AN EXPLORATORY STUDY OF ATTITUDES TOWARD
CHILDREN EXPRESSED BY UNDERGRADUATE
TEACHER CANDIDATES

BY

Clyde M. Claycomb

AN ABSTRACT OF A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial.fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of Secondary Education and Curriculum
College of Education

1970

ABSTRACT
AN EXPLORATORY STUDY OF ATTITUDES TOWARD

CHILDREN EXPRESSED BY UNDERGRADUATE
TEACHER CANDIDATES

BY
Clyde M. Claycomb

The purposes of this investigation were: (1) to
determine whether there was a significant difference between
the eXpressed attitudes toward children of those indivi-
duals beginning professional education courses and those
individuals concluding the professional education sequence
and (2) to determine whether various demographic factors,
as defined by this study, were significantly related to
these attitudes.

The resolution of these objectives was sought by
administering and scoring the Minnesota Teacher Attitude
Inventory (MTAI) and administering and tabulating the infor-
mation on a demographic questionnaire.

The sample consisted of 290 teacher candidates at
Michigan State University. Of the 290 students who took
the MTAI and demographic questionnaire 279 completed both
forms satisfactorily. This yielded a return rate of 96.2
percent.

The independent variables in this study included:

extent of professional training, sex, grade level

Clyde M. Claycomb

preference, subject area competency, type of school (K-8

and K-12) in which educated, number of siblings, school loca-
tion preference and racial composition of school preference.
An individual's score on the MTAI served as the dependent
variable in every analysis. Mean scores on the MTAI were
computed for each level of all independent variables. A
multivariate analysis of variance test was then computed to
determine whether observed differences between means were
significant. If the results of the analysis of variance
showed statistical significance, a Scheffe' Post Hoc compari-
son was calculated to determine which of the means were
responsible for the statistical significance.

The analyses of the MTAI mean scores in relation to
the independent variables of personal demographic data and
level of professional training revealed six significant dif-
ferences in MTAI mean scores at the .05 level. Of the nine
variables tested the six significant variables were: (1)
level of professional training, (2) sex, (3) subject compe-
tency, (u) type of community raised until college, (5)
school location preference and (6) racial composition of
school preferred. The three independent variables which
were not statistically significant at the .05 level were:
(1) number of siblings, (2) type of school educated and
(3) grade level preference. Although grade level preference
did obtain a significance of .058 indicating that there is

some relationship between grade level preferred and one's

Clyde M. Claycomb

expressed attitudes toward children, the other two indepen-
dent variables did not appear to have any relationship to
one's expressed attitudes toward children.

In short, this study suggests that those individuals
who have the most positive attitudes toward children have
completed their professional education course sequence, are
female, have been raised in a suburban or urban setting,
prefer to teach in grades kindergarten through the third
grade, prefer to teach in the inner-city and prefer a school
composition of nearly equal or more "non-white" students

than "white" students.

AN EXPLORATORY STUDY OF ATTITUDES TOWARD
CHILDREN EXPRESSED BY UNDERGRADUATE
TEACHER CANDIDATES

By

Clyde M. Claycomb

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of Secondary Education and Curriculum
College of Education

1970

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The following acknowledgments approximate a who's
who of the past few years in my life. All of these people
have either directly or indirectly helped me to reach this
end. Many of these people have had a significant impact
on my intellectual, emotional and professional growth.

They have given unselfishly and generously of their time

and energy, while providing continuous encouragement. To
all of these people I wish to say most sincerely, "thank

you."

To my wife, Sharilee, I would like in this small
way to express my love and gratitude for her love, under-
standing, patience, encouragement, help and assistance dur—
ing the writing of this thesis and throughout our doctoral
program.

To my daughters, Kristin and Kimberly, who have given
me untold joy and happiness, I would like to thank them for
their patience and understanding, for their love and kind-
ness. But mostly, I would like their forgiveness for those
never-to-be-recaptured seconds, minutes and hours that
should have been ours together, but instead were spent on
a doctoral program.

To my father and mother, Mr. and Mrs. Dean A. Clay-

comb, and to my wife's parents, Mr. and Mrs. C. Donald Wardell,

ii

iii

I wish to communicate my gratitude for their encouragement,
faith and help, not only in this endeavor, but in life in
toto.

To my friend and chairman of my doctoral committee,
Dr. Dale V. Alam, I wish to convey my most sincere apprecia—
tion and gratitude for not only encouraging and challenging
me, but mostly for being such a "wonderful human being."

To my friend, junior author and guidance committee
member, Dr. Donald J. Freeman, I wish to convey my grati-
tude for being of invaluable assistance during the writing
of this thesis and for having enough faith to give me an
assistantship.

To my friend and guidance committee member, Dr. B.
T. Sandefur, I wish to express my appreciation for his
counsel, faith and for being my advisor for the cognate
area of my doctoral program.

To the remaining members of my guidance committee,
Dr. Troy Stearns and Dr. Louise Sause, I would like to
express my appreciation for their assistance during the
course of my doctoral program and for being members of my
guidance committee.

Appreciation is also extended to those individuals
and friends who have given of themselves for my benefit
either in the doctoral program or in the writing of this
thesis. Among those, special mention is given to the fol-
lowing: Dr. Clifford Bee for his assistance in helping me

receive an assistantship; K. Patrick Rode for his divine

iv

guidance, editoral and research assistance; Robert Wilson
for his statistical guidance and assistance; George w.
Churchill for his assistance regarding duplicative proce-
dures; and to Dr. Charles Blackman and Thomas Arch for
being good friends.

Finally special recognition and appreciation is
extended to Dr. Matthew A. Klein, not only for being a close
friend and colleague, but for being enough of a pain to be

responsible for a good deal of personal growth.

Chapter

I.

II.

III.

IV.

ANALYSIS OF DATA . . . . . . .

TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION. . . . . . . . . . . .

Purpose of the Study. . . . .
Questions . . . . . . . . . .
Clarification of Term Usage .
Limitations . . . . . .
Organization of the Study . .

REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE. . . . . .

Introduction. . . . . . . . . . .
Attitude Definition and Theories.
Attitude Change . . . . . . . . .
Desirable Teacher Behavior. . . .
Teacher Social Class Attitude in

Relation to the DisadVantaged .
Teacher Attitudes in Relation to

Effectiveness . . . . . . . . .
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . .

THE RESEARCH METHODOLOGY. . . . . .

Introduction. . . . .
The Population. . . .
The Instruments . . .
The Procedure . . . .

Question I. .
Question III.
Question II .
Sub-Question
Sub-Question
Sub-Question
Sub-Question
Sub-Question
Sub-Question
Sub-Question
Sub-Question

<m~aown#fiphaw

Chapter

vi

V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS. . . .

Summary and Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . .
Recommendations from the Study. . . . . . . .
Recommendations for Future Research . . . . .

BIBLIOGRAPHY .

APPENDICES .

Appendix
Appendix
Appendix
Appendix

Cover Letter. . . . . . . . . . . . .
Minnesota Teacher Attitude Inventory.
MTAI Score Sheet. . . . . . . . . . .
Questionnaire . . . . . . . . . . . .

page
78
78
88
89

95
96
97
98

Table
h.l
u.2
u.3
u.u
u.s

h.6
h.7

h.8
h.9

u.1o

h.lOA

h.ll

h.llA

h.12

h.13

u.13A
n.1u
n.1uA

LIST OF TABLES

Mean and Standard Deviations for Group Effect. .

(One-way) ANOVA Table for Group Effect
Mean and Cell Frequency Table for Sex, ,
ANOVA Table for Sex 0 o o o o o o o o a

Mean and 0611 Frequency Table for Number
of SiblingS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

ANOVA Table for Number of Siblings , . . .

Mean and Cell Frequency for Subject
Competency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

ANOVA Table for Subject Competency . . . .

Scheffe’ Post Hoc Comparison for Subject
competency o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 0

Mean and Cell Frequency--Type Community
Raised Until 10 Years Old. . . . . . . .

Type Community Raised Until College. . .

ANOVA Table for Type Community Raised
Until 10 Years Old . . . . . . . . . . .

ANOVA Table for Type Community Raised
until 0011686. 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O

Scheffe' Post Hoc Comparison for Community
Raised until College . . . . . . . . . .

Mean and Cell Frequency--Type of School
Educated (K- 8) . . . . . . . . . . .

Type of School Educated (K-12) . . . . . .

ANOVA Table for Type of School Educated (K-8). .

ANOVA Table for Type of School Educated (K-12)

vii

Page
53
SA
55

. 56

S7

. S7

59

. 6O

. 6O

63
63

6h

6h

65

67
67
68
68

Table

h-lS

u.l6
h-lV

n.18
n.19

h.20

n.21
4.22

viii

Mean and Cell Frequency—-Grade Level
Preference O O I I O O I O O O O O O O O 0

ANOVA Table for Grade Level Preference . . .

Mean and Cell Frequency-~School Location
Preference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

ANOVA Table for School Location Preference .

Scheffe' Post Hoc Comparison for School
Location . O . C . . . . . . . . C C C C 0

Mean and Cell Frequency for Racial
Composition of School. . . . . . . . . . .

ANOVA Table for Racial Composition of School

Scheffe' Post Hoc Comparison for Racial
Composition of School. . . . . . . . . . .

Page

70
7O

71
72

72

75
76

76

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

It is not by chance that schools look as they do
today. With society undergoing such fundamental social
changes that it is appropriate to use the term social
"revolution." Changes in schools and attitudes toward
schools are undergoing such minute changes that the label
"conservative" may be generous. Consider, for example, the
continued stress on age as the determiner of educational
policy. Almost without exception, individual differences
among students of a given age, are virtually ignored. In
short, schools seem more concerned with mass production than
with the development of unique human potential.

“As Gardner1

suggests, if schools are going to be
more attuned to major social changes, attention must be given
to problems of attitude and attitude change. Central to
this concern must be the effect of teacher attitudes on
children.)

Arthur Combs states that some of the improvements
in learning environment can be accomplished by spending

money, building better schools, introducing new equipment

and standards and adding courses of study. However, he

 

1J. W. Gardner, Self-Renewal: The Individual and the
Innovative Society. New York: Harper and Row{_1963, p. 15.

 

1

maintains that the really important changes will occur only
as teachers change, for institutions are made up of people
and it is the behavior of teachers in the classrooms that
will finally determine whether our schools meet or fail to
meet the challenge of our times.2
Bayham reinforces Combs' contention that "whatever
changes and improvements in curriculum and methods are
launched, the crucial factor appears to be the teacher's
attitude. Teacher expectation, in itself, can have a surpris-
ing effect on pupils' achievement, and the teacher who expects
achievement and who has faith in the educability of his pupils
convoys this hope through every nuance of his behavior."3
Attitudes of teachers and those planning to become
teachers take on ever-increasing meaning with today's out-
cries from a racist society (where 35 million adults never
completed the eighth grade and another 11.5 million have no
schooling at allu) that our schools are inadequate and the
school curriculum is irrelevant. When one realizes that
nearly all of the federally funded compensatory education
programs have chosen to rectify iniquities in the above-

mentioned non-human variables, one begins to question whether

 

2Arthur Combs, The Professional Education of Teachers,
New York: Allyn & Bacon, 1965, p. S.

3Dorsey Bayham, "The Great Cities Projects," Stir-
rings in the Big Cities: The Great Cities Projects, Ford
Foundation Reprintfifrom the N.E.A. Journals, V6l.Ҥ2, No. A,
April 1963.

”U.S. Bureau of the Census, U.S. Census of Popula-
tion 1960, Subject Reports, Education Attainment Final
Re ort, PC (2) SB, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washing-
ton, D.C. A 63, p. hl.

 

change is a goal of government. Consider that the attributes
of school facilities and curriculum practices account for

far less variation in achievement of minority group children
(than do the attributes of other students) and slightly less
than the attributed of staff, including teachers.5 There-
fore, one must conclude that the composition of student popu-
lation in the school environment makes the most difference

in a student's intellectual development.

Consider that federally funded compensatory pro-
grams seem to focus upon improvements in areas (school
facilities and curriculum practices) that have been found
less highly significant to student achievement. This gives
added impetus to the desirability of studying school popula-
tion and personnel attitudes. But school population is
mostly a geographic problem whereas personnel attitudes
are problems in the educational domain. Being in the edu-
cational arena, attitude change could get immediate atten-
tion from teacher education curricula.

It is in this area of teacher attitude toward learn—
ing and even more significantly, attitudes toward children
that educational institutions must begin to focus. This
focus should begin with an assessment of where we are today;
in order to provide teacher education programs which will
move toward developing teachers whose primary goals will be

helping students to realize self-actualization, cultural

 

5James 8. Coleman, Equality of Educational Oppor-
tunity, A Publication of the National Center for Education
Statistics, Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office,
Catalogue No. FS S.238:38001, 1966, p. 302.

u

change and continuing education. This represents a shift
from the present purposes teachers fulfill in school; that
it, perpetuation of customs, attitudes and practices of the
adult generation, which are a socialization and incultura-
tion process.

This study will attempt to assess the attitudes of
students now taking courses at Michigan State University in
the College of Education. There will be no attempt to
include a selected sample from practicing teachers in the
schools. This is because the educational focus must be on
those people who are attempting to learn and understand and

are within the reach of educational programs.

Purpose of the Study

 

This study will attempt to assess, by means of the
MTAI, the positiveness of those attitudes toward children
expressed by undergraduate teacher candidates at Michigan
State University. The students to be tested will consist of
two undergraduate groups: one group will include those stu-
dents who are beginning their professional education course
work, the other group will include those students completing
their professional education course work. The main objectives
of the study are: first, to describe the attitudes toward
children of the two groups being sampled; second, to deter-
mine whether there are any relationships between the demo—
graphic factors as defined by this study and expressed
attitudes toward children; third, to make comparisons of

the two groups expressed attitudes toward children.

Questions

 

In order to realize the purpose of this study,
answers to the following questions will be sought. The
purpose of these questions will be to provide a general

framework upon which this study is based.

I. What are the expressed attitudes toward children
of undergraduate teacher candidates at the time they begin
their professional education courses and as they finish the
professional sequence.

II. What interrelations exist between the demographic
data as defined by this study and the expressed attitudes
toward children of the two groups sampled?

Sub-Question 1: Is there any relationship between
one‘s sex and his expressed attitudes toward children?

Sub-Question 2: Is there any relationship between
the number of siblings in one's family and his expressed
attitudes toward children?

Sub-Question 3: Is there any relationship between
one's teaching area competence and his expressed attitudes
toward children?

Sub-Question A: Is there any relationship between
the type of community one was raised in and his expressed
attitudes toward children?

Sub-Question 5: Is there any relationship between
the type of school in which one was educated and his

expressed attitude toward children?

Sub-Question 6: Is there any relationship between
one's teaching preference (grade level) and one's expressed
attitude toward children?

Sub-Question 7: Is there any relationship between
one's teaching preference (school location) and one's
expressed attitude toward children?

Sub-Question 8: Is there any relationship between
one's teaching preference (racial composition of school)
and one's expressed attitudes toward children?

III. What differences, if any, exist between the
expressed attitudes toward children of the group starting
their professional educational courses and the group finish-

ing their professional education courses?

Clarification of Term Usage
For purposes of clarity, terms which are frequently

used throughout this report will be referred to as follows:

1. Minnesota Teacher Attitude Inventory may be
referred to as the M.T.A.I.

2. Attitudes as used in this report will be those
which are measured on the Minnesota Teacher Attitude Inven-
tory. It will be assumed that attitudes are always atti-
tudes toward children unless otherwise specified.

3. College education students or college students
may be referred to as students and are assumed to be those

in the College of Education, unless otherwise specified.

Limitations

 

This investigation of attitudes has the common pro-
blems that all investigations of attitudes have, that is, the
problems of making judgments and classifying attitudes.

This is further complicated by the use of paper and pencil

6 Another

as a means to communicate and measure attitudes.
common problem in any investigation is the difficulty of
getting complete cooperation of the respondents. This lack
of cooperation includes such characteristics as the respon-
dent's vested interest, their interest in the study, and the
accuracy of their replies.

