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D. degree in Education W?‘ 7 Major pMsor Date May 21, 1981 0-7639 Illjlllllllfllllllfllljlllllllljilllll L ' MSU LIIRARIIS n. RETURNING MATERIALS: Place in book drop to remove this checkout from your record. FINES will be charged if book is returned after the date stamped below. 0W3"; _' .uq -" “7'77 u? u-l as l ‘8“; (5‘. a!“ 0—) ( x l DECISION-MAKING AT MID-LIFE: GRADUATE SCHOOL. AS AN ALTERNATIVE FOR EFFECTING CHANGE IN THE LIVES OF MEN AND WOMEN, AGES 35 AND OLDER By Barbara Gould Pelowski A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Administration and Higher Education l98l P ”I . Eu. A. a. . u '4 I '.;. V. "':E ‘ C n . wi‘ u. r! dull" e. \N v I::. i '3 " n b D P‘ . :T‘r. U U n u “A J U? c. I I . b..}‘. C W I:. _ I I"‘ t. ' o ABSTRACT DECISION-MAKING AT MID-LIFE: GRADUATE SCHOOL AS AN ALTERNATIVE FOR EFFECTING CHANGE IN THE LIVES OF MEN AND WOMEN, AGES 35 AND OLDER By Barbara Gould Pelowski Concerned with the multiple changes affecting the develop- ment of women and men in middle adulthood, a study was designed to explore how adults at mid-life make decisions. Specifically, the purpose of the study was to investigate the process by which women and men, ages 35 and older, chose to enter graduate school at Michigan State University in the fall or winter term of 1979-80. The study sought to identify the differential effects of educational and employment history upon women and men in the deci- sion to enter graduate school; to identify the human resources used by the women and men; to determine with what conditions or "trade- offs" the decision was made; to identify the consequences, antici- pated or unanticipated; and to determine what life events or major changes were perceived by the women and men as having precipitated the decision to enter graduate school. A review of the literature included a brief history of graduate education, and an overview of research and writing on D I. .O \ ‘Iv‘u. , H I i I' Q NIT-1:. U ‘ ‘ i I‘.‘ ‘ l O’- i . “ u "at \ I'J‘: I I. . J r! 4;,. fi-AP 'h t. Sl‘ Barbara Gould Pelowski adult life-cycle develOpment and decision-making, with particular emphasis upon gender differences and life transitions. The total population of mid-life, entering first-time grad- uate students (N=198) comprised the research population. A survey instrument was mailed to l98 students (87 women and Ill men), l47 of whom were registered in master's degree programs, 5l in doctoral programs. A sub-sample of the questionnaire respondents (N=20) were interviewed in-depth about the decision-making process. Analysis of information from l20 completed questionnaires (69 women and 5l men) indicated that although the mid-life graduate students ranged in age from 35 to 59, more than one-half were between 35 and 39. Women were somewhat older than the men, were more likely to be separated or divorced, and were more apt to be single-parents. The respondents were predominantly white, U.S. citizens, although approximatley l0 percent were international students. There was a significant difference in the employment status of the respondents, with more men than women employed full-time. Most of the respondents had continued their education since complet- ing their undergraduate degrees, with more men than women enrolled full-time. The respondents were enrolled in eleven colleges, pre- dominantly: Education, Business, Lifelong Education, and Social Science. More men than women were enrolled in doctoral programs. Among the human resources activated in the decision-making process, spouses were consulted most often, followed by educational personnel, friends, employment resources, children and/or relatives, . J .- 3:0, EL. ”:33 re: ran, 0?. up? of tiled! b a ' , p It 0A Ar‘g I! W ~|iu:r c I ‘Il;‘ ‘ m: inf-1' - ‘ I“51 Barbara Gould Pelowski and professional resource persons. Nomen consulted more persons than men, felt more encouraged and discouraged by others, and thought of more human resources they might have used. Nomen more than men expected to make adjustments in order to enter graduate school, felt more people were affected by their decision, and associated their decision with changes in their lives. For most of the graduate students, changes in work and relationships had taken place and graduate school had been chosen as a means of effecting a transition. Graduate school itself repre- sented continuity for some, and change for others. In either case, the decision-making process by which graduate school was chosen was clearly different for mid-life women and men. Copyright by BARBARA GOULD PELONSKI 1981 I'm-rm " .5 Own, J i?“ 2:. ‘v‘g . I “:r ' 5 1r. - ‘ ' ' 'Q .Q . A I” I S '- . fine; ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Having grown up with the principle that propinquity is fifty percent of the impetus to form a relationship, I celebrate the evo- lution of this Ph.D. dissertation with several people whose life paths have crossed mine at timely moments. In a moment forty years ago when Elizabeth Bulkley Loomis and Seabury Smith Gould IV decided that their existence warranted duplication, my life path was begun. For many years my parents' paths paralleled and criss-crossed my own, leaving me with my mother's loving, faithful, adventuresome attitude toward living, and my father's appreciation for achievement and independence. While neither of them is living to share the Ph.D. experience with me in a visible manner, I acknowledge their spiritual presence which continues to contribute in an immeasurable way to the quality and direction of my life. The path which led to the achievement of my doctoral degree periodically has been "under construction." Twelve years ago, Dr. Laurine E. Fitzgerald, Dr. Walter F. Johnson, Dr. Ruth Hill Useem, and Dr. Richard L. Featherstone comprised the doctoral committee which guided my preliminary course of work. I am grateful to Dr. Fitzgerald, as my initial advisor, for challenging my profes- sional commitment in a way which resulted in my decision to "bank" ii ~r I-J" - Ff " b I--Ilr 21.: A. wk 1” enough dissertation credits that I couldn't ignore the long-range goal in spite of interruptions. A professional opportunity at Lake Erie College signaled a seven-year detour on the path to the Ph.D. Like most detours, the experience as Dean of Students and the relationships which were cultivated during that time enhanced my background while altering my time framework and changing the focus of my studies. Resuming a journey after a long diversion can be difficult. I am grateful to the three continuing members of my doctoral com- mittee for their faithful encouragement, and to Dr. Howard Hickey for joining the entourage after Dr. Fitzgerald's move to the University of Wisconsin. Aware of the changes which have taken place in my develop- ment between the initiation of my doctoral program and the evolution of my dissertation, I am especially thankful that the life paths of three faculty members crossed mine. Much of the credit for my con- tinued enrollment belongs to Walter Johnson who supported my changing program, directed the dissertation process, and always greeted this transient, mid-life graduate student with respect and affection. Secondly, the person who listened, inspired, and guided me along the circuitous course toward my dissertation topic was Beatrice Paolucci. As a result of our relationship and the stimu- lation of Dr. Paolucci's teaching, I discovered both a subject and a process which has contributed immensely to my personal and pro- fessional growth. :1" FA‘ tla. Nb "Ctiir'r incl-u 5 Sat: F. : ‘po. I u d! . I I AQ‘ .“ I.- ‘ l([‘.': “I (.3 -:,_"5r . n5] , Finally, it is because of Ruth Hill Useem that my disserta- tion not only uncovered what I was seeking but developed with the highest expectations and satisfaction. I treasure our relationship in which I have been the grateful recipient of many lessons in research methodology and a great deal of patience and caring. My traveling companion of the past fifteen years has been James F. Pelowski. Together, Jim and I have mapped our route, shouldered the baggage, struggled with decisions when confronted with an unexpected barrier, and shared a great deal of love and laughter. Together we returned to Michigan State University in l978-79 when Jim completed his Ph.D. On the journey for the past eleven years has been our daughter, Elizabeth Clarke Pelowski, who now could write her own dissertation on "When Mom and Dad Go Back to School." Along with other members of our family whose paths have crossed our lives, Elizabeth has been one of my most enthusiastic cheerleaders. When the path seemed long or there was progress to be cele- brated, there were special friends who gave generously of their resources. For two years, the shuttle from home to East Lansing has operated as necessary, and there has always been shelter and affection to be found in the home of Karl and Jean Thompson. On many other occasions calling for either solace or joy, my life path was crossed in an opportune moment by Alice or Roger Sherman and their family, or by Nancy or David Bowman and their family, or by my siblings, Carolyn, Nancy, Seabury, and especially, Linda. iv ‘- bvbl v II‘ A journey is seldom completed without the assistance of resource people who provide access to information, furnish supplies for the trip, and are willing to step in when the need arises. For their support roles I thank Phyllis Wilkie at Michigan State Uni- versity for facilitating the identification of the research popula- tion; John Day at Lake Erie College, and George Charles Newman at Findlay College for facilitating the use of library resources; Ann Joy Gould (Mrs. Seabury Smith Gould) for providing both moral and material support; Alice M. Pelowski who shared our home for two months while typing the draft of my dissertation and sharing with Jim Pelowski the role of "comprehensive parent" and household manager; and Seabury Smith Gould IV, my father, who, in spite of his premature death, made the completion of my academic goal financially féasible. While the dissertation journey is coming to an end, the rest of my life continues to evolve, marked with the imprint of all who have passed my way. I know that many more experiences and relationships are still to be discovered, and the wonder of it is that at any time or in any place the Opportunity may be near. LIST OF LIST OF Chapter I. II. TABLE OF CONTENTS TABLES . FIGURES THE PROBLEM Introduction . Social Change . . Biological and Psychological Change Theory. . . . . . . Purpose of the Study Need for the Study. Design of the Study Population . Methodology Survey Instrument Interview Sub-Sample Definition of Terms Scope and Limitations . Overview of the Study . REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE . Brief History of Graduate Education . Founding of Johns Hopkins University, l876 Changes in the System, l900- l960 Perceived Problems, l960- l965 Economic Developments, 1965-1970 Social Changes, l965-197O . Enrollment, 1969-l980 . . . Age Characteristics, 1970-l979 . Gender Characteristics, l963- 1986 Change in Focus of Graduate Education . Historical Antecedents of Adult Development Theory Early Literature in Adult Development, l900- l950. Literature in Adult Development, l950-l959 . . vi Page ix xii Hider '3'. Oct. Lji (f) (3 TV, T‘) Chapter III. IV. Literature in Adult Development, l960-l969 . Literature in Adult Development, l970-l979 . Gender Differences . . . . . . Decision- -Making at Mid- Life . Transitions and Change Events Career Transitions Family Transitions . . . Education. A Resource at Mid- Life . Summary RESEARCH DESIGN AND PROCEDURES . Study Leading to the Development of the Proposal for the Ph. D. Dissertation . Research Questions . . Population and Sub- -Sample Population . . Sub- -Sample . . . Procedure for Obtaining Data Pre— Test . Permission to Use Human Subjects The Survey Instrument Pilot Interviews . Interviews . . Procedures for Analysis The Survey Results Non-Respondents Analysis of Data . Summary . PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA . A Description of the Respondents General Description . . Age . . Marital Status Parental Status Employment Status College Enrollment Level of Degree Program Race and Nationality The Decision-Making Process . Educational History . Employment History Human Resources Conditions and Bargains (Trade- Offs) . Effects of the Decision to Enter Graduate School vii 107 109 111 113 113 113 114 114 115 115 116 116 117 119 120 122 122 123 124 126 129 133 134 135 136 141 144 158 162 lll‘l‘llll Chapter Summary . Description of the Respondents The Decision- -Making Process Conclusion . SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS Introduction . . Summary of the Study The Problem . Significant Literature . Methodology Findings . . Description of the Respondents The Decision- -Making Process Conclusions . . . Educational History. Employment History Human Resources Conditions and Bargains (Trade- Offs) Consequences (Effects of the Decision) Life- -Change Events . . . Recommendations for Further Study. BIBLIOGRAPHY APPENDICES A-l. A-2. A-3. A-4. A-S. B. C. APPROVAL LETTER FROM THE UNIVERSITY COMMITTEE FOR RESEARCH INVOLVING HUMAN SUBJECTS . PRE-TEST ORIGINAL LETTER AND CONSENT FORM QUESTIONNAIRE FOLLOW-UP LETTER TO NON-RESPONDENTS ERICKSON CHART AND LETTER OF PERMISSION . CONSULTATION RESOURCES viii Page 175 175 177 179 180 180 181 181 181 183 186 186 189 196 196 196 197 199 200 201 203 206 222 228 230 239 242 251 253 256 LIST OF TABLES Graduate Student College Enrollment Population of Total Percentage Distribution of Non-Respondents and Respondents by Gender and Degree Program Percentage Distribution of Non-Respondents and Respondents by College Enrollment Percentage Distribution of Non-Respondents and Respondents by Age Groups Percentage Distribution of Mid-Life by Age and Gender . . Percentage Distribution of Mid-Life by Marital Status . Percentage Distribution of Mid-Life with Children Percentage Distribution of Mid-Life with Children by Age . Percentage Distribution of Mid-Life Employed Before Entering Graduate Employed After Enrollment Percentage Distribution of Mid-Life by College Enrollment Percentage Distribution of Mid-Life by Degree Level Percentage Distribution of Mid-Life Graduate Students Graduate StUdents Graduate Students Graduate Students Graduate Students School and Graduate Students Graduate Students Graduate Students by Age at Which Completed Undergraduate Degree Percentage Distribution of Mid-Life and Patterns of Continued Education . ix Graduate Students Page 112 118 118 119 124 125 126 128 130 132 134 136 138 ‘1 P6 1 in at R171 «iii ‘~. PE W. hi" .Fs .u Pr: afy u.. ',, .. Table 4.22 4.23 4.24 Percentage Distribution of Mid-Life Graduate Students and Enrollment Patterns . . . . . . Percentage Distribution of Mid-Life Graduate Students and Spring Enrollment Status Percentage Distribution of Mid-Life Graduate Students and Employment Leading to Study Percentage Distribution of Mid-Life Graduate Students who Talked with Human Resources Percentage Distribution of Married Mid-Life Graduate Students who Talked with Spouses . Percentage Distribution of Mid-Life Graduate Student Parents who Talked with Children . Percentage Distribution of Mid-Life Graduate Students who Talked with Faculty and Graduate Students Percentage Distribution of Mid-Life Graduate Students who Talked with Friends . . . . . . . Percentage Distribution of Employed Mid-Life Graduate Students who Talked with Employment Resources Percentage Distribution of Mid-Life Graduate Students who Talked with Professional Resources . . Percentage Distribution of Mid-Life Graduate Students and Feelings of Encouragement/Discouragement . Percentage Distribution of Mid-Life Graduate Students and Sources of Encouragement . . Percentage Distribution of Mid-Life Graduate Students and Sources of Discouragement . . Percentage Distribution of Mid-Life Graduate Students and the Conditions/Bargains Anticipated in Entering Graduate School . . . . . . . . Percentage Distribution of Mid-Life Graduate Students and Persons Affected by Decision to Enter Graduate School Page 139 140 142 145 145 146 147 148 148 149 151 152 155 159 163 ’.25 P '. Br FF. “/5 Table Page 4.25 Percentage Distribution of Mid- Life Graduate Students who Cited Life Change Events as Catalysts in Making the Decision to Enter Graduate School . . l69 4.26 Percentage Distribution of Mid-Life Graduate Students Who Did Not Cite Life Change Events Compared with Those Who Cited Changes as Catalysts in Making the Decision to Enter Graduate School . . . l73 xi LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 3.1 Distribution of Dominant Decision-Making Patterns . . 114 3.2 Distribution of Responses to Questionnaire . . . . 117 xii CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM A decision is essentially a choice among competing images of the future. (Boulding 1978:132) Introduction Social Change Twenty-five years ago, young adults contemplating the future may have perceived an image radically different from the reality with which they are faced today. Although part of the perceived discrepancy between expectation and reality may be attributed to a perspective influenced by internal changes, another part may be explained as a consequence of rapid social change. For the men and women who were initiating adult commitments in their work and personal relationships in the 19505 and early 19605, the past twelve to twenty-five years have contained challenges which few of the young adults may have anticipated in such complexity. Now at a point in their development which may be called mid-life, the young adults of the mid-fifties are approaching fifty .years of age. For them, and for the men and women who followed them into adulthood during a period of approximately fifteen years, the present faced at mid-life was the future conceived in their youth 1 rs: 'U ' Q 6, h. J... by by. FA "b- ‘8 A! 2"»; Hulk ~ .s‘.‘ p I‘.. g...“ .t'vnt "In" .- l .1: F- ‘5 I! it," 9- W‘ “\ll‘ C II. f‘re‘: I! z.‘ § ¢_ ,, (up "3 " I (J As young adults in their early twenties, they had made certain decisions about their occupation and personal relationships, based on their past experiences and what they perceived the present and future to be. As mid-life adults, approximately between the ages of thirty-five and fifty, they now may be confronted with a reality which challenges established roles and expectations. Just at a point in their lives when mid-life adults need to feel the satisfaction of contributing to a field of work, they may feel threatened by the demand for employees in tune with advanced knowledge and technology. Changing professional expec- tations and employment policies may require that men and women become geographically mobile just at a time in their development when permanence in relationships takes on its greatest significance. Longer lives and earlier retirement have implications for men and women who are at a stage in their development in which commitment to work is critical (Fiske 1980). Other social changes may further challenge the decision- making confidence of adults currently in mid-life. A quarter- century ago, it was more common for death to be experienced across the life-span. With a decrease in infant-mortality rates and an increase in control of major epidemics, experience with the death of family members may now be concentrated in middle adulthood (Gjele 1980). As a consequence, while older generations may have experienced death throughout their life-span, mid-life adults in rwecent times may be acutely aware of, even preoccupied by, the '1 .o .IDQ.QI‘A‘ ilvcblU “1' ;'q»'o U1 My: 5 p Ind... v- 5.. b buugu ._.‘ C) it; U“ DO issues surrounding death and their own mortality (Levinson 1978; Sheehy 1976; Jaques 1977). Changes in family life also have contributed to the identi- fication of "the middle years" as being uniquely problematic. Delay or abstention from parenting and the long "empty nest" period have created a need to make decisions not easily managed in traditional roles and settings (Giele 1980). An increasing number of women, particularly mothers employed in work outside their home, has blurred the division of tasks associated with traditional sex roles (Giele 1980). Divorce and remarriage have obscured traditional images of lifelong relationships (Smelser 1980). On a global scale, decision-making has become more difficult for adults with the growing awareness of the scarcity of natural resources; of the means to communicate world-wide; of the technical power to obliterate the world and to explore the universe; of the scientific capacity to sustain life and to clone cells. Compounding the problem, there are few role models, few guides, for the men and women who have emerged into adulthood within the last twenty-five years. Older generations even within the same culture have not experienced the same world as their children (Mead 1970). Just as the early Americans had to teach themselves not to daydream of the past but concentrate on the present, . . . so today's elders have to treat their own past as incommuni- cable, and teach their children, even in the midst of lament- ing that it is so, not to ask, because they can never understand (Mead 1970:61). TI) accept the fact that even among generations in the same family shared meaning of experience is limited, is to begin to understand 1', VH‘ "3 1.; {1.}. A I In h,- . .‘ I: v a? i' .‘-I I,‘ \- 1: r . 1 3M i _~R' ' 1: I. I). . l;:‘ .r" 'U U § 9. " a ' ELF” '51 the developmental isolation which may be experienced by some men and women at any specified age. Biological and Psychological Change While social changes stimulate a need for persons to adapt, it is not only the external factors which influence decision-making. Internal factors play an equally important role. Biological and psychological development require adaptation in the individual throughout the life-cycle. And with changing physiology and personality comes a greater capacity to control one's life. Thus, it is possible to view the individual life as a biological, psychological, sociological being in interaction with the environment. The focus of the present study is on the person between the ages of 35 and 50 or 60 who, in the context of the total life-cycle, has made a decision to enter graduate school in middle adulthood. Considering the plethora of social changes affecting work and interpersonal relationships, and the complex internal changes of the individual, it becomes increasingly important for adults to heighten their awareness of the decision-making process in them- selves and in others. Understanding varying perceptions and the values, commitments and behavior influenced by these views, men land women may enhance their ability to make wise decisions, thereby assuming greater responsibility for helping to shape the future. The alternative is to be swept along in the wake of circumstance, I I '19 _\P‘r‘h; I‘u'. 