A STRATEGY FOR lMPLEMENTlNG ACCOUNTABELETY N THE JORDAN SYSTEM OF PUBLIC EDUCATION Bimrtatim for the Degree of Phi, D. MEECEIGAN STATE UNIVERSE” AWN SABER ALI WWW 1975 ~ --—--.~v~—-.—.—-—‘n.-. ‘...-‘¢ . NWl‘UIlWlllWlWllMlUlWlllHllMHll LIB] 3 1293 10394 4116 Myra. Scan 03% «J» “‘3' ‘- . thesis entitled " , for Implementing Accountabil 'u 'ystem of Public Education presented by Samuel s Corl MaiOt professor M...»— ems? 80M ”RENEE“ W 5 u ”I322 1 swam If", ii .1 i” 1.. :~‘~’i’**fi’ - . . d .1: .03 Iii ABSTRACT A STRATEGY FOR IMPLEMENTING ACCOUNTABILITY IN THE JORDAN SYSTEM OF PUBLIC EDUCATION BY Amin Bader Ali Kukhun The general purpose of the study was investigation for the provision of accountability to Jordanian education. The specific purpose of the study may be summarized as follows: 1. Developing an accountability model which is most appropriate for Jordan. 2. Determining a strategy for implementing the account- ability model in the Jordanian system of public education. The design of this model was based on (1) the goals and purposes of education in Jordan, (2) the national system of education in Jordan, (3) some of the basic problems in Jordan's educational system, (4) the models of accountability that other states and departments have implemented in the United States, and (5) the role of in-service education in accountability. This study is descriptive and it involved the following procedures: l. Desc The syst nati strx cert Jorc are 2. Ide was the deV acc mm (‘1 _l- Amin Bader Ali Kukuhn l. Describing the current educational system in Jordan. The strong and unique aspects of the Jordanian system of public education are identified. The national system of education, the administrative structure, the evaluation system, the teacher certification, and the broad national aims of the Jordanian educational system from different sources are described and considered. 2. Identifying strategies for improving the curriculum. A synthesis of criteria available from literature was undertaken insofar as they were applicable to the Jordanian educational system, with regard to the development and implementation of educational accountability. 3. Examining the concept of accountability in edu- cation. The areas considered were (a) the meaning of the term accountability, (b) the causes and demands for accountability, (c) the role of in- service education in accountability, (d) the criteria for a successful accountability program, (e) the models of accountability with an emphasis on the Michigan accountability model, and (f) a guide on the processes of change within the system. 4. Identifying the elements of a framework for an accountability model for Jordanian education and indicating the relationships between those elements. 5. Determining the approach toward a School Library Media Center within the framework of the account- ability model. 6. Developing guidelines for implementing the account- ability model in the Jordanian system of public education. The major sources of this research consist of (1) documents of UNESCO and the Agency for International Development; (2) publications of the Michigan Department of Education, Cooperative Accountability Project (Denver, Colorado), Michigan Education Association and the National Education Association, and Educational Resources Information Center (ERIC); (3) other literature concerning accountability and various aspects of accountability in education; :4) reports cational sys (5) research varsity and tent, staff From interviews < ability, am Of the inve; acco tabil. fOcused tow 0th :Onferehces at the Stat EiUCatiOH' flEld 0f ed workshop f o Amin Bader Ali Kukuhn (4) reports and statistical information about Jordan's edu- cational system from the Ministry of Education in Amman; and (5) research literature available at Michigan State Uni— versity and the University of Michigan on curriculum improve- ment, staff development and school libraries. From an analysis of reviewing the literature, interviews of key persons involved in educational