A specific limitation in the investigation is making
comparisons across the groups sampled without controlling
such intervening variables as: variability of individual
experiences, a changing society, values, interactions and
communication contaminates. Another specific limitation in
making comparisons across groups is the limitation of a cross-
sectional study versus a longitudinal study, making it nearly
impossible to judge if a group has, in fact, changed its
attitudes toward children. It is possible that any dif-
ferences observed across groups could be attributed to dif-

ferent group entering characteristics or that outside forces

have caused the attitude change.

 

6J. W. Getzels and P. W. Jackson, "The Minnesota
Teacher Attitude Inventory, pp. 508-522. In Handbook 3?
Research on TeaEhing, Edited by N. L. Gage, Chicago, Ill:
Rand McNally Co., 1963, p. 13. ‘

 

 

Organization of the Study

 

Chapter I. Introduction

In Chapter One the introduction to and purpose of
the investigation, questions to be answered by the study,
clarification of term usage, limitation of the study and

organization of the study are included.

Chapter II. Review of Related Research and Literature

In Chapter Two the literature related to this study
is reviewed. In addition, research which is relevant to the
purpose of this study or has a bearing on the study is

reported.

Chapter III. The Research Procedure
In Chapter Three the research design, description of
the questionnaire and description of the analysis process is

reported.

Chapter IV. Analysis of Data and Findings
In Chapter Four the setting of the study, sample
population, correlation analysis and statistical tests are

reported.

Chapter V. Summary, Conclusions and Recommendations
In Chapter Five, the summary, synopsis of the pro-

blems, conclusions and recommendations are presented.

CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

This chapter proposes to review the pertinent litera-
ture which is significant to the investigation of attitudes
in accordance with the purposes of this study. In no way
should this review be seen as a summation in toto, for there
are voluminous studies related to attitudes.

For organizational purposes, the chapter is cate-
gorized into seven divisions. The seven divisions are as
follows: Introduction, Attitude Definition and Theories,
'Attitude Change, Desirable Teacher Behavior, Teacher Social
Class Attitude in Relation to the Disadvantaged, Teacher

Attitudes in Relation to Effectiveness and the Summary.

Introduction

 

For overwhelmingly it has been our failure to
invest in people....whether the problem be that of
a burgeoning population and of space in which to
live with peace and grace, or whether it be the
depletion of the materials which nature has stocked
in the earth's crust and which have been drawn upon
more heavily in this century than in all previous
time together, or whether it be that of occupying
minds no longer committed to the stock piling of
consumer goods, the basic demand on America will be
on its resources of ability, intelligence, a d edu-
cation....Education is in the public domain.

 

7J. K. Galbraith, The Affluent Society, New York:
Mentor Books, 1958, p. 27h.

10

Throughout the nation, school systems have developed
elementary and secondary curricula which appear to work
relatively well for a sizable proportion of the students.
Most of the entering students are able to complete these
programs successfully, if financial and other obstacles do
not loom too large. Educational programs are increasingly
the determiners of status and economic opportunity, and com-
pletion of a secondary education has become the minimal
requirement for successful entry into the larger society.
Especially in highly developed nations, the individual who
is not able to complete school is denied admission to an
ever-enlarging section of the occupational system. For as
a society becomes more highly developed, it increasingly
depends on certification and accreditation as admission
criteria to the occupational system. This, then, negates
the benefits to be gained from cultural change and curtails
new orientation in teaching programs.

Bloom outlines far-reaching social changes which will
require a new conception of the tasks of schools, new orienta-
tion in teaching programs and new views about the roles of
the participants:

First, a rapidly developing, complex, urban, indus-
trial society requires that functioning members of this
society be highly literate, responsive to rapid changes in
every area of life and work. This also requires that they
be able to learn and re-learn complex ideas and skills as
minimal conditions for economic security, social maturity

and independence.

11

Second, raising the levels of aspiration of indi-
viduals and groups that have long been submerged or placed
in marginal positions.

Third, increasing the responsiveness of government
to the needs and pressures of individuals as well as sub-
groups in the population.

Fourth, raising the level of affluence which would
make further material goals for many individuals somewhat
subordinate to other goals such as security and interper-
sonal relations.8

These concepts for social change are some of the
major controversies confronting college faculties today.
Other controversies in teacher education center around the
question of whether there are any common criteria by which a
teacher can be judged as effective in the school classroom.
There does appear to be nearly common agreement among educa-
tors that harmonious interpersonal relationships are of pri-
mary importance to significant learning in the classroom,
and that the teacher is primarily responsible for the crea-
tion of these relationships. It would then seem feasible to
state that the capacity to develop harmonious relationships
in the classroom could be considered one of the essential
criteria for determining the effectiveness of classroom
teachers as they endeavor to create conditions for signi-

ficant learning in their respective classrooms.

 

8B. S. Bloom, A. Davis and R. Hess, Compensatory Edu—
cation is Cultural Deprivation, New York: HoIt, Rinehart and
Winston, Inc., 1965, pp. I—2.

 

12

The behavioral changes which take place in students
now, due to their classroom experiences, may affect the stu-
dents throughout their total existence. These learning
experiences and behavioral changes are related to the teacher
and his personal characteristics, including his attitudes
toward youth.

One of the vital components of teacher-pupil relation-
ships that is in need of further study is that of teacher
attitudes toward youth. The attitudes of teachers appear to
predispose teacher behavioral patterns that are contributory
toward the establishment of wholesome teacher-pupil relation-
ships, thereby leading to potentially more effective teaching
and more significant learning. Cook has said that while the
difference between teachers cannot be explained wholly in
terms of attitudes toward youth, attitudes are the result of
the interaction of many factors, and therefore they give an
indication of the type of social atmosphere that will be found
in that teacher's classroom.9

Within recent years the effectiveness of teacher edu—
cation has been frequently questioned by persons within and
outside the teaching profession. It is held that officials
of teacher education departments are seldom able to defend
their programs with anything more than mere opinions, impres-

lO

sions, estimates and guesses. Research conducted by

 

9W. W. Cook, C. H. Leeds and Robert Callis, Minnesota
Teacher Attitude Inventory, Manual, pp. 3-h.

 

10James D. Koerner, The Miseducation of American
Teachers, Boston: Houghton-MifflIn Company, 1963.

 

13

Miller11

indicates that few colleges have informal, let
alone formal, channels for identifying and screening even
those students classable as poor risks before they become
teachers. It is tragic and wasteful for such a student to
spend his and others' time until the last year of college,
then to be told that he will not be recommended for a teach-
ing position, or that he will not be permitted to finish
his college work. It is worse and more tragic for college
officials to allow him to slip by, to enter the profession
and add to the number of unhappy and unfit teachers.
However, our teacher education institutions are
being asked to produce teachers who are well educated aca-
demically and professionally, who are socially mature,
emotionally stable and who have a deep understanding of the
nature of youth. Thus, augmented demands placed on our
public schools during the past few years have placed in-
creased obligations on teacher education institutions to
develop teachers with better attitudes toward youth than

ever before.

Attitude Definition and Theories
In 1933 Droba12 found that 86 percent of the writers
of texts on social psychology up to that time had employed

the term "attitude" in their works. Giddings apparently was

 

11Lebern N. Miller, "Evaluating Teaching Personality
Before Student Teaching Begins," Journal of Educational
Research, Vol. 56, No. 7, Mar. 1963, pp. 3824385}

 

12D. D. Droba, "The Nature of Attitude," Journal of
Social Psychology, Vol. h, November, 1933, p. 35.

 

1h

Lhu first to use the term in his Principles of Sociology

 

published in 1896. Judd made use of it next, in a work pub-
lished in 1907; then Munsterberg, who used the term in 1917;
finally Warren employed it in 1919. Thus the term is compara~
tively recent in so far as its use in textbooks is concerned.

The authors who have written in the field of attitude
vary in their theories about it. Some have implied that
attitude is but a hypothetical phenomena with varying degrees
of importance. However, Droba13 implied that attitudes are
no more hypothetical than any other psychological phenomena,
such as intelligence, mechanical ability or musical ability.
In fact, he contended that attitudes can be made tangible
through certain indicators, such as statements that are
accurate enough for the purpose of measurement. Droba
divided the authors on attitude into three group types,
including (1) those who give no definition of what they mean
by attitude, (2) those who give a tentative working defini-
tion in relationship to a particular research in which they
are engaged, and (3) those who give a more elaborate defini-
tion in relation to a theoretical discussion.

Among those who have given an elaborate definition
of attitudes in relation to a theoretical discussion, there
seem to be two positions: those who are associated with the
behavioristic school of psychology perceive an attitude as

the manifestation of behavior, while the other position

 

13Ib1d., p. nun.

15

contends that an attitude is a predisposition to action
toward some object.

Those writers disposed toward the behavior theory
type maintain that an attitude is not a state of preparation
in the individual but is the behavior itself. This theory,
states that the content of an attitude represents the to-
tality of certain types of conduct with respect to a particu-
lar object. In this group, BainlLL states that an attitude
is the comparatively stable manifest behavior of an indi-
vidual effecting his status. Others have also expressed
the opinion that attitudes are concerned with doing, with
reactions rather than with anything else. However, they
recognized that "verbal attitudes" are of special value in
a democratic community where the common conduct comes from
the verbally expressed desires of the people.

Of those writers who have defined attitude as a
general preparation to action, Lundberg15 states that an
attitude indicates the general predisposition of the organism
toward an attitude object. It is a composite of all the
neural and other psychological sets of the organism toward
an attitude object. Cantrill16 contributed to the theory of
attitudes the idea that attitudes are general rather than

specific.

 

1”Read Bain, "An Attitude on Attitude Research,"
American Journal of Sociology, 33: 950, May 1928.

 

15G. A. Lundberg, Social Research: A Study in Methods
of Gathering Data, New York: Greenwood Press, 1968, p. 198.

 

16H. Cantrill, "General and Specific Attitudes,"
Psychological Monograph, 1932, Vol. A2, No. 192, pp. 109.

16

Further, Doobfl17 asserts that an attitude is an anti—
cipatory and mediating response brought about by a variety
of stimulus patterns, which is felt to be socially signifi—

t18 refers to atti-

cant in the individual‘s world. Allpor
tude as a state of readiness which exerts a directive
influence upon an individual's response to related objects
and situations.

The common thread of thought in each of the above
definitions is that attitude is a consistency of response
to specific stimuli or social objects.19 Further, each
definition implies a consistency or predictability of
responses.20 Finally, it should be noted that the vast

majority of authors favor this conception of an attitude

over the behaviorists position.

Attitude Change

 

a
fi
0f parallel importance to the study of attitudes is
the problem of attitude change and a reasonable measure of

significant change or consistent shifts of response. Hoover

 

l7Leonard William Doob, Public Opinion and Propa-
ganda, Hamden Conn.: Anchor Books, 1966.

 

186. W. Allport, "Attitudes," A Handbook of Social
Psychology, Cambridge, Mass.: Addison—Wesley, l95h, pp. 798-

 

198. F. Green, "Attitude Measurement," in G. Lindsey
(ed.), Handbook of Social Psychology, Cambridge, Mass,: Addi-
son-WesIey, l95h, pp. 335-369.

2OIbid., p. 336.

17

and Schutzel maintain that building and altering attitudes
has been and remains one of the basic objectives of formal
education._ It is therefore important to know how reliable
any shift in attitude response is??2 Studies of attitude
change have been conducted in several areas including impact
of cognitive input, group pressures and various direct
manipulations.

For many years it was assumed that cognitive changes
brought about affective changes as well. However, research
apparently fails to support this assumption. The Jacob
report23 and Lagey study2)4 have indicated that college stu-
dents are little affected by any one or a series of courses
designed to bring about significant attitude changes.
Costin,2S on the other hand, demonstrated that the students
of a child psychology class became significantly more per-
missive in their attitudes toward children after exposure to
the course content than before exposure. Scholastic achieve-

ment was shown to be unrelated to this change and a control

 

21Kenneth H. Hoover and Richard E. Schutz, "Student
Attitude Change in an Introductory Education Course," The
Journal of Education Research, Vol. 61, No. 7, March 1968,
pp. 300-303.

22Green, op. cit., pp. 335-369.

23Philip E. Jacob, Changing Values in College, New
York: Harper and Row, 1957.

21*Joseph C. Lagey, "Does Teaching Change Students'
Attitudes?" Journal of Educational Research, Vol. 50, Dec.
1956. PP- 307F311-

25Frank Costin, "The Effect of Child Psychology on
Attitudes Toward Parent-Child Relationships," Journal of
Educational Psychology, Vol. h9, Feb. 1958, pp. 37LR1.

 

 

18

group of students in a sociology class did not reveal sig-
nificant changes in their attitudes toward children. The
indications are, however, that significant results in the
latter type of studies are not common, i.e., the assumption
that the academic approach to attitude change is sufficient
lacks substantiation. Value-laden approaches to attitude
change are more consistently effective in their results.

The influence of group pressure on individual atti-
tude change has particular relevance to the college setting
for two reasons: (1) classroom instruction is directed
toward groups of students, and group interaction is often
encouraged (2) a wide variety of group activity is an inher-
ent function of the educational process. Studies investiga—
ting the conditions under which attitude change is fostered
through groupexperience offer a few specific insights into
the general process of formal education. Newcomb and others26
partly supported the hypothesis that the increased salience
(awareness) of a membership group will change a member's
attitude in the direction of that group's norm as opposed
to the norms of other groups in which he may be a member.

A questionnaire revealed that an experimental group of Roman
Catholic students in which salience was increased, more
closely approximated the orthodox Catholic belief than did
either of two control groups of Catholic students. No sig-

nificant differences appeared among these groups on items

 

26T. M. Newcomb, E. E. Macoby, and E. L. Hartly,
Editors, Readings in Social Psycholo , Third Edition, New
York: Henry Holtfland Co.,71958, pp. -183.

 

19

of the questionnaire which were irrelevant to the Catholic
belief.

Katz, Sarnoff and McClintock27 have investigated
attitude change based on the theory that attitudes are highly
susceptible to change provided that such change does not pre-
sent a threat to the basic values of personality structure
for the individual. Their study contrasted two approaches
to attitude change. The first approach, interpretive (or
ego-defense) is that the attitude would be changed according
to the insight the individual gained into them. The second
approach, informative (or rational) provides that attitudes
would be changed by presenting logical information in con-
trast to the attitude. They found that the attitude change
among the groups of students studied was greater for those
groups structured on the ego-defense approach rather than
for those groups characterized by the rational approach.
Although the difference between these two groups was not sta-
tistically significant for the immediate post—test, it was
significant (.05 level) six weeks later indicating that
changes in attitudes through ego-defense interpretation
have a more lasting effect. If ego-defense is a pervasive
quality of adjustment which is derived from a manifest value
structure, the presence of value conflict would negate atti—

tude change and its absence should facilitate it.

 

27Daniel Katz and others, "Ego-Defense and Attitude
Change," Human Relations, Vol. 9, 1956, pp. 27-hh.

20

The Brim28 study focuses on the probable events or
experiences which could foster attitude change. He admin-
istered a pre-test and post-test at the beginning and end of
the quarter. After checking for significance between the
pro-test and post-test he concluded that any difference was
due to a change in attitude during that quarter. He then
interviewed those students which showed the greatest dif-
ference in their pre-test and post-test. The interview
focused on the students perception of the cause for their
attitude change. After analyzing the student perceptions,
Brim concluded that actual laboratory experience (observing
and assisting in public school classrooms) is the most effec-
tive in changing attitudes. And that students perceived the
methods of instructors to be almost as effective in producing
changes in attitudes as were laboratory experiences. The
instructor's method implied broad philosophical beliefs which
had a definite bearing upon student thought. The techniques
specifically mentioned were the following: (1) use of the
psychological principle of reinforcement, (2) the presenta-
tion of highly controversial ideas, (3) continuously present-
ing provocative questions, (A) citing examples to clearly
illustrate points, (5) showing great energy and enthusiasm
for teaching, (6) presenting students with opportunities to

draw their own conclusions (allowing much freedom), (7)

 

28Burl J. Brim, "Attitude Changes in Teacher Educa-
tion Students," Journal of Educational Research, Vol. 39,

No. 10, 1966, ppJ‘uul-uus.