1&5 ‘ C’CCSE 1 exercising little or no control over one's own life or the course of society, and suffering from a chronic case of "future shock." The present study is an outgrowth of the concerns stimulated by social, biological, and psychological changes. The general prob- lem is to explore how adults deal with changes in their lives. Given the complexity of change in the past twenty-five years, as described in the above introduction, what alternatives will adults choose in order to effect change? Theory With an overview of human beings as developing persons confronted continually with internal and external changes in inter- action with the environment, the present study is designed to look at the decision-making process of adults at mid-life. ‘For this purpose, decision-making is defined as the process of arriving at a conscious, goal-directed choice among competing alternatives (Paolucci 1979). The particular choice of the men and women in this study is to enter graduate school at age 35 or older. How each indi- vidual arrives at that decision is the subject of the research project. It is assumed that the goals, alternatives and choices perceived by the adults at mid-life will reflect the developmental concerns of men and women as described in current adult life-cycle literature. From a theoretical standpoint, decision-making and adult development are being viewed as two interdependent, sequential d ub¥~ p'aran ”b i.r-i5 ”PM” 1. § ’314 in“. 1 "r‘F'f-S d .0-2 “| I. processes which occur across time. In much the same way as one decision becomes history for the next question, human development proceeds from the history of a person in a particular culture. Occurring across time as an ongoing process, decision- making, like human development, arises out of a perceived need to change. The individual senses that what exists is not what ought to be. Consciously, the person recognizes that there are choices, limited or enhanced by specific goals, values, experiences, and available resources. Perception, then, is the ultimate limitation in a person's ability to decide (Hoyt 1969:14). For without seeing a need to change what exists, there can be no motivation to seek another reality. To be satisfied with the status quo is to perceive that the present encompasses those conditions both necessary and sufficient for achieving one's goals. Once having recognized the need fbr making a decision, the person is, in a developmental sense, in transition. The past has already begun to change, the equilibrium of the human system has been disrupted, and it remains for the person to decide how to adapt. As the decision-making process evolves, information from the environment is filtered through the values of the decision-maker. In the tension between opposing forces, information is sorted and alternatives identified. At this point the person may choose to uninimize disruption by making a routine change with few alterations iii the established meaning of life. Or, maintaining some continuity, tJTE person may seek alternatives for a growth change in which ifianfiliar expectations are incorporated into a broader understanding. I). \ :. C .Apeaa 1 .1: db! ".p ' U '. . ”1“ - L‘ a. . F\ 5. u. U in " in! l b". i] I- ~\ ‘ . v‘: A. l .5“? u.‘ Q :r- 1"". 1 1" V As a third possibility, the person may risk a "crisis of discon- tinuity" by considering alternatives with loss being a possible consequence (Harris 1980). As the alternatives are organized according to importance, relevance, and usefulness, the feelings, ideas and experiences of the individual come into play. Thus, every decision is basically a choice evolving from the subjective environment of the person. How the individual feels about the self-in-world will determine which resources are perceived as most useful. Without the recog- nition of a resource as useful, no alternative can become effective as a means of change (Elbing 1970). Once a particular resource is perceived as useful, it may be limited by the person's means to secure. Time, money, and energy may be scarce; or age, sex, or social class may pose barriers. Having determined possible alternatives and available resources, the person must consider the probable consequences of each option. To some extent, outlook on life will determine the nature of the perceived consequences. An optimistic person who tends to view available resources as generally sufficient in meet- ing needs, and has developed confidence in judging alternatives, nay perceive few deterrents in the decision-making process. A pessimistic person may expect to encounter problems in considering a change, and may experience great disappointment if the conse- quences are disruptive. Consequences must also be examined on the basis of the Perceived risks and benefits of each alternative. Since all the Ell" possible consequences cannot be known before a decision is made, making a choice involves deciding under varying degrees of uncer- tainty. How much uncertainty a person is willing to risk in making a particular choice will partly depend upon the degree of stability in the person's environment at the time. It may also be influenced by how much the person values what is being risked in relation to what may be gained. 0r, time may be the primary criteria, risk becoming unimportant in relation to the desire to make a quick decision. Finally, the desired benefits may be so minimal that the degree of uncertainty is directly associated with achieving minimum satisfaction. The extent to which perceived consequences may be realistic will depend in part upon the degree of shared meaning which exists between the person and the environment. If a decision is made with negative consequences, it may mean that the information resources were ignored, misinterpreted, incomplete, or filtered through needs and values of the individual which differed from the expectations of the environment. Thus, both human development and decision-making may be viewed as a series of sequential and interconnected experiences in the life of a person. As the growing person continually reshapes reality, decisions are made according to the person's needs and aspirations, perception of the environment, relationships with other people in both immediate and remote settings, and the capacity to discover, sustain, or alter the environment (Bronfenbrenner 1979). 1" ,.,;. l“ " “‘srl no G f1 no r“ :— 1 h N ‘ Purpose of the Study The purpose of the study is to explore how men and women in middle adulthood make decisions in the course of managing change in their lives. 1. What effect does past experience have upon adults in the perception of choice? 2. What resources are perceived by men and women as useful in exploring alternatives? 3. What are the anticipated and unanticipated conse- quences experienced in the decision-making process? 4. What effect do life events have upon the decision- making process? More specifically, the purpose is to explore the process by which graduate school is chosen by men and women, ages 35 and older, as a means of effecting change in their lives. The setting is one university: Michigan State University. The study addresses the following questions: 1. What effect does educational and employment history have in the decision-making process of the adult graduate students? 2. What human resources are perceived as useful in the decision-making process? 3. On what conditions or with what "trade-offs" is the decision made to enter graduate school? 4. Who is perceived as affected by the decision, and with what consequences? 10 5. What life events or major changes are perceived as having precipitated the decision to enter graduate school at this point in time? Need for the Study 1. By addressing the above broad questions, it is hoped that knowledge can be provided regarding the decision- making process of adult students entering graduate school at age 35 and older in a period of transition. 2. It is the purpose of the study to discuss the impli- cations specifically for Michigan State University and for other institutions of higher education with similar educational resources at the graduate level. 3. As a result of this broad study, it is hoped that specific areas of further inquiry may be identified regarding the decision-making process of adults in periods of change. Design of the Study Population The population of the study consists of all men and women graduate students who entered master's or doctoral programs at Michigan State University for the first time, in the fall or winter term of 1979-1980, at age 35 or older. urr. In‘. it .1 I\' 11 Methodology All subjects were mailed a questionnaire along with an explanation of the purposes of the study. Sub-samples of the respondents were selected, after which interviews were scheduled and conducted. Data collected from the questionnaires were analyzed to obtain basic descriptive information of men and women and the decision-making process. Responses were compared according to such variables as gender, marital status, parental status, and age. Survey Instrument The questionnaire was designed to collect data related to: 1. age, marital and parental status; educational and employment history; human resources perceived as useful; consequences, anticipated and unanticipated; and 0‘1.th life events perceived as catalysts in the decision- making process. Interview Sub-Sample In addition to the questionnaire, a sub-sample of the questionnaire respondents were selected for the purpose of inter- viewing in depth about the decision-making process. Definition of Terms In order to maximize shared meaning of terms, the following (definitions of key words are given as they are used in the study: —~—‘..‘_A.._ .- .Uc ‘ - - 1&5.“ A P Is: it" u f D . .‘ ‘II V A ("h I‘l‘ ‘s I .b 12 Decision-making: The process of arriving at a conscious, goal-directed choice among competing alternatives (Paolucci 1979). Mid-life: The period in the human life-cycle occurring between early adulthood and late adulthood; sometimes called middle adulthood; usually associated with the chronological period between age 35 and approximately ages 50-60. Graduate school: That segment of the educational program of a university including post-baccalaureate study at the master's or doctoral level. In the study, the term excludes "professional school." Life-event: An occurrence evolving usually from ordinary, but sometimes extraordinary, social and interpersonal transactions, and pertaining to major areas of dynamic significance, including family constellations, marriage, occupation, economics, residence, group and peer relationships, education, religion, recreation and health (Holmes 1973:162-164). Decision-makinggpattern: Represents the design of human resources used by an adult graduate student in the decision- making process; used as one criteria for selection of the interview sub-sample. Scope and Limitations 1. The population of the study is limited to graduate students, ages 35 and older, who have entered master's or doctoral 13 degree programs at Michigan State University in the fall or winter term of 1979-80. 2. The study is limited to the extent that the selected population is similar to other adult graduate students at institu- tions like Michigan State University. 3. The study is limited to the accuracy, or inaccuracy, of self-reported data, part of which is based on recall. 4. The study is limited by the reliability of the survey instrument and the interview method. 5. The study is limited in the degree to which the signifi- cant issues raised in the literature on the subject have been, or have not been, identified and examined in the research. Overview of the Study After presenting the subject in the introduction to Chapter I, the general problem and the purpose of the study are stated. The need for the study follows the statement of the specific problem which includes a list of the broad research questions. A brief des- cription of the design of the study is then provided. To clarify the meaning of key words, definitions of terms are provided, followed by a statement of the scope and limitations of the study. Chapter I closes with an overview of the study. In Chapter II, appropriate literature and research are reviewed, with emphasis in the area of adult life-cycle development. A discussion of previous research is followed by a summary of the chapter. ' - .- -—‘-.. _4 14 The design of the study is described in Chapter III, pro- viding information about the sample, the survey instrument, the interview format, as well as the collection and analysis of the data. In Chapter IV, an analysis of the data is presented, beginning with a report of the survey instrument responses and a description of the respondents. Interview data from the selected sub-sample is used to elaborate on the responses collected from the questionnaires. A summary of the analysis closes Chapter IV. A summary of the study is given in Chapter V, followed by the conclusions. A discussion of the findings points out the similarities and differences of the study in contrast to other research. Finally, implications for further study are suggested. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE Brief History of Graduate Education Intended as a background for the study, the following review of the development of graduate education in the United States is necessarily brief. In a historical context, graduate education is described as a resource used by a changing population in different ways over the course of its development. Founding of Johns Hopkins University, 1876 To decide to change is to perceive that what is, is not what ought to be. In 1876, Johns Hopkins University was founded as an innovative institution with an emphasis on graduate study because Daniel C. Gilman believed that American higher education was not all he imagined would be possible. With historical roots in both British and German educational tradition, colleges and universities in the United States had been developed with two fundamental objectives: to preserve and enrich the culture by preparing students for college teaching, and to advance scholarship by conducting scientific research. Johns Hopkins University was envisioned as an academic institution which would combine teaching and research in specialized 15 ‘71 a“ In 5“. :1... I 16 fields, while placing "the effect of higher studies on the student over their contribution to the advancement of knowledge" (Brubacher 1976:179). The founders saw a need for higher education to apply research to problems of daily living with the hope that university reform would make for less misery among the poor, less ignorance in the schools, less bigotry in the temple, less suffering in the hospital, less fraud in business, less folly in politics (Daniel Gilman quoted in Brubacher 1976:180). llc:cording to Gilman, students were to be prepared "to advance the s ciences they profess," and in doing so, serve the needs of American society (Gilman in Brubacher 1976:180). Cha nges in the System, 900-1960 At several subsequent points in the history of graduate Education, academic policy-makers executed changes in the system. In “I 900, the Association of American Universities redefined minimum Sta ndards for the awarding of the Ph.D. degree. In 1920, Harvard U" 1. versity introduced the Ed.D. as a new type of graduate degree f0 " ‘ educators. By 1957, a perceived need for change in the graduate school sys tern prompted the Carnegie Corporation to finance a major study of: Q raduate education in the United States. Bernard Berelson com- pi e ted the study in 1960. Expressing concern for a shortage 0f co 1 1 ege teachers and professionals, Berelson advocated changes which No L‘- ‘l (1 make graduate training more efficient. For example, he sug- 9e & . . ted more direction by the faculty, shorter d1 ssertat1ons, ‘ L 1 17 elimination of the final oral examination, and more financial support from industry (Berelson 1960:239-245). Supporting the spirit of Daniel Gilman's charge to graduate education eighty-five years earlier, Berelson stated that the greatest need was for graduate training to recognize itself "as a leader of American e ducation, even of American life, and the acceptance of the responsibility that position implies" (Berelson 1960:260). P erceived Problems, 1 960-1965 The need for more college teachers and more researchers 'Fo r‘ government, business, and industry was expressed frequently ( Be relson 1960; Carmichael 1961; Grigg 1965; Walters 1965). Some ed ucators expressed dismay that only a small percentage of college graduates were enrolling in graduate schools immediately upon gradu- at ‘i on; that Ph.D.‘s were being awarded to part-time "gradualist" St udents; that many bright students were postponing their graduate Work; and that there was insufficient financial aid for single and ma Fried men, and single women (Beach 1960:135). Older, married, e'“I'D‘oned women students would have been the least desirable students! Some deans feel that marriage and a family have a big and undesirable effect on graduate work in distracting the students' attention from what should be intensive devotion to a subject (Berelson 1960:135). . .Only about 15% of women graduate students prefer a full- time professional career for the first five years after completing their work. When . . . combined with the reluctance of academic employers, not to mention the rules against joint husband-wife employment, (this fact does) not leave much room . . for reliance on (solving the college teacher shortage with women Ph. D. 's) (Berelson 1960: 135). 18 Outside employment is a serious obstacle to the completion of a degree; full-time outside workers suffer serious attrition, as do middle-aged or older students, regardless of ability ratings (Beach 1965:125). Economic Developments, 1 965-1970 While the characteristics of the students being admitted to graduate school were not changing in the mid-sixties, the f’i nancial resources available to students were changing dramatically. Both federal and state loan programs increased, while local banks began to liberalize their loan practices (Beach 1965:121-122). Grants to graduate students by the National Science Foundation and the National Institutes of Health and under the National Defense Ed ucation Act totaled "hundreds of millions" annually (Brubacher 1 9 76:233). 3 0c “ial Changes , 1 9 65-1970 While the increased availability of financial aid certainly had an impact on graduate school enrollment, so did several societal developments. Avoidance of the military draft and postponement of employment had become two motivating factors for some students c'eciding to enter graduate school, "with no particular presumptions ()1: a positive relationship between (graduate study) and subsequent VOCational work'l (Mayhew 1974:96). Blacks and other ethnic minori- t Ti. es began demanding that a proportionate number of students be a'zinl‘itted to graduate schools (Mayhew 1974z9). Technological develop- e”its began calling for more extensive professional services and an ever 1' 7971112). Emllper K a: ‘1':le I d 'U‘U» HPf‘Fy-nt ‘V'VIU: u ‘1 r01! w. lag: i‘~ 19 an ever increasing number of highly trained work specialists (Mayhew 1974:12). En rol lment , 1969-1980 By 1969, the annual doctoral production was cited by Mayhew as numbering 26,100 (Mayhew 1974:107), compared with the 9,000 doctorates being awarded annually ten years earlier (Brubacher 1976. 1 93). Mayhew had estimated that by 1980 the annual number of doc- to rates awarded would reach between 60,000 and 70,000 (Mayhew 1974: 1 07). By 1977, statistics published by the U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare indicated that the number of Ph.D.