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SELF-ESTEEM, LOCUS OF CONTROL AND DEMOGRAPHIC
VARIABLES AS INFLUENCING FACTORS ON THE

CLOTHING OF BLACK PEOPLE

BY

Lillian O. Holloman

A DISSERTATION

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of Family and Child Ecology

1981

 

ABSTRACT

SELF-ESTEEM, LOCUS OF CONTROL AND DEMOGRAPHIC
VARIABLES AS INFLUENCING FACTORS ON THE
CLOTHING OF BLACK PEOPLE

By

Lillian O. Holloman

This study was designed to investigate factors that
contribute to the self-esteem of Black adults and to deter-
mine the relationship between self-esteem and clothing
attitudes, clothing consumption practices and locus of con-
trol. Relationships between clothing attitudes, clothing
consumption and selected demographic variables were also
investigated.

The eighty reSpondents were a subsample of a larger
Quality of Life research study conducted by a team of Human
Ecologists at Michigan State University and consisted of
39 women and 41 men. 0f the total, there were thirty-nine
husband-wife couples.

The data were collected by the use of various
instruments: Andrews' and Withey's causal model of the
components of well-being, Rosenberg's Self-Esteem Scale, the
Index of Personal Competence, and clothing attitude and con-

sumption measures that were formulated by the researchers.

 

 

 

Lillian O. Holloman

The clothing attitude scales were labeled attracting
attention, aesthetics, social consciousness, and practicality.
Information on both acquisition and expenditure were derived
from the clothing consumption measure. The number of
clothing items acquired were recorded by each of three
sources of acquisition, new ready-to-wear, handmade,

and used. Expenditure data were recorded using the designa-
tions personal clothing expenditure, family clothing
expenditure and personal clothing expressed as a percentage
of family clothing expenditure.

The data were analyzed using Pearson Product Moment
Correlations, multiple regression analysis, matched pair
t-tests and various descriptive statistics. The significance
level was set at .05.

Based on the analysis of the data, the following
conclusions were made:

1. Self-esteem correlated with few of the variables
used to represent status, role, loved acceptance,
achievement, and independence.

2. Self-esteem appeared to be rather weakly related to
clothing attitudes and clothing consumption vari-
ables. Specifically, self-esteem correlated only
with the aesthetics and practicality scales for both
women and men. It additionally correlated with the
social-consciousness scale for men. There were

correlations between self-esteem and personal

Lillian O. Holloman

clothing expenditure for men, and self-esteem and
handmade clothing for women.

Self-esteem and locus of control showed moderate
correlations with each other.

Generally, variables correlated in a dissimilar
manner for women than for men.

Men tended to view hand made and used clothing quite
negatively in general and specifically more negatively
than did women.

Income proved to be the most significant predictor
of the clothing variables included in this study.
Age was the most important factor in determining

feelings about clothing for both women and men.

 

TO

DEDICATION

Mama, Daddy, Aravia and Alton for their love,
support and encouragement . . . and for just

being there.

ii

 

 

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The efforts of many are reSponsible for the success-
ful completion of a doctoral dissertation. With such
acknowledgment, I am particularly indebted to:

Dr. Beatrice Paoloucci, chairperson of my doctoral
guidance committee, for her intellectual stimulation,
stedfast encouragement and sincere interest in my profes-
sional development throughout my course of study.

Dr. Ann Slocum, the director of my research, for
guidance, direction, a thorough critique of the disserta-
tion manuscript, and for devoting time from her summer
vacation to guide my efforts.

Dr. Margaret Bubolz and Dr. Barrie Thorne, committee
members, for their support and ready assistance.

Additional thanks are extended to Dr. Slocum and
Dr. Bubolz, co-directors of the Quality of Life Research
Project, for allowing me the Opportunity for growth as a
member of a research team.

Gratitude is also extended to:

The entire Quality of Life Project staff for their

cnmbined efforts and commitment to the larger project from

iii

 

which this investigation is an outgrowth and particularly
to Janet Vredevoogd, for programing the data.

Suzanne Gyeszyli, for remaining resourceful and
c00perative throughout this undertaking, even when her
patience was tested.

The College of Human Ecology for the dissertation
fellowship award that partially covered dissertation
expenses.

The American Home Economics Association Foundation
for the 1978 Flemmie P. Kittrell Fellowship for Minorities in
Honor of Gwendolyn Newkirk, for providing financial support
during this period of advanced study.

Warm and heartfelt thanks are also due: Vernicka
Biles, Nelvia Brady, Geneva Cobb-Moore, Carolyn Hagey,
Isabel Jones, and eSpecially to Sharon Johnson-Wheeler for
the kind of support that only dear friends can give.

Carrie Jackson, in a class by herself, a once fellow
graduate student and a good friend, for being someone with
whom I could exchange ideas, for serving as a sounding board,
and for a generous amount of encouragement--in short, for
sharing the entire degree process.

Space restricts naming others who made valuable

.contributions. To all who offered even the smallest

assistance, I am sincerely grateful.

iv

 

 

LIST OF
LIST OF
Chapter

I.

II.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

TELE S O O O O O O O O O O O O

FIGUES O O O O O O O O C O O 0

INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . .

Purpose of Study . . . . . . . .
Conceptual Framework . . . . . . .
Discussion of Paradigm . . .
Research Questions and Hypotheses. . .

Factors Contributing to Self-Esteem
Self-Esteem and Clothing . . .
Self- Esteem and Locus of Control .
Locus of Control and Clothing . .

Operational Definitions . . . . . .
REVIEW OF LITERATURE. . . . . .

The Self . . . . . . . .
Self-Esteem . . . . . . .
Self-Esteem of Blacks. . . . . . .
Clothing in Relation to Self, Self-Esteem
and Other Variables. . . . .

Clothing and Self . . . . .
Clothing and Self-Esteem . . . .
Other Variables in Relation to Self-
Concept and Self-Esteem. . .
Other Studies on Clothing and Blacks .

Self-Esteem and Locus of Control . .
Clothing Consumption Practices of Blacks

Page
viii

ix

wcncuhi *4

10
10

10
12
12
17
18
23

23
24

27
28

29
31

 

 

 

Chapter

III.

IV.

V.

METHODOLOGY . . . . . .

Instruments Used to Collect

Pretest. . . . . . .
Data Collection Procedures
Sampling Design . . . .
Data Processing Procedures
Description of Variables .
Data Analysis Procedures .
Statistical Tests . . .

FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION . .

Page
0 O O O O O 37

Data

0 o o o o o o o

o o o o o o o o

o o o o o o o o
.5 :
:5

Description of the Sample. . . . . . . 60
Age . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Education . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Occupations. . . . . . . . . . . 64
Income . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

Descriptive Data for the Major Variables. . 65

Tests and Discussion of Hypotheses. . . . 72

Correlates of Self-Esteem. . . . . . . 72

Self-Esteem and Clothing . . . . . . . 77

Self-Esteem and Locus of Control . . . . 84

Locus of Control and Clothing Variables . . 85

Interrelationships Within Variables . . . 89

Interrelationships Among Variables. . . . 98
DemOgraphic Variables and Attitudes. . . 98

Demoqraphic Variables, Attitudes and

Expenditure . . . .

O C O O O C 106

Demographic Variables, Attitudes,
Expenditure and Source of Acquisition . 114

Feelings About Clothing.

IMPLICATIONS FOR RESEARCH.

smary. O O O O O 0

Purpose . .
Methodology. . . . .
Findings. .

Conclusions . . . . .
Limitations . . . . .
Implications for Research.

vi

O O O O I O '119

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, LIMITATIONS AND

O O O O O O 126
O O O O O O 126

O C O I O O 126
. . . . . . 129
. . . . . . 129

. . . . . . 132
. . . . . . 133
O O O O O O 135

 

 

Chapter Page
APPENDICES
Appendix

A. Portions of Questionnaire Used in This Study . 138

B. Sources of Clothing Statements. . . . . . 153

C. Létter to Participants From Project Directors. 156
D. Sampling Procedures . . . . . . . . . 157
BIBLIOGRAPHY O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 160

vii

 

11.
12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

LIST OF TABLES

Adjustment of Clothing Attitude Scales . . .
Age Distribution of Sample . . . '. . . .
Educational Level of Sample. . . . . . .
Types of Occupations Held by Sample . . . .

Distribution of Occupational Prestige Scores
for smple. O O O O O O O O O O 0

Family Income Distribution . . . . . . .
Distribution of Self-Esteem Scores . . . .
Mean Scores for Life Concerns . . . . . .
Index of Personal Competence Scores . . . .
Frequency Data for Men's Attitudes . . . .
Frequency Data for WOmen's Attitudes. . . .

Pearson Product Moment Correlations of Life
Concerns with Self-Esteem. . . . . . .

Pearson Product Moment Correlations Between
Self-Esteem and Clothing Attitudes. . . .

Pearson Product Moment Correlation Between
Self-Esteem and Clothing Expenditure . . .

Results of Paired T-Tests on Personal Clothing
Expenditure and Percentage of Family
Expenditure Spent on Personal Clothing . .

Pearson Product Moment Correlations Between
‘Self-Esteem and Clothing Acquisition . . .

viii

Page
49
61
62

63

64
65
66
67
68
70

71

73

79

81

82

83

 

 

 

Table

17.

18.

19.

20.

21.

22.

23.

24.

25.

26.

27.

28.

29.

30.

Pearson Product Moment

Correlations Between

Self-Esteem and the Variables Feelings about
Clothing and Clothing Importance . . . .

Pearson Product Moment
Locus of Control and
for WOmen. . . .

Pearson Product Moment
Locus of Control and

Pearson Product Moment
Locus of Control and
Acquisition . . .

Pearson Product Moment
Locus of Control and,

Correlations Between
Clothing Attitudes

Correlations Between
Clothing Expenditure .

Correlations Between
Sources of Clothing

Correlation Between
Feeling About Clothing

and Clothing Importance . . . . . . .

Pearson Product Moment

Correlations Between

the Demographic Variables . . . . . .

Pearson Product Moment

Correlations with

Clothing Attitudes for WOmen . . . . .

Pearson Product Moment

Correlation Between

Clothing Attitudes for Men . . . . . .

Pearson Product Moment
the Clothing Sources

Pearson Product Moment
Clothing Expenditure

Pearson Product Moment

Correlations Between
of Acquisition . . .

Correlations Between
Variables. . . . .

Correlations Between

Clothing Attitude Statement and DemOgraphic

Data 0 O I O 0

Regression Analysis for Scale on Attracting

Attention for Men .

Regression Analysis for Aesthetic Statement,
"It is important that my accessories
harmonize well with my clothing," for Women

Regression Analysis for Social Consciousness
Statement, "It is important to have clothing

that others admire,"

for Women. . . . .

ix

Page

84

86

88

89

90

91

93

95

97

97

99

101

102

104

 

 

 

 

Table Page

31. Regression Analysis for Practicality Scale for
women 0 O O O O 0 O O O O I O O O l 0 5

32. Regression Analysis for Economy Statement,
"I carefully watch how much I Spend on
clothing," for Women . . . . . . . . . 107

33. Regression Analysis for Individuality Statement,
"Expressing my individuality in clothing is
important to me," for Men . . . . . . . 108

34. Pearson Product Moment Correlations of
Attitudes and Demographics with Clothing
Expenditure . . . . . . . . . . . . 109

35. Regression Analysis on Personal Clothing
Expenditure for Women. . . . . . . . . 113

36. Regression Analysis for Personal Clothing
Expenditure for Men . . . . . . . . . 115

37. Pearson Product Moment Correlations of
Attitudes, Demographics and Expenditures
on Sources of Acquisition . . . . . . . 116

38. Pearson Product Moment Correlations of
Attitudes, Demographics, Clothing
Expenditures, and Sources of Acquisition
with Feelings about Clothing . . . . . . 121

39. Regression Analysis on Feelings About Clothing
for women. 0 O O O O O O O O O O O 124

40. Summary of Hypotheses Tested and Decision
Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page

1. Paradigm of Relationships Examined in This
Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

xi

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Blacks have historically been outside of the main-
stream of American society. Their unique experiences have
resulted in some differences in socialization which trans-
late into the deveIOpment of attitudes and behavior that
do not parallel those of the dominant group in similar
social situations. Because Blacks have not always patterned
themselves to orthodox middle class behavior, there has been
much speculation that their variant behavior is indicatiVe
of low self-esteem. The assumption that Blacks have low
self-esteem has become the basis for many theories, particu-
larly those that relate to clothing. It is generally postu-
lated that Blacks dress in a noticeably unique way because
they are compensating for low self-esteem. However, re-
search has failed to substantiate this contention.

There is a need for research that will provide some
foundation for theorizing about (1) factors which influence
Self-esteem of Blacks, (2) the relationship between self-
esteem of Blacks and attitudes toward clothing, and (3) the

relationship between perceptions of locus of control of

Blacks and attitudes toward clothing. This research study
was undertaken, not to prove or disprove any theories, but
Ito provide a data base on the relationship between the
aforestated variables in the hOpe that it will ultimately
contribute to more SOphisticated, more substantial theorizing
on this tOpic. A specific statement of purpose follows in

the next section.

Purpose of Study
The purpose of this study was to investigate factors
which contribute to self-esteem and to determine the rela-
tionship between self-esteem and the’following variables:
locus of control, clothing attitudes, and clothing consump-
tion practices of Blacks. Specific objectives were:

1. To determine the relationship between self-esteem
and variables that relate to status, role, love and
acceptance, achievement and independence.

2. To determine the relationships between the level
of self-esteem and clothing attitudes and clothing
consumption practices.

3. To determine the relationship between locus of
control and self-esteem.

4. To determine the relationships between locus of
control and clothing attitudes and clothing con-

sumption practices.

 

Conceptual Framework

 

Self-esteem entails a valuation of the objective
knowledge of one's traits and attitudes (Horrocks, 1969;
Coopersmith, 1967). Rosenberg (1965) defined self-esteem
as a positive or negative attitude toward the self. Thus,

high self-esteem is a psychological state or condition

whereby individuals respect themselves, like themselves and
consider themselves worthy. Low self-esteem, on the other
hand, is a psychological state or condition whereby indi-
viduals feel self-rejection, self-contempt and low self-
satisfaction.

It has been a general consensus of psychologists
and sociologists that individuals' self-esteem is a major
factor influencing and determining their attitudes and

behavior. Indeed, it is regarded by some as being the

single most important determinant of behavior because it

permeates thinking, affects emotions, desires, values and
goals, and directs interaction with others (Branden, 1979;
Ziller, Hagey & Smith, 1969). In short peoples' level of
self-esteem affects how they mediate their environment and

influences the kind of responses they elicit.

Clothing and self-esteem are linked in a number of
ways: Self-esteem may influence and determine behavior in
relation to clothing (Horn,11968;_Horrocks,_l969), and
reciprocally, the level of self-esteem may be influenced by

clothing (Secord, 1953).

Thus behavior and attitudes toward clothing are

influenced by the level of self-esteem that an individual

possesses. Specifically, it is logical to assume that

individuals with high self-esteem will exhibit different

behaviors and attitudes toward clothing from those indi-

viduals with low self-esteem. Specific clothing attitudes

considered in this study are:

1.

1969).

Attracting attention-~an attitude that relates to
dressing in a manner that results in gaining
attention by setting one apart from others.
Aesthetics--an attitude that relates to the use
of clothing to achieve a pleasing or beautiful
appearance.

Social consciousness--an attitude toward using
clothing to gain a positive reSponse from others
in a social setting.

Practicality--attitude that relates to utilitarian
functions of clothing.

Economy--attitude that relates to thrifty manage-
ment of clothing resources.
Individuality--attitude that relates to enhance
one's uniqueness or set oneself apart from others.
Creativity--attitude that relates to the use of

clothing to show originality of expression.

Locus of control is an aspect of self-esteem (Branden,

Like self-esteem, it is another self-evaluative con-

struct which has implications for behavior in that it

structures perceptions and outlook. Conceptually, locus of
control is "the extent to which persons perceive contingency
relationships between their actions and their outcomes"
(Robinson and Shaver, 1973). As explained by Rotter, such
internal controls reflect "a person's belief that rein-
forcements, social or otherwise, are contingent upon his

own actions . . . believe that one can shape, to some

extent, his own fate" (Rotter, 1966, p. 2).

Locus of control implies a continuum with control
being either internal or external in direction. Although
general literature shows that an internal orientation corre-
lates with high self-esteem, and an external orientation
correlates with low self-esteem, such relationships may not
hold true in the case for Blacks. Because they can often
legitimately identify real structural barriers thwarting
or preventing their control over specific aSpects of their
lives, Blacks may possess high self-esteem but quite accu-
rately feel that control is exerted by external forces
(Gurin and Gurin, 1969).

As a review of pertinent literature indicates a
lack of information on correlations between self-esteem and
locus of control specifically for Blacks, these variables
may or may not correlate in the same manner that they do
for the majority group. Indeed the correlations for Blacks
may be in the Opposite direction or they may be nebulous or

nonexistent. Thus one of the objectives of this

 

investigation is to determine how locus of control relates
to selected clothing variables.

Because they may not control or perceive that they
can control many aspects of their lives, Blacks may direct
more attention to those areas that they can manipulate or
influence. Clothing represents such an area in that it can
be easily manipulated. Within the constraints of their
available resources, Blacks do make conscious and effective
decisions and choices regarding their clothing. The
researcher is interested in investigating this relationship
between locus of control and clothing and has formulated

research questions for exploratory purposes.

Discussion of Paradigm

This figure shows relationships among variables that
will be investigated in this study. According to classic
theories, self-esteem is influenced by a variety of factors:
status, role, perceptions of love and acceptance, accomplish-
ments and independence. In the figure, each of those factors
is regarded as a construct whereas the sub-heads are vari—
ables that represent the constructs in this investigation.

It is worth noting that in this paradigm, most of the
variables are subjective or perceptual. Because of this,
different relationships to self-esteem may be observed than
.if all of the measures were objective. For example a
:family's income may be $50,000 but the family's perception
<of the adequacy of this may be either positive or negative.

Correlations with self-esteem of the objective data on one

 

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hand and perceptual data on the other hand could vary
greatly.

While the other categories of constructs and vari-
ables may be rather straightforward, some of the variables
under the construct "status" may require additional elabora-
tion. In his theory, James (1890) included the material
self as one aspect of the self. Material goods may be
especially important in a consumption society such as the
United States. Hence feelings about such material goods as
housing, neighborhood and clothing may be related to self-
esteem and feelings about self.

The placement of clothing variables in this figure
is important. It is the contention of some scholars
(Secord, 1953; Ryan, 1966) that clothing influences the
levels of self-esteem while some contend that the level of
self-esteem possessed by individuals may influence clothing
(Horn, 1968; Horrocks, 1969; Ryan, 1966). Thus the paradigm
indicates this possible reciprocal relationship between
clothing and self-esteem.

Personal competence or locus of control is an aspect

of self-esteem and therefore may influence reSponses on the

clothing variables included in this figure. Furthermore
age, total family income, sex, occupational prestige and
education may affect reSponses relating to clothing atti-
tudes, clothing expenditure, clothing acquisition, feelings

about clothing and clothing importance. Finally the

responses may indicate that the clothing variables influence

each other.

Research Questions and Hypotheses
The hypotheses are based on the foregoing conceptual
framework coupled with relevant research data. Where there
is insufficient theory in the literature review to allow
formulation of hypotheses, exploratory research questions

were posed.

Factors Contributing to
Self-Esteem

1. What are some important factors that account for
feelings of self-esteem? Will there be correlation
with self-esteem for the selected variables included
in this investigation and based on classic theories?
H There will be a positive relationship-between

respondents' self-esteem scores and scores on

the variables that represent status, role, love
and acceptance, achievement, and independence.

1

Self-Esteem and Clothing

2. How does self-esteem relate to clothing attitudes,
feelings about clothing, clothing expenditure,
clothing acquisition and clothing importance?

H2 There will be a positive relationship between
respondents' self-esteem scores and scores on
statements of clothing attitudes that relate
to attracting attention.

H There will be a positive relationship between

3 respondents' self-esteem scores and scores on
clothing attitude statements that relate to
aesthetics.

H4 There will be a positive relationship between

respondents' self-esteem scores and scores on
clothing attitude statements that relate to
social consciousness.

10

There will be a positive relationship between
self-esteem scores and clothing expenditure
when measured as personal, family clothing
expenditure and personal clothing as percentage
of family clothing expenditure.

Men and women will indicate a difference in
the dollar amount and the percentage of family
income Spent on clothing.

There will be a relationship between self-
esteem scores and sources of acquisition of
clothing.

There will be a positive relationship between
self-esteem scores and both feelings about
clothing and clothing importance.

What are the interrelationships among clothing
attitudes, clothing expenditure, clothing acquisi-
tion, feelings about clothing, clothing importance
and selected demographic variables?

Self-Esteem and Locus of Control

Ha

There will be a relationship between self-esteem
and locus of control.

Locus of Control and Clothing

4.

How does locus of control relate to selected
clothing attitudes, feelings about clothing,
clothing expenditures, clothing acquisition, and
clothing importance?

Operational Definitions

For the purposes of this study the following defini-

tions of some inherently important terms should be con-

sidered.

Self-esteem--Fee1ings of self-worth as measured by

the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale.

11

Clothing Attitudes--Feelings, thoughts and orienta-
tions toward clothing as measured by individual
clothing statements that have the following sub-
scales: attracting attention, aesthetics, and
social consciousness.

Clothing Consumption Practices--Data obtained from
a list of new and used clothing sources and from
information reported on personal and family
clothing expenditures.

Locus of Control--Feelings of internal or an external
control orientation measured by the Index of
Personal Competence.

This chapter presented the introduction, purpose,
conceptual framework, variables under investigation and
hypotheses of this study. Chapter II will consist of a
review of the relevant literature; Chapter III will present
the methodology; Chapter IV will present the findings, and
Chapter V will give a summary along with limitations and

implications of the study.

 

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

This chapter presents a review of relevant theor-
etical and research literature that relates to the objec-
tives and hypotheses under study. The literature review
is divided into six sections: the self, self-esteem, self-
esteem of Blacks, clothing in relation to self, self-
esteem and other variables, locus of control and consump-

tion practices of Blacks.

The Self

In the last century, self constructs have been a
major focus of study by sociologists and social psycholo-
gists. A number of theories have been generated as a
result. In this section some of the classic theories will
be examined along with more recent theoretical views on
the components of self. In accordance with one particular
train of thought, the terms "self" and "self-concept" are
used interchangeably.

William James (1890) proposed that a person's self
is the "sum total of all that he CAN call his.” He per-

ceived the self as having three constituents:

12

 

13

l. The material self is the physical body, and that
person's possessions. The body is the innermost
part of the material self, followed by clothing
which forms a strong basis for an individual's
identity (p. 291).