 

21

articulating lectures with the textbook and (8) making
inferences through side comments.29

Lehmann, Sinha and Hartnett3O studied attitude change
by investigating the relationship between amount of college
education and changes in attitudes of stereotyping and dog—
matism, in traditional-value orientation and in certain
selected attitudes and views related to higher education.
The major findings of this study include: (1) that regard-
less of sex and amount of college education, all groups
tended to become less stereotypic in their beliefs, less
dogmatic and more receptive to new ideas,31 (2) female seniors
changed significantly more in their receptivity to new ideas
(lessened dogmatism) than did their male counterparts between
1958 and 1962. But, both male and female seniors became less
stereotypic in their beliefs, less authoritarian, and more
flexible between their freshman and senior years,32 (3)
various male groups did change significantly, but those
experiences that had an impact upon them differed from
those that influenced female personality development. This

might suggest that college administrators attempt to

 

29Brim, op. cit., p. huh.

3OIrvin J. Lehmann, Birendra K. Sinha and Rodney T.
Hartnett, "Changes in Attitudes and Values Associated with
College Attendance," Journal of Educational Psychology, Vol.
57, No. 2, 1966, pp. 89-98.

31Lehmann, op. cit., p. 95.
32Ibid., p. 96.

22

capitalize on the experiences unique to each sex rather than
attempt to apply the same prescription to all.33

This study further illustrates that the magnitude of
change in certain beliefs, ideals, interests and attitudes
certainly leaves much to be desired in terms of the professed
aims and objectives of colleges and universities.31L

Although attitudes and values are instilled early in
life and are most easily modifiable in infancy and adolescence
it is readily evident that changes do take place during ones
college years.35 It is therefore imperative that our colleges
and universities recognize these facts and discard the notion
that behavior characteristics are not their concern because
it is too late to do anything about them. Just as the myth
that intellectual development ceases after a certain age has
been refuted, the notion that personality change is not
possible for college students should be discarded. However,
a college education, per se, is not instrumental in bringing
about these changes, although college attendance might facili-
tate this development. Therefore, college faculties and
administrators must realize that they are not necessarily
providing a unique experience for their students, but that
maturation and social environment might have more impact upon
personality development than courses and formal academic

36

experiences.

 

33Ibid., p. 97. 3”Ibid., p. 96.

3SIbid., p. 97. 361bid., p. 97.

23

Desirable Teacher Behavior

 

The teacher's behavior is a reference point for the
student and provides a basis for motivation in learning and
for assessing progress in learning. If teachers have con-
flicting attitudes toward the students, such conflicts will
influence their behavior.

In his review of research studies on desirable
behaviors of the teacher, Gage37 points to five dimensions
of teacher behavior (or characteristics of behavior) as
"desirable" on the basis of correlational outcomes or experi-
mental evidence of their relationships with desirable out—
comes or aspects of teaching: "warmth, cognitive organiza-
tion, indirectness, orderliness and ability to solve instruc-
tional problems."

Warmth, as the first characteristic of desirable
teacher behavior, is described as the tendency of the teacher
to be approving, provide emotional support, express a sympa-
thetic attitude and to accept the feelings of pupils. Stu-

dies by Cogan38

suggest that warm teachers score high on the
Minnesota Teacher Attitude Inventory, score at the non-

authoritarian end of the California F. Scale, express an

 

accepting feeling when their verbal behavior is studied

 

37N. L. Gage, Desirable Behaviors of Teachers, in M.
Usdan and E. F. Bertolaet, Editors, Teachers for the Disad-
vantaged, Chicago: Follett Publishing Co., 1966, pp.IH-lO.

 

38M. L. Cogan, The Behavior of Teachers and the Pro-
duction Behavior of Their Pupils: L. "Perception" analysis;
II. "Trait" analysis, Journal of Experimental Education,
1958, Vol. 27, pp. 89-IO5, I074I2u.

 

2h

using the Flanders Categories for Interaction Analysis, and

 

have a high degree of respect and sensitivity for the goals,

interests and abilities of their students as shown on Ryan's

39

Teacher Characteristics Schedule. Heider, suggests that

 

our tendencies toward consistency and homogeneity in ideas—-
i.e., toward cognitive balance--push us toward liking someone
whom we perceive as liking us. Students realize that the
warm teacher likes them and they tend to like him in return.
And when they like him, they tend to identify with him, to
adopt his values more readily and even to learn subject
matter from him more effectively.

Cognitive organization, as the second characteristic
of desirable teacher behavior, aims to have students acquire
understanding or meaningful learning, rather than mere rote
knowledge. The student should possess and exhibit the kind
of intellectual grasp of his subject matter that Gage calls
cognitive organization.)+0 Much of the research on these
variables has not, however, been concerned with teacher
behavior. Rather, it has dealt with learning materials
given to students. It is possible to make inferences about
desirable teacher behavior from such research. Although
disagreements still exist as to the reasons for the findings
and as to the nature of "meaningfulness" and "organization,"

the broad propositions concerning the value of these factors

 

39F. Heider, The Psychology of Interpersonal Rela—
tions, New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1958, pp. l7h-217.

uOGage, op. cit.

 

25

in learning are strongly established. Katona,)+1 Brownell
and Moser,”2 and Ausubel,)+3 among many others, have docu-
mented the great importance of clear, logical and integrated
organizations of ideas to the learning, retention and trans-
fer of these ideas.

According to Ausubel,uu "the art and science of pre
senting ideas and information meaningfully and effectively--
so that clear, stable and unambiguous meanings emerge and
are retained over a long period of time as an organized body
of knowledge is the principal function of pedagogy."

Indirectness, as a third desirable teacher behavior,
is a realization that it is not necessarily most effective
merely to tell a student what you want him to know and under-
stand but that it is sometimes better to let the student
become active, seek for himself, participate in the interplay
of ideas and make some "provisional tries." Indirectness
in teaching represents a willingness to forbear furnishing
the pupil with everything he needs to know. The idea of
teaching concepts and generalizations by structuring oppor-

tunities for students to discover underlying principles for

 

“1E. Katona, Organizin and Memorizing, New York:
Columbia University Press, 1 .

 

82W. A. Brownell, and H. E. Moser, Meaningful ver—
sus Mechanical Learnigg: A Study in Grade III Subtraction,
Duke University Research Studiesgin Education, I9h9, No. 8.

 

 

83D. P. Ausubel, The Psychology of Meaningful Ver-
bal Learning: An Introduction to School Learning, New York:
Grune ET Stfatton, 1963.

 

h4161d., p. 19.

26

themselves and by giving less direct guidance is also related
to the present concept of indirectness.

Flanders)"LS found that indirectness in teachers coin-
cided with greater achievement on the part of their students.
Teachers of students who learned less more often employed a
pattern of direct influence in such a situation. The study
of seventy-five urban junior high school mathematics, Eng-
lish and social studies teachers has the following implica-
tions for the classroom teacher:

Our theory predicts higher achievement and less
dependence when goals are clarified by an indirect
approach.... An indirect approach stimulated verbal
participation by students and discloses to the teacher
students' perceptions of the situation.... A direct
approach increases student compliance to teacher
opinion and direction.

Ausubelué concluded from his review of the experiments

on learning by discovery that:

Our theory suggests an indirect approach; most
teachers use a direct approach.

Orderliness, as the fourth characteristics of desir-
able teacher behavior, is the teacher's tendency to be sys-
tematic and methodical in his self-management. In part, it
consists of teacher effectiveness in classroom management.

Ability to solve instructional problems, as the fifth
characteristic of desirable teacher behavior, is defined by

Gage”? as the teacher's ability to solve problems unique to

 

uSN. A. Flanders, Teacher Influence, Pupil Attitudes
and Achievement, Washington, D.C.: FU.S. Department of
Health,Education and Welfare, 1965, p. 116.

uéAusubel, op. cit., p. 171.
u7Gage, op. cit.

27

his work in a particular subdivision of the profession.
Although some are making an effort to refine and extend
this approach, results thus far seem adequate to support an
altogether plausible proposition that good teachers possess
ability to solve technical problems in instruction.

In studies of teaching arithmetic with teachers and
non-teachers it was reported:

....problems showed some power to differentiate among
teachers of varying training and experience...(and)
teachers who were rated by supervisors significantly
above average in skill in teaching arithmetic had sig-
nificantly higher mean problem-solving scores than those
taught by high—scoring, problem-solving teachers
achieved significfigtly more than pupils taught by low—
scoring teachers.

In addition to the factors listed by Gage, commit—
ment to the teaching profession also appears to be an essen-
tial attribute desired in teachers. Those described as
committed have, through some conscious or subconscious choice,
willingly become deeply involved in the educational cause.
Regardless of the manner in which the attribute was acquired,
the behavioral evidences of the values, attitudes and ideals
of the teacher appear to be demonstrations of the degree to
which he is committed to teaching.

Wiemanu'9 expresses as a requirement the practice of

personal commitment by which the self is unified and one's

 

hBN. A. Fattu, "Exploration of Interactions Among
Instruction, Content, and Aptitude Variables," Journal of
Teacher Education, 1963, Vol. 1h, pp. 2h5-2h6.

 

99H. N. Wieman, Man's Ultimate Commitment, Carbon-
dale, 111.: Southern Illinois University Press,71958, pp.

28
resources are most fully brought into action. Personal

commitment is defined:

Commitment to this end first of all assumes the
form of a chosen vocation. That means to seek out
a kind of work which has a dual fitness. 0n the
one hand it is a kind of work which enables one to
exercise all his powers to the maximum in the doing
of it. On the other hand it is a kind of work which
enables one to give his strength to providing some
of the conditions required for the creative trans—
formation of man.

In describing the role of commitment in learning,
HansonSO recognizes determination and diligence as the com-
ponents of commitment. The healthy committed learner can be
described as having these characteristics:

1. He exhibits a quality of intelligence which takes

careful forethought of ends and consequences: He
can tell you where he is going.

a.)

. He reveals a high quality of intellectual inte-
grity: He is genuinely oriented to the task.

3. He is anxious to escape the limitations imposed
by his own biases and to shift his perspective
in order to achieve his purposes.

A. He is anxious to test out his ideas and to act
upon them.

5. He is willing to stand up and be counted for that
which he thinks to be right and true. He has the
courage of his convictions.

Hanson concludes that commitment is more than an ingredient

of good learning; it is the core of good character.

Teacher Social Class Attitude in
Relation to_the Disadvantaged

How the pattern of behavior of the teacher is deter-

mined by his social class affiliation has long been a matter

 

50J. E. Hanson, "The Role of Commitment in Learning,"
Educational Leadership, 1955, Vol. 13, pp. 1h2-lh6.

29

of interest to sociologists social psychologists and scho-
lars concerned with the American education system. The
interest in this problem stems from the possibility that
teachers who represent a particular social stratum in our
society will communicate more effectively with students who
come from similar social strata. If social background influ-
ences teacher behavior, we can assume that middle-class
influences will predominate. Wallen and Travers51 point

out that it is not clear whether teachers reflect the social
mores and behavior patterns of the class from which they come
or the class with which they are identified by those who see
them in the community. At least some evidence indicates that
teachers themselves tend to identify with the new social class
in which their training and occupation place them. This was
illustrated by Becker52 who found that teachers in Chicago
tended to seek transfers from schools attended by pupils from
lower-class homes and into schools attended by upper-middle
class children. Another possible explanation of this finding
is that teachers may seek out students who belong in the

same general intelligence grouping as they do. Yet another
possibility is that teachers who are upwardly socially mobile
wish to teach upper-middle-class children in order to establish

themselves more securely at their own level of aspiration.

 

51N. E. Wallen and R. W. Travers, Analysis and Investi-
gation of Teaching Methods, In N. L. Gage (ed.) Handbook of
Research on Teaching, Chicago: Rand McNally and Company,’1963,
PP- 9&34505-

52H. S. Becker, Personal Change in Adult Life,
Sociometry, l96h, Vol. 27, pp.VEO-53.

 

 

3O

Bettelheim53 stated that:

...middle class teachers, despite their desire to
be helpful to the culturally deprived child, and despite
their best intentions, often get bogged down because
they cannot transcend their own value system to meet
that of the children.... Should our goal be that these
youngsters learn the important things in life; not to
steal, not to hit people over the head, to be able to
stand some small frustration and still go on with the
task? Or should our goal be that they learn, like Lee
Harvey Oswald, to read and write, no matter what?

The teacher is the focal point of any program designed
to improve the learning experiences of disadvantaged young-
sters. His attitudes, and hence his behavior, are condi-
tioned by the many factors which cause his to discriminate
against lower class children and prefer not to teach them,
according to Passow.Su He notes that many of these feelings
and attitudes of teachers have led to the "self-fulfilling
prophecy;" i.e. the students learn little because their
teachers, convinced of their inability to learn, make little
or no effort to teach.

The discovery or uncovering of those attitudes which
mitigate against successful teaching in schools in disadvan-
taged areas, or the pin-pointing of those attitudes, opinions
or beliefs which predispose toward a successful teaching

experience in schools in such areas can only serve to assist

in developing more effective assignment and placement

 

S3Bruno Bettelheim, "Teaching the Disadvantaged,"
NEA Journal, September, 1965, p. 8.

 

5“H. A. Passow, Education in Depressed Areas, New
York: Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia
University, 1963.

 

31

procedures which pertain to newly licensed or appointed
teachers who are sent to these areas.

Studies by Becker,SS Herriott,56 Sexton,57 Ravitz,58
and Clark5¥9 found that the teachers of disadvantaged gen-
erally have poorer academic backgrounds, they are less satis-
fied and they have less desirable attitudes toward their
students than teachers of middle class children.

Herriott,60 for example, studied the influence that
the socio-economic status of the student body had upon the
attitudes of teachers and principals in 500 schools in forty-
one large cities. The study was designed to determine to what
extent the social class composition of the pupils in urban
schools was associated with characteristics of the staff of
these schools. His findings indicate that elementary

teachers in ghetto schools are far less satisfied with

 

55Howard S. Becker, "Schools and Systems of Stratifi-
cation," Education in Urban Society, ed. by A. H. Halsey,
Jean Floud, C. Arnold Anderson, Glencoe, Ill.: The Free Press,
1961. pp. 93-1ou.

56Robert E. Herriott and Nancy Hoyt St. John, Social
Class and the Urban School, New York: John Wiley and Sons,
I966.

 

 

S7Patricia Cayo Sexton, Education and Income, Ine-
qpalities of Opportunity in Our Public Schools, New York:
Viking Press, Inc., 1961.

 

 

58Mel Ravitz, "The Role of the School in the Urban
Setting," Education in Depressed Areas, ed. by A. Harry Passow,
New York: Teadhers College, Columbia University, 1963, pp. 623.

 

59Kenneth B. Clark, Dark Ghetto, New York: Harper
and Row, Publishers, 1965, p. luh.

 

60Herriott and St. John, op. cit., p. 206.

32

their work and assignment than are their fellow teachers
who are assigned to middle class or "silk stocking" schools.
He states:

Teachers in schools of lowest socio-economic

status area, of all teachers, are least satisfied61
with various aspects of their teaching situation.
Not only are they dissatisfied but nearly half of them "want

out."

Moreover, A2 percent of the teachers in these

schools of highest socio-economic stggus aspire to
a school in a better neighborhood.

The prospects for alleviating these conditions seem
dim considering a study by James S. Coleman.63 He found that
teachers in training who have the characteristics which might
benefit ghetto children tend to prefer to teach in middle
class schools.

Davidson and Langbu researched the relationship
between children's perceptions of their teachers feelings
toward them and their own self perceptions. They found a
high positive relationship between the children's percep-
tions of feelings of their teachers and the way in which

children perceived themselves.

 

61161d., p. 206.
62Ibid., p. 208.

63Coleman, op. cit., pp. 25-27.

buHelen H. Davidson and Gerhard Lang, "Children's
Perceptions of their Teachers' Feelings Toward Them Related
to Self-Perception, School Achievement and Behavior," The
Self in Growph, Teaching, and Learning, Englewood CliffET
New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1965, ppiIH23-h39.