‘s awarded had already reached 33,232 (U.S. HEW 1979:112). A 9 e Characteristics , L9 70-1979 If economic and social developments seemed to be contribut- ‘i n 9 to an increase in the total number of graduate students in the 1 9705, such forces were also stimulating changes in the age and thder characteristics of students. According to reports published by the Bureau of the Census, between October, 1972 and October, 1 976, the age distribution of college students shifted dramatically ( U - S. HEW 1979:97). Not only was the number of students under the age of twenty-five decreasing, but the number of students enrolled From older age groups was increasing significantly (U.S. HEW 1979: 9 7 ) - It may be significant to note that enrollment statistics for €01 leges and universities are reported by the U.S. Department of 20 Health, Education and Welfare only for students between the ages of 18 and 34. Gender Characteristics, 1963-1986 Concurrent with a change in the age distribution of stu- cients was a change in the proportion of men and women enrolled in graduate school. In 1963, 31 percent of the graduate student popu- 1 ation were women (U.S. HEW 1978:12). By 1971, the percentage of women graduate stduents had increased to 41 percent, rising to 49 percent in 1977 (U.S. HEW 1979:91). The Department of Health, Education and Welfare was projecting that with a large increase “‘3' n graduate student enrollment, the percentage of women graduate s tudents could reach 51 percent by 1986 (U.S. HEW 1978:12). Change in Focus of Graduate Education As the number of graduate students increased, and the S tudent population diversified in age and gender, concerns were a Y‘ticulated regarding a need to broaden the focus of the purposes of graduate education. In addition to the development of inter- d ‘3 sciplinary programs designed to improve the preparation of cc>11ege teachers, and the integration of practical experiences to 'FaCilitate the socialization of graduate students, there grew Q(Dhcern for the developmental needs of students (Mayhew 1974:217). I '1 answer to such concern, there appeared a number of institutional l"Teslllonses, such as the provision of alternate tracks for students C) 3»- - 1 ented toward research, teaching or applied study (Mayhew 1974: 21 237-238). Lewis Mayhew outlined Joseph Katz's thinking regarding necessary areas of teaching and learning, suggesting that graduate education might be improved by incorporating attention to the emo- tional, social and physical needs of students (Mayhew 1974:217-218). Such changes in the focus of graduate education and in the charac- teristics of graduate students have paralleled shifts in American society, as described earlier in Chapter I. Confronted with a growing number and variety of new oppor- tunities and alternatives, adults are facing increasingly complex questions regarding family, work, and leisure. Decision-making is becoming more difficult, and the need for the resources of higher ed ucation to respond to the continuing learning needs of persons is be coming more and more compelling. What is suggested by the present study is that for some adu'l ts at mid-life, graduate education may be perceived as one 31 ternative for effecting change and facilitating their continuing development. What is hoped is that graduate education may be per- Ce ‘3 ved by the policy-makers who will shape its development as an appropriate and effective resource for the personal and professional Q"‘<>wth of a broader spectrum of students than generally has been (2 ohsidered desirable. Historical Antecedents of Adult Development Theory Across time, age has been an important factor in determining s - . . . °C1al roles and their comnensurate rights, responsib111t1es and Q h a l lenges. "Certain biological and social events come to be 22 rwegarded as significant punctuation marks in the life line and to s ignify the transition points from one age status to the next" ( Neugarten 1968: 5) . As early as 100-300 A.D., Hindu texts translated from Sanskrit, depicted four stages in the life of an upper-class male, each stage recognized by a series of rituals or transitions (Hopkins The first stage began at age eight when the boy left child- After twelve years 1 9 71). hood and was initiated into the role of student. of’ study he would enter the role of householder which included ma rriage, parenthood and service to society. As he became a grand- pa rent he would be eligible to enter the third stage of hermit, characterized by celibacy and restraint. For those with "the hi ghest standards of purity and dedication," there existed a fourth Sta ge called sannyasin, meaning abandonment, in which the initiate W0 I41 (I renounce all relationships and material possessions and live Ou't the remainder of his life as a silent meditator (Hopkins 1971: 74—84). Fourteen hundred years later, William Shakespeare in As You '- ‘3 ke It described the life-cycle as seven ages separated by exits \ and entrances (Shakespeare 1623). Leaving infancy, a person became a Student, paralleling the Hindu pattern if not the attitude. 8 Ti "11 lar to the period of the Hindu householder were Shakespeare's th "ee ages of lover, soldier and justice. The "lean and slippered pa '1 taloon with spectacles on nose'l described the sixth age, com- p a ”able to the Brahman hermit. Like the sannyasin, the last age 23 is "second childishness, and mere oblivion, sans teeth, sans eyes, sans taste, sans everything" (Shakespeare 1623: 11. 139-166). As societies developed throughout ensuing centuries, so d ‘id life expectancy increase, thus altering the bio-social patterns shaping the lives of men and women. In medieval Europe, for example, the average life expectancy was 30 years. By 1850 in the U n‘ited States, the expected life span had increased ten years, and by 1900, men and women were expected to live for an average of 47.3 years (Encyclopedia Americana 1978:426). As a consequence of living longer and extending the process of pursuing life's goals over a wider life span, persons became ‘i ncreasingly interested in understanding human development. It we 3 at the beginning of the twentieth century, when men and women we re expected to live almost fifty years, that Sigmund Freud created a theory of personality development in childhood. Early Literature in Adult Development, 1900-1950 Freud's views focused on the instincts of sexuality and aSJSJY‘ession as the two forces within the unconscious which motivate huh’lan behavior. Both drives, Freud suggested, are limitless in fantasy, yet must be curtailed in reality so that "reclaimed from the unconscious and from an unrealis- tic sense of guilt, the strengthened and mature adult can most effectively maximize real satisfactions, discharge social responsibilities, and achieve reasonable pleasure in work and in love (Smelser and Erikson 1980:31). uh ‘i 1 e Freud showed how personality development in childhood signifi- c a ntly influences the nature of adulthood, he assumed that the 24 developmental process ended with adolescence, and that any continu- ‘ing conflicts were re-enactments of unresolved childhood issues (Levinson l978:4). Accepting Freud's basic concept of the influence of instinc- tual impulses, Carl G. Jung felt that Freud was too narrowly focused on childhood development and its influence on adult problems ( Levinson l978:4). In the 19205, Jung characterized personality development as a lifelong process involving both internal psycho- 1 ogical forces and external cultural influences. He observed that adults are confronted with an opportunity for fundamental change at about age 40, "the noon of life," and may persist in developing th roughout the last half of the life-cycle (Levinson 1978:4-5). " Mi d-life individuation," as Jung called the process, occurs as Va 1 ues are reassessed, physical vigor is replaced by psychic energy and wisdom, and ultimately "the individual is transformed into S p ‘i ritual man" (Knox 1977:329). By the 19305, with life expectancy in the United States approaching sixty years of age, two biographers appeared to describe human development across the increasing life span (Bilhler 1933; Frankel-Brunswick 1936). Charlotte Biihler took exception to the 17""en widely accepted homeostatis theory. Through the study of b '3 Ographies, she concluded that the ultimate goal in a human being's 1 '3 fe was not equilibrium or an absence of tension, but "fulfillment," wh ‘ich would be attained by achieving certain goals, both internally 6‘ “<1 in the external environment (Biihler 1977). Achieving the 1 25 ultimate goal required a changing emphasis throughout the life-cycle of desirable goal patterns: In the age period, 18-25, the need for adaptive self- limitation would be sought in the tentative commitment to an adult occupational goal; In the age period, 25-45, the need for creative expansion would find satisfaction in occupation, marriage, and family develop- rnent; In the age period, 45-65, the need for the establishment ()‘f inner order would be sought in critical self-assessment; And in the period beginning about age 65, through rest and retirement, an adult would seek self-fulfillment (Chickering 1981). While BDhler was concentrating on changes in goals in human de velopment, Else Frenkel-Brunswick was studying successive phases ‘i n the life span (Frenkel-Brunswick 1936). Examining the biographies 0 1" 400 men and women, Frenkel-Brunswick concluded that every person pa sses through five periods in the life-cycle. In the first period, 1:"‘<>m infancy to age 6, the child lives at home. In the second (a Qes 17-28), the youth leaves his family and builds new activities. I h the third period (ages 29-49), called "the culmination of life," VoCa‘tion and home are established. In the fourth (ages 50-64), a Q 121 vities decrease, losses take on greater importance, and a change ‘ h the type of work is noted, especially where sport or physical ‘1 a her is concerned. The fifth and final period, age 64 until death, 1 s Often introduced by complete retirement from one's profession. 26 Hobbies increase, retrospection is common, and ties to life plans are "loosened." These turning points usher in, in very short time, parallel and permanent changes in many fields of life, all of which allow us to imply that a basic transposition takes place (Kuhlen 1963:167). By 1950, life expectancy in the United States was approach- ing seventy years, an increase in the life span of more than twenty In .years since the publication of Freud's theory of personality. 'tmat half century, the study of human development had produced a ssizeable body of knowledge, primarily concerning childhood and (l) G. Stanley Hall's theory of evolutionary growth, a dol escence: 1 904; (2) Leta Hollingsworth's theory of the continuity of growth, 1 928; (3) Margaret Mead's study of the cultural influence on adolescence, 1928; (4) Ruth Benedict's focus on stress as a char- ac: teristic of adolescence, 1935; (5) Kurt Lewin's focus on the person in his environment, 1935; (6) Gordon Allport's theory of De rsonality, 1937; (7) Kurt Goldstein's interest in the human goal "self-actualization," 1938; (8) Arnold Gesell's research of (3*1F’ Ch 1' 1dhood behavior, 1941, 1943; and (9) Jean Piaget's study of ‘3 "- telligence in children, 1941, 1948. With these historical antecedents in mind, there follows a Y‘eview of the literature from 1950 to 1959. Literature in Adult Development, 1950-1959 With the increasing complexities posed by a modern, indus- t h s ‘- al society and the longer lives of men and women, Erik Erikson 27 / / emerged as an explorer of adult development. Using a biographical / method and a combined historical-sociological-p5ychological mode of analysis (Levinson 1978), Erikson published Childhood and Society as "the study of the ego's roots in social organization" (Erikson 1950: 15). He viewed a human being as a biological organism capable of managing pain; as a psychological being with an ego to integrate taxperience; and as a social entity to reflect the concerns of society. l4cmording to Erikson, it was the function of the ego "to master the \Iairious areas of life, and especially those in which the individual 'f’i nds his self, his body, and his social role wanting and trailing" ( Erikson 1950:211-212). Whether an individual found his ego strong enough to inte- grate his biological and social needs at a given point in the life- CIJV'<:Ele was dependent upon the progress being made in one of eight de velOpmental stages extending from infancy to old age. Each suc- ces s ive stage was initiated by a crisis or critical step, "char- aC teristic of turning points, of moments of decision between progress Ellrl<:1 regression, integration and retardation" (Erikson 1950:270-271). The progression from one stage to another allowed for individual Va V‘i ations in tempo and intensity, as well as for the need to re h egotiate earlier issues . The qualities confronted in Erikson's "eight ages of man" a: . '—7‘55 (expressed in the following list of chronological per1ods and a. S <2 7‘1 bed polarities: l. Infancy: Basic Trust vs. Mistrust 2. Early Childhood: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt \J CO '- 31.EP& R k, ‘1 a 375‘ ‘ :r . 4' .!' 5'11” Q ‘ 28 Play Age: Initiative vs. Guilt School Age: Industry vs. Inferiority Adolescence: Identity vs. Role Confusion Young Adulthood: Intimacy vs. Isolation Adulthood: Generativity vs. Stagnation oowowmpw Senescence: Ego Integrity vs. Despair (N.B. A chart describing the conflicts and resolutions proposed by Erikson for each stage is provided in Appendix B; reprinted with permission, McCoy l980:6.) By providing a historical and intellectual link between FTreud and Jung, Erikson contributed to a scholarly tradition from vvfiich current thinking about adult development has grown (Levinson 1 978:5) . With the publication of Erikson's thinking in 1950, there seemed to be sufficient evidence to support a view of the life-cycle as a process following an underlying pattern of change. What a ‘F‘Fected the nature and timing of various changes during the life Span was subject to debate. Some theorists conceived change as "70 t “i vated by a need for self-actualization or self-fulfillment (3 if h ler 1933; Allport 1937; Goldstein 1939). Others attributed cha '1 ge to the inherent needs of successive stages in the life span, eac h focused on a crisis or developmental challenge (Frenkel- Br‘u h Swisk 1936; Erikson 1950). Most researchers had focused upon " the first two but not on the last five sevenths of life," with the no ta ble exception of Erikson (1950) and the early contributions of Jun 9 (1933) and Bilhler (1933) (Neugarten 1966). n ls FM' V's: . F. ‘ 1.1..“ ',"‘ I.» t ‘6‘ 29 What emerged in the early 19505 was the concept that growth necessitated the learning of tasks which arise at or about a certain period in a person's life, and which must be mastered in order to succeed with later tasks and further growth (Havighurst l974:2). One of the first authorities to carry the developmental task beyond the stages of childhood and adolescence was Robert Havighurst. Building on Erikson's assumptions of sequence throughout the life- cycle, Havighurst believed that developmental tasks arise from a combination of factors, including the individual's physical matur- ation, cultural pressure, personal values and aspirations (Havighurst 1974:5-6). The point at which these factors merge to initiate change is what Havighurst called "the teachable moment," or the critical period when a person may be ready to achieve a certain task (Havighurst 1974:6-7). Some critics of the stage theories of Erikson and Havighurst Ca ution that the concept may make it appear as though all people meet the same problems or challenges at the same time in their lives (Troll 1975). Nor does a strict application of stage theory account ’70 r- the influence of major life events and major role transitions (Ne ugarten 1979). An application of stage theory in a modified form was made in 1 955 by Robert Peck in his study of the "second half of life" as Sta Qes within two periods, Middle Age and Old Age (Neugarten 1968). Pet: k cautioned against a chronological definition of "stage" in Ii 9 h ‘t of the variability in the chronological age at which a crisis c3r- Q Fitical experience may occur. He suggested that the stage a ‘ 30 person is "working on" may have more to do with role or "stage in life“ than age (Neugarten 1968). Changing role patterns was the theme of a number of publi- cations emerging from the 19505. Aware of the social and economic changes affecting men and women at different ages, some researchers focused on age-sex roles. Studying changing role perceptions in the family, Neugarten and Gutman (1958) noted personality changes in the .years from forty to seventy (Neugarten 1968). They observed that "women, as they age, seem to become more tolerant of their own éaggressive, egocentric impulses; whereas men (become more tolerant) c>f'their own nurturant and affiliative responses" (Neugarten 1968:71). Changing age—sex roles was also the subject of a survey by Martel (1963) of American magazine fiction from 1890 to 1955 (Neugarten 1968). Seven shifts in the areas of family, marriage, wo rk and community were found to be associated with changing role- pa tterns: (1) a shift away from close involvement with the family; (32? 1’ the loss of parental authority with adolescents and adult Ch ‘3 1 dren; (3) a decline in extended family attachment; (4) increas- 'i"'S;l emphasis on the peer group; (5) a shift from partnership in ma 3" 3'" iage to romance and parenthood; (6) an increased value on wealth and achievement in work; and (7) the focus on youth as "the prime (>1F. ‘7' ‘ife" (Neugarten 1968). In such a complex and rapidly changing society, several Stu d W‘es emerged, raising questions about age-related abilities and re, 1' ‘i3'~‘l:ionships. Interested specifically in the relationship between iiSJiesa, ialnd achievement, Harvey C. Lehman studied the ages at which ‘ creative The F951 1113 men later i :‘n‘ “ML-a: 1 iEC‘L:‘ ‘- u r "h m I) 31 creative work was produced by prominent people in various fields. The results indicated that creativity or intellectual productivity was more likely to occur in the twenties and thirties rather than later in life (Lehman 1953). In the area of intellectual development, research by Glanzer and Glaser (1959) indicated that learning ability remains stable between twenty and fifty years of age (Knox 1977:415-416). Other research indicated an increasing wide range of individual differences, at least through the fifties, with intellectually able people sustaining their learning ability longer (Knox 1977: 417). And other investigations suggested that with a decrease in the ability to perceive complex relations and engage in abstract reasoning, older adults tend "to engage in formal reasoning and abstraction based on a familiarity with knowledge of the intel- Tectual and cultural heritage of society" (Knox 1977:420-421). Studying personality, Tuddenham (1959) found activity level to be one of the characteristics remaining most stable over the life Span. The most stable characteristics, according to Kelly (1955), seet‘r-ed to be values (aesthetic, religious, economic, social, politi- ca 1 3 and theoretical) and vocational interests (Troll 1975:47). Li fe goals, as motivators of adult behavior, develop in an expanding and contracting pattern, suggested Kuhlen (1952), who found differ- ent: e 3 among school teachers based on age, sex and marital status (rho ‘ll 1975:52). Beginning adulthood with expansion-seeking motives, the heads and goals of married women turn inward at about age 35; Q ‘I e women at age 45; married men after 50 (Troll 1975:52-54). ‘ 32 1 As research continued in areas concerning physical, intel- lectual, personality and social development, there emerged a growing ; interest in the changes and continuities of occupational careers. ‘ Fifty years earlier, Freud had suggested that the definition of maturity was the capacity to love and to work (Smelser 1980). Erik Erikson, in describing generativity as a functional goal of adult- hood, had advocated use of one's skills and ideas in a comnitment to the growth of future generations, including work-identification (Erikson 1950). And Robert Havighurst had cited occupational satis- faction as a task of middle age (Havighurst 1953). In an approach developed by Howard S. Becker and Anselm L. Strauss (1956), career was conceived as "movement through structures" and applied to the recurring patterns and problems within occupa- tional institutions (Neugarten 1968). Focusing on career in work Organizations, the authors examined the institutional and personal needs affecting the socialization and personality development of adults. They suggested that changes in a person's career (occupa- t‘i onal or otherwise) imply changes in social position, and as such, a 1E'f’ect identity. At the same time attention was being given to the changing me filming of work, thought was being given to the nature of leisure. Ha V‘ighurst and Feigenbaum (1959) citing David Riesman (1957) and Ma hgaret Mead (1957), stated that suburban life-styles were pro- m t ‘ing values and leisure activities that were home-and-family- (2% h tered (Neugarten 1965). In studying the differences between hQ hie-centered and community-centered people, Havighurst and he I, Feigenbaum concluded that personality, more than the situation, determines leisure style. Satisfaction with leisure role was high 1 for both men and women whose life styles incorporated time for chosen activities and recognition for involvement (Neugarten 1968). Synchronizing the processes of work and love is the purpose of play, suggested Erikson (1950). Leisure, or play, then becomes an important function of the developing adult ego in which lies the responsibility to integrate the biological and social aspects of the self (Erikson 1950:211). A review of the literature of the fifties began with refer- eence to Erikson's Childhood and Society (1950). A review of the [Deeriod ends with another Erikson publication, Identity and the Life Cxcle (1959). Erikson uses a biographical approach .to describe the growth of a healthy personality which, having survived both internal and external conflicts, emerges in adulthood with "an increased Sense of inner unity, with an increase of good judgement, and an '1' he rease in the capacity to do well, according to the standards of those who are significant to him" (Erikson 1959:52). Literature in Adult Development, 1960-1969 Within the review of the literature contained in the present st udy, two facts are apparent: (1) there was an increase in the 1 9 6 ()5 in the volume of publications related to adult development an d (2) there was an emerging focus on aging. In one publication, as 1 9". e, there are 58 articles emphasizing the social and psychological ‘ 34 / processes of persons moving from middle age to old age (Neugarten l968a). In Middle Age and Aging, Neugarten and Moore (1968) describe the social changes of the 19605 as accompanying underlying biologi- cal, social and economic developments in a changing society (Neugarten l968a). They point to the growth and redistribution of the population, producing a high proportion of very young and very old; to an increasing life expectancy, creating "a new rhythm of 1 ife-timing and aging"; and to the changes in the systems of family, economics and politics (Neugarten l968a:5-6). As Neugarten and Moore point out, within the family, age at marriage was continuing to drop, children were being born earlier ‘3 n the marriage, parenthood was growing longer, and grandparenthood a rriving sooner. Within the economic system, earlier marriages and prolonged education were perpetuating economic dependence of young adults upon their parents. Changing roles of women (and the chang- 1. n g sex-role patterns with regard to family support) prompted an ‘i he rease in the number of young married women in the labor force ( N e ugarten l968az6-8). Within the political system, age and subcultures were ev‘i‘ dent in the voting behavior of the old and the young, suggesting that "a social movement is being created in which consciousness of a Se is the dominant feature" (Neugarten l968a:l6). One result of t: . he Se biological, social and econom1c changes, conclude the authors, ‘- S that new relationships between age groups will be necessary, ¥ 35 which in turn will change the age status system in society (Neugarten l968a:21). Recognizing the broad implications of such changes, several researchers undertook studies to provide information about age- One such issue was the relationship between age related issues. Lehman, having earlier studied creative produc- Eit1d achievement. tivity of prominent persons in various fields (Lehman 1953), The results, pub- r~easearched the production rate of scientists. ‘l i shed in 1962, indicated that both past and present generation scientists produced more than their proportionate share of high- cat1iality research not later than ages 30 to 39 (Neugarten 1968a). In 1965, Elliott Jaques studied the developmental transi- ‘t:‘i can of artists in their middle and late 305 and found the creative capacity ending in some cases, beginning in others, or changing in The differences in creative capacity Jaques Qu a lity and content. Ei‘tZ't:rjbuted to developmental variations in the artists' means of Cop ing with "the mid-life crisis" (Allman and Jaffe 1977). Studying age changes in the productivity of scientists, a r‘t ‘ists and scholars, Wayne Dennis published his research in 1966. RES ults indicated that total productivity in the 205 was only half Middle age (ages 40-49) as a 1 though scholars maintained a high rate of productivity through Dennis concluded that the differences could be attributed sglreat, or less, than output in the 305. the most productive period for all three research populations, 1t;lh"‘5’ ‘705. 