interpersonal behaviors of accurate empathy, genuineness, and nonpossessive warmth.133 Results indi- cated that teachers receiving training in interaction analysis did not differ from teachers who did not receive 131Sheppard, op. cit. 132Thomas, op. cit. 133Buckner, op. cit. the woul mean nea: act tow tha was ins thr ing 96 e training on the three interpersonal behaviors. It ould seem that interaction analysis should be used to -asure teachers' skill in verbal interaction instead of -asuring change in empathy, warmth, and genuineness. Other studies observing the effect of interaction naining on teacher behavior, reported positive changes.134 flliams trained high school geometry teachers in inter- tion analysis which resulted in significant changes 135 It was also his observation oward indirect behavior. lat the subjects became more indirect if an observer .3 present in the classroom. Murray and Fitzgerald nstructed student teachers in the Flanders' System hrough perceptual modeling instead of symbolic model- ng.136 A single brief exposure to a model demonstrating specific set of behaviors was sufficient to bring about ignificant, desired behavioral change in student teachers. be study also supported the use of video tape recorders s an effective means to present modeling behavior to tudent teachers. Although Stamboolian did not report 134W. E. Williams, op. cit.; C. Kenneth Murray nd Russell Fitzgerald, "Interaction Analysis, Modeling nd Student Verbal Behavior," Contemporary Education 44 January, 1973): 174-78; Stamboolian, op. oip. 135W. E. Williams, op. cit. 136Murray and Fitzgerald, op. cit. verl fron has not ski Spe one Pag be: of \ 97 significant results, he found that training in positive rbal reinforcement resulted in an increasing trend away om criticism of students.137 Ned Flanders, a pioneer in classroom interaction, 5 proposed that training in interaction should include t only verbal skills, but should also explore listening ills. Flanders believed that "The conceptualization teacher listening skills has been ignored too long the field of teacher education. These skills are asic to all teacher-pupil encounters."139 He supports his belief by proposing that: The central challenge to those of us who seek to identify basic teaching skills is to select for the first round of teacher education those skills of speaking and listening which have the greatest potential for subsequent professional development. These would be basic skills because they are per- vasive whenever teachers and pupils interact and because they provide heuristic experiences that facilitate continuing education for teachers.140 Only two studies reviewed for this chapter dealt ecifically with interaction in the music classroom, ie at the elementary level and the other at college level. agano recorded by audio tape 107 music class sessions t the first and sixth grade levels to determine the 137Stamboolian, op. cit. 138Ned A. Flanders, "Basic Teaching Skills arived from a Model of Speaking and Listening," Journal E Teacher Education 24 (Spring 1973): 24-37. 139Ibid., p. 37. 140Ibid., p. 25. prer Tea< the: extl who gra acc tea gra edominant type of verbal interaction being experienced.141 achers in these observations tended to be direct in eir influence patterns. Musical behaviors were used tensively, but teacher talk dominated classroom behavior both grades. Other results indicated that teachers 0 were direct or indirect tended to remain so in both ades. The teachers used lecturing significantly more sixth grade than in first; teachers spent more time cepting and using students' ideas in sixth grade; achers spent more time listening to music in sixth rade; and teachers spent more time praising and encour- ging students in the first grade and in giving directions. t the college level, McAdams found some similarities o the interaction encountered at the elementary level.142 ollege teachers tended to be more direct than indirect n establishing classroom climate. There appeared to be discernible relationship between the teachers' verbal ehavior and their various academic ranks. The greater he age of teachers, the more they tended to change their 141Alicia L. Pagano, "A Study of the Classroom- nteraction Patterns of Selected Music Teachers in First- rade and Sixth-Grade General Music Classes" (Ph.D. dis- ertation, American University, 1972). 142Charles D. McAdams, "A Comparison of Behavior atterns of Music Teachers in Selected Universities tilizing Interaction Analysis and the Fundamental Inter- ersonal Relations Orientation--Behavior Scale" (Ph.D. issertation, East Texas State University, 1970). ueth stud a fa teac teac cliu rese teac teac expe of 1 sis1 The the 0thl fac may act bee rel Rat Ple 99 ethods of teaching somewhat in that they utilized more tudent initiated response. The more teaching experience (faculty member had, the more he utilized indirect eaching methods. As the size of classes increased, eachers became more direct in establishing classroom limate, a finding which would disagree with Scott's 43 Instructors who had previous experience esearch.l eaching in public schools were more indirect in their eaching methods than were teachers who had not had such xperience. Finally, the teachers' perceived concepts f themselves and their behavior with others was incon— istent with their actual behavior in the classroom. 'hese data would indicate that music classrooms exhibit he same interaction characteristics as classrooms in ther content areas. Possibly the necessity to digest actual information in a relatively short span of time ay account for the general predominance of direct inter— ction behaviors as suggested by Soar.144 From the evidence accumulated in this review, it ecomes apparent that interaction or interpersonal elationships are composed of many interrelated factors. ather than being a simplistic phenomenon, it is a com— lex process. The complexity of the behavior makes an 143Scott, op. cit. 144Soar, op. cit. accu resi may lust Camp clas Canu gree Camp Ted! (Ma The Si 100 ccurate appraisal extremely difficult. The difficulty asides in the selection of appropriate responses which ay be evaluated. In a study involving teachers of ustralia, New Zealand, England, and the United States, ampbell concluded " . . . that none of the systems of lassroom analysis that are widely used does complete ustice to the teaching style of outstanding teachers."145 9 suggested that "The Flanders scheme, with its concepts f indirectness and directness, comes close, but its nappropriateness is revealed in the frequent warning y teachers that if they were to teacher "naturally," here could be no coherent lesson to analyze."146 Of the many analysis systems available today, ampbell believed the system developed by Gump held the reatest promise in the analysis of classroom behavior.147 pbell explained that the system: . . . employs a "non-interfering" approach aimed at discovering the naturally-occurring units of the classroom, and the continuous interdependent flow of the "stream of behavior." The result is the identification of a learning segment, which incor- porates in a single meaningful form, data and events ranging from the physical (books, size of corner, 145William J. Campbell, "The Teachers' View of eaching Behavior," International Review of Education 18 March 1972): 545. l46Ibid. 147Paul V. Gump, The Classroom Behavior Setting: he Relation to Student Behavior (Lawrence: University f Kansas, 1967). i0( d0 101 etc.) to the psychological. One of the important elements of the segment is the set of learning formal specifications which can relate to any or all of the following activity issues: poo will do what, with which objects, when, where, and with whom. The format is reflected in behavior, but it is located in the conceptions of the classroom participants and is responsible for the segment functioning in a stable and effective manner.l48 Whether Gump's system proves to be adequate or not remains to be seen. The problem still remains that interaction is a complex process which may not be adequately measured at this time. Attitudes As Allport has indicated, the concept of attitude "is probably the most distinctive and indispensible con- cept in contemporary American social psychology."l49 Although definitions vary considerably, there is general agreement that a person's attitude toward some object will influence his behavior toward that object either in a favorable or unfavorable manner. Social psycho- lOgists have used attitude as an explanatory device to account for observed consistent, overt behav1or toward 148Campbell, 92. cit., p. 546. 149Gordon W. Allport, "The Historical Background Of Modern Social Psychology," in Handbook odeoc1aMasgy: chOlOQYr ed: G. Lindzey and E. Aronson (Rea ing, . AadlSOn-Wesley, 1968): p. 59. beh rel que Mos tud bet SOIl bel 102 an object.150 It is hardly surprising that attitude and behavior have been assumed to be closely related. In recent years, the assumption of a strong relationship between attitude and behavior has been questioned by an increasing number of investigators.151 Most of these studies obtained a general measure of atti- tude toward an object and then observed the relation between a subject's score on an attitudinal scale and some specific behavior toward the object. Many attempts to account for the low attitude- behavior relationship have been made. It has been 150Donald T. Campbell, "Social Attitudes and Other Acquired Behavioral Dispositions," in Psychology: A Study of Science, 6, ed: S. Koch (New York: McGraw Hill, 1963), p. 21. 151Melvin L. DeFleur and Frank R. Westie, "Verbal Attitudes and Overt Acts: An Experiment on the Salience of Attitudes," American Sociolo ical Review 23 (December 1958): 667-73; Leon Festinger, Behavioral Support for Opinion Change," Public Opinion Quarterly 28 (Fall 1964): 404-17; Lawrence §T_LIHET—“Verbal Attitudes and Overt Behavior: A Study of Racial Discrimination," Social Forces 43 (March 1965): 353-64; W. J. McGuire, "The Nature of Attitudes and Attitude Change," in The Handbook of Social Psychology_3, 2nd ed., ed: G. Lindsey and E. Aronson (Reading, Mass.: Addison Wesley, 1969); Lyle G. Warner and Melvin L. De Fleur, "Attitude as an Inter- actional Concept: Social Constraint and Social Distance and Intervening Variables Between Attitude and Action," American Sociological Review 34 (April 1969): 153-69; AIIan W.‘Wicker,—“Attitudes vs. Actions: The Relationship of Verbal and Overt Behavioral Responses to Attitude gpjects," Journal of Social Issues 25 (Autumn 1969): -78. sug< ana noru tem act can hit not 191 103 152 Wehling suggested that attitudes are multidimensional. and Charters, in their research, discovered that an analysis of attitudes did reveal multidimensional phe- nomenon.153 It was found that attitudinal " . . . sys- tems are complex organizations of beliefs, consisting of several discrete sets of interrelated concepts."154 If attitudes do possess a multidimensional char- acteristic, then it follows that single attitude scores cannot adequately represent all attitudinal factors. With this limitation, global concepts of attitude could not predict behavior accurately. Ehrlich and others155 propose that attitude is but one variable that influences behavior. Other factors such as social customs, habits, and personality characteristics also influence behavior 152Milton J. Rosenberg and Carl I. Howland, "Cog- nitive Affective, and Behavioral Components of Attitudes," in Attitude Organization and Chan e, ed: M. J. Rosenberg, C. I. Howland, William J. McGuire, Robert P. Abelson, and Jack W. Brehm (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1960). 153Leslie J. Wehling and W. W. Charters, Jr., "Dimensions of Teacher Beliefs About the Teaching Pro- cess," American Educational Research Journal 6 (January 1969): '77330. 154Ibid., p. 17. 155Howard J. Erhlich, "Attitudes, Behavior, and the Intervening Variables," American Sociologist 4 (February 1969): 29-34; H. C. Triandis, “Toward an Analysis of the Components of Interpersonal Attitudes," 1n Aptitude, Ego-Involvement, and Change, ed.: C. W. Sherifand M.g§fierif (New York: Wiley, 1967); Wicker, 9.2. 9.1.1;- 104 and must be taken into consideration. Discussions of these and other suggestions may be found in Ehrlich, Wicker, and Fishbein.156 Most explanations imply that traditional measures of attitude, while relevant to the prediction of behavior, have not been adequate. A systematic treatment of atti- tudinal variables has not been evident in most educational research reviewed for this study. It appears that for the prediction of a given act, attitudinal variables more specific to the act would have to be considered. As one possible approach, Ajzen and Fishbein theorized that the most immediately relevant predictor of a specific action is the person's behavioral inten- 157 The study also revealed that behavioral tion. intentions are predictable by the theory's two compo- nents: attitude toward the specific act and normative beliefs multiplied by the subject's motivation to comply with the norms. Other variables affected behavioral intentions and overt behaviors only indirectly. 156Ehrlich, op. cit.; Wicker, op. cit.; M. Fish- bein, "The Prediction of Behaviors from Attitudinal Variables," in Advances in Communication Research, ed.: C. D. Mortensen and K. K. Sereno (New York: Harper & Row, 1973). 157Icek Ajzen and Martin Fishbein, "Attitudinal and Normative Variables as Predictors of Specific Behaviors," gournal of Personality and Social Psychology 27 (July 1973): 41457. Ar— Even effects of te students, the are expressed Silberman st extent, and 1 students are behavior.158 Four were identif' teachers' de attachment, Despite cons in the class: dents with tr Serving as a three behavic negative eval referred to 1 negative eval and annoyanc student beha 105 Even though much is known about the psychological Efects of teachers' perceptions and appraisals of their :udents, the exact behaviors through which these views :e expressed have been relatively untouched by research. leerman studied this deficiency by examining to what :tent, and in what ways, teachers' attitudes toward their :udents are revealed in the teachers' classroom ehavior.158 Four attitudes held by teachers toward students are identified by Silberman from an analysis of aachers' descriptions of their students. They were: :tachment, concern, indifference, and rejection.159 :spite constraints on attitude expression operating 1 the classroom, teachers responded to different stu- ants with three categories of teacher behaviors. :rving as a means of communicating attitudes, these tree behaviors are: (1) contact; (2) positive and :gative evaluation; and (3) acquiescence. Contact :ferred to teacher-initiated behavior. Positive and egative evaluation referred to expressions of pleasure rd annoyance concerning the adequacy or correctness of :udent behavior. Acquiescence indicated the extent to I; 158Melvin L. Silberman, "Behavioral Expression 3 Teachers' Attitudes Toward Elementary School Students," vurnal of Educational Psychology 60 (October 1969): 7:67? 159Ibid., p. 402. Teachers fel indifference The third fi them were a teachers' at daily class: by the teach Gooc‘ with similar] conclusions do correlat: also sugges differentia 16 16 Expression Psychologz 106 ch a teacher is receptive to student-initiated appeals permission, guidance, information, and other such tiations. A teacher allocates reward and punishment ough evaluation and acquiescence. Silberman reached three conclusions.160 The st was that teachers' attitudes are generally revealed their actions, in spite of many forces operating to tain them. The second finding was that different itudes are translated into action in different ways. chers felt less constrained to express concern and ifference than they did rejection and attachment. third finding was that the students who received m were aware of most behavioral expressions of their chers' attitudes. It was prOposed that the students' 1y classroom experience was significantly altered the teacher's behavioral expressions of attitude. Good and Brophy replicated the Silberman study h similar results.161 The data support Silberman's clusions that teachers' attitudes toward children correlate with teacher behavior; however, the data 0 suggested that all four teacher attitudes lead to ferential teacher behavior. Teachers in this study l—¥ lGOIbid., p. 406. 161Thomas L. Bood and Jere E. Brophy, "Behavioral ression of Teacher Attitudes," gournal of Education chology 63 (December 1972): 617-24. interacted i dents. Alth the teachers support in s ferent stude the teacher were seldom even though dents. Silb contact freq others, but more frequen and Letchwor public conta little feedb; likely to in' children. TI ment had lit groups were Ins as Fowler an 107 racted in distinct ways with their attachment stu- ;s. Although no exaggerated favoritism was shown, teachers provided attachment students with additional port in subtle ways. Both studies found that indif- ent students do not approach the teacher, nor does .teacher approach them. In this study the children :e seldom praised or criticized in work situations, an though their performance was similar to other stu- nts. Silberman reported that teachers had similar intact frequencies with rejected students as with :hers, but that they both praised and criticized them are frequently, a result not substantiated by Kester nd Letchworth.162 In this study, teachers avoided ublic contacts with rejected children providing them ittle feedback. Occasional feedback was much more ikely to involve criticism than feedback given to other hildren. The data also indicated that school environ- ent had little effect upon how the different attitude roups were treated in the classroom. In somewhat related studies, Gansneder as well 3 Fowler and Ross found that school environment did, 1623cott W. Kester and George A. Letchworth, 1 Communication of Teacher Expectations and Their Effects ‘»n Achievement and Attitudes of Secondary School Stu- ents," The Journal of Educational Research 66 (October E 972): 51-55. indeed, influ to indicate students' ach 'poor white" in "white" so in “black“ sc pupil relatio general feeli score was hig scored higher achievement t Stran influenced st He found that 1. Child to ha child 2. Child have 3. Child to sh self- 4. Negro more child w...— 163B Teachers' At Achievement" versity, 197 Personality Pupil Rapper Classroom“ ( Carolina, 19 the Learning the Self-Con University 0 108 ed, influence attitudes.163 Gansneder's data seemed .ndicate that teacher attitudes make a difference on ients' achievement in "poor black" schools but not in or white“ or "middle class white" schools. Students "white" schools felt more positively than students "black" schools about school plant, community support, >il relations, teacher-student relationships, and ieral feelings about school; and their total attitude are was higher. Students in the "white" schools ored higher than students in "black" schools on :hievement tests and on academic ability tests. Strang reported that school environment not only nfluenced student attitudes but also student self-concept. e found that: 1. Children in racially balanced schools seemed to have more positive self-concepts than did children in racially unbalanced schools. 2. Children in majority racial groups seemed to have more positive self-concepts. 3. Children in racially balanced schools seemed to Show no significant difference in their self-concepts when compared by race. 4. Negro children as a total group tended to have more positive self—concepts than did white children. 163Bruce M. Gansneder, "Relationships Among , eachers' Attitudes, Students' Attitudes, and Students' ‘ chievement" (Ph.D. dissertation, The Ohio State Uni- Iersity' 1970); Beverly D. Fowler, "Relation of Teacher 'ersonality Characteristics and Attitudes to Teacher- upil Rapport and Emotional Climate in the Elementary Llassroom" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of South , arolina, 1962); John D. Ross, "A Study of the Effect of ~ he Learning Environment of Selected Factors Related to 5 he Self-Concept of School Children" (Ed.D. dissertation, . iversity of Massachusetts, 1973). 5. Negro tendet than . schoo 6. Negro repor 7. Boys did t 8. Child posit fourt 9. Schoo seeme was r Some tations inflt SWiCk, in re\ cluded that: . . . res attitudes point to tive faci Chlld) a] teacher‘: as a maj< Othe: indicdted th and demOCrat dutOCratiC t the Prophecy \ 164“ Children in . n Verslty of 2 165 - I MS, 109 5. Negro children in predominantly Negro schools tended to report more positive self-concepts than did white children in predominantly white schools. 6. Negro children tended to be more defensive in reporting their self-perceptions. 7. Boys reported more positive self-concepts than did the girls. 8. Children at the eighth grade level reported more positive self-concepts than were reported by fourth graders. 9. School setting as determined by racial balance seemed to be more related to self-concept than was race or sex.164 Some research indicated that the teachers' expec- ations influenced student as well as teacher attitudes. Lwick, in reviewing research of teacher attitudes, con- :luded that: . research findings on teacher expectations, attitudes, and behaviors toward the child similarly point to the close relationship between these affec- tive factors of the teacher (as they impinge on the child) and the child's success. The focus on the teacher's affective stance toward children evolved as a major concern. Other studies concerned with teacher attitude indicated that (1) children seemed to find the warm and democratic teacher as more effective than the aloof, autocratic teacher; and (2) children appeared to fulfill the prophecy of the teacher in terms of that teacher's 164 William J. Strang, Jr., "The Self-Concepts of Children in Elementary Schools With Differing Proportions iof Negro and White Students" (Ph.D. dissertation, Uni- .versity of Alabama, 1972). 165 Kevin Swick, "The Need for Creating Productive Attitude Climate for Learning," Education 93 (March 1973): 305. learning expe effects of te by Rosenthal Since been correlat Rocchio and R teacher attit school studer relationships gators found attitude as r gators conch undesirable 1 atmosphere 0: \ 166 Elle Classroo: O 167 ChleVement (Ph'Po diSSe V. Pitt, "An llO 1rning expectations for the child.166 The positive fects of teacher expectation has been well substantiated Rosenthal and others.167 Since teacher attitudes and expectations have zen correlated with several classroom variables, acchio and Kearney suspected a relationship between eacher attitude and the nonpromotion of secondary chool students.168 In a study designed to seek relationships between several variables, the investi- gators found a significant correlation between teacher attitude as measured and failure rates. The investi~ gators concluded that "The high school teacher with undesirable teacher-pupil relations, who creates an atmosphere of fear and tension, and thinks in terms of 166 R. Rosenthal and L. Jacobson, Pygmalion in the Classroom (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1968). 