account— ability, and the application of inductive logic on the part of the investigator, the elements of a framework for an accountability model in education will be developed and focused toward implementation in Jordan's public schools. Other significant information was gathered from conferences with specialists in the area of accountability at the State Department of Education, Michigan Board of Education, Michigan State University, and others in the field of education. Also included were an accountability workshop for principals sponsored by the Michigan Depart— ment of Education in Ann Arbor, March 27, 1975; a workshop of the Teacher Improvement Project in East Lansing and Lansing, December 5-7, 1974; and a reading workshOp of the Ingham Intermediate School District in Mason, February 19, 1975. Within the context of the dissertation developed in this study, the following conclusions are made: 1. Educational accountability is directed toward improving the quality of education. 2. All people involved in education are accountable for the students' success. Acco‘ admi seco In-s the admj in c invc Pro] dIOj edu. tio abi The of Stu men Amin Bader Ali Kukuhn Accountability should be implemented in all administrative offices and at both elementary and secondary levels. In-service education is essential in implementing the educational accountability model. Teachers and administrators need extensive in-service training in order to understand the concept and the process involved in the accountability model. Problems of students' lack of basic skills, high dropout rate, and illiteracy, as well as continuing education to qualify teachers are important founda- tions for the development of educational account— ability. The awareness and support of the community, Ministry of Education, Board of Education, teachers, and students are important to the success of the imple- mentation of accountability. The School Library Media Center as a part of delivery systems is an important factor which is essential to the accountability model. There is no single and simple answer to improve the quality of education; instead this research provides an educational accountability which may lead to the improvement of education. The educational accountability system should be evaluated to determine the effectiveness of the plan and to decide where improvements should be made. AS' ix ,‘ A STRATEGY FOR IMPLEMENTING ACCOUNTABILITY ' IN m JORDAN SYSTEM OF PUBLIC EDUCATION BY Amin Bader Ali Kukhun A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University »“'b in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY few—-t of Secondary Education and Curriculum 1975 To DIDICATIOII .r‘ vim-yeasts",- m1, Tahani, Wisam, and ' -. .. ,7 ., ‘ JV JAM (tam, whose love and support have been I.9“3‘Fthe.encouragement for this ’study.‘r~r . , 1»- of tit? ' J‘.‘.I 3‘ ~ ‘lis ,5 -x . ‘ Z ' t. '7 I H“) 9.—~)‘v \ 1| 1 ' o ' A II- 9 ‘ r ' ‘ . 3 , - _ -. r- 0.2; {it ' ' A ‘.. . nut. :24 MI I: ' Li. I, -.‘..’. g ‘. “)7 ~ . 93:47:33: r’w _’ ‘v-r‘ :’:»::;..:~' “ i r I c ' ‘ . p ‘. Ctg'.“ 14 R.' .’.r!1‘£. (.5: ‘0‘ ‘k L ‘ " . . .2 l ~"JG. t ‘ 1‘ ‘.r§,"~ 1. 1 5;— - V ‘uf. -. E.u~..‘ Le! u: \-.-.' e1; sincere :- ,' ' J? _ . 9 .C‘ r. if t. 4 P .‘J I. (fl 0 (9n the scrimmage. useffiatwatc 3.? CI. "F:\21~’2.-Tfh(. -VL‘>er of L-.-: dcszrtota -:' .Li'allitdu, who has guidh'i} -. - w , . The ciation to t possible. Grai ciairman 0f generously made this s gratitude w Sir. Lam, a me: chairman o absence . l SUCCESS . -_..__...__._-q-.——A ..‘..‘.