1t:«::. ( ‘1) the length of time needed to complete a unit of work; ¥ 36 (2) the length of time required in preparation (educational); and (3) the degree of collaboration appropriate in the field (Neugarten l968a). The relationship of age and activity level as an issue in adulthood prompted a publication by Havighurst, Neugarten and Tobin in 1963 (Neugarten l968a). The authors took issue with two theories pertaining to the decreased social interaction and expressed life satisfaction observed in older adults. One approach, the disengage- ment theory, had suggested that social withdrawal is a voluntary function of age related to the accompanying preoccupation with self as well as decreasing emotional investment in persons and objects ‘i n the environment (Neugarten l968a). The other approach, known as activity theory, suggested that older people have the same psychological and social needs as ye unger people, and society prohibits social interaction by older adu lts. The authors conclude that neither theory is sufficient; tha 1: personality pattern determines whether disengagement or ac: t ‘ivity will result in expressed life satisfaction (Neugarten 7 968a). Personality was also viewed as the pivotal dimension in des cribing patterns of aging in research completed by Neugarten, Ha V ‘3 ghurst and Tobin in 1965. In their study of men and women, a ges 50 to 80, they conclude that there is no sharp discontinuity o ‘F personality with age, but instead an increasing consistency of b 0 th personality and values (Neugarten l968a). ¥ 37 With a continuing interest in the issue of age and motiva- tion in adulthood, Raymond C. Kuhlen in l964 published a paper concerning the factors influencing developmental changes in adult motivation (Neugarten 1968a). In this discussion, Kuhlen cites level of expectation, satisfaction or frustration of needs, and social and physical losses as variables affecting changes in moti- In exploring growth expansion motives, Kuhlen suggests vation. that such expansion needs as achievement, power, creativity and sel f-actualization dominate behavior in the years up to middle age. With changes in motivation, prompted by a sense of increasing threat and anxiety, older adults satisfy their continuing need for expansion Individual differences in motivational by more vicarious means. patterns are found with respect to sex, socio-economic class and outlook toward life (Neugarten l968a). In addition to issues directly related to age, adult life ‘i s influenced by a social structure which promotes both change and S tability (Neugarten 1968a). In a paper by Howard S. Becker (1964), two processes were examined as explanations of change or consistency One process, situational adjustment, '7 '1 adult behavior and values. Clea ‘ls with the factors in a situation which require a person to be l"nave in a certain way or to hold certain beliefs. Conmitment, as second process, provides stability in adult behavior by requir- the Conse- ihs a person to act in the same way in varied situations. 9 uehtly, the conditions for both change and stability may be said ‘1: Q be created by the social structure (Neugarten l968a). ¥ 38 Social norms are created by society in relation to the social structure. Through a system of perceived opportunities and constraints, human beings guide their own behavior and provide support or criticism for the actions of others. Neugarten, Moore and Lowe (1965), in a study of middle-class men and women ages forty to seventy, determined that across the adult life span there is an increase in the importance ascribed to age norms (Neugarten l968a). Among middle-aged and the old, age seems to be an increasingly reasonable criterion by which to evaluate behavior; i.e., to judge the timeliness and, therefore, appr0priateness of an event or a ction (Neugarten l968a) . Time, both biological and social, influences human behavior, suggested Bernice Neugarten (l968), but "the major punctuation marks i n the adult life line tend . . . to be more often social than £3 ‘iological" (Neugarten l968czl46). "There is a prescriptive time— table for the ordering of life events: a time when men and women a re expected to marry, a time to raise children, a time to retire" ( Neugarten 1968a:22). While actual occurrences may vary, behavior 1. S closely correlated with age norms. As men and women grow older, their perception of time c hanges from time-since-birth to time-left-to-live (Neugarten 1 968a). To some people, such an awareness serves as a brake; to others, it acts as a stimulus to maximize the use of time. As N ell garten observed, with a change in time perspective in middle age Q 0"hes the development of "the executive processes of personality: ‘ . self awareness, selectivity, manipulation and control of - as... --o.__ _ 39 the environment, mastery, competence, the wide array of cognitive strategies" (Neugarten 1968bz98). In a study of lOO "well-placed" men and women between the ages of forty and sixty, Neugarten (l968) examined the salient characteristics of middle adulthood. She observed that middle age is a period of heightened sensitivity to: (l) the emotional, social and cultural distance between middle age and youth; (2) the responsi- bility for "the creation of social as well as biological heirs"; ( 3) affinity with the old; and (4) their positions within different " 1ife contexts" such as body, career, and family, rather than "clocking" themselves by virtue of chronological age (Neugarten 1 968b:93-95). Noting differences between men and women, Neugarten pointed out that women tend to define their age status in terms of timing wi thin the family cycle; men, within the work setting. The most dramatic age cues for men focus on personal health, body efficiency and death of peers. Women, on the other hand, are more concerned about their husbands' health than their own, a phenomenon Neugarten Ca 1 ls "rehearsal for widowhood" (Neugarten 1968bz96). In addition to a research interest in the general character- 1 s t ics of men and women at mid-life, Neugarten was concerned with De Y‘sonality changes as individuals move throughout middle adulthood to old age. In each period of development, adults evaluate their I e r‘czeption of themselves in the environment, with the decade of the 1s..- Fties representing an important turning point (Neugarten l968c: ‘l q 0 ) . Forty-year—olds perceive the environment as one that rewards ¥ 40 boldness and risk-taking, and see themselves as possessing the energy to equal the opportunities. Having re-evaluated their perspective in their fifties, sixty-year-olds perceive the environ- ment as complex and dangerous, and see themselves as conforming and acconmodating (Neugarten 1968c:140). Other changes vary according to gender. Men become more sseansitive to affiliative and nurturant impulses in middle age; women As they age, more responsive to aggressive and egocentric impulses. men cope with the environment in increasingly affective and expres- Both men and women move toward more egocentric positions 5 i ve terms. and attend to the control and satisfaction of personal needs ( N eugarten l968c : 140) . Men and women as husbands and wives was the subject of a Explor- s tudy of 909 urban and farm families (Blood and Wolfe 1960). i ng the husband-wife relationship, the researchers examined the decision-making e1: “Fects of varying interaction on such issues as: power, division of labor, economic functions, children, companion- Sh ‘i p, emotional health, love, and stresses and strengths in the Results indicate changes across the life-cycle of the ma r‘riage. 1=arI"I‘ily, including greatest satisfaction with love and understanding d u "“ing the early years, loss of valued companionship in leisure d L.- Y‘ “ing the childrearing years, wife-dominance in decision-making at mi c1Clle age, and a tendency for husbands and wives to utilize be S ources outside the marriage to satisfy their needs at mid-life. 33 t ‘i sfaction with marriage in later years seems to stem from the s. L; S tained habit of meeting each other's needs (Blood and Wolfe 1960). ¥ 41 Applying role theory to the changing positions in a family, Reuben Hill (1965) developed a system in which he designated nine stages of the family life-cycle. Hill suggests that an understand- ing of stages in the family life-cycle will open the way for antici- pating the nature of family interaction and point out contrasts in rieeds as the family grows and changes (Neugarten 1968a:288). In a study of decision-making across the life span, Hill used 312 families with three generations intact. Results indicate changes across the life-cycle in regard to the capacity to give and receive help as needs change. In Stages I through IV, the newly married through school age family demonstrates its greatest willingness to accept help. The young family is living with rapidly expanding needs and modest resources. In Stages V through VI, the families with adolescents and young adults, still heavily pressed with needs, show some equilibrium in giving and receiving. In Stage VII, as children a the launched into jobs and marriage, many wife-mothers will return to the labor force. Although the family has contracted, patterns 1:(J r- helping newly married children must be established (Neugarten 1 968a). In Stage VIII, the post-parental family may have disposable Decision-making may increase in an i "Come for the first time. In Stage a 1:1’0rt to help both married children and aging parents. I X a with both spouses retired, the aging family will receive more he‘l [3 than it gives (Neugarten 1968a). iii. within the Alice Ross patory sta disengage: unique ta: turai non critical ' 42 While the family may be studied in stages, so may each role In a study of the transition to parenthood, within the family. (1) antici- Alice Rossi (1967) defined four stages of a role cycle: patory stage, (2) honeymoon stage, (3) plateau stage, and (4) disengagement-termination stage. Each stage in the cycle has its unique tasks and problems of adjustment which are affected by cul- tural norms, the personalities of the individuals involved and the critical life experiences of the persons (Allman and Jaffe 1977). "The stress generated within a person when he either cannot comply or has difficulty complying with the expectations of a role or a set of roles" was the phenomenon identified by William Goode ( 1 960:483) as role strain. The concept may be used to understand decision-making behavior since the distress experienced by a person may initiate one or more of the following responses: (1) to compartmentalize the behavior as acceptable in one setting but not in another; (2) to delegate one role to another person; (3) to e1 iminate the conflicting role; (4) to expand role relations in OY‘d er to avoid fulfilling certain obligations; and (5) to set up be Y‘riers to protect oneself from unwanted role demands. Several factors affecting the individual's ability to ma '1 age changing roles and relationships have been discussed in the con text of both biological and social developments. It also may be Useful to consider the impact of change in one's accustomed pa ttern of life resulting from various life change events, defined b ‘3’ Thomas Holmes as: a tines attic sign marr peer heal 43 . . occurrences evolving usually from ordinary, but some- times from extraordinary, social and inter-personal trans- actions. These events pertain to major areas of dynamic significance in the social structure, including family, marriage, occupation, economics, residence, group and peer relationships, education, religion, recreation and health (Holmes and Masuda 1973:162-164). Deriving from psychophysics the concept that human beings are able to make subjective magnitude estimations about certain experiences, Holmes and Rahe developed the Social Readjustment Rating Scale (1967). Each of 43 life events was selected on the basis that it "usually evoked, or was associated with, some adaptive or coping behavior on the part of the involved individual" (Holmes and Masuda 1973:164). Each item indicates a change in the ongoing life pattern of the individual, whether the change is perceived as (iesirable or not. As defined, social readjustment measures the intensity and length of time necessary to accorrmodate a life event, vvi th high scores indicating an intense and protracted readjustment. Holmes and Rahe (1967) developed the measurement tool for t:riee purpose of examining the association of life changes and illness. Results indicate that the magnitude of life change is significantly re 1 ated to time of disease onset and seriousness of the illness. Wh i 1e Holmes and Rahe were specifically interested in the adaptive "eSponse to life-change events in relation to health, other researchers later applied the theory to the behavior of elementary S tudent teachers (Hoskins 1972); high school teacher performance ( Ca Franza 1972); and academic performance among college freshmen (Harris 1972). In each case, high life change is associated with 1 g o 0 as S de51rable accommodation; i.e., poor teacher performance or 44 low grades. The value of life change as a concept is that it can be used to help individuals accommodate change in more positive ways (Petrich and Holmes 1977). Changes will occur throughout a lifetime, and the conse- quences will vary with the age, sex, life style, personality, atti- tudes and health of the individual, as well as the individual's relationship to the environment. Such factors will influence the person's ability to adapt, whether the change takes place in the occupational realm, or with personal relationships or any other transaction. Writing about changes in careers in middle age and the ability to adapt, Belbin and Belbin (1966) comment: irrespective of the grade of skill or education, real security of employment must rest on the ability to move from one job to another (with a new attitude) towards acceptance of learning throughout life in a flexible pattern of work and study (Neugarten 1968az346). Accommodating physical, emotional, intellectual or social change may be done more effectively with an understanding of the tiiLJ‘ltiple factors affecting the development of persons throughout ‘tzfiea life-cycle. Three specific areas of human development came ‘3 n to focus in the late 19605: (1) the intellectual and ethical development of late adolescence and youth (Perry 1968); (2) the developmental tasks of the same age group (Chickering 1969); and ( 3 ) the moral development of persons across the life span (Kohlberg ‘I 969) . Perry (l968),studying the relationship between intellect and morality among Harvard undergraduates, determined that there j s a progression along a series of intellectual and ethical positio' viewing Through develon 45 positions. Freshman students demonstrate simple, dualistic thinking, viewing behavior in terms of "we-right-good" and "other-wrong-bad." Through a progression of changing views and opinions, students develop a contextual and relativistic perspective, assuming responsi- bility for thoughts and actions on the basis of personal commitment (Chickering 1981:56). Chickering (1969), also focusing on the developmental tasks of adolescents and young adults in college, proposes two principles of human development: "(1) Development occurs through cycles of differentiation and integration, and (2) the impact of an experience depends upon the characteristics of the person who encounters it" (Chickering 1969:316). As adolescents and young adults experience the challenges (3f change, suggests Chickering, seven "vectors of development" are confronted in a spiral or step pattern: 1. Achieving competence (intellectual, physical and social); 2. Managing emotions; 3. Becoming autonomous (developing emotional inde- pendence, the ability to leave one place and get to another, and finding a sense of interdependence); Establishing identity; Freeing interpersonal relationships; Clarifying purposes; Nam-P Developing integrity (or values). While Chickering specifically was exploring the developmental I13"‘0cess of young adults in the college setting, he points out that 46 "the basic dynamic remains about the same" when applied to human development in other domains (Chickering 1969:298). Lawrence Kohlberg (1969), concluding that the highest levels of moral development occur during adulthood (Knox 1977:380), suggests that human beings proceed from a sense of morality oriented toward punishment and obedience (Stage 1); to moral judgment oriented toward the self and reciprocity (Stage 2); to a morality of mutual trust (Stage 3); to moral judgment aimed at maintenance of the social order through rules and roles (Stage 4); to a morality reflected in an emphasis on conscience (Stage 5); to moral judgment oriented toward abstract ethical principles, emphasizing justice for all (Knox 1977:377-380). Through the process of moral development, individuals identify with increasing awareness their relationship vvith society and its rules (Chickering 1981). As the 19605 came to an end, the focus on adult development vvais being influenced by several factors. Life expectancy, exceeding .6111 estimated average of seventy years, was affecting the concerns ic>‘f’ an aging population whose life experience had not prepared them to be guides for the young (Mead 1970). The discrepancy between " the promise of life" and "the threat to that promise," a perception dermnstrated by the Viet Nam War protests and campus disturbances, had heightened the "consciousness" of youth (Reich 1970). A mobile QeV‘IEration of do-it-yourselfer's had frustrated the human need for ‘3‘:"11nnunity, engagement with social and interpersonal problems, and shared responsibility (Slater 1970). The "premature arrival of the intere’ snoc' " IA ‘ fluf.¢. ‘ I “15. 61:33: 47 future" had left both individuals and society in a state of "future shock“ while trying to adapt to change (Toffler 1970). The literature in adult development published in the 19705 would reflect these societal influences. Literature in Adult Development, 1970-1979 The increase in the publication of research and theory of adult development which was apparent in the 19605 continued at an even greater rate of productivity in the 19705. In fact, more than one-half of the literature from the 19705 reviewed in the current study was published in the three years between 1978 and the end of 1980. The reasons for the increasing interest in the social- :szchology of adulthood, suggests Neil Smelser (1980), are related 11: social changes and the fact that the adult years are "almost the (arily phase left to investigate" in the life-cycle (Smelser and .EEt~ikson 1980). Improved health, a concentrated experience with death at mid-life, a decrease in physical activity related to work, and changing sex roles within the family have affected the focus on adulthood, suggests Janet Giele (Smelser and Erikson 1980). An expansion of professional, semi-professional, and related service 7‘01 es has resulted in career sequences expected to peak in "the 'TT'i (1(11e years between forty and fifty-five years of age" (Smelser and Erikson 1980). Scholars, trained in the 19505 and 19605 are "0‘" themselves experiencing the challenges of mid-life, and are using t issues a cnange c—+ :J' (D ——1 k0 ( ii of aging dimensic researci years is Entire l Increasi adapt in an3ihEr itself a anfiiAEr varied l. I“, O! c—o- rvv 48 using the academic setting to explore both personal and professional issues (Smelser and Erikson 1980). Along with changing social circumstances in the 19705 came a change in the focus of research dealing with adult life. Through the 19605, attention had centered on the changes and continuities of aging, primarily moving from mid-life to old age. Specific dimensions of personality development had interested some researchers, social roles had gained the attention of others. What is unique about the literature of the most recent ten years is the concentration on the process of change throughout the entire life-cycle, with special attention to the adult years. Increasingly, researchers have concerned themselves with how adults adapt in the course of change; how men and women differ from one lanother as changes occur; and the dynamics of the change process i tself as people leave a stable state and make a transition to aariother reality. Although the semantics of writers and researchers have 'wrairied in the discussion of stability and change in adulthood, the perspective shared by most has been a life-cycle view, based on several assumptions: 1. Life unfolds in sequence and in stages. 2. Each stage is marked by a transition, a crucial period of both vulnerability and potentiality. 3. Either progress or regression may occur in transi- tions, but the future which follows transition is always markedly different from the past which preceded it. an; -_ ._ sh" whirl" \\ 49 4. Just as each life stage assigns specific developmental tasks to the individual, so do transitions. 5. Both common and special developmental tasks trigger "teachable moments of peak learning readiness." 