33

It is essential to consider the attitudes of teachers
when looking at programs designed for economically deprived
children. The following studies are listed as representative
examples pointing to the need to look at teacher attitudes:

(1) North and Buchanan65 felt that teachers had a
great deal to do with society's acceptance or rejection of
the poverty culture, and therefore felt it important to under-
stand teacher views and attitudes concerning these students.

(2) The University of Michigan Survey Research Cen-
ter conducted the Michigan Public School Racial Census66 in
1967 and found the following negative attitudes toward
minority groups prevailed:

A. The larger the proportion of Negro pupils in
their classes, the more negative are the atti-
tudes of teachers toward their pupils.

B. The greater the proportion of Negro pupils in
a class, the lower the teachers' assessment of
the ability and academic motivation of their
students.

(3) Howard Becker67 polled sixty teachers from Chi-

cago public schools. He found that these teachers perceived

inner-city children as violent, difficult to teach, uncon-

trollable and morally unacceptable.

 

65George E. North and 0. Lee Buchanan, "Teacher Views
of Poverty Area Children," Journal of Educational Research,
Vol. 61, No. 2, October 1967, pp. 53- 58.

66Michigan Department of Education, First Michigan
Public School Racial Census, Lansing: Michigan Department of
‘Education, I957. p- 3.

 

67Howard S. Becker, "Career Patterns of Public
School Teachers," Journal of Sociology, Vol. 57, March,

1962: pp° #70-h77-

 

3h

(1;) Clark68

enlisted a group of white students to
interview a group of white teachers in the inner-city of

New York. Fifty percent of the teachers state that Negroes
couldn't be expected to learn because they were inherently
inferior in intelligence.

(5) Wilcox69 makes a strong plea for a teacher who
is able to relate to students as persons. Thus the teacher
would become an advocate for them in the community. He feels
that the ghetto teacher should be a "teacher-friend." The
teacher part contains three dimensions; societal representa-
tive, institutional representative and skills teacher. He
states, "the advocate and personal aspects of the teacher-
friend role are crucial in a society which says education is
indispensible but rejects (subtly and continuously) lower-
class youth."

In direct connection with this, Passow7O stated that
economically depressed students actually learned little
because their teachers, convinced of their inability to
learn, make little or no effort to teach.

Because of the differences to be found in what people
feel the teacher of the inner-city child "ought to be" it is

worthwhile to look at the findings of Edwards.71 He selected

 

68Clark, op. cit., p. 127.

69Preston R. Wilcox, "Teacher Attitudes and Student
Achievement," Teachers' College Record, Vol. 68, No. 5,
Feb. 1967, pp. 371‘3790

 

7OPassow, op. cit., p. 191.

71T. B. Edwards, "Teachers' Attitudes and Cultural
Differentiations," Journal of Experimental Education, Vol. 35,
Winter, 1966, pp. 80192.

 

35

only teachers who had been judged effective in working with
underprivileged youth. He then administered an attitude
inventory to see whether "good" teachers shared some common
personality traits. The only trait they shared was the
ability to be themselves and to identify with the majority
of their pupils. 3

It is plausible that the rift between teachers and
students is partially explained by the "culture—gap hypothe-
sis" of Burton72 and Davis73 which maintains that while
teachers are virtually completely middle class in occupa-
tional status, orientation and values, the pupils they serve
are predominately lower class, using the same guidelines.
The family orientation, aspiration levels and foci of inter-
est are so different as to make a meeting of the minds as
well as an understanding of each other's culture extremely
difficult. This hypothesis may reinforce the "horizontal-
mobility hypothesis" of Becker.7u Simply stated, he holds
that most teachers eventually transfer away from the lower
class or disadvantaged area schools in which their careers
typically began. The experience gained in meeting the special

needs of these pupils is lost to the school system.

 

72William H. Burton, "Education and Social Class in
the United States," Harvard Educational Review, XXIII, 1953,

pp- 2&3-356.

73Allison Davis, Social-Class Influences Upon Learn-
ing, Cambridge: Harvard UniVersity Press, 1952.

 

 

71*Howard S. Becker, "The Career of the Chicago
Public School Teacher," American Journal of Sociology,
LVII, 1952, pp. h70-h77.

36

Wingo,7S aware of the importance of the emotional
relationship between teachers and pupils, referred to it as
"a crucial factor in the teaching process..."

The rate of development is in substantial part a
function of environmental circumstances. The more the child
has heard and seen, the more he is interested in hearing and
seeing. In addition, the more variation in reality with which
he has coped, the greater is his capacity for growth.76

Teachers must revise their notions of what the rela-
tionship of pupil and teacher must be. "This," said Dr. John
Fischer, "is the cutting edge of the whole business. It is
like a great machine tool. You have a tremendous structure
providing the power. But ultimately it comes down to an
infinitesimally thin edge of metal that cuts into another
piece of metal. If that contact isn't right, you may just
as well forget the machinery."77 This concept, coupled with
much research, lends credence to the thesis that a high per—
centage of American teachers have a middle class orientation
which does not include an understanding or appreciation of

the culture of many of the pupils they deal with.

 

75G. M. Wingo, "Methods of Teaching," Encyclopedia
of Educational Research, New York: The MacMillian Co., 1960,

p. 8H9.

 

 

76J. McV. Hunt, "The Psychological Basis for Using
Pre-school Environment as an Antidote for Cultural Depriva-
tion," Quarterly of Behavior and Development, Merrill-Palmer,
l96h, pp. 209-2u8.

77Summer Education for Children of Poverty, Report
of the National Advisory Council on the Eddcation of Disad-
vantaged Children, Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Print-
ing Office, 1966.

 

 

37

Teacher Attitudes in Relation
to Effectiveness

 

 

Although the literature dealing with teacher compe—
tence or teacher effectiveness dates back to 1891, examina-
tions by Fattu and Castetter78 of teacher evaluation studies
prior to 1930 indicate that they were most usually limited
to efforts to identify the ineffective teacher rather than
the effective one. Biddle79 points out that the ineffective
teacher was usually defined or identified as the one who
was unable to impose "good disciplinary control." Absolute
conformity according to the standards of the day and/or the
standards imposed by the school board or building principal
was mandatory. Howsam80 claims that even up until very
recently these standards were all too often arbitrary,
biased and prejudiced.

Domas and Tiedman81 list nearly 1,000 titles related

to research in this area. Morsh and Wilder82 also list these

 

78N. A. Fattu, D. D. Castetter, L. S. Standlee,
Teacher Effectiveness: An Annotated Bibliography, Bulletin
3? the Institute of EducatiOnaI Research, Schodi of Educa-
tion, Vol. L, No. 1, Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University
Press, 195h.

79Bruce J. Biddle and William J. Ellena, Contemporary
Research on Teacher Effectiveness, New York: Holt, Rinehart
and Winston, I96E,Fdh.72 and 8.

 

80Robert B. Howsam, "Teacher Evaluation, Facts and
Folklore," National Elementary Principal, Vol. h3, No. 2,
NOV. 1963, pp. 6-T70

818. J. Domas and D. Tiedeman, "Teacher Competence;
An Annotated Bibliography," Journal of Experimental Educa-
tion, Vol. 19, 1950, pp. lOl-2I8.

82Morsh and E. W. Wilder, Identifying the Effective
Instructor: A Review of Quantitative Studies, I900-l952,
Research BulIetin No. AFPTRC-TRBHJHH, San Antonio, Tex.:
USAF Personnel and Training Center, l95h. -

 

38

studies, many of which are replicative, as well as those
which were inadvertent duplications of previously or simul-
taneously conducted investigations. Domas and Tiedman83
found that it was only during the l9h0's that educators began
to pay more attention to the relationship between teacher

and pupil. Concern with interpersonal relationship in the
classroom had virtually been overlooked in the past.

Washburne and HeilBu in an effort to support the
hypothesis that teachers who deal with the same children all
day (elementary school teachers) have a definite and deter-
minable influence upon the intellectual, social and emotional
growth of their pupils, came up with clear evidence that the
teacher's personality has a marked and measurable effect
upon all of these phases of growth and development. There
was also evidence of different kinds of interactions and rela-
tionships depending upon the type of teacher the children
had; the teacher had a measurable effect upon the children‘s
emotional adjustment.

The conclusions in Torrance's85 study suggest the
necessity for teacher education efforts which would make
every attempt to develop in student teachers and teachers

in service those same attitudes which teachers are expected

 

83

Domas and Tiedman, op. cit.

81+C. Washburne and L. Heil, "What Characteristics of
Teachers Affect Children's Growth?" The School Review, Win-
ter, 1960, pp. h20-h28.

 

85E. Paul Torrance, "Teacher Attitude and Pupil
Perception," The Journal of Teacher Education, XI, March
1960, pp. 97-TO20

 

39

to develop in their pupils. His results indicate that
although the teacher may try to inculcate the right atti-
tudes verbally,his (or her) real attitudes will show through.
Silberman concurs when he states that "...even when the

attitude is unconscious, the teacher cannot avoid communica-

86

ting it to the children in some way or other."

Davis87 further explores the relationship between
particular attitudes held by the teacher and effective
learning:

1. All school-learning is stimulated or hindered by
the teacher's feelings toward the students. Each
must have faith and trust in each other.

2. All school-learning is influenced by the cultural
attitudes which the teacher has toward the student,
and which the student experiences toward the teacher.
In rejecting the student's cultural background, the
teacher often appears to reject the student himself
as a human being. In return, and as early as the
first grade, the student may reject the culture of
the school and of the teacher. Both teacher and
pupil must learn to respect the ability and position
of the other.

Epley88

reports that students with positive reac-
tions to their teachers are more likely to grow tolerant than
those with negative feelings, presumably because the former

are more receptive to the attitude of their teacher.

 

86Charles E. Silberman, Crisis in Black and White,
New York: Random House, 196A.

 

87A. Davis,"Changing the Culture of the Disadvantaged
Student," in proceedings of the AHEA Workshop, Working with
Low Income Families, Washington, D.C.: American Home Economics
Association, 1965, pp. 22-23.

 

88D. G. Epley, Adolescent Role Relationships in the
Cynamics of Prejudice, Unpublished doctoral dissertation,
Michigan State University, 1953.

no

The student's initial motivation to follow the signs
of the teacher is contingent upon his perceiving that the
teacher likes and respects him, and has confidence in his
ability to learn. This acceptance by the teacher fulfills
a need in the student, and he reciprocates by demonstrating
to the teacher that he likes and respects the teacher. His
means of demonstration is an attempt to learn. When he does
learn, the learning itself is rewarding and becomes a moti-
vation to continue to learn. Success in learning becomes a
more significant motivational factor than the initial one of
pleasing the teacher.

If the teacher's attitudes are negative, or perceived
by the student to be negative, the initial motivational steps
in learning are thwarted. The child is then handicapped as
he proceeds through the grades, deficient in his mastery of
the signals (language) of the teacher and deprived of the
initial motivational stimulus of the teacher. Performance
of children in school becomes progressively worse until, in
most cases, they drop out.

Wade summarizes the interaction between teacher and
student in the learning process when he refers to the signs
the teacher uses.

With an object present to his mind, the student

acts to form his own taught knowledge; and the teacher,
through his (selected) signs as logical instruments,

is the spe8$ficative cause of the student's taught
knowledge.

 

89Francis C. Wade, S. J. "Causality in the Classroom,"
Modern Schoolman, ed. George P. Klubertanz, S. J., Ann Arbor:
Cusing-Malldry, Inc., August 1955, Vol. 28, p. th.

Ln

Wade concludes that if a teacher does not have trust and
respect for his students he is not teaching, but rather
indoctrinating. For it is mutual trust and respect which
unite the mind of the teacher and the taught on a common
meeting ground. On the absence of this common meeting
ground Wade comments:

Without such meeting ground teacher and taught do not
meet as minds; there is no ground for the student's
assent. What is left the student is a pseudoground;
that is, the teacher said so. Such a student, assent-
ing on the word of the teacher, is indoctrinated, not
taught. True, he gets something; but he gets it by
hearing and holds it by memory and becomes a skilled
repeater instead of a knowing man. His teacher goes

on indoctrgaating, whether aware or not, for there is
no escape.

However, indoctrination is a very real possibility from
teachers with vested interests in subject areas. But even
with this in mind it is generally accepted that students
benefit more from exposure to teachers with strong educa-
tional backgrounds than they do from teachers with weak

academic backgrounds.

Summary

There seems to be unanimity, based on numerous stu-
dies and research efforts, in the thought that personal
attitudes, opinions and beliefs of teachers can, will and
do effect the emotional climate of the classroom. This in

turn must have some effect upon the pupil's ability to be

taught or to learn.

 

90Wade, op. cit., p. lh6.

A2

From the literature reviewed in this chapter it may
be concluded that:

l. Educators have relied on educational techniques
inappropriate to the needs of their students, particularly
the disadvantaged student.

2. Attitudes of teachers are to blame in part for
the poor academic progress of some students, particularly
the disadvantaged student.

3. Teachers relate better to students with similar
value or attitude orientation.

h. Teachers are mostly middle class or aspire toward
the middle class.

5. Colleges are making little or no impact on the
attitudes of their students.

6. Attitude change is possible in college.

CHAPTER III
THE RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Introduction
This chapter contains a delineation of the method-
ology and procedures used to carry out the study. The stu-
dent population involved in the study is described along
with the location and method used to select it. The Minne-
sota Teacher Attitude Inventory is outlined as well as the
student questionnaire. Finally, the procedure used in the

study is explained.

4 The Population

The population consisted of undergraduate education

[Q

Q

students at Michigan State University. From this population,
a sample group of 320 students was selected. One hundred
seventy eight students, mostly sophomores, were enrolled in
6 of the 2h sections of the beginning professional education
course. The remaining lh2 students, mostly seniors, were
enrolled in 5 of the 11 sections of the final professional
education course. The combined total of 11 sections of
students included in this sample were randomly selected

from 35 sections of the two courses.

LLB

ML

The Instruments

The Minnesota Teacher Attitude Inventory (MTAI)
was selected because it is a well-known instrument for mea—
suring teacher attitudes. It is designed to measure those
attitudes which will predict the extent to which a given
teacher will favorably interact with pupils. The assumption
is made that desirable teacher attitudes are necessary for
meaningful pupileteacher relationships and that desirable
pupil-teacher relationships are a requisite to worthwhile
learning within the classroom.

In the construction of the items for the instrument,
five areas of attitudes were sampled.91
_. Moral status of children, especially as it con-

cerns their adherence to adult-imposed standards.
(Example: "Children should be seen and not heard."

 

 

2. Discipline andgproblems of conduct in the class-

. room and elsewhere, and methods employed in deal-
ing with such problems. Example: "Pupils found
writing notes should be severely punished."

3. Principles of child development and behavior
related to ability adhievement, learning, moti-
vation and personality development. Example:
"The boastful child is usually overconfident of
his ability." '

 

A. General principles of education in the areas of
philosophy, curriculum afid administration.
Example: "Pupils should be required to do more
studying at home."

5. Personal reactions of the teacher, his likes and
dielikes, sources ofirritation, etc. Example:
"Without children life would be dull."

 

91Cook and others, op. cit., p. 10.

LLS

The MTAI assumes that a teacher scoring at the high
end of the scale will be able to maintain a harmonious class-
room situation. The manual states:

It is assumed that a teacher ranking at the high
end of the scale should be able to maintain a state of
harmonious relations with his pupils, characterized by
mutual affection and sympathic understanding. The pupils
should like the teacher and enjoy school work. The
teacher should like the children and enjoy teaching.
Situations requiring disciplinary action should rarely
occur. rThe teacher and pupils should work together in
a social atmosphere of cooperative endeavor, of intense
interest in the work of the day, and with a feeling of
security growing from a permissive atmosphere of free—
dom to think, act and speak one's mind with mutual
respectggor the feelings, rights, and abilities of
others.

On the other hand, a teacher scoring at the opposite
extreme, the low end of the scale, is not expected to be
able to maintain a harmonious classroom situation.