2. The spiritual self is an individual's inner or sub-

 

jective being, psychic faculties or dispositions

taken concretely. These dispositions are enduring

conceptions of what one consciously is or seems to

be (p. 296).

3. The social self is the recognition individuals get
from all of the people with whom they interact.

It is a multidimensional concept in that there are

as many social selves as there are persons who

interact with one individual and carry images of

him or her around in their minds (p. 297).

Charles Cooley (1902) also acknowledged a social
nature of the self. He labeled this concept the "looking
glass self" suggesting that individuals' definitions of
self are based on the reflected attitudes and perceptions
of others. Individuals then react with positive or nega-
tive feelings toward these reflected images. Thus by defi-
nition, interaction with others is a necessary condition
for emergence and development of the self.

Like James and Cooley, George H. Mead (1913)
explored the notion of social dimension suggesting that

the self develops through interaction. Laying the

14

framework for the Interactionist Theory, Mead suggested
that individuals become selves insofar as they take the
attitudes of others and act toward themselves as others
act. Mead also indicated that the self is reflexive, and
represents an "I-ME" dichotomy with self being both sub-
ject and object:

The "I" is the response of the organism to the attitude

of others; the "MB" is the organized set of attitudes

of others which one himself assumes (p. 175).

Viewing the development of the self as a result of
interaction with the environment, Rogers (1950, p. 498)
made the following statement:

As a result of interaction with the environment, and
particularly as a result of evaluationa1_interaction
with others, the structure of the self is formed--an
organIEeET‘fluid, but consistent conceptual pattern
of perceptions of characteristics and relationships
of the "I" or "ME" together with values attached to
these concepts.

While Mead's concept of self stresses a develop-
mental process and Roger's concept is structural with the

other theories falling somewhere in between these two

dimensions, an inherent facet of each theory is the impor—

 

tance of interaction with the environment. Thus, to vary—

ing degrees, each theory has a so:i:i_EEEBQEEBE- Other

more recent theories on the self build upon the foundations

 

provided by the classic theories but may emphasize only
certain aspects of these theories.

Using Mead's self-as-object and self-as-subject
dichotomy as a base, Rosenberg (1979) viewed the self-

w

<:oncept as analogous to the self as object. He defined
_*__‘~___~_fi‘_¥

 

 

15

self-concept as "the totality of the individual's thoughts
and feelings having reference to himself as object" (p. 7).
In further elaborating on his definition, Rosenberg made
several distinctions between the self-concept and other
self constructs.

He asserted that the self-concept is not Freud's
ego. The ego works to protect and enhance the self-concept,
but is not analogous to the self-concept. Neither is the

self-concept the "real self," but is rather the picture of

 

 

the‘self. The self-concept is not the existential self or
the world existing of immediate experience but an object

of perception and reflection, including the emotional
responses to that perception and reflection. Rosenberg
completed his analogy by stating that some writers appar-
ently use the term "self" to reflect the total constellation
of an individual's psychological characteristics--a concept
usually subsumed under the term personality. Rosenberg,

however, insisted that the self concept is only one part of

 

 

 

the individual's total personality.
m‘ —_ __
Webster and Sobieszek (1974, p. 7) defined the self-

 

 

concept as, what individuals think they are and the unique

 

traitgythey believe themselves to possess. They further con-

‘

 

tended that a reciprocal relationship exists between the

self-concept and the environment:

The individual is acted upon by his environment, and
specific effects of the environment are mediated by
his interpretation of them and how he thinks they

are meaningful to him. The individual also acts on

16

his environment, and his actions are partially deter-
mined by the kind of person he thinks he is, or wants
to be (p. 7).

Strang (1959) listed four dimensions of the self-
concept. The self-concept proper denotes persons' percep-
tions of their abilities, statuses and roles in larger
society. This dimension of self is influenced by physical
appearance as it relates to values, beliefs and aspirations.
The second dimension is perception of the self at the cur-
rent time. This type of self is influenced by the recent
experiences of the individual. The third dimension is the
social self which is defined as the self that an individual
thinks is perceived by others. The fourth dimension is the
ideal self which refers to the type of self or person that
an individual would like to be. Goals and inspirations of
the individual serve as the major influence on the ideal
self.

Hall and Lindzey (1957) also contended that the self-
concept is a multidimensional structure. They viewed it as
involving the important process of self-observation and

possessing two dimensions: the real self and the ideal self.

Cfl—f

 

 

.—

The former is the self individuals admit to being in their
most rational moments and the latter is the self that indi-
viduals aspire to.

In summary, theorists differ in their perceptions
of the different dimensions of the self-concept, but it
appears to be the consensus of most that the self-concept

W—‘w

involves an objective and knowledgeable view of one's self.

 

 

.__--—" "'

 

 

 

17

Self-Este
/

 

Horrocks (1969) viewed self-concept and self-esteem
as being highly related. The self-concept is considered
the objective acknowledgement of one's personality charac-
teristics, physical attributes and attitudes while self-
esteem refers to the subjective evaluation of one's traits.

Coopersmith (1967) likewise suggested that self-

esteem involves evaluation of the self. He presented the

following monologue as a reflection of the person with
high self-esteem:
I consider myself a valuable and important person, and
am at least as good as other persons of my age and

training. I am regarded as someone worthy of respect
and consideration by people who are important to me

Conversely, a person with low self-esteem would
express the following sentiments:
I don't think I'm a very important or likeable person,
and I don't see much reason for anyone else to like
me. I can't do many of the things I'd like to do or
do them the way I think they should be done . . . .
Coopersmith further stated that persons with dif—
ferent levels of self-esteem approach, perceive, and respond
to the environment and events in markedly different ways"
(1967). In identifying four (4) basic implications of self-
esteem, he listed competence, significance, virtue and power.
Individuals value themselves according to their competency
in task performance, how well they meet ethical or religious

requirements, how they are loved and accepted by others and

the extent of power they exert.

 

Like Coopersmith, Abraham Maslow (1954), in dis-
cussing self-esteem, stated that such needs are expressed
as a desire for self-importance and for self-respect.
Other aspects of these needs are expressed in the desire
for achievement, adequacy, competency, confidence and
independence.

Rosenberg (1965) echoed the valuing process dis-
cussed by Coopersmith and Maslow in defining self-esteem
as a positive or negative attitude toward self. He sees
the concept as having two different connotations: individ—
uals with high self-esteem respect themselves, like them-
selves and consider themselves worthy. Low self-esteem
implies self-rejection, low self-satisfaction, and self-

contempt.

On the basis of this literature review, it can be
concluded that self-esteem is a very complex phenomenon.
It entails a sense of worth based on a valuation of oneself
on a number of variables: one's competence, abilities,
status and role, feelings of being loved and accepted and

one's sense of independence.

Self-Esteem of Blacks

 

The literature is replete with research data on the
self-esteem of Blacks though most of it is reported in
comparison to that of Caucasians. The following review is

not exhaustive, but is representative.

 

19

Early research by Pettigrew (1964), Clark and Clark
(1968), and Broom and Glenn (1965) reported low self-esteem
on the part of Blacks because of the dominant society's
attitude toward Blacks. In general these data referred to
low self-esteem of Blacks resulting from embracing Caucasians
as a reference group and internalizing the hatred they hold
for Blacks. In their famous study, Kardiner and Ovessey
(1951) insisted that there was pathological self-hatred on

the part of Blacks because of Caucasian idealization. They
further stated that "the enormous amount of aggression that
has been mobilized in the Negro in itself prevents any
healthy self-esteem from getting a foothold" (p. 167).
Similarly Drake and Cayton (1962), Sutherland (1942), Davis
and Dollard (1940) and Grier and Cobbs (1968) related the
self-esteem of Blacks to idealization of beauty standards
held by Caucasians. U”'

Findings from other studies challenge this notion
that Blacks generally have low self-esteem. Baughman and
Dahlestrom (1968) conducted a study of eighth graders and
found that Black children were more likely to report that
they were very satisfied with the type of person they were.
In a review of studies involving self-esteem and race,

Rosenberg (1971) found that studies by Gordon (1963),

McDonald and Gynther (1965), McDill st 31. (1966), Wendland

\_

 

(1967) and/Baehmafi"71970)mshowed Blacks havingflhigher self-

Lawtqulm - —...._-—-—

esteem than Caucasians; Herman (1967) and Gordon (1969)
y”... ..- ~ .

found equal levels of self-esteem among the two races.
M r- _...- ....... ._. --" '

 

 

20

Kohn (1966) found Blacks slightly, but not significantly,\\\
more self-deprecatory, but also significantly more self-
confident than Caucasians. f

Middleton (1972) showed self-esteem of Black adults
to be generally lower than that of others, but to be sig-
nificantly higher when socioeconomic variables were con-
trolled. Jacques (1976) found no significant difference
in self-esteem scores between Black husbands and wives.
This study also reported a relationship between the levels
of self-esteem and socioeconomic status. It was found that
the higher the self-esteem score, the higher was an individ-
ual's socioeconomic status.

Wylie (1978) reviewed fifty—three publications on
the tOpic of race and self-esteem. In reference to the
conflicting findings and to the general assumption of low
self-esteem of Blacks, Wylie concluded by stating:

The results . . . place the burden of proof on those
who have contended that the derogated, disadvantaged
social position of Blacks in the United States must
obviously have resulted in seriously damaged self-
esteem in that group (p. 157).

Gordon (1977) in analyzing the methodological pro-
blems of empirical studies that have dealt with the self-
concept of Black Americans over the past thirty-five years,
concluded that conflicting findings result from different

methods used in data collection. Like Wylie, Gordon

questioned the assumption of low self-concepts among Blacks.

21

Of particular interest to those who are concerned with
the sociology of Black America and generalized ethnic
group studies will be the fact that there is no basis
for the statement-~50 often stated as fact-~that Blacks
have low self-concepts (p. 36).

It is sometimes suggested that racial insulation is
one important factor contributing to high self-esteem among
Black children and that their subsequent integration causes
lowered self-esteem. Rosenberg and Simmons (1971) studied
a large sample of Black and Caucasian students in grades
three through twelve in Baltimore. They found that Black
children in integrated schools had decidedly lower self-
esteem than Blacks in segregated schools but that both
Black groups had higher self-esteem than Caucasian students.

In another study Rosenberg (1965) found the self-
esteem of Blacks to be slightly below that of Caucasians
but not nearly as low as one might expect if general soci-
etal status were an important determinant of self-esteem.
It is popularly believed that minority group members have
lower self-esteem because they compare unfavorably with the
majority group in ways other than group membership. Rosen-
berg challenged such belief by stating that although Blacks
are exposed to the most intense, humiliating, and crippling
forms of discrimination in virtually every institutional
area, they do not have particularly low self-esteem.

On the surface Rosenberg's observation may seem to
be at variance with theories by social interactionists Cooley

(1922) and Mead (1934) who suggested that the self is the

product of reflected appraisals. Further analysis of

22

Rosenberg's observation, however, suggests that Blacks
accept appraisals from persons other than the majority
group.

Taylor (1976) concurred with this analysis as he
insisted that self-appraisals rest on reflected appraisals
by significant others, that is, others to whom the individ-
ual is most fully and basically committed, emotionally and
psychologically. He further stated that the assumption
that Blacks take whites as their significant others is ques-
tionable in that it fails to take into account the multiple
sources from which self appraisal is derived.

Further support for Taylor's view is found in the
observation by Baughman (1968). He stated:

There is general agreement that the antecedents of self-

esteem are to be found in the childhood experiences of an

individual. Furthermore, the child's family is usually

regarded as the single most important determinant of

how he comes to value himself, and within the family,

the influence of the parents or (parent substitutes)

is viewed as having special significance (p. 44).
Specifically relating this observation to Blacks, he further
stated:

. . . the typical Black child--whether urban or rural--

spends his formative years in essentially a Black world.

The black community provides him with his frame of refer-

ence, and it is within the black community that the
black child compares himself with black children and

not with white children. . . . The inevitable con-
frontation with the white world (in any really meaning- //
ful sense) occurs for most black children after the ,/

foundation of their self-esteem has been established
by their experiences within the black community
(Baughman, pp. 44-46).

Taylor (1976) felt that as the Black child grows older,

he becomes more fully aware of the low repute in which his

23

membership group is held and how it compares as a whole on
various measures with the larger society. Still he iden-
tifies strongly with his own group.

Rosenberg (1965) asserted that, to explain society's
devaluation, the child may correctly conclude that he lives
in a deviant society by suggesting ”. . . it is the whites
who are bigoted and irrational, not the black race in
general, nor himself in particular, who is deficient."

In sum, there is still no firm consensus regarding
the self-esteem of Blacks in general or in comparison with
Caucasians. While earlier studies reported low self-esteem
among Blacks, more recent studies have refuted those find-
ings. Researchers of the more recent studies have offered
explanations for their findings by revisiting established

theories.

Clothing in Relation to SelfoSelf-Esteem
and Other Variables

Clothing and Self

Horn viewed clothing as a "significant force in the
enhancement of the self (which), when used positively, con-
tributes to one's feelings of self-acceptance, self-respect,
and self-esteem" (1968, p. 105).

Stone (1975) in reference to Mead's symbolic inter-
action theory, emphasized the importance of clothing in

the establishment and maintenance of the self.

24

Every social transaction must be broken down into at
least two analytic components or processes--appearance
and discourse . . . appearance is at least as important
for the establishment and maintenance of the self as is
discourse (p. 97).
Appearance, which includes nonverbal symbols such as groom-
ing, gestures and clothing, facilitates discourse by pro-
viding cues to the possibilities of meaningful discussion.
Jersild (1952) believed that the clothes people
wear are projections of themselves. Certain qualities

of the individua1--attitudes and values--are reflected

through choice of clothing.

Clothing and Self-Esteem

 

Ryan (1966) saw a duality and reciprocity in
the relationship between clothing and self-esteem. She
suggested that clothing plays a vital role in the develop-
ment of the self-concept, and that the self-concept is a
base of reference in determining the clothing choices of an
individual.

Secord (1953) felt that the level of self-esteem

that an individual possesses is influenced by clothing.
Jourard further asserted that clothing can be a powerful
tool in determining and altering one's behavior.

Humphrey, Klaasen, and Creekmore (1971) studied
520 white high school adolescents and found that for boys,
aesthetic and attention-getting uses of clothing were posi-
tively and significantly related to self-esteem. Aesthetic,

attention, interest and management uses were related to

 

 

25

self-esteem of girls. A major conclusion by the researchers
was that both boys and girls who scored high on self-esteem
tended to use clothing to gain attention from others. How-
ever, in a study by Washington (1977) of sixty-eight Black
females, it was found that levels of self-esteem were not
related to the propensity to use clothing to gain attention._fl

Lutwiniak (1972) also investigated self-esteem and
the use of attention-getting clothing by females. In study-
ing forty-five Black and forty-three Caucasian adolescent
high school students, she found that for both subsamples,
as total freedom to dress as they wish increased, that is,
freedom from restraining factors such as figure, parental
approval and money, the level of self-esteem increased and
propensity toward dressing to gain special attention became
stronger.

Focusing on a variable closely related to self-
esteem, Reeder (1977) investigated self-concept and the use
of attention-getting clothing. Her sample consisted of 116
college male athletes (seventy-four Caucasian and forty-two
Blacks) who stated their clothing preferences. She found
that the Black athletes had higher mean self-concept scores
than did their Caucasian counterpart. She also found that
those with high self-concept scores were those who chose £3.
lmore attention-getting clothing. ‘9

She interpreted this by saying that clothing may be
'used in different ways. Those who have high self-concepts

lnay use attention-getting clothing to reflect the good

 

 

 

26

feelings that they have toward themselves, or because they
have good self-images, they do not mind calling attention
to themselves. Another interpretation could be that those
with low self-concepts may use clothing to try to fit into
a situation or to hide feelings of inadequacy. Commenting
on the same topic, Humphrey gt 31. (1971) spoke of adaptive
and expressive functions of clothing suggesting that cloth-
ing may serve an adaptive function when self-esteem is low
and an expressive function when self-esteem is high.

The wearing of bright colors may be associated with
attention-getting behavior. Various studies of the color
preferences of Black adolescents have yielded conflicting
findings. Tutterow (1968) studied color preferences of 219
adolescent girls and found that there was a slight tendency
among Black girls to prefer brighter colors than white girls.
These findings were contrary to those of Malanchuk (1968),
who studied 180 tenth grade males and females. From data
procured in her study, she found some indication that
Caucasian adolescents preferred brighter colors for wearing
purposes than did Blacks. Lott (1966) found that Blacks
preferred more warm, advancing colors--red, yellow, pink--
than whites did.

McCollough (1975) asserted that Black persons are
often associated with the frequent use of certain types of
fabrics. She said that others assume Blacks use these to
attract attention from the opposite sex. However, it was

found that while Blacks did indicate more frequent use of

27

some fabrics (plush, shiny velvet and velour), they did not
rate them as being sensuous items or items that demand
attention from the opposite sex.

Other Variables in Relation to
Self-Concept and Self-Esteem

 

Other variables, too, have been studied.in relation
to the self-esteem of Blacks. Tutterow (1968), Lott (1966)
in studying 349 high school girls, Cressman (1972) in study-
ing 88 high school adolescents, and McCollough (1975) found
that Blacks possessed a higher (more positive) self concep-
tion of physical attributes than did their Caucasian class-
mates. Similarly Reeder (1977) found that Black college
male athletes had higher mean self-concept scores than did
their white counterparts. Washington (1977) found that the
higher their self-esteem, the more satisfied subjects were
with their body parts. Lutwiniak (1972) found that Black
female subjects seemed to more closely associate the body
with self-esteem and also with clothing than did other sub-
jects. She also found that those who scored high on self-
esteem indicated a weak attitude toward social acceptability
which Lutwiniak defined as the positive response of a teen-
ager to the standards of others in his peer group.

Broberg (1971) found correlations between selected
factors of self-concept and parallel clothing attitudes.
Specifically, she found that those subjects with high
scores on aesthetic, economic, social responsiveness, or

status and prestige factors of self-concept measures

28

had high scores on the parallel factors of clothing atti-
tudes.

Clothing acceptance in relation to self—esteem is
also a variable that has been given attention. In a study
of Black college freshmen and seniors on clothing accept-
ance for self and others, in relation to certain personal-
ity factors, Adams (1972) found that persons who had wider
latitudes of clothing acceptance for the self tended to
be socially insecure and low in self-esteem. Lutwiniak
(1972) found that for Black females, the higher the self-
esteem score, the higher was the social acceptability score
on the clothing they were wearing.

Other Studies on Clothing
and Blacks

 

Studies have also been done to probe clothing
importance and clothing values of Blacks. In a study of
poverty level Black and white mothers of Head Start chil-
dren, Murphy (1972) found that for Blacks, the clothing
importance score ranked from high to low according to
economic, aesthetic, social and political values, respec-
tively. Murphy defined clothing importance as the value
of clothing as perceived by the mothers based on Lapitsky's
definition of specific values:

Aesthetics--the desire for something pretty.
Social--desire for social approval and conformity to

peer group in clothing usage.

29

Economic-~pertaining to efficient use of time, energy,
and money with reference to clothing.

Political--the desire for obtaining prestige, distinc-
tion, leadership or influence through clothing
usage.

Graham (1972) compared clothing values among a
sample of adolescents of both races and found that while
the entire sample considered aesthetic quality important,
the black subsample had a higher mean score on economic and
prestige clothing values. Adams (1972), in her study of
Black males, found that appropriateness was significantly

more important than adherence to fashion.

Self-Esteem and Locus of Control

 

Campbell, Converse and Rodgers (1976), and Branden

(1969) insisted that one aspect of s f-esteem is an indi-

vidual's perception_of whether he/she has control over his/

 

 

her life or that control is exerted by external forces.
_—’/”—_'_m““t- 1__ ___l

Rotter (1966) referred to this concept as locus of

 

 

~-.—

control and defines internal and external control as
follows:

. . . internal control is a person's belief that rein-
forcements, social or otherwise, are contingent upon
his own actions, or more generally the belief that one
can shape, to some extent, his own fate. External con-
trol refers to the belief that reinforcing events occur
independently of one's own actions and that the future
is determined more by chance and luck than by purposive
behavior (p. 2).

Gurin and Gurin (1969) stated that an internal

response reflecting acceptance of blame for one's failure

 

30

which might be considered "normal" in the typical middle
class (white) experience, may be extreme and intrapunitive
for a Black youngster growing up in poverty in the ghetto.
They also suggest that, although an internal control orien-
tation has been associated with a positive affirmation and
achievement, an internal orientation may also have negative
implications. When associated with success, an internal
orientation can lead to feelings of competence and efficacy.
When associated with failure, it can lead to self-derogation
and self-blame. Gurin and Gurin also questioned whether
external control implies blaming chance or a faulty system.
In their study of Black college students, they found

that a high external control score on the part of a ghetto
person may indicate a "realistic appraisal of external forces
at work in the ghetto rather than the more commonly assumed
belief that events are due to fate or chance." On the basis
of this finding, they concluded that for low income groups
there are external experiences that have nothing to do with
chance but are the result of a real functioning system.
They further stated:

Additionally, for Negroes, there is also the external

factor of racial discrimination which operates over

and beyond the class constraints they may or may not

experience. Discrimination may be perceived as operat-

ing quite the opposite of chance--systematically, pre-

dictably and reliably (p. 45).

Both Gurin and Gurin (1969) and Coleman (1966) found

that Blacks respond differently when the Protestant Ethic

is discussed in the first and third persons. For example,

 

(-

\

31

while Blacks generally embrace the cultural belief that
people get ahead as a result of hard work, they do not
express this belief when it is applied to their own life
situations. They respond that they personally may not get
ahead as a result of hard work. Another study (Guttentag,
1976) of children in the fifth through eithth grades found
no difference in the locus of control among items that
differed in first, second and third persons.

A number of studies have focused on the relation- .
ship of locus of control to self-esteem. Jackson (1979)
found self-esteem and locus of control to be highly corre-
lated. In her study using Black males, Adams (1972) found

that persons who were higher in feelings of self-esteem held

\\'stronger feelings of internal control. Similarly Irish

and Karabenick (1971), Ziller, Hagey and Smith (1969),
Platt, Eisenman and Darbes (1970) and Ryckman and Sherman
(1973) found that an internal orientation correlated with
high self-esteem and that an external orientation correlated

with low self-esteem.

Clothing Consumption Practices of Blacks
In the last two decades, a substantial amount of
scholarly and popular research has focused on clothing
consumption characteristics of Black people. The goal of
much of this research was to explore differences in consump-

tion practices and to offer reasons for these differences.

32

A number of researchers and speculators mention conspicuous
consumption as a characteristic of Blacks.

Kardiner and Ovessey (1951), Alexis (1962), Broom
and Glenn (1965) postulated that Blacks use conspicuous
consumption as a means Of compensating for unobtainable
goals or inadequacies. The following statement illustrates
the point.