6. Every life is unique in its content because of unique heredity, special environment, and personal interaction with the environment (McCoy et a1. 1980:1-2). While there is general consensus regarding the sequential nature of the life-cycle and the stages which give meaning and direction to development, there is little agreement regarding specific age divisions. For example, from a biological perspective, stage and sequence are often measured by reproductive maturity; from a sociological perspective, measured by sequence of roles; from a psychological point of view, measured by the individual's growing sense of the self and the world. Many of the writers and ruesearchers mentioned earlier in Chapter 11 provided the groundwork 'finr dividing the life-cycle into stages (see Figure 2.1, page 50) (tJanil923; BUhler 1933; Frenkel-Brunswick 1936; Erikson 1950-1968). Other writers mentioned earlier looked at life stages from the perspective of the development of social roles (Havighurst 1952; Ne ugarten 1968) or from the standpoint of the family life-cycle ( Hill 1965); or with a focus on intellectual and ethical develop- rnent (Perry 1968) or moral development (Kohlberg 1970). The con- tri butors to the life stage theory which were to follow in the 1 9 705 would add their own time framework and special interests to the existing principle that human development is sequential and one stage follows another. 50 .xcoszmLu oroxuumeFJ zpcmm--._.m mcamwm 3 D. m. V K m. a. av.x m. .J U p Duo 1.. .d U: 3 n nn 3 IL [.1 S .L I..U S D. ILU 3 1. 1.6 3 (A pl: 3 U: U: a U1? U 0 0 U V O U m m. m. m .w m..m m N o m a m N P a a _ _ _ AJ_ comchm m a m N _ __i __ __ 4_ _ so as mm o_ o xuwzmcscmupwxcmcm a m N _ a __ : : _ . a a me me mm mp . _;:m A =mew4 eo cooz we»: ca wm< . mesa gamma coo;u_=u< m_tu_z as. L 51 Rita Weathersby, in her own writing about ego development, calls Jane Loevinger's scheme "the most inclusive of all develop- mental stage theories applicable to adolescents and adults" (Chickering 1981:52). Loevinger, in her work published in 1970, linked a number of insights from various branches of psychology, and created a model which includes eight stages representing broad patterns of change in ego development: 1. Impulsive stage: fear of retaliation; dependent. 2. Self-protection stage: fear of being caught; wary. 3. Conformist stage: conformity to rules; concern with belonging. 4. Conscientious-conformist stage: aware of self in relation to group. 5. Conscientious stage: self-evaluated standards; responsible. 6. Individualistic stage: respect for individuality. 7. Autonomous stage: coping with conflicting inner needs. 8. Integrated stage: reconciling of inner conflicts (Chickering 1981:53-55). While Loevinger views the progression of ego development in sstxccessive stages, her focus is on the dynamics of transition from one stage to the next (Chickering 1981:52). Each stage is marked by a succession of turning points called milestone sequences in which a personality trait develops, peaks in importance, and then r‘eappears in a new context (Chickering 1981:52-53). The sequential changes of adulthood were described in two :5; 1t1l1<1ies reported by Roger L. Gould in 1972. An observational study of psy patien stages the se 52 of psychiatric out-patients and a questionnaire study of non- patients resulted in the identification of seven developmental stages between the ages of sixteen and sixty. Gould concluded that the sequence of changes are time—dominated, but not necessarily age specific for any one individual (Gould 1972:531). Throughout adulthood the following developmental stages are interrelated: Leaving parents: breaking out Ages 16 - 18 Leaving parents: staying out Ages 18 - 22 Becoming adult: marriage Ages 22 - 28 Questioning life's meanings Ages 29 - 34 Continued questioning of values; Ages 35 - 43 time is finite; responsibility for parents as well as children Occupational "die is cast"; interest Ages 43 - 50 in friends; reliance on spouse Mellowing and warming up; spouse The 505 increasingly important; review of contributions; concern with health (Gould 1972). A year later, elaborating on their earlier research in lilJnnan development, Robert Sears and Shirley Feldman published an updated edition of The Seven Ages of Man (1973). Although the framework of their writing divides each “age" into separate sections on physical changes, personality development, and changes in ability, the authors point out that human life is continuous from one phase to the next and each aspect of development dependent upon every Other. In their scheme, the life-cycle is divided as follows: L THESE a and tie 53 Infancy: O to 5 years Childhood: 6 to 12 years Adolescence: 12 to 18 years Young Adult 18 to 30 years Prime of Life: 30 to 42 years Middle Age 42 to 60 years Old Age: Beyond 60 years. Three years later (1976), Daniel J. Levinson and his asso- ciates published the preliminary findings of a study of forty men, ages 18-47. Building on earlier research about life stages and developmental tasks, the authors conclude that men develop by periods in which they must master certain tasks in order to take on later tasks without disadvantage. Levinson distinguishes three developmental periods: Early adulthood, roughly ages 20-40 Middle adulthood, ages 40-60 Late adulthood, age 60 and older. These age-linked divisions are comprised of developmental periods airid transitions which Levinson identifies as: Leaving the Family (starting at age 16-18 and ending at 20—24); Getting into the Adult World (starts in early 205 and extends until 27-29); Age-3O Transition (ages 28-32); Settling Down (begins in early 305 and extends until late 305 or early 405); Becoming One's Own Man, or BOOM (occurs in the middle to late 305); 54 The Mid-Life Transition (starts about age 38 and extends until the middle 405); Restabilization (3-4 year period around age 45) (Levinson 1976). In the same year, Gail Sheehy published the popular book, Passages: Predictable Crises of Adult Life (1976), incorporating many of the research findings of Gould and Levinson with her own study of the adult lives of 115 men and women. Comparing the developmental patterns of men and women between the ages of 18 and 55, Sheehy identifies six "passages" or stages in the adult life cycle: Pulling Up Roots (ages 18 - 22) The Trying Twenties (ages 22 - 28) Catch-30 Transition (ages 28 - 32) Rooting and Extending (ages 32 - 35) Deadline Decade (ages 35 - 45) Renewal (after 45). Together, Gould, Levinson, and Sheehy describe a general pattern in the adult life-cycle. Beginning with a transition from Eidolescence to young adulthood, men and women in their mid-twenties eenter a period of "provisional adulthood" in which they make initial (:tmmnitments to work, marriage and family. These commitments are ‘F‘te-examined during the transition period which occurs around age 30. «Eilntering the settling down period of the 305 with changed or renewed Commitments, men and women enter a time for achievement, for becom— ‘5 ng one's own person. change As the and ti re-exe occur War to de Virg' her 1 55 As the 405 approach, and one's time perspective begins to change, the likely limits of anticipated success are apparent. As the midlife transition takes off with the questioning of values i and the meaning of one's life, commitments to work and marriage are re-examined. By the late fbrties or early fifties a restabilization occurs during which friends, family and spouse become increasingly important and attention to work begins to decrease. Other researchers suggest variations of terms or age-periods to describe the adult life-cycle process. One such writer is Virginia Lester (1978) who produced the following framework from her study of more than 2,700 adult students at Empire State College: Pulling Up Roots (21 and under) Getting into Adult World (22 - 28) Putting Down Roots (29 - 36) Mid-Life Transition (37 - 43) Middle Adulthood (44 - 50) Late Adulthood (51 - 60) Early Retirement (61 and over). Nevertheless, by whatever terms or chronological periods, 7 ife-cycle theory is characterized not only by the concept of Eitequential stages, but by the idea that each stage is initiated by ii life transition. The current use of the term "transition" might be traced to the term "rite of passage," initiated nearly eighty years ago to describe the rituals used to ease people into birth, puberty, marriage and death (Fried and Fried 1980). Erikson (1950) Used the term "crisis" to describe the periods of potentiality and 56 vulnerability between life stages. Gould (1972) talked about "time zone boundaries" or "transitional periods." Sheehy, rejecting . "crisis" as a confusing label, "replaced that . . . with a less loaded word for the critical transitions between stages, and called them passages" (1976:16). Levinson defined a developmental transi- tion as "a turning point or boundary region between two periods of greater stability" (1976:24). “Transition is a process which forms a link between two points (modes or activities)? stated Levinson in a recent address on life transitions. "A transition connects and overlaps two points, but is different from each point. . . . Some transitions involve a crisis, some do not" (Levinson l980b). Levinson's use of the term "transition" is best understood in the context of the concept of "life structure." A life structure, as defined by Levinson, is the pattern design of a person's life, a meshing of self- in-world. Its primary components are one's relationships: with self, other persons, groups, and institutions, with all aspects of the external world that has significance in one's life (Levinson l980az8). 'The life structure forms a boundary between personality and social structure; is comprised of one or two central components (usually <><:cupation and marriage-family); and evolves through a relatively Orderly sequence of periods during the adult years. The sequence '13tallows a pattern of a structure-building period of six to ten years, followed by a structure-changing period of five years, moving toward commitment to choices that form a basis for a new ‘1 ‘i fe structure (Levinson l980b). 57 "The purpose of a transition is to terminate a life structure that has become inadequate and to initiate a new life structure," points out Rita Weathersby (1978) who was particularly interested in how adults use an educational experience differently in periods of transition than they do in periods of stability. From her study of Goddard College adult students, Weathersby concluded that in times of transition adults seek redirection through the educational exper- ience; in periods of stability,the same opportunities are sought for working and building (Weathersby 1978:21). "Almost half our adult years are spent in building new life structures," Levinson notes (Levinson l980b). In the evolving process of creating a new life structure, a person is making certain key choices, forming a life design around them, and pursuing appro— priate values and goals. Such a task, suggests Levinson, may involve changes which result in temporary stability, only to be challenged in the subsequent transitional period. Levinson points out that before a structure-building period ends, a transition process has already begun. It starts with what l_evinson calls the "termination task" in which the significant I‘elationships in a person's life begin to change. Relative to the ‘iinportance of the "other" person or organization, a sense of 1055 'i s experienced and the process of internalizing the "other" takes FDVlace. New "others" are found, and the person is ready for the Sitecond developmental task of a transition, “individuation” ( Levinson l980b) . 58 In the individuation task, “there exists both an opportunity 1 and a need to arrive at a new balance in the dialectical forces which make up "the human soul." The primary forces which form the elements of individuation, according to Levinson, are: young vs. old, destruction vs. creation, masculine vs. feminine, attachment vs. separateness (Levinson l980b). Sophie Freud Loewenstein adds another polarity to the task of achieving balance in a transition period: love vs. being loved, or wooing vs. being wooed (Loewenstein 1980). A transition period, Levinson suggests (1980b), comes to an end with the third task, "initiation," in which choices are made and commitments defined. At the same time a five-year transition period is ending, a new era or structure-building period has begun. In such a pattern, the life-cycle continues. Levinson's scheme for describing the evolving life struc- ture in adulthood is comprised of three age-linked eras, each composed of developmental periods and connected by transition periods. The era of Pre-Adulthood is linked with Early Adulthood hay the Early Adult Transition (ages 17 - 22); the Mid-Life Transi- t:ion (ages 40 - 45) forms the link with the era of Middle Adulthood; Eirid the Age - 50 Transition (ages 50 - 55) creates the link to the Era of Late Adulthood. Levinson speculates that a subsequent transi- tion and era may follow into late-late adulthood (Levinson 1980a:11). Life transitions as periods of change (progress or regres- 53‘i on) "basically involve a letting go of the past and a taking hold 59 of the future" (McCoy 1980:16). Since the basic need to feel secure if is threatened by change, letting go is usually a difficult exper- ience, as evidenced by the attention given to the process of loss and change in the literature of recent years. In 1965, Franklin C. Shontz published "Phases of Reaction to Crisis," in which he suggests that a major disruption in a person's life will result in a five-phase response. After exper- iencing shock, the person reaches a phase of realization, then a defensive retreat, followed by acknowledgment, and finally, adapta- tion and a new sense of personal worth (McCoy et a1. 1980:25). In her 1969 publication, On Death and Dying, Elisabeth KObler-Ross proposes a similar pattern of response in five stages of grief. Denial is followed by anger, then bargaining, then depression, and finally, acceptance. What Shontz and KUbler-Ross have in common is the idea that a highly significant life-changing event, such as a death, stimulates the need to incorporate the new information into one's perception of life. The need is satisfied in a process of increasing self-awareness and commitment to a new identity. How difficult the adaptation process becomes will depend LlpOh how fundamental the change appears to be, suggests Peter Marris in his 1974 publication, Loss and Change. A routine change Ihaintains continuity and requires little reorganization. A growth S==l1ange also maintains continuity while incorporating familiar expec- ‘tléitions within a broader range of interests. A loss, however, is . O O 0 O O I O 0 O O 'NN eueeeeeNeNem n .N.N NNN.NN n Nxe N.NN N.NN N.NN N.N N.N_ N.N_ NNNN_NNN Noz N.NN N.NN N.NN N.N N.NN N.NN eeNN-Neee N.NN N.NN N.NN N.NN N.NN N.NN NeNN-__NN NN.NN_ NN.NN_ NN.NN_ NN.NNN NN.NN_ NN.NNN _eeoe ANanV ANanv ANNanV ANNHZV ANanV ANNanN NNNNNN acmexopqsm cm: :mEoz Payee cm: :meoz Fmpop aaucmsppoccu empe< acmENoFNEm emcwgmpcm mcoemm “coeonNEw .ucms__oc:m cmpe< umaopasm ace Foogom mumaumco mcwcmpcm mcoemm umNOFNEm Npcmuspm wumauecu Neweuuwz mo cowpsawcumwo mmmucmucmauu.m.e memP4 o.op «F m.mF m +¢ m.mm mm o.mm om mum n.op m m.m_ m _ P.n o n.0, m mcoz “cmLu—?;u o.mN _~ m.m m emuco>wo\umpmcmawm w.mm No m.om mm nmwggmz ”ngwcmz m.m N m.~ — +om ~.mp PF m.m m ovume m.w~ em w.~m oF evuoe o.om Ne P._o NN mm-mm "mam< “.mm om ~._e Hm msz m.¢m em N.HN mH mpmsmu ”cmucmw o.ooF emuz o.oop mmnz Peach & z N z mpcmvconmmm mo muwumwcwuomgmso mpcmuconmmm zwmcmcuz mpcmucoammm =mmcmso oz= :owmwumo ms“ mcwxmz cw mpmapmgmu mm mmmcmgu umuwu 0:3 .Foozum mpmsumgw caucm op mmosp saw: umcmasou mpcm>m mucosa mew; auto poz ewe 0:3 mpeaespm aoeaeeco mew4-ewz co cowosnecpmwa mmegeauema--.om.e msmqk 174 A higher percentage of "no life change” adults had pursued full-time education since completing their undergraduate degrees than respondents from the "change" group (4l.7 percent compared with 25.0 percent). In the decision-making process, compared with the adults who identified life change events as catalysts, the "no life change" respondents reported talking with fewer persons (with the exception of their spouses), feeling encouraged by fewer persons (except for their spouses), and feeling discouraged by fewer persons (with the exception of relatives and friends). They also viewed their decision as having less effect on other persons, with the slight exception of their employers, than did the other respondents. Compared with the women and men who perceived one or more events as catalytic, the "no life change“ adults did not feel as high a need to postpone, forfeit, or adjust conditions in their lives in order to follow through with their decision. It may be interpreted from the descriptive differences between the two groups of graduate students that the adults not perceiving life change events as cata- lysts may be less invested in human relationships and/or may not have associated in their own minds the changes in their lives with their decision to enter a graduate program. While the ”no life change" graduate students did not asso- ciate changes with their decision, most of the women and men accounted for one or more life events as having taken place, such as gaining a new family member, getting married, the death of a spouse or a 175 parent, changing residence, changes in relationships, changes in health, beginning a new job, losing a job, a child entering school or leaving home, a spouse entering school or beginning employment, changes in community involvement, or a personal achievement. Finally, compared with the "change” group of respondents, the "no life change" group included proportionately more inter- national students and fewer white, U.S. citizens. Approximately 17 percent of the "no life change" group were non-U.S. citizens, Com- pared with seven percent of the "change“ group. The higher percentage of international students in the "no life change“ group of respondents may suggest a cultural bias on the question of life change events: see recommendations for further study in Chapter V. Summary The focus of the study was the decision—making process experienced by adult graduate students who had entered Michigan State University in the fall or winter term of l979-80. The research questions centered upon the similarities and differences which might be found between women and men as they made the decision to begin a graduate program during the life-cycle period of middle adulthood. While a full discussion of the findings appears in Chapter V, the major findings of the study were as follows: Description of the Respondents ‘Age.--Fifty-three percent of the women and men in the study comprised the youngest age group (35-39) with the remaining 47 percent 176 comprising the other three age groups combined (40-50+). The women graduate students tended to be somewhat older than the men. Marital Status.--Three-fourths of the women and men were married at the time they entered graduate school. An additional 30 percent of the women and six percent of the men had been married at one time. Parental Status.--Ninety percent of the adult graduate students were parents, 20 percent of the women being single-parents. Employment Status.--Eighty-seven percent of the women and men had been employed at the time they decided to enter graduate school, a figure which dropped with enrollment. College Enrollment.—-Eleven colleges were represented among the total number of respondents, with 74 percent of the women and men enrolled in four colleges: Education, Business, Lifelong Educa- tion or Social Science. Level of Degree Program.--Three times as many graduate students were enrolled in masters degree programs as were enrolled in doctoral programs. Race and Nationality.--The respondents were a group of pre- dominantly white U.S. citizens. Approximately ten percent of the graduate students were registered as international students; five percent as non-white U.S. citizens. l77 The Decision-Making Process Educational History.--Both women and men in the study were accustomed to perceiving education as a resource in their lives. Of all the graduate students, 76 percent had continued their education in some way since completing their undergraduate degrees. Persistence in a graduate program was high, evidenced by the fact that 83 percent of the women and men had continued their enrollment without inter- ruption from matriculation through the spring term of l979-BO. Employment History.--The percentage of employment among men at the time they decided to enter graduate school (95 percent) was greater than the percentage of employment among women (62 percent). Both women and men reduced their employment commitment after enrolling in graduate school. More women respondents than men attributed past employment to their choice of a field of graduate study. Human Resources.--Nearly all (96 percent) of the women and men graduate students reported talking with someone during the decision-making process. More adults reported talking with their spouses than any other resource person, followed by educational resources, friends, employment resources, children and/or relatives, and professional resources. At least half of all the graduate stu- dents reported feeling encouraged by their spouses and friends, and only a few reported feeling discouaged by anyone. More than one- third of the adults indicated that they might have found it helpful to talk with some persons whom they had not in the decision-making process. More than half of that group thought they would have 178 benefited from talking with educational resource people, particularly graduate students already in their program. Conditions and Bargains (Trade-Offs).--More than three- fourths of the graduate students in the study had anticipated having to postpone or forfeit use of leisure time in order to follow through with their decision to enter graduate school. The condition cited most frequently after leisure time was having to adjust expectations regarding family responsibilities. In general, more women than men reported having to make adjustments in their lives before carrying out their decision. Consequences (Effects).