167 C. E. Flowers, "Effects of an Arbitrary Accelerated Group Placement on the Tested Academic Achievement of Educationally Disadvantaged Students" (Ph.D. dissertation, Columbia University, 1966); C. C. v. Pitt, “An Experimental Study of the Effects of Teachers' Knowledge or Incorrect Knowledge of Pupils' 10's on ‘ Teachers' Attitudes and Practices and Pupils' Attitudes . and Achievement" (Ph.D. dissertation, Columbia University, , 1956); R. Rosenthal, “Another View of Pygmalion," Con- temporary Psychology 15 (August 1970): 323. 168 Patrick D. Rocchio and Nolan C. Kearney, “Teacher-Pupil Attitudes as Related to Nonpromotion of Secondary School Pupils," Educational and Psychological Measurement 16 (Summer 1963): 211;5§f the subject 11 what the pupi likely to fai maintain harn interested ir rate could nc of the teache Other to different city teachers students and was no signi: teachers base revealed tha. determining ‘ the number 0: research als: \ l 69E 170 M Academic Suc Grade 171 zonallty Cha issertati0n 111 the subject matter to be covered rather than in terms of chat the pupils need, feel, know, and can do is more Likely to fail pupils than a teacher who is able to naintain harmonious relations with pupils and who is 169 It was also found that failure interested in pupils.“ rate could not be interpreted in terms of the sex or age 3f the teacher or the subject which he taught. Other investigations have related teacher attitude :0 different variables. Dillingham reported that inner :ity teachers fell below the national norms of the Minne- sota Teacher Attitude Inventory in their attitude toward 170 students and their job. His study indicated that there vas no significant difference between the attitude of :eachers based on years of teaching experience. Knapp revealed that teacher attitudes were less important in letermining effectiveness as a teacher than was simply :he number of years teaching experience.171 Knapp's :esearch also reported that the attitudes of teachers I; l691bid., p. 251. 170McKinley Dillingham, "A Study of Teacher Atti— :ude and Self-Concept of Students as Factors Related to icademic Success of Inner City Pupils in a Selected Upper irade Center" (Ph.D. dissertation, Northwestern University, .972). 171William M. Knapp, "A Study of Teacher Per- sonality Characteristics and Rated Effectiveness" (Ph.D. [issertation, University of Southern Mississippi, 1970). who are rate pals do not hmffective. effective or attitudes of teacher atti classroom be characterist behavior the Succ been reporte Oforder and teachers cor Teacher attj tOdial to m and Hay Who Teachers and rid: COmPIiau \ 172 Cla§sr00m Br teristics 0, tation, Geog 173. EmpiriCal A CldSSl‘OOm u‘ 1966); 4i? 112 ho are rated highly effective by their respective princi- als do not differ significantly from those rated highly neffective. The attitudes of teachers whether rated ffective or ineffective differed significantly from the ttitudes of the rating principals. Rippy investigated eacher attitudes and the prediction of teacher and pupil 172 lassroom behavior. His data indicated that personality haracteristics seemed to serve as a better predictor of ehavior than did teacher attitude. Successes and failures of teachers have frequently een reported in terms of pupil control. The maintaining f order and discipline is rated at the top of problems eachers considered as their major difficulties.173 eacher attitude toward pupil control may vary from cus- odial to humanistic as discussed by Willower, Eidell, nd Hay who stated: Teachers may emphasize punitive sanctions, coercion and ridicule as well as withholding rewards to gain compliance to arbitrary standards set by the teacher or organization. Or sensitive teachers may appeal 172Mark L. Rippy, "Certain Relationships Between lassroom Behavior and Attitude and Personality Charac— eristics of Selected Elementary Teachers" (Ed.D. disser- ation, George Peabody College for Teachers, 1960). 173Lois N. Nelson, "Teacher Leadership: An mpirical Approach to Analyzing Teacher Behavior in the lassroom," Journal of Teacher Education 17 (Winter 966): 417-25. to the i: self-dis and supp and role Dobson, Gold tude toward difference b behavior for Teachers wit cantly great accepting an significant verbal behan however, one greater numk and git/ing 1 The PrOporti different f, The incidenc greater for Stu: research. . \ 174. K. Hoy ' Part“ “1% 175 ' "Pu the Clans 81:10) (October 19 113 to the individual's sense of right and wrong, his self-discipline in a non-punitive, understanding, and supportive manner to achieve behavior norms and role expectation.174 Dobson, Goldenberg, and Elsom investigated teacher atti- tude toward pupil control and discovered no significant difference between the prOportion of indirect verbal behavior for the humanistic and custodial teachers.175 Teachers with a humanistic attitude utilized a signifi- cantly greater number of verbal behaviors categorized as accepting and developing student ideas. There was no significant difference between the proportion of direct verbal behavior for humanistic and custodial teachers, however, custodial teachers utilized a significantly greater number of verbal behaviors categorized as lecture and giving facts or opinions about content or procedure. The proportion of student talk was not significantly different for the humanistic and custodial teachers. The incidence of pupil-initiated talk was significantly greater for the humanistic teacher group. Student teachers frequently are the subject of research. Several investigations involving student ‘—__~ 174Donald L. Willower, Terry L. Eidell, and Wayne K. Hoy, Thergchool and Pupil Control Ideolo y (University Park: The Pennsylvania State University, I 7), p. 1. 175Russell Dobson, Ron Goldenberg, and Bell Elson, "Pupil Control Ideology and Teacher Influence in the Classroom," The Journal of Educational Research 66 (October 1972): _76-80. teachers have which gave s< student teac] student teacl ing two conc revealed tha nificantly r there was no before and a classroom tr 0f student t Special trai were detecte group,l77 15 teachers in efffective St in a Positiw their attitr 114 teachers have been reviewed for this study, a few of which gave some insight into attitudes exhibited by student teachers. Rothwell studied characteristics of student teachers both before and after internship reach— 176 Data ing two conclusions pertaining to attitude. revealed that (l) a favorable teacher attitude was sig- nificantly related to high ratings of interns, and (2) there was no significant difference in attitude scores before and after internship. Huber, using simulated classroom training techniques with an experimental group of student teachers, discovered that in spite of the special training no significant differences in attitude were detected between the experimental and control group.177 Firestone, investigating attitudes of student teachers in an early childhood program, learned that effective student teachers were significantly different in a positive way from noneffective student teachers in their attitude as measured by the Minnesota Teacher 176Ann Rothwell, "The Relationship of Personality Traits, Teacher Attitude, Anxiety Level, and Academic Achievement to Ratings of Teacher Interns" (Ed.D. disser- tation, Auburn University, 1970)- 177Harold W. Huber, "An Investigation of the Effects of Selected Simulated Classroom Situations on Student Teacher Attitude and Empathy" (Ph.D. dissertation, Michigan State University, 1972)- Attitude Inv apositive a of a teacher programs she the child's possibility pupil persor hypothesis. perceived rot and secondly position in dependent, l male counter Ordering wh; tied for si: were given . findings we: earlier.180 \ 178. dent Teachi‘ Chusetts, 1 179 fOr Element actEristi 1969) : Cs 126 180 115 Attitude Inventory.178 The investigator concluded that a positive attitude toward others was an important aspect of a teacher training program and, therefore, the training programs should emphasize more than an objective view of the child's experience. One study reviewed explored the possibility that student teachers would prefer certain pupil personality types.179 Results confirmed the hypothesis. In general it appeared that student teachers perceived most positively the rigid, conforming girl and secondly, the rigid, conforming boy. The third position in the preference order was occupied by the dependent, passive girl who was closely followed by her male counterpart. The flexible boy is fifth in the ordering while the flexible girl and the independent boy vied for sixth and seventh positions. The lowest ratings were given to the independent assertive girl. These findings were confirmed by Pellegreno in a study reviewed 180 earlier. Implications of these results should remind educators responsible for teacher training to attempt to 7* 178Erika I. Firestone, "The Relationship of Stu- dent Teaching Effectiveness to Self Concept and Attitude Toward Others" (Ed.D. dissertation, University of Massa- chusetts, 1973). 179Norma D. Feshbach, "Student Teacher Preference for Elementary School Pupils Varying in Personality Char— acteristics," Journal of Educational Psychology 60 (April 1969): 126-32. 180B. Pellegreno and W. C. Williams, op. cit. inc pre upo kin inv ter tea tat ner in The afl no hit Br re of at an on Us 116 increase student teachers' awareness of their particular preferences and the possible effects of these preferences upon their evaluation of, and behavior toward, varying kinds of pupils. Moving from student teacher to in-service training, investigators revealed conflicting results when comparing the attitudes of in-service teachers. Putz conducted a ten-week in—service science workshop designed to change teachers' attitudes and behaviors toward becoming facili- tators of learning and creating an open learning environ— ment.181 One instrument revealed significant changes in teachers' attitudes before and after the workshop. The second instrument indicated the attitudes before and after the workshop did not change significantly. It was noted that all the attitude statements which changed sig- nificantly were considered indirect behavior attitudes. Briscoe conducted a study to determine if training received by elementary supervising teachers in the use of interaction analysis as an observational technique affected teacher attitudes toward teaching.182 Results l—-— 181Gerard J. Putz, "An Analysis of the Effects of an Open (Student Centered) In-Service Education WOrkShOp on Teachers' Attitudes" (Ed.D. dissertation, Wayne State University, 1972). 182Ida C. Briscoe, "A Study of the Effects of In— Service Training in Interaction Analysis on Teacher Atti- tudes, Teacher-Pupil Interaction Patterns, and Pupil Achievement in Reading" (Ed.D. dissertation, University Of Georgia, 1970). in no em Ca. hr: be te th in sh ch te ef th vi ha vi PI 117 indicated that a change in attitude toward teaching is not significantly affected by the training of elementary supervising teachers in the use of interaction analysis. Callison revealed that teacher attitudes could be influ- 183 The enced by the attitudes of teaching assistants. hypothesis that authoritarian teacher attitudes would be less authoritarian after contact with nonauthoritarian teaching assistants was confirmed in the negative sense that experimental teachers showed relatively less increase in authoritarianism than did control teachers. Rule has shown that teachers' behaviors could most effectively be changed by direct intervention by the supervising 184 Direct intervention seemingly was more teacher. effective than conferences or video feedback, a finding that Contradicts findings of other studies reviewed using video feedback. Many studies have explored various aspects of teacher-student rapport and attitude, and a lesser number have investigated the relationship between teacher sur— vival and attitudes toward teaching. Krasno, in a com- prehensive study at the Stanford Center for Research and 183William L. Callison, "Teacher Perceptions of Autonomy and Authoritarian Teacher Attitudes in Rural Schools" (Ph.D. dissertation, Stanford University, 1970). 184Sarah E. Rule, "A Comparison of Three Different Types of Feedback of Teachers' Performance" (Ph.D. dis- sertation, University of Kansas, 1972). 118 Development in Teaching, examined initial teacher-student rapport and survival in teaching as a function of atti- tudes about education held by potential teachers upon 185 Data indicated entering a teacher education program. that high-rapport subjects differed from low-rapport subjects in their greater flexibility, higher sensitivity to needs of individual students, and generally more pro- gressive educational philosophy. Between 18 and 21 months after completion of their education program, 84 of the original 154 subjects were teaching. A review of data revealed that the survivors entered teacher training with attitudes generally more progressive than those of nonsurvivors and with greater respect for the value of teaching and for the amount of work involved in teaching. Krasno concluded from these data that potential teachers bring educational attitudes to teacher training which markedly affects their relationships with students and their probability of remaining in teaching. In addition, students were able to infer a rapport from these attitudes from their very first impression of the teacher with no knowledge of the teacher's behaviors or beliefs. Symonds reported similar findings in his study and concluded that: 185Richard M. Krasno, Teachers'JAttitudes: Their Empirical Relationship to Rapport with Students and Sur- yival in the Prdfession72Stanford Center for Research and Development in_Teaching Technical Report No. 28 (Stanford, Ca1if.: Stanford University, 1972), pp. 90~92. 119 . . . teaching is essentially an expression of per- sonality. The teacher adapts himself to teaching in a manner that is harmonious with his expressions toward life situations in general. Methods and procedures learned during college preparations may influence teaching superficially but they do not determine the nature of the relation of a teacher to his pupils or the teacher's basic attitude toward teaching.186 The results of the Krasno and Symonds studies possess great potential for future research and for possible new directions in teacher education. The final study in this review examined college freshmen attitudes toward public school music. Hulbert, using nine hundred college freshmen and a Likert-type rating scale, achieved the following interesting results.187 Singing activities were preferred over other types of activities. Singing activities preferred most were the least common. Rhythmic activities were not well liked and were less common in junior high school than in intermediate grades. Girls' preference for general music was greater than the boys'. Girls' preference for singing at both levels was greater than boys'. Favorable attitude declined as the age of the teacher increased with the exception of theory and —_.__._ 186Percival M. Symonds, "Teaching as a Function of the Teacher's Personality," Journal of Teacher Education 5 (March 1954): 79-83. 187Howard E. Hulbert, "College Freshman Attitudes Toward Public School Music" (Ph.D. dissertation, West Virginia University, 1972). 120 appreciation activities. Preferences for singing show songs, learning about instruments, and music history were greater when the teacher was a man. Toward activi- ties which were not well liked, attitudes were more favorable when the teacher was an older man than for any other teacher sex-age combination. Summary The review of literature indicated a significant positive relationship between the teacher's personality and his behavior. Teacher personality seemed to determine whether student classroom experiences would be successful or harmful. Most studies supported the view that effec- tiveness in the classroom is closely related to a positive teacher self-concept. An integrated self—concept is not only reflected in the teacher personality, but also manifests itself in student identification. While the teacher's perceived self-concept influences student behavior, it also conditions his perception of others. This review of literature has revealed that the self— concept is one of the most important variables in inter— personal relationships, especially those experienced in the classroom. Teacher effectiveness in the classroom is based upon interaction of personalities--both the student's and the teacher's. Meaningful interaction is based upon 121 a teacher-student relationship characterized by genuine- ness, humanness, and positive mutual regard. The inter- action will be tempered by both teacher and student personality needs. Effective interaction reveals flexi- bility. The teacher should determine whether the class— room situation requires a direct or an indirect style of interaction. The level of indirectness should be deter- mined by the type of learning activity. Generally, indirect interaction elicits the most favorable student responses and attracts the most student approach behaviors. Differing student personalities should be considered when appropriate levels of indirectness are being selected. Inappropriate levels of indirectness or misplaced teacher attention may be reflected in student behavior. The interaction style of the teacher, and not class size, is a determining factor in classroom interaction. Inter- action style remained relatively unchanged when subjected to short, concentrated periods of training suggesting faulty procedures or inadequate evaluation. Successful interaction may be dependent upon more than learned techniques. Effective interaction may be the result of certain teacher personality variables--a positive self— concept and attitude. Most studies reviewed for the present research supported the view that teacher attitudes are apparent in their behaviors. It was further proposed that teacher 122 attitudes were translated into action in different, subtle ways. In spite of subtle teacher behaviors, students could perceive teacher attitudes rather accurately even after their first meeting. Effective teachers exhibited more positive attitudes toward stu- dents. Teachers possessing more humanistic attitudes also tended to elicit more student-initiated verbal interaction in their classrooms. Teachers who achieved a high degree of rapport with students also revealed sensitivity to student needs, showed greater flexibility and professed more humanistic philOSOphies. Teacher attitude seemed to react to school environment and to influence the number of student failures. Some literature proposed that teachers who survived in the profession entered teacher training with different attitudes toward teaching--attitudes which were only superficially influ- enced by teacher training. Several writers suggested that attitude data should be considered cautiously. It was their belief that most measurement of attitude was inadequate in its depth of consideration. In spite of proposed inadequacies of measurement, teacher attitude is . assigned an important role in any evaluation of classroom interaction. Teaching is an expression of personality. This review of literature lends support to the positions presented in the present study. Teacher per- sonality factors--se1f-concept and attitude--do affect 123 behavior. The apparent relationship between the per- sonality and behavior would suggest that interaction behavior is also influenced by personality factors. Assuming such a relationship, the problem, then, is to determine the degree of relationship between the study variables. CHAPTER I I I CRITERION INSTRUMENTS Variables To Be Measured In the context of this study, four variables needed to be measured: teacher self-concept; teacher attitude toward teaching and students; student attitude toward music learning and the music teacher; and the verbal interaction behaviors occurring in the music classroom. The Tennessee Self-Concept Scale was selected to measure the music teacher's global self—concept as well as various components of self-concept. The Minne~ sota Teacher Attitude Inventory measured the teacher's attitude toward teaching and students; the Minnesota Student Attitude Inventory measured the students' atti— tude toward the music class and the music teacher. The Flanders System of Interaction Analysis was used to measure the verbal interaction occurring in the music classroom. Verbal interaction was observed for twenty- five minutes during each of four classroom visits pro- ducing two thousand Flanders recordings. 124 125 Tennessee Self-Concept Scalel After having used many instruments to measure the self-concept, Dr. William H. Fitts, formulator of the Tennessee Self Concept Scale, felt a need for a self- concept scale which was simple for the subject, applicable in many situations, well standardized, and multi- dimensional in its description of the self-concept. The author began the developmental work on the Scale with the Tennessee Department of Mental Health in 1955. In the original development of the Scale, the first step was to compile a large number of self-description items. The original items were derived from a number of other self-concept measures. Items were also obtained from written self-descriptions of patients and nonpatients. After considerable study a system was developed for classifying items on the basis of what respondents were saying. This evolved into the two-dimensional 3X5 scheme employed on the Score Sheet. This part of the Scale con- tains ninety items, equally divided as to positive and negative items. The remaining ten items are the Self— Criticism Scale. After the items were edited, seven clinical psy— chologists were employed as judges to classify the items 1William H. Fitts, Tennessee Self Conce t Scale (Nashville, Tenn.: Counselor Recordings and—Tests, 1951). 