. . . the Negro may feel a need to compensate for the
fact that his physical appearance symbolizes low
status. He knows that his color leads the stranger
to assume that he is poor and uneducated, and so he

uses other status symbols to demonstrate that this
is not true (Broom and Glenn, pp. 28-29).

Schwartz (1965) expressed a similar sentiment but
goes further to say that Blacks use "loud, flashy" clothing

as a compensatory device, to raise self-esteem. He saw

this as a reaction to the lower status of Blacks resulting
from denial of the Opportunity to participate fully in
the mainstream of American life.

Rose (1964), Pettigrew (1964), Frazier (1962), and
Suttles (1968), like Schwartz, stated that blacks use loud,
gaudy or ostentatious clothing. Rose connected this with
emotionalism while Pettigrew and Frazier related it to
conspicuous consumption and symbolic striving. Suttles, in
his study of Blacks living on the West Side of Chicago,
suggested that clothes for Blacks are mechanisms for assuag-

ing fears and doubt and for presenting an appearance of

power .

33

When attention is turned to specific consumer prac-
tices, researchers have reported a variety of findings.
Engel, Kollot and Blackwell (1978), Sexton (1972), Alexis
(1962), Broom and Glenn (1965), and the U.S. Department of
Commerce (1978) found that Blacks spend more for clothing
than Caucasians at comparable economic levels. Stith (1978)
noted however, that as incomes have increased since 1950,
the proportion of income spent for clothing has decreased.
Alexis (1962) insisted, conversely, that as incomes rise,
both races increase their consumption of clothing at a
faster rate than they increase total consumption. He also
noted that wives of both races increase their expenditures
for clothing more rapidly than their husbands when incomes
rise. Alexis stated that the higher expenditures on clothing
by some Blacks result partially from the fact that Blacks
purchase some clothing items in the better stores because of
the quality protection such stores Offer. He added that a
history of having shoddy merchandise passed Off on them has
made Blacks skeptical of unbranded merchandise.

In exploring reasons for higher expenditures by
Blacks for clothing and specifically for clothing of a more
unconventional style, Andreasen and Hodges (1977) suggest
that these may be reactions to the imposition of middle-
class standards. It may be a statement that "I'm not Whitey's
man!" It may also be a possibility that Blacks spend,
not because they have a Black or Caucasian standard, but

because they have both. They spend more because they feel

34

that they have to dress one way for one world and they pre-
fer to dress another way for the other.

Robertson, Dalrymple, and Yoshino (1969) found that
high income Blacks are likely to be clothing innovators--
that is, they purchase a higher number of new (recently
introduced) clothing items before others. Illustrating
this point is a statement by a merchandising manager of
Carson, Pirie, Scott Company:

The Negro shopper is my guide. If I see him buying
yellow shirts, I start to buy greater quantities of
the color which will filter down to white men a little
later (Men Wear, 1968).

Portis (1966) found that in regard to shopping, the
women of both races are similar in fashion-consciousness.
They additionally found that fashion-conscious shoppers,
regardless of race, were more affluent and younger than
less fashion-conscious shoppers. Affluence also seems to
be a factor in shopping behavior that reflects social
influence. Samil, Tozier, and Harps (1978) in their study
Of the apparel purchase behavior Of single, professional
Black women found that significantly more individuals in
the upper middle and the lower middle socioeconomic groups
than in the upper-lower socioeconomic group felt that
clothing was important in giving the wearer self-assurance.

Other researchers have studied consumer practices
in relation tO economic factors. Engel gt El- (1978) sug-

gest that Black consumers place more emphasis on price and

quality than on other factors. Sexton (1972) found price

35

to be most important for low-income Blacks, but found price
and status both to be important for high income Blacks.
Horton (1976), in studying race as a determinant of buying
behavior, reported that the Black students shopped at sales
more often than did the Caucasian students.

Studies on the source of acquisition have been
sparse. Murphy (1972) found differences by race as more
Caucasians than Blacks reported hand-me-downs and gifts
as a clothing source.

In sum, it has been found that, for the most part,
Blacks spend more than Caucasians at comparable income
levels on clothing, that high income Blacks are likely to
be clothing innovators and that Blacks appear to be fashion-
conscious. Findings also indicate that Black consumers are
quite price and quality conscious, and that new clothing is
purchased and worn by Blacks more than used clothing. This
held true across different income levels.

This review of literature consisted of six sections:
the self, self-esteem, self-esteem of Blacks, clothing in
relation to self, self-esteem and other variables, self-
esteem and locus of control and clothing consumption prac-
tices Of Blacks. It was concluded that self-concept and
self-esteem are highly related in that self-concept involves
an objective view of one's self while self-esteem refers to
a valuation of one's characteristics. Many studies have
been done to determine the general level of self-esteem of

Blacks. However, no firm conclusions have been drawn due

36

to conflicting findings. In the section on clothing and
self-esteem, studies that investigated variables such as
the use of attention-getting clothing, use of bright colors,
social acceptability, aesthetics, economics and clothing
importance were analyzed revealing a variety of findings.

Researchers investigating the relationship between
self-esteem and locus of control using Caucasian subjects
tended to reach similar conclusions: high self-esteem corre-
lates with an internal orientation while low self-esteem
correlates with an external orientation. NO studies were
found relating self-esteem to locus of control for Blacks.
However, it was suggested that the unique placement of
Blacks in the social system might result in a different
relationship between self-esteem and locus of control for
this segment.

Finally the last section of the literature review
was on clothing consumption practices Of Blacks. Findings
from the studies indicated that Blacks generally spend more
on clothing and purchase fewer used clothing than do
Caucasians at comparable income levels. There was also
indication that Blacks were quite price and quality con-

scious.

CHAPTER III

METHODOLOGY

Included in this chapter is a section on the
following: develOpment of the instrument, pretesting,
sampling procedure, interviewer training and data collection,

description of the variables and statistical tests used to

analyze the data. A section at the end of the chapter is
devoted to a discussion of the researcher's involvement with

the Quality of Life Project.

Instruments Used to Collect Data

 

The data included in this study is a subsample of a
larger Quality Of Life Research Project1 consisting of only
the reSponses given by the Black subjects.

The Quality of Life project staff develOped a
questionnaire designed to collect data on various tOpics

that relate to the different disciplines represented by

 

1The "Quality of Life Research Project was funded
by the Agriculture Experiment Station at Michigan State Uni-
versity and a grant from University Of Minnesota conducted
by a team of Human Ecologists. Project number 3151, "Fami-
lies in Evolving Rural Communities" was directed by Dr.
Margaret Buholz, Department of Family and Child Ecology.
Project number 1249 "Clothing Use and Quality of Life in
Rural and Urban Communities" was directed by Dr. Ann Slocum,
Department Of Human Environment and Design.

37

38

project members. Some Of the questionnaire items were
developed by the Quality of Life Project staff while others

were borrowed or adapted from the work Of other researchers.
Andrews and Withey (1976) Of the University of
Michigan Institute for Social Research formulated a causal

model2

as a result Of their extensive research on the com-
ponents of well-being. They proposed that an individual's
perception of life quality is a combination of "affective"
responses to life concerns which are Of two types--domains
and criteria. Domains are defined as "places, things,
activities, peOple and roles" and criteria are "values,
standards, aspirations, goals and in general, ways of judging
what the domains of life afford“ (Andrews and Withey, 1976,
pp. 11-12). Evaluations of the domains and criteria were
made on a scale that ranged from "Delighted" to "Terrible."

This scale consisted of seven on-scale reSponses and three

off-scale responses (Appendix A, items 1.1-2.7). The

following items were selected from the larger study for
this investigation:

1.2 How do you feel about the freedom you have from
being bothered and annoyed?

1.5 How do you feel about your independence or freedom—-
the chance you have to do what you want?

1.6 How do you feel about how much you are accepted
and included by others?

1.7 How do you feel about your job?

 

2Used with written permission of Dr. Frank Andrews
and Dr. Stephen Withey.

39

1.8 How do you feel about your standard of living--the
things you have like housing, car, furniture,
recreation, and the like?

1.12 How do you feel about your house or apartment?

1.13 How do you feel about what you are accomplishing
in your life?

1.14 How do you feel about your particular neighborhood
as a place to live?

1.15a How do you feel about your clothing?
1.17 How do you feel about yourself?

1.19 How do you feel about how secure you are financi-
ally?

1.22 How do you feel about the extent to which your
social and emotional needs (for example, friends,
acceptance by others, belonging and affection) are
met?

1.24 How do you feel about your total family income, the
way it enables you and your family to live as com-
fortably as you would like?

Rosenberg's Self-Esteem Scale3 (Appendix A; items
3.1-3.10) consists of ten items answered on a four point
"Strongly Disagree"--"Strongly Agree" forced choice scale.
Data from the Survey Research Center of the University of
Michigan (Robinson and Shaver, 1973) reported a reproduci-
bility coefficient of .92 and a test-retest correlation of
.85. According to the same source, the scale has a validity

range of .56 to .83. Among the advantages of using this

scale are its unidimensionality for accurately measuring

global self-esteem, brevity, ease of administration and

applicability to various ages. Additionally, it can be

 

4 3Used with permission of the Princeton University
Press.

40

scored using either the Guttman or Likert format. This
investigation used the Likert format because it afforded a
greater differential in range and distribution. For the
Likert format the scores range from 10 to 40 with the low
numerical scores corresponding to low self-esteem and the
high numerical scores corresponding to high self-esteem.

The Index of Personal Competence4 (Appendix A, items
4.1-4.4) has been used often by the Survey Research Center
of the University of Michigan and consistently correlated
well with interesting variables. It consists Of four
questions and is a forced choice format between two response
statements for each question. It measures respondents'
perceptions of whether their lives are within their control
or subject to control from external forces. Rotter (1966)
refers to these concepts as internal or external locus of
control.

The score range for this measure is 0-4 with the
high scores corresponding to internal control and the low

scores corresponding to external control.

The clothing attitude statements originated from
four sources: Creekmore's (1966) study of clothing vari-
ables; Sproles (1976) study on consumer information pro-
cessing; four were contributed by the investigator and some
were develOped by other members of the Quality of Life

Project Staff (Appendix B). Measurement of the items was

 

4Used with permission of Campbell gt 31.

41

on a 1 to 5 point scale from "Strongly Disagree" to "Strongly
Agree.”

Included in the instrument were questions that
sought demographic data. These additional items will be
discussed in detail in the sections on description of vari-

ables. The demographic items were adapted from Basic Back-

 

,ground Items for U.S. Household Surveys edited by Van Dusen

and Zill (1975).

Pretest.

Graduate students who were members of the Quality
of Life Project staff pretested the instrument in the fall
of 1977 in a rural area and two suburban areas in Ingham
County, Michigan and in one suburban area in Oakland County,
Michigan. The sample for pretesting consisted of twenty
families. Three Of these were Black families. It was also
pretested with approximately nine students who were enrolled
in the Quality Of Life seminar at Michigan State University
during the fall term of the 1977-78 school year. The
families used in pretesting met the same eligibility require-
ments that the final research sample met: husband-wife pairs
presently living with their spouses and having at least one
school age child, between the ages of five and eighteen,
living at home at the time the data were collected.

Based on the pretest results the instrument under-

went minor revision.

42

Data Collection Procedures

The instrument was approved by the Michigan State
University Committee on Research Involving Human Subjects
in the fall Of 1977 and data collection began soon after-
wards. Data collection was done in Oakland County, Michigan.
Three types of geographical locations were designated as
rural, urban, and suburban. Each location was identified
as to its racial composition: predominantly Black or pre-

dominantly Caucasian.

The Quality of Life directors contracted with a
research firm located in Detroit, Michigan for drawing the
sample and for data collection. The eligibility criteria
required that each participating household consist Of a
husband-wife couple who were living together and had at
least one school age child between the ages of five and
eighteen living in the household with them. Each partici-
pating family signed a written consent form which gave the
project staff permission to use the data. Anonymity was
assured to each participant in a letter written by the
project directors (Appendix C). An honorarium of $10.00
was paid to each household who returned a set of question-
naires that were considered complete after they had been

edited by the Quality of Life staff.

SamplinggDesign
Two stage systematic sampling with clusters was

used for data collection. For each of the three

43

geographical areas, a list Of census tracts was ordered by
the number of occupied dwelling units and sampling points.
Then a random number was used to select the block and the
designated household to be chosen as the starting point for
questionnaire placement. If contact was not established,
if the household was ineligible or if the household did not
consent to participation, substitutions were made using
first the household on the right, then on the left, then by
skipping four households from the designated one and repeat-
ing this pattern until placement of four of the question-
naires was completed (Appendix D). Some modifications in
the procedure were necessary in the geographical area where
most of the respondents for this study were located due to
difficulties encountered in placement and time constraints.
The statistician described these in a letter written to the
project directors:

At first designated household, if contact is made
with an adult, interviewer may ask which houses in the
group Of 19-20 included in the originally defined
sampling cluster (allowing for designated and substitute
households) have both children 5-18 and husband/wife

living together. This includes, of course, asking about
this first designated household.

 

If only four households Of the 20 qualify then these
four become the designated households. If eight qualify,
every-other-one becomes the designated household. If
12 qualify, then every third one (OBJECTIVE: Chose
[gig] a random sample of households in the originally
chosen area which fit the eligibility requirements).

If in any sampling point cluster block there are not
four eligible households, the interviewer adds additional
households beyond the first 20, including proceeding to

another block according to the original sampling in-
structions.

44

If information on households in the block cannot be
Obtained at the first contacted household, proceed with
the skip interval as originally planned and ask for such
information at second designated household.

As a result of these modifications, generalizability

of the findings is limited.

Data Processing Procedures
Data processing was conducted by the Quality Of Life
Project staff. Questionnaires were first edited by graduate
students who checked for completion, eligibility and possible

collusion. Codes were assigned to the responses and the

coded responses were then recorded on Opscan sheets and

later placed on a computer tape.

Description Of Variables

Self-Esteem: Respondents' evaluation of self as
measured by Rosenberg's Self-Esteem Scale (Appendix A,
3.1-3.10).

Personal Competence: ReSpondents' score on the Index
of Personal Competence measure (Appendix A, 4.1-4.4).

Clothing Attitudes: ReSpondents' score on the indi-
vidual clothing statements (Appendix A, 5.1-5.30) and on
the clothing scales.

Clothing Attitude Scales: Groupings of selected
clothing attitude statements. Initially the items were
grouped into scales based on face validity and the results
from factor analysis. The seven groups were attracting

attention, aesthetics, social consciousness, practicality,

45

economy, individuality and creativity. Scores were derived

by computing the arithmetic mean for the items within each

scale.

The score range for each scale was 1-5.

The statements included in each scale follow:

Attracting Attention

5.3* I often experiment with unusual colors or color

combinations in clothing.

 

5.5 I usually wear the new clothing fashions before my
friends do.
5.12 I Often use accessories in ways for which they were
not originally designed.
5.19 I like to dress differently than other peOple.
5.22 I try to wear clothing that is unusual.
5.27 Expressing my individuality in clothing is important
to me.
Aesthetics
5.7 I choose clothing that I consider complimentary
for my body build.
5.17 Clothing that is attractive in appearance is impor-
tant to me.
5.30 It is important that accessories harmonize well

with my clothing.

Social Consciousness

5.11

5.14

It is important to wear clothing that is apprOpriate
for the occasion.

I consider the impression my clothing makes on
others.

 

*Item numbers as they appear in questiOnnaire.

46

 

 

5.24 I often wear clothing that is similar to what my
friends wear.
5.29 It is important to have clothing that others admire.
Practicality
5.1 I choose clothing that requires a minimum of time,
energy and money for upkeep.
5.10 I choose clothing that is durable.
5.15 I select clothing that is easy to put on and remove.
5.18 I would rather be warm in winter than dressed in the
latest style.
5.20 Having versatile garments that can be worn for many
occa51ons is important to me.
5.23 The way clothing feels on my body is important to me.
Economy
5.6 I buy most of my clothes at sale price.
5.13 When money gets tight, I am more likely to economize
on clothing than on other goods.
5.25 I carefully watch how much I spend on clothing.
5.28 Keeping up with changing fashion is too expensive.
5.9 Clothing style is more important than price.
Individuality
5.5 I usually wear the new clothing fashions before my
friends do.
5.19 I like to dress differently than other peOple.
5.22 I try to wear clothing that is ususual.
5.27 Expressing my individuality in clothing is important

to me.

47

Creativity

 

5.3 I Often experiment with unusual colors or color com-
binations in clothing.

5.12 I Often use accessories in ways for which they were
not originally designed.

After the initial grouping, statistical tests were
run to determine the reliability of the scales. The reli-
ability of a measure is evaluated by determining the amount
Of variation in scores among individuals that result from
inconsistencies in measurement (Selltiz gt 31., 1959). The
reliability coefficient is the proportion of Obtained vari-
ance that represents the true variance (Ferguson, 1971).
According to Nie gt El- (1975) "alpha is perhaps the most
widely used reliability coefficient." Therefore Cronbach's
alpha test was used for this purpose.

No hard and fast rules exist regarding the size of
reliability coefficients necessary for the measuring instru-
ment to be useful. While the coefficients of a well-made
standardized test tend to be high, .9 or above, some fall
well below .9, and are still found to be quite useful.

Such is the case of rating scales (Downe, 1974).

Because this research is of an exploratory nature,
the researcher Opted to use reliability coefficients Of .50
and above as Ferguson (1971) noted that reliability coef-
ficients of .50 or less are not uncommon and do not neces-
sarily invalidate a technique for drawing valid inferences.
It is also acknowledged that results from homogeneous

samples tend to yield lower reliability coefficients in

general

48

(Downe, 1974). Because this study represents a

fairly homogenous sample, and because the measure is a rating

scale, additional justification is offered for accepting an

alpha coefficient as low as .50.

The computer analysis of Cronbach's test gave an

overall alpha and indicated the resulting level of alpha

if each item, one at a time, were omitted from the scale.

On the basis of the results of Cronbach's test, the follow-

ing adjustments were made:

1.

For men, four of the scales were retained but
adjustments were made in some cases (Table 1).
Individual items were used to represent the remain-
ing clothing attitudes. These will be addressed
later in the discussion.

For women, only the scale on practicality was
retained because it showed a reliability coefficient
Of .55 after statement 5.20 was dropped. All other
scales were dropped because the highest reliability
coefficients that could be derived after item
adjustments were .47, .34, .37, .37, and .41 for
attracting attention, aesthetics, social conscious-
ness, economy and creativity. The individuality
scale did not compute and was thus omitted (Table 1).
Therefore individual items were used for each cloth-
ing attitude except practicality. These items were

chosen on the basis Of their face validity for

49

moauwuum unomoummn
op ucmfioumum Hmaofl>
Iwccfl own «mason moan
mwauwuum ucmmoumou
o» ucoEmumum Hmscfl>
lapse mmD «mason mono

ooaufluum ucmmoumou
ou ucosoumun Hmacw>
sauna Ono «canon mono

canon Hmcfimwuo :Hmuom

canon woumsmvm cfimuom

canon Hmcwmfluo cwmumm

mamom pmumnmom cfimumm

m.m ucoEoumum mo coauoaoo mm. Hm. mufi>flumouu
muameoo
uoc can mafiamsca>avcH
m.m usofimumum mo cowuoHoo mm. hm. anocoom
mucoE
numsntm oz an. suhamoauomum
v~.m ucmsmumum mo COHOOHOO mm. we. mmocmOOfiomcou Hmwoom
mucwE .
lumaflcm 02 vs. mowumnumoc
hm.m can
m.m macmEoumum mo :OwuoHoo no. mo. cofiucouud mcwuomuuud
so:

 

cowmwooo

acmeumanpa ucoeumnncfl

ucmsumsflta mo musumz “mama mamaa muommm «snag

mamom

 

.moamom ocauwuua mcwnuofiu mo usesumsnvdnl.a manna

50

 

madam wouozoa

ocsuwuum ucmmoumou ca Owuasmmu

on ucosoumum Hcscfl> ucmfiumsmcm homo

lapse who “canon mono av. mv. mufi>fiumonu
mnouwuum accumummu

ou ucoEoumum stow> wusmfioo

lacs“ Ono “mason mono no: can unflamacfl>wccH

monuwuum ucomoumou
ou acoEwumum Hmscwb
laps“ amp “canon down mm.m ucoEoumum mo cofiumaoo hm. om. Ofieocoom

manna tmumsntm tamumm o~.m newsmuaum mo coaumaao mm. om. suaaauauomum

ousuwuum ucwmmumou
ou ucoawumum Hmzow>
laced me “canon mono ¢~.m ucwamumum mo cofiuwaoo hm. mm. mmwcmsOwoncoo Hmwoom

onouwuum acmmouowu
on ucoEoumum Hmscw>
late“ on: “canon mono h.m ucoEmumum mo sawumamo em. on. moauonumo<

ovoufiuum ucomoummu
ou ucmEmucum Hmaofl>

lava“ OmD “OHmom mono NH.m acoEmumum mo newuoaoo be. mm. coaucouud ucfiuomuuud

cmeoz

 

ucmeumsncd unwEumanna

cowmwowo usofiumnnp< mo mnaumz uwvmd mamac muommm mnmafl

mamom

 

.Bsfiuaooi .H 032..

51

representing a particular variable and on their fre-
quency distributions.
The statement chosen to represent specific attitudes
follow:
Attracting Attention
5.5 I usually wear the new clothing fashions before

my friends do.

Aesthetics

 

5.30 It is important that my accessories harmonize
well with my clothing.

Social Consciousness

5.29 It is important to have clothing that others
admire.

3. For both women and men, individual statements were
used to represent economy, individuality and

creativity. The specific statements follow:

Economy
5.25 I carefully watch how much I spend on clothing.

Individuality
5.27 Expressing my individuality in clothing is
important to me.
Creativity

5.3 I Often experiment with unusual colors or
color combinations in clothing.

52

An Estimate of Personal Clothing Expenditure:
Respondents' answer to the question, "During the last 12
months, how much do you estimate that you spent on all of
EQUR clothing including outerwear, underwear and footwear

for all activities? (Appendix A, 11.3a).

The Percentage of Family Clothing Expenditure Spent
on Individual's Clothing: A computed percentage of family's
total clothing expenditure based on the reSpondents' answer
to the following questions, "During the last 12 months, how
much do you estimate that you spent on all clothing in-
cluding outerwear, underwear and footwear for all activities,
for yourself and all family members living in your house—
hold? (Appendix , 11.2a) and "During the past 12 months,
how much do you estimate that you Spent on all of £923 3
clothing including outerwear, underwear and footwear for
all activities?" (Appendix , 11.3a).