--Only three percent of the respondents in the study reported feeling that no one had been affected by their decision to enter graduate school. Most of the adults reported that their spouse and/or children had been affected, many times indicating that the consequences had been positive rather than negative. More than 50 percent of the women reported that their friends had been affected by their decision, while only 22 percent of the men reported the same feeling. Fifty-nine percent of the men compared with 4l percent of the women reported feeling that their employers had been affected. Life Change Events.--Of all the respondents, 70 percent reported that some kind of life event or change had served as a catalyst in their decision to enter graduate school. Events related to employment ranked highest among the graduate students' responses 179 as having prompted their decision. A major change in relationship(s) ranked second, followed by a change in finances, a change in resi- dence, and a personal achievement. Of the total number of women and men in the study, 30 percent reported that they did not feel that any life event had precipitated their decision. Compared with the adults who perceived one or more events as catalysts, the "no life change" graduate students seemed to be less invested in human rela- tionships and may not have associated in their own minds the changes in their lives with their decision to enter a graduate program. Conclusion The graduate students in the study provided evidence that the decision-making process for adults at mid-life differs between women and men, primarily in regard to human resources, but including educational history, employment history, conditions and bargains, consequences, and life change events. In general, women at mid-life make decisions in a complex network of human relationships, experiencing multiple consequences and anticipating positive changes in their lives. Men at mid-life make decisions more independently than women do, experiencing fewer predictable consequences, and also anticipating positive changes in their lives as a result of their decisions. CHAPTER V SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS Introduction To perceive that present reality falls short of imagined possibilities is to be confronted with a need to make a decision. For any person the choice may be to alter some aspect of present circumstances or it may be to settle for what exists in light of the perceived costs of change. In either case, at the point of recognizing a conflict, a decision-making process has begun and a transition period initiated. For in spite of the outcome, the person in interaction with the environment has already begun to change and must seek an altered state of being. // Decision-making, then, becomes a key process by which persons in general, and adults in particular, deal with change in their lives. {In light of current theories about adult life-cycle development, a reasonable question seemed to be whether women and men might manage the decision-making process differently, particu- larly in middle adulthood when gender differences are believed to be their greatest. It has been suggested that in times of transition adults i use educational opportunities to seek redirection (Weathersby l978). With that concept in mind, a study was designed to explore the 180 181 differential process by which graduate school was chosen by women and men, ages 35 and older, as a means of effecting change. A summary of the study, as well as the conclusions and recommendations, comprise the content of Chapter V. Summary of the Study The Problem The purpose of the study was to explore the similarities and differences in the decision-making process by which adult women and men, ages 35 and older, chose to enter graduate school at Michigan State University in the fall or winter term of l979-80. The specific purposes were to study the differential effects of educational and employment history upon women and men in the deci— sion to enter graduate school; to identify the human resources used by the women and men in the decision-making process; to determine with what conditions or "trade-offs" the decision was made; to identify the persons perceived by the adult graduate students as having been affected by the decision; and to determine what life events or major changes were perceived by the women and men as having precipitated the decision to enter graduate school. Significant Literature As background for the study, a brief history of graduate education opened the second chapter, pointing out the desirability of perceiving graduate education as an appropriate and effective resource for the personal and professional growth of adult students. 182 Literature in adult life-cycle development was presented in four chronological parts: historical antecedents through 1950; the period, l950-59; the decade of the sixties; and finally, l970 to the present. The review of research and writing revealed an increasing interest during the seventies in the adult development of women and men, with a focus on the process of change throughout the life-cycle, especially the years of middle adulthood. The themes and principal writers in the study are: 1. adult life—cycle development theory (Erikson l950; Neugarten l968; Gould l972, 1978; Levinson l976, l980; Sheehy l976; Vaillant l977, l980; McCoy l980; Smelser l980); the process of loss and change (Shontz l965; KUbler- Ross 1969; Marris l974; Imara l975; Bridges 1980); gender differences in adult development (Neugarten l968; Sheehy l976; Barnett and Baruch l978; Gilligan 1979; Gould 1980; Fiske l980; Lehmann 1980); intimacy as a developmental task (Lowenthal, Thurnher, Chiriboga and Associates l975; Lowenthal and Weiss l976; Gilligan 1979; Loewenstein l980; Douvan l980; Giele l980); life-change events (Holmes 1967, l973; Knox l978; Aslanian and Brickell 1980; Bridges 1980); decision-making theory (Paolucci, Hall, and Axinn l977; Scanzoni l977; Paolucci l979); adults' use of education in times of stability or change (Weathersby l976, l978; Knox l978; Lehmann l980; Aslanian and Brickell l980). Other topics included in the review of the literature are: career transitions, family transitions, and education as a resource at mid-life. 183 Methodology In the study which led to the development of the proposal for the Ph.D. dissertation, thirty educators indicated their interests regarding adult students in higher education. The three issues raised most frequently were: (l) personal decision-making of adult students, (2) institutional response to adult student needs, and (3) retention and/or attrition of adult students. 0f the three interest areas, personal decision-making of adult women and men most closely fit the interests of the writer, and was chosen as the subject for the research project. The study was designed to explore the decision-making process of women and men, ages 35 and older, who had chosen to enter graduate school at Michigan State University in the fall or winter term of l979-80. The research questions were outlined as follows: Educational History l. What effect does educational history have in the decision-making process of women and men? 2. Will continuing education patterns be different for women and men? Employment History l. What effect does employment history have in the decision-making process of women and men? 2. Will employment patterns be different for women and men? 184 Human Resources l. Who are the persons perceived by women and men as useful resources in the decision-making process? 2. Will women and men feel encouraged and/or discouraged by the same human relationships in the same ways? Conditions and Bargains (Trade-Offs) 1. In order to follow through with the decision to enter graduate school, what conditions or bargains (trade-offs) do women and men perceive as necessary? 2. Will women and men feel the need to postpone or forfeit the same opportunities? Consequences l. What relationships will women and men perceive as having been affected by the decision to enter graduate school? 2. Will women and men perceive relationships as having been affected in the same ways? 3. What have been the unforeseen consequences of the decision? Life Events l. What life events or major changes are perceived by women and men as having helped to bring about the decision to enroll in graduate study? 2. Will women and men view the same life events as having precipitated the decision? In order to conduct the study, a total of l98 graduate students were identified as having entered Michigan State University in the fall or winter term at age 35 or older. In light of the small but sufficient number of graduate stduents in the population, no sample was obtained. In April l980, a survey instrument was mailed to the 87 women and lll men in the population. 185 The questionnaire had been refined in a pre-test administered to adult graduate students at Lake Erie College. Permission to con- duct the research with Michigan State University students had been obtained from the University Committee for Research Involving Human Subjects. In its final form, the survey instrument contained twenty questions with opportunities for comments by the respondents. There were 128 responses to the questionnaire, or 65 percent of the total number mailed. It was possible to use 120 complete and valid questionnaires in the study (6l percent). There were 70 non-respondents and eight graduate students whose questionnaires could not be used, totaling 78 women and men not included in the response data. As reported in Chapter III, there was not a great difference between the research population and the non-respondents in regard to gender, age, college enrollment or degree level, although the non-respondents tended to be older men in doctoral programs. To be able to gain greater insights into the questionnaire responses, in-depth interviews were conducted with a purposive sub- sample of the respondents. Eleven women and nine men were chosen on the basis of acquiring a full range of the characteristics of the respondents. Sixteen of the subjects were interviewed in face-to- face conferences, approximately one hour in length. Four subjects, not available for in-person conferences, were interviewed by tele- phone. Responses to the completed questionnaires were grouped for analysis, coded and key-punched in preparation for use in a computer 186 program written with the use of the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences as well as the BMPDIF-Two-Way Frequency Tables- Measures of Association Program from the University of California, Los Angeles, November 1978. Data were retrieved in a form which would provide both demographic information about the 120 graduate students, as well as comparative data in frequency distribution tables and Chi Square tests for the 69 women and El men in the study. Findings Summarizing the findings of the study in Chapter IV, the data were organized under two broad headings: (l) a description of the respondents, and (2) the decision-making process. Description of the Respondents Responses to a series of questions in the survey instrument, as well as student records in the Office of the Registrar, provided information about the graduate students' age, marital status, parental status, educational history, employment history, college enrollment, level of degree program, and race and nationality. Age distribution of respondents was coded into four groups: (l) ages 35-39, (2) ages 40-44, (3) ages 45-49, and (4) ages 50 and older. As a group, more than half of the respondents (53.3 percent) comprised the youngest group (ages 35-39), with the remaining 46.7 percent comprising the other three age groups. Women graduate students tended to be somewhat older than men students. 187 Marital status of the respondents was coded into three groups: (l) married, (2) divorced, separated, or widowed, and (3) never married. Of all the respondents, 95.6 percent of the women and 96.1 percent of the men reported having been married at one time, but 30.4 percent of the women and 5.9 percent of the men currently were divorced, separated or widowed. The one graduate student who had been widowed was planning to be married soon. Parental status of the respondents was coded into fOur categories: (1) no children, (2) one child, (3) two or three children, and (4) four or more children. Ninety percent of the adult graduate students reported being parents. The most striking difference in the parental status of the respondents is the per- centage of single-parent women (20.3 percent) compared with no single-parent men. An observation made during the interviews and supported by comments written on the questionnaires is that the women are more likely to have fewer dependent children than men at the time of beginning a graduate program. That fact might be the reason for the older ages of the women graduate students. Employment status of the women and men was determined on the basis of two questions: (l) employment at the time of deciding to enter graduate school, and (2) current employment while enrolled as a student. At the time of deciding to enter graduate school, 87.5 percent of all respondents were employed either full-time or part-time. The most obvious distinction between the women and the men is that more men (95.1 percent) than women (62.3 percent) were employed full-time. No men reported being employed part-time, 188 compared with 20.3 percent of the women. In the report of current employment, both women and men indicated decreasing in full-time employment, and increasing in both part-time or no employment, at the time of their enrollment in graduate school. Educational status of the respondents was determined by accumulating information about the graduate students' college enrollment, level of degree program, and enrollment patterns. Eleven colleges were represented among the respondents, with 74 percent of the women and men enrolled in four colleges: Education, Business, Lifelong Education, and Social Science. Percentage dis- tributions illustrate several differences in college enrollments between women and men. The most notable distinction appears in the College of Education where 37.7 percent of the women were enrolled, compared with l9.6 percent of the men, and in the College of Business where 33.3 percent of the men were enrolled, compared with 4.3 per- cent of the women. Comparing level of degree program with women and men, 29.4 percent of the men and l7.4 percent of the women were enrolled in doctoral programs. Persistence was high for both women and men, evidenced by the fact that 83 percent of all respondents had con- tinued their enrollment without interruption from the date of their matriculation through the spring term of l979-80. At the time of the survey, 55.8 percent of all respondents were enrolled full-time, 31.7 percent were enrolled part-time, and l2.5 percent were not enrolled for the spring term. 189 The Decision-Making Process Responses to a series of questions in the survey instrument provided information about the decision-making process experienced by the women and men in the study. The areas studied were: educa- tional and employment history, human resources, conditions and bargains (trade-offs), consequences (effects), and life change events. Educational history was analyzed by looking at the patterns of continuing education among the women and men in the study. Apparently both women and men were accustomed to perceiving educa- tion as a resource in their lives. Of all the graduate students, 76 percent had continued their education in some way since complet- ing their undergraduate degrees and before enrolling in graduate school in l979-80. The data indicate that a slightly higher per- centage of men than women had continued their education, with 39.2 percent of the men and 23.2 percent of the women engaged in full-time study in the process of continuing their education. Part of the reason for the gender differences may be that more men than women reported receiving both financial assistance and "release time" from their employers for the purpose of pursuing their edu- cation. Another gender difference related to educational history is evident in the percentage of women entering graduate school in the winter term rather than the fall term, and more often than men with part-time status. Employment history was analyzed by studying employment patterns for both past and present participation in either 190 full-time or part-time, paid or volunteer work. The information gathered regarding employment illustrates a broad range of exper- ience among both women and men. Much of the data is reported in the description of the respondents under "employment status." The most noticeable change in employment behavior reported by the graduate students is the increase in the percentage of men choosing no employ- ment while enrolled in graduate school. Comments offered by the men respondents suggest that one reason may be linked to the opportunity for some men to attend graduate school with few financial or time restrictions by virtue of employment benefits. Other comments offered by the men indicate that the full-time employment of a spouse may provide for the choice of unemployment. Most women and men (85 percent) reported feeling that some form of employment led to their field of study. It may be somewhat surprising to note that more women (88.4 percent) than men (80.4 percent) pointed to their paid or volunteer employment as having affected their decision to choose a particular area of study. Human resources were identified on the basis of who the women and men reported talking with in the decision-making process, and were analyzed according to whom the graduate students had felt encouraged or discouraged their decision. Of all the respondents, 95.8 percent reported talking with someone. More adults reported talking with their spouses or former spouses than any other resource person, followed by educational resources, friends, employment resources, children and/or relatives, and professional resources. 191 It is noteworthy that while 90 percent of the adult graduate students reported having children, 49.2 percent of the mothers and 85.l percent of the fathers did not report talking with their children and/or relatives in the decision-making process. It should not be surprising that only 55.1 percent of the women and 19.6 per- cent of the men reported feeling encouraged by their children and/or relatives! It is evident from the research data that friends are con- sidered by the respondents to be an important human resource in the decision-making process, especially by women. In fact, the percen- tage of women reporting talking with friends (66.7 percent) is second only to the percentage of women reporting talking with spouses. The information takes on greater meaning when it is remembered that 35 percent of the women were not married at the time of making the decision to enter graduate school. Men reported talking with friends in only 45 percent of the cases. Outside their family and friends, both women and men reported talking most frequently with people they perceive as edu- cational resources. 