126 according to the 3X5 scheme. They also evaluated each item as to whether it was positive or negative in content. The final ninety items used in the Scale were those where there was perfect agreement by the judges. The subject uses the Scale's one hundred self- descriptive statements to portray his own picture of him- self. The Scale is self-administering for either indi- viduals or groups. It can be used with subjects age twelve or higher and having at least a sixth grade reading level. The instrument is also applicable to the whole gamut of psychological adjustment from healthy, well- adjusted people to psychotic patients. The Scale is available in two forms, a Counseling Form and a Clinical and Research Form. Both forms use the same test booklet and test items; the forms are dif- ferent in their scoring system. The Clinical and Research Egrm used in this study is the most complex in terms of scoring, analysis, and interpretation. Scoring for both forms can be done either by hand or by machine through the test publisher. Most subjects complete the Scale in about twenty to thirty minutes. Hand scoring requires about twenty minutes for the Clinical and Research Form. A broad sample of 626 subjects were used in the standardization process. The sample included people from various parts of the United States, and age ranges from 12 to 68. There were approximately equal numbers of both sexes, both black and white subjects, representa— tives of all social, economic, and intellectual levels and educational levels from sixth grade through the Ph.D. degree. Subjects were obtained from high school and college classes, employers at state institutions and various other sources. Reliability data were based on test-retest with sixty college students over a two-week period. The test— retest reliability coefficients of all major scores, on both forms, are reported in Table 1. While Fitts reported a reliability of .92 on the total self-concept score, the writer, using a sample of thirty-two teacher subjects, obtained a reliability coefficient of .96. Fitts has also found consistency profile patterns through repeated measures on the same individuals over long periods of time. Through various types of profile analyses, Fitts demonstrated that the distinctive features of individual profiles are still present for most persons a year or more later. Initially, the content validity of the instrument was determined by a panel of seven clinical psychologists who classified each item according to category and eval- uated each item on its positiveness or negativeness. The items retained in the Scale produced perfect agree- ment among the judges. Concurrent validity was also achieved when data were compared between groups based 2128 .uo>uomno one an wooumuopcs on uocsmo coaumoassafioo roams ca canoe so mocoawm mo mpOflHmm UHOSm .momsmm .sonswsoo Ho mocoHHm GOHm5ms00 mo mp . p .mocoEHomumm m “macaummsv Hsmunm50£p msaxmm a co 5 m “muzuosupm assumflxo may ccowon mcHo . . pmumwwmm..wnmmomu m0 mafia n was mcoscho QOHo>w© on EOpmem “Udmou 30: m muflummumsw .mmope.c30 mcammoumxm .oumfipwcw mos» QOHL3 maflmsm we rams .:0HpMHumnmlnxamp|HHmsm . . . .oosmEHOMHom pampsum poumwuwcw Honomou “pouHEHH we moons czo mmonmxm .coaumsuem on» moRSuUSHUm Ho ucofioumum Hedda muHoHHOm no uomucou onp . .Hmnomou 0p oncommmu CH mawmsm an xHMB .mmnommwullxamulafimsm .ooconowonrwamm oEoHuxm “mason we on puns mason me Honomou “noupmm onmpmooom on manmummoomcoc EOMM .mpfluonusm msHmMAumsn Ho mcHNHowuHuU .mamfioo 0p popoomxo ma HHQDQ m SUHQB on mumpuo no .mpsmEEoo .mcoauoouflo .mcofluoouflp mcfl>flw .oosoEHOMHom mo Sofia as mcflmmam tycoon Ho mosmfiu0mnom Hmowmse Honpmww .Hamsm m Guru Hosuo muwuozusm cm mafiuflo .coflumcmamxm :30 we: mcH>Hm .mmopa E30 MMm mcflmmonmxo “monopooonm Ho ucmucoo usonm mcowpwdo no muoom wcfl>ww .mcmHSpowq . .Hozmcc Hafiz HHQDQ m nos» ucoucfl on» cums .mmopa on Eonmouh mouseuficfl Hocomoa onu an3 mcflvmum «use mcomEOm mcflazmn n0fl>onon Hausa omcmno on nonsense mucmEoumum Honooou so comma .o>Hm Naomoumo ou auscm .mmHm Opes mumps £30 was mo ouoe mousse Rococo» can no pun popsaocfl mum mmmpfi HHQSQ mo mcowmcouxo Honomma .Hfimsm m wmipoumom loom memos mcHQOHo>op Ho mcfitaflsn .mcH>WHHMHU .maflmsm mo mmmpfi moms no mumooom .pmpsaosH mum :co om: no =mE: ED: mcflwmm no .pmon mcflopoc «Hmscfl>fipcfl Hozuocm no oncomxo one um won one .cowmcou ommoaou pmsu moMOh .HOH>mson no GOHuom Hanan mommusoocw no mmmflmum .mommusoocm no mwmflmum .popsaoce ohm mmcflaoow mcflaamowu can mcfluoflponm .0>Hummmc Ho o>fluflmom on awe mmcflaomm .Hmccmfi mascoummuaucoc m ca Hausa o no onou mafiaoom can no oosufluum cm moflwfiumao paw mumoood .mmflamow mumoood .munpooonm Ho ucoucoo usono coeummsv c mcmxmm .mcowumodq mxmmt .OH :oflumwuHGH uncommom coflumauHcH oncommmm oucmafiw game Henna Rama Honomma ~U¢v omoum>¢ oocouommwc Hmwmwomm0w mewmwuwm>wH muomoumo bump msflcoo Mpflafinmeaon HobuwmQOIl.m flames 142 including teacher and recorded musical performance in category five and student musical performance in cate- gories eight and nine, the ten categories were adequate for this study. CHAPTER IV ANALYSIS OF THE DATA Review of Procedure The purpose of this study was to determine the relationship between the general music teacher's self- concept and (1) the music teacher's attitude toward the students and the teaching of general music, (2) the general music students' attitude toward the music teacher and music learning, and (3) the type of verbal interaction occurring in the general music classroom. Significance of the data gathered to assess these relationships was determined by obtaining a Spearman rank correlation coefficient (rs, rho). It is a measure of association which requires that both variables be measured in at least an ordinal scale so that the objects or indi- viduals under study may be ranked in two ordered series. This statistic reveals a monotonic relationship which was the primary concern in this study. Although there is no good estimate of the standard error of rho, 143 144 there is reason to believe that it is almost as reliable as the Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient (r).1 Presentation of Data Following a statement of the null hypothesis, data will be presented which will support acceptance or rejection of that hypothesis. Other questions to be answered in this study will be treated following the presentation of the null hypotheses. Hypothesis I: There is no significant relationship between the teacher's total self-image score (P+N Score) as measured by the Tennessee Self Concept Scale and the students' poSitive attitude score as measured by the Minnesota Student Attitude Inventory. TABLE 3.--Spearman Rank Correlation Coefficient between the variables of Hypothesis I Variables Correlation Significance TSCS -- MSAI .2111 .12 The null hypothesis that there would be no sig— nificant relationship between teacher self-concept and student attitude was accepted. Even though the total self-concept score revealed no significant relationship, m 1Joy P. Guilford and Benjamin Fruchter, Funda- mental Statistics in Psychology and Education, 5th ed. (New York: McGraw—Hill, Inc., 1973), p. 285. 145 ~the subscale scores did indicate some significant relation- ships. Subscale scores will be presented with another hypothesis. Hypothesis II: There will be no significant correlation between the teacher's total self-image score (P+N Score) as measured by the Tennessee Self Concept Scale and the teacher's total indirect vefbal interaction as determined by the Flanders System of Interaction Analysis. TABLE 4.--Spearman Rank Correlation Coefficients between the variables of Hypothesis II Variables Correlation Significance The null hypothesis that there would be no sig— nificant relationship between the variables was accepted. Two aspects of the data were interesting. The correlation was negative indicating that higher self-concepts were associated with lower incidence of indirect verbal inter- action. Secondly, there was higher correlation and greater significance between the variables when Category 4, the subject matter in-put, was not included in the data. 146 Hypothesis III: There will be no significant correlation between the teacher's total self—image score (P+N Score) as measured by the Tennessee Self Concept Scale and the teacher's total direct verbal interaction as measured by the Flanders System of Interaction Analysis. TABLE 5.--Spearman Rank Correlation Coefficients between the variables of Hypothesis III Variables Correlation Significance TSCS -- FSIA 67 .1616 .19 The null hypothesis that there would be no relationship between the variables was accepted. The negative correlation achieved when Category 5, the sub- ject matter in-put, was included proved to be interesting, especially when Categories 6 and 7 produced a positive correlation. Hypothesis IV: There will be no significant correlation between the teacher's total self-image score (P+N Score) as measured by the Tennessee Self Concept Scale and the total student verbal interaction as determined by the Flanders System of Interaction Analysis. 147 TABLE 6.--Spearman Rank Correlation Coefficients between the variables of Hypothesis IV Variables Correlation Significance TSCA -- FSIA 8 .2221 .11 TSCS -- FSIA 9 -.3135 .04 The null hypothesis that there would be no relationship between the teacher's self-concept and student verbal interaction was tested by correlating the totals of FSIA Categories 8 and 9 with the teacher's total self-concept score. The Category 8 correlation accepted the hypothesis, while Category 9 rejected it. The significant negative correlation between Category 9 and self-concept indicated that teachers with more posi- tive self-concept also experienced lesser amounts of student-initiated verbal interaction. The data suggested that Category 8 while not significant did achieve a positive correlation while Category 9 was negative, indi— cating some relationship between the self—concept variable and the source of student interaction. Hypothesis V: There will be no significant correlation between the teacher's self—image score (P+N Score) as measured by the Tennessee Self Concept Scale and Category 10 of the Flanders System of Interaction Analysis. 148 TABLE 7.--Spearman Rank Correlation Coefficient between the variables of Hypothesis V Variables Correlation Significance TSCS -- FSIA 10 .0731 .35 The null hypothesis that there would be no sig- nificant correlation between the variables was accepted. The amount of silent periods or confused, noisy times in the classroom seemed to show no relationship to teacher self-concept. Hypothesis VI: There will be no significant correlation between the teacher's total self-image score (P+N Score) as measured by the Tennessee Self Concept Scale and the teacher's attitude score of the Minnesota Teacher Attitude Inventory. TABLE 8.--Spearman Rank Correlation Coefficient between the variables of Hypothesis VI Variables Correlation Significance The null hypothesis that there would be no sig- nificant correlation between teacher self-concept and attitude was accepted. Studies reviewed for this research supported the assumption. However, there are two different aspects of the teacher's personality involved which may have produced the low correlation. 149 Hypothesis VII: There will be no significant correlation between the teacher's Subscale scores of the Tennessee Self Concept Scale and the students' attitude score as measuréd by the Minnesota Student Attitude Inventory. TABLE 9.--Spearman Rank Correlation Coefficients between the variables of Hypothesis VII Variables Correlation Significance TSCS Self Crit. -- MSAI -.2811 .06 TSCS Identity -- MSAI .3867 .01 TSCS Self Satis. -- MSAI .1969 .14 TSCS Behavior -- MSAI .1866 .15 TSCS Phys Self -- MSAI .1043 .28 TSCS Moral Eth -- MSAI .1058 .28 TSCS Pers Self —- MSAI .2358 .10 TSCS Family Self -- MSAI .3837 .02 TSCS Soc Self -- MSAI .2919 .05 TSCS Variability -- MSAI -.1317 .24 TSCS Distribution -- MSAI .2688 .07 TSCS True False -- MSAI .0453 .40 TSCS Net Conflict -- MSAI .0163 .46 TSCS Total Conflict -- MSAI -.2629 .07 The null hypothesis that there would be no sig— nificant relationship between self-concept variables and student attitude was rejected when the variables of Identity, Family Self, and Social Self were correlated with the MSAI mean score. All other variables of the TSCS accepted the null hypothesis. Significant positive correlations were found between the self-concept variables-—Identity, Family Self, and Social Self—— and student attitude. Identity would reveal those teachers who are sure of their own identity or are clear 150 as to their own self-perception. Those teachers express- ing high identity will probably have students who express positive attitudes toward both the music teacher and the music class. Family Self reflects one's feelings of adequacy, worth, and value as a family member. Teachers who had this self-perception would also tend to have students who expressed positive attitudes. Social Self reflects the person's sense of adequacy and worth in his social interaction with other people. Teachers who perceive themselves as adequate socially will tend to have students who express positive attitudes toward the music teacher and the music class. The negative cor- relation achieved between Self Criticism and student attitude, while only approaching significance (.06) would indicate that teachers who expressed a lesser degree of self-criticism would also have students who revealed positive attitudes toward the class and the teacher. The negative correlations between TSCS Sub— scales of Variability and Total Conflict and student attitude was also interesting. Hypothesis VIII: There will be no significant correlation between the teacher's Subscale scores of the Tennessee Self Concept Scale and the teacher's attitude score of the Minnesota Teacher Attitude Inventory. 151 TABLE lO.--Spearman Rank Correlation Coefficients between the variables of Hypothesis VIII Variables Correlation Significance TSCS Self Crit -- MTAI .1284 .24 TSCS Identity -- MTAI .0051 .49 TSCS Self Satis -- MTAI .2005 .14 TSCS Behavior -- MTAI .1878 .15 TSCS Phys Self -- MTAI .2247 .11 TSCS Moral Eth -- MTAI .1729 .17 TSCS Pers Self -- MTAI .2152 .12 TSCS Family Self -- MTAI .0695 .35 TSCS Social Self -- MTAI .0410 .41 TSCS Variability -- MTAI -.1031 .29 TSCS Distribution -- MTAI .2697 .07 TSCS True False -- MTAI .0552 .38 TSCS Net Conflict -- MTAI -.4772 .00 TSCS Total Conflict -- MTAI -.0108 .48 The null hypothesis that there would be no sig- nificant correlation between the TSCS Subscales and teacher attitude was accepted, with but one exception. Net Conflict revealed a highly significant negative cor- relation with teacher attitude. Net Conflict measures the extent to which an individual's responses to posi- tive items differ from, or conflict with, his responses to negative items in the same area of self-perception. In other words, it reflects inconsistencies in responding. While Net Conflict is an operational score as far as scoring is concerned, it does reveal uncertainties in the self-concept. The statistic indicates that as uncertainties or inconsistencies decrease, the teacher's attitude would likely increase. 152 Hypothesis IX: There will be no significant correlation between the teacher's Subscale scores of the Tennessee Self Concept Scale and the teacher's total indirect verbal ihteraction as determined by the Flanders System of Interaction Analysis. The null hypothesis that there would be no sig— nificant correlation between the TSCS Subscales and teacher indirect verbal behavior was accepted with four exceptions. Significant negative correlations were dis- covered between Physical Self and indirect verbal behavior. This would suggest that teachers who express a negative self-concept of the body, the state of health, physical appearance, skills, and sexuality would also rely to a greater degree on indirect verbal behavior. Significant positive correlations were found between the True False Subscale and Flanders' Categories 1, 2, and 3. This Subscale reveals one's ability to achieve self- definition or self-description by focusing on what he is and is relatively unable to accomplish the same thing by eliminating what he is not. The more the teacher accentuates the positive aspects of his personality, the greater will be his tendency to use indirect verbal interaction. These correlations involving True False Subscales were also the only positive correlations found for the hypothesis. TSCS Net Conflict achieved signifi- cant negative correlation between Flanders' Categories 1, 2, and 3, but not when the subject content areas were present in Category 4. 153 TABLE ll.--Spearman Rank Correlation Coefficients between the variables of Hypothesis IX Variables Correlation Significance TSCS Self Crit -- FSIA 1234 -.2617 .07 TSCS Identity -- FSIA 1234 -.0914 .31 FSIA 123 -.0698 .35 TSCS Self Satis -- FSIA 1234 -.1397 .22 FSIA 123 -.0826 .33 TSCS Behavior -- FSIA 1234 -.2346 .10 TSCS Phys Self -- FSIA 1234 -.3996 .01 FSIA 123 -.3917 .01 TSCS Moral Eth -- FSIA 1234 -.l430 .41 FSIA 123 -.0223 .45 TSCS Pers Self -- FSIA 1234 -.l780 .16 FSIA 123 -.1239 .25 TSCS Family Self -- FSIA 1234 -.l360 .42 TSCS Social Self -- FSIA 1234 -.1651 .36 FSIA 123 -.1250 .45 TSCS Variability —- FSIA 1234 -.oo73 .48 FSIA 123 -.1546 .38 TSCS Distribution —- FSIA 1234 -.2416 .09 FSIA 123 -.1856 .15 TSCS True False -— FSIA 1234 .1754 .17 FSIA 123 .2972 .05 TSCS Net Conflict -- FSIA 1234 -.2334 .10 FSIA 123 -.3141 .04 TSCS Total Conflict -- FSIA 1234 -.2315 .10 FSIA 123 -.2476 .09 154 Hypothesis X: There will be no significant correlation between the teacher's Subscale scores of the Tennessee Self Concept Scale and the teacher's total direct verbal interaction as determined by the Flanders System of Interaction Analysis. The null hypothesis that there would be no sig- nificant correlation between the TSCS Subscales and direct teacher verbal behavior was accepted with four exceptions. A significant negative correlation was found between Personal Self and Flanders' Categories 5, 6, and 7. This data would suggest that an individual who increases his sense of personal worth, his feelings of adequacy as a person and his evaluation of his per- sonality apart from his body would also tend to use direct verbal behavior, which included subject content, to a lesser degree. A significant negative correlation also existed between TSCS Social Self and direct verbal behavior which included subject matter content. This would indicate that the teacher who becomes more positive in his self-perceptions socially would be prone to use direct verbal interaction, especially lecturing, decreas- ingly. The Distribution Subscale achieved both a nega- tive and positive correlation. The negative correlation indicated that teachers who are uncertain and indefinite about what they say about themselves and who are defensive and guarded will tend to increase their use of lecturing or performance. The data would also indicate that the 155 TABLE 12.--Spearman Rank Correlation Coefficients between the variables of Hypothesis X Variables Correlation Significance TSCS Self Crit -- FSIA 567 .0877 .32 FSIA 67 .2760 .06 TSCS Identity -- FSIA 567 -.l492 .21 FSIA 67 .0531 .39 TSCS Self Satis -- FSIA 567 -.2872 .06 FSIA 67 .0710 .35 TSCS Behavior -- FSIA 567 -.0778 .34 FSIA 67 .0390 .42 TSCS Phys Self -- FSIA 567 -.1599 .37 FSIA 67 .0033 .49 TSCS Moral Eth -- FSIA 567 -.3185 .11 FSIA 67 .2267 .ll TSCS Pers Self -- FSIA 567 -.2911 .05 FSIA 67 .0492 .39 TSCS Family Self -- FSIA 567 -.0949 .30 FSIA 67 -.0001 .50 TSCS Social Self -- FSIA 567 -.2934 .05 FSIA 67 .0806 .33 FSIA 67 .1468 .21 TSCS Distribution -— FSIA 567 -.3977 .01 FSIA 67 .3085 .04 TSCS True False -- FSIA 567 -.0931 .31 FSIA 67 -.0034 .49 TSCS Net Conflict -- FSIA 567 .2185 .11 FSIA 67 -.1229 .25 TSCS Total Conflict -- FSIA 567 .1984 .14 FSIA 67 .0521 .39 156 teacher who becomes more definite and certain in his remarks about himself, would also tend to increase his use of direct verbal behaviors which did not contain subject matter references. Hypothesis XI: There will be no significant correlation between the teacher's Subscale scores of the Tennessee Self Concept Scale and the total student verbal inter- action as determined by the Flanders System of Interaction Analysis. Of the twenty-eight correlations produced for this hypothesis, eighteen indicated acceptance of the null hypothesis. Significant negative correlations were found between Flanders' Category 9 and TSCS Identity, Self Satisfaction, Physical Self, Moral Ethical, and Social Self. This finding Would suggest that the teachers with positive self-concepts in these areas would also experience decreasing amounts of student-initiated verbal interaction. The reverse would also be true. As the teacher's self-concept lessens in these areas, student— initiated verbal behavior would tend to increase. Sig- nificant positive correlations appeared between Flanders' Category 8 and TSCS Self Satisfaction, Physical Self, Moral Ethical, and Distribution. Teachers who expressed increased self-concept in these specific areas would also have increased teacher-initiated student verbal inter- action. The data may also be stated in a negative way. 157 TABLE 13.--Spearman Rank Correlation Coefficients between the variables of Hypothesis XI Variables Correlation Significance TSCS Self Crit —- FSIA 8 .0158 .47 FSIA 9 .2567 .08 FSIA 9 -.4723 .00 TSCS Self Satis -- FSIA 8 .3517 .02 FSIA 9 -.3542 .02 TSCS Behavior -- FSIA 8 .1574 .19 FSIA 9 -.1577 .19 TSCS Phys Self -- FSIA 8 .2883 .05 FSIA 9 -.4961 .00 TSCS Moral Eth -- FSIA 8 .3013 .05 FSIA 9 -.3089 .04 TSCS Pers Self -- FSIA 8 .2748 .06 FSIA 9 -.2401 .09 TSCS Family Self -- FSIA 8 .0740 .34 FSIA 9 -.0836 .32 TSCS Social Self -- FSIA 8 .2581 .08 FSIA 9 -.3719 .02 TSCS Variability -- FSIA 8 -.2201 .ll FSIA 9 .2919 .05 TSCS Distribution -- FSIA 8 .5143 .00 FSIA 9 -.1302 .24 TSCS True False -- FSIA 8 -.1003 .29 FSIA 9 .1287 .24 TSCS Net Conflict -- FSIA 8 -.0933 .31 FSIA 9 -.l748 .17 TSCS Total Conflict -- FSIA 8 -.1153 .26 FSIA 9 .0570 .38 158 Teachers with lesser degrees of self-concept tend to experience lesser amounts of teacher-initiated student verbal interaction. The comparison of Category 8's positive correlations and Category 9's negative cor- relations was especially significant. An exception to the negative correlations of Category 9 was found between Variability and Category 9. Variability indicates that the individual expresses variability in their self— perception from one area of the self to another. This correlation is misleading since high scores indicate much variability, while low scores show the teacher to be well- integrated in personality. The correlation would mean then that the more integrated the teacher personality, the lower would be the tendency toward student—initiated verbal interaction. Teachers with more inconsistency in self-perception would be prone to elicit more student initiations in verbal interaction. Hypothesis XII: There will be no significant correlation between the teacher's Subscale scores of the Tennessee Self Concept Scale and Category 10 of the Flanders System of Interaction Analysis. The data accepted the null hypothesis that there would be no significant correlation between TSCS Sub- scales and Flanders' Category 10. Category 10 indicates those times during a class period when there is confusion 159 or silence. Even though the correlations were not sig- nificant, it was interesting to note that the cor- relations were negative with the exception of two. TABLE l4.-—Spearman Rank Correlation Coefficients between the variables of Hypothesis XII Variables Correlation Significance TSCS Self Crit -- FSIA 10 -.0063 .49 TSCS Identity -- FSIA 10 -.1200 .26 TSCS Self Satis -- FSIA 10 -.0807 .33 TSCS Behavior -- FSIA 10 -.1094 .28 TSCS Phys Self -- FSIA 10 -.1531 .39 TSCS Moral Eth -- FSIA 10 -.1334 .23 TSCS Pers Self -- FSIA 10 .0615 .37 TSCS Family Self —- FSIA 10 -.l769 .17 TSCS Social Self -- FSIA 10 -.0631 .37 TSCS Variability -- FSIA 10 -.0170 .46 TSCS Distribution -- FSIA 10 -.2048 .13 TSCS True False -- FSIA 10 .1881 .15 TSCS Net Conflict -- FSIA 10 -.l397 .41 TSCS Total Conflict -- FSIA 10 -.1512 .39 Hypothesis XIII: There will be no significant correlation between the teacher's total positive score of the Minnesota Teacher Attitude Inventory and the students' total positive score of the Minnesota Student Attitude Inventory. The null hypothesis that there would be no sig- nificant correlation between the teacher's score on MTAI and the student attitude scores on MSAI was accepted. If subscale scores had been available for the two instruments, there might have been significant correlations. 