At the other extreme of the scale is the teacher
who attempts to dominate the classroom. He may be
successful and rule with an iron hand, creating an
atmosphere of tension, fear and submission; or he may
be unsuccessful and become nervous, fearful and dis-
traught in a classroom characterized by frustration,
restlessness, inattention, lack of respect, and numerous
disciplinary problems. In either case both teacher and
pupils dislike school work; there is a feeling of mutual
distrust and hostility. Both teacher and pupils attempt
to hide their inadequacies from each other. Ridicule,
sarcasm, and sharp tempered remarks are common. The
teacher tends to think in terms of his status, the
correctness of the position he takes on classroom mat-
ters and the subject matter to be covered rather than
in terms of what the pupil needs, feels, knows, and
can do. 3

Several studies have been conducted by the authors

of the MTAI to determine its reliability and validity. The

 

92Ibid., p. 3.
931b1d.

he

initial study which focused mainly on item selection, took
place in 70 high schools in Ohio and Pennsylvania. Of 756
items constructed for testing, 115 discriminated between
"superior" and "inferior" teachers at the 5 percent level
and 73 others discriminated between these two groups at

the ;O percent level of significance. A subsequent test
was made using only those test items that would discriminate
at least at the 10 percent level. This form was known as
Form x-16u. After further refinement and testing 150 items
were chosen from Form X-loh and constitute the present
Form A of the MTAI.

In South Carolina and Missouri further validity and
reliability checks were made with Form A, using essentially
the same procedure as had been employed in the Pennsylvania-
Ohio study. In general, the results were consistent with
those of the earlier study. In addition the scoring method
of "right minus wrong" was shown to have slightly higher
validity coefficients than alternative methods of scoring.
This scoring method has therefore been incorporated in
Form A of the MTAI.

As a result of these two studies it is reasonable
to conclude that the authors have provided ample evidence
that the 150 items on the MTAI discriminate between the
expressed attitudes of "superior" and "inferior" teachers.

Other investigations carried on by the authors over
the past ten years indicate that the attitudes of teachers
toward children and school work can be measured with high

reliability, and that they are significantly correlated

M7

with the teacher-pupil relations found in the teacher's
classroom. In short, the authors contend that the MTAI
provides direct measures of those teacher attitudes which
predict how well he will get along with pupils in interper-
sonal relationships and indirect measures of how well satis-
fied a given teacher will be with teaching as a vocation.9u
Of the numerous studies and investigations conducted
with this instrument several authors have commented on the
general limitations of using paper and pencil instruments
to measure attitudes. (Callis 1953, Standler and Pophen
1959, Hoyt and Cook 1960, Piccio and Petus 1960, Mitzel,
Rabinowitz and Ostreicher 1956, Price 1956, Gage, Stone,
Leavitt 1957, Budd and Blakely 1958) Other authors have
questioned the use of an empirical scoring technique and
suggested that logical or open ended response techniques
are preferable. (Gage 1957, Mazzitelli 1957) Finally,
some authors have argued that it may be easy to fake responses
on the MTAI. (Colemen 195M, Rabinowitz 195M, Sorenson 1956,
Sheldon and Sorenson 1957, Sorenson and Sheldon 1958, Sheldon
1959, Polmantier and Ferguson 1960) However, several other
authors have provided additional, favorable evidence regard-
ing the reliability and validity of the MTAI (Hardy 1955,
Cook, Joyt and Eibaas 1956, Day 1956, Lambert 1956, Stein
1957, Day 1959, Joyt and Cook 1959, Scott and Brinkly 1960).
‘ In general, research investigating the merits of the

MTAI seems to indicate that it shares many of the inherent

 

guIbid.

 

u8

weaknesses of paper and pencil measures of attitude, but
that it compares favorably with other instruments of this
type.

A questionnaire was also prepared by the author
using the guidelines suggested by Backstrom and Hursh. This
questionnaire explored those areas of demographic informa-
tion which were considered necessary to obtain data relevant
to the objectives of the study.95 (see Appendix D) The
questionnaire was reviewed by a consultant from Michigan
State University's evaluation services.

The questionnaire was revised along the guidelines
suggested by the consultant and contained a cover letter
explaining the problem and asking full cooperation of those
being studied. This cover letter (see Appendix A) accompany-
ing each instrument and questionnaire was also designed to
help each respondent realize that there was no intent to
coerce or identify individual respondents participating in

this study.

The Procedure

 

Form A of the Minnesota Teacher Attitude Inventory
(see Appendix B and C) was used as the measure of the stu-
dents' attitudes toward children. The MTAI was adminis-
tered to two distinct groups of people. One group was those

students taking their first professional education course

 

95Charles H. Backstrom and Gerald P. Hursh, Survey
Research, Northwestern University Press, 196M, Chapter III.

M9

(N2178) and the other group was composed of those students
completing their final professional education course (N21u2).
The inventory was administered by the instructor of each
class section according to the instructions given on the
inventory. Assurance was given each individual participat-
ing in the study that the results of the study would in no
way affect his status in the course. Further assurance was
given the participating students that there would be no
attempt to identify the individual completing the inventory.
The instructions also indicated that there is considerable
disagreement as to what teacher-pupil relationships should
be; therefore, there are no "right" or "wrong" answers per
se to the inventory.

Three hundred and twenty packets consisting of the
MTAI and the questionnaire were distributed to eleven dif-
ferent instructors. Of this number 297 were returned
resulting in a return rate of 92.8 percent. One hundred
seventy eight packets were distributed to students taking
their first education course and 175 packets were returned.
The remaining 1&2 packets were handed out to those students
finishing their last education course and only 119 were
returned. Upon analysis it was discovered that most of
this low return rate for the final course was due to one
section where 27 packets were distributed to students but
only 7 were returned. Thus, it was felt that those 7 stu-
dents returning the inventory and questionnaire in this

section formed a biased group. Therefore the whole section

 

was deleted from the study. The withdrawal of this section
from the study results in 115 packets being handed out and
112 being returned. In addition h more packets were dis-
carded from each group because they were incomplete. The
resulting final tally was 279 returned and scored and 6
unaccounted for, for a total of 285 handed out, resulting

in a return rate of 97.9 percent.

CHAPTER IV

ANALYSIS OF DATA

The purpose of this investigation was to explore
teacher candidate's expressed attitudes toward children by
means of the Minnesota Teacher Attitude Inventory. In
addition a questionnaire was administered providing demo-
graphic data.

The MTAI sheets were machine scored according to
the "rights" and "wrongs" keys provided with the inventory.
The keys provided do not intend to indicate literally right
and wrong answers on the inventory, but rather negative and
positive tendencies in attitude. The terms "right" and
"wrong" are used merely for convenience.

Scoring possibilities on the MTAI range from ~150
to +150 points. A negative score indicates a negative
attitude toward children while a positive score indicates
a positive attitude toward children.

Throughout Chapter IV the notation Group I (Beg.)
will refer to that group of teacher candidates starting
their first professional education course. Group II (Fin.)
is the notation which refers to that group of teacher candi-

dates finishing their professional education sequence.

51

52

The independent variables in this study include:
extent of professional training (2) levels; sex (2) levels;
grade level preference (A) levels; subject area competency
(A) levels; type of school (K-8 and K-l2) in which educated
(3) levels; number of siblings (7) levels; school location
preference (A) levels; racial composition of school prefer-
ence (9) levels. Extent of professional training (Beg. vs.
Fin.) is the most crucial of these variables. It is there-
fore considered in every analysis in order to determine
whether or not there is an interaction between this factor
and any of the demographic variables. An individual's score
on the MTAI serves as the dependent variable in every analy-
sis reported in this chapter.

Since Questionljand Questionljj are so interrelated
they will be discussed in combination, rather than treated

as separate entities. This is done to avoid any confusion.

Question I.

 

What are the expressed attitudes toward children of
undergraduate teacher candidates at the time they begin
their professional education courses and as they finish
the professional sequence?

Question III.

 

What differences, if any, exist between the expressed
attitudes toward children of the group starting their pro-
fessional educational courses and the group finishing their
professional educational courses?

Upon return of the instrument and questionnaire the

author tabulated the data in terms of the scoring procedures

for the MTAI and the categories within the questionnaire.

53

After the determination of raw scores, the mean
scores and standard deviations of both groups were computed.

These means and standard deviations are depicted in Table

 

 

 

 

u.l below.
TABLE u.1
MEAN AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS
FOR GROUP EFFECT
N if S.D.

Group I (Beg.) 171 38.12 .i 29.11
Group II (Fin.) lO8 56.2h :_28.36
Total 279 85.13 1 30.10
Legend: N. = Number of people within that category

X = Mean

S.D. = Standard Deviation

Examination of Table h.l reveals that Group I (Beg.)
(undergraduate teacher candidates taking their first profes-
sional education course) had a mean of 38.12 indicating a
somewhat favorable attitude toward children. Group II (Fin.)
(undergraduate teacher candidates finishing their last pro-
fessional education course) had a mean of 56.2u indicating
a more favorable attitude toward children than was expressed
by Group I.

A one way analysis of variance test was therefore
completed to determine whether or not the difference between
these two means was statistically significant (Question III

above). The results of this analysis are depicted in

54

Table u.2 An examination of Table u.2 reveals that the

means are in fact significantly different (P <.0005).

TABLE u.2

(ONE-WAY) ANOVA TABLE FOR
GROUP EFFECT

 

 

 

Sum Mean
Source Square D.F. Square F.Ratio Prob.
Group Effect 21,7h2.69 l 21,7h2.69 26.1737 0.0005*
Error 230,105.h0 277 830.71
Total 251,8h8.09 278

Legend: ANOVA
D.F.
Prob.

Analysis of variance
Degrees of freedom
Probability

Statistically significant

Question II.

 

What interrelations exist between the demographic
data as defined by this study and the expressed attitudes
toward children of the two groups sampled?

The results of the demographic data collected on the
questionnaire were tested by the statistical technique of
Multivariate Analyses of Variance. If the analyses of this
data yielded an F ratio which would occur by change less than
5 times in 100 (P (.05) it was considered statistically sig-
nificant. Those variables yielding differences of this mag-
nitude were subjected to a further statistical comparison
called the Scheffe’ Post Hoc Test. This test was computed
to determine which of the means for the various levels were
significantly different.

The results of this analyses for the demographic

data in sub-questions (1—8) has been organized into tables

55

of mean and cell frequency; ANOVA Tables, and where mean-
ingful, a Scheffe’Post Hoc comparison.

It should be noted that the calculations in sub-
questions (1—8) are based on the MTAI score plus 100. This
was done in order to facilitate calculations and avoid work-
ing with negative numbers. This is not evident in the tables
However, it is evident in the

of mean and cell frequency.

ANOVA and Post Hoc comparisons.

Sub-Question l.

 

Is there any relationship between one's sex and his
expressed attitudes toward children?

The analyses of the data with respect to sex is
depicted in Table n.3, which contains cell frequencies and
A 2 x 2, fixed-effects, analysis of variance test

means .

was calculated for this variable (male vs. female) with

 

 

 

 

scores on the MTAI serving as the dependent variable. These
results are depicted in Table h.u.
TABLE h.3
MEAN AND CELL FREQUENCY TABLE FOR SEX
Female Male Total
X1 X2 Av. Mean
(N) (N) (N)
Group I (Beg.) h2.53 30.16 38.12
(110) (61) (171)
Group II (Fin.) 58.35 50.21 56.2h
(80) (28) (108)
Total
A9.19 36.u7 uS.13
(190) (89) (279)
Legend: Mean

z>q

Number of people within the category

56

TABLE u.u

ANOVA TABLE FOR SEX

r
L

 

Sum Mean
Source Square D.F. Square F.Ratio Prob.
Group 21,7u2.oa 1 21,7u2.og 26.8uu7 0.0001ss
Sex 7,128.20 1 7,128.20 8.8008 0.0033*
Group * Sex 2a2.51 1 2A2.51 0.299u 0.58u7
Error 222,735.98 275 809.9u
Totals 251,8h9.38 278

 

Legend: ANOVA Analysis of variance

D.F. = Degrees of freedom
Prob. = Probability
Group * Sex = Interaction between cells being tested

a Statistically significant
rs = The F.ratio for group effect varies depend—
ing on the sub-question being analized. This
is a result of a changing (N) due to incom-
plete data. However, it always remains
significant (P <.0005).
Examination of Table u.3 reveals that the lowest mean
MTAI score was for males in Group I (Beg.) while the highest
mean MTAI score was for females in Group II (Fin.) Examina-
tion of Table h-h reveals that the overall difference between
females and males was statistically significant (P <.003).

It is therefore reasonable to conclude that females have

more positive attitudes toward children than males.

Sub-Question 2.

 

Is there any relationship between the number of sib-
lings in one's family and his expressed attitudes toward
children?

57

The analyses of the data, with respect to number of

siblings is presented in two tables.

cell frequencies and means.

Table u.5 contains

Table h.6 presents the results

of a 2 x 7, fixed—effects, analysis of variance test which

was calculated for this data.

TABLE U-S

MEAN AND CELL FREQUENCY TABLE FOR

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

NUMBER OF SIBLINGS
Number of Siblings Total
I E l y; _5_ g 1+ Av .
21 X2 X3 Xu X5 X6 X7 Mean
(N) (N) (N) (N) (N) (N) (N) (N)
Group I 38.00 uO.7l 31.98 h3.70 h6.07 33.57 38.h2 38.12
(338-) (9) (NS) (57) (27) (la) (7) (12) (171)
Group II 6l.h0 6h.83 h7.u5 55.59 6h.l3 56.33 70.00 56.26
(Fin.) (5) (18) (33) (32) (8) (6) (S) (107)
Totals h6.36 h7.60 37.65 50.15 52.6u uh.07 h7.71 h5.10
(1h) (63) (90) (59) (22) (13) (17) (278)
Legend: i'= Mean
N = Number of people within that category
TABLE u.6
ANOVA TABLE FOR NUMBER OF SIBLINGS
Sum Mean
Sources Square D.F. Square F.Ratio Prob.
Group 21,668.85 1 21,668.85 25.9659 0.0001
Siblings 7,813.50 6 1,302.25 1.5605 0.1590
Group % Sibls. 1,975.62 6 329.27 0.39u6 0.8823
Error 220,30h.u6 26h 83h.h9
Total 251,762.h3 273
Legend: ANOVA = Analysis of variance Prob. = Probability
D.F. = Degrees of freedom
Group * Sibls. = Interaction between cell being

tested

58

Although mean MTAI scores vary from a low of(31.98)
for individuals with two siblings to a high of(70.00)for
individuals with six or more siblings, the statistical test
of these differences was not significant (P <.159). There-
fore, the results of this study suggest that family size

does not influence one's expressed attitudes toward children.

Sub-Question 3.

 

Is there any relationship between one's teaching area
competence and his expressed attitudes toward children?

The analyses of the data with respect to one's teach-
ing area competency is presented in three tables. Table u.7
contains the cell frequency and means. Table h.8 presents
the results of a 2 x 10, fixed-effects, analysis of variance
test for this data. Due to the statistically significant
results reported in Table n.8, the Scheffe’ Post Hoc test was
computed. The results of this comparison are depicted in
Table n.9,

Examination of Table u.7 reveals that industrial arts
has both the highest and lowest within level means,(82.00)and
(l5.33)for beginning and finishing groups respectively. This
is perhaps explained by the low number of individuals (N=5)
for industrial arts.

The subject area of physical education has the lowest
overall mean (25.23). Of equal interest is that 5 out of the
top 6 means are in subject areas related to communicative
expression: Fine Arts; English; Exceptional Children;

Social Sciences; Communicative Arts.

59

 

 

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60

TABLE h.8

ANOVA TABLE FOR SUBJECT COMPETENCY

 

 

 

 

Sum Mean
Sources Square D.F. Square F.Ratio Prob.