Clothing Acquisition: Acquisition of clothing

 

expressed in terms of number Of acquisitions from each of
three sources during the previous twelve months. There were
three categories of clothing sources: new, which included
the sub-categories "purchased new" and "received as a gift,"
handmade, which included the sub-categories "sewn at home"
and ”made by dressmaker or tailor" and used, which collapsed
the three sub-categories "used clothing received from family
member within household," "purchased used” and "used cloth-

ing received from someone outside the household." There

53

were ten descriptive categories of clothing such as coats,
dresses, slacks, etc. (Appendix A, ll.la).

The validity of recall data has been questioned as
a research tool. Wadsworth (1952) believed that record
keeping provided more accurate data than the recall tech—

nique. Buller's (1966) research attempted to compare the

results obtained by record keeping and those obtained by
recalling data on clothing acquisitions and discards.

She chose two groups Of eighth grade girls and had
them recall clothing acquisition and discards for the
previous five week period. Over the next four week period
one group kept written weekly records on their clothing
activities while the other group recalled their clothing

activity at the end of the four week period. Buller found

that the recall data was biased upward if the record keeping
data was a more accurate account of clothing activities.
However the author also noted the difficulty in ascertaining
the validity of either method without direct Observation.
Slocum (1975) also did research on recall data.
Her purpose was to determine the reliability of this type
of data. Her forty-nine subjects were requested to supply
detailed information about all of their garments in one week
during one time period and for nine Of the garments again
five weeks later. Correlations were then made on the data
collected during the two periods. The results showed very

high correlation coefficients suggesting that there was a

54

great similarity in the information collected during the

two time periods.

For this study it was decided to collect data by
the recall method.

Occupation: A classification by the U.S. Bureau of
the Census (1971) using a three digit code. Each classifi-

cation was based on the respondents' answer to the question,

"If you are working now or are temporarily laid off or on
strick or on sick leave, what kind of work do you do? What
is your main occupation called? (If you have two jobs,
your main occupation is the job on which you Spend the most
time. If you Spend an equal amount of time on two jobs,

it is the one which provides the most income) (Appendix A,

item 13.9b).

Occupational Prestige: A two-digit score assigned

 

to the respondents' occupation on the basis Of the respon-
dents job title, responsibilities, type of industry, hours
of work per week and type and amount of pay. Occupational
prestige scores attempt to classify occupations on the basis
of societal ranking. The scores were generated by Hodge,
Seigal, and Rossi on the basis of their research and was
reported by the Social Science Research Council (1975).

The scores are integer values ranging from nine to seventy-
eight. The higher the score the greater is the degree of

prestige associated with the occupation.

55

Education: Respondents' answer to the question,

 

"What is the highest level of formal schooling that you
have completed?" (Appendix A, item 13.7a).
Age: Respondents' answer to the question, "How Old

were you on your last birthday?" (Appendix A, item 13.2a).

Data Analysis Procedures

The Statistical Package for the Social Sciences
(Nie, Hull, Jenkins, Steinbrenner, and Bent, 1975) was used
as a guide for all statistical programs. The need to meet
the assumption of independence required by the statistical
tests dictated conducting analysis separately for husbands
and wives. In this study the unit Of analysis is the
individual. The level of significance for rejecting the
null hypothesis was set at .05. Trends were discussed at

significance levels between .05 and .10.

Statistical Tests

 

Because normality is an assumption for some of the
tests in this investigation, and because the sample size
was small and because the frequencies for some variables
indicated that the data were not normally distributed, log
transformations were performed. According to Nie et a1.
(1975), "Transformations can be done to normalize or in
some other way alter the distribution of variables . . ."
(p. 18). "The most often used transformation is the log

transformation" (p. 369). Such linear transformation of

56

variables affect means and standard deviations, but not the
correlation between the variables (HOpkinS and Glass, 1978).
The Pearson Product Moment was used to test some
of the hypotheses under study in this investigation. The
test statistic associated with the Pearson correlation,
the coefficient r, measures how the degree of variation or
change in one variable relates to variation or change in
another variable. This test measures the strength and
direction between the variables as stated in each of the
hypotheses. The correlation technique postulates that the
relationship between any two variables, X and Y, ranges
between -1 and +1. Correlations that approach +1 indicate
a strong positive relationship; correlations that approach
-1 indicate a strong negative relationship. If the measure
approaches zero, it is indicative Of an absence of a linear

relationship.

According to Nie et a1. (1975) assumptions of the
Pearson product moment correlation are:
l. Linearity
2. Random sampling
3. Normal distribution
The T-test was also used to test some of the hypothe-
ses. This test determines if the difference in means between
women's scores and men's scores on some of the measures was
statistically significant. The assumptions associated with

this test are:

57

l. Normality

2. Equality of variance

3. Independence

Multiple regression analysis with a forward stepwise

solution was utilized to derive information over and above
that yielded by Pearson Product Moment correlations as it
is a "method of analyzing the collective and separate
contributions of two or more independent variables to the
variation of a dependent variable" (Kerlinger, 1973). The
forward stepwise inclusion is utilized to account for as
much of the variance as possible by using a minimum number
of variables. This test first calculates the correlations
of all the independent variables with the dependent vari-
ables. Then entered into the equation is the independent
variable that has the highest zero-order correlation with
the dependent variable. The next variable that is entered
has the highest partial correlation with the dependent
variable after accounting for or partialing out the variable
already in the equation. This process is continued for as
many variables as one wishes to enter. At each step tests
are done to determine what each variable already in the
equation contributes if it were to enter last. The §_Eg
gntgr statistic is a test of variance accounted for if a
given variable were entered last in the equation. The

F to remove is a statistic to test the loss caused to R if

 

a given variable were removed. R is the coefficient of

multiple correlation. R2 expresses the prOportion of

58

variance of the dependent variable "determined" by the
independent variable. It also tells the magnitude of the

relation (Kerlinger, 1973).

Multiple regression statistics are based on the
following assumptions:
1. Random sampling
2. Normal distribution
3. Equality of variance
4. Linearity of relationships

5. Independence

Researcher's Involvement with the Quality
of Life Research Project

This researcher joined the Quality of Life Research
Project in the fall of 1977 during the initial decision-
making stage of instrument selection and/or formulation and
questionnaire development. While offering general input at
each phase of the research, the researcher's efforts
reflected certain specific contributions. She was directly
responsible for the inclusion in the questionnaire of Rosen-
berg's Self-Esteem Scale (Appendix A, 3.1-3.10) and some of
the clothing statements (Appendix B). Special consideration
was taken to utilize a standard instrument that had been
used a number of times with a Black sample and was not
regarded as being biased against Blacks. Similarly, con-
sideration was taken to formulate clothing statements that

reflected a Black perspective.

59

Other contributions made by the researcher included
pretesting the questionnaire with Blacks in an integrated
neighborhood located in Ingham County, Michigan and assist—
ing in revising the questionnaire on the basis Of pretest
results.

At the termination of the data collection period,
the Quality Of Life Project staff edited the returned ques-
tionnaires for completion, collusion and clarity. This
researcher, along with another graduate student, had the
shared responsibility of editing those questionnaires dis-
tributed in the geographical areas where most Of the Black
respondents resided. Efforts to code the data and to trans-
fer coded data onto Opscan computer Sheets were likewise

shared among the project staff members.

CHAPTER IV
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
This chapter presents general descriptive data for
demographic and other main variables, the test results of

each hypothesis and a discussion of the data that correspond

to each research question.

Description of the Sample

 

The subsample chosen for this investigation consists
of all the Black subjects included in the Quality of Life
study with the exception of seven single parents who were
included in the total sample because of the difficulty in
obtaining the desired number of respondents meeting the orig-
inal criteria. This study was based on data obtained from
eighty adults-—thirty-nine women and forty-one men. Of this
total thirty-nine were husband-wife couples and two were men

whose wives were not Black.

Age
The men ranged in age from twenty-four to sixty-

three years with a mean age of forty-one. For women the age
range was from twenty-three to fifty-six with the mean age
of thirty-six (Table 2).

60

61

Table 2.--Age Distribution of Sample

 

 

 

 

 

 

Womena Men
Age in Years ————————
N % N %
23-34 17 43.6 10 24.4
35-45 12 30.8 20 48.8
46-55 7 17.9 5 12.2
56-65 1 2.6 5 12.2
Missing Data 2 5.1 l 2.4
Total 39 100.0 41 100.0
a- = 36
x
bi = 41
Education

 

As indicated by Table 3 the mean level of educational
attainment for men was twelve years or completion of high
school, while the range was from less than eight years to a
professional degree. Approximately two-thirds of the men
had at least a high school education or beyond. Almost one-
third of the men have formal education beyond high school.
For women, the educational attainment was from less than
eight years of school to post Master's course work'with a
mean of twelve years or completion of high school. Close to
three-fourths of the women in this sample had at least com-
pleted high school. One-fourth had formal educational

training beyond high school.

62

Table 3.--Educational Level of Sample

 

 

 

 

 

Womena Menb
Level of Education -———————- -———————-
N % N %
8 years of school or less 2 5.1 6 14.7
2 years of high school 8 20.5 8 19.5
Completed high school 18 46.2 12 29.3
1-3 years of college 4 10.3 8 19.5
Bachelor's degree 4 10.3 3 7.4
Post bachelor's course work 2 5.1 l 2.4
Master's degree 0 0 l 2.4
Post master's course work 1 2.5 0 0
Ph.D., Ed.D. 0 0 0 0
Other professional
(M.D., D.O., J.D., D.D.S.) O 0 1 2.4
Missing data 0 0 l 2.4
Total 39 100.0 41 100.0
ai = 12.3
b = 12.0

XI

Table 4.--Types of Occupations Held by Sample

63

 

 

 

 

Women Men
Occupational Classification
N % N %
Professional, technical and
kindred workers 5 12.8 3 7.3
Managers and Administrators,
except farm 0 0 4 9.8
Sales workers 0 0 0 0
Clerical and kindred workers 2 5.1 l 2.4
Craftsmen and kindred
workers 1 2.6 9 21.9
Operatives, except transport 4 10.3 13 31.7
Transport equipment
Operatives 0 0 l 2.4
Laborers, except farm 0 0 2 4.9
Service workers, except
private household 5 12.8 2 4.9
Private household workers 1 2.6 0 0
Unemployed 21 53.8 6 14.7
Missing data 0 0 0 0
Total 39 100.0 100.0

41

 

64

Occupations

 

Most of the men were employed full time while slightly
less than half of the women were full time employees. Table 4
indicates the variety of occupations held by both sexes. Men
were concentrated in the operatives, craftsmen and managerial
classifications. Women were mainly employed in the profes-
sional, operatives and service work classifications.

Table 5 suggests that the mean occupational prestige
score of 38.6 for men is only slightly higher than the mean
score of 37.2 for women. Occupational prestige scores
ranged from 17 to 76 for men and 12 to 60 for women. As
indicated earlier prestige scores are integer values ranging

from 9 to 78.

Table 5.--Distribution of Occupational Prestige Scores for

 

 

 

 

Sample
W m na' M b
Occupational Prestige 0 e en

Scores N % N %
10-19 2 11.1 2 5,7
20-29 4 22.2 13 37.1
30-39 4 22.2 5 14.3
40-49 5 27.8 8 22.9
50-59 0 0 l 2.9
60-69 3 16.7 4 11.4
70-79 0 0 2 5.7

Missing Data 0 0 0 0
Total 18 100.0 35 100.0

 

3; 37.2 x = 38.6

65

Income

Family income ranged from under $5,000 to the $35,000-
$49,000 category with the median falling in the category of
$20,000 to $24,000 (Table 6).

Table 6.--Family Income Distribution

 

Total Family Incomea N %

 

Under $5,000 0 0.0

5,000- 9,999 5 12.2
10,000-14,999 4 9.8
15,000-19,999 5 12.2
20,000-24,999 7 17.1
25,000-29,999 8 19.5
30,000-34,999 4 9.8
35,000-49,999 6 14.6
Missing Data 2 4.8

 

a1977 income before taxes

Descriptive Data for the Major Variables

 

The self-esteem scores ranged from 22 to 40 for
women and from 25 to 40 for men. The mean for both groups
was similar with a score of 30.6 for women and 32.6 for men.
Since the theoretical range was from 10 to 40 the mean Of 30
and above indicates that the sample had relatively high self-
esteem or positive evaluations of themselves. Table'7
presents a complete distribution.

These results were congruent with the finding that

both men and women indicated a high level of satisfaction

66

Table 7.--Distribution of Self-Esteem Scores

 

 

 

 

 

Womena Menb
Score
N % N %
10-15 0 0 0 0
16-19 0 0 0 0
20-25 2 5.1 l 2.4
26-30 10 25.6 16 39.1
31-35 15 38.5 11 26.8
36-40 8 20.5 11 26.8
Missing Data 4 10.3 2 4.9
Total 39 100.0 41 100.0
a_ = 30.6
b_ = 32.6
x

with themselves (Table 8). The mean for husbands was 5.850
on a 7-point scale which is between the category Of "Mostly
Satisfied" and "Pleased" but closer to "Pleased." Women
indicated a level Of satisfaction only Slightly lower with a
mean of 5.474. Both sexes indicated that they were more
pleased with themselves than they were with most other aspects
of life included in this investigation thereby giving addi-
tional credence to the fact that this sample in general had
high self-evaluations.

Most subjects indicated at least as much satisfaction

with their clothing as they did with most other aspects of

67

Table 8.--Mean Scores for Life Concerns

 

 

Domain and Criteria Women Men
Yourself 5.474 5.850
Acceptance and inclusion 5.371 5.472
Standard of living 5.184 5.231
Independence and freedom 5.104 5.250
Clothing 5.057 5.128
Extent to which social and

emotional needs are met 5.086 5.128
Total family income 5.083 4.641
Freedom from bother 4.970 5.229
Accomplishments 4.921 5.333
Housing 4.921 4.800
Spare time activities 4.917 5.325
Job 4.769 5.103
Neighborhood 4.703 4.725
Financial security 4.568 4.436

 

68

life (Table E». The mean for women was 5.057 which indicates
that they are "mostly satisfied" with their clothing. The
mean for men was only Slightly higher at 5.128 which likewise
indicates that they are "mostly satisfied."

In general, men had higher mean scores than women.
Scores of four indicate "mixed" (about equally satisfied and
dissatisfied).

The Index of Personal Competence scores ranged from
0 to 4 for women with a mean Of 2.0. The range for men was
0 to 4 with a mean of 2.4. Table 9 gives the total distri-

bution of locus of control scores.

Table 9.--Index of Personal Competence Scores

 

 

 

 

 

Womena Menb
Scores ————————- -————————
N % N %
0 7 17.9 6 14.6
1 9 23.1 5 12.2
2 4 10.3 6 14.6
3 9 23.0 13 31.7
4 10 25.7 11 26.9
Missing Data 0 0 0 0
Total 39 100.0 41 100.0
a_ = 2.0
x
b = 2.4

each of

a scale

69

Tables 10 and 11 indicate the scores and means for
the clothing attitudinal scales formulated or, where

was not reliable, for individual clothing statements

chosen to partially represent the construct. AS a result

of scaling difficulties that were outlined in Chapter III on

methodology, some attitudes are represented differently for

men and

wome n .

A summary of the representations of the clothing

attitudes follow:

For men:

For

Attracting attention, aesthetics, social conscious-

 

 

ness and practicality are represented by clothing

 

attitude scales.
women:

Practicality is represented by a clothing attitude

 

scale.

Aesthetics is represented by the statement,"It is

 

important that accessories harmonize well with my
clothing."

Attracting attention is represented by the statement,

 

"I usually wear the new clothing fashions before my
friends do."

Social consciousness is represented by the statement,
"It is important to wear clothing that others

admire.”

7O

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

m m m m m m m
w.N u m o.m u m m.m u m m.m u m m.m n o n.N u a m.m n m
o.OOH Hv o.OOH Hv o.OOH Hv o.OOH Hv o.OOH Hv o.OOH Ho o.OOH He Hmuoe
v.N H m.N H v.N H o.o N o.o w >.m v m.h m mumc
mchmHz
O.VH o N.NH m m.HN m v.N H o.o o o.o o o.o v o.m
N.NH m b.Hm MH m.Hv SH m.ov oH m.HN m o.o N m.mv mH mm.vuo.v
v.wN OH m.mH m H.MN m m.Hv 5H o.ov mH m.ON HH m.mN NH mm.muo.m
H.5H n m.HN m m.b m o.o N m.HN m n.0v mH o.o N mm.Nuo.N
m.mN NH N.NH m w.v N o.o o o.o o m.m m ¢.N H mm.Hlo.H
1.. z w z w z w z w z w z a z whoom
mquHm ommmcmOOHomcoo acoHucmuum
mmuH>Hummuo IOOH>HccH oufiocoom OSUHHmOHuomud HmHoom mcHuomHuud mmOHumnumm< mcsquud

A.“

mwcsuHuu¢ m.:mz now mumo mocmsomuhll.oH mHAmB

71

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

M. .M .M .M .m .M .m
m.N u m m.m u m >.m n m o.o n o O.m u o h.N n n N.v n m
o.OOH mm o.OOH mm o.OOH mm o.OOH mm o.OOH mm o.OOH mm o.OOH mm Hmuoa
O.N H H.m N H.m N H.m N O.N H m.N H O.N H mumc
mchmHz
m.OH v o.mN OH m.mm vH H.m N v.mH O m.OH v b.mv OH o.m
o.mN OH H.MN o m.hH b m.mv NH h.mq OH v.mH o h.Om NH mm.vlo.v
H.mN m m.mm NH h.mN OH O.mv SH o.mN OH N.mN HH «.mH m mm.muo.m
o.mN OH m.OH v m.OH v O.N H H.m N H.mN m O.N H mm.NIO.N
m.NH m O.N H H.m N 0.0 O O.N H m.ON m o.o O mm.HIO.H
w z m z w z w z a z a z a z muoom
m>uHHm ommmcmsoHomcou AcoHucmuu¢
o>uH>Hummuu ISOH>HccH O>Eocoom >uHHmoHuomum HmHoom mcHuomuuuc mmOHuonummm mcSuHuud

mmcsuHuu¢ m.coEoz MOM mumo hocmsomumII.HH «Hams

72

For women and men:

Economy is represented by the statement, "I carefully
watch how much I spend on clothing."
Individuality is represented by the statement,
"Expressing my individuality in clothing is important
to me."
Creativity is represented by the statement, "I often
experiment with unusual colors or color combinations
in clothing."
For the sake of clarity, takes that follow will

list the attitudinal construct as well as individual state-

ments representing the constructs.

Tests and Discussion of Hypotheses
Procedures and test statistics for hypotheses have
been discussed in Chapter III. In this section the results
of the statistical tests for each hypothesis are discussed.

The hypotheses are stated in null form.

Correlates of Self-Esteem
Will the variables included in this study that are
theoretically linked with self-esteem likewise show a
statistical relationship?

H1 There will be no relationship between respondents'
self-esteem scores and scores on the variables that
represent status, role, love and acceptance, achieve-
ment and independence.

Table 12 shows the Pearson product moment correla-

tions between self-esteem scores and scores on the variables

73

Table 12 .--Pearson Product Moment Correlations of Life Concerns

with Self-Esteem

 

 

 

 

 

 

Variables Women Men

Status

Standard of living .144 .088

Income .093 .097

Neighborhood -.136 -.023

House or apartment .042 -.036

Financial security -.150 .160

Total family income .135 .081

Level of education .128 .243*

Job .217 .087

Occupational prestige .405* .185
Selected Demographics

Sex

Age .543*** .094
Love and Acceptance

Acceptance and inclusion .114 .287*

Social and emotional need met .378* .095
Achievement

Accomplishing something -.025 .036
Independence

Independence and freedom .214 .020

Freedom from bother .275+ -.127

 

+Trend toward significance

*.05 Significance level
**.01 significance level
***.001 significance level

74

that represent status, selected demographics, love and
acceptance, achievement, and independence. There is only

one Significant relationship between self-esteem and the
status variables which is occupational prestige showing a
correlation coefficient of .405 (p = .04). Because occupa-
tion is closely linked to one's identity in the United
States, it is not surprising to find that for women, as occu-
pational prestige scores increase, so do scores on self-

esteem.

While most of the women are clustered in jobs with
occupational prestige scores of 40-49, this may reflect a
movement by women into more prestigious occupations over the
last few years as part of a national trend. Such newfound
upward mobility would likely serve as a boost to self-esteem.

For men there were no Significant correlations
between self-esteem and occupational prestige. It is pos-
sible that the men in this sample are very much aware of
institutional barriers that exist limiting their occupational
options. Thus they may not view these jobs as a reflection~
of their abilities.

There was, however, a positive trend toward Signif-
icance between level of education and self-esteem for men
indicating that as level of education increased, so did self-
esteem scores. This trend is not surprising in view of the
emphasis placed on educational attainment in this culture
«especially for men as education may indirectly link to their

:role of provider.

75

For the variables representing the selected demo-
graphics, there is a moderately strong positive correlation
between self-esteem and age for women showing an r of .543
(p = .001). This finding is surprising in view of the
emphasis placed on youthfulness for women in this culture.
An explanation may be that as women become more autonomous,
their self-evaluations may be based on other factors rather
than physical attributes and youthfulness.

In regards to sex of the subjects, results of
paired 1 tests Showed that there was no significant differ-
ence in the level Of self-esteem between the women and men

in this sample.

For the variables representing love and acceptance,
there was a significant positive correlation for women
between self-esteem and having one's social and emotional

needs met showing an r of .376 (p = .019). While women are

socialized into the role of nurturer, men generally have not
been (Pettigrew, 1975). This may suggest that women do not
have their social and emotional needs met as readily as do
men and may suffer a blow to their self-esteem because of
it. Additionally women may view not having these needs met
as a type of rejection from men and this, too, may influ-
ence self-esteem.

For men there was a significant positive relation-
ship between acceptance and inclusion by others and self-
esteem with a correlation coefficient of .287 (p = .05). A

feasible explanation for this is that such acceptance and

76

inclusion transcends the home environment and includes the
occupational, recreational and community setting. Blood
and Wolfe (1960) lend credence to this as they suggest that
to a degree, husbands view their success in terms of how
successful they are in the community. Men may especially
want to feel included by male peers. Thus James' (1890)
social self may manifest itself differently for the men

and the women in this sample.

There was no correlation between self-esteem and
accomplishing something for either women or men. This
finding is surprising in view of self-esteem literature and
the "doing" nature of our culture and thus cannot be
readily explained.

For the variables representing independence, there
were no correlations between self-esteem and independence
and freedom or freedom from bother for either men or women.
However, for women, there was a trend toward significance
between self-esteem and freedom from bother. This may relate
to the dual role and resulting responsibilities assumed by
women. Particularly, women may wish to be at least occa-
sionally freed of the many and varied activities associated
with managing a home.

In summary it can be stated that few of the variables
significantly correlated with self-esteem for this sample.

A possible explanation is that this subsample may be reject-
ing the values of the larger society or at least rejecting

those things as evidence of self-esteem on the basis of the

77

historical nature of discrimination that denied them oppor-
tunities for advancement and the accumulation of material
goods.