160 TABLE 15.--Spearman Rank Correlation Coefficient between the variables of Hypothesis XIII Variables Correlation Significance MTAI -- MSAI -.0986 .30 Hypothesis XIV: There will be no significant correlation between the teacher's total positive attitude score of the Minnesota Teacher Attitude Inventory and the teaCher's total indirect verbal interaction as determined by the Flanders System of Interaction Analysis. TABLE 16.--Spearman Rank Correlation Coefficients between the variables of Hypothesis XIV Variables Correlation Significance MTAI -- FSIA 1234 .0479 .40 FSIA 123 .0524 .39 The data accepted the null hypothesis that there would be no significant correlation between the teacher's score on the MTAI and the degree of indirect verbal interaction exhibited in the classroom. Hypothesis XV: There will be no significant correlation between the teacher's total positive attitude score of the Minnesota Teacher Attitude Inventory and the teachef‘s total direct verbal interaction as deter- mined by the Flanders System of Interaction Analysis. 161 TABLE l7.--Spearman Rank Correlation Coefficients between the variables of Hypothesis XV Variables Correlation Significance MTAI -- FSIA 567 -.0937 .30 FSIA 67 .1718 .17 FSIA 6 .3134 .04 The null hypothesis that there would be no sig- nificant correlation between the teacher's score on the MTAI and the degree of direct verbal behavior was accepted. When correlated separately, Category 6, which is considered a type of direct behavior, and the teacher attitude score achieved a significant posi- tive correlation. The higher the teacher attitude score, the more commands, directions, and orders he would tend to give. Hypothesis XVI: There will be no significant correlation between the teacher's total positive attitude score of the Minnesota Teacher Attitude Inventory and the total student verbal interaction as determined by the Flanders System of Interaction Analysis. TABLE l8.-—Spearman Rank Correlation Coefficients between the variables of Hypothesis XVI Variables Correlation Significance MTAI -- FSIA 8 .0235 .45 FSIA 9 .1756 .17 162 The null hypothesis that there would be no cor- relation between the teacher attitude score of the MTAI and the degree of student verbal interaction in the classroom was accepted. Hypothesis XVII: There will be no significant correlation between the teacher's total positive attitude score of the Minnesota Teacher Attitude Inventory and the Category 10 totaiiof the Elanders System of Inter- action Analysis. TABLE 19.--Spearman Rank Correlation Coefficient between the variables of Hypothesis XVII Variables Correlation Significance MTAI -- FSIA 10 .0831 .33 The null hypothesis that there would be no sig— nificant correlation between the teacher's attitude score on the MTAI and Flanders Category 10 was accepted. The amount of pauses, confusion, and silent periods revealed no relationship to teacher attitude. Hypothesis XVIII: There will be no significant correlation between the students' total positive attitude score of the Hinnesota Student Attitude Inventory and the teacherrs total indirect verbal interaction as determined by the Flanders System of Interaction Analysis. 163 TABLE 20.--Spearman Rank Correlation Coefficients between the variables of Hypothesis XVIII Variables Correlation Significance MSAI -- FSIA 1234 .2445 .09 FSIA 123 .3811 .02 The null hypothesis that there would be no relationship between student attitude as measured and the degree of teacher indirect verbal behavior was rejected when Flanders' Categories 1, 2, and 3 were considered. A significant positive correlation was indicated between student attitude and the degree of teacher indirect behavior when the subject content of Category 4 was not included. Students with more positive attitudes toward their teachers and the classes will also tend to have teachers who increase their use of supportive, encouraging, and accepting verbal behavior. Hypothesis XIX: There will be no significant correlation between the students' total positive attitude score of the Minnesota Student Attitude Inventory and the teacher's total direct verbal interaction as deter- mined by the Flanders System of Interaction Analysis. 164 TABLE 21.--Spearman Rank Correlation Coefficients between the variables of Hypothesis XIX Variables Correlation Significance MSAI -— FSIA 567 -.2941 .05 FSIA 67 -.1294 .24 The null hypothesis that there would be no cor- relation between the variables was rejected when Flanders' Categories 5, 6, and 7 and MSAI scores were tested. A significant negative correlation was found between stu- dent attitude and Flanders' Categories 5, 6, and 7. This relationship would show that students possessing more positive attitudes toward the teacher and the class would be likely to have teachers who decreased their use of direct verbal behavior. It was also interesting to note that both correlations for this hypothesis were negative. Hypothesis XX: There will be no significant correlation between the students' total positive attitude score of the Minnesota Student Attitude Inventory and the total student verbal interaction as determined by the Elanders System of Interaction Analysis. 165 TABLE 22.--Spearman Rank Correlation Coefficients between the variables of Hypothesis XX Variables Correlation Significance MSAI -- FSIA 8 .2899 .05 FSIA 9 -.1716 .17 The null hypothesis was rejected when Flanders' Category 8 and the MSAI score were tested. A significant positive correlation was found between the student attitude score and Flanders' Category 8. The data suggest that students with more positive attitudes would also respond with increasing amounts of teacher-initiated student verbal interaction. Hypothesis XXI: There will be no significant correlation between the students' total positive attitude score of the Minnesota Student Attitude Inventory and the Category 10 total of the Flanders System of Inter- action Analysis. TABLE 23.--Spearman Rank Correlation Coefficient between the variables of Hypothesis XXI Variables Correlation Significance The null hypothesis that there would be no sig- nificant correlation between the student attitude score and Flanders' Category 10 was rejected. In classes —; 166 where student attitude was more positive, there tended to be a diminished amount of confusion and pauses during the class period. Related Data Besides the hypotheses to be tested in this study, certain other questions were to be answered. One question asked the relationship between the teacher's race and certain of the variables. Table 24 reveals the significant correlations found. TABLE 24.-—Spearman Rank Correlation Coefficients between race and selected variables Variables Correlation Significance Race -- TSCS Self Satis .3127 .04 Race -- TSCS Personal Self .2941 .05 Race —- TSCS Social Self .3599 .02 Race -- TSCS Distribution .2890 .05 Race -- FSIA 4 -.3403 .03 Race —- FSIA 1234 -.2936 .05 Race —- FSIA 4 -.3403 .03 Positive correlations indicated that black teachers achieved the highest mean rank and negative correlations show white teachers to have achieved the highest mean rank. The data indicated that black teachers perceived themselves significantly higher than white teachers on certain Subscales of the TSCS. White teachers performed significantly higher than 167 black teachers in the use of indirect verbal interaction. Caution should be used when interpreting these data because the teacher sample included twenty-seven white teachers and only five black teachers. Another question of concern in this study was the relationship between years of teaching experience and other variables. Table 25 presents these data. TABLE 25.--Spearman Rank Correlation Coefficients between years of teaching experience and selected variables Variables Correlation Significance Years -- TSCS Self Crit -.3l30 .04 Years -- FSIA 6 -.2985 .05 Years -- FSIA 7 -.4217 .01 Years -- FSIA 67 -.3971 .01 Years -- FSIA 8 .3759 .02 Years -- FSIA 10 -.3330 .03 Years -- MSAI .3916 .01 The data suggest that teachers with more teaching experience also tend to be less self-critical. Teaching experience achieved a significant positive correlation with student attitude toward the teacher and the class. Years teaching experience was significantly related to direct verbal interaction. The negative correlation suggested that individuals with increased teaching experience exhibited less use of orders and student criticism. Years of teaching experience and Flanders' Category 8 correlated positively indicating that more 168 experienced teachers tended to achieve more student verbal interaction. Years of experience was also negatively correlated with Flanders' Category 10. This would infer that more experienced teachers were apt to allow less confusion and pauses to occur during the class period. Finally these data indicate a significant positive cor- relation between years of teaching experience and student attitude toward the teacher and the class. Students in this sample tended to hold positive attitudes toward teachers who were more experienced. Additional correlations between student attitude as expressed by girls and those expressed by boys and other variables were of interest. TABLE 26.-—Spearman Rank Correlation Coefficients between the mean achieved by boys and girls on MSAI and selected variables Variables Correlation Significance MSAIG —- Years .3346 .03 MSAIG -- TSCS .3250 .03 MSAIG -- TSCS Identity .5289 .00 MSAIG -- TSCS Self Satis .2993 .05 MSAIG -- TSCS Moral Eth .3159 .04 MSAIG —- TSCS Personal Self .2996 .05 MSAIG -— TSCS Family Self .5457 .00 MSAIG -— TSCS Social Self .3230 .04 MSAIG —- TSCS Distribution .4020 .01 MSAIG -- FSIA 2 .4457 .01 MSAIG -- FSIA 3 .3270 .03 MSAIG -— FSIA 7 —.3359 .03 MSAIB -- Years .3150 .04 MSAIB -- MTAI -.2948 .05 MSAIB -- TSCS Total Conflict -.3286 .03 MSAIB -- FSIA 7 -.3681 .02 MSAIB -- FSIA 10 -.3637 .02 169 The girls' attitudes achieved significant cor- relations with more variables than did the attitudes expressed by boys possibly suggesting that girls hold a more positive attitude toward school generally at this age and especially toward music. Girls seemed to respond slightly more positively toward the teachers' years of teaching experience even though they both expressed sig- nificant positive attitudes toward this variable. Girls' attitudes seemed to correlate positively with several Subscales of the TSCS while boys achieved a significant correlation only with the teacher's Total Conflict. The negative correlation between MSAIB and Total Conflict reveals that teachers with lesser degrees of conflict also had boys with more positive attitudes. Of interest also was the fact that although the girls had significant correlation with various Subscales of TSCS, Total Conflict was not one of them. Only the boys' attitude scores produced a significant correlation with teacher attitude. The negative correlation would suggest that teachers with more positive attitudes have male students with more negative attitudes. Both boys' and girls' expressed attitudes achieved significant correlations with various Flanders' Categories. The girls correlated positively with indirect verbal behaviors while these same behaviors did not correlate significantly with the boys' attitudes. Both boys and girls achieved negative correlations with 170 Flanders' Category 7. Teachers who were critical of students in class tended to have students with more negative attitudes. These data should not be interpreted to mean that a causal relationship existed but only that they were significantly correlated. Boys achieved a significant negative correlation between their attitude and Flanders' Category 10. Since Category 10 covers diverse behaviors, the correlation could indicate that classes in which confusion exists are apt to contain boys with negative attitudes toward the class. Category 10 also includes silent periods which quite often were used by the teacher for reading or writing activities. The data might also indicate that teachers who assigned increasing amounts of written work tended to have boys with more negative attitudes toward class. The final correlation indicated that the girls' and the boys' attitude scores correlated both positively and signifi— cantly. The total teacher self-concept score achieved on the Tennessee Self Concept Scale revealed only one sig- nificant correlation. The significance occurred in a negative relationship between the TSCS total score and Flanders' Category 9. However, when the Subscale scores of the TSCS were correlated with various FSIA Categories, Significant relationships appeared. 171 TABLE 27.--Spearman Rank Correlation Coefficients between selected TSCS Subscales and selected FSIA.Categories Variables Correlation Significance TSCS Self Crit -- FSIA 7 .3484 .03 TSCS Self Satis -- FSIA 1 .3521 .02 TSCS Phys Self -- FSIA 3 -.5454 .00 TSCS Phys Self -- FSIA 4 -.3859 .01 TSCS Family Self -- FSIA 1 .3069 .04 TSCS Social Self -- FSIA 1 .3226 .04 TSCS Distribution -- FSIA 5 -.4057 .01 TSCS Distribution -- FSIA 6 .3851 .01 TSCS True False -- FSIA l .3536 .02 TSCS True False -- FSIA 2 .3197 .04 TSCS Total Confl -- FSIA l -.4l97 .01 TSCS Total Confl -- FSIA 2 -.3103 .04 As seen in Table 27, the teacher's Self Criticism score and Flanders' Category 7 revealed a significant positive relationship. This correlation was somewhat misleading in that high scores on the Self Criticism Subscale indicated a normal, healthy openness and capacity for self-criticism. The correlation then would indicate that the higher the degree of healthy self-criticism, the greater the tendency to use Category 7 or criticizing or justifying authority. A significant positive correlation existed between the Self Satisfaction Subscale and Flanders' Category 1. This statistic indicated that as the level of self-satisfaction or self-acceptance increased, the teacher tended to accept student feelings to a greater 172 degree. This relationship would suggest that empathic teachers would also be those who maintain a high level of self-acceptance. Two significant correlations were achieved by the TSCS Subscale of Physical Self. Both correlations were negative and existed between Flanders' Categories 3 and 4. Teachers in this sample who were more satis- fied with the perception of their body, state of health, physical appearance, skills, and sexuality, were likely to decrease their use of Category 3 and 4, or vice versa. Teachers who were not pleased with their per- ception of the physical self relied to a greater extent on indirect verbal behaviors especially those repre- sented by Categories 3 and 4. The TSCS Subscales of Family and Social Self produced a significant positive correlation with Flanders' Category 1. Category 1 indicates that the teacher accepts or clarifies an attitude or the feeling tone of a pupil in a nonthreatening manner. Family Self reflects one's feelings of adequacy, worth, and value as a family member, and Social Self indicates a Person's sense of adequacy and worth in his social interaction with other people in general. The Subscales reveal that teachers who feel adequate in their inter- Personal relationships tend to be more empathic toward their students. 173 The Distribution Subscale achieved a negative correlation with Flanders' Category 5 and a positive correlation with Category 6. These data would indicate that teachers who are very definite and certain in what they say about themselves tend to reflect Flanders' Category 5 to a lesser extent. They lecture less and give their own Opinions less. Teachers who scored lower on the Distribution Subscale indicated less certainty about their personal statements and tended to be defen— sive and guarded in those statements. The correlation between the Distribution Subscale and Flanders' Category 6 was positive. This correlation would indicate that the greater the teacher certainty, the greater would be the tendency to give directions, commands, or orders to which a pupil is expected to comply. The True-False Subscale was correlated signifi- cantly and positively with FSIA l and 2. High scores on this Subscale indicates that the teacher is achieving self-definition or self-description by focusing on what he ig and is relatively unable to accomplish the same thing by eliminating or rejecting what he is 923° The more positive the self-description, the more the teacher will tend to exhibit Flanders' Categories 1 and 2, or and the more he will tend to use empathy, praise, encouragement. 174 Significant negative correlations appeared between Total Conflict as measured by TSCS and Flanders' Categories 1 and 2. High scores on Total Conflict indi- cated the teacher to be confused, contradictory, and generally confused in self-perception. The negative correlation would indicate, then, that teachers with low scores in Total Conflict tended to reflect Flanders' Categories 1 and 2 to a greater extent than those achiev- ing high scores in Total Conflict. Teachers with less conflict in personality appeared to be more empathic and encouraging toward students in verbal behavior. CHAPTER V SUMMARY, FINDINGS, DISCUSSION, CON- CLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS Summary This study investigated the relationship between seventh grade general music teachers' self-concept and three other classroom variables. The classroom variables were: (1) student attitude toward the general music class and teacher; (2) teacher attitude toward the general music class and the students; and (3) the type of verbal interaction occurring in the general music classroom. The main hypothesis was that seventh grade general music teachers with a high degree of positive self-concept would create a classroom environment in which indirect verbal interaction would occur more frequently than in classrooms whose teachers expressed a more negative self- concept. It was further hypothesized that students would hold a positive attitude toward those music classes in which the teachers expressed a positive self-concept. Finally, it was hypothesized that teachers expressing a high positive self-concept would also possess positive attitudes toward the music class and its students. Other 175 176 concerns of the study were the relationships between the observed variables and the teacher's race and years of teaching experience. A review of literature indicated that the teacher's self-concept was positively related to several classroom variables. Most studies found significant relationships between the teacher's self-concept and various forms of student classroom behavior. Some research indicated positive relationships between the teacher's self-concept and student academic performance. Other researchers cited positive relationships between teacher self-concept and student self-concept. While the relationship between teacher self-concept and certain student variables was supported by a con— siderable amount of research, an even greater number of studies confirmed the relationship between teacher self- concept and teacher behaviors. Significant correlations were obtained in many studies between the teacher's self- concept and the degree of effectiveness and success experienced by the teacher. Other researchers discovered positive correlations between teacher self-concept and feelings of empathy expressed toward students. Teacher self-concept seemed to be positively correlated with the way in which the teacher perceived others and espe— cially students. The apparent relationship between self— concept and behavior tended to support the hypotheses of this study. —‘— 177 Research exploring the potential of verbal inter— action in the classroom suggested that verbal behavior is an extremely complex phenomena which requires great skill to adequately analyze or evaluate. Analysis in many studies supported the hypothesis that the teacher's personality was the prime determiner of the type of verbal interaction which occurred in the classroom. Other studies related the verbal interaction in the classroom to both the teacher's and the student's personalities. Some researchers discovered significant relationships between verbal interaction and the type of subject matter being studied in the classroom. Factual material seemingly necessitated more direct verbal interaction between the teacher and student. The type of verbal interaction as reported by several studies, seemingly influenced student behavior in significant ways. Students exhibited greater insecurity and personal anxiety in classrooms where the quality of verbal interaction was predominantly direct and unempathic. Indirect verbal interaction stimulated creative student behaviors and increased the number of approach behaviors toward a teacher. There is evidence to indicate that students will interact in a manner which allows them to maintain their self-image. Critical, direct teacher verbal behavior is not conducive to student self-enhancement; therefore, conflict arises between the teacher and 178 students. Student personality will influence his verbal interaction and will influence the teacher's verbal behaviors. The review of literature dealing with inter- action tends to support the hypotheses of this study that the teacher's self-concept and personality will influence the verbal interaction which occurs in the classroom. The review of literature assessing the influence of attitude upon teacher and student behavior, indicated mixed results. The personality and self-concept are one of many factors influencing the teacher's and the stu- dent's attitude toward a learning experience. Research would support the position that attitudes, both teacher and student, are translated into actions in different ways. Some research indicated that classroom attitudes were perceived through many subtle behaviors and that initial perceptions were quite accurate. Some researchers found that attitudes were influenced by both teacher and student expectations. Most research indicated that attitude is a multi-dimensional phenomena which may not be adequately measured by self-reporting instruments. The present study included a sample of 32 general music teachers and 739 seventh grade general music stu~ dents from junior high schools and middle schools located in southern Michigan. The teachers and students comprised classrooms in which general music was a required subject 179 in the seventh grade. The sample was drawn from various socio-economic settings and from both rural, suburban, and urban school systems. The teachers voluntarily par- ticipated in the study without pressure from adminis- trators or supervisors. Self-concept data were obtained from the teachers' scores on the Tennessee Self Concept Scale. Teacher attitudes were determined from scores achieved on the Minnesota Teacher Attitude Inventory. Student attitudes were derived from totals expressed on the Minnesota Stu- dent Attitude Inventory. Verbal interaction data were compiled from one hundred minutes of interaction analysis in each class using the Flanders System of Interaction Analysis. Spearman rank-correlation coefficients were com- puted for the classroom variables of teacher self-concept, teacher attitude, student attitude, and verbal interaction analyses. No significant correlation coefficients were found between the independent variable of teacher global self-concept and the dependent variables except in one instance. A significant negative correlation at the .04 level of significance existed between teacher self-concept and Category 9 of the Flanders System of Interaction Analysis. This correlation indicated that teachers whose total self-concept increased also experienced a L¥ 180 decrease in student-initiated verbal interaction. The relationship could also indicate that teachers with more negative self-concepts would tend to have increased student-initiated verbal interaction. When teacher self- concept was considered in terms of the subscales of the Tennessee Self Concept Scale, significant correlation coefficients appeared. This finding indicated that meaningful relationships do exist between the dependent variables and specific areas of the self—concept. The hypotheses tested three different relation- ships: (1) teacher global self-concept and the dependent variables, (2) subcategories of teacher self-concept and the dependent variables, and (3) the relationship existing between the dependent variables. Additional data indicated the relationship of teacher race and years of teaching experience with the variables considered in the study. When the null hypotheses were tested, the following results appeared: 1. There is no significant relationship between the teacher's total self-image score (P+N Score) as measured by the Tennessee Self Concept Scale and the students' positive attitude score as measured by the Minnesota Student Attitude Inventory. Accepted. 