Group 19,526.79 1 19,526.79 2u.9016 0.0001
Competency 1h,030.37 9 1,558.93 1.9880 0.0h12
Group *
Competency 13,665.33 9 1,518.37 1.9363 0.0h75
Error 197,609.03 252 78u.16
Total 2hh,031.52 271
Legend: ANOVA = Analysis of variance Prob. = Probability

D.F. = Degree of freedom

Group s Competency = Interaction between cells being

tested
Statistically significant

TABLE h.9

SCHEFFE' POST HOC COMPARISON FOR

SUBJECT COMPETENCY
‘T-S VVarW id?
<(@+S Var(¢)'

 

 

 

 

8 Contrast @ SW)
@ z'YS - 77 27.20 37.58 -10.38 <qv< 68.78
w 2‘29 - 77 20.65 31.23 -10.58 <1I< 51.88
‘17 (x5+xg)-2x7 117.85 62.8)1 411.99 <17 <110.69
@ = (Ys+710)-2Y7 53.93 65116 ~11.53 <1) <119.39
@ = (Y5+2X10)'339 80.66 98.89 -18.23 <w <179.SS
‘1 = (25+x8+x10)-3x7 77.110 93.16 45.76 <11 <17o.56
‘13 = (x5+x9+x10)-3x7 711.58 91.55 -16.97 <1) <166.13

 

Legend: Means with various subscrips (example EZ) refers

to the particular mean of that subject ompetency.

 

96In rder to be statistically significant (P <-05),
the interval 19!..3'VVap (T). < T < ‘W + S Var (T)’cannot

include the v lue of zero (0).

61

Reviewing Table u.8 reveals that differences in mean
MTAI scores across subject matter competencies are statisti-
cally significant (P (.Ohl). The interaction between level
of professional training and subject matter competence is
also statistically significant (P <.Oh8).

A Scheffe' test was therefore computed to determine
which levels of subject matter competence yielded mean MTAI
scores which were significantly different. As Table h.9
reveals,the largest absolute difference (73 and 77) was not
statistically significant. Since the N's have some effect
in a Scheffe' comparison, further tests were computed con-
trasting the mean for social science majors (N = 68) with
that for physical education majors (N = 17). This difference
also proved to be non-significant.

In short, the results of this study seem to suggest
that subject matter competency has some influence on expressed
attitudes toward children. But it is not reasonable to assume
that majors in a given subject matter field, such as social
science, have a more favorable attitude toward children than
majors in some other field, such as physical education.

Table u.8 reports that the interaction between level
of professional training and subject competency is statisti-
cally significant (P <.Ou8). An analysis of Table h.7 to
determine the source of this interaction reveals that all
scores in Group II (Fin.) are higher than the corresponding
scores for Group I (Beg.) with one exception. That exception
is under column 6, referring to industrial arts subject com-

petency. In this area the mean for Group I (Beg.) is

62

considerably higher than the mean for Group II (Fin.) This
difference in mean score for industrial arts is approxi-
mately two standard deviations. Further examination points
out that the industrial arts mean in Group I (Beg.) is at
least one standard deviation above all other means in Group
I (Beg.). Inversely, the mean for industrial arts in Group
II (Fin.) is at least 2/3's of one standard deviation below
all other means for Group II (Fin.). This then accounts
for the significant interaction reported in Table h.8. It
should be noted however, that only 5 individuals in the
sample are industrial arts majors. This small sample may
therefore limit the generality of any statements regarding
an interaction between level of professional training and

subject competency.

Sub-Question u.

 

Is there any relationship between the type of com-
munity one was raised in and his expressed attitudes toward
children?

The data related to this question was collected
in two parts, divided on the basis of birth to ten years
of age, and birth to college attendance. The analyses of
the data with respect to type of community raised (0-10
yrs. and O—college) is reported in TablestlO and u.lOA.
Both tables contain cell frequency and means. Table h.11
and n.1lA represent a 2 x u, fixed-effects, analysis of vari-
ance test of this data. Due to the statistical significance
results reported in Table h.1lA a Scheffe' comparison was

computed. These comparisons are reported in Table h.12.

63

TABLE u.10

MEAN AND CELL FREQUENCY--TYPE COMMUNITY

RAISED UNTIL 10 YEARS OLD

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Suburban Inner-City Urban Rural Total
Y1 Y2 -3 fh- AV .Mean
(N) (N) (N) (N) (N)
Group I 38.83 06.50 37.69 h0.50 38.12
(Bes-) (80) (h) (N9) (38) (171)
Group II 57.10 5u.50 59.85 51.52 56.2u
(Fin.) (SO) (2) (27) (29) (108)
Totals h5.86 22.50 h5.56 h5.27 h5.13
(130) (6) (76) (67) (279)
TABLE u.10A
TYPE COMMUNITY RAISED UNTIL COLLEGE
Suburban Inner-City Urban Rural Total
Xi X2 i8 KL Av.Mean
(N) (N) (N) (N) (N)
Group I 38.17 -10.67 u0.22 39.75 38.11
(Beg.) (92) (3) (36) (NO) (171)
Group II 56.97 37.00 62.h2 51.70 56.2h
(Fine) (60) (2) (19) (27) (108)
Totals 85.59 08.u0 E7.89 uu.S7 N5-13
(152) (5) (SS) (67) (279)
Legend: Y'= Mean
N = Number of people within that category

6h

TABLE h.ll

ANOVA TABLE FOR TYPE COMMUNITY
RAISED UNTIL 10 YEARS OLD

 

 

 

Sum Mean
Sources Square D.F. Square F.Ratio Prob.
Group 21,7h2.69 l 21,7h2.69 26.2112 0.0001
CT - 10 3,000.57 3 1,000.19 1.2057 0.3081
Group s CT-lO 2,30h.72 3 768.2h 0.9261 O.h286
Error 22u,80u.7u 271 829.5u
Totals 251,852.72 278

 

TABLE u.11A

ANOVA TABLE FOR TYPE COMMUNITY
RAISED UNTIL COLLEGE

 

 

 

Sum Mean
Sources Square D.F. Square F.Ratio Prob.
Group 21,7u2.69 1 21,7u2.69 26.70u7 0.0001
CT - 061. 7,577.6u 3 2,525.88 3.1023 0.0272*
Group * CT-Cola u83.35 3 627.32 0.7705 0.511u
Error 220,6hh.u1 271 81u.19
Totals 250,uh8.09 278

 

Legend: ANOVA Analysis of variance

D.F. Degrees of freedom

Prob. Probability

Group % CT-lO and Group *CT-Col. = Interaction
between the cells tested

CT - 10 = Community raised until 10 years old

CT - Col. = Community raised until college

a = Statistically significant

65

TABLE h.12

SCHEFFE' POST HOC COMPARISON FOR
' COMMUNITY RAISED UNTIL COLLEGE

 

 

 

 

(T-smw
9 Contrast " SWIFZFTT3 <(@+S VarfTN
T =1i3 -‘Eé 39.h9 37.22 2.27 <V < 76.71%
{17: fl - ‘2 37.19 36.22 0.97 <11 < 73.81.:-
@= 7,4 - X2 36.17 36.83 -0.66 <11 < 73.00
T =(Yi+-3+XL)-3Yé 112.85 108.09 n.76 <1’< 220.9h*

 

Mean for suburban

L'"

(D

09

(D

S

Q.
as
I ll

— Mean for inner-city
Y3 = Mean for urban

Mean for rural

>4
:7
ll

Significant Scheffe' comparison

Both Tables (u.10 and u.10A) reveal that the means
of those individuals with suburban, rural or urban back-
grounds are nearly equal. However, individuals from the
inner—city have less favorable attitudes than individuals
from any of the other three areas (suburban, rural and

urban).

66

Tables u.11 and h.1lA reveal that whereas the dif-
ference among individuals raised in various communities
until 10 years of age are not statistically significant
(P <.308), the corresponding difference among individuals
raised in various communities until college is statisti-
cally significant (P <.027). The Scheffe' Post Hoe compari-
son was therefore computed for the birth until college data.
As examination of Table h.12 reveals the mean MTAI score
for individuals raised in the inner-city is significantly
lower than the corresponding means for individuals raised

in suburban and urban communities.

Sub-Question 5.

 

Is there any relationship between the type of school
in which one was educated and his expressed attitudes toward
children?

The data related to this question was collected in
two parts divided on the basis of kindergarten to the eighth
grade (K-8) and kindergarten to the twelfth grade (K-12).
Table h.13 presents the means and cell frequencies for
individuals from three different types of schools. Table

n.1u contains a 2 x 3, fixed—effects, analysis of variance

test for this data.

67

TABLE n.13

MEAN AND CELL FREQUENCY-~TYPE
OF SCHOOL EDUCATED (K-8)

 

 

 

Public Parochial Private Total
Ki Kb X8 Av.Mean
(N) (N) (N) (N)
Group 1 37.77 h1.71 22.80 38.12
(Bes-) (132) (3h) (5) (171)
Group II 56.u0 5h.76 67.00 56.2h
(Fin-) (9O) (17) (l) (108)
Total h5.32 h6.06 30.17 h5.l3
(222) (51) (6) (279)

 

TABLE h.l3A

TYPE OF SCHOOL EDUCATED (K-12)

 

 

 

Public Parochial Total
7i Y2 Av.Mean
(N) (N) (N)
Group I (Beg.) 38.97 36.65 38.5h
(137) (31) (168)
Group II (Fin.) 56.29 55.80 56.2h
(98) (10) (108)
Total M6.l9 h1.32 u5.h7
(235) (M1) (276)

 

Legend: E'= Mean
N = Number of people within that category

Private school attendance was deleted from statistical con-
sideration in Table h.13A due to sample population sparsity.

4
I

68

TABLE n.1u

ANOVA TABLE FOR TYPE OF
SCHOOL EDUCATED (K-8)

I

 

 

 

 

 

 

Sum Mean
Sources Square D.F. Square F. Ratio Prob.
Group 21,7u2.69 1 21,7u2.69 25.9971 0.0001
T.Scho.-8 911.92 2 h55.96 0.5u52 0.580h
Group * TS-8 869.78 2 u3u.89 0.5200 0.5952
Error 228,318.09 273 836.33
Totals 251,8h2.u8 278
TABLE n.1hA
ANOVA TABLE FOR TYPE OF
SCHOOL EDUCATED (K-12)
Sum Mean
Sources Square D.F. Square F. Ratio Prob.
Group 20,593.26 1 20,593.26 2u.7817 0.0001
Group * TS-12 22.60 1 22.60 0.0272 0.8692
Error 226,022.10 272 830.96
Totals 2h6,75u.22 275
Legend: ANOVA = Analysis of variance
D.F. = Degrees of freedom
Prob. = Probability
Group e TS-8 and Group % TS-12 = Interaction between

ToSCho-lZ =

cells being tested.
T.Sch.-8 = Type of School educated (K-8)

Type of School educated (K-12)

69

Examination of Table h.13 reveals that expressed
attitudes toward children among individuals attending pri-
vate schools seem to be somewhat less favorable than the
corresponding attitudes among individuals attending public
and parochial schools. However, there are only 6 individuals
in this sample who attended a private school from kindergar-
ten through the 8th grade. Of this group, only one attended
a private school through the 12th grade.

It is therefore not surprising that differences in
mean MTAI scores among individuals from different types of
schools are not statistically signficant (P <.580). In
short, the type of school in which one is educated appears
to have little influence on one's expressed attitudes toward

children.

Sub-Question 6.

 

Is there any relationship between one's teaching
preference (grade level) and one's expressed attitudes
toward children? '

The analyses of the data with respect to grade level
preference is reported in two tables. Table u.15 contains
cell frequencies and means. Table n.16 represents a 2 x h,
fixed-effects, analysis of variance test of this data.

An examination of Table h.15 reveals that those indi-
viduals preparing to teach in grade level (h-6) have the low-
est mean MTAI scores, while those individuals preferring to
teach (K-3) children have the highest mean MTAI scores. Thus,
within the elementary school one can find the highest and the

lowest means for expressed attitudes toward children.

70

TABLE 4.15

MEAN AND CELL FREQUENCY--
GRADE LEVEL PREFERENCE

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

K;3 4:6 Jr.High H.§, Total
X1 X2 X3 Xh Av.Mean
(N) (N) (N) (N) (N)
Group I E1.12 31.1u 33.5u 39.31 38.29
(888-) (3h) (21) (11) (10k) (170)
Group II 67.37 h8.62 h9.23 53.61 56.21
(39) (91) (13) (N1) (107)
Totals 53.85 39.88 u2.0h 83.35 h5.21
(66) (AZ) (2h) (1 S) (277)
Legend: MI: Mean
N = Number of people within that category
TABLE u.]6
ANOVA TABLE FOR GRADE LEVEL PREFERENCE
Sum Mean
Sources Square D.F. Square R.Ratio Prob.
Group 21,103.50 1 21,103.50 25.6365 0.0001
G.L.Pref. 6,2h9.5h 3 2,083.18 2.5307 0.0576
GroupsG.L.Pref. 1,559.88 3 519.96 0.6317 0.5952
Error 22l,h27.35 269 823.15
Totals 250,3h0.27 276
Legend: ANOVA = Analysis of variance
D.F. = Degree of freedom
Prob. = Probability
GroupsG.L.Pref. = Interaction between the cells

being tested
G.L.Pref. = Grade level preference

71

Results reported in Table h.16 indicate that the dif-
ferencesbetween the mean MTAI scores across grade preference
levels was not statistically significant (P <.058). However,
it is very close to being statistically significant and may

present an interesting paradox at the elementary level.

Sub-Question 7.

 

Is there any relationship between one's teaching
preference (school location) and one's expressed attitudes
toward children?

The analyses of data with respect to school location
preference is depicted in three tables. Table h.17 contains
the cell frequency and means,whi1e Table h.18 presents a
2 x u,fixed-effects, analysis of variance test for the data.
Since Table h.18 reveals a statistical significance for
school location preference a Scheffe’ Post Hoc comparison
was computed. The data for the Scheffe’ comparison is

depicted in Table u.19.

TABLE h.17

MEAN AND CELL FREQUENCY-~8CHO0L
LOCATION PREFERENCE

   

 

 

Suburban Inna;?City. Urban Rural Total
I1 i2 Y3 in Av.Mean
(N) (N) (N) (N) (N)
Group I 32.87 h5.70 A3.11 h3.50 37.92
(Bea-) (92) (23) (38) (16) (169)
Group II 55-32 7h-33 58.67 uu.31 55-9h
(Fin.) (60) (9) (21) (16) (106)
Total ' E1.73 53.75 u8.65 E3.91 Eu.87
(152) (32) (59). (32) (275)
Legend: Mean

Number of people within the category

72

TABLE h.18

ANOVA TABLE FOR SCHOOL LOCATION PREFERENCE

:—,
r —

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Sum Mean
Sources Square D.F. Square F.Ratio Prob.
Group 21,131.h8 1 21,131.h8 25.9381 0.0001
S.L.Pref. 6,806.31 3 2,268.77 2.78u8 0.0h13s
GroupssS.L.Pref. 3,838.26 3 1,279.h2 1.570h 0.1969
Error 217.52h.53 267 818.70
Totals 2h9,300.58 27h
Legend: ANOVA = Analysis of variance ,
D.F. = Degrees of freedom Prob. = Probability
S.L.Pref. = School location preference
GroupsS.L.Pref. = Interaction between the cells
being tested
- - Statistically significant
TABLE h.l9
SCHEFFE' POST HOC COMPARISON FOR SCHOOL LOCATION
(T—SVVarW) 11
9 Contrast 9 S VVarOP) <(T+S Var(T-)D
1’1): x2 - x1 12.02 15.50 -3.1.6 <w< 27.50
‘7: x2 - 711 9.811 19.91 -10.07 < ‘l’< 29.75
13— x2 - 363 5.10 17.98 -12.38 <w< 22.58
17: 2xp-(x1+xu) 21.86 32.17 -10.31 < w< 511.03
1': (x2+73)-2x1 18.911, 21.76 -2.82 <w< 110.70
T: (22+x31—(xlqu) 16.76 23.35 -6.59 <‘P< 110.11
9:.- (x2+x3+xu)-3x1 21.12 29.68 -8.56 <w< 50.80
it: (2x2+x3)-31’1 30.96 26.13 11.83 <w< 57.09%
Legend: Y1 = Mean for suburban 7: = Mean for inner-city
Y3 = Mean for urban Eh = Mean for rural

Significant Scheffe’ comparison

73

Table h.17 reveals that when school location pre-
ference is ranked from highest to lowest according to mean
scores on the MTAI, those individuals choosing to teach in
the inner-city have the most positive attitudes toward chil-
dren, followed by those wanting to teach in an urban, rural
and suburban setting.