The null hypothesis was rejected in the cases of3
occupational prestige, age and social and emotional needs

being met for women and acceptance and inclusion for men.

Self-Esteem and Clothing

 

This section focuses on self-esteem and clothing. A
broad research question was posed and hypotheses were gener-
ated to be tested in response to the research question.

Will there be a relationship between self-esteem and
clothing attitudes, clothing expenditure, clothing acqui-
sition, feelings about clothing, and clothing importance?

H2 There will be no relationship between self-esteem
scores and scores on the statements that relate to
attracting attention.

For women the statement, "I usually wear the new
clothing fashions before my friends do" showed a non-
significant relationship with self-esteem (Table 13). Also
for men no significant relationship existed between self-
esteem and the scale on attracting attention. Therefore
this null hypothesis was not rejected.

These findings conflicted with those of Humphrey

EE.El° (1971), Lutwiniak (1972) and Reeder (1977) who

reported that attention-getting uses of clothing correlate .
/

{1

‘positively with self-esteem. It also conflicted with asser-lgc“

v" ’

tions by Schwartz (1965), Rose (1964), and Pettigrew (1964)2>

78

who speculated that Blacks use clothing to attract attention
as a means of compensating for low self-esteem.

H3 There will be no relationship between self-esteem
scores and scores on the statements that relate to
aesthetics.

Significant positive relationships were found between?ogfi~(
self-esteem and aesthetics for both women and men (Table 13).
The statement representing aesthetics for women, "It is

important that my accessories harmonize well with my cloth-

ing" Showed a moderately strong correlation with self-esteem

(r = .516, p = .001). For men the aesthetics scale corre-
lated with self-esteem Showing a weak Pearson r of .287

(p = .04). Therefore this hypothesis was rejected as the

results indicated that as self-esteem scores increased, so

did the scores indicating the importance of aesthetics.

These findings are in accord with those of Humphrey,
Klaasen and Creekmore (1971) who found that aesthetic uses of
clothing positively correlated with self-esteem for both
males and females in their sample. A possible reason for
these findings is that as self-esteem goes up, one is secure
enough to consider expressions of beauty through one's cloth-

ing rather than fashionability or social approval.

H4 There Will be no relationship between the self-esteem
scores and scores on SOCial consc1ousness.

For women there was a trend toward significance

between self-esteem and the statement on social.consciousness,

"It is important to have clothing that others admire" show-

‘ing a weak r of .248 (p = .079).

79

Table l3.--Pearson Product Moment Correlations Between
Self-Esteem and Clothing Attitudes.

 

Clothing Attitudes Women Men

 

Attracting attention .094 -.338
”Wear new clothing fashions
before friends"

Aesthetics .516** .287*
"Important that accessories
harmonize well with clothing"

Social consciousness .248 -.344**
"Important to have clothing
others admire"
Practicality .314* .519***
Economy .122 -.055
"Watch what I spend on clothing" .122 -.055
Individuality .106 .028
"Expressing individuality is
important"
Creativity .084 .178

"Often experiment with unusual
color combinations"

 

+Trend toward significance
*.05 Significance level
**.01 significance level

***.001 Significance level

80

For men self-esteem correlated significantly and
negatively with the social consciousness scale with a Pearson
r of -.344 (p = .01). This hypothesis was partially rejected
as a significant relationship was found for men between the
two variables but not for women. For men, as self-esteem
scores increased, socres on social consciousness decreased.
This finding conflicts with that of Lutwiniak (1972) who
reported that a related variable, social acceptability of
clothing, correlated positively with self-esteem.

' A possible reason for this finding is that the Amer-

ican society fosters independence in men to a much greater

degree than it does in women (Bernard, 1975). Therefore it
may not be as acceptable for men to be as concerned about

giving a positive response in a social setting.

The literature review offered no basis for formulating
hypotheses on the relationship of self-esteem to practicality,
economy, individuality, and creativity. However the research

felt that the investigation could prove worthwhile in con-

tributing to the knowledge base in this area.

The findings indicated that self-esteem correlated
significantly and positively with practicality for women and
men, showing an especially strong relationship for men (r =
.314, p = .05 and r = .519, p = .001 respectively). A pos-
sible explanation for this finding is that the respondents
view utilizing clothing in certain ways as validation of

their capability to efficiently meet mundane needs.

81

H There will be no relationship between self-esteem
scores and clothing expenditure when measured as
personal clothing expenditure, family clothing
expenditure and personal clothing expressed as
percentage of family clothing expenditure.
AS indicated in Table 14, there was no significant
relationship between self-esteem and any of the representa-
tions of expenditures for women. For men, however, there was
a statistically significant positive relationship between
self-esteem and personal clothing expenditure with a cor-
relation coefficient of .327 (p = .04). There was a trend
toward significance between self-esteem and family clothing
expenditure for men.

This hypothesis was partially rejected for men but
not for women.

Table l4.--Pearson Product Moment Correlation Between Self-
Esteem and Clothing Expenditure

 

Clothing Expenditure Women Men
Personal clothing expenditure .155 .327*
Family clothing expenditure .141 .245+

aPersonal expenditure expressed
as percentage of family
clothing expenditure .083 .167

 

aWill be referred to henceforth as Personal Expendi-
ture Percentage.

+Trend toward significance

*.05 significance level
**.01 significance level
***.001 significance level

82

HS' Men and women will not differ in the dollar amount
and the percentage of family expenditure spent on
personal clothing.

Men and women showed a significant difference in
the dollar amount and the percentage of family expenditure
spent on clothing (Table 15). Women spent more than men on
personal clothing and showed a larger proportion of family
clothing dollars than men. The hypothesis is rejected for
both men and women.

Table 15.--Results of Paired T-Tests on Personal Clothing

Expenditure and Percentage of Family Expenditure
Spent on Personal Clothing

 

.o—— —

 

 

Mean
T-Value
Women Men

Personal clothing

expenditure $519.78 $489.19 -2.14*
Personal clothing as

percentage of family

clothing expenditure 35.65 32.45 -2.58**

 

+Trend toward significance
*Significant at .05 level
**Significant at .01 level

***Significant at .001 level

H There will be no relationship between self-esteem
scores and three sources of acquisition of clothing:
new, handmade and used.

AS shown in Table 16, there is a significant but

weak relationship between the variables self-esteem and

handmade clothing for women (r = .378, p = .01). NO

83

Significant relationships exist for women between self-
esteem and either new or used clothing. For men there was
no significant relationship between self-esteem and any of
the three sources of acquisition. Thus this hypothesis

was rejected only for women with respect to handmade cloth-
ing.

That self-esteem correlated significantly with
handmade clothing for women probably relates to the fact
that sewing is a medium for self-expression and creativity
for women but not for men. This finding is consistent with
the significant finding between self-esteem and social and
emotional needs being met. Sewing may represent a channel
for fulfilling an emotional need.

Given the fact that the norm for acquisition in this

country is new ready-to-wear, one might have expected that

acquiring used clothing would be related to self-esteem.

Table 16.--Pearson Product Moment Correlations Between
Self-Esteem and Clothing Acquisition

 

 

Clothing Acquisition Women Men
New -.009 .076
Handmade .378* -.168
Used .062 -.097

 

*.05 significance level

84

H7 There will be no relationship between self-esteem
and the variables feelings about clothing and
clothing importance.

For women there was a statistically significant
relationship between self-esteem and feelings about clothing

showing a moderate Pearson r of .489; p = .003 (Table 17).

There was no significant relationship between self-esteem
and clothing importance for women. For men no Significant
relationship was found between self-esteem and either feel-
ings about clothing and clothing importance.

This hypothesis was rejected for feelings about
clothing for women, but was not rejected for men.
Table 17 .--Pearson Product Moment Correlations Between Self-

Esteem and the Variables Feelings about Clothing
and Clothing Importance

 

 

Women Men
Feelings about clothing .489** .073
Clothing importance .193 .111

 

**.01 significance level

Self-Esteem and Locus of Control

 

H8 There will be no relationship between self-esteem and
locus Of control scores.

For both women and men there was a significant,
positive but weak relationship between self-esteem and locus
of control (r = .354, p = .03 and r = .389, p = .01 respec—

tively) indicating that high self-esteem correlated with an

85

internal orientation while low self-esteem correlated with an
external orientation. The null hypothesis was rejected.

These findings were consistent with those of Hagey
gt gt. (1976) and Ziller gt gt. (1970). The rather weak

correlation between these variables may reflect the

speculation by Gurin and Gurin (1969) that for Blacks, self-
esteem and locus of control do not correlate in the same man-
ner that they do for the general population as there may be

real structural barriers that impact on the fate of Blacks.

Locus of Control and Clothing Variables

The research question posed in this section immedi-
ately follows after which there is a general discussion of
Pearson product moment correlations between the major
variables.

Does locus of control relate to clothing attitudes,
clothing expenditure, clothing acquisition, feelings about
clothing and clothing importance?

For women locus of control correlated with the
statement representing attracting attention, "I usually
wear the new clothing fashions before my friends do," (r =
.446, p = .006) and with the statement representing social
consciousness, "It is important to have clothing that others
admire," (r = .365, p = .022). A negative trend existed
between locus of control and the statement representing

aesthetics (r = -.269, p = .072), (Table 18).

86

Table 18.--Pearson Product Moment Correlations Between Locus
of Control and Clothing Attitudes for Women.

 

 

Clothing Attitudes Women Men
Attracting attention .466** .092
"Wear new fashions before
friends"
Aesthetics -.269+ .129

"Important that accessories
harmonize well"

Social consciousness .365* .010
"Important to have clothing
others admire"

Practicality .130 .209

Economy -.151 .185
"Watch what I Spend on clothing"

Individuality .231 .170
"Expressing individuality
important"

Creativity -.062 -.060

"Often experiment with unusual
color combinations

 

+Trend toward significance
*Significant at .05 level
**Significant at .01 level

***Significant at .001 level

87

It was rather surprising to find that locus of con-
trol did not correlate with the practicality scale or the
statement representing economy as it seems that these
variables would more directly be under one's control than
social consciousness and attracting attention. However it

is possible that the women in this sample may have to respond

to a set of financial demands that do always afford them such
control. For example they may not be able to watch their
clothing expenditures as carefully as they might prefer if
they have growing children which demand a continual outlay of
clothing dollars.

For men there were no significant correlations
between the clothing attitude scales and locus of control.

The finding on locus of control and clothing expen-
diture showed that for both women and men, there were sig-
nificant correlations between personal clothing expenditure
and locus of control showing respective r values of .386
(p = .03) and .330 (p = .04), (Table 19). However findings
on family clothing expenditure and locus of control differed
between women and men. Although there was a significant,
strong, positive correlation between the two variables for
men (r = .651, p = .001), the correlation was not signifi-
cant for women. Several explanations may be Offered as
reasons for this occurrence. It is possible that Since
men in this sample realize larger incomes than women, they
may perceive of themselves as wielding more control over

family expenditures whether or not this is factual. Also

88

because women are generally responsible for the children's
clothing purchases, men may sometimes be unaware of the cost
and demands made resulting from social pressure. This lack
of knowledge may again allow them to perceive a significant
degree of control. Finally it is altogether possible that
the men in this sample do control family clothing expend-

iture to a greater degree than do the women.

Table 19.--Pearson Product Moment Correlations Between Locus
of Control and Clothing Expenditure

 

Clothing Expenditure Variables Women Men
Personal clothing expenditure .386* .330*
Family clothing expenditure .211 .651**
Personal expenditure as percent of +

family clothing expenditure .322 -.189

 

+Trend toward significance
*Significant at .05 level
**Significant at .01 level

***Significant at .001 level

As Table 20 indicates, there was a Significant,
negative correlation between used clothing and locus of
control for men suggesting that as perceived personal con-
trol increased, the number of used clothing items acquired
during the year decreased. Thus the acquisition of used
clothing is indicative of perceptions of control from

external sources.

89

Table 20.--Pearson Product Moment Correlation Between Locus
of Control and Sources of Clothing Acquisition

 

 

Sources of Acquisition Women Men
New clothing -.007 -.008
Handmade clothing -.029 .059
Used clothing .114 -.375*

 

*Significant at .05 level

For both women and men, feelings about clothing cor-
related significantly with locus of control showing a
Pearson r of .533 (p = .001) and .433 (p = .006), respec-
tively. Therefore as perceptions of personal control
increase, feelings about one's clothing are more positive.
Perhaps those perceiving more personal control were able to
acquire the type of clothing that they preferred. This
could have led to greater satisfaction with their clothing

(Table 21).

Interrelationships Within Variables
This section responds to the following research
question:
Are there interrelationships within variables
representing demographics, clothing attitudes, clothing

expenditure, clothing acquisition, feelings about clothing

and clothing importance?

90

Table 21.--Pearson Product Moment Correlation Between Locus
of Control and Feeling About Clothing and Clothing

 

 

Importance
Women Men
Feelings about clothing .533*** .433***
Clothing Importance .001 .006

 

***Significant at .001 level

A number of the same demographic variables showed
significant correlations for men as did for women (Table 22).
There was a trend toward Significance between personal
income and occupational prestige showing correlation coef-
ficients of .365 (.06) and .263 (.06) for women and men
respectively. Also for both women and men there were Sig-
nificant correlations between the following variables: total
income and personal income Showing an r value of .276 (p =.05)
for women and .697 (p = .001) for men, years Of education and
occupational prestige with correlation coefficients of .586
(p = .01) for women and .609 (.001) for men, and years of
education and total income Showing a Pearson r of .608
(p = .001) for women and .530 (p = .001) for men. Dif-
ferences in the correlations between men and women were
shown between the variables total income and occupational
prestige which indicated a trend toward significance for
women but indicated a significant correlation for men
r = .302 (p = .05) and the variables years of education and

personal income which showed a significant correlation for

91

Ho>oH Hoo. um ooooonatonaaa
Ho>oH Ho. om ooahoHMHaonaa
Hm>mH mo. um mocmOHMHcmHmt

oocmOHMHcon oumzou ocmna+

 

 

 

 

 

 

«thOmm. «tamom. tthv. owo. «atmoo. «town. +moN.I OHH.I coHumonom mo mumow
«taboo. «onN. «NOm. +OON. qNH.| Nmo.: mEoocH Hmuos
+moN. +mom. vmo. ovo.| mEOOcH HmSOmumm
mOO. oNH.s omHumoum HmOOHumoSOOO
cm: cmEOB cm: c0503 co: cman cm: cmeoz
mEoocH mEoocH moHumoud
Hmuoe Hmcomumd HmcoHummoooo mom

I. 1“. I.

mOHanum> OHLQmHOOEmo onu cmosuom mcoHumHmHuou 9:080: uonooum SOmummmliuNN mHnt

92

men (r = .419; p = .01) but not for women. Another differ-
ence is that for men, there was a trend toward significance
between years of education and age but not for women.

Not surprisingly, these findings indicate that as
years of education increase, so do occupational prestige and
total income for both sexes. The lack of correlation between
years of education and personal income suggests that women
with higher educational levels married the men who have
higher personal incomes. It can also be gleaned from this
data that younger men may be better educated than those
older.

As shown in Table 23, the statement on attracting
attention, "I usually wear the new clothing fashions before
my friends do," correlated significantly for women with the
statement representing social consciousness, "It is import-
ant tO have clothing that others admire," (r = .310; p =
.02) and with the statement representing individuality,
"Expressing my individuality in clothing is important to me,"
(r = .400; p = .007).

The statement on aesthetics, "It is important that
accessories harmonize well with my clothing," correlated
positively with the scale on practicality (r = .312; p = .03)
and the statement on individuality (r = .286; p = .04).

The statement on social consciousness correlated
significantly with the statement on individuality (r = .276;

p = .04). The practicality scale correlated significantly

93

Ho>oH mo. om uaaoamaaoam.

 

 

mmN. mON.u «Omm. moo.) OON. OOH. SDH>HummHU
oHo. «omm. «new. aomm. «coo. SuHHmooH>HocH
HOH. evo.u ONH. OOH.I SEOSOON
hHO.) «NHm. NOH. mHmom
SuHHmoHuoouo
moo. «OHM. mmocmsowomcoo
HmHoom
boo. mOHuonumON
mmmcmOOHomcoo coHucmuufl
>uHHmsoH>HocH >Eocoom >uHHmoHuomud HmHoow moHumcumm< mcHuomHuud

cmEOZ “0m moosuHuu€ OCHfiuoHU SHH3 mOOHDmHOHHOU ucmfioz Hosooum COmHmmmII.MN anmB

94

with the statements on individuality and creativity Showing
E values of .330 (p = .02) and .537 (p = .001) respectively.
In sum, for women all of the clothing attitudinal
statements and the clothing scale are related to at least
one other scale. The statement on individuality shows the
greatest number of correlations with other clothing state-

ments.

For men the scales on attracting attention, aesthet-
ics, and social consciousness all correlate significantly
with each other (Table 24). The scale on practicality cor-
relates Significantly with attracting attention (.341;

p = .05) and aesthetics (.507; p = .01). It showed a trend
toward significance with social consciousness. The state-
ment on economy, "I carefully watch what I spend on clothingfl'
correlated significantly with attracting attention (r = .258;
p = .05) and social consciousness (r = .338; p = .01).

The statement on individuality correlated signifi-
cantly with all of the scales except practicality and cre-
ativity, especially showing a strong correlation with
attracting attention (r = .706; p = .001). The statement
representing creativity correlated with social consciousness
Showing an t value of .311 (p = .02).

In conclusion, it can be noted that a number of the
attitudes are related and the relationships are all positive
with moderate strengths. This may indicate that cognitively
the subjects may have clustered these attitudes into a

broader heading.

95

Ho>oH Hoo. no utmoHMHconaaa
Ho>oH Ho. om acooHMHcmHmaa
Ho>oH we. on uaaoHMHcoam.

mocmOHMHcmHm oumzou ocone+

 

 

NHo. omH.- mom. HHm. moo. mNH. SuH>Huoouo
moo.u an. +omm. aaamHm. haaoon. NuHHmsoH>HocH
soH. ammm. HmH.- ammm. ssocoom
+HNN. «them. «Hem. NuHHooHuomua
aa.mmm. .aomm. homomaoHomooo
Hoaoom
«cammv. mowumnummd
mmocmsoHomcou coHucmuam
>uHHmOOH>HocH >Eocoom >uHHmoHuomud HmHOom mOHumzumON mcHuomuuud

(I'll)

am: now moonuHuu¢ OSHLDOHU cmwzumm

coHumHouuoo ucmEoz HOSOOHA conummdll.¢N mHnt

96

In investigating the relationships between the
sources of clothing acquisition, new clothing showed an
expected negative significant relationship with used clothing
with a correlation coefficient Of -.563 (p = .001) and -.349
(p = .01) for women and men respectively (Table 25). For
women handmade clothing and used clothing correlated signifi-
cantly showing a positive £ of .318 (p = .03) while handmade
clothing and new clothing showed a trend toward significance.
These findings indicate that, for women in this sample, as
the number of garments acquired from used sources goes up,
the number acquired by home sewing goes up. This may reflect
a dual tactic for managing the clothing dollar.

Correlations among representations of expenditures
show some similarity for women and men. As expected, per-
sonal clothing expenditure correlated significantly with
family clothing expenditure Showing a Pearson E of a strong
.713 (p = .001) for women and .654 (p = .001) for men
(Table 26). Likewise personal clothing expenditure cor-
related with personal expenditure as a percentage of family

clothing expenditure for both sexes. For women this

correlation had an t of .475 (.006) and for men the t value
was a stronger .681 (.001).

In general it was noted that an increase in personal
clothing expenditure would produce an increase in total
clothing expenditure.

Feelings about clothing and clothing importance

showed extremely low non-significant correlations (r = .045

97

Table 25.--Pearson Product Moment Correlations Between the
Clothing Sources of Acquisition

 

 

 

 

Sewn Clothing Used Clothing

Women Men Women Men
New clothing --.238+ .064 -.563*** -.349*
Handmade clothing . 318* . 026

 

+Trend toward significance
*Significant at .05 level
**Significant at .01 level

***Significant at .001 level

Table 26 .--Pearson Product Moment Correlations Between
Clothing Expenditure Variables

 

 

 

 

Family Clothing Personal Clothing
Expenditures Expenditure as %
of Family
Expenditure
Women Men Women Men
Personal clothing
expenditure .713*** .654*** .475** .681***
Family clothing +
expenditure -.279 -.109

 

+Trend toward significance
*Significant at .05 level
**Significant at .01 level

***Significant at .001 level

98

and .039) for women and men respectively. A plausible expla-
nation is that regardless of how important clothing is, it

is possible to have a range of feelings about it. In other
words, feelings about clothing could be independent of its
importance. It is also possible that these two variables

may have a strong non-linear relationship.

Interrelationships Among Variables

The following research question is posed in this
section:

Are there interrelationships among variables
representing demographics, clothing attitudes, clothing
expenditure, clothing acquisition, feelings about clothing
and clothing importance?

Demoggaphic Variables and
Attitudes

 

 

Focusing first on demographic variables and clothing
attitudes, results indicate that four out of the five demo-
graphic variables correlated with clothing attitudes
(Table 27). Only occupational prestige showed no such cor-
relations. Age correlated with practicality and creativity
for women but with economy and creativity for men. Personal
income correlated with social consciousness and economy for
both women and men. Total income correlated with attracting
attention, social consciousness, and individuality for men

while Showing no correlations for women. Years of education

99

HoaoH Hoo. um occoameconeaa

Hm>mH HO. um acmOHMHcmHmca

Hm>mH mo. um acmOHMHOOHma

oocmOHMHcOHm oumSOu pawns
+

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

HmO.| NvO. mmO.| ONH.| OHH.I th.n meo. mNO. vHN.u «mHH. wuH>HummuU
ObH. NmO. «OHM. +th.a Omo. MbH. MNO. who. mOO. +hHH.I OuHHmsoH>HocH
«OON. vmo.u HOO. MNH.| omo.n ttNHv.n OOO.| vOO.| ttHHv.| HNH. aeocoum
th. HOO. HOO.) cNH.| OOH.| mOH.| MOO. hmo. NNO.) cttmom. >uHHmOHuomud
NOH. mHH.c «cemmm. HHO.l tcmov. tmNm. HOH.) OOH.: HNO.I OOO.: mmocmsoHomcoo
HmHoow
vNH. Nmo.| mOH. ONH.| OOO.) OOO.| NMH. NvH.| NmH. me. mOHposummd
Omo.u OOH. «tth. Hvo.u hmH. mHH. woo.) mOH.I OOH. mnH. soHucounm
OcHuomuuuc
cox c0603 cmz coEoz co: coEoz co: cmEoz so: cmsoz
coHumosom oEoocH OEOOSH OOHummue OON
mo name» Hmuoe HmcomuOd HmcoHummsooo

mumo OHnmmHOOEwo ocm ucwEoumum monuHuud OcHnuoHu

A} O .11.“

l...‘ ‘1- i 1'... 1‘I-.r.

cmo3umm mcoHumHmuuoo ucosoz uosooum cemummmll.bN mHnt

100

correlated with economy for men but with none of the variables
for women.