2. There is no significant correlation between the teacher's total self-image score (P+N Score) ‘WIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII-Illl--::;__________ 181 as measured by the Tennessee Self Concept Scale and the teacher's total indirect verbal inter- action as determined by the Flanders System of Interaction Analysis. Accepted. There is no significant correlation between the teacher's total self-image score (P+N Score) as measured by the Tennessee Self Concept Scale and the teacher's total direct verbal interaction as measured by the Flanders System of Interaction Analysis. Accepted. There is no significant correlation between the teacher's total self-image score (P+N Score) as measured by the Tennessee Self Concept Scale and the total student verbal interaction as determined by Categories 8 and 9 of the Flanders System of Interaction Analysis. Only Category 9 rejected the null hypothesis. There is no significant correlation between the teacher's self-image score (P+N Score) as measured by the Tennessee Self Concept Scale and Category 10 of the Flanders System of Interaction Analysis. Accepted. There is no significant correlation between the teacher's self-image score (P+N Score) as 10. 182 measured by the Tennessee Self Concept Scale and the teacher's attitude score of the Minnesota Teacher Attitude Inventory. Accepted. There is no significant correlation between the teacher's Subscale scores of the Tennessee Self Concept Scale and the students' attitude score as measured by the Minnesota Student Attitude Inventory. The Subscales of Identity, Family Self, and Social Self rejected the null hypothesis. There is no significant correlation between the teacher's Subscale scores of the Tennessee Self Concept Scale and the teacher's attitude score of the Minnesota Teacher Attitude Inventory. Accepted. There is no significant correlation between the teacher's Subscale scores of the Tennessee Self Concept Scale and the teacher's total indirect verbal interaction as determined by the Flanders System of Interaction Analysis. The Subscales of Physical Self and Net Conflict rejected the null hypothesis. There is no significant correlation between the teacher's Subscale scores of the Tennessee Self Concept Scale and the teacher's total direct 11. 12. 13. 14. 183 verbal interaction as determined by the Flanders System of Interaction Analysis. Rejected by the Subscales of Personal Self, Social Self, and Distribution. There is no significant correlation between the teacher's Subscale scores of the Tennessee Self Concept Scale and the total student verbal inter- action as determined by the Flanders System of Interaction Analysis. The Subscales of Identity, Self Satisfaction, Physical Self, Moral-Ethical Self, Social Self, Variability, and Distribution rejected the null hypothesis. There is no significant correlation between the teacher's Subscale scores of the Tennessee Self Concept Scale and Category 10 of the Flanders System of Interaction Analysis. Accepted. There is no significant correlation between the teacher's total positive score of the Minnesota Teacher Attitude Inventory and the students' total positive score of the Minnesota Student Attitude Inventory. Accepted. There is no significant correlation between the teacher's total positive attitude score of the Minnesota Teacher Attitude Inventory and the 15. l6. 17. 18. 184 teacher's total indirect verbal interaction as determined by the Flanders System of Interaction Analysis. Accepted. There is no significant correlation between the teacher's total positive attitude score of the Minnesota Teacher Attitude Inventory and the teacher's total direct verbal interaction as determined by the Flanders System of Interaction Analysis. Accepted. There is no significant correlation between the teacher's total positive attitude score of the Minnesota Teacher Attitude Inventory and the total student verbal interaction as determined by the Flanders System of Interaction Analysis. Accepted. There is no significant correlation between the teacher's total positive attitude score of the Minnesota Teacher Attitude Inventory and the Category 10 total of the Flanders System of Interaction Analysis. Accepted. There is no significant correlation between the students' total positive attitude score of the Minnesota Student Attitude Inventory and the teacher's total indirect verbal interaction as 185 determined by the Flanders System of Interaction Analysis. The FSIA Categories 1, 2, and 3 rejected the null hypothesis. 19. There is no significant correlation between the students' total positive attitude score of the Minnesota Student Attitude Inventory and the teacher's total direct verbal interaction as determined by the Flanders System of Interaction Analysis. The FSIA Categories 5, 6, and 7 rejected the null hypothesis. 20. There is no significant correlation between the students' total positive attitude score of the Minnesota Student Attitude Inventory and the total student verbal interaction as determined by the Flanders System of Interaction Analysis. The FSIA Category 8 rejected the null hypothesis. 21. There is no significant correlation between the students' total positive attitude score of the Minnesota Student Attitude Inventory and the Category 10 total of the Flanders System of Interaction Analysis. Rejected. Discussion Self—Concept and Teacher Attitude This study hypothesized that there would be a significant correlation between the teacher's self-concept _; 186 and his attitude toward students and teaching. Test _ data did not support this position. In fact, only one significant positive correlation appeared between TSCS Net Conflict and the MTAI. Other significance levels ranged from .49 to .07 indicating the degree to which these variables were unrelated. This hypothesis was based on the belief that two aspects of personality such as the self-concept and attitude would possess a natural affinity. The review of literature confirmed the belief that the self-concept does influence behavior. In fact, some research indi- cated it determined behavior. It was also reasoned that attitude would likewise affect behavior. The influence exerted by both self-concept and attitude on behavior could be expected to be related. Of course, the results of this study did not support the assumption. Two conclusions would seem appropriate when con- sidering these data. The first conclusion might be that, in fact, there is no relationship between self-concept and attitude. A second, and more probable, explanation of the nonsignificant correlations could be attributed to failure on the part of the instruments to adequately measure the two phenomena. When global self-concept was correlated with the other variable considered in the study, few significant correlations were obtained. However, the sub-scales of the TSCS produced meaningful 187 relationships in several areas. It might be assumed, also, that various components of attitude would reach significant correlations with the other variables in the study. It would seem that the more specific the information regarding attitude or self-concept, the more useful that information might become especially if pre- dictive or causal factors were of interest. The authors of the teacher attitude inventory considered a total attitude score to be adequate for assessing an over-all picture of a teacher's attitude toward teaching and stu- dents. A total attitude score may not have been appro- priate for this study or other studies that are con- sidering specific aspects of teacher personality. Self—Concept and Student Attitude Correlational studies have shown that significant relationships existed between student attitudes and other classroom variables. This study hypothesized that such significant relationships would extend, also, to the teachers' self-concept. The relationship between teacher self-concept and student attitude was partially supported by this research. As was true with the cor- relation of global self-concept and teacher attitude, no significant correlation appeared between the teacher's global self-concept and a total student attitude score. However, when various aspects of teacher self-concept 188 were correlated with student attitude, significant coefficients appeared. Students responded favorably to teachers attitudinally when the teachers had established a definite identity of themselves. The teachers were not questioning who they were because identity had been well established in their minds. Teachers who felt secure in their homelife or had satisfying domestic relationships also had students who maintained a posi- tive attitude toward the teacher and the class. Students responded with positive attitudes toward teachers who perceived themselves as successful in their social relationships. These data indicate that teachers who feel secure in these interpersonal relationships-—Family Self and Social Self--also have students who perceive the teacher and class in a positive attitudinal way. This, by no means, infers a causal relationship at this time. The data suggest only that where one variable exists, the other will also be in evidence. Although not testing any of the hypotheses directly, student attitudinal responses were identified by sex. Girls' attitude correlated significantly with seven subscales of TSCS and also with the total self- concept score of TSCS. Boys achieved a significant negative correlation between their attitude and the Total Conflict expressed by the teacher. These findings would suggest that in this study, the teachers with more 189 integrated self-concepts also had male students who expressed more positive attitudes toward their teachers. As the teacher's internal conflict increases, the boys' attitudes tended to become more negative. This is an interesting relationship between which the girls did not produce a significant correlation. The degree of sig- nificant correlations between these variables would suggest that in this study the girls expressed more positive attitudes toward various aspects of the teacher's self-concept and the music class itself. This finding is consistent with other research which proposes that at this age girls do, in fact, have more positive attitudes toward school in general. These data also lend support to an increasing number of edu- cational leaders who contend that the public grade schools are girl oriented. The disparity between the girls' attitudes and those expressed by the boys could also be interpreted to mean that girls at this age hold a more positive attitude toward music than do boys. (Girls and boys were almost equally divided in this study.) Specifically, girls achieved a significant positive correlation with the Total Self Concept Score, Identity, Self Satisfaction, Moral Ethical Self, Per- sonal Self, Family Self, Social Self, and Distribution Subscale scores of the TSCS. These correlations indicate that girls hold positive attitudes toward 190 teachers and their classes when those teachers have expressed positive self-concepts. As the teachers increase in the degree of their positive self-concepts, female students also tended to become more positive in their attitudes toward the teachers and their classes. . Data were not accumulated to determine the correlation between boys and girls and the sex of the teacher. The disparity between the attitudes of boys and girls would indicate that variables other than self-concept are influencing boys' attitudes toward the teachers in this study. As has been suggested previously, subscales on the student attitude inventory might reveal more sig- nificant correlations and produce more specific data. Self-Concept and Verbal Interaction This study tested the hypothesis that teachers with more positive self-concepts would also utilize a higher degree of indirect verbal interaction than those teachers with more negative self-concepts. The hypothesis was only partially accepted. The hypothesis that teachers with positive self-concepts would also experience more student verbal interaction was partially supported. The hypothesis that a more positive teacher self-concept would result in fewer incidents of confused or silent periods during the class session was not accepted. 191 The degree of directness of interaction was determined by totalling the number of responses in Categories 1, 2, 3, and 4 of the Flanders System of Interaction Analysis. The degree of indirectness was also interpreted by using Categories 1, 2, and 3 of FSIA. The latter figuration eliminated the subject matter input of Category 4, asking questions. The correlation coefficients achieved between self-concept and indirect verbalization were negative correlations in all but two instances. Even though only four of the correlations were significant, the overall relationship was interesting. The negative relationship would indi- cate that as self-concept became more positive the reliance upon indirect verbal behavior tended to decrease. This trend would also suggest that teachers who exhibited a tendency to become more secure, self-assured, and self- satisfied become more emphatic and direct and also less empathic. If this assumption is acceptable, then insecure teachers would be more empathic and more indirect in their verbal encounter with students. It should be remembered that most of the coefficients were not sig- nificant, however. Significant negative relationships existed between Physical Self and both groupings of indirectness. The more positively the teacher perceives his body, his physical appearance, and his sexuality, the less need he would feel to employ indirect verbal 192 interaction. These data would tend to support the pre- vious discussion. When physical security or satisfaction is high, indirect verbal behavior tends to diminish. The correlation between direct verbal behavior and Physical Self was not at all significant which would indicate some discrepancy in the findings. The sig- nificant correlation existing between indirect verbal behavior (Categories 1, 2, and 3) and the True False Subscale indicated that as the teacher accentuates the positive in his own self, he was also prone to increase his reliance on indirect verbal behavior. True False scores suggest the degree to which a person achieves self-description by focusing on what he is instead of what he is not. Higher scores on the Net Conflict Scale represent a person who is over affirming his positive attributes. A significant negative correlation between Categories 1, 2, and 3 and Net Conflict suggests that the teacher who over affirmed his positive aspects tended to rely less on indirect verbal behavior. Indirect categories of FSIA, when correlated individually with Subscales of TSCS, revealed several significant correlations. Physical Self maintained its negative correlation with only Categories 3 and 4 of the indirect group. These statistics indicate that as the teachers' perception of their physical self becomes more positive, their reliance on questions and using 193 student ideas, suggestions, or comments tends to lessen. These correlations clarify the relationships discovered between the indirect grouping of Categories. The relationship with indirectness actually existed most strongly with Categories 3 and 4. Category 1 of the FSIA demonstrated significant correlations with Self Satisfaction, Family Self, Social Self, True False, and Total Conflict. Of these correlations only Total Con- flict produced negative results. Category 1 indicates the degree of empathy toward students during verbal interaction. Teachers who are more satisfied and secure with the self generally and also in both domestic and social situation tended to be more empathic verbally. The correlation between True False and Category 1 indi- cated that the more positiveness exhibited in responses to questions concerning self, the more use there seemed to be made of empathy. Total Conflict indicates the degree of conflict existing within the personality. The negative correlation between the variables indicates that as conflict is reduced in teacher personality, the more empathy he will tend to express verbally toward students. Category 2 of the FSIA was significantly correlated with True False and Total Conflict. The positive correlation between True False and Category 2 discloses that as the individual emphasizing his positive characteristics, also increases his tendency to use verbal 194 praise or encouragement. Middle range scores on the True False Subscale indicate a person is able to achieve self- description by affirming what is self and eliminating what is not self. Higher scores in this area suggest that the individual is not approaching a normal balance between the extremes. In this correlation the higher the positiveness, the higher the tendency to use Category 2. The negative correlation shown between Total Conflict and Category 2 of the FSIA suggested that the less conflict in the teacher's personality, the more he will tend to use praise and encouragement in his verbal interaction. As has been displayed in other correlations, teachers with integrated self-concepts achieve more indirectness in their verbal interaction. When self-concept attributes were correlated with direct verbal behavior, most of the relationships were found to be nonsignificant. Seven significant cor- relation coefficients appeared between the variables. The Personal Self Subscale and Categories 5, 6, and 7 produced a significant negative correlation. The more highly the teacher perceived his personal worth or adequacy, the less apt he would be to use direct verbal interaction. Teachers with a high degree of positive personal regard, then, will tend to use more indirect verbal interaction. The same negative relation— ship also existed between the Social Self and Distribution 195 Subscales and Categories 5, 6, and 7. This finding reveals that individuals who speak about themselves with certainty and definiteness and perceive of themselves as socially adequate will tend to use direct verbal behavior to a lesser degree. The Distribution Subscale displayed a positive correlation with direct verbal behavior when subject matter content was eliminated (Categories 6 and 7 only). This would suggest that teachers who express certainty and definiteness about themselves might also be more apt to be critical of students and issue more directives to them. When the Distribution Subscale was compared with Category 6 individually, a significant positive correlation was achieved. Category 7 when correlated separately with Distribution did not produce a significant finding indicating that the positive cor- relation between Distribution and direct verbal behavior (Categories 6 and 7) was in reality only achieving sig- nificance with Category 6. This would then indicate a relationship between an individual's certainty and definiteness about self with giving orders or directions to students. This type of emphatic individual would find the giving of specific instructions to be consistent with his personality. It was found that this type of individual achieved a significant negative correlation with Category 5. This finding possibly suggests that a teacher scoring high on the Distribution Subscale 196 would feel little necessity to become involved in lengthy lectures or discussions; whereas the less sure individual might feel some security in lengthy discussions or lectures partially to reassure himself. Category 7, when correlated individually, did achieve significance with the Self Criticism Subscale. This finding showed that those individuals who indulged in a high degree of self-criticism also tended to criticize others to a higher degree, in this case students. The hypothesis that classes whose teachers held positive self-concepts would result in a higher degree of student verbal interaction was partially accepted. Significant positive correlations appeared between Category 8, teacher-initiated student interaction, and Self Satisfaction, Physical Self, Moral Ethical Self, and Distribution. Teachers who have a high degree of self- acceptance, physically and morally, and express a high degree of certainty and definiteness, seemingly create an environment in which they elicit a high degree of student interaction. Because of their positive feelings toward self, they are not threatened by student involvement. These teachers feel secure in their ability to cope with the student interaction. Category 9, student-initiated interaction, exhibited significant correlations with Total Self Concept, Identity, Self Satisfaction, Physical Self, Moral Ethical Self, Social Self, and Variability. 