The findings presented in Table h.18 indicate that
differences among these means are statistically significant
(P <.Ou1). A Scheffe’ Post Hoc comparison was therefore
calculated to determine which differences were significant.
Table h.19 reports these findings. The results show that
the Scheffe’ comparison was not significant for any of the
straight forward comparisons; i.e., those involving any two
group means.

In short, the results of this study seem to suggest
that there is some relationship between one's preferred
school location and one's expressed attitudes toward children.
But it is not reasonable to assume that those individuals
preferring one school location such as the inner—city have
a more favorable attitude toward children than those pre-

ferring some other school location such as suburban.

Sub-Question 8.

 

Is there any relationship between one's teaching pre-
ference (racial composition of school) and one's expressed
attitudes toward children?

The analyses of data with respect to the racial com-

position of schools is presented in three tables. Table h.20

74

contains the cell frequency and means. Table u.21 depicts

a 2 x 9, fixed-effects, analysis of variance test for the data.
The results of the analysis of variance test presented in
Table h.21 indicates a statistical significance (P <.003)

for the racial composition of school preferred. Therefore

a Scheffe' Post Hoc comparison was computed in order to find
the significant difference. The results of the Scheffe'
comparison are depicted in Table n.22.

Examination of Table h.20 reveals that those indi-
viduals preferring to teach in all white schools have the
lowest mean MTAI score (32.63), while those individuals pre-
ferring to teach in mostly non-white schools had the highest
mean MTAI score (56.86). With the exception of one mean
(Y6 for group I), all means increase when going from a com-
position of 100 percent white for schools to an all non-white
school composition. This study suggests that those individuals
preferring a racial integrated school have more favorable
expressed attitudes toward children than do those individuals
preferring all "white" schools.

This difference was subjected to an analysis of vari-
ance test. The results of that test are depicted in Table
h.21 indicating that there is a statistically significant

difference (P <.003).

7S

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76

TABLE h.21

ANOVA TABLE FOR RACIAL COMPOSITION OF SCHOOL

 

 

 

Sum Mean
Sources Square D.F. Square F.Ratio Prob.
Group 19,688.11 1 19,688.11 2h.0909 0.0001
Racial 15,285.25 5 3,057.05 3.7h07 0.0028*
Group r Racial 1,618.75 5 323.75 0.3962 0.8513
Error 201,032.87 286 817.21
Totals 237,62u.98 257

 

Legend: ANOVA
D.F.

tested

Analysis of variance
Degree of freedom

Prob. = Probability
Racial = Racial composition preferred at school
Group * Racial = Interaction between cell being

a = Statistically significant

TABLE b.22

SCHEFFE' POST HOC COMPARISON FOR RACIAL

COMPOSITION OF SCHOOL

(i-Svgaflb’

 

 

9 Contrast T SWITEFTT3 <[@+s Var(w)
{3: Y6 - 21 2h-23 30.60 -6.37 <\y< 5u.83
‘1: 75 - 21 15.81 20.3u -u.53 <\y< 35.15
G): (Xt+78)'221 E3.2u A7.56 —u.32 <1y< 90.80
A = (magma-s, 59.05 63.35 41.30 < ~1< 122.110
9: 2x6-(x1+x2) 117.71 56.32 -8.61 < w < 1011.03
8 = 2254371432) 30.87 32.88 -2.01 < w< 63.75
9 = (xu+x5+2x6)-2(xl+x2) 81.78 76.60 -5.18 < q: < 158.38-x-

 

 

Legend: Xi through XE = The means for the various percen-
tages for white individuals pre-

ferred in schools.
a = Significant Scheffe’ comparison

77

Therefore a Scheffe’ comparison was computed to deter-
mine which levels of racial preference yielded mean MTAI
scores which were significantly different. As Table h.22
reveals the largest absolute difference (7i and E6) was not
statistically significant. Since the N's have some effect
in a Scheffe’ comparison further tests were computed contrast-
ing various means, such as, (7i and is) [see Table h.22].

This difference also proved to be non-significant except for
a weighting of those means representing schools of 60 per-
cent white or less with those means representing schools of
90 - 100 percent white.

In short, the results of this study seem to suggest
that there is some relationship between racial composition
of the school which one prefers and one's expressed atti-
tudes toward children. But it is not reasonable to assume
that those individuals preferring a certain racial composi-
tion of schools have a more favorable attitude toward chil-
dren than those choosing some other racial composition of

schools.

CHAPTER V

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Summary and Conclusions

 

The purposes of the investigation were: (1) to
determine whether there was a significant difference between
the expressed attitudes toward children of those individuals
beginning professional education courses and those indi-
viduals concluding the professional education sequence and
(2) to determine whether various demographic factors, as
defined by this study, were significantly related to these
attitudes.

The resolution of these objectives was sought by
administering and scoring the MTAI and administering and
tabulating the information on a demographic questionnaire.

The sample consisted of 290 teacher candidates at
Michigan State University. Of the 290 students who took
the MTAI and demographic questionnaire 279 completed both
forms satisfactorily. This yielded a return rate of 96.2
percent.

The independent variables in this study included:
extent of professional training, sex, grade level preference,

subject area competency, type of school (K-8 and K-l2) in

78

79

which educated, number of siblings, school location pre—
ference, and racial composition of school preference. An
individual's score on the MTAI served as the dependent
variable in every analysis. Mean scores on the MTAI were
computed for each level of all independent variables. A
multivariate analysis of variance test was then computed to
determine whether observed differences between means were
significant.’ If the results of the analysis of variance
showed statistical significance, a Scheffe' Post Hoc com-
parison was calculated to determine which of the means were
responsible for the statistical significance.

The analyses of the MTAI mean scores in relation to
the independent variables of personal demographic data and
level of professional training revealed six significant dif-
ferences in MTAI mean scores. Of the nine variables tested
the six significant variables were: (1) level of profes-
sional training, (2) sex, (3) subject competency, (M) type
of community raised until college, (5) school location pre-
ference and (6) racial composition of school preferred.

The research findings of this investigation support
the following conclusions:

(1) The MTAI mean scores for Group I (Beg.) vs.
Group II (Fin.) was statistically significant at the .0005
level, indicating that Group II (Fin.) had a significantly
more positive attitude toward children than did Group I (Beg.).
Possible explanations of this difference include (a) that

those composing Group I (Beg.) had a total life eXperience

80

which was different from the life experiences of Group II
(Fin.), (b) that the University experience for Group II
(Fin.) has resulted in changing their attitudes toward
children in a positive direction, (c) that the professional
education course sequence has had an effect on Group II
(Fin.) such that their attitudes toward children have shifted
in a more positive direction, (d) that there may be a fil-
tering or weeding out process at work, since only 60 percent
of those individuals who enrolled in the first professional
education course ultimately complete the final education
course. These individuals with less positive attitudes
toward children may drop out of the teacher education pro-
gram for one reason or another leaving those individuals
with more positive attitudes toward children.

(2) The MTAI mean scores for sex (male vs. female)
was statistically significant at the .003 level, indicating
that females had a significantly more positive attitude
toward children than did males. Speculation as to the rea-
son for this sexual difference in expressed attitudes toward
children, possibly include: (a) the role expectation for
females within the societal context is such that a more
positive attitude toward children is fostered. This could
be due to different rearing practices for female and male
children, the child bearing functions of females and a dif-
ferentiation between females and males on the basis of work,
protection and providing for families; (b) the religious

servitude of females under males down through time has

81

necessitated male dominance which has therefore resulted in
males being more aggressive and possessive of people.

(3) The MTAI mean scores for subject competency
were statistically significant at the .Ohl level. The study
suggests that subject competency has some relationship to
expressed attitudes toward children. Although five out of
six of the highest means were in humanistic areas such as
fine arts, as opposed to content areas such as mathematics
and science, the mean for physical education was lower than
that for any other category. It is therefore impossible to
make any meaningful generalizations about this finding even
though there was statistical significance.

(h) The MTAI mean scores for the type of community
raised were collected and computed in two parts. The first
part was the type of community raised from birth to 10 years
of age. The difference between MTAI mean scores for this
variable (community raised 0-10 years) was not statistically
significant at the .05 level. However, the difference
between MTAI mean scores for part two (type of community
raised until attending college) was statistically signifi-
cant at the .027 level, indicating that people raised until
college in the inner-city had significantly less favorable
.attitudes toward children than those raised until college in
suburban and urban areas. These results, however, were based
on an N of 5 for the inner-city. Any explanation of this
finding must therefore be viewed as highly speculative.

The explanation most plausible to this author cen-

ters around the hard life within the inner-city. If one

82

assumes that adult attitudes toward children raised in the
inner-city are negative, then it seems reasonable to suggest
that the less positive attitudes among inner-city students
in this sample maybe merely a reflection of the harshness

of attitudes which have been expressed toward them.

A plausible explanation of the low N obtained in
this sample for the inner-city might be that society puts
negative connotations on the word inner-city, therefore
people do not identify nor want to be identified with having
been raised in the inner-city. Also, admission policies of
universities are such that fewer people raised in the inner -
city are admitted to college.

(5) The MTAI mean scores for school location prefer-
ence were statistically significant at the .Oul level. The
study suggests that school location preference has some
relationship to expressed attitudes toward children. If a
random sample of educators were asked to rank the following
types of schools according to desirability in terms of dis-
cipline problems, available materials, etc., it is highly
likely that the rank ordering would be: suburban, rural,
urban and inner-city. This same rank ordering is maintained
in regard to attitudes toward children among those who pre-
fer to teach in the suburban school, for example, have the
least positive attitudes toward children, while those pre-
ferring to teach in an inner-city school have the most
favorable attitudes. However, the results of the Scheffe'
comparison suggest that it is not possible to conclude that
attitudes vary significantly between any two types of pre-

ferred schools.

83

(6) The MTAI mean scores for the racial composition
of schools preferred was statistically significant at the
.003 level. The study suggests the racial composition of
school preferred has some relationship to expressed atti-
tudes toward children. There appears to be a linear trend
when progressing from a preference to teach in a 100 percent
"white" school to a preference for a 100 percent "non—white"
school. But this trend is disrupted by a low mean score for
individuals preferring to teach in a 50 percent "non-white"
school. With this exception, however, it seems reasonable
to conclude that there is an increasingly positive attitude
toward children among those who indicate a preference to
teach in a school with increasing percents of "non-white"

students.

The analyses of the MTAI mean scores in relation to
the independent variables (number of siblings, type of school
educated and grade level preference) were not statistically
significant at the .05 level. Although grade level prefer-
ence did obtain a significance of .058 indicating that there
is some relationship between grade level preferred and one's
expressed attitudes toward children, the other two indepen-
dent variables did not appear to have any relationship to
one's expressed attitudes toward children.

In summary, this study suggests that those individuals
who have the most positive attitudes toward children have
completed their professional education course sequence, are
female, have been raised in a suburban or urban setting, pre—

fer to teach in grades kindergarten through the third grade,

8L1

prefer to teach in the inner-city and prefer a school compo-
sition of nearly equal or more "non-white" students than

"white" students.

Recommendations from the Study

 

The recommendations in this section are based upon
the literature review, the findings of this study and the
considered judgment of the author.

As one views society's institutions and the direction
they are now moving, one is struck by the similarity to a
moving automobile driven by looking through the rearview
mirror. For the monster in society is not the snow-balling
technology nearly out of control; nor the government, although
it only vaguely resembles its founding ideals. It is not the
military, even though it possesses the ability to destroy the
world yet still sees its function as killing; nor is it a
society founded by a rebellion of people, that now will not
listen to its people, even though they demonstrate. It is,
however, the gross contempt and callousness man has for his
fellowman. It is the inability to invest in people which has
become the monster in our midst.

The assumption which underlies the following recom-
mendations is that people are our most precious commodity,
and that a philosophy founded on a premise of people believ-
ing in people does make a difference.

(1) Those people about to graduate from the univer-
sity in education seem to have more positive attitudes toward

children than those now entering their preparation for

teaching. For whatever reason this may be true, (years

lived, university experience, courses taken, self selectivity,
etc.) there needs to be planned, rather than chance experi—
ences, in order to help people develop more positive atti-
tudes toward children.

(2) The difference between female and male attitudes
toward children is enough to warrant consideration and dif-
ferentiation in college of education curricula.

(3) People, especially those individuals endeavor-
ing to become skilled in content areas, need to be more aware
of their love for data rather than people. It is unthinkable
to graduate students from our universities who indoctrinate
children, unaware that education orientated towards product
production is not an end in itself, but that education, the
process, is the desired end.

(A) With the megalopolis threatening the countryside
and our present cities crying for change in the education of
our inner-city children, this study suggests that people
raised in the inner-city have the least positive attitudes
toward children. This indicates that the hiring practices
of inner-city schools in selecting those individuals with
similar backgrounds to those of the student body is perhaps
a gross mistake. Further research must be conducted to
either confirm or deny this point.

(5) Those people choosing to teach in the inner-
city appear to have positive attitudes toward children. The
problem is that whereas the majority of teaching positions

are in the cities, the majority of teacher candidates prefer

86

to teach in the suburban areas. Those people wanting to
teach in suburbia seem to possess less favorable attitudes
toward children than those preferring other teaching loca-
tions. Therefore, those people not hired to teach in the
suburban communities wind up in the city teaching and are
possibly the ones with the most negative attitudes toward
children of all. With the close proximity of megalopolis,
great effort and care must therefore be taken to foster
increasingly more positive attitudes toward children.

(6) If a multi-racial society is ever to be, then
those people charged with educating the children of this
world must be aware of their biases and attitudes. For
awareness is the first step in changing and in this day and
age, change we all must.

(7) Great thought and care must be given in provid-
ing methods or procedures for selecting individuals into our
teacher education programs. Education is working with chil-
dren and it is criminal to simply allow people into teacher
preparatory programs, prescribe the courses, feed them con—
tent and data and then certificate them without ever having
them examine their attitudes and biases.

(8) Teacher education institutions must obligate
themselves to aid their students in evaluating their own
strengths and weaknesses through such vehicles as sensi-
tivity training, small group discussions, diagnostic test-
ing, foreign exchange programs and culturally divergent
experiences. Weaknesses of attitudes toward youth, per-

sonality traits, personal characteristics and human

87

relationships in teachers must be recognized and strength-
ened so that teachers can be of greater benefit to children
and better equipped to meet the onslaught of 50 minute
periods with 30 or more students per period.

(9) Teacher education institutions have a further
obligation for evaluating their own programs of teacher edu-
cation to determine whether they are meeting fully the
objectives which they have set for themselves. This might
be accomplished by ongoing testing and research, student-
faculty interaction and discussions, student participation
in decision making, the dropping of grades as being synono-
mous with evaluation, the killing of the educational sacred
cows and a greater commitment to education rather than
schooling.

(10) A more careful selection of supervising teachers
must be exercised such that those teachers selected are the
more creative, industrious and possess positive attitudes
toward children. These desirable teacher characteristics
should have behavioral visability not just verbal rhetoric.

(11) There needs to be a more meaningful sequence
of experiences in and out of the university classroom and a
greater integration of courses on campus. Consider for
example, the exalted position of student teaching at the
end of one's teacher training rather than at the beginning.
If the understanding of children is significant to becoming
a good teacher, then why not have action programs where
teacher candidates become involved with children in more

than just a school setting.

88

Central to all of the above recommendations is the
concept that change in attitudes is at the heart of neglect

of educational institutions.

Recommendations for Future Research

 

Emerging from this study are a number of possible
ideas for future inquiry and research.

(1) What are the attitudes toward children as
expressed by those individuals not completing their course
sequence for teacher certification?

I (2) What are the expressed attitudes toward children
of a randomly selected group of teacher candidates analyses
on a longitudinal basis.