0f the respondents, 60 percent reported talking with faculty and/or graduate students at Michigan State University. Less than half of the graduate students reported talking with employment resources, in spite of the fact that 87.5 percent of the women and men reported being employed at the time they decided to enter graduate school. Professional resources were consulted by more women than men, according to the reports of the graduate 192 students, with both women and men consulting most frequently with physicians, professional counselors and clergy. At least half of all the graduate students reported feeling encouraged by their spouses and friends and discouraged by no one. Both women and men reported feeling encouraged by their employers in 45 percent of the cases. To a lesser extent, the graduate stu- dents reported feeling encouraged by their children, relatives, faculty, graduate students, and professional resources. Both women and men reported feeling discouraged by their relatives and/or their friends more than by anyone else. Consider- ing the fact that 66.7 percent of the women reported talking with friends, it is important to note that 23.2 percent of the women respondents indicated feeling discouraged by their friends. One explanation for discouragement by friends may be that some women, particularly women with multiple roles of their own, may recognize that the problems are greater for women who are trying to combine such roles as spouse, parent, employee, community leader and student. Finally, in regard to human resources, 35 percent of the graduate students in the study indicated that there were other people they might have talked with but had not in the decision- making process. It occurred to more women (46.3 percent) than men (l9.6 percent) that they might have found additional human resources to be helpful. Of all the respondents, 20 percent reported feeling that they might have found it helpful to talk with educational resource people, particularly graduate stduents already in their 193 program. Others reported that they might have found it helpful to talk with a professional counselor, sometimes specified as a voca- tional counselor, or with relatives, friends, or various professional resource people. Conditions and bargains (trade-offs) were those agreements with other persons or circumstances under which the respondents expected to follow through with their decision to enter graduate school. Both women and men saw the necessity for postponing an occupational opportunity (26.7 percent), postponing leisure time (76.7 percent), and seeking financial aid (25.8 percent). When women and men differed it was in the perceived need to use family financial resources (women 36.2 percent, men 25.5 percent), or to postpone a relationship (women l7.4 percent, men 7.8 percent), or to reduce community activities (women 50.7 percent, men 29.4 per- cent), or to adjust family responsibilities (women 69.6 percent, men 49.0 percent). Effects of the decision to enter graduate school were those consequences perceived by the mid-life graduate students as affect- ing other people. Almost all the respondents (96.7 percent) reported that someone had been affected by their decision to enter graduate school. Most of the women and men (85.0 percent) indicated that their spouse and/or children had been affected, usually in a positive way. Women and men differed most in their perception of the effect of their decision upon their friends. Fifty-one percent of the women compared with 22 percent of the men reported feeling that their 194 friends had been affected, if only by having to adjust to a change in the availability of a graduate student friend. Differences were also reported in the perceived effect upon relatives (women 33.3 percent, men 25.5 percent), and the effect upon employers (men 62.5 percent, women 49.l percent), sometimes with negative consequences. Both women and men graduate students voluntarily reported that they had been affected, often describing the consequences of juggling multiple roles, or of facing new challenges to old assump- tions, or of arousing hope for the future. Unanticipated consequences were reported by both women and men in an open-ended question regarding other considerations they might have given in the decision-making process. The consequences mentioned most frequently were that: (l) the financial investment was greater than expected, (2) role changes were more difficult than imagined, and (3) the physical and emotional costs were higher than anticipated. A few respondents indicated that the graduate school experience had been more fun than they had expected! Life change events were reported by 70.0 percent of the respondents as having precipitated the decision to enter graduate school. Events related to employment were cited most frequently by both women (42.0 percent) and men (39.2 percent) as prompting their decision. A major change in relationships ranked second among the life change events which served as catalysts for 31.8 percent of the women and ll.8 percent of the men. 195 Three other life event categories were cited by at least l0 percent of the respondents: a change in finances (l2.5 percent). a change in residence (ll.7 percent), and a personal achievement (l0.0 percent). In each case the event had prompted the decision for more women than men. A higher percentage of women than men also reported catalytic changes in areas including: changes in the student status of a spouse, a change in community involvement, a child entering school, a child leaving home, and the death of someone. Only women reported that a change in marital status or a new family member served as a catalytic event in their decision to enter graduate school. The only two life event categories cited by more men than women as having prompted their decision were financial events and a change in the employment status of a spouse. In both areas, however, the differences between the responses of women and men were l percent or less. Not all the respondents viewed recent changes in their lives as precipitating events related to their decision to enter graduate school. Thirty percent of the respondents (2l.7 percent of the women and 41.2 percent of the men) reported that no changes in their lives had served as catalysts in the decision—making process. In summary, the data indicate that the women respondents were much more likely than the men to view their decision to enter graduate school at a particular time as associated with precipitous events. 196 Conclusions Having presented a summary of the study and the findings, Chapter V continues with conclusions drawn from the study and focused upon gender differences. Educational History The educational history of the graduate students indicated that for most of the women, the decision to enter graduate school followed a fifteen to twenty year period after completion of the undergraduate degree. For the men, the decision followed a pattern of continuing education in which the undergraduate degree was com- pleted at a significantly older age than the age at which women completed their bachelor's degrees. Both women and men demonstrated a history of continuing education with 75.8 percent of all respondents having pursued their education in some form between the time of completing their under- graduate work and entering graduate school in l979-80. Employment History The employment history of the graduate students indicated that for a significantly greater number of men than women, the decision to enter graduate school followed a period of full-time employment. Ninety-fOur percent of the men were employed full-time at the time they decided to enter graduate school, compared with 62 percent of the women. A significant difference reappeared at a somewhat lower level when employment patterns were examined for women and men after enrollment. At that point, 72.5 percent of 197 the men were employed full-time, compared with 40.6 percent of the women. For 85.0 percent of the respondents in the study, the deci- sion to enter a particular field of graduate study was associated with an aspect of their employment history. Human Resources While 95.8 percent of all the graduate students reported talking with one or more persons in the decision-making process, women were more involved than men in the use of human resources. With the exception of employment resources (consulted by 62.5 per- cent of the employed men and by 49.l percent of the employed women) and a 93.0 percent-tie with spouses, more women than men utilized all other human resources. The largest gender differences in the use of human resources appeared in the reports of respondents talking with their children and/or relatives and respondents consulting friends. Fifty percent of the women who were parents compared with l5 percent of the men who were parents reported talking with their children and/or rela- tives. More women (66.7 percent) than men (45.l percent) also reported talking with their friends. In the case of both women and men, friends were consulted more often and were felt by the graduate students to be more encouraging than either children and/or relatives. Smaller gender differences appeared in the reports of professional resources consulted. Twenty-five percent of the 198 women compared with l2 percent of the men indicated talking with professional resources, usually physicians, professional counselors, and/or clergy. Virtually no gender differences appeared in the reports of educational resources consulted. Both women and men (60.0 percent) talked with faculty and/or graduate students already in their program. While women graduate students were more involved than men in talking with human resources, a significantly larger percentage of women (95.7 percent) than men (82.4 percent) also felt encouraged by one or more persons. In fact, more women than men reported feel- ing encouraged by all human resources. The largest gender differ- ences appeared in the percentages of women and men who felt encouraged by their children and/or relatives (women 55.l percent, men l9.6 percent), by their friends (women 63.8 percent, men 33.3 percent), and by their spouses (women 93.3 percent, men 76.0 percent). Smaller gender differences appeared in the categories of educational resources, professional resources, and employment resources consulted. In each category, however, more women than men reported feeling encouraged by the persons involved. More women graduate students than men may have reported feeling encouraged by human resources, but more women (43.5 percent) than men (29.4 percent) also indicated feeling discouraged by others. The largest gender differences appeared in the reports of women (22.2 percent) compared with the reports of men (4.3 percent) who felt discouraged by their spouse and/or children. 199 Most of the discouragement was felt by single-parents from their children, although several married women felt discouraged by their husbands who seemed to view their continuing education as either an economic burden or a psychological threat. Smaller gender differences appeared in the reports of women and men feeling discouraged by relatives and friends (women 23.2 percent, men l5.7 percent), educational resources (women 7.2 percent, men 2.0 percent), professional resources (men 2.0 percent, women l.4 percent), and employment resources (men l2.5 percent, women 10.5 percent). While the women respondents talked with more persons than men did, felt both more encouraged and discouraged by others than men did, more women than men also indicated that there were more persons with whom they might have found it helpful to talk! Forty- six percent of the women and 20 percent of the men indicated that they might have found other human resources to be helpful, particu- larly graduate students already in their program. Conditions and Bargains (Trade-Offs) In the course of making a decision, certain agreements are reached and circumstances accepted. In the study, seven conditions and bargains (trade-offs) were suggested to the graduate students as possible considerations. In every case, the women graduate students more than the men perceived the need to postpone or forfeit specific opportunities. Gender differences were greatest in the perceived necessity to 200 reduce community activities (women 50.7 percent, men 29.4 percent) and to adjust family responsibilities (women 69.9 percent, men 49.0 percent). More women than men also felt that they would have to postpone or forfeit use of family financial resources (women 36.2 percent, men 25.5 percent) or postpone or forfeit one or more relationships in order to follow through with their decision to enter graduate school. Both women and men felt that they would have to forego much of their leisure time if they began graduate work (76.8 percent), and approximately one-fourth of all the respondents anticipated having to postpone an occupational opportunity or seek financial aid. In general, the women graduate students more than the men reported feeling the need to accept certain limitations before making the commitment to pursue a graduate degree. Consequences_(Effects of the Decision) Almost all the graduate students (96.7 percent) reported that one or more persons had been affected by their decision to enter graduate school. The greatest gender differences appeared in the reports of the women and men who felt that their friends or their employers had been affected. Women (50.7 percent) more than men (2l.6 percent) reported that the consequences of their decision had been felt by their friends, while men (58.8 percent) more than women (40.6 percent) felt that their employers had been affected. 201 Smaller differences were reported regarding the effect upon relatives, although more women (33.3 percent) than men (25.5 percent) seemed to feel that there were consequences for their rela- tives. A high percentage of both women and men (85 percent) reported that their spouse and/or children had been affected by their decision. Most of the graduate students seemed to feel that the effects upon their families had been positive, although the men seemed more confident of that opinion than the women did. The women, on the other hand, seemed to be more aware of the effects upon themselves than the men seemed to be, and more conscious of the adjustments made to accommodate their decision. Of all the respondents, 35.8 percent reported one or more consequences which they had not anticipated. The area mentioned most frequently by both women and men was the large demand on their financial resources. Women more than men mentioned the drain on their physical and emotional resources, and the strain of managing multiple roles. Life-Change Events Many of the graduate students attributed one or more life- change events to the timing of their decision to enter graduate school, although more women (78.3 percent) than men (58.8 percent) felt that particular events had served as catalysts. The greatest gender differences appeared in regard to major changes in relationships, primarily marital relationships. Of all the graduate students, 31.8 percent of the women compared with 202 ll.8 percent of the men reported that at least one major change in a relationship had precipitated their decision. Thirteen percent of the women and no men specified marital changes. All other gender differences were relatively small, with more women than men citing specific events in almost every area as having prompted their decision to enter graduate school. Not all graduate students identified life-change events as having precipitated their decision. Compared with all respondents, the graduate students who did not identify any life-change events as catalysts, tended to be younger, married men with fewer children than the total group. In summary, the women graduate students were more likely than the men to perceive their decision to enter graduate school as having been precipitated by one or more life-change events. In an overall sense, the decision-making process for the mid-life graduate students began within the complex lives of the women and men at a point of transition. Between the age of 35 and their 505, the graduate students entered the decision-making process with a history of continuing education and employment, both of which had contributed to their choice of an area of study. With few exceptions, the graduate students reported experi- encing major recent life changes in their work and relationships, and many viewed the changes as having precipitated their decision to enter graduate school. Women more than men attributed their decision to enter graduate school to catalytic events within the 203 relationships of their lives. Major changes in the area of employ- ment more than any area prompted the decision for many men. For the most part, the changes in work and relationships had already taken place, and graduate school had been chosen as a means of effecting the transition. Graduate school itself represented continuity for some of the mid-life adults who were evolving from one stage of employment to another level of possibility. For other graduate students, however, the choice signified a place and a process through which they expected to discover new life styles or unexplored aspects of themselves. It seems clear, in any case, that the decision-making process was used as a means of effecting change in the lives of women and men at mid-life. Recommendations for Further Study Knowing that the decision-making process is different for women and men in middle adulthood, other studies might be conducted to determine whether the gender differences are unique to the mid- life period or characteristic of women and men throughout the life-cycle. Based on existing literature and research, it might be hypothesized that the gender differences would diminish or reverse in populations of women and men in either or both early and late adulthood. Further research might be designed to explore ways of applying knowledge of gender differences in the decision-making process. For example, since more mid-life graduate students reported talking with physicians, professional counselors, and 204 clergy than other professional resources, in what ways might those professional groups apply knowledge of decision-making behavior in their work with mid-life adults? 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APPENDICES 225 APPENDIX A 226 APPENDIX A-l APPROVAL LETTER FROM THE UNIVERSITY COMMITTEE FOR RESEARCH INVOLVING HUMAN SUBJECTS 227 MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY UNIVERSITY COMMIITI‘LE ON RESEARCH INVOLVING EAST LANSING ' MICHIGAN ° 4882.1 HUMAN SL'BJI'C'I'S (UCRIHS) 2.58 ADMINISTRATION BUILDING April 8, 1980 (SI?) 355-2180 Ms. Barbara G. Pelowski 328 Mentor Avenue Painesville, Ohio 44077 Dear Ms. Pelowski: Subject: Proposal Entitled, “Decision-Making at Midlife: Graduate School as an Alternative in Effecting Change in the Lives of Men and Women, Age 35 and Older'I The above referenced project was recently submitted for review to the UCRIHS. We are pleased to advise that the rights and welfare of the human subjects appear to be adequately protected and the Committee, therefore, approved this project at its meeting on April 7. 1980 Projects involving the use of human subjects must be reviewed at least annually. If you plan to continue this project beyond one year, please make provisions for obtaining apprOpriate UCRIHS approval prior to the anniversary date noted above. Thank you for bringing this project to our attention. If we can be of any future help, please do not hesitate to let us know. Sincerely, Henry E. Bredeck Chairman, UCRIHS HEB/jms cc: Dr. Walter F. Johnson 228 APPENDIX A-2 PRE-TEST 229 Information for the pre-test sample As a Ph.D. candidate in higher education administration at Michigan State University, I am in the process of designing a study involving graduate students, age 35 and older. Specifically, I am interested in the decision- making process at mid-life when men and women may be using graduate school as a means of making a change in their lives. Since very little research has been done in this area, I am hoping that the results will be helpful to educators working with adult students in higher education. In order to refine the questionnaire survey and interview outline with maximum reliability among graduate students, age 35 and older, I am asking you as someone representing such a population to answer a few questions about your decision-making experience when you entered graduate study. Since I am interested in looking at the obligations related to being a single or married graduate student, or being a single or married parent, I have included a few questions about your family responsibilities. I want to assure you that your name will not be identified in any way in the course of the study. The answers you give will be coded so that I may contact you for the purpose of providing further information as I develop the final questionnaire for the research project. Your cooperation will be very much appreciated. Barbara Gould Pelowski 230 231 PRE-TEST Michigan State University College of Education Department of Administration and Higher Education April, 1980 Questionnaire survey: research related to Ph.D. dissertation (Please indicate at what time you began the questionnaire: WRITE IN PM) NAME QUESTIONNAIRE NO. DATE COMPLETED PERSONAL BACKGROUND I. How old are you? WRITE IN: -years-old 2. What is your sex? CHECK ONE ( ) 1. Male ( ) 2. Female 3 What is your marital status? CHECK ONE: ( ) I. Married , ( ) 2. Sparated, divorced, or widowed ( ) 3. Never married 4. How many children do you have? CHECK ONE: ( ) 1. None ( ) 4.Three ( ) 2. One ( ) 5.Four ( ) 3. Two ( ) 6.More than four (specify) 4a. (If you have children): What are the ages of your children? WRITE IN: ages of children 5. Do you live alone or with one or more other people? CHECK ONE: ( ) 1. Alone ( ) 2. With other(s) 5a. (If with other(s)): What is the relationship of each person to you? CHECK AS MANY AS APPLY: Spouse Child (children) Parent(s) Other relative(s) (specify) Unrelated peer(s) Other (specify) Vvvvvv “AAA/KR mm-Pth-v 232 Pre-test (p. 2) EDUCATIONAL BACKGROUND 6. In what year did you graduate from college at the undergraduate level? WRITE IN: year 7. Prior to enrolling in your present program, had you continued your education in any way since the completion of your bachelor's degree? CHECK ONE: ( ) I. Yes ( ) 2. No 7a. (If yes‘): Did you attend part-time or full-time? ( ) 1. Part-time ( ) 2. Full-time 8. Are you currently enrolled part-time or full-time? CHECK ONE: Part-time ( ) l. ) 2. Full-time ( OCCUPATIONAL BACKGROUND 9.At the time you decided to enroll in your present graduate program, were you employed with financial compensation? CHECK ONE: ( ) I. ( ) 2. No 9a. (If yes): Were you employed part-time or full-time? Part-time ( ) l. ) 2. Full-time ( 10. Are you currently employed with financial compensation? ( ) l. ( ) 2. No lOa. (If yes): Are you employed part-time or full-time? CHECK ONE: ( ) 1. Part-time ( ) 2. Full-time 233 Pre-test (p. 3) AVOCATIONAL BACKGROUND 11. At the time you decided to enter your present graduate program, were you involved in community or volunteer activities? CHECK ONE: ( ) l. ( ) 2. No 11a. (If yes): Were you involved in full-time volunteer activities (approximately 40 hours per week), part-time activities (approximately 20 hours per week), or occasional activities (10 hours or less per week)? CHECK ONE: ( ) 1. Full-time ( ) 2. Part-time ( ) 3. Occasional 12. Has any volunteer experience led to your interest in your current field of study? CHECK ONE: ( ) ( ) I. Yes 2. No PLEASE CONTINUE TO THE NEXT PAGE 234 Pre-test (p. 4) THE DECISION-MAKING PROCESS 13. With whom did you talk in the process of deciding to 14. enter graduate school? CHECK AS MANY AS APPLY: Spouse Child (children) Relative(s) other than spouse or child Close friend(s) Faculty member(s) Graduate student(s) already in the program Clergyman or spiritual advisor Physician Attorney Banker Professional counselor Professional associate (peer) Person to whom I report in my employment Other (specify) 15. I did not talk with anyone about my decision to enter graduate school. \owumwbwmi— hay—n HO 0 o o i—u—nh— bWN O At the time you decided to enter your present graduate program, who encouraged your decision? CHECK AS MANY AS APPLY: Spouse Child (children) Relatives other than spouse or child Close friend(s) Professional associateis) Person to whom I report in my employment Other (specify) I do not feel that anyone encouraged my decision to enter graduate school. AAAAAAAA vvvvvvvv mummtwwi— O O I O O I O 0 14a. (If you felt anyone was encouraging your decision): In what ways did the person(s) encourage your decision? WRITE IN: Pre-test (p. 235 5) 15. At the time you decided to enter your present graduate program, who discouraged your decision? CHECK AS MANY AS APPLY: 16. 156. ODNGVI‘PWNH 9. 10. ll. 12. I3. 14. 