197 While Variability produced a positive correlation, the meaning of the relationship was negative. Variability reveals inconsistencies or lack of integration from one area of the self-concept to another. These findings indicate that when teachers feel insecure or perceive themselves negatively, students tend to recognize the teacher's self-doubt and initiate their own interaction. Category 9 might be construed in two distinct ways. Either the students are so stimulated or motivated by the environment the teacher has skillfully created that they initiate verbal interaction or the students, sensing the teacher's self-doubts, take charge of the situation. The data support the latter interpretation. The hypothesis that a significant correlation would exist between Category 10 of the FSIA and the self-concept was not accepted. Of the fifteen cor- relation coefficients produced for this hypothesis, thirteen were negative. Although not significant, the negative relationships were worth noting. Relationship of Dependent Variables The hypothesis indicating a significant cor- relation between teacher attitude and student attitude was not supported. Although total scores produced by the instruments did not achieve significance, subscale scores, had they been available, might have produced something of significance. IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIlll---::;______________ 198 The MTAI when correlated with the FSIA achieved significance only with Category 6. These results signify that as teacher attitude toward the students becomes more positive, the teacher's use of commands, orders, and instructions also tends to increase. Those teachers who become more positively identified with their classes feel more secure in their demands upon the class which results in greater use of directions and orders. Student attitude when correlated with the Flanders' Categories produced several significant cor- relations. A significant positive correlation appeared between student attitude and Categories 1, 2, and 3 indicating that as the teacher's use of indirectness increased, student attitude tended to become more posi— tive. The significant negative correlation between stu- dent attitude and the teacher's use of Categories 5, 6, and 7 supports the hypothesis stating that relationship. It should be noted, however, that significance was achieved between student attitude and direct verbal interaction only when Category 5 was included. This would suggest that lecturing and opinions expressed by teachers are closely related to negative student atti- tudes. Student attitude correlated significantly and positively with Category 8. If students possess a posi- tive attitude toward a class, there will tend to be more student response toward teacher initiations. The 199 negative correlation between MSAI and Category 10 is an understandable relationship. The more positive students' attitudes toward a class tend to be, the less they will engage in disruptive talk or create periods of confusion. Girls' attitudes produced significant positive relation- ships with Categories 2 and 3. This would indicate that the teachers who engaged in praise and use of student ideas also had female students who expressed more posi- tive attitudes. Interestingly, boys' attitudes did not correlate significantly with either category. Boys, it would appear, respond to praise differently than girls. ‘ Both boys' and girls' attitudes reached significance with Category 7. The negative correlation indicated that neither boys nor girls tend to respond positively to criticism. Boys' attitudes correlated negatively with Category 10. Total student attitude also achieved negative correlation with Category 10. Since the girls indicated no significant correlation with Category 10, it might be assumed that boys' attitudes are reflected in the amount of confusion and disorder which occurs in the classroom. The more negative the attitudes, the greater the trend toward confusion. A significant nega- tive correlation was also reached between boys' attitudes and teachers' attitudes. When total student attitude was correlated with teacher attitude, no significance was reached. The relationship, however, was also 200 negative. These data suggest that boys in this study not only reacted negatively to positive teacher attitudes but they also responded differently to similar stimuli than did the girls. It must be cautioned here that the two variables only correlated negatively and no causal influence should be inferred. Related Questions This study explored the relationship between the teachers' race and years of teaching experience and the variables considered in the hypotheses. Black teachers in the study correlated significantly with the following subscales of the TSCS: (1) Self Satisfaction, (2) Per- sonal Self, (3) Social Self, and (4) Distribution. The findings suggest that black teachers expressed a high degree of self-acceptance, personal worth and adequacy, efficacy in social situations, and a high degree of cer- tainty in his expressions about himself. The data indi- cated that the black teachers in this study perceived themselves more favorably than white teachers. This finding is consistent with research showing black stu- dents to possess more positive self-concepts than white students. White teachers tended to use indirect verbal behavior to a greater extent than black teachers, how- ever. As was suggested earlier there seemed to be a positive correlation between self-concept and the use 201 of indirect verbal interaction. These data would tend to question this relationship. The teachers' years of experience was correlated with variables of this study. The significant negative correlation between years of experience and Self Criticism of the TSCS indicated that teachers are apt to become less critical of themselves with increased teaching experience. With increased experience, and hopefully, skill, teachers tend to become more secure not only in teaching, but in life in general. Research reported in Chapter II indicated that experienced teachers did become more tense in the teaching situation, however. The two findings are not entirely inconsistent. Lessened self— criticism indicates more self-acceptance and security in teaching behavior. Increased tenseness would indicate frustration when the teachers' secure and accepted teaching methods and objectives are not successful or accomplished. Significant positive relationships existed between years of experience and student attitude. These results are encouraging for experienced teachers. Posi- tive correlations were achieved not only with the total student attitude, but also with the total boys' and total girls' student attitude. In this study, then, students tended to have more favorable attitudes toward exper- ienced teachers. 202 Years of experience produced significant cor- relations with Categories 6, 7, 8, and 10 of the FSIA. Category 6 resulted in a negative correlation. Exper- ienced teachers relied to a lesser extent on giving directions, orders, or commands with which students were expected to comply. With increased years of exper- ience, teachers used less criticism of students and tended to justify their position to a lesser extent. Increased years of experience seemed to result in a higher occurrence of Category 8, teacher-initiated student verbal interaction. The appearance of Category 10, confusion, silence, and muffled conversations, seemed to diminish as teacher experience increased. These findings suggest that in this study, teachers appeared less direct as experience increased. Inter- estingly, the data did not suggest that they became more indirect with experience. Conclusions Analysis of the research data supports the following conclusions: 1. When teachers perceive themselves as adequate and successful in their interpersonal relation— ships, their students will tend to have positive attitudes toward that teacher. 203 Teachers who have integrated self-concepts and a high degree of self-acceptance will tend to have students who express positive attitudes toward that teacher and his class. Teachers who maintain negative concepts of their body, state of health, physical appearance, skills, and sexuality tend to use questions and student ideas in their verbal interaction to a greater extent than those teachers who hold positive concepts of the same areas. Teachers with a positive self-concept and a low degree of conflict in their personalities will tend to be more empathic, encouraging and praising in their verbal interaction than other teachers. The higher the teacher's sense of personal worth and adequacy, the less he tends to rely upon direct verbal interaction. Teachers who are very definite and certain in what they say about themselves will tend to cri- ticize and give orders and commands more than less definite teachers. Teachers who criticize themselves severely will tend to criticize others to the same degree. 10. 11. 12. 13. 204 The more positively the teacher tends to perceive himself, the more teacher-initiated student verbal interaction he will achieve in his classes. As a teacher's degree of self-satisfaction or self-acceptance increases, his classes' use of student-initiated verbal interaction tends to decrease. Teachers with more positive attitudes toward students and their classes will tend to give more verbal commands and instructions. If student attitudes toward a class are positive, the teacher will tend to use a high degree of verbal empathy and praise and will also use student ideas increasingly. When student atti— tudes are negative, the teacher also employs a high degree of direct verbal interaction. Classes in which student attitude is positive will also exhibit a high degree of teacher- initiated student verbal interaction. Classes in which student attitudes are negative will also experience a higher degree of con— fusion, extraneous conversation, and disorgani- zation. w 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 205 When boys express a negative attitude toward the class and its teacher, the teacher tends to express positive attitudes toward the students. Black teachers express a higher degree of self— satisfaction or self-acceptance than white teachers. White teachers tend to use more indirect verbal interaction than black teachers. Teachers with a greater amount of teaching experience tend to exhibit less self-criticism. As the teacher's years of experience increases, his students' attitudes tend to become more positive toward that teacher. As the teacher's years of experience increases, his use of verbal interaction encompassing orders, directions, and criticism tends to decrease. His classes also experience fewer confused and disorganized times. As the teacher's years of experience increases, the incidence of teacher-initiated student verbal interaction also increases. Implications The recognition by educators of the importance of the teacher's self—concept and attitude upon 206 teacher-student interaction could have the following implications for music education: 1. Teacher training institutions could expand their classroom instruction and field experiences to include preparation for profitable teacher- student interaction and Opportunities to apply those interaction skills. 2. In-service training could profitably include instruction designed to improve teacher-student interpersonal relationships. 3. Public school personnel officers could utilize the results of self-concept and attitude inven- tories in their selection of new music teachers. Recommendations 1. A replication of this study with certain modifi- cations is recommended. A study using a larger teacher sample might well lead to different con- clusions. The sample for the present study was relatively small. A team of verbal interaction observers would certainly add to the validity of future studies. 2. A study would be appropriate to assess the variables in the present study over a span of time. This type of study could determine the 207 teacher's influence upon student attitude and verbal interaction. Data gathered at the beginning of a term could be compared with results at the conclusion of the term. An effort should be made to pinpoint specific aspects of both teacher and student attitude. Global attitude scores deprive the researcher of specific knowledge of the component of atti- tude. Such information would enhance the value of future studies in their probing of the cause and effect of classroom interaction. APPENDIX CRITERION INSTRUMENTS TENNESSEE SELF CONCEPT SCALE by William H. Fitts, PhD. Published by Counselor Recordings and Tests Box 6184 — Acklen Station Nashville, Tennessee 37212 208 209 INSTRUCTIONS On the tOp line of the separate answer sheet, fill in your name and the other information except for the time information in the last three boxes. You will fill these boxes in later. Write only on the answer sheet. Do not put any marks in this booklet. The statements in this booklet are to help you describe yourself as you see yourself. Please respond to them as if you were describing yourself to yourself. Do not omit any item! Read each statement carefully; then select one of the five responses listed below. On your answer sheet, put a circle around the response you chose. If you want to change an answer after you have circled it, do not erase it but put an X mark through the response and then circle the response you want. When you are ready to start, find the box on your answer sheet marked time started and record the time. When you are finished, record the time finished in the box on your answer sheet marked time finished. As you start, be sure that your answer sheet and this booklet are lined up evenly so that the item numbers match each other. Remember, put a circle around the response number you have chosen for each statement. Responses Completely Mostly Partly false Mostly Completely false false and true true partly true 1 2 3 4 5 You will find these response numbers repeated at the bottom of each page to help you remember them. William H. Fitts, 1964 210 Page I It???” I. I have a healthy body ................................................... 1 3. I am an attractive person ................................................ 3 5. I consider myself a sloppy person ......................................... 5 I9. I am a decent sort of person ............................................. 19 2I . I am an honest person .................................................... 21 23. I am a bad person ...................................................... 23 37. I am a cheerful person .................................................. 37 39. I am a calm and easy going person ........................................ 39 41. I am a nobody ......................................................... 41 55. I have a family that would always help me in any kind of trouble ............. SS 57. I am a member of a happy family ......................................... 57 59. My friends have no confidence in me ..................................... 59 73. I am a friendly person ................................................... 73 75. I am popular with men .................................................. 75 77. I am not interested in what other people do ................................ 77 9| . I do not always tell the truth ............................................. 91 93. I get angry sometimes ................................................... 93 Completely Mostly Partly false Mostly Completely Reslponses- false false and true true partly true I 2 3 4 5 Item Page 2 No. 211 2. I like to look nice and neat all the time ................................. - 4. I am full of aches and pains ........................................... - 6. I am a sick person .................................................... - 20. I am a religious person ................................................ - 22. I am a moral failure .................................................. - 24. I am a morally weak person ............................................ - 38 40 . I have a lot of self-control ............................................ - . I am a hateful person ................................................. - 42. I am losing my mind .................................................. - 56. I am an important person to my friends and family ......................... - 58. I am not loved by my family ........................................... - 60. I feel that my family doesn't trust me .................................. .. - 74. I am popular with women ........................................ . ...... - 76. I am mad at the whole world ........................................... - 78. I am hard to be friendly with ........................................... - 92. Once in a while I think of things too bad to talk about ............... . . . . . - 94. Sometimes, when I am not feeling well, I am cross ........................ - Completely Mostly Partly false Mostly Completely 5P0nses- false false and true true partly true I 2 3 4 5 t 212 Page 3 §oem 7. I am neither too fat nor too thin ........................................ 7 9. I like my looks iust the way they are .................................... 9 . 11 II . I would like to change some parts of my body ............................. . . . . 25 25. I am satisfied wnth my moral behavuor .................................... 27. I am satisfied with my relationship to God ................................ 27 29. I ought to go to church more ...................................... 29 43. I am satisfied to be just what I am ....................................... 43 45. I am just as nice as I should be ......................................... 45 47 47. I despise myself ...................................................... 6l. I am satisfied with my family relationships ................................ 61 63. I understand my family as well as I should ................................ 63 . 65 65. I should trust my family more ........................................... 79. I am as sociable as I want to be ......................................... 79 81 . I try to please others, but I don't overdo it ............................... 81 83. I am no good at all from a social standpoint ............................... 83 95. I do not like everyone I know ........................................... 95 97. Once in a while, I laugh at a dirty ioke ................................. 97 Completely Mostly Partly false Mostly Completely Re$POrises- false false and true true partly true I 2 3 4 5 Page 4 flict)?!“ 213 ' 8. I am neither too tall nor.too short ..................................... - IO. I don't feel as well as I should ........................................ - I2. I should have more sex appeal ........................................ - 26. I am as religious as I want to be ....................................... - 28. I wish I could be more trustworthy ..................................... - 30. I shouldn't tell so many lies .......................................... - 44. I am as smart as I want to be .......................................... - 46. I am not the person I would like to be .................................. - 48. I wish I didn‘t give up as easily as I do ................................. - 62. I treat my parents as well as I should (Use past tense if parents are not living).- 64. I am too sensitive to things my family say .............................. . - 66. I should love my family more .......................................... - 80. I am satisfied with the way I treat other people .......................... - 82. I should be more polite to others ....................................... - 84. I ought to get along better with other people ............................ - 96. I gossip a little at times .............................................. - 98. At times I feel like swearing ........................... I ............... - Completely Mostly Partly false Mostly Completely ReSpOnses - false false and true true partly true I 2 3 4 5 214 Page 5 I3. I take good care of myself physically ................................. I5. I try to be careful about my appearance ............................... I7. I often act like I am "all thumbs" .................................... 3l . I am true to my religion in my everyday life .......................... .. 33. I try to change when I know I'm doing things that are wrong .............. 35. I sometimes do very bad things ....................................... 49. I can always take care of myself in any situation ....................... 5l . I take the blame for things without getting mad ......................... 53. I do things without thinking about them first ........................... 67. I try to play fair with my friends and family ............................ 69. I take a real interest in my family .................................... 7l . I give in to my parents. (Use past tense if parents are not living) ......... 85. I try to understand the other fellow's point of view ...................... 87. I get along well with other people .................................... 89. I do not forgive others easily ........................................ 99. I would rather win than lose in a game ................................ Completely Mostly Partly false Mostly Completely Responses - false false and true true partly true I 2 3 4 5 Item No. 13 15 17 31 33 35 49 51 53 67 69 71 85 87 89 99 i“Pill: Item 215 Page 6 I4. I feel good most of the time ........................................... I6. I do poorly in sports and games ........................................ I8. I am a poor sleeper .................................................. 32. I do what is right most of the time ..................................... 34. I sometimes use unfair means to get ahead .............................. 36. I have trouble doing the things that are right ............................ 50. I solve my problems quite easily ....................................... 52. I change my mind a lot .............................................. 54. I try to run away from my problems ..................................... 68. I do my share of work at home ........................................ 70. I quarrel with my family .............................................. 72. I do not act like my family thinks I should .............................. 86. I see good points in all the peOpIe I meet .............................. - 88. I do not feel at ease with other peOple .............................. . - 90. I find it hard to talk with strangers ..................................... - l00. Once in a while I put off until tomorrow what I ought to do today .......... - Completely Mostly Partly false Mostly Completely Responses- fa] se false and true true partly true I 2 3 4 5 —¥— 216 MINNESOTA STUDENT ATTITUDE INVENTORY This is not a test because there are no wrong answers. The answer to each question is A MATTER OF OPINION and your true opinion, whatever it is, IS THE RIGHT ANSWER. You will be asked a lot of questions about how much you like this class, the teacher, and the work you are doing here. All the questions refer to THIS ONE CLASS AND THIS PARTICULAR TEACHER. By giving frank, true answers to Show exactly how you feel, you can help us understand the opinions of students. DIRECTIONS: 1. Please make sure your name is on the answer sheet. 2. Do not Skip any questions--answer each one carefully. 