(3) What type of attitude differentiation is
discernible from subject area selection?

(A) What are the ramifications for hiring teachers
in inner-city schools if inner-city raised and educated
adults possess significantly less favorable attitudes toward
children?

(5) What type of attitude differentiation is dis-
cernible from grade level preferences?

(6) What type of interrelations exist between the
type of racial composition preference in schools and expressed
attitudes toward children?

(7) What effects, if any, have the undergraduate

educational courses had on student attitudes toward children?

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APPENDICES

APPENDIX A

95

INSTRUCTIONS

PERSONAL DATA SHEETS--Please circle your answers on the
actual test form.

ATTITUDE INVENTORY---—Please mark your answers on the
enclosed answer sheet. Do not mark
on the inventory form. Be sure to
use a machine marking pencil or a
No. 2 pencil.

The stamped numbers on the personal data and answer
sheets relate only to pairing up the data for statistical
analysis. No attempt is being made to identify the indi-

vidual completing the inventory.

I want to express my appreciation to you for taking
the time to complete the enclosed questionnaires. The
importance of the questionnaires is to focus on attitudes
about children. No attempt is being made to assess
"right" attitudes but rather to see if college has an

effect on attitudes toward children.

Please return the complete envelope (including

booklets and answer sheet) to your instructor.

Thank you.

APPENDIX B

DO NOT OPEN UNTIL TOLD TO DO SO

 

MINNESOTA TEACHER ATTITUDE
INVENTORY

 

Form A
WALTER W. COOK CARROLL H. LEEDS ROBERT CALLIS
University of Minnesota Furman University University of Missouri
DIRECTIONS

This inventory consists of 150 statements designed to sample Opinions
about teacher-pupil relations. There is considerable disagreement as to what
these relations should be; therefore, there are no right or wrong answers.
What is wanted is your own individual feeling about the statements. Read
each statement and decide how YOU feel about it. Then mark your answer
on the space provided on the answer sheet. Do not make any marks on
this booklet.

 

SA A U D
If you strongly agree, blacken space under "SA" ...................................................... I
SA A U D

If you agree, blacken space under "A” .............................................................. v ............

SA U
If you are undecided or uncertain, blacker: space under "U" .................................... :: .: I
SA A U D
If you disagree, blacken space under "D" ........................................................ . ............ =- .. I: I
SA A U D

If you Strongly disagree, blacken space under "SD” ...................................................

 

SO
SO
SD

SD

 

 

Think in terms of the general situation rather than specific ones. There
is no time limit, but work as rapidly as you can. PLEASE RESPOND
TO EVERY ITEM.

The inventory contained in this booklet has been designed for use with answer forms
published or authorized by The Psychological Corporation. If Other answer forms are used,
The Psychological Corporation takes no responsibility for the meaningfulness of scores.

Copyright 1951 by The Psychological Corporation.

All rights reserved. No part of this inventory may be reproduced in
any form of printing or by any ether means, elecrronic or mechanical,
including, but nor limited to, phorocopying, audiovisual recording and
transmission, and portrayal or duplication in any information Storage
and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher.

Printed in U.S.A. The Psychological Corporation. 304 East 45th Street. New York. N. Y. 10017

66- 14313

SA—Strongly agree
A—Agree

U—Undecided
or uncertain

D—Disagree
SD—Strongly disagree

 

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

Most children are obedient.

Pupils who “act smart” probably have too
high an opinion of themselves.

Minor disciplinary situations should sometimes
be turned into jokes.

Shyness is preferable to boldness.

Teaching never gets monotonous.

Most pupils don’t appreciate what a teacher
does for them.

If the teacher laughs with the pupils in amus-
ing classroom situations, the class tends to get
out of control.

A child’s companionships can be too carefully
supervised.

A child should be encouraged to keep his likes
and dislikes to himself.

It sometimes does a child good to be criticized
in the presence of other pupils.

Unquestioning obedience in a child is not
desirable.

Pupils should be required to do more studying
at home.

The first lesson a child needs to learn is to
obey the teacher without hesitation.

Young people are difficult to understand these
days.

There is too great an emphasis upon “keeping
order” in the classroom.

16.

17.

18.

19.

21.

22.

23.

25.

26.

27.

28.

29.

30.

A pupil’s failure is seldom the fault of the
teacher.

There are times when a teacher cannot be
blamed for losing patience with a pupil.

A teacher should never discuss sex problems
with the pupils.

Pupils have it too easy in the modern school.

A teacher should not be expected to burden
himself with a pupil’s problems.

Pupils expect too much help from the teacher
in getting their lessons.

A teacher should not be expected to sacrifice
an evening of recreation in order to visit a
child’s home.

Most pupils do not make an adequate effort
to prepare their lessons.

Too many children nowadays are allowed to
have their own way.

Children’s wants are just as important as those
of an adult.

The teacher is usually to blame when pupils
fail to follow directions.

A child should be taught to obey an adult
without question.

The boastful child is usually over-confident of
his ability.

Children have a natural tendency to be unruly.

A teacher cannot place much faith in the state-
ments of pupils.

GO ON TO THE NEXT PAGE

SA—Strongly agree
A—Agree

U—Undecided
or uncertain

D—Disagree
SD—Strongly disagree.

 

31.

35.

37.

38.

39.

41.

Some children ask too many questions.

A pupil should not be required to stand when
reciting.

The teacher should not be expected to man-
age a child if the latter’s parents are unable
to do so.

A teacher should never acknowledge his ig-
norance of a tOpic in the presence of his pupils.

Discipline in the modern school is not as strict
as it should be.

Most pupils lack productive imagination.
Standards of work should vary with the pupil.

The majority of children take their responsi-
bilities seriously.

To maintain good discipline in the classroom
a teacher needs to be “hard-boiled.”

Success is more motivating than failure.

Imaginative tales demand the same punish-
ment as lying.

Every pupil in the sixth grade should have
sixth grade reading ability.

A good motivating device is the critical com-
parison of a pupil’s work with that of other
pupils.

It is better for a child to be bashful than to be
“boy or girl crazy.”

Course grades should never be lowered as
punishment.

48.

47.

51.

53.

55.

57.

58.

80.

More “old-fashioned whippings” are needed
today.

The child must learn that “teacher knows best.”

Increased freedom in the classroom creates
confusion.

A teacher should not be expected to be sym-
pathetic toward truants.

Teachers should exercise more authority over
their pupils than they do.

Discipline problems are the teacher’s greatest
worry.

The low achiever probably is not working hard
enough and applying himself.

There is too much emphasis on grading.

Most children lack common courtesy toward
adults.

Aggressive children are the greatest problems.

At times it is necessary that the whole class
suffer when the teacher is unable to identify
the culprit.

Many teachers are not severe enough in their
dealings with pupils.

Children “should be seen and not heard.”

A teacher should always have at least a few
failures.

It is easier to correct discipline problems than
it is to prevent them.

GO ON TO THE NEXT PAGE

mi:

ll!!!

fill? .‘-'

.4
w!“

. 3'
731:3 .

'l
I
Ml:
‘l

SA—Strongly agree
A—Agree

U—Undecided
or uncertain

D—Disagree
SD—Strongly disagree

 

81.

87.

70.

71.

72.

73.

74.

75.

Children are usually too sociable in the class-
room.

Most pupils are resourceful when left on
their own.

Too much nonsense goes on in many class-
rooms these days.

The school is often to blame in cases of truancy.

Children are too carefree.

Pupils who fail to prepare their lessons daily
should be kept after school to make this prep-
aration.

Pupils who are foreigners usually make the
teacher’s task more unpleasant.

Most children would like to use good English.

Assigning additional school work is often an
effective means of punishment.

Dishonesty as found in cheating is probably
one of the most serious of moral offenses.

Children should be allowed more freedom in
their execution of learning activities.

Pupils must learn to respect teachers if for no
other reason than that they are teachers.

Children need not always understand the rea-
sons for social conduct.

Pupils usually are not qualified to select their
own topics for themes and reports.

No child should rebel against authority.

78.

77.

78.

79.

81.

87.

There is too much leniency today in the hand-
ling of children.

Difficult disciplinary problems are seldom the
fault of the teacher.

The whims and impulsive desires of children
are usually worthy of attention.

Children usually have a hard time following
instructions.

Children nowadays are allowed too much free-
dom in school.

All children should start to read by the age
of seven.

Universal promotion of pupils lowers achieve-
ment standards.

Children are unable to reason adequately.

A teacher should not tolerate use of slang
expressions by his pupils.

The child who misbehaves should be made to
feel guilty and ashamed of himself.

If a child wants to speak or to leave his seat
during the class period, he should always get
permission from the teacher.

Pupils should not respect teachers any more
than any other adults.

Throwing of chalk and erasers should always
demand severe punishment.

Teachers who are liked best probably have a
better understanding of their pupils.

Most pupils try to make things easier for the
teacher.

GO ON TO THE NEXT PAGE

SA—Strongly agree
A—Agree

U—Undecided

or uncertain

D—Disagree
SD—Strongly disagree

 

91.

94.

100.

101.

102.

103.

104.

105.

Most teachers do not give sufiicient explana-
tion in their teaching.

There are too many activities lacking in acad-
emic respectability that are being introduced
into the curriculum of the modern school.

Children should be given more freedom in the
classroom than they usually get.

Most pupils are unnecessarily thoughtless rel-
ative to the teacher’s wishes.

Children should not expect talking privileges
when adults wish to speak.

Pupils are usually slow to “catch on” to new
material.

Teachers are responsible for knowing the
home conditions of every one of their pupils.

Pupils can be very boring at times.

Children have no business asking questions
about sex.

Children must be told exactly what to do and
how to do it.

Most pupils are considerate of their teachers.

Whispering should not be tolerated.

Shy pupils especially should be required to
stand when reciting.

Teachers should consider problems of con-
duct more seriously than they do.

A teacher should never leave the class to its
own management.

108.

107.

108.

109.

110.

111.

112.

113.

114.

115.

118.

117.

118.

119.

120.

A teacher should not be expected to do more
work than he is paid for.

There is nothing that can be more irritating
than some pupils.

“Lack of application” is probably one of the
most frequent causes for failure.

Young people nowadays are too frivolous.

As a rule teachers are too lenient with their
pupils.

Slow pupils certainly try one’s patience.

Grading is of value because of the competition
element.

Pupils like to annoy the teacher.

Children usually will not think for themselves.

Classroom rules and regulations must be con-
sidered inviolable.

Most pupils have too easy a time of it and do
not learn to do real work.

Children are so likeable that their shortcom-
ings can usually be overlooked.

A pupil found writing obscene notes should
be severely punished.

A teacher seldom finds children really enjoy-
able.

There is usually one hest way to do school
work which all pupils should follow.

GO ON TO THE NEXT PAGE

SA—Strongly agree
A—Agree

U—Undecided
or uncertain

D—Disagree
SD—Strongly disagree

 

121.

122.

123.

124.

125.

128.

127.

128.

129.

130.

131.

132.

133.

134.

135.

It isn’t practicable to base school work upon
children’s interests.

It is difficult to understand why some chil-
dren want to come to school so early in the
morning before opening time.

Children that cannot meet the school stand-
ards should be dropped.

Children are usually too inquisitive.

It is sometimes necessary to break promises
made to children.

Children today are given too much freedom.

One should be able to get along with almost
any child.

Children are not mature enough to make their
own decisions.

A child who bites his nails needs to be shamed.

Children will think for themselves if permit-
ted.

There is no excuse for the extreme sensitivity
of some children.

Children just cannot be trusted.

Children should be given reasons for the re-
strictions placed upon them.

Most pupils are not interested in learning.

It is usually the uninteresting and difficult
subjects that will do the pupil the most good.

138.

137.

138.

139.

140.

141.

142.

143.

144.

145.

148.

147.

148.

149.

150.

A pupil should always be fully aware of what
is expected of him.

There is too much intermingling of the sexes
in extra-curricular activities.

The child who stutters should be given the
opportunity to recite oftener.

The teacher should disregard the complaints
of the child who constantly talks about imag-
inary illnesses.

Teachers fprobably over-emphasize the ser-
iousness 0 such pupil behavior as the writing
of obscene notes.

Teachers should not expect pupils to like
them.

Children act more civilized than do many
adults.

Aggressive children require the most atten-
tion.

Teachers can be in the wrong as well as
pupils.

Young people today are just as good as those
of the past generation.

Keeping discipline is not the problem that
many teachers claim it to be.

A pupil has the right to disagree openly with
his teachers.

Most pupil misbehavior is done to annoy the
teacher.

One should not expect pupils to enjoy school.

In pupil appraisal effort should not be dis-
tinguished from scholarship.

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APPENDIX C

ATTITUDE INVEfiToaV

IVIII‘I‘h-UV I ’\

Cook ~ Leeds — Cams
All nghts reserved as stated m the manual and Catalog

Copynghl 1951.

THE PSYCHOLOGICAL CORPORATION

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I." FORM 1.1.5. 1000 A 7419

APPENDIX D

98

APPENDIX D

PLEASE CIRCLE THE APPROPRIATE ANSWER FOR EACH ITEM.

1. Please indicate your sex.

1. Female
2. Male

2. Please indicate your age.

18 yrs. or under
19 yrs.

20 yrs.

21 yrs.

22 yrs.

23 yrs.

2h yrs..

25 yrs.

26-30 yrs.

31 yrs. or over

C»OCD~JOWH¥TCHU14

1.1

3. Please indicate your marital status.

1. Single

2. Married
3- Divorced
u. Separated
S. Widowed

u. Please indicate your race.

1. Caucasion
2. Negroid
3. Other

5. Please indicate which grade level you intend to teach.

1. Early elementary (K-3)
Later elementary (h-b)
Junior High (7-9)
High School (10-12)

PLAN

6.

10.

99

Please indicate the teaching area in which you feel you
have or will have your greatest competence.

I--‘
I

Mathematics

Science

English

Home Economics

Exceptional Children (gifted or handicapped)
Industrial Arts

Physical Education

Communication Arts

Social Sciences

Fine Arts

oxooowo‘mtwm

1.4

Please indicate the type of school in which you received
the majority of your (K-8) education.

1. Public
2. Church affiliated
3. Private

Please indicate the type of school in which you received
the majority of your (K-l2) education.

1. Public
2. Church affiliated
3. Private

Please indicate the type of community in which you were
raised for the majority of your childhood (0-10 years).

1. Suburban
2. Inner-city
3. Urban

h. Rural

Please indicate the type of community in which you were
raised for the majority of your pre-college years
(O-college).

l. Suburban
2. Inner-city
3. Urban

u. Rural

ll.

12.

13.

la.

15.

100

Please indicate the last grade in school completed by
your father.

1. K-8 grade

2. 9-11 grade

. High School graduate

. Junior College or equivalent
. College Degree or beyond

\nF'w

Please indicate the last grade in school completed by
your mother.

K-8 grade

9-11 grade

High School graduate

Junior College or equivalent
College Degree or beyond

vaxenaw

Please indicate the number of children in your family
including yourself.

1. l
2. 2
3- 3
14- LI
5- S
6. 6
7. 7
8. 8
9. over 8

Please indicate to which social class your parents
belong.

Lower class
Upper-lower class
Lower-middle class
Upper-middle class
Lower-upper class
Upper class

OWH¥TMHUF4

Please indicate the location preference of the school
where you would teach.

1. Suburban
2. Inner-city
3. Urban

h. Rural

16.

l7.

18.

101

Please indicate your preference of school type where
you would teach.

1. Public
2. Church affiliated
3. Private

Please indicate the preferrable social class ccmposition
of the school where you would teach.

1. Lower class
Upper-lower class
Lower-middle class
Upper-middle class
Lower-upper class
Upper class

No preference
Other

CD~JOWn$7uHU

Please indicate the preferrable racial composition of
the school where you would teach.

1. 100% white

2. 90% white, 10% non-white
3. 75% white, 25% non-white
h. 60% white, h0% non-white
5. 50% white, 50% non-white
6. h0% white, 60% non-white
7. 25% white, 75% non-white
8. 10% white, 90% non-white
9. 100% non-white