‘ r' ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The writer wishes to express his sincere appre- ciation to the many individuals who helped make this study possible. Grateful acknowledgment is extended to Dr. Sam Corl, chairman of the doctoral committee, who gave his time generously and provided the advice and assistance which made this study possible. Words cannot express the gratitude which is his due. Sincere appreciation is also extended to Dr. Dale Alam, a member of the doctoral committee, who served as chairman of the committee for almost a term in Dr. Corl's absence. His support and advice have a great part in this success. The writer deeply appreciates the constant encour- agement and friendly assistance of Dr. Peggy Miller, member of the doctoral committee, who has influenced some of the writer's thinking through curriculum courses and inter- actions with her. The author also wishes to acknowledge with sincere appreciation the continuous assistance of Dr. Catherine Muhlbach, member of the doctoral committee, who has guided iii the writer School Lib A; Michigan I Project, 1‘ District, Br. Gorto; Earnhart, ChEney' L) Difranco' Harriman' writer Vi questiOns 'I the offir ----- [CW—"m” the writer's efforts during her library courses and in the School Library Media Center section of this study. Appreciation is expressed to the officials of the Michigan Department of Education, Cooperative Accountability Project, Michigan State University, and East Lansing School District, especially Dr. Judy Bauer, Dr. Michael G. Hunter, Dr. Gorton Riethmiller, Dr. Ki-Suck Chung, Dr. Richard Barnhart, Dr. Barbara Ort, Dr. Calvin M. Frazier, Dr. Bruce Cheney, Dr. Ashraf Baumi, Dr. Robert Docking, Dr. Sal Difranco, Mrs. Barbara Bowmen, Mrs. Dorothy Stipe, Mr. Myles Harriman, and Mr. Donald Kittilson, who supported the writer with related materials or answered some of his questions. The author wishes to express his appreciation to the officials of the Ministry of Education, University of Jordan, and Ministry of Information, particularly Mr. Omar AL-Sobani, Mr. A. Arabiat, Dr. Izzat Azizi, Mr. Muhammad AL-Siryani, Dr. Kayed I.A. Hag, and Mr. Waleed D. Krishan, who encouraged and supported the writer with current information on the Jordanian system of education. Finally, the author is grateful to his friends, father, mother, brothers, and sisters for their encourage- ment and understanding during his years of graduate study. iv LIST or TABLES LIST or FIGURES use or cams fififir I. INTRODUC Introd The NE The PI Purpos Signif Method Dinni TABLE OF CONTENTS .. .? --.._.. --. Page LIST OF TABLES O O O O I O O I I O O O 0 vii 1: LIST OF FIGURES. . . . . . . . . . . . . ix { LIST OF CHARTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . x x 3 Chapter 7 I. INTRODUCTION AND RESEARCH PROCEDURE. . . . 1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . l The Need for the Study . . . . . . . 3 The Problem . . . . . . . . . 7 Purpose of the Study . . . . . . . . 9 Significance of the Study . . . . . . 9 Methodology and Sources of Data . . . . 11 Definition of Terms . . . . . . . . 13 Assumptions of the Study. . . . . . . 15 Limitations of the Study. . . . . . . 16 Organization of the Study . . . . . . 16 II. CURRENT EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM IN JORDAN . . . 18 Introduction. . . . . . 18 The National System of Education . . . . 22 The Administrative Structure . . . . . 28 Broad National Aims of Education . . . . 33 Evaluation System . . . . . . . . . 36 Teacher Certification. . . . . . . . 42 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 III. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE . . . . . . . 45 Introduction. . . . . . 45 The Definition of Accountability . . . . 45 Chapter De De De De Cau: Who Cur; The V. H The M Cri Mod ’8 "( TC 5.: I V, PRES} ACC SEC 89( In 'A In In I l I Chapter Page 5 Definition One: Accountability as Responsibility . . . . . . 46 Definition Two: Accountability as a Function of Learning Outcomes . . . . 47 , Definition Three: Accountability as a - ; Function of Goals . . . . . . 49 . Definition Four: Accountability as Incentive for Instructional Improvement. 50 Causes and Demands for Accountability. . , 51 3 Who Is To Be Held Accountable? . . . 54 I Curriculum Improvement and Accountability J. 56 : The Role of In-Service Education in ; Various Models of Accountability. . . . 63 i The Importance of the In-Service Education \ in Various Models of Accountability . . 63 ‘ The Purpose of In-Service Education. . . 