15. Spouse Child (children) Relative(s) other than spouse or child Close friend(s) Faculty member(s) Graduate student(s) already in the program Clergyman or spiritual advisor Physician Attorney Banker Professional counselor Professional associate (peer) Person to whom I report in my employment Other (specify) 1 do not feel that anyone discouraged my deciSion to enter graduate school. (If you felt anyone was discouraging your decision): In what ways did the person(s) discourage your decision? WRITE IN: At the time you decided to enter graduate school, what conditions or bargains did you feel you had to make in order to follow through with your decision? CHECK AS MANY AS APPLY: I AAAAA felt I had to: vvvvv \nJ-‘wNi-o O O o O O Postpone or forfeit an occupational opportunity Postpone or forfeit leisure or personal time Postpone or forfeit family plans Seek financial aid Postpone or forfeit an opportunity in a personal relationship (e.g. to develop a friendship, to marry) Agree to a "trade-off" with another person (e.g. "I'll go to school now, you can go next.") Reduce the amount of time I was spending in community activities Adjust my expectations regarding family responsi- bilities Other (specify) Comment: (Please feel free to comment further if you wish): 236 Pre-test (p. 6) 17. Looking back, whom might you have talked with, but didn't, about the possibility of entering a graduate program? CHECK AS MANY AS APPLY: Spouse Child (children) Relative(s) other than spouse or child Close friend(s) Faculty member(s) Graduate studnet(s) already in the program Clergyman or spiritual advisor Physician Attorney Banker Professional counselor Professional associate (peer) Person to whom I report in my employment Other (specify) 15. I cannot think of anyone I might have talked with, but didn't. mmummcwwo— I—‘I—n HO O. O t—nr—n—o pwm O 18. Looking back, what considerations might you have given, that you didn't, to the decision to enter graduate school? WRITE IN: 19. Who has been affected by your decision to enter graduate school? CHECK AS MANY AS APPLY: Spouse Child (children) Extended family Friends Employer Other(s) (specify) AAAAAA vvvvvv O O C I O O Ost-‘WNv-t 237 Pre-test (p. 7) 20. In what ways have others been affected by your decision to enter graduate school? CHECK AS MANY AS APPLY: ( ) 1. My family has had to assume more responsibilities at home. ( ) 2. My professional/business colleagues have had to assume more responsibilities at my place of employment. ( ) 3. My family has had to change their standard of living. ( ) 4. My friends have had to compensate for the changes in my availability. ( ) 5. My children have had to become more self-sufficient. ( ) 6. Other (specify) Comments: (Please feel free to comment further if you wish): 21. Which of the following events or changes contributed to your decision to enter graduate study at this point in your life? CHECK AS MANY AS APPLY: ( ) 1. A major change in marital status (e.g. marriage, divorce, separation) A major change in finances (better or worse) A major change in health (better or worse) A major change in employment (e.g. changed positions, left employment, accepted promotion) 5. A major change in relationship(s) with: ) a. My spouse ) b. My child (children) ) c. My extended family ) d. My friends ) e. Community acquaintances major change in community involvement (e.g. added or dropped activities) Death of someone close Gained a new family member 9. Change in residence 10. Outstanding personal achievement Child entered school 12. Child left home (e.g. marriage, attending college) 13. Spouse began or ceased employment 14. Spouse began or ceased school 15. Other events or changes (specify) ( ) ( ) J-‘WN A v 0’s 0 >AAAAA vvvvvvvvv H H . Comments: (Please feel free to comment if you wish): (Please indicate at what time you completed the questionnaire: WRITE IN: PM) APPENDIX A-3 ORIGINAL LETTER AND CONSENT FORM 238 MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY GRADUATE RESEARCH To: April, 1980 From: Barbara Gould Pelowski Ph.D. candidate College of Education Department of Administration and Higher Education Subject: Dissertation research You have been identified by records in the Registrar's Office as a graduate student at Michigan State University, newly enrolled in a graduate program this year. I am a doctoral candidate in higher education administration, conducting research regarding the decision-making process of men and women, age 35 and older, as it specifically relates to enrollment in graduate school at mid-life. Since very little research has been done in this area, I am asking you as someone representing the research population to answer a few questions about your decision- making experience related to your enrollment in graduate school this year. Interested in looking at the obligations related to being a single or married graduate student, or being a single or married parent, I have included a few questions about your personal background. I want to assure you that your name will not be identified in any way in the course of the study. The answers you give will be coded numerically so that I may contact you for additional information. It would be desirable to contact a sample of respondents for the purpose of providing further information in the study of the decision-making process. Would you be willing to participate in an in-person or telephone interview? If so, please provide me with your telephone number on the enclosed Consent Form, and indicate when it would be most convenient to reach you. Please take approximately fifteen minutes to complete the attached questionnaire, returning it with a signed copy of the Consent Form in the enclosed, self-addressed envelope. I very much appreciate your taking the time to assist me in my research, and I thank you in advance for your cooperation. 239 240 MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY GRADUATE RESEARCH CONSENT FORM In signing the following statement, I agree to participate in the research project being conducted by Barbara Gould Pelowski, and I acknowledge: 1. That I understand the purposes of the research project which have been explained to me; 2. That I will be expected to complete a questionnaire survey and, if I wish, to offer my availability as a subject to be interviewed in person or by telephone; 3. That I understand that my identity will remain anonymous and all results will remain confidential; 4. That I am voluntarily participating in the research project with no expectation to benefit from the results; 5. That I am free to withdraw from participation at any time without consequence. Signature: Date: Would you be willing to participate in an interview? CHECK ONE: ( ) YES ( ) NO (If yes): Please provide a telephone number where you may be reached. WRITE IN: (Area code) (Telephone) (If yes): Indicate when it would be most convenient to contact you. CHECK AS MANY AS APPLY: Weekdays, 9:00 AM to 5:00 PM Weekday evenings, after 5:00 PM Weekends (specify time) AAAA Comments: Questionnaire no. APPENDIX A-4 QUESTIONNAIRE 241 Date completed Questionnaire no. QUESTIONNAIRE: DECISION-MAKING AT MID-LIFE Michigan State University College of Education, Department of Administration and Higher Education April, 1980 PERSONAL BACKGROUND 1 O 2 0 How old What is are you? WRITE IN: -years-old your sex? CHECK ONE: 1. Male 2. Female your marital status? CHECK ONE: 1. Married 2 Separated or divorced 3. Widowed 4 Never married How many children do you have? CHECK ONE: ( ) ( ) ( ) 1. None ( ) 4. Three 2. One ( ) 5. Four 3. Two ( ) 6. More than four (specify) Do you live alone or with one or more other people? CHECK ONE: ( ) ( ) 5a. 1. Alone 2. With other(s) (If with other(s)): What is the relationship of each person to you? CHECK AS MANY AS APPLY: Spouse Child (children) Parent(s) Other relative(s) (specify) Unrelated peer(s) Other (specify) OxUW-PWNI—c AAAAAA VVVVVV EDUCATIONAL BACKGROUND 6. In what year did you graduate from college at the undergraduate level? WRITE IN: year 242 243 7. Prior to enrolling in your present program, had you continued your education in any way since the completion of your bachelor's degree? CHECK ONE: ) l. ) 2. No 7a. (If yes): Did you attend full-time or part-time? CHECK ONE: (NOTE: Full-time enrollment is defined as 7 or more credits per term; part-time as 6 or fewer credits per term.) d continued my education: 1. Full-time (7 or more credits per term) 2. Part-time (6 or fewer credits per term) a I h ( ) ( ) 8. Are you enrolled for the current term (Spring, 1980)? CHECK ONE: ( ) l. ( ) 2. No 8a. (If yes): Are you enrolled full-time or part-time? CHECK ONE: ( ) 1. Full-time (7 or more credits per term) ( ) 2. Part-time (6 or fewer credits per term) OCCUPATIONAL BACKGROUND 9. At the time you decided to enroll in your present program, were you employed? CHECK ONE: ( ) 1. Yes ( ) 2. No 9a. (If yes): Were you employed as a volunteer or with financial remuneration? CHECK ONE: ( ) ( ) 1. As a volunteer 2. With financial remuneration 9b. (If you were employed): Were you employed full-time, part-time, or occasionally? CHECK ONE: (NOTE: Full-time employment is defined as approximately 40 hours per week; part-time as approximately 20 hours per week; occasionally as fewer than 10 hours per week.) employed: . Full-time (approximately 40 hours per week) . Part-time (approximately 20 hours per week) Occasionally (fewer than 10 hours per week) 244 10. Are you currently employed? CHECK ONE: ( ) ( ) 1. Yes 2. No lOa. (If yes): Are you employed as a volunteer or with financial remuneration? CHECK ONE: ( ) ( ) 1. As a volunteer 2. With financial remuneration lOb. (If yes): Are you employed full-time, part-time, or occasionally? CHECK ONE: (NOTE: Full-time employment is defined as approximately 40 hours per week; part-time as approximately 20 hours per week; occasionally as fewer than 10 hours per week.) I am employed: ) 1. Full-time (approximately 40 hours per week) ) 2. Part-time (approximately 20 hours per week) ) 3. Occasionally (fewer than 10 hours per week) 11. Has any employment, volunteer or paid, led to your interest in your current field of study? CHECK ONE: ( ) 1. Yes ( ) 2. No THE DECISION-MAKING PROCESS 12. With whom did you talk in the process of deciding to enter graduate school this year? CHECK AS MANY AS APPLY: Spouse Child (children) Relative(s) other than spouse or child Close friend(s) Faculty member(s) at Michigan State University Graduate student(s) already in the program Clergyman or spiritual advisor Physician Attorney Banker Professional counselor Professional associate (peer) )13. Person to whom I report in my employment )14. Other (specify) )15. I did not talk with anyone about my decision to enter graduate school. C O O O O O O O O O . Ni-aoxoooximuuruumw vvvvvvvvvvvv A.AAAAAAAAAAAAAA 245 13. At the time you decided to enter your present graduate 14. program, who encouraged your decision? CHECK AS MANY AS APPLY: )14. Other (specify) )15. I do not feel that anyone encouraged my decision to enter graduate school. ( ) l. Spouse ( ) 2. Child (children) ( ) 3. Relative(s) other than spouse or child ( ) 4. Close friend(s) ( ) 5. Faculty member(s) at Michigan State University ( ) 6. Graduate student(s) already in the program ( ) 7. Clergyman or spiritual advisor ( ) 8. Physician ( ) 9. Attorney ( )IO. Banker ( )11. Professional counselor ( )12. Professional associate (peer) ( )13. Person to whom I report in my employment ( ( 13a. (If you felt anyone was encouraging your decision): In what ways did the person(s) encourage your decision? WRITE IN: At the time you decided to enter your present graduate program, who discouraged your decision? CHECK AS MANY AS APPLY: )13. Person to whom I report in my employment )14. Other (specify) )15. I do not feel that anyone discouraged my decision to enter graduate school. ( ) 1. Spouse ( ) 2. Child (children) ( ) 3. Relative(s) other than spouse or child ( ) 4. Close friend(s) ( ) 5. Faculty member(s) at Michigan State university ( ) 6. Graduate student(s) already in the program ( ) 7. Clergyman or spiritual advisor ( ) 8. Physician ( ) 9. Attorney ( )lO. Banker ( )11. Professional counselor ( )12. Professional associate (peer) ( ( ( 14a. (If you felt anyone was discouraging your decision): In what ways did the person(s) discourage your decision? WRITE IN: 246 15. At the time you decided to enter graduate school, what conditions or bargains did you feel you had to make in order to follow through with your decision? CHECK AS MANY AS APPLY: 16. I felt I ) 2 3 ) 8. I had to: Postpone or forfeit an occupational Opportunity. Postpone or forfeit leisure or personal time. Postpone or forfeit family plans for use of financial resources. Seek financial aid. Postpone or forfeit an opportunity in a personal relationship (e.g. to develop a friendship, to marry). Reduce the amount of time I was spending in community activities. Adjust my expectations regarding family responsi- bilities. Other (specify) Comment: (Please feel free to comment further if you wish): Looking back, whom might you have talked with, but didn't, about the possibility of entering a graduate program? CHECK AS MANY AS APPLY: vvvvvvvvvvv i—ar-d i—oOxoooxioxviJ-‘uumi—u v ;_a N O )13. )14. )15. Spouse Child (children) Relative(s) other than spouse or child Close friend(s) Faculty member(s) at Michigan State University Graduate student(s) already in the program Clergyman or spiritual advisor Physician Attorney Banker Professional counselor Professional associate (peer) Person to whom I report in my employment Other (specify) I cannot think of anyone I might have talked with, but didn't. 17. 18. 247 Looking back, what considerations might you have given, that you didn't, to the decision to enter graduate school? WRITE IN: Excluding yourself, who has been affected by your decision to enter graduate school? CHECK AS MANY AS APPLY: Spouse Child (children) Relative(s) other than spouse or child Close friend(s) Employer Professional associate(s) Other(s) (specify) AAAAAAAA vvvvvvvv WNmMPWNH O O O O O I do not feel that anyone has been affected by my decision to enter graduate school. 18a.(If you feel anyone has been affected by your decision): In what ways have others been affected? CHECK AS MANY AS APPLY: ( ) 1. My family has had to assume more responsibilities at home. ( ) 2. My professional/business colleagues have had to assume more responsibilities at my place of employment. ( ) 3. My family has had to change their standard of living. ( ) 4. My friends have had to compensate for changes in my availability. ( ) 5. My children have had to become more self- sufficient. ( ) 6. Other (specify) Comments: (Please feel free to comment further if you wish): I9. 248 In the past year or two, you may have experienced one or more major changes or significant events in your life. or changes have occurred in your life in the past two CHECK AS MANY AS APPLY: years: ( AAA/K ) l. vvvv O\O(D\l O. O 0 )ll. )12. )13. )14. )15. )16. Please indicate which of the following events major change in marital status: ) a. Marriage ) b. Separation ) c. Divorce ) d. Death of spouse major change in finances: ) a. For the better ) b. For the worse major change in health: ) a. For the better ) b. For the worse major change in employment: a. Began new position Ceased employment Increased responsibilities Transferred to new location Continuation of position dependent upon graduate study. ajor change in relationship(s) with: a. My spouse . My child (children) Relative(s) other than spouse or child Close friend(s) My employer 5' O (DQO Other (specify) a or change in community involvement: . Increased activities ) b. Decreased activities "1 ) ) ) ) ) ) ) Ill ) b c d e. f. My professional associate(s) 9 I a Death of someone (other than spouse) Gained a new family member Change in residence Outstanding personal achievement (specify) Child entered school Child left home Change in employment of spouse: ( ( ) a. Spouse ceased employment ) b. Spouse began employment Change in student status of spouse: ( ( ) a. Spouse ceased school ) b. Spouse began school Other events or changes in my life (specify): I do not recall any major changes or significant events in my life in the past two years. 20. 249 You may feel that specific events or changes served as catalysts for your decision to enter graduate school. (For each major change or significant event you have experienced in the past two years): Did the event or change help to being about your decision to enroll in graduate study? OR NO ( )= CHECK YES YES YES YES YES YES YES YES YES YES YES YES YES YES YES YES YES YES YES YES YES YES YES YES YES YES YES YES YES YES YES YES YES YES AAAAAAA AAAAA AAAAAA A YES ( VVVVVVV VVVVV v VVVVVV V NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO A A AAAA AAAAAAA AAA/\A AAAAAA A l. v V VVVV vvvvvvv VVVVV vvvvvv A major change in marital status: a. Marriage b. Separation 0. Divorce d. Death of spouse A major change in finances: a. For the better b. For the worse A major change in health: a. For the better b. For the worse A major change in employment: a. Began new position b. Ceased employment c. Increased responsibilities d. Transferred to new location e. Continuation of position dependent upon graduate study A major change in relationship(s) with: a. My spouse b. My child (children) c. Relative(s) other than spouse or child d. Close friend(s) e. My employer f. My professional associate(s) 9. Other (specify) A major change in community involvement a. Increased activities b. Decreased activities Death of someone (other than spouse) Gained a new family member Change in residence Outstanding personal achievement (specify) Child entered school for first time Child left home Change in employment of spouse: a. Spouse ceased employment b. Spouse began employment Change in student status of spouse: a. Spouse ceased school b. Spouse began school Other events or changes in your life (specify): I do not feel that any major change or significant event in my life in the past two years served as a catalyst for my decision to enter graduate school. APPENDIX A-5 FOLLOW-UP LETTER TO NON-RESPONDENTS 250 MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY GRADUATE RESEARCH 328 Mentor Avenue Painesville, Ohio 44077 May, 1980 Dear Graduate Student Colleague, About two weeks ago you should have received a research questionnaire concerning the decision-making process involved in your enrollment in graduate school this year. As of this date, I have not received your response. Knowing how much professional interest has been expressed regarding the research study, I am particularly anxious to have the results reflect the experiences of as many new graduate students, age 35 and older, as possible. If your response and my reminder have crossed in the mail, I thank you in advance for your support. If, however, you have not completed the questionnaire, please take approx- imately fifteen minutes to respond to the questions, and mail it to me with the Consent Form. In case you have misplaced your original copy, a duplicate may be requested by calling collect: (216) 352-1863. As an academic colleague with multiple roles of my own, as a fulltime graduate student, married, a parent and a professional educator, I very much appreciate your taking the time to assist me in the completion of my research project. I look forward to hearing from you. Sincerely, 26i~2.../~48 ZELCHuauGG/ Barbara Gould Pelowski 251 APPENDIX B ERIKSON CHART AND LETTER OF PERMISSION 252 .ooa use a. a... .os\-.z .1:) no. a....p.-e:¢-u. era .6; \oug .o cannuoouuo cone»..uuc.c. one e.m..ou a g..) a... .0 we. oz. assoc». uOJthOU ‘6- uGOua I. I.«.«>«uu: 0:33.23: .ozxw... .0 a.c.ai.c.,:...e¢... 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Erikson's, Childhood and Society. You have permission to reprint the adaptation. Credit should be given to Erikson as cited on page 6 of the Life Transitions Reader. In addition, "reprinted by permissions of the authors of Life Transitions Reader. COpyright (c) 1980 by the Adult Life Resource Center, Division of Continuing Education, The University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS. 66045 Good luck with your continuing scholarly life, Barbara. Sincerely affam/ 2744 ./' Colleen Ryan Counselor Adult Life Resource Center APPENDIX C CONSULTATION RESOURCES 255 APPENDIX C CONSULTATION RESOURCES LEADING TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE PROPOSAL FOR THE PH.D. DISSERTATION In a five month period beginning in May l979, the following educators* were interviewed for the purpose of determining areas of current interest regarding adult students in higher education: Michigan State University Gaston Blom, Professor, Psychiatry, Elementary and Special Education. Elaine Cherney, Assistant Professor and Reading Coordinator, University College Learning Resource Center. Betty Deldin, Director of Student Withdrawals, Division of Student Affairs. John Duley, Associate Professor, Learning and Evaluation Services. Mildred Erickson, Assistant Dean of Lifelong Education, Professor of American Thought and Language. Richard Farace, Professor, Communication, Director of Graduate Studies. Richard Featherstone,Professor, Administration and Higher Education. Costelle Gentry, Associate Professor, Secondary Education and Curriculum, Learning and Evaluation Services. *Names and titles were current in June l980. No attempt has been made to update identification of the persons consulted. 256 257 Michigan State University(cont.) Steven Gold, Graduate Student, Psychology. Howard Hickey, Professor, Administration and Higher Education. Walter Johnson, Professor, Administration and Higher Education. Mary Jim Josephs, Associate Professor and Director of the Venture Program, Justin Morrill College. Karen Karelius—Schumacher, Graduate Student, Administration and Higher Education. Dora Marcus, Instructor and Research Associate, Justin Morrill College. Peter Monge, Associate Professor, Communication. Beatrice Paolucci, Professor, Family Ecology. Max Raines, Professor, Administration and Higher Education. Camille Smith, Career Information Specialist, Counseling Center. Ruth Hill Useem, Professor, Sociology, Institute for International Studies. Raymond Vlasin, Professor and Chair, Resource Development; Dean of Lifelong Education. Barbara Ward, Acting Dean and Associate Professor, Justin Morrill College. Lake Erie College, Painesville, Ohio Susan Malcolm Cowling, faculty in psychology. Betty Stanley, Director of Alternative Education. John Carroll University, Cleveland, Ohio Carol Iorillo, Director of Choices for Women, Counseling Center. Cleveland State University, Cleveland, Ohio Annie Clement, Associate Dean, College of Education. 258 Cuyghoga Community College, Cleveland, Ohio Evelyn Bonder, Director, Lifelong Learning Institute and Women Focus. Marsha Julian, Counselor in Career Development. University of Colorado at Boulder Melissa D'Kiefer, Director of Mini-College, The Center for Lifelong Learning. Doris Olsen, Women's Center of the Counseling Center. Darcy Sease, Women's Center of the Counseling Center.