Pearson Product Moment Correlations were done to
determine if there were relationships between the clothing
attitude variables and selected demographic variables. With
results indicating that a relationship did exist between the
two sets of variables, and because it was believed that demo-
graphic factors influence attitudes and not vice versa,
regression analysis was done to determine the demographic
variables that were the best predictors of each clothing
attitude (Tables 28-33).

For the statement on attracting attention for women,
"I usually wear the new clothing fashions before my friends
do," none of the variables showed a Significant F to enter.
For men the scale on attracting attention was significant
for the variables total income and personal income. Total
income accounted for 13% of the variance with personal income
contributing a meager 3% (Table 28).

All of the variables entered into the equation for
the aesthetic statement, "It is important that my accessories
harmonize well with my clothing," showed a significant F to
enter and overall F for women, however, accounting for only
34% of the variance. Total income accounted for most of the
variables at 14%; age added 7% and occupational prestige
added 9% indicating that these three variables accounted for

31% of the variance (Table 29).

Ho>oH mo. um ucmoachOHma

 

101

 

OOHHm.H Amoco. amneH. NaHma. mHemo. oOHumoho HccoHucdoooO .m

mmHmm.H mOHoo. NeocH. mmoma. Hcho. coHumoomm «0 whom» .v

mecHo.N HHmoo. momeH. mvav. MNONN. woe .m
«oHomm.m cono. mOOOH. mmmHv. accmvo.H maoocH Hmcomumo .N
«momm~.o HmmmH. HmmmH. omHem. «mommm.o oeoocH Hence .H
a Hcho>o omccro mm mm m oHOHuHsz houcm ou a oomoucm moHnMHum> doom

l‘lllvl' .!‘||.l :.)l«l|‘ly-l'4‘lu' ll‘l‘l-.l||(||

so: now coHucouu< OSHuomuuu< co OHmom you mmeHmcd conmmHOmmll.mN mHnt

102

Ho>oH mo. um occonHcmHma

 

 

 

 

avaoo.® OMHOO. Omev. Combo. ammbmo. mmfiummhm HmCOwummnooo .m
«vaho.h mmmoo. mNoov. combo. «mOOmm. coHumusom mo mummy .v
«NMNON.OH NOvHO. OOvmv. ovobo. tOMMHO.H oEoocH HmSOmumm .m
«wmomm.vH woomH. bmmmc. Ommwo. «Obhmm.HH OEOUCH HmHOB .N
«OONHF.VH HOMFN. HOMFN. mmmmm. «OONHF.VH wm< .H
cm: Hem mHmom moHumnumO< on» now mHm>Hmcd conmqumm
«OmNhO.N OHNOO. wbwvm. bmmmm. «OHOOO. OEOOGH HmCOmHmm .m
«MONHm.m vvnmo. movvm. mommm. «FOVHN.H COHumoaom mo mummw .fi
«hwmvo.v NOOOO. HNhHm. NNmom. cvamm.v OOHumoum HmcoHquOOOo .m
aHNm0m.¢ Owneo. ombHN. wmwwq. cmvaO.N mmfl .N
«mmowm.m momvH. momvH. mOmhm. «wwwmm.m OEOOGH HmuOB .H
m HHmuo>O oocmnu Nm Nu m OHQHHHSZ umucm Op m omumucm mmHanHm> moum

cmEoz new :.OcH£uOHO >6 suH3

HHo3 ONHSOEums mOHuommmoom >5 umsu ucmuHOQEH mH uH: .ucoEmumum OHuwzummm Mom mHmaHmcfl conwoummmll.ON mHnma

103

Similarly for men, all of the variables entered were
Significantly related to the aesthetics scale. However
different variables accounted for most Of the variance for
men than for women. Age accounted for 27% and total income
contributed 16% with the remaining three variables adding
a total of a minute 3%.

Regression analysis for the statement on social con-
sciousness indicated that for women personal income, years
of education and occupational prestige were significant
and together accounted for 19.5% of the variance. Years
Of education and occupational prestige together accounted
for only 5%. For men total income, years of education and
personal income had a significant F to enter and accounted
for 33% of the variance (Table 30). For men all of the
demographic variables were significant predictors Of atti-
tudes toward practicality accounting for a sizeable 66% of
the variance. Of this total, age and income accounted for
a major 64.8% of the variance. The remaining three vari-
ables, while significant, each contributed less than 1%
each to the total (Table 31).

When attention iS turned to the statement on economy
for women, personal income and occupational prestige were
the only significant predictors of this clothing variables
accounting for less than 17% of the variance. For men all
five Of the demographic variables entered into the equation

were significant predictors of the economy scale. Personal

Ho>oH mo. um occonHcona

 

104

MHNmm. eHoom. amaumoho Hccoauoasooo .m
oomem. «Hoom. woe .e
aHmHmH.o mmeoo. ommmm. amonm. abomoa. oeoocH Hccomhoo .m
ammoeH.o mHeHo. mmmmm. emoem. .mHoom. coaucosom mo mucus .m
«emomm.eH oamom. oemom. vmmmm. aeooom.hH oeoocH Hence .H

 

co: mom OHmOm mmmcmsoHomcoo HmHoom you mHm>Hmc< conmmHOmm

 

 

Ovoov.H OOHOO. vOOON. vomvv. NHomO. oEOOSH Hmuoa .m
thOm.H VOMOO. vHOOH. mNovv. OONOH. mom .v
hmvav.N thNO. ONmOH. Nmva. «HOomO.H OOHumOum HmcoHummsooo .m
«HOOHH.M vovmo. mmmmH. MHOov. «OOOHO. COHumoaom MO mummr .N
«mOomm.m vONvH. vONvH. momhm. «mOomm.m OEOOSH Hmc0mumm .H
m HHmum>O mocmso Nm Nm m OHQHDHDE umucm O» h omumucm OOHanum> mmum

(I ’I) I. f l Ill.) 5"! ll! III. I -II'I‘II‘I I." I

coEoz How =.muHEom mumnuo
umsu OcHnuoHo m>m£ ou acmuuomEH OH OH: .ucOEoumum mmmcmSoHomcou HmHoom How mmeHmcm conmmMOOmll.0m mHnt

105

Ho>oH mo. uh occoHuHcmHma

 

 

 

 

cmOHmO.vH ebmoo. mOhoo. ONOHO. «movOm. cowumoaom mo name» .m
«HONom.hH vOOOO. ONvoo. OOvHO. «mvaF. OOHumem HmcoHummOooo .v
cONHmo.MN vOOOO. Otho. NhOHm. comth. oEoocH HmSOOMom .m
«OOHHO.mm OOOON. Nvao. NHmom. cmOOO0.0N OEOOSH Hmuoe .N
«Nmovm.mN mmmOm. mmmOm. MNHmO. «Nmovm.mN mmd .H
co: Mow OHmom >uHHmOHuomuo How mHm>Hmcd conmmuOmm

HOHOO. bmmmm. vHNOm. ONOMH. OOHummum HmcoHummsooo .m
«thbm.m mmmoo. ombmm. mNHmm. «NovOH. OEOOSH HmSOmHOm .v
«encom.v mwNmO. mOmmm. HOhhm. «mvhoo.m coHumosom mo name» .m
«mHOmO.m hhHmO. MHHmN. mHHOm. cthhN.H mEoocH HmuOB .N
«HOOHh.m OMOHN. ONOHN. Ommov. cHOOHb.m OO< .H
m HHmuo>o mOcmco Nm NO x OHOHDHOZ uwucm o» m oououcm mmHanum> mmum

coeos how

mHmom OOHHmOHuomum

Mom mmeHmcd cowmmmummmol.Hm mHnt

106

income was the major predictor accounting for 23% of the
variance. Years of education added another 3% (Table 32).

None of the variables were significant predictors of
individuality for women but for men total income and occupa-
tional prestige showed both a Significant F and F to enter
accounting for 16% of the variance. Total income alone
accounted for 15% with the 1% contributed by occupational
prestige accounting for the balance of that total (Table 33).

For both women and men, none of the variables were
significant predictors of creativity.

In sum, it is noteworthy that in many instances a
large proportion of the variance in clothing attitudes is
not accounted for by demographic variables. Income was the
most significant predictor of the clothing attitudes as it
was the most explanative in seven of the ten regressions
and entered second in the remaining runs.

Demographic Variablesi Attitudes
and Expenditure

Observations on the correlations of attitude and
demographics with estimates of clothing expenditures reveal
a variety of findings (Table 34). In regards to clothing
expenditure and clothing attitude, personal clothing expendi-
ture correlated negatively with aesthetics (-.394; p = .04)
and economy (-.535; p = .01) for women but positively with
aesthetics and showed a trend toward a negative correlation
with economy for men (-.241; p = .06). These findings sug-

gest that one way the women in this sample economize on

107

Ho>oH mo. um acmoamacohma

 

«mmwbm.N mmNoo. mNHON. mmOmm. aHhOMH. 06¢ .m
«mwhv®.m mmhoo. Nvmmm. mommm. «ommmm. OEOUCH Hmuoa .v
«mmOHm.v OOOOO. OmomN. HhONm. «OOOov. OOHummHm HmGOHquQOUO .m
«mHHNH.h Hmbmo. Nwmhm. mHNNm. «thmO.H COHumoaom mo mummw .N
cmmhmO.HH HHmMN. HHmMN. mmomv. «mmhmO.HH mEOUGH Hmnomumm .H

 

so: now ucoEmumum >Eocoom you mHm>Hmc< :OHmmmuOmm

 

 

 

vovmm.H mmmoo. mmva. meNv. vNOHH. coHumOOom mo mummw .v
HmOmH.N OHOOO. HNHOH. mOva. hmmNm. mom .m
chOHH.m mOhOO. HONhH. mthv. «veth. OOHumoum HmcoHummsooo .N
«HOvmo.o movOH. movOH. Nomoo. «HOOO0.0 oEoocH Hmcomumd .H
m HHmum>o mocmco Nm Nm m mHmHuHsz Hmucm on m oououcm mmHanum> mmum

cmEoz How

:.OcH£uoHo co ocmdw H LOSE 30; Loam: OHHSMOHmo H: .ucmemumuw xeocoom “Ow mHmaHmCN conmmHOmmll.Nm OHnt

108

Ho>oH mo. um occonHcona

 

 

oOOmm.H eHNoo. oomeH. momma. momoo. osoocH Hccohhoo .m

pammm.H Havoc. mmpeH. ooHNo. voaHm. mom .a

mmmom.~ momoo. ommcH. OHmHe. mmHoM. coHemocom mo whom» .m
«Hmmme.m ooNHo. omaoH. ammoa. .mcamm. omauhoho HocoHumooooo .N
ammoom.o aeHmH. eonH. OHomm. .mmoom.o osoocH Hence .H
a HHoho>o omccco mm mm m oHoHoHoz sauce on a oohoucm moHnloc> doom

) I151..-’ II 1
I155

co: How =.OE on ucmuuomEH

mH OcHnuoHo CH >uHHmSoH>HocH >E Ochmmumxm: .ucoEmumum >uHHmsoH>HocH you mHm>Hmc¢ :onmOHOmmll.mm mHnt

109

OcHsuoHo co ocean
H umcz soumza

 

 

 

 

 

«OON.: vHN.| «OH. «va.| +H¢N.I «rmmm.u >Eocoom
oNH. owe. emo. ANH.- aoH. aoH.- suHHmoHuomho
:OMHEom
mumnuo OOHBHOHO
umm3 ou ucmuHOOEHa
NHO.| mmH. omN. who. mHo. mmH. mmocmsoHomcou HmHoom
=HHm3 ONHSOE
Inn: mOwHOmmwoom
umcu ucmuuooth
moH. NNN.) NON. mmH.n «mmm. +vOm.u OOHpmcunmd
:OOSOHRM oncomn
OOOHnmmm 3mm Hmmzt
moo. Hoe. mom. +aom. NNH. +mam. coaucouua ocHuochuua
mooouauoa mchuoHo
cm: SOEOB cm: cmfios so: SOEOB
OHOUHocmOxm musuHocmmxm onsuwocmaxm
acacuoHo NHHama mchooHO SHHEch oceeooHo Hccomuoo oanHha>

mo momucmoumm mm
muSuHocmdxm Hmcomumm

 

nqu mOHBQmHOOEwo

.OuOuHocmmxm OOHnuoHU
ocm moosuHuud mo mcoHumHouuou ucoeoz posooum SOOHmOOII.¢m mHnma

110

Ho>oH Hoe. at accoamaconaaa
Ho>oH Ho. um ucmonHcmHmaa
Ho>oH mo. on accoaoacmama

mommOHMHcOHm oum3ou ocmue+

 

 

 

 

 

 

oaH.u omo. moo. «mo. emo.u aeo. coHecoaom mo ammo»
aeo~.u emH. mmH. «mom. ooH.u .mmm. oeoocH Hence
+mom.u mam. oao.u aaema. +He~.- «.«mcm. msoocH Hmcomuoo
who. Hmo.u meo. omm. ooH. ooH. ooaumohm HmcoHucasooo
«No. +ee~.- mmo. .«maa. oeH. amH. woe
nOHnmmHOOEmo
.. mCOHumzflQp—OO
HOH OO Hafimflca Sufi)»
ucmEHummxm cmumoa
mmo. moo. HaH.u amo.u Nmo.u aHo. Sua>aucmho
aucmuHOOEH >uHHmO
lOH>HocH OSHmmmumxma
meo.u «aaom. moH. +mm~.- Heo. Hmm. SpHHcaoH>HocH
so: SOEOE so: :mEOS so: COED:
OHSUHOSOOXM OHSuHocmdxm ousuHocwmxm
ocacuoHo NHHemh acacooHo SHHSch ochuoHo Hmcohhoo oanHhc>

Mo mmmucmoumm mm
musuHocmdxm HmOOmumm

 

.omacaocoo--.em manna

111

personal clothing expenditure is through the skillful use
of accessories as they may extend the versatility of the
garment. Not surprisingly, women in particular also seem to
View lowered personal and family expenditure as a way of
economizing.

Personal expenditure as percentage of family clothing
expenditure correlated negatively with economy (-.394;
p = .04) for men and positively with individuality for women
(.564; p = .01) suggesting that for women, individuality
demands an increasing share of the family clothing budget.

When attention is turned to demographics and clothing
expenditure, findings indicate that for women personal and
family clothing expenditure showed an expected correlation
with personal and total income. For men, however, personal
expenditure as percentage of family clothing expenditure
correlated negatively with total income and showed a nega-
tive trend toward significance with personal income. These
findings indicate that men enjoy a proportionately smaller
share of family clothing expenditure as personal and total

incomes increases.

The findings on age for women indicate that as age
increases, so does family clothing expenditure. This may

likely relate to the developmental cycles of families. Older

women may defray expenditures for themselves when children's
needs are high due to rapid growth.
In sum, for women personal clothing expenditure and

family clothing expenditure correlated more with both the

112

family clothing expenditure correlated more with both the
clothing attitudes and the demographic variables. For men,
personal clothing expenditure as a percentage of family expen-
diture correlated with more variables. Another noteworthy
observation is that only the demographic variables on income
correlated with clothing expenditure for men.

In an effort to establish the relative importance of
the aforementioned variables, regression analysis was done
to determine if personal clothing expenditure could be pre-
dicted by clothing attitude and demographic variables.

Results of Pearson product moment correlations indicated
that a relationship existed between a number of the afore-
stated variables.

For women, all of the statements representing Specific
clothing attitudes and the demographic variables were found
to be significant predictors of personal clothing expenditures
accounting jointly for approximately 80% of the variance.
However 68% Of the variance was accounted for by fourvari-
ables: the statement on economy, "I carefully watch how much
I spend on clothing," which contributed 28%; total income
which contributed 15%; the statement representing individ-
uality, "Expressing my individuality in clothing is important

to me," added 12% and the statement representing aesthetics,

"It is important that accessories harmonize well with my
clothing," contributed 11%. The remaining variables accounted
for the balance of the 80% although each accounted for a mea-

ger 6% or less of the variance (Table 35).

113

Ho>oH mo. um acmonHcOHma

 

 

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«HOOHv.m Ommoo. ONOOO. hvam. «OmObN. coHumosom «0 mumm> .m
«vah0.0 OOOOO. OOVON. NOHOO. «mOhon. HOHHEom wumnuo OcHnuoHO.

mmmcmsoHomcoo HmHOOO .b

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cmHOhO.HH mmmoo. NOOvh. ommow. commbv.m mom .m
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mOHMOOOOoomV mOHumnumoc .v
«HNmO0.0 OmmNH. HOhOm. OOmmh. «thhN.o AugmHHOOEH
OH >uHHmsoH>HocH

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«thOH.O OOOmH. Nomvv. OOmOO. thqmmq.o mEoocH Hmuoe .N
«momm0.0 NmOON. NmomN. mNmmm. «momm0.0 HOSHocmmm

noumz >HHnmmHmov >Eocoom .H

m HHmuo>o mOcmLU Nm Nu m wHoHuHsz umucm cu m omumucm mmHQmHum> moum

1. .Illl ‘ll. (’1

I'll!" .J

cmEoz How ousuHocooxm OcquoHU HmSOOHOO co mHm>Hmc¢ :onmOHOmmnl.mm OHnt

114

Findings for the men were substantially different
from those for the women. Only four of the variables showed
a Significant F to enter and an overall F. Together they
accounted for less than 20% of the variance. The significant
predictors of personal clothing expenditure were total income
accounting for 8% of the variance, age adding a small 4%,
clothing attitude on social consciousness contributing a
minute 2% and the statement on creativity contributing 4%
(Table 36).

In conclusion, income again is an important variable
in predicting behavior. For women, total income is the second
greatest variable governing personal clothing expenditure.

It is the most significant variable for men.

Demographic Variables, Attitudes,
Expenditure and Source of
Acquisition
Correlations of attitudes, demographics and expen-
ditures with sources of acquisition showed interesting find-

ings (Table 37). New clothing did not correlate with any of

the clothing attitudes for women while the other sources of

acquisition did Show correlations. Not surprisingly, hand-
made clothing correlated significantly and positively with
practicality showing an t of .295 (p = .05) and showed trends
toward correlating significantly with social consciousness
and creativity. Interestingly enough, used clothing cor-

related with attracting attention (.312; p = .05) and

creativity (.313; p = .05) and showed a trend toward signif-

icantly correlating With practicality.

Ho>oH mo. no occonHcOHm.

 

115

 

Otho.H vaOO. OMNMN. OONOQ. ObmHO. >uHHmOHuomum .O
HOOON.H OhOOO. OONMN. HOHOO. OOONO. OOHummud HmcoHummsooo .m
bmev.H mOMHO. OMHMN. OOOOQ. NOOOm. coHumosom mo mumm> .h
Novhm.H vNOHO. OmbHN. mNoov. omvov. coHucOuuc OSHuomuuu¢ .o
vOmNm.H OOmHO. mHhON. VHmmv. wovbm. AOSHocomm scams
>HHsmmHmov >Eocoom .m
thmOH.N NNNvO. mHOOH. NOOVO. «OOOOO.H AmuoHoo Hmcmocs suH3
ucmfiHuwoxmv >uH>Hummuo .v
«MOOON.N thNo. NvaH. mHOmm. «NOOON.H OOOCOSOHUmCOU HmHoOm .m
«vamo.N Omovo. bOmNH. honm. «NHOm>.H OON .N
«Omovm.m Hmmmo. Hmmmo. vommm. «Omvvm.m OEOUCH HmUOB .H
m HHmuO>o oocmro Nm Nm m OHdHuch woucm OH O omuoucm mOHQmHum> moum

I- II (I- '-.Il|l‘l‘.lll‘.lz.‘)ll'. ‘lr'.

co: you ousuHocmdxm OSHLOOHU HmSOmqu Mom mHm>Hm9¢ conmmHOmmll.0m mHnt

116

ahcoaoccanaoo
MOHOO Hmamacc :uH3 ucmEHHmmxmt

 

 

+>mN. hmHm. OOH.u +NvN. HHO.I NMH.) >uH>Hummuo
ausmuuoosH
>UHHmSOH>HocH OSHmmmumxmt
OOO.: OOO. OOO. OON.: OHN. Hvo.| >uHHmOoH>HocH
aocHruoHo co cacao H has; nouns:
OOH.) HOO. NHO.| OOH. «mom. NHN. >eocoom
ONH. +ovm. He~.- mom. amo.u mNH.u SuHHcoHuocna
amHHEom mumnuo
OSHBHOHO m>mn on usmunomEH:
cccHOv.I moo. +OVN.I +NVN. +NMN. boo.) mmmcmaoHomcoc HmHOOm
=HHO3 muHcoeumn
mOHHommmoom umnu ucmpuomEH:
mOH. mOH. ONH. mHH. Ono.n NOO. OOHumnumON
amocmHum cucumn
mSOHzmmm so: “mos:
«OH.- «mHm. omo. moo. «amm. mmH.u coHucouum OcHuoouuum.
oosuauuatmcanuoHo
so: c0503 so: c0503 so: omens
mmHanum>

 

 

OcHauoHO moms

ocacuoHo czom

 

mcHruOHO soz

 

.coHuHthaoa mo

mmousom co mmuzuHocmmxu ocm OOHSQmHOOEOD .mmozuHuu< mo mcoHumHmuuoo ucoeoz uozooum comummmll.hm mHamB

117

Ho>oH Hoo. um occonHconaaa
HoaoH Ho. um acmoHMHconaa
Ho>oH mo. um accoHMHcOHma

mocmOHMHcOHm oumzou ocmua+

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

canon. Omo.) hmH.) va.) mmo. OVH. onsuHocomxm >HHEmh
mo ucmoumm mm OcHauoHU HmSOOHmm
OmH.) me.) HHN. OOO. moo.) mho. musuHocmmxm OSHnuoHU >HHEmm
oeH. +~Hm.) Hmo. oHH.) omo. eaH. ohsuaocooxm ocquoHo Hccoohoo
mmhsuHOSOQXHJOOHnuOHU
cmmN.) OOO.) moo.) +vNN. «OH. ONO.) coHumoaom mo mumm>
«ctOOm.) atone.) emo. HOO. va. +vHv. mEoocH Hmuoa
«chemo.) mmN.) OOO. ONH.) «tcmoo. Ovo. meoocH Hmcomumm
OOO.) mHo. HHO. «Non. OOO.) +50m.) OOHumoum HmcoHummsooo,
NHN.) OOH.) th.) NmH. mmo.) NHO. mO<
mownmquoemo
so: c0303 cm: c6503 so: cmeoz
mOHanHm>

ocHruoHo coho

ocHruoHO czom

ocaeuoHO soz

 

.ooaceucoouu.em oana

118

For men new clothing correlated significantly and
positively with attracting attention and economy showing a
correlation coefficient of .354 (p = .05) and .363 (p = .04)
respectively. A trend toward a significant correlation
existed between new clothing and social consciousness. Of

the correlations between handmade clothing and used clothing

with clothing attitudes for men, all showed negative values.
The strongest was between used clothing and social conscious-
ness Showing a correlation coefficient of -.491 (p = .001)
suggesting that the men in this sample do not regard used
clothing as a mechanism for eliciting positive social
responses.