65 a In-Service Education for Administrators . 69 ' The Media of In-Service Education . . . 70 The Innovation Process and Accountability Model Development. . . . 74 . Criteria for Models of Accountability. . . 77 ' Models of Accountability . . . . . . . 80 ‘ Models of Authors. . . . . so Models of States and Departments. . . . 81 Models of Programs and Associations. . . 85 The Michigan Department of Education and Accountability. . . . . . . . 86 Smary. I I I I I I I I I I I I 94 IV. PRESENTATION AND IMPLEMENTATION OF EDUCATIONAL ACCOUNTABILITY . . . . . . . . . . 96 Section I: Introduction . . . . . . . 96 Section II: The Model . . . . . . . . 97 Step One: Identifying Goals . . . . . 97 Step Two: Defining Performance Objectives. 98 Step Three: Needs Assessment . . . . . 101 Step Four: Analyzing the Delivery Systems School-Library Media Center . . 103 vi Chapter P ‘L TE angsg In- Ste Secti Ste Secti SCWIARY Summa COncl Recon Fir Sec 15mm. Chapter , Introduction . . . . Purposes of the School Library Me d' Center . . . . . . Types of Materials . . . . Selection of Materials. . . Acquisition of Materials . . Organization of Materials. . Circulation of Materials . The Role of the Librarian in Imple- menting the Resources . . . . 1a In-Service Education as an Element of Delivery System . . . . . . . ' Step Five: Evaluation. . . . . . Section III: ImplementatiOn . . . . Steps in Implementing the Educational Accountability in Jordan . . . . Section IV: Summary . . . . . . . V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS Summary I I I I I I I I I I I Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . Recommendations . . . . . . . . First Category . . . . . . . . Second Category. . . . . . . . BIBLIOGRAPHY............ APPENDIX e e I I e I s s o o e a I I Page 103 104 104 106 110 110 113 114 116 120 123 123 126 127 127 130 132 133 135 138 154 2&fle l. Enrolln by G: Betwe 0f Ea 2' Seconda Peri< O 1." LIST OF TABLES Page l 5- 3 Blloillent. Promoted Repeaters, and Dropouts -_ byzcrade of Students in 71/72, 72/73 BCtUBCI the Two Years and the Percentage of Each 0 I I O O I I O C O O I O 8 ' rm. .2? 2 Secondary General School weekly Course m“... ' a. I e o o o c e o '0 o o 27 LIST or FIGURES Jfifdges in Innovation from the Point of View of'the People Who are Changed (the Client ' St! 81"”) s e e s e e e e e e e e 41hree ways to be a Change Agent. . . . . Agent as a Process Helpers. How the Ede is Organized . . . . . . . aphg Michigan Six-Step Accountability Model . Page 75. 76. 78 91 Chart 1 Jorda Al? 2 Stru 3 Stru 4 Orga of 5' Orge 6. The ~1~ LIST OF CHARTS Page Jordan: Educational Pyramid , Enrollments in All Schools, 1970/71. . . . . . . . 20 amture of. Educational System in‘Jordan. . w 23. 7__0\Itsunture of Educational System in Jodran. . 24 “A V'amization of the Ministry of Education - .. ‘ ”A Of Jordan (1969) e e e e e e e e e 30 [K maizational Chart. e e e e I e e e ”31 .:-BchooL . . ‘1 m Units of the Final Grading System . . . 40 $013.. 13.,“ , defacxl.'foi i ~1; . ;.L.‘;. «.1 .4." , 3% The arm) :t:a":.. . « qr " g 1 ~53. a ,.. x :‘E‘J Lb": Jenn" . .. “In -, ;, 11.11,; ." «.1 1xCZu 3 . u” :' . ' “£8 .11 9.1.) 2‘. " <.' "H.403 7 L-t'? -. J‘r :".‘ . ”TL'Y taughx "I ‘"L» :. -n.cz,v. .~; . and "5.; pt=; 31 ‘1‘“ «I; ‘1 x '41:. .. b’J" SBt‘ivw :« I. ~ ( . a ‘ 5 ~-, v.5 Ag ‘5 ‘ a?" ' - x . l‘ ‘x \ v —J ‘ so I (J ~rove . all-:1 adUl' IEPQI—t a; the SChO¢ PartiCul‘ questiOn goal is - SeriOus 1 1--” CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION AND RESEARCH PROCEDURE Introduction The thrust of accountability in education is to improve the quality of education for all children, youth, and adults. Programs are being developed to determine and report answers to such questions as "What is happening in the schools?", and "What is the cost effectiveness of particular programs?" The underlying reason for such questions is the need recognized by educators whose primary goal is to improve the learning of students exhibiting serious deficiencies in basic cognitive skills. Everyone involved