3. Make sure that the number on the answer sheet matches the question number when you mark your answer. Double check when you are asked. EXAMPLE: 0. IN THIS CLASS WE RECITE OUT LOUD. Here are the four alternatives you can choose from. A--every day; B--most days; C--a few days; D--no days. One of these will be most true for you. Here is how you will decide which one is most true for you. 1. If you think you recite out loud every day in this class, you should choose "A"--every day, and put an X on "A" on your answer sheet. OR 2. If you don't think you recite out loud in this class at all, you should choose "D"--no days, and put an X on "D" on your answer sheet. OR 3. If you are not quite sure, but think you recite out loud quite often, you should choose "B"-- most days, and put an X on "B" on your answer sheet. OR 4. If you think you recite out loud only once in a while, you should choose "C"--a few days, and put an X on "C" on your answer sheet. Sometimes you must choose your answer from A--every day, B--most days; C--a few days, or D-—no days, as we have just shown you. Question number 1 on your paper is this same kind. On other questions you must choose from A--strongly agree, B--agree, C--disagree, and D——strongly disagree. You will see clearly when we want you to do this, because your choices are written under each question. Here is an example of this other type of question. 217 EXAMPLE: 00. I THINK MY HOMEWORK IS VERY HARD. Here are the four alternatives you can choose from. A--strongly agree; B--agree; C--disagree; or D--strongly disagree. One of these will be most true for you. Here is how you will decide which one is most true for you. 1. If you think that your homework is very hard most of the time, you should choose answer "A"--strongly agree, and put an X on "A" on your answer sheet. OR 2. If you don't think that your homework is very hard, you should choose answer "D"--strongly disagree and put an X on "D" on your answer sheet. OR 3. If you are not quite sure, but you tend to find your homework hard more than half the time, choose answer "B"--agree, and put an X on "B" on your answer sheet. OR 4. If your homework tends to be hard less than half the time, choose answer "C"--disagree, and put an X on ”C" on your answer sheet. DO NOT WRITE ON THIS QUESTIONNAIRE BECAUSE OTHER STUDENTS WILL HAVE TO USE IT. MINNESOTA STUDENT ATTITUDE INVENTORY 1. When this teacher asks us to be quiet, we know there is a good reason. A-—EVERY DAY B—-MOST DAYS C--A FEW DAYS D--NO DAYS 2. This teacher makes you feel good when you do your work well. A--EVERY DAY B--MOST DAYS C--A FEW DAYS D--NO DAYS 3. This teacher never tries to make you feel ashamed. A--STR0NGLY AGREE B--AGREE C—-DISAGREE D--STR0NGLY DISAGREE 4. This teacher becomes confused easily. A--STRONGLY AGREE B--AGREE C--DISAGREE D--STRONGLY DISAGREE 5. We behave well in this class even when the teacher is out of the room. A--STRONGLY AGREE B--AGREE C--DISAGREE D--STRONGLY DISAGREE 6. Most of us get pretty bored in this class. A--EVERY DAY B--MOST DAYS C--A FEW DAYS D--NO DAYS 7. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20, 218 This teacher wants to check our work to make sure we are on the right track. A--EVERY DAY B--MOST DAYS C--A FEW DAYS D--NO DAYS I'm afraid of the grade(s) this teacher will give me. A--STRONGLY AGREE B--AGREE C--DISAGREE D--STRONGLY DISAGREE Sometimes things "get out of control" in this class. A--EVERY DAY B-eMOST DAYS C--A FEW DAYS D--NO DAYS This teacher says something nice when my work is well done. A--STRONGLY AGREE B--AGREE C--DISAGREE D--STRONGLY DISAGREE This teacher never asks trick questions to show how dumb we are. A--STRONGLY AGREE B--AGREE D--STRONGLY DISAGREE C--DISAGREE It is fun to see how much we can whisper before we get caught. A--EVERY DAY B--MOST DAYS C--A FEW DAYS D--NO DAYS In this class I pretend to be busy even when I'm not. A--EVERY DAY B--MOST DAYS C--A FEW DAYS D--NO DAYS Our teacher never gives us extra assignments as punishment. A--STRONGLY AGREE B--AGREE C--DISAGREE D--STRONGLY DISAGREE If you want to work alone, this teacher will let you. A--EVERY DAY B--MOST DAYS C--A FEW DAYS D--NO DAYS The Capitol of the United States is located in Seattle, Washington. A--STRONGLY AGREE B--AGREE D--STRONGLY DISAGREE C--DISAGREE This teacher is too bossy. A--EVERY DAY B--MOST DAYS C--A FEW DAYS D--NO DAYS This teacher punishes me for things I don't do. A--EVERY DAY B--MOST DAYS C--A FEW DAYS D--NO DAYS This teacher threatens us, but we know he(she) doesn't mean it. A--EVERY DAY B--MOST DAYS C--A FEW DAYS D--NO DAYS This teacher asks our opinion in planning work to be done. A--EVERY DAY B--MOST DAYS C--A FEW DAYS D--NO DAYS 219 21. I just don't trust this teacher. A—-STRONGLY AGREE B--AGREE C--DISAGREE D--STRONGLY DISAGREE 22. This teacher likes us to help each other with our work. A--EVERY DAY B--MOST DAYS C--A FEW DAYS D--NO DAYS 23. This teacher is too strict. A--EVERY DAY B--MOST DAYS C--A FEW DAYS D--NO DAYS 24. Sometimes just thinking about this class makes me sick. A-—STRONGLY AGREE B--AGREE C--DISAGREE D--STRONGLY DISAGREE 25. This teacher never "picks on" certain boys and girls: A--STRONGLY AGREE B--AGREE C--DISAGREE D--STRONGLY DISAGREE 26. Our school work is done exactly as the teacher says and no other way will do. A—-EVERY DAY B--MOST DAYS C--A FEW DAYS D--NO DAYS 27. Sometimes I think this teacher is deaf. A--STRONGLY AGREE B-—AGREE C--DISAGREE D--STRONGLY DISAGREE 28. I have bad dreams about this class. A—-STRONGLY AGREE B--AGREE C--DISAGREE D--STRONGLY DISAGREE 29. I find it easy to talk to this teacher. A--EVERY DAY B--MOST DAYS C--A FEW DAYS D--NO DAYS 30. I think this teacher has a grudge against me. A--EVERY DAY B--MOST DAYS C—-A FEW DAYS D--NO DAYS 31. I'm afraid to raise my hand in this class. A--EVERY DAY B—-MOST DAYS C--A FEW DAYS D--NO DAYS 32. Minnesota is the largest state in the Union. A--STRONGLY AGREE B--AGREE C--DISAGREE D--STRONGLY DISAGREE 33. This teacher likes us to go ahead on our own. A—-EVERY DAY B--MOST DAYS C--A FEW DAYS D--NO DAYS 34. There is something about this class that makes me feel very uneasy. A--EVERY DAY B—-MOST DAYS C--A FEW DAYS D--NO DAYS 35- If I could get away with it, I'd sure like to tell this teacher off! Y -- C--DISAGREE D--STRONGL A—-STRONGLY AGREE B AGREE DISAGREE A 36. 37. 38. 39. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 220 This teacher allows students to take charge of the class even when he(she) is in the room. A--EVERY DAY B--MOST DAYS C--A FEW DAYS D—-NO DAYS It seems like I never do anything right in this class. A--STRONGLY AGREE B-—AGREE C--DISAGREE D--STRONGLY DISAGREE It seems that somebody is always getting punished in this class. A—-EVERY DAY B--MOST DAYS C-—A FEW DAYS D—-NO DAYS Most of the work we do in this class we plan ourselves. A--EVERY DAY B--MOST DAYS C--A FEW DAYS D--NO DAYS This class is noisy and fools around a lot. A--EVERY DAY B—-MOST DAYS C--A FEW DAYS D--NO DAYS This teacher sends boys and girls out of the room as punish— ment. A-—EVERY DAY B-—MOST DAYS C—-A FEW DAYS D-—NO DAYS I get along well with this teacher. A—-EVERY DAY B--MOST DAYS C—-A FEW DAYS D--NO DAYS This teacher can't tell whether we've done our work well or not. A--STRONGLY AGREE B--AGREE C--DISAGREE D--STRONGLY DISAGREE I wish I could get eVen with this teacher. A-—EVERY DAY B—-MOST DAYS C--A FEW DAYS D--NO DAYS If this teacher were absent, we could still figure out what to do next. A——EVERY DAY B--MOST DAYS C--A FEW DAYS D—-NO DAYS This teacher is very unfriendly. A--EVERY DAY B-—MOST DAYS C--A FEW DAYS D--NO DAYS In this class we fool around a lot in spite of the teacggé. A-—EVERY DAY B--MOST DAYS C——A FEW DAYS D-—NO D II Lake Superior is one of the "Great Lakes. __ A--STRONGLY AGREE B--AGREE C--DISAGREE D giggggg: This teacher has lots of fun with us. _ A--EVERY DAY B--MOST DAYS C--A FEW DAYS D- NO DAYS 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64. 221 This teacher will punish the whole class when he(she) can't find out who did something bad. A--EVERY DAY B--MOST DAYS C--A FEW DAYS D--NO DAYS You can't walk around in this class without permission. A--STRONGLY AGREE B--AGREE C--DISAGREE D--STRONGLY DISAGREE If there were no tests, I would work just as hard in this class. A--EVERY DAY B—-MOST DAYS C--A FEW DAYS D--NO DAYS This teacher has some special favorites or "teacher's pets." A--STRONGLY AGREE B--AGREE C--DISAGREE D--STRONGLY DISAGREE There are times in this class when I almost want to cry. A--EVERY DAY B--MOST DAYS C--A FEW DAYS D--NO DAYS I really like this teacher. A--EVERY DAY B--MOST DAYS C--A FEW DAYS D--NO DAYS There are things I do nearly every day that I hOpe this teacher won't find out. A--STRONGLY AGREE B--AGREE C--DISAGREE D--STRONGLY DISAGREE This teacher makes sure WE understand our work. A--EVERY DAY B--MOST DAYS C--A FEW DAYS D--NO DAYS I get nervous and upset about this class. A--EVERY DAY B--MOST DAYS C--A FEW DAYS D--NO DAYS I can't do my best work in this class. A--EVERY DAY B--MOST DAYS C--A FEW DAYS D--NO DAYS This teacher has lost the respect of the Class. “ B--AGREE C--DISAGREE D--STRONGLY A STRONGLY AGREE DISAGREE This teacher is too busy to talk with me. A--EVERY DAY B--MOST DAYS C--A FEW DAYS D—-No DAYS When we raise a fuss, this teacher gives in. A--EVERY DAY B-—MoST DAYS C-—A FEW DAYS D--NO DAYS ' ' ' ' hand. This teacher keeps order With a fair and firm A--EVERY DAY B--MOST DAYS C-—A FEW DAYS D--NO DAYS In the United States a quarter (25 cents) is larger than a dime (10 cents). Y -- C--DISAGREE D--STRONGL A--STRONGLY AGREE B AGREE DISAGREE #______J 65. 66. 67. 68. 69. 70. 71. 72. 73. 74. 75. 76. 77. 222 This teacher dislikes boys and girls my age. A--STRONGLY AGREE B--AGREE C--DISAGREE D--STRONGLY DISAGREE We often complain just to get out of work. A--EVERY DAY B--MOST DAYS C--A FEW DAYS D--NO DAYS Frankly, we just don't obey the teacher in this class. A--STRONGLY AGREE B--AGREE C--DISAGREE D--STRONGLY DISAGREE This teacher couldn't be mean to anyone. A--STRONGLY AGREE B--AGREE C--DISAGREE D--STRONGLY DISAGREE In this class you will be punished if you don't finish your work. A--EVERY DAY B--MOST DAYS C--A FEW DAYS D--NO DAYS This teacher pretends not to watch us when he (she) actually is. A--STRONGLY AGREE B--AGREE C--DISAGREE D--STRONGLY DISAGREE This teacher really understands boys and girls my age. A--STRONGLY AGREE B--AGREE C--DISAGREE D--STRONGLY DISAGREE It is easy to fool this teacher. A--EVERY DAY B--MOST DAYS C--A FEW DAYS D--NO DAYS Frankly, we don't pay attention to this teacher. A--STRONGLY AGREE B--AGREE C--DISAGREE D--STRONGLY DISAGREE I think of this teacher as one of my good friends. “ B--AGREE C--DISAGREE D--STRONGLY A STRONGLY AGREE DISAGREE This teacher never scolds you in front of the class. _- __ GREE C--DISAGREE D--STRONGLY A STRONGLY AGREE B A DISAGREE This teacher is one of the best I have ever had. A—-STRDNGLY AGREE B--AGREE c——DISAGREE D--STRONGLY DISAGREE ' t us. This teacher never gets angry and shouts a -— A--STRONGLY AGREE B--AGREE C--DISAGREE D gigggggé 78. 79. 80. 81. 82. 83. 84. 85. 86. 87. 88. 89. 223 This teacher is cool and calm. A--EVERY DAY B--MOST DAYS C--A FEW DAYS D--NO DAYS This teacher never slaps us or handles us roughly. A--STRONGLY AGREE B--AGREE C--DISAGREE D--STRONGLY DISAGREE Usually boys and girls go to elementary school before going to high school. A--STRONGLY AGREE B--AGREE C--DISAGREE D--STRONGLY DISAGREE We work harder for this teacher than any other. A--EVERY DAY B--MOST DAYS C--A FEW DAYS D--NO DAYS This teacher never pushes us or shakes us in anger. A--STRONGLY AGREE B--AGREE C--DISAGREE D--STRONGLY DISAGREE This teacher makes very careful plans for each day's work. A--EVERY DAY B--MOST DAYS C--A FEW DAYS D--NO DAYS This teacher helps us get the most out of each hour. A--EVERY DAY B--MOST DAYS C--A FEW DAYS D--NO DAYS I really enjoy this class. A--EVERY DAY B--MOST DAYS C--A FEW DAYS D--NO DAYS Our teacher is very good at explaining things clearly. A--EVERY DAY B--MOST DAYS C--A FEW DAYS D--NO DAYS This teacher makes everything seem interesting and impor- tant. A--EVERY DAY B--MOST DAYS C--A FEW DAYS D--NO DAYS I work hard in this class because it is so interesting. A--EVERY DAY B--MOST DAYS C--A FEW DAYS D--NO DAYS I wish I could have this teacher next year. A--STR0NGLY AGREE B--AGREE C--DISAGREE D--STRONGLY DISAGREE SELECTED B I BLIOGRAPHY f’ SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY Books Allport, Gordon W Becoming New Haven Conn Y . . . . .: ale UniverSity Press, I955. I . Pattern and Growth in Personality. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, Inc., 1966. . Personality: A Psychological Interpretation. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, Inc., 1966. "The Historical Background of Modern Social Psychology." In Handbook of Social Psychology. Edited by G. Lindzey and E. Aronson. Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1968. Barr, Arvil S. Characteristic Differences in the Teaching Performance of Good and Poor Teachers of the Social Studies. Bloomington, Ill.: Public School Publishing Co., 1929. Bennis, Warren G. "The Process of Understanding People." In Interpersonal Dynamics: Essays and Readings of Human Interactions. Edited by Warren G. Bennis. Homewood, Ill.: The Dorsey Press, 1968. Borden, George A.; Gregg, Richard B.; and Grove, Theodore G. Speech Behavior and Human Interaction. Engle- wood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, Inc., 1969. Campbell, Donald T. "Social Attitudes and Other Acquired Behavioral Dispositions." In Psychology: A Study of Science. Vol. 6. Edited by S. Koch. New York: MbGraw Hill, 1963. Combs, Arthur W. Perceiving, Behaving, Becoming. Yearbook of the Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Washington, D.C.: National Edu- cation Association, 1962. . The Professional Education of Teachers. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, Inc., 1965. 224 225 Combs, Arthur W., and Snygg, D. Individual Behavior. 2nd ed. New York: Harper & Row, Publishers, 1959. Cook, Walter W.; Leeds, Carroll; and Callis, Robert. Minnesota Teacher Attitude Inventory. New York: The Psychological Corporation, 1951. Cooley, Charles H. Human Nature and Social Order. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1902. Descartes, Rene. Principles of Philosophy: A Discourse in Method. New York: E. P. Dutton & Co., Inc., 12. Dewey, John. Democracy and Education. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1916. Diggory, James C. Self—Evaluation: Concepts and Studies. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1966. Festinger, Leon. A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance. New York: Harper & Row, Publishers, 1962. Flanders, Ned A. Teacher Influence, Pupil Attitudes and Achievement: Studies in Interaction AnalySis. Final Report, Cooperative Research PrOJect No. 397. Minneapolis, Minn.: University of Minnesota Press, 1960. . Teacher Influence, Pupil Attitudes and Achieve- ment. Cooperative Research Monograph No. 12. U.S. Office of Education, 1965. "Teacher Influence, Pupil Attitudes and Achieve- ment." In Teaching. Edited by R. T. Hyman. New York: Lippincott, 1968. "The Problem of Observer Training and Relia— bility." Interaction Analysis: Theory, Research, and Application. Edited by Edmund J. Amidon and Jo n B. Houg . Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., 1967. Fishbein, Martin. "The Prediction of Behaviors from _ Attitudinal Variables." In Advances in Communi- Edited by C. D. Mortensen and cation Research. w York: Harper & Row, 1973. K. K. Sereno. Ne Fitts, William H. Tennessee Self Concept Scale. Nash— ville, Tenn.: Counselor Recordings and Tests, 1951. 226 Freud, Anna. The Ego and The Mechanisms of Defense. New York: International UniverSities Press, Inc., 1946. Freud, Sigmund. An Outline of Psychoanalysis. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, Inc., 1949. . Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud. Vol. 5: "The Interpretation of DreamS"; vol. 7: "The Handling of Dream Interpretation"; vol. 19: "The Ego and the Id"; st. ed. London: The Hagarth Press and Institute of Psychoanalysis, 1962. . New Introductory Lectures on Psychoanalysis. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, Inc., 1933. Getzels, J. W., and Jackson, P. W. "The Teacher's Per- sonality and Characteristics." In Handbook of Research on Teaching. Edited by NaEhaniel L. Gage. Chicago: Rand McNally and Co., 1965. Goldstein, Kurt. The Organism. New York:' American Book Company, 1939. Guilford, Joy P., and Fruchter, Benjamin. Fundamental Statistics in Psychology and Education. 5th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc.,'l973. Gump, Paul V. The Classroom Behavior Setting: The Relation to_Student Behavior. Lawrence: Uni- FerSity Of Kansas, 1967. Hamachek, Don E. Encounters with the Self. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1971. Hart, Frank W. Teachers and Teaching. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1934. Heil, Louis M. Modifying Behaviors (Self-Concept) of Cer- tain ProspectiVe Teachers. Brooklyn, N.Y.: Brooklyn College, 1962. ; Powell, M.; and Feifer, I. Characteristics of Teacher Behavior Related to the Achievement of Different Kinds of Children in Several Elementary Grades. U.S. Office of Education Cooperative Research Project No. 352. New York: Brooklyn College, 1960. James, William. Principles of Psychology. New York: Henry Holt & Co., 1890. ‘r1IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIlllllll--::;_________ 227 James, William. Principles of Psycholog_. Vol. 1. New York: Henry Holt & Co., 1890. Jersild, Arthur T. In Search of Self. New York: Teachers College Press, Columbia University, 1952. Krasno, Richard M. Teachers' Attitudes: Their Empirical Relationship to Rapport with Students and Survival in the Profession. Stanford Center for Research and’DevéIopment in Teaching Technical Report No. 28. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University, 1972. Lecky, Prescott. Self-Consistency: A Theory of Per- sonality. New York: Island Press, 1945. Leeds, Carroll H. "The Predictive Validity of the Minne- sota Teacher Attitude Inventory." Final Report Project No. l-D-019. Office of Education, U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. Greenville, N.C.: Furman University, 1972. Lewin, Kurt. A Dynamic Theory of Personality. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1935. Maslow, Abraham H. Motivation and Personality. New York: Harper & Row, Publishers, 1954. . "Personality Problems and Personality Growth." In The Self: Explorations in Personal Growth. Edited by C. Moustakeas. New York: Harper & Row, Publishers, 1956. McQuire, W. J. "The Nature of Attitudes and Attitude Change." In The Hgndbook of Social Psychology. 2nd ed. Vol. 3. Edited by G. Lindsey and E. Aronson. Reading, Mass.: Addison Wesley, 1969. Mead, George H. Mind, Self, and Society. Chicago: University ofIChicago Press, 1934. Munroe, Ruth L. Schools of Psychoanalytic Thought. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, Inc., 1955. Munson, Harold L. Elementary Schools Guidance, Concepts, Dimensions, and Practices. Boston: Allyn & Bacon, 1970. Murphy, Gardner. Personality. New York: Harper & Row Publishers, 1947. vFWIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIll-IIIIIl--::_________ 228 Perkey, William W. Self Concept and School Achievement. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: PrentiCe-Hall, Inc., 1970. Rogers, Carl R. "A Theory of Therapy, Personality, and Interpersonal Relationships, as Developed in the Client-Centered Framework." In Psychology: The Study of a Science. Edited by S. Kock. Vol. 3. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1959. . Client-Centered Therapy. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1951. . Client-Centered Therapy. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1965. . Counseling and Psychotherapy: Theory and PraCfice. New York: Harper & Row, 1959. . Freedom to Learn. Columbus, Ohio: Merrill Publishing Co., 1969. . On Becoming a Person. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1961. . "The Therapeutic Relationship: Recent Theory and Research." In The Shaping of Personality. Edited by G. Babladelis and S. Adams. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1967. , and Dymond, Robert F. Psychotherapy and Per- sonality Change. Chicago: UniVersity of ChiCago Press, 1954. Rosenberg, Milton J., and Howland, Carl I. "Cognitive Affective, and Behavioral Components of Attitudes." In Attitude Organization and Change. Edited by M. J. Rosenberg, C. I. Howland, William J. McQuire, Robert P. Abelson, and Jack W. Brehm. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1960. Rosenthal, R., and Jacobson, L. Pygmalion in the Class- room. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston,, 1968. Ryans, David G. "Research of Teacher Behavior in the Context of the Teacher Characteristics Study." In Contemporary Research on Teacher Effectiveness. Edited by B. J. Biddle and W. J. Ellena. New York: Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1964. 22% Sears, Pauline S., and Hilgard, Ernest R. “The Effect of Classroom Conditions on Strength of Achievement Motive and WOrk Output of Elementary School Children." In Theories of Learning and Instruc- tion. Edited by Ernest Hilgard. Sixty-Ehifd Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education. Chicago, Ill.: University of Chicago Press, 1964. Soar, Robert S., and Greenwood, Gordon B. "Teacher—Pupil Interaction, a New Look at Progressive Education." In Curriculum Development. Edited by James R. Squire. Yearbook of'the Association for Super- vision and Curriculum Development. Washington, D.C.: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 1972. Spaulding, Robert L. Achievement, Creativity, and Self- Concept Correlates of Teacher-Pupil Transactions in Elementary Schools. U.S. Office of Education Cooperative Research Project No. 1352. Urbana, Ill.: University of Illinois, 1963. Stern, George C. "Measuring Non-Coqnitive Variables in Research on Teaching." In Handbook of Research on Teaching. Edited by N. L. Gage. SkoEie, Ill.: Rand McNally & Company, 1963. Taba, Hilda; Levine, Samuel; and Elzey, Freeman F. Thinking in Elementary School Children. Cooper- ative Research Project No. 1574, Office of Edu- cation. U.S. Department-of Health, Education, and Welfare. San Francisco: San Francisco State College, 1964. Torrance, E. Paul. Guiding Creative Talent. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1962. , and Myers, R. E. Creative Learning and Teach- ing. New York: Dodd, Mead & Co., 1970. Triandis, H. C. "Toward an Analysis of the Components of Interpersonal Attitudes." In Attitude, Ego- Involvement, and Change. Edited By C. W. Sherif and’M. Sherif. New York: Wiley, 1967. Watson, John B. Behaviorism. New York: People's Institute Publishing Co., 1925. 230 Willower, Donald L.; Eidell, Terry L.; and Hoy, Wayne K. The School and ngil Control Ideology. University Park: The Pennsylvania State University. Wylie, Ruth C. The Self Concept: A Critical Survey of Pertinent Research Literature. Lincoln: Uni- verSity of Nebraska Press, 1961. Periodicals Ajzen, Icek, and Fishbein, Martin. "Attitudinal and Normative Variables as Predictors of Specific Behaviors." Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 27 (July 1973): 41-57. Allport, Gordon W. "The Ego in Contemporary Psychology." Psychological Review 50 (July 1943): 450-68. Aspy, David N., and Hutson, Barbara. "Promotion of Student Success." The Journal of Educational Research 10 (Winter 1973): 33-37. Avila, Donald L., and Purkey, William W. "Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation: A Regrettable Dis- tinction." Psychology in the Schools 3 (July 1966): 206-08. Bertocci, P. A. "The Psychological Self, The Ego and Personality." Psychological Review 52 (January 1945): 91-99. Bood, Thomas L., and BrOphy, Jere E. "Behavioral Expression of Teacher Attitudes." Journal of Education Psychology_63 (December 1972): 617-24. Bousfield, W. A. "Student's Ratings on Qualities Con— sidered Desirable in College Professors." School and Society 51 (February 1940): 253-56. Campbell, E. M. "The Evaluation of Learning Principles by Some Superior Classroom Teachers." Australian Journal of Education 15 (January 1971): 58-72. Campbell, William J. "The Teachers' View of Teaching Behavior." International Review of Education 18 (March 1972): 545. nd the Pro- Journal of 89- Cogan, Morris L. "The Behavior of Teachers a ductive Behaviors of Their Pupils. Experimental Educatigg 27 (December 1958): 124. 231 Davidson, Helen H., and Lang, Gerhard. "Children's Per— ceptions of Their Teacher's Feelings Toward Them Related to Self—Perception, School Achievement and Behavior." Journal of Experimental Education 29 (December 1960): 107—18. DeFluer, Melvin, and Westie, Frank R. "Verbal Attitudes and Overt Acts: An Experiment on the Salience of Attitudes." American Sociological Review 23 (December 1958): 667-73. Dobson, Russell; Boldenberg, Ron; and Elson, Bell. “Pupil Control Ideology and Teacher Influence in the Classroom." The Journal of Educational Research 66 (October 1972): 76-80. Duffey, James B., and Martin, Roy P. "The Effects of Direct and Indirect Teacher Influence and Student Trait Anxiety on the Immediate Recall of Academic Material." Psychology in the Schools 10 (April 1973): 233-37. Erhlich, Howard J. "Attitudes, Behavior, and the Inter— vening Variables." American Sociologist 4 (February 1969): 29-34. Freese, George T., and West, Charles K. "Congruence, Empathy and Regard: A Comparison of Adolescent Ratings With Teacher Self-Rating." Adolescence 7 (Winter 1972): 525—29. Feshbach, Norma D. "Student Teacher Preference for Ele- mentary School Pupils Varying in Personality Characteristics." Journal of Educational Psy- chology 60 (April 1969): 126-32. Change." Festinger, Leon. "Behavioral Support for Opinion 404 17 Public Opinion Quarterly 28 (Fall 1964): “Cognitive Dissonance." Scientific American 207 (October 1962): 93—107. Flanders, Ned A. "Basic Teaching Skills Derived from a Model of Speaking and Listening.“ Journal of Teacher Education 24 (Spring 1973): -37. "Personal-Social Anxiety as a Factor in Experi- tuation." Journal of Edu- 1 0-10. mental Learning Si cational Research 45 (October 19 l : 232 Grim, Paul R.; Hoyt, Cyril J.; and Peitiersen, Dana N. "An Appraisal of Student Teacher Competencies." Journal of Teacher Education 5 (June 1954): 129—33. Haskin, Barbara, and Swick, Kevin. "Indirect Teacher Behaviors and the Creative Teacher." Elementary English 50 (April 1973): 544-45. . Hilgard, Ernest R. "Human Motives and the Concept of Self." American Psychologist 4 (September 1949): 374-82. Hughes, David C. "An Experimental Investigation of the Effects of Pupil Responding and Teacher Reacting on Pupil Achievement." American Education Research Journal 10 (Winter 1973): 33-37. Jansen, Mogens; Jensen, Poul Erik; and Mylov, Peer. "Teacher Characteristics and Other Factors Affecting Classroom Interaction and Teaching Behavior." International Review of Education 18 (March 1972): 529-38. Jersild, Arthur T. "Characteristics of Teachers Who Are 'Liked Best' and 'Disliked Most.'" Journal of Experimental Education 9 (December 1940): 139-51. Kester, Scott W., and Letchworth, George A. "Communication of Teacher Expectations and Their Effects of Achievement and Attitudes of Secondary School Students." The Journal of Education Research 66 (October 19727: 51-55. Linn, Lawrence S. "Verbal Attitudes and Overt Behavior: A Study of Racial Discrimination." Social Forces 43 (March 1965): 353-64. Maslow, Abraham H. "Neurosis as a Failure of Personal Growth." Humanitas 3 (Fall 1967): 153-69. Mixer, Anthony S., and Milson, James L. "Teaching and the Self." The Clearing House 47 (February 1973): 346-50. Murray, C. Kenneth, and Fitzgerald, Russell. "Interaction Analysis, Modeling and Student Verbal BehaVior. Contemporary Education 44 (January 1973): 174-78. Lois N. "Teacher Leadership: An Empirical Approach to Analyzing Teacher Behavior in the Classroom." Journal of Teacher Educatrgg 17 (Winter 1966):—’417-25. Nelson, 233 Page, E. P. "Teacher Comments and Student Performance." Journal of Educational Psychology 46 (March 1958): 173-81. Raimy, Victor C. ”Self-Reference in Counseling Inter- views." Journal of Consulting Psychology 12 (May- June 1948): 153-63. Palfrey, C. F. "Headteachers' Expectations and Their Pupils' Self-Concepts." Educational Research 15 (February 1973): 123-27. Reed, Horace B. "Implications for Science Education of a Teacher Competence Research.“ Science Education 46 (December 1962): 473-86. Pellegreno, Dominick D., and Williams, Wendell C. "Teacher Perception and Classroom Verbal Interaction." Elementary School Guidance and Counseligg 7 (May 1973): 270-75. Richmond, Bert 0.; Mason, Robert L., Jr.; and Padgett, Harry G. "Self—Concept and Perception of Others." Journal of Humanistic Psychology 12 (Fall 1972): 103-11. Rocchio, Patrick D., and Kearney, Nolan C. "Teacher- Pupil Attitudes as Related to Nonpromotion of Secondary School Pupils." Educational and Psy- chological Measurement 16 (Summer 1965): 244-52. Rogers, Carl R. "Some Observations on the Organization of Personality." American Psychologist 2 (Septem- ber 1947): 358-68. . "The Characteristics of a Helping Relation- ship." Personnel and Guidance Journal 37 (September 1958): 6-16. . "The Use of Electrically Recorded Interview in Improving Psychotherapeutic Techniques.“ American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 12 (July 1942): 429—39. Rosenthal, R. "Another View of Py alion." Contemporary Psychology 15 (August 1970I: 524. Schultz, Edward W., and Wolf, Judith. "Teacher Behavior, Self-Concept and the Helping Process." Psy- chology in the Schools 10 (January 1973): 75-78. 234 Scott, William A. "Reliability of Content Analysis: The Case of Nominal Coding." The Public Opinion Quarterly 19 (Fall 1955): 321-25. Silberman, Melvin L. "Behavioral Expression of Teachers' Attitudes Toward Elementary School Students." Journal of Educational Psychology 60 (October 1969): 403¥07. Soar, Robert S. "Optimum Teacher-Pupil Interaction for Pupil Growth." Education Leadership 26 (December 1968): 275-80. Staines, J. W. "The Self-Picture as a Factor in the Classroom." British Journal of Educational Psy- chology 28 (June 1958): 97-111. Summers, Jerry A. "School Climate and Classroom Teacher Behavior." Contemporary Education 44 (January 1973): 171-75. Swick, Kevin. "The Need for Creating Productive Attitude Climate for Learning." Education 93 (March 1973): 305. Symonds, Percival M. "Teaching as a Function of the Teacher's Personality." Journal of Teacher Edu- cation 5 (March 1954): 79-83. Tiedeman, Stuart C. "A Study of Pupil—Teacher Relation- ships." Journal of Education Research 35 (May 1942): 657464. Warner, Lyle G., and De Fluer, Melvin L. "Attitude as an Interactional Concept: Social Constraint and Social Distance and Intervening Variables Between Attitude and Action." American Sociological Review 34 (April 1969): 153-69} Wehling, Leslie J., and Charters, W. W., Jr. "Dimensions of Teacher Beliefs About the Teaching Process." American Educational Research Journal 6 (January 1969): 7-30. Wicker, Allan W. "Attitudes vs. Actions: The Relationship of Verbal and Overt Behavioral Responses to Attitude Objects." Journal of Social Issues 25 (Autumn 1969): 41-78. Witty, Paul. "An Analysis of the Personality Traits of the Effective Teacher." Journal of Educational Research 40 (May 1947): 662-71. IIIII I 235 Yamamoto, Kaoru. "Does Teacher Creativity Make a Dif- ference in Pupil Learning?" The Elementary School Journal 67 (February 1967): 265-70. Unpublished Material Alaloud, Albert A. "The Placement of First Grade Children with Special Attention Toward Teacher and Pupil Characteristics." Ph.D. dissertation, University of Southern California, 1972. Anderson, John R. "Classroom Interaction, Academic Achievement, and Creative Performance in 6th Grade Classrooms." Ph.D. dissertation, Michigan State University, 1972. Anderson, Gladys M. "Personality Characteristics of Aspiring Teachers and Experienced Teachers: A Discriminant Analysis." Ph.D. dissertation, The Ohio State University, 1970. Ascher, Gordon. I'Teacher Job Satisfaction: The Effects of Teacher Personality and the Educational Environment of the School." Ed.D. dissertation, The State University of New Jersey, 1971. Barton, Florence Richter. "Do Teachers Cause Dropouts? A Study to Determine Attitudes, Personality Char- acteristics, and Teaching Behaviors of Teachers Who Are Effective With Dropout Students." Ph.D. dissertation, University of Utah, 1972. Bean, Mabel G. "Self Concept and Group Leadership Per- formance." Ph.D. dissertation, The University of Michigan, 1970. Bostwick, Janis L. "An Interaction Approach to Self— Concepts of Candidates in Teacher Education Programs at the University of California, Berkeley." Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Berkeley, 1966. Bowman, Harold E. "The Effect of Alternative Techniques for Modifying Student Teacher Behavior During the Field Experience." Ph.D. dissertation, University of Pittsburgh, 1972. 236 Briscoe, Ida C. "A Study of the Effects of In-Service Training in Interaction Analysis of Teacher Attitudes, Teacher-Pupil Interaction Patterns, and Pupil Achievement in Reading." Ed.D. disser- tation, University of Georgia, 1970. Buckner, John W., Jr. "The Effects of Training in Inter- action Analysis on Teachers' Interpersonal Behavior." Ed.D. dissertation, North Texas State University, 1970. Burgy, Dianne R. "A Study of the Effects of Selected Situational Components on the Self-Concept of Student Teachers." Ph.D. dissertation, The University of Iowa, 1972. Buys, Christian James. "Effects of Teacher Reinforcement on Classroom Behaviors and Attitudes." Ph.D. dissertation, University of Colorado, 1970. Cain, Robert B. "An Investigation of Changes in Self- Concepts, Role Concepts, and Self—Actualizing Values of Interns Participating in an Innovative Internship Program." Ph.D. dissertation, Uni- versity of Miami, 1972. Callison, William L. "Teacher Perceptions of Autonomy and Authoritarian Teacher Attitudes in Rural Schools." Ph.D. dissertation, Stanford Uni— versity, 1970. Combs, Arthur W. "Some Basic Concepts in Perceptual Psy— chology." Paper presented at the American Per- sonnel and Guidance Association Convention, Minneapolis, Minnesota, April 1965. Cropper, Ardeth P. "Categories of Observed Teacher Behavior as Related to Reported Self-Concept." Ph.D. dissertation, The University of Arizona, 1971. Dillingham, McKinely. "A Study of Teacher Attitude and Self-Concept of Students as Factors Related to Academic Success of Inner City Pupils in a Selected Upper Grade Center." Ph.D. dissertation, Northwestern University, 1972. Dispenziere, Joseph J. "The Relationship of the Suppor- tive Behavior of Teachers and Their Instructional Organization Patterns and Years of Experience." Ed.D. dissertation, Lehigh University, 1972. 237 Douglas, Earl M. "A Study of Relationships Between Teacher Classroom Behavior and Concurrent Student Interest in Classroom Activities." Ph.D. disser- tation, University of New Mexico, 1972. Doyle, James R. "The Relationship of Direct and Indirect Teaching to Accurate Perceptions of Student Per- sonality and Temperament Characteristics." Ph.D. dissertation, Wayne State University, 1969. Eikass, Alf I. "A Study of Personality Dimensions Related to Teacher-Pupil Rapport." Ph.D. disser- tation, University of Minnesota, 1957. Emmerling, Frank C., Jr. "A Study of the Relationships Between Personality Characteristics of Classroom Teachers and Pupil Perceptions of These Teachers." Ed.D. dissertation, Auburn University, 1961. Firestone, Erika I. "The Relationship of Student Teaching Effectiveness to Self-Concept and Attitude Toward Others." Ed.D. dissertation, University of Massa- chusetts, 1973. Flower, C. E. "Effects on an Arbitrary Accelerated Group Placement on the Tested Academic Achievement of Educationally Disadvantaged Students." Ph.D. dissertation, Columbia University, 1966. Fowler, Beverly D. "Relation of Teacher Personality Characteristics and Attitudes to Teacher-Pupil Rapport and Emotional Climate in the Elementary Classroom." Ph.D. dissertation, University of South Carolina, 1962. Gansneder, Bruce M. "Relationships Among Teachers' Atti- tudes, Students' Attitudes, and Students' Achieve- ment." Ph.D. dissertation, The Ohio State Uni- versity, 1970. Hastings, Hiram I. "A Study of the Relationship Between Teacher-Pupil Interaction and Pupil Achievement in Elementary School Science." Ph.D. disser- tation, University of Oregon, 1970. Henderer, James M. "Teacher Voice Tone and Student Academic Achievement." Ph.D. dissertation, University of Massachusetts, 1971. 238 Holle, Ervin F. "Teacher Effectiveness: A Study of the Relationship Between Teacher Personality Charac- teristics and Anxiety in Elementary Pupils." Ed.D. dissertation, The University of New Mexico, 1971. Haber, Harold W. "An Investigation of the Effects of Selected Simulated Classroom Situations on Student Teacher Attitude and Empathy.“ Ph.D. dissertation, Michigan State University, 1972. Hughes, Orval D. "The Influence of Leadership in the Growth of Positive Self-Concept." Ph.D. disser- tation, The University of New Mexico, 1970. Hulbert, Howard E. "College Freshman Attitudes Toward Public School Music." Ph.D. dissertation, West Virginia University, 1972. Hummel, Harvey M. "The Relationship Between Success in Teaching and Certain Personality Factors, Per- sistence in Teaching and Educational Attainment of Experienced Secondary Teachers.“ Ph.D. disser— tation, The University of Minnesota, 1972. Hungerman, J. Michael. "The Relationship of Sensitivity to Others to Certain Selected Personality Charac- teristics." Ph.D. dissertation, Kent State Uni- versity, 1970. Ishler, Margaret F. "A Study of the Verbal Behavior of Creative and Less Creative English and Social Studies Student Teachers." Ph.D. dissertation, University of Toledo, 1972. King, Alma P. "The Self—Concept and Self—Actualization of University Faculty in Relation to Student Per— ceptions of Effective Teaching." Ph.D. disser- tation, Utah State University, 1971. Knapp, William M. "A Study of Teacher Personality Char- acteristics and Rated Effectiveness.“ Ph.D. dissertation, University of Southern Mississippi, 1970. Koger, Mildred N. "Best Teacher-Student Interpersonal Relationships: Their Relationship to Self-Esteem and the Frequency of the Dialogical Relation Among Music Teachers." Ph.D. dissertation, The University of Florida, 1970. 239 Kozlowski, David K. "A Comparison of the Authoritarian and Child Centered ReSponseS of Teachers, Teacher Trainees, and Non-Teachers to Simulated Classroom Problems." Ed.D. dissertation, Wayne State University, 1972. Leventer, Esther A. "The Interrelationship of Self- Esteem, Fear, Emotionality, and Behavior Is Training Laboratories." Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Los Angeles, 1969. McAdams, Charles D. "A Comparison of Behavior Patterns of Music Teachers in Selected Universities Utiliz- ing Interaction Analysis and the Fundamental Interpersonal Relations Orientation--Behavior Scale." Ph.D. dissertation, East Texas State University, 1970. McDonald, Charles T. "The Influence of Pupil Liking of Teacher, Pupil Perception of Being Liked, and Perceived Pupil Socio-Economic-Status on Class- room Behavior." Ph.D. dissertation, The Uni- versity of Texas at Austin, 1972. Mancini, Dino. "An Investigation of the Relationships Between Self-Concept of Ability, Classroom Verbal Interaction, and Achievement of Seventh Grade Pupils in Biological Science.“ Ph.D. dissertation, New York University, 1972. Marks, William J. "Assessment of Self-Concept and Class- room Behavior of Kindergarten Children as Affected by School Environment, Selected Socio- Economic Variables, and Ethnic Group." Ph.D. dissertation, East Texas State University, 1972. Melograno, Vincent J. "Effects of Teacher Personality, Teacher Choice of Educational Objectives, and Teacher Behavior on Student Achievement." Ph.D. dissertation, Temple University, 1971. Motto, Joseph. "An Investigation of Some Personality Correlates of Empathy in College Teachers.“ Ph.D. dissertation, The University of Michigan, 1958. Neuberger, Wayne F. "Student Perception of Teacher Behaviors as a Function of Teacher Abstractions and Student Interpersonal Needs." Ph.D. disser- tation, New Mexico State University, 1972. 240 Norris, Billy E. "A Study of the Self Concept of Secondary Biology Teachers and The Relationship to Student Achievement and Other Teacher Charac- teristics." Ph.D. dissertation, Ball State Uni- versity, 1970. Pagano, Alicia L. "A Study of the Classroom-Interaction Patterns of Selected Music Teachers in First- Grade and Sixth—Grade General Music Classes." Ph.D. dissertation, American University, 1972. Passmore, Wynoke S. J. "An Investigation of the Relation- ship of Self-Concept and Selected Personal Char- acteristics of Student Teachers to Success in Student Teaching." Ph.D. dissertation, North Texas State University, 1970. Pitt, C. C. V. "An Experimental Study of the Effects of Teachers' Knowledge or Incorrect Knowledge of Pupils IQ's on Teachers' Attitudes and Practices and Pupils' Attitudes and Achievement.“ Ph.D. dissertation, Columbia University, 1956. Putz, Gerald J. "An Analysis of the Effects of an Open (Student Centered) In-Service Education Workshop on Teachers' Attitudes." Ed.D. dissertation, Wayne State University, 1972. Quinn, Mary C. "A Study of the Relationship Between Attitudes Toward Teaching and Attitudes Toward the Self, of Forty-Eight Teacher-Trainees at Tennessee A. and I. State University, Nashville, Tennessee." M.A. thesis, Tennessee Agricultural and Industrial State University, 1957. Ramsey, Marl E. "Self Concept Among Selected Iowan School Teachers and Administrators as Measured by a Self Report." Ph.D. dissertation, Iowa State University, 1971. Ravitz, Leonard A. "Teacher Self-Acceptance Related to Acceptance of Pupils in the Classroom." Ph.D. dissertation, University of Maryland, 1957. Rippy, Mark L. "Certain Relationships Between Classroom Behavior and Attitude and Personality Character- istics of Selected Elementary Teachers." Ed.D. dissertation, George Peabody College for Teachers, 1960. 241 Ross, John D. "A Study of the Effect of the Learning Environment of Selected Factors Related to the Self-Concept of School Children.“ Ed.D. disser- tation, University of Massachusetts, 1973. Rothwell, Ann. "The Relationship of Personality Traits, Teacher Attitude, Anxiety Level, and Academic Achievement to Ratings of Teacher Interns." Ed.D. dissertation, Auburn University, 1970. Rule, Sarah E. "A Comparison of Three Different Types of Feedback of Teachers' Performance." Ph.D. disser- tation, University of Kansas, 1972. Safran, John S. "A Comparison of the Personal Preferences and Self-Concept of Empathic and Non-Empathic Counselor Education Students." Ph.D. dissertation, Wayne State University, 1972. Scott, James L. "The Effect of Class Size on Student Verbal Interaction in Five English Classes." Ed.D. dissertation, The State University of New Jersey, 1972. Segal, Baruch B. "A PhiloSOphical Analysis and Con- struction of an Ideal Model of Teacher Student Interaction in Present Mass Society." Ph.D. dissertation, State University of New York at Buffalo, 1970. Sheppard, Lillian V. "An Analysis of Classroom Inter- action in Elementary Social Studies Classes When Either the Student Teacher of the COOperating Teacher or Both Are Trained in Interaction Analysis." Ed.D. dissertation, Northeast Louisiana University, 1972. Shoemaker, Evelyn Jean. "Satisfaction of Student Needs Through Humanistic Attributes of Personality in Teachers." Ph.D. dissertation, The University of Wisconsin, 1971. Stamboolian, John K., Jr. "The Effect of Positive Verbal Reinforcement Upon Achievement and Attitudes of Selected Industrial Arts Classes." Ph.D. disser- tation, Texas Agricultural and Mechanical Uni- versity, 1972. Strang, William J., Jr. "The Self-Concepts of Children in Elementary Schools With Differing Proportions of Negro and White Students." Ph.D. dissertation, University of Alabama, 1972. 242 Thomas, Edward L. "The Effect of Training in Flanders' Interaction Analysis on the Teaching Patterns of Student Teachers in Social Studies at Mississippi State University." Ph.D. dissertation, Mississippi State University, 1972. Thompson, Howard A., Sr. "A Study of the Relationship Between the Self-Concept of Secondary Supervising Teachers and Their Supervisory Performance as Measured by Student Teachers." Ph.D. disser- tation, George Peabody College for Teachers, 1972. Ticknor, George S. "The Effects of Positive and Negative Teacher Behavior on Student Rating of Teachers." Ed.D. dissertation, Western Michigan University, 1972. Tuttle, Roland L., Jr. "The Effect of Video Tape Self- Analysis on Teacher Self-Concept, Effectiveness, and Perceptions of Students." Ph.D. dissertation, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 1972. Tyo, Alexina M. "A Comparison of the Verbal Behavior of Teachers in Interaction with Students They Per- ceived as Migrant and Non-migrant." Ph.D. dissertation, Syracuse University, 1972. Violette, Margaret G. "A Description of the Personality Structure of Six Art Teachers in Relationship to Verbal Behavior, Teaching Technique, and Instruc- tional Content." Ph.D. dissertation, The Penn- sylvania State University, 1972. Vonk, Herman G. "The Relationship of Teacher Effective— ness to Perception of Self and Teaching Purposes." Ph.D. dissertation, Michigan State University, 1972. Williams, Willie E. "A Study of a Process to Modify Verbal Interaction Patterns of High School Geometry Classes." Ph.D. dissertation, Michigan State University, 1972. Wurtz, Philip J. "An Investigation of the Multiple Effects of Self-Concept and Other Independent Variables in the Prediction of Teacher Job Satisfaction." Ph.D. dissertation, University of Kansas, 1972. _——— .4/ I l 8746 . LIBRARIES l I II I l 0 STATE UNIV MICHIGAN l 85 ..:.. 1......) .1521: .........:.... ..—.p. L .r Z... .: .2 31.91.: a. . in 4...... .2... . ,.,.:.. .1. .;: 1... . I C .11.... T... 7...... I 1..” .. .1... .1. :5. .:,..;..::... ,......_.,..._. .7; Li: ..;...;;;: v.2... .:, .11..