The demographic variables on income Show the greatest
number of correlations with sources of acquisitions. For men
personal income correlated positively with new clothing (.605;
p = .001) but negatively with used clothing (-.634; p = .001).
Total income showed a positive trend toward Significantly
correlating with new clothing for women while it correlated
Significantly and negatively with used clothing for women
and men showing an t value of -.476 (p = .01) and -.599
(p = .001) respectively.

For men occupational prestige Showed no correlations
with sources of acquisition but for women showed a negative
trend toward correlating with new clothing while correlating
positively with handmade clothing (.362; p=.05). Years of

education correlated negatively with used clothing for men

119

(-.288; p = .05) but showed a positive trend with handmade
clothing for women.

Correlations between sources of acquisition and
clothing expenditure variables revealed that for men, used
clothing correlated positively with personal clothing as a
percentage of family expenditure (.383; p = .01).

In conclusion, findings indicated that the subjects
in this sample apparently did not view used clothing for
economy as much as for experimentation and social concerns.
The men respondents regard only new clothing as an instrument
in eliciting positive social responses. In general men seem
to definitely have an aversion to handmade and used clothing
probably fearing the interpretation of their use as indication
of the subject's inability to make adequate provisions
for themselves and their families. This seems especially
true in view of the findings on social consciousness, per-
sonal income and total income.

For both sexes, findings indicated that income was a
very important factor in determining sources of acquisition

of clothing.

Feelings About Clothing

A number of variables were tested for correlations
with feelings about clothing. For women attracting attention
correlated positively and Significantly with feelings about
clothing (r = .426; p = .006), (Table 38). It is possible

that one may have positive feelings about clothing if those

120

clothing attract the type of attention that is sought. The

statement on individuality showed a positive trend toward
significance with feelings about clothing. If individuality
is a value, then it is reasonable to assume positive feelings
about clothing if one's clothing accords a sense of individ-
uality. For men none of the clothing attitudes correlated
significantly with feelings about clothing.

For both sexes, feelings about clothing correlated
positively with age (r = .533, p = .001 for women; r = .353,
p = .01 for men) indicating that as age goes up, there are
more positive feelings about one's clothing. A possible

explanation for this finding is that as individuals grow

older, they may have become more confident Of the image they
want to project and select clothing to assist them in pro-
jecting a certain image or they Simply may not care about

clothing.

For women family clothing expenditure correlated
significantly with feelings about clothing (r = .370,
p = .02). Personal clothing expenditure showed a trend
toward significance with the same variables. For men none
of the clothing expenditure variables correlated with feelings
about clothing.

For women there was a trend toward significance
between handmade clothing and feelings about clothing (4 =
.269; p = .07). None Of the variables on sources of acqui-

sition correlated significantly with feelings about clothing

for men.

121

Table 38.--Pearson Product Moment Correlations of Attitudes,
Demographics, Clothing Expenditures, and Sources
of Acquisition with Feelings about Clothing.

 

Feelings About Clothing

 

 

 

 

Variables
Women Men
Clothing Variables
Attracting Attention .426** -.180
"Wear new fashions before
friends"
Aesthetics .018 .094
"Important that accessories
harmonize well"
Social Consciousness .076 -.066
"Important to have clothing
that others admire"
Practicality .192 -.106
Economy .039 -.186
"Watch what I spend on
clothing"
Individuality .269+ -.097
"Expressing individuality
important"
Creativity -.067 .203
"Experiment with unusual
color combinations"
Demographics
Age .533*** .353*
Occupational Prestige -.013 .079
Personal Income -.049 .046
Total Income -.002 .058

Years Of Education .060 -.055

122

Table 38.--Continued.

 

Feelings About Clothing

 

 

 

 

Variables
Women Men
Clothing Expenditures
Personal Clothing Expenditures .288+ .105
Family Clothing Expenditures .370* .118
Personal Expenditure as Percent _ 134 _ 090
of Family Expenditure ° '
Sources of Acquisition
New Clothing -.086+ -.116
Handmade Clothing -.269 -.116
Used Clothing -.l35 -.205

 

+Trend toward Significance
*Significant at .05 level
**Significant at .01 level
***Significant at .001 level

123

In conclusion, when comparing the results for women

and men, feelings about clothing correlated overwhelmingly

with more variables for women than for men. Feelings about
clothing correlated with only one variable for men: age.

Regression analysis was also done to determine the
variables that significantly predicted feelings about cloth-
ing for women and men. Demographic variables, clothing
attitude statements, personal clothing expenditure, feelings
of self-esteem and sources of clothing acquisition were all
placed into the regression equation.

For women all fifteen of the variables showed a
significant F to enter and an overall F rendering an R2 value
of .82819 indicating that these variables accounted for about
83% of the variance. The three major predictors, however,
were age, sewn clothing and the statement representing
attracting attention which accounted for 28%, 12%% and 13%
of the variance respectively. Self-esteem contributed
another 4% to the variance (Table 39).

Surprisingly for men, none Of the variables were
Significant predictors of feelings about clothing.

In conclusion, age was the most significant variable
in explaining feelings about clothing for women. As noted
earlier this probably stems from a greater confidence in one-
self and in managing one's clothing as age increases. Goff-
man (1961) refers to this concept as utilizing "identity
kits" for the management of one's preferred personal front.

Clothing is a part of "identity kits." Initially these

' 124

Ho>oH mo. um ocooHoHcOHma

 

 

dHNOw.N mmOOO. OHONO. mOOHO. «OOOHO. AmuoHoo Hmpmsc: nqu
ucoEHMdeov >uH>Human .mH
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sommm.e mommo. Nvam. ooHoo. .mmmev.H imcHocodo
Soum3 >HHSw0HmOV >Eocoom .NH
OOOOv.v vNONO. mmOOd. NHOOO. «NOVHO.H ounuHocodxo
OcHnuoHU Hmc0mumd .HH
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ohmOO.v NOHNO. momvd. vaoO. «OOdOm.H HHHo3 oNHcoeum:
moHHOmmooomo mOHumsumom .O
mmmHm.m mmNNO. HdONd. mvam. «HOHNm.H AuOmHMOdEH
>uHHmSoH>HocH
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umozv coHucouu< uomuuuc .m
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OdeH.O NNva. NNva. NHmmm. tOdNMH.O OON .H
a HHoho>o oocoro mm mm m oHdHuch hoocm ou d oohoocm mlocHho> doom

.|')'. (II 0)
ll"

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:oEoz you OchvoHU uson< mOcHHOOd co mHm>Hmc< conmmHOmm)).Om mHnt

125

findings might seem rather surprising for men as was the

finding on self-esteem for women. Allred (1980) found that

feelings about self accounted for nearly 25% of the variance
on feelings about clothing. For men, feelings about self
accounted for approximately 10% of the variance. While
feelings about self and self-esteem are not identical con-
cepts, one might assume that they are sufficiently related
so that self-esteem may account for a larger amount of the
variance than was Shown. However for this sample, feelings
about self and self-esteem had a low positive correlation
for women (r = .322, p = .03) but did not Show a significant
correlation at all for men. Thus this researcher's results

are not surprising when compared with Allred's findings.

Purpose

CHAPTER V

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, LIMITATIONS AND

IMPLICATIONS FOR RESEARCH

Summary

The primary focus of this investigation was to

explore self-esteem and locus of control in relation to each

other and to selected clothing variables. Specific research

Objectives were:

1.

To determine the relationship between self-esteem
and variables that relate to status, selected
demographic variables, love and acceptance,

achievement, and independence.

To determine the relationship between self-esteem
and clothing attitude, clothing expenditure and
sources of acquisition Of clothing.

To determine the relationship between self-esteem
and locus of control.

To determine the relationship between locus of con-
trol and clothing attitudes, clothing expenditures

and sources of clothing acquisition.

126

127

Table 40.--Summary of Hypotheses Tested and Decision Rules.

 

Decision Rule

 

Hypotheses Null Hypothesis Was:

H1: There will be no relationship Partially Rejected
between self-esteem scores -Rejected for women
and scores on the variables for: status (occu-
that represent status, selected pational prestige),
demographic variables, love and role (age), and
acceptance, achievement, and love and acceptance
independence (see figure on (social and emo-
page for Specific variables). tional needs met)

-Rejected for men
for: love and
acceptance
(acceptance and
inclusion by others)

H2: There will be no relationship Not Rejected
between self-esteem scores and
scores on clothing attitude
statements that relate to
attracting attention.

H3: There will be no relationship Rejected
between self-esteem scores and
scores on clothing attitude
statements that relate to
aesthetics.

H4: There will be no relationship Partially Rejected
between self-esteem scores and -Rejected for men
scores on clothing attitude only
statements that relate to social
consciousness.

H5: There will be no relationship Partially Rejected
between self-esteem scores and -Rejected for men
clothing expenditure when only for personal
measured as personal clothing clothing expendi-
expenditure, family clothing ture

expenditure and personal clothing
as percentage Of family clothing
expenditure.

128

Table 40.--Continued.

 

Hypotheses

Decision Rule
Null Hypothesis Was:

 

HS': Men and women will not differ in

the dollar amount and the per-
centage of family expenditure
spent on personal clothing.

There will be no relationship in
self-esteem scores and the three
sources of acquisition: new,
handmade, and used.

There will be no relationship
between self-esteem and the
variables feelings about
clothing and clothing import-
ance.

There will be no relationship
between self-esteem scores and
scores on locus of control.

Rejected

Partially Rejected

-Rejected for women
for handmade
clothing

Partially Rejected

-Rejected for women
for feelings about
clothing

Rejected

 

129

Methodology

 

This investigation was part of a larger Quality of
Life Research Study. The sample for this investigation
consisted of thirty-nine Black women and forty-one Black
men living in Oakland County, Michigan. In order to be
eligible for participation in the study, respondents were
required to have at least one school age child between the
ages of five and eighteen living in the household with them.

The data were analyzed using Pearson Product Moment

correlations, regression analysis and paired T-tests.

Findings

A number of significant findings resulted which are
generalized only to the sample used in this investigation.
Table 40 was constructed to present an overview of the

results of the hypotheses.

Self-esteem correlated Significantly with relatively
few of the variables that were used to represent status,
role, love and acceptance, achievement, and independence.
A possible reason may be that the subjects in this sample
reflect the response of Blacks to their unique position in
the United States by rejecting some of the values of the
larger society. Another possible explanation is that
representation of certain variables could mask relation-
ships that actually do exist. A related concern could be
the selection of the variables used in the study. Banks

and Graham (1973) assert that the quality of interaction with

130

significant others during early development is especially
important in fostering self-esteem. This investigation,
however, dealt only with the present time frame and an

adult sample.

Viewing self-esteem with selected clothing variables
yielded interesting insights. Results on the clothing
attitudes indicated that: no relationship existed between
self-esteem and attracting attention; a significant relation-
ship existed between self-esteem and aesthetics for both
sexes; a significant relationship existed between self-
esteem and social consciousness for men only. Other
findings showed that self-esteem correlated with the practi-
cality scale for both women and men.

Investigations with clothing expenditure variables
showed that self-esteem correlated only with personal
clothing expenditure for men. Test on expenditure data also
revealed that a significant difference existed in clothing
expenditures Of women and men. Women Spent more on personal
clothing and utilized a larger percentage of the family
clothing budget than did men.

Sources of acquisition data showed a positive

correlation between self-esteem and only handmade clothing
for the women. There were no significant correlations for
men. Similarly, for women only, self-esteem was found to

correlate positively only with feelings about clothing.

131

When attention was focused on the relationship
between self-esteem and locus of control, significant
correlations were found for both sexes.

In addition to formulating hypotheses, a number of
research questions were posed, some of which have been
subsumed in the foregoing discussion of hypothesis test
results. Research questions addressing the relationship
between locus of control and clothing variables were ans-

wered based on Pearson Product Moment correlations.

Findings revealed that locus of control correlated Signifi-
cantly with the attitudes on attracting attention, aesthetics
and social consciousness for women but with none of the
attitudinal scales for men. Correlations with clothing con-
sumption variables revealed significant relationship between
locus of control and the variables personal clothing eXpen-
diture and personal clothing as a percentage of family
clothing expenditure for women and for personal and family
clothing expenditures for men. Locus Of control also

correlated negatively with sewn clothing for men and postively

with feelings about clothing for women. Comparison of the
variables correlating with self-esteem with those correlating
with locus Of control indicates that there are few similari-
ties.

The research questions addressing the interrelation-
ships within and between variables that relate to demographics,
clothing attitudes, clothing eXpenditure, clothing acquisi-

tion sources, and feelings about clothing spurred a number

132

of findings. There existed some relationships within vari-
ables representations perhaps indicating a methodological
concern in a few instances. Pearson Product Moment Corre-
lations and Regression analysis revealed that in general,
variables correlated differently for women than for men.

One such difference is manifested in the clothing attitude
statements as it was found that a number of variables corre-
lated with social consciousness for men but not for women.
Similarly, several variables correlated with creativity for
women but not for men.

In regards to demographics, personal and total
income correlated with more variables than did the other
demographic variables. This suggests that income was the
greatest single prediction of clothing attitude, clothing

expenditure and sources of clothing acquisition.

Another noteworthy finding is that for men more
than for women, new clothing correlated positively with a

number of variables while used clothing correlated negatively.

Conclusions
The following conclusions are based upon the results
of data analysis and hypothesis testing.
1. Self-esteem and locus of control appear to be
rather weakly related to clothing attitudes and
other clothing variables.
2. While self-esteem and locus of control showed

moderate correlations with each other, they

133

correlated differently with most of the clothing
variables.

3. Generally, variables correlated in a dissimilar
manner for women than for men suggesting that women
and men tend to view clothing very differently.
However, the sc0pe of this investigation did not

include exploring why these differences existed.

4. Men tended to view handmade and used clothing quite
negatively in general and specifically more nega-

tively than did women.

5. Income proved to be the most Significant predictor
Of the clothing variables included in this study.
It accounted for most of the variance in seven out
of ten regressions on clothing attitudes. It was
at least the second most important predictor in all
ten of the regressions. Similarly income was the
most consistent predictor of clothing eXpenditure.
The income variables, based on correlation results,
appeared to be the most important determinant in
sources of acquisition.

6. Age was the most important factor in determining

feelings about clothing for both women and men.

Limitations
On the basis of this investigation, the following

limitations and research recommendations are Offered:

134

While the clothing attitude scales for men were in
the range of acceptability for exploratory research,
those for women were not, thus prompting the use Of
individual clothing statements. Utilizing scales or
groupings Of items for men and individual statements
for women raise the methodological issue of whether

or not the scales and statements were necessarily

measuring the same quality.

Another limitation centers around the use of recall
data on clothing expenditure and clothing acquisi-
tion. As it was noted in the section on Methodology,
unresolved arguments abound concerning the validity
of recall data. While Wadsworth (1962) felt that
recall data was less accurate than that obtained
from record keeping, Buller (1966) and Slocum (1975)
did research on recall data and concluded that it
was not necessarily less accurate than data obtained
from record keeping. While Slocum's research
centered around the consistency of information
reported over a five week period, this clothing
investigation requires reSpondents to recall in
greater detail clothing acquisition and expenditures

in the last twelve month period.

A further limitation is that correlations on the

number of items purchased could likely Obscure
important relationships with self-esteem because

distinctions are not made according to types Of

135

items. The system used in this investigation would
place an equal weight on four blouses and four suits.
As Allred (1980) suggested, develOping a system of
weighting in relation to relative cost would contri-
bute to a more precise measurement.

Clothing expenditure data were expressed as personal
clothing expenditure and as personal clothing as a
percentage of family clothing expenditure. These

two designations correlated Significantly differ-

ently with the other variables.

Implications for Research

 

Because of the obvious limitation of utilizing scales
to represent clothing attitudes for men and individ-
ual clothing statements to represent clothing atti-
tudes for women, it is recommended that further
research be devoted to deriving scales with suf-
ficient reliability and validity that they are
equally effective in soliciting data from both women
and men.

The interview method of data collection could likely
yield information beyond that obtained with the use
of the questionnaire.

While the questionnaire has the advantages of
economy--time and cost efficiency--it does not
compare favorably in other areas with the interview

technique of data collection which has the

136

advantage of being flexible allowing the respondent
the freedom to elaborate upon, retract or raise
questions in relation to clarity or motive. This
technique allows the interviewers to record vital
information such as attitudes, perceptions, and
beliefs. They could also probe for additional
information deemed important. A need still exists
for this type of research, especially in relation
to Blacks as other vital information not specific-
ally addressed in the investigation could surface
and contribute significantly to theory.

Two designations Of clothing expenditure data,
specifically personal clothing expenditure and per-
sonal clothing as a percentage of family clothing
expenditure, correlated so differently with the
other variables that it is recommended that more
research be done to determine which yields more
accurate information.

Allred (1980), whose study included the sample used
in this investigation, found that feelings about
self predicted 24% of the affective evaluation of
clothing for women while this investigation found
that self-esteem predicted only 4% of the affective
evaluation of clothing. Although feelings about
self and self-esteem are not identical concepts,

they are related. It cannot be suggested at this

137

point whether the difference in the variable used
or the difference in samples accounts for the dis-
parity in the variance. An interesting investiga-
tion would be a comparison Of how each relates to
the clothing variables in this study with a special
theoretical component devoted to explaining why

differences might exist.

Results from this investigation supported the
Observations by Sontag (1978) and Allred (1980) that
women and men tend to view clothing differently. A
major contribution would be made by research devoted

to delineating and explaining these differences.

APPENDICES

APPENDIX A

PORTIONS OF QUESTIONNAIRE USED IN THIS STUDY

APPENDIX A

GENERAL DIRECTIONS

Please read the directions at the beginning of each section before answering
the questions. It is very important that you answer each question as care-
fully and as accurately as you can. Be sure to respond to all the questions
on both front and back of each page. Both you and your spouse are asked to
complete separate questionnaires. Please do not discuss your answers before
both of you have finished the entire questionnaire. when you have completed
the questionnaire, return it to the manila envelope provided and seal the
envelope.

YOUR FEELINGS ABOUT LIFE CONCERNS

In this section of the questionnaire. we want to find out how you feel about
various parts of your life. and life in this country as you see it. Please
include the feelings you have now-~taking into account what has happened in
the last year and what you expect in the near future.

All of the items can be answered by simply writing on the line to the left

of each question one of the following numbers OR letters to indicate how you
fee]. For example write in '1“ for terrible, “I“ if you have mixed feelings
about sane question (that is. you are about equally satisfied and dissatisfied
with some part of your life). and so forth on to '7” if you feel delighted
about it. If you have no feelings at all on the question. write in “A.“ If
you have never thought about something, write in ”B.“ If some question
doesn't apply to you, write in “C.”

For two of the questions we also ask you to write in some important reasons
for why you feel as you do. Please finish this section before going on to
the next section.

 

I feel:
r_rr'1 .r-j .r'1 I"1. rr'1
—[_T} L?) a) is e) L9.) 4.3—
Terrible Unhappy Mostly Mixed Mostly Pleased Delighted
dissatisfied (about satisfied
equally
satisfied and
dissatisfied)

E] Neutra‘luneither satisfied nor dissatisfied
Never thought about it
E Does not apply to me

I.) How do you feel about your life as a whole?

1.2 how do you feel about the freedom you have from being
-bothered and annoyed?

1338

I feel:
III III
Terrible Unhappy

l.3a

l.3b

1239

 

3
o o s E {1-
Mostly Mixed Mostly Pleased Delighted
dissatisfied (about satisfied
equally
satisfied and
dissatisfied)

[Z] Neutral-oneither satisfied nor dissatisfied
Never thought about it
E] Does not apply to me

How do you feel about your an flillly life--your husband or
wife. your marriage. and. your children. if any?

lihat are sane of the most important reasons for ELM. you feel
as you do about your flnily?

 

 

 

How do you feel about the mount of beauty and attractiveness
in your day to day life?

How do you feel about your independence or fneedonuthe
chance you have to do what you want?

How do you feel about how much you are accepted and included
by others?

How do you feel about your Job?

How do you feel about your standard of living--the things you
have like housing, car. furniture. recreation. and the like?

How do you feel about your safety?

Howdo you feel about what our national goverimient is doing?
Now do you feel about how much fun you are having?

How do you feel about your house or apartment?

how do you feel abwt what you are accomplishing in your life?

how do you feel about your particular neighborhood as a
place to live?

I feel:

.1410

 

~03

Terrible

 

{2:} W s E 421—

Unhappy Mostly Mixed Mostly Pleased Delighted
dissatisfied (about satisfied
' ' equally
satisfied and
dissatisfied)

E. Meutral--neither satisfied nor dissatisfied
Never thought about it
Q Does not apply to me

l.l5a How do you feel about your clothing?

l.le what are'some of the most important reasons w_hy_ you feel as
you do about your clothing?

 

 

l.lG How do you feel about the way you spend your spare time.
your non-working activities?

l.l7 . How do you feel about yourself?

l.l8_ How do you feel about changes in your family's lifestyle you

have made or may need to make in order to conserve energy?
l.l9 Now do you feel about how secure you are financially?
l.20 Mow do you feel about how interesting your day to day life is?

l.2l How do you feel about the extent to which your hysical needs
(for example. food. sleep. shelter and clothing are met?

l.22 How do you feel about the extent to which your social and
emotional needs (for example, friends, acceptance by others,
belonging and affection) are met?

1.23 Now do you feel about your own health?

1.24 Now do you feel about your total family income. the way it

enables you and your family to live as comfortably as you
would like? ~

l.25 How do you feel about how creative and expressive you can be?

l.26 How do you feel about the chance you have to learn new things
or be exposed to new ideas?

12

141

YOUR FEELINGS R§OUT YOURSELF

Below are ten statements about how one feels about oneself. Me are interested
in knowing how you feel about each statement. For each item. CIRCLE THE NUMBER
which best indicates the extent of your agreement or disagreement. For example.
circle 'l“ if you strongly disagree with the statement. and '4” if you strongly
agree.

 

 

Strongly . Strongly
disagree Disagree Agree agree

3.l I feel that I'm a person of

worth. at least on an equal

plane with others. l 2 3 4
3.2 I feel that I have a number of

good qualities. l 2 3 4
3.3 All in all, I am inclined to

feel that I am a failure. 1 2 3 4
3.4 I am able to do things as well

as most other people. l 2 3 4
3.5 I feel I do not have much to be

proud of. l 2 3 4
3.6 I take a positive attitude

toward myself. l 2 3 4
3.7 On the whole, I am satisfied

with myself. l 2 3 4
3.8 I wish I could have more

respect for myself. l 2 3 4
3.9 I certainly feel useless at

times. l 2 3 4
3.l0 At times I think I am no good

at all. l 2 3 4

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1142

Now we have some questions of a different kind. for each of the following
four questions check one of the two responses that best describes how you
feel.

4.1 Have you usuall felt pretty sure your life would work out the way you
want it to. or Nave there been times when you haven't been sure about it?
CHECK ONE:

[ ] I have felt pretty sure life would work out the way I want it to.
[ ] There have been times when I haven't been sure about it.

4.2 Do you think it's better to plan your life a good way ahead. or would
you say life is too much a matter of luck to plan ahead very far?
CHECK ONE:

[ J I think it's better to plan my life a good way ahead.
[ J I think life is too much a matter of luck to plan ahead very far.

4.3 Hhen you do make plans ahead. do you usually get to carry things out the
way you expected. or do things usually come up to make you change your
p ans?

CHECK ONE:
[ ] I usually get to carry things out the way I expected.
[ ] Things usually come up to make me change my plans.

4.4 Some people feel they can run their lives pretty'much the way they want
to: others feel the problems of life are sometimes too big for them.
Hhich one are you most like?

CHECK ONE:
[ ] I feel I can run my life pretty much the way I want to.

[ ] I feel the problems of life are sometimes too big for me.

.1413

GENERAL CLOTHING INTERESTS

This section contains statements on clothing interests which some people have.
For each statement. please indicate how much you disagree or agree with the
statement as a description of you, Read each statement. and CIRCLE THE NUMBER
that best describes YOUR feelings. For example. circle “1" if’you strongly
disagree with a statement. circle '3” if your feelings are in between (that is.
you equally agree and disagree). and circle '5“ if you strongly agree with it.
Please be sure to answer every question.

 

 

to
A
Ah. eh q, 4H7
cab q, , a eh J%~
{L ‘2; ‘Rffifig, o o
‘ I
°? °} ‘35 ab 5; .»

 

5.1 I choose clothing that requires a minimum
of time. energy and money for upkeep. l 2 3 4

5.2 It is important to own a lot of clothing. I 2 3 4 5

5.3 I often experiment with unusual colors or
color combinations in clothing. l 2 3 4 5

5.4 The way people dress for a Job interview
makes a difference in whether or not they

are hired. l 2 3 4 5
5.5 I usually wear the new clothing fashions

before my friends do. l 2 3 4 5
5.6 I buy most of my clothing at sale prices. l 2 3 4 5

5.7 I choose clothing that I consider
complimentary for my body build. l 2 3 4 5

5.8 People are too concerned about their
clothing. l 2 3 4 5

5.9 Clothing style is more important than price. l 2 3 4 5
5.lO I choose clothing that is durable. l 2 3 4 5

5.ll It is important to wear clothing that is
appropriate for the occasion. l 2 3 4 5

5.12 I often use accessories in ways for which
they were not originally designed. l 2 3 4 5

5.l3 when money gets tight I am more likely to
economize on clothing than on other goods.

 

 

 

 

 

 

144

 

 

 

5.l4 I consider the impression my clothing
makes on others.

5.15 I select clothing that is easy to put on
and remove.

5.l6 People Judge your work performance by the
way that you are dressed.

5.l7 Clothing that is attractive in appearance
is important to me.

5.l8 I would rather be warm in the winter than
dressed in the latest style.

5.19 I like to dress differently than other
people.

5.20 Having versatile garments that can be

worn for many occasions is important to me.

5.21 The way people dress on the Job can make
a difference in their opportunities for
advancement.

5.22 I try to wear clothing that is unusual.

5.23 The way clothing feels on my body is
important to me.

5.24 I often wear clothing that is similar to
what my friends wear.

5.25 I carefully watch how much I spend on
clothing.

5.26 Employers or supervisors notice how
workers dress on the Job.

5.27 Expressing my individuality in clothing
is important to me.

5.28 Keeping up with changing fashions is
too expensive.

5.29 It is important to have clothing that
others admire.

5.30 It is important that accessories
hanmonize well wdth my clothing.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

lS

JudES

26
CLOTHING SOURCES AND PURCHASES

The questions in this section are'more difficult because they ask you to recall
specific numbers as accurately as possible. Probably no one will know the answers
exactly. but please give the best estimate that you can. You may be able to answer
more accurately if you take a minute to look at the clothing in your closets.

ll.la Please write in. as accurately as you can. an estimate of the NUMBER OF ITEMS
in each category that you acquired during the PAST l2 MONTHS from each of the
sources listed below. Leave blank those categories or sources that do not

apply to you. .HEN SHOULD USE THE LIST ON I315 PAGE. HOMER SHOULD USE THE
LIST ON THE NEXT PAGE.

 

I new use THIS LIST |

 

NEH CLOTHING USED CLOTHING

 

Coats: overcoats.
top coats. all-weather
and raincoats

 

’Outdoor jackets.
parkas and
snowmobile suits

 

’Shits: 2 or 3
piece suits and
leisure suits

 

Separate sports
coats and blazers

 

Separate slacks

 

Dress shirts (long and
short sleeve)

 

Casual and work shirts
(woven and knit)

 

Sweaters and
sweatshirts

 

Bermudas. shorts and
bathing trunks

 

Jeans. overalls and
coveralls

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

GO TO QUESTION ll.2a ON PAGE 28.

146

27

Please write in. as accurately as you can. an estimate of the W in each
category that you acquired during the W from each 0 the sources listed

below. Leave blank those categories or sources that do not apply to you.

Lucien use nus LIST I

 

NEH CLOTHING USED CLOTHING

       

 

Coats: three-fourth a
full length. raincoats.
capes and evening wraps

Outdoor Jackets. parkas.
and snowmobile suits

Suits and ensembles:
pant suits. pant-top and
sweater-skirt outfits

Dresses: business.
street and church

 

 

 

 

Separate slacks and
skirts

 

Dresses for semi-formal.
formal or party wear

 

Blouses and shirts
(woven and knit)

 

Sweaters. sweatshirts
and blazers

L'Be‘rmudas . culottes .
shorts and

bathing suits

Jeans and overalls

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

ll.lb If ou sew. how many items have you sewn in each of the following categories
r’—-—...... the W?

Clothing for yourself and/or other family meters in your household
Gifts for friends and relatives and/or items for sale at a charity affair
Household items (such as draperies. pillows. bedspreads. etc.)

ll.3a

13477

airing the last l2 months. how much do you estimate was spentqon all
clothing including outerwear. underwear and footwear for all activities.
for YOURSELF AND_A_LL FAMILY MEMBERS living in your household?

3

ll.2b Is this the mount that
is spent most years?

 

ll.2c If NO. how much does your
flnily. including yourself.

 

[ 1N0 > usually spend for all of
I 1 YES its clothing?
' s

 

 

 

During the last l2 months. how much do you estimate that you spent on
all of YOUR clothing including outerwear. underwear and footwear for
all activities?

 

 

S
ll.3b Is this the onount that
you spend most years? ll.3c If in. how much do you
I ] NO \ usually spend for all of
'- / your clothing?
[ ] YES " 3

 

 

 

Many people participate in activities. not related to their occupation.
when they need special safety features in their clothing. or when they
wear special items to protect thenselves fron sonething in the natural
or human envirornients. for exonple life jackets. motorcycle helmets.
fire retardant finishes all offer sane protection.

Does any of your clothing or eminent that you wear when you're not
working for pay have safety features?

\

I 1 YES / ll.4b Please list below all of the clothing

[ ] NO . safety features or safety equionent
that you wear.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Are you presently self-employed. unployed for pay. either full- or
part-time. or are you receiving sane pay while tonporarily laid off.
on strike or on sick leave?

[ J no A, so TO QUESTION 13.1 on PAGE 33.
[ ] YES > comm: ON TO QUESTION l2.la ON THE NEXT PAGE.

 

 

.1418

33

YOUR FAMILY SITUATION

This study is about the quality of life of family members. Therefore. we are
interested in knowing some things about yourself and your family. As you answer
the questions. please consider only yourself and the family members 39! living in
your household.

FOR EACH QUESTION. PLACE A CHECK MARK IN THE BRACKETS [v’j OR HRITE THE ANSNER ON
THE LINE PROVIDED.

13.1

l3.2a

13.2b

13.3

13.4

13.5

Hhat is your sex?
[ J Male

[ 1 Female

How old were you on your last birthday?

._____ Age at last birthday

Hhat is the month. day. and year of your birth?

 

‘Honth ’Day Year of Eirth

Hhat is your religion. if any?
[ J Protestant:

[ ] Catholic
[ ] Jewish
[ ] None

[ ] Other:

 

(please specify)

 

(please specify)

Hhat is your race?
[ ] Hhite

[ ] Black/Negro/Afro-American
[ ] Other:

 

(please specify)*

Do you (or does a member of your family who lives with you) own your home.
do you rent. or what? (CHECK ONE)

[ ] Own or buying
[ ] Renting
[ ] Other:

 

’(please speEify)

13.611

l3.7a

13.7b

.1419

Is this your first marriage?
[ ] YES ——-> In what year were you married?

I l in 9 13.6b In what year did your
present marriage begin?

 

' l3.6c lbw did your last marriage end? CHECK ONE.

[ ] Death ———>Year of death:
[ ] Divorce an" of divorce:
[ ] Annulment ——->Year of annulment:

 

 

:hat is the highest level of formal schooling that you have conpleted?
HECK NE.

[ ] Less than 8 grades of elenentary school
[ ] 8 grades of elementary school

[ ] l-3 years of high school

[

] Conpleted high school and received diplona or
passed high school equivalency exam

1 l-3 years of college

1 College graduate. bachelor's degree

] Post bachelor's course work

J Master's degree

] Post master's course work

] PhD. EdD

] Other professional degree (such as MD. 00. JD. DDS):

HHHHP—‘IHH

 

 

(please specify)
Are you 191 attending or enrolled in one of the programs listed above?

 

[ ] YES —% l3.7c If YES. is that full-time or part-time?
[ 1 m [ ] Full-time student

[ ] Part-time student

l3.7d Please specify in which one of the above progrons
you are now enrolled (such as high school.
college. master's program).

Type of school or progrmn

 

 

 

 

 

.1550

l3.8a IN THE PAST. have you been enrolled in any type of educational program
otfiEr thin high school or college. such as vocational school?

 

[ ] vcs.--;>

[ 1 N0

 

l3.8b If YES. please specify your field of training
(such as business. office work. practical
nursing. beautician. mechanic. electrician).

Field of training

 

 

l3.8e Did you complete the training program?
[ ] YES

[ 1 N0
[ J noes NOT APPLY

 

 

l3.8d Are you NOH enrolled in any type of educational program other than high
school. EETlege or graduate school. such as vocational training program.
arts and crafts classes. or religion classes?

l3.9a

 

[ 3155—9
[ 1 N0

 

l3.8e If YES. what type of educational program
s t?

Field of training or type of program

 

 

 

 

Are you presently enployed. unemployed. retired. or what?
CHECK AS MANY AS APPLY TO YOU.

[ ] Housewife or househusband

[ ] Student

[ J Permanently disabled

[ ] Retired
[

35

GO TO QUESTION l3.lOa ON PAGE 38.

(unless you also check one of
the categories below in which
case go to l3.9b on the next

page).

] Unenployed (that is. previously
enployed for pay and/OR
presently looking for a Job)

[ ] Temporarily laid off

OR on strike
OR on sick leave

[ ] Horking now

 

GO TO QUESTION 13.9b ON THE NEXT PAGE.

36

13.9b

13.9c

13.9d

13.9e

13.9f

l3.99

151

If you are working now OR are temporarily laid off OR on strike OR on sick
leave. what kind of work do you do? Hhat is your main occupation called?
(If you have two Jobs. your main occupation is the Job on which you spend
the most time. If you spend an equal amount of time on two Jobs. it is the
one which provides the most income.)

Main occupation

 

Hhat do you actually do in that Job? Hhat are some of your main duties?
Duties

 

 

Hhat kind of business. industry or organization is your Job in? Hhat do
they do or make at the place where you work?

Kind of business. industry or organization

 

 

Hhat they make or do

 

 

About how many hours a week do you do this work? CHECK ONE.
] Less than 20 hours per week

] 20 hours per week
] 2l-39 hours per week

I

[

I

[ ] 40 hours per week

[ ] 41-50 hours per week
[ ] 51-60 hours per week
[ ] More than 60 hours per week

Do you do this work inside your home. outside your home but on your own

property. or away from your home and property? CHECK THE ONE PLACE IN
HHICH YOU DO MOST OF THIS HORK.

[ ] Inside my home
[ J Outside my home but on my property
[ ] Away from my home and property

Are you an hourly wage worker. salaried. on coimnission. sel f-employed. or
what? CHECK ONE.

[ ] Hourly wage worker

[ J Salaried

[ ] Iiork on comnission. tips

[ ~] Self-employed in own business. professional practice. or farm
[ J Hork without 25! in family business or farm

.1552

l3.lla Hhat do you estimate will be your total family income before taxes
in 1977? Please include income from all’Sourcesfibefore taxes.
inciuaing income from wages. property. stocks. interest. welfare.
Aid to Families with Dependent Children. child support from a
previous marriage. and any other money incaie received by you and
all fanily members who live with you.

gmmo TOTAL mam YEARLY "comm

I ] Under 33.000 I J 312.000 - 314.999
I ] 33.000 - 33.999 I J 315.000 - 319.999
I 1 34.000 - 34.999 I J 320.000 - 324.999
I ] 35.000 - 35.999 I J 325.000 - 329.999
I 1 36.000 - 36.999 I J 330.000 - 334.99
I 1 37.000 - 37.999 I J 335.000 - 349.999
I 1 38.000 - 39.999 I J 350.000 - 374.999
I J 310.000 - 311.999 I J 375.000 and over

l3.llb About how much of this total family yearly incuie do you estimate that
_Y_O_Uwill earn in l977?

ESTIMATED PORTION or mem INCOMEL197714EARNED 01 10mg
[ J Does not apply. not onployed in 1977

I ] Under 33.000 I J 312.000 - 314.999
I 1 33.000 - 33.999 I ] 315.000 - 319.999
I 1 34.000 - 34.999 I J 320.000 - 324.999
I 1 35.000- 35.999 I J 325.000 - 329.999
I 1 36.000 - 36.999 I J 330.000 - 334,999
I ] 37.000 - 37.999 I J 335.000 - 349.999
I 1 38.000 - 39.999 I J 350.000 - 374.999
I J 310.000 - 311.999 I J 375.000 and over

l3.l2 In the caning year. would you say your financial situation will get
worse. stay about the same. or get better? CHECK ONE.

[ ] Get worse
I ] Stay about the same
[ ] Get better

APPENDIX B

SOURCES OF CLOTHING STATEMENTS

APPENDIX B

SOURCES OF CLOTHING STATEMENTS

Statements from Creekmore's Scales
*5.10 I choose clothing that is durable.

*5.l4 I consider the impression my clothing makes on
others.

5.23 The way clothing feels on my body is important
to me.

*5.24 I often wear clothing that is similar to what my
friends wear.
Contributors to Creekmore's Measurement of Clothing Variables

*5.1 I choose clothing that requires a minimum of
time, energy and money for upkeep. (Lapitsky)

*5.18 I would rather be warm in winter than dressed in
the latest style. (Selker)

*5.29 It is important to have clothing that others
admire. (Finlayson)
Statements from Sprole's Paper

5.5 I usually wear the new clothing fashions before
my friends do.

5.6 I buy most of my clothes at sale prices.

5.8 People are too concerned about their clothing.

153

154

Clothing style is more important than price.

It is important to wear clothing that is
appropriate for the occasion.

I like to dress differently than other peOple.

Expressing my individuality in clothing is
important to me.

Expressing my individuality in clothing is
important to me.

Keeping up with changing fashions is too expen-
sive.

Statements Contributed by Researcher

5.3

5.12

5.22

5.30

I often experiment with unusual colors or color
combinations in clothing.

I often use accessories in ways for which they
were not originally designed.

I try to wear clothing that is unusual.

It is important that accessories harmonize well
with my clothing.

Statements Resulting from Collaborative Efforts of the
Quality of Life Research Team

5.2

5.4

5.16

5.20

It is important to own a lot of clothing.

The way people dress for a job interview makes
a difference in whether or not they are hired.

When money gets tight I am more likely to
economize on clothing than on other goods.

I select clothing that is easy to put on and
remove.

People judge your work performance by the way
that you are dressed.

Having versatile garments that can be worn for
many occasions is important to me.

155

5.21 The way people dress on the job can make a dif-
ference in their opportunities for advancement.

5.26 Employers or supervisors notice how workers
dress on the job.

APPENDIX C

LETTER TO PARTICIPANTS FROM PROJECT DIRECTORS

APPENDIX C

MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY

 

momentum-cows! ‘ mama-common»

Fall 1977
Dear Friend:

Most of us are aware of the rapid changes taking place in our society today. As
we face energy shortages and resulting changes in the material products we use.
changes in the patterns of family activities and in the roles of men and women. it
becomes essential to plan for change that will contribute to one's sense of well
being and satisfaction with life.

The College of Human Ecology at Michigan State University is concerned with the
quality of life of families in the state of Michigan. Two departments within the
college. Family and Child Sciences and Human Environment and Design. have under-
taken the task of determining what components of life are important to the quality
of life of Michigan families and to what degree they are satisfied with those
aspects of their lives. You will find questions about variobs aspects of your
life such as your spare time activities and your neighborhood. and many questions
which focus on your family life. your clothing and your Job.' ”

Your participation in this study is very important. You will provide us with
information necessary to understand the feelings people now have about their
quality of life. and this will suggest possible ways to improve satisfaction with
life in our changing society.

This is a questionnaire on how you feel about your life. It is rather long. and
it will take some time to fill it out. Most of the questions should be interest-
ing. some may be dull and tiring. many will be easy because it is about your life.
but some questions will require more thought. Answer them all as well as you can.
There are no “right“ or “wrong“ answers. It is your experiences and opinions that
are most important.

By signing the consent form you agree to complete the entire questionnaire to the
best of your ability. Our signatures guarantee you anonymity. Hhen both of you
complete separate questionnaires. we will send your family a check for SlO shortly
after the interviewer picks up the two questionnaires.

He sincerely appreciate your participation in this study and thank you in advance
for your time. effort and interest. A summary of research findings will be sent
to you when the study has been completed. If you have any questions about the
study. please call 517-353-5389 or 5l7-355-189S.

Sincerely.

Dr. Margaret M. Bubolz. Professor
Family and Child Sciences

(ggdadl’ZSZ 342222...»

Dr. Ann C. Slocum. Assistant Professor
Human Environment and Design

1156

APPENDIX D

SAMPLING PROCEDURES

APPENDIX D

SAMPLING PROCEDURES

Basic Sampling Design

Area: Oakland County
Number of Sampling Points: 75 -
Area divided into categories by type of area and racial

composition:

1. Rural. defined by named townships. using only areas
with 1970 median income of $12,000.;40ne-fourth of
sampling points chosen as probability-proportionate-
to-household count sample of these townships.

II. Urban/Suburban--Ba1ance of County:.

a. Sampling points where black residents in high
proportion using only tracts with 1970 median
income of $6,000 or above. These are in Pontiac
City and Royal Oak Township. One-fourth of
sampling points chosen as probability-propor-
tionate-to-household count sample of these two
places.

b. Balance of one-half of sampling points chosen
as probability-proportionate-to-household count
of this remaining area of county not in I or

IIa using only tracts with 1970 median income
of $12,000.

Eligibility Reguirement for Household to be Selected for
Interview

Must have child/children age 5-18

Must have husband and wife living together

157

158

‘ Original Sampling Design for Selection of Household

In each sampling point cluster, a randomly designated house-
hold was chosen as the site of the first interview and each
fourth household from it (using a prescribed walk pattern)
was to be designated household for interview until four*were
selected.

Original call plus three callbacks on designated households.

If no contact. or household did not meet eligibility re-
quirements. substitution of house to right. then house to
left.

MODIFICATION

There are no modifications in selection of sampling point
cluster areas.

Modifications in screening and selection of households need
to be made because of the imposition of filters to house-
holds with child age 5-18 plus husband and wife living
together. This makes a skip interval of four households
and heavy callbacks on designated households impractical.

At first designated household. if contact is made‘with
an adult,.interviewer may ask which houses in the
group of 19-20 included in the originally defined
sampling cluster (allowing for designated and sub-
stitute households) have both children 5-18 and
husband/wife living together. This includes. of
course. asking about this first designated house-
hold.

If only four households of the 20 qualify. then these
four become the designated households. If eight
qualify, every-other-one becomes the designated
household. If 12 qualify. then every third one
(OBJECTIVE: Chose a random sample of households in
the originally chosen area which fit the eligibility
requirements).

If the first designated household at which inquiry is
made is eligible, an interview is to be completed
there.

If no contact is made on the first call at the first
designated household, the interviewer may proceed
immediately to the right substitute household to
try to reach someone who can answer whether the
originally designated household meets the eligibi-
lity requirement. If it does. three callbacks will
be required on it. However, if it does not,

159

interviewers can proceed immediately at the substi-
tute household, using the respondent there as source
of information on other households.

If in any sampling point cluster block there are not
four eligible households. the interviewer adds
additional households beyond the first 20, including
proceeding to another block according to the ori-
ginal sampling instructions.

If information on households in the block cannot be
obtained at the first contacted household, proceed
with the skip interval as originally planned and
ask for such information at second designated
household.

\r

THIS MODIFICATION IN SCREENING uns‘DrEN MADE TO:

Preserve the original choice of geographic sampling
point-by-probability methods.

Preserve the random selection of households, but
change that random selection to randomness of
those which meet eligibility requirements,
rather than of all households.,

THIS MODIFICATION IS NECESSARY BECAUSE THE NUMBER OF FILTER
REQUIREMENTS FOR ELIGIBILITY GREATLY REDUCES'THE NUMBER OF
HOUSEHOLDS WHICH CAN FALL INTO THIS SAMPLE.

The most extreme example is in Pontiac where:
Households with school age children = 40%
Black households = 40%

Sixty percent (60%) of black households.with
school-age children have a father present.

This means that the probability of a household
being eligible within the selected areas in
Pontiac are:

p = .4 x .4 x .6 = .096

Therefore slightly under one in 10 households can
be used. Sticking with a skip interval of four
means one would cover an area of nearly 200
homes, (including those skipped) to obtain four
interviews. This is clearly impractical.

Source: Written communication from senior statistician of
research agency hired to conduct survey.

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