in public education is account- able. The administrators, the boards of education, super- intendents, teachers, principals, parents, citizens, and students are all accountable to one another and to the general public. Parents are asking: "What is being taught?", "How is it being taught?", "Who is teaching it?", and "How well are the students learning?" Many taxpayers want to know what they are getting for their tax dollars that increase Year after Y! citizens are their use Of This the classroc dropout perC individualiz and self'ima classr00m t6 efforts to I administram Accountabil Increased p1 develoPing : learning ac Man. in the Unit term to Jon students at large numbe time the Mi .0: teacher students an act ' acquiri: The :K we ' t unprO‘ 3min g the .. _-._ -mm- year after year to support their schools. Furthermore, citizens are demanding that educators be accountable for their use of public funds and for outcomes of education. This movement and the emphasis of accountability in the classroom seems to improve the basic skills, to reduce dropout percentage in the schools, to encourage group and individualized instruction, and to improve the attitudes and self-images of the students. It also seems to ask that classroom teachers become professional educators with efforts to be accountable to their students, community, administrators, colleagues, and particularly to themselves. Accountability asks them to find better classroom practices. Increased productivity demands that teachers help in developing performance objectives for students, guide their learning activities, and determine their growth. Many of these same issues related to accountability in the United States educational system are of great con- cern to Jordanian educators, citizens, and parents. Many students are not mastering the basic skills. There are large numbers of repeaters and dropouts, and at the same time the Ministry of Education is spending many tax dollars for teachers and facilities. In view of the fact that many students are either not completing their education or are not acquiring the basic skills, the cost return is low. The Ministry of Education is not only concerned about improving the education of students, but also con- tinuing the education of their teachers and the standards of the cer1 felt by th. remains t‘n Lie basic TE has been 1 H 5P3. (3th of the certification that the teachers must receive. It is felt by the Ministry that if the degree of education remains the same, little or no change can be expected in the basic performance skills of students. The Need for the Study The demand for accountability in the United States has been brought about by some of the following factors: 1. The developments in educational technology are making it easier to measure inputs and outputs. 2. The people are demanding some kind of educational accountability in return for taxes paid. They want to be sure that the schools are teaching their children and improving society. 3. More people are educated today than before. 4. Some of the students are not being educated. Three reasons for the accountability movement are given by Richburg.1 Federal government influence, dis— satisfied public, and technological culture influences are what Richburg states as the main causes for accountability. The need for accountability in the Jordanian public edu- cational system is desirable for some of the same reasons. Dr. Badran and others have studied the problems facing twelfth grade Jordanian students in preparation for the General Secondary Certificate Examination.2 He has 1James R. Richburg, "The Movement for Accountability in Education," ED 058145 (November 1971), pp. 1-10. 2Adnan Badran, and others, "Report on Education in Secondary Level," Ministry of Education (Amman, 1972), pp. 25-26 (Arabic copy). identified three areas within the curriculum where diffi- culties exist. These areas comprise Religion, Arabic Language, and English Language as a second language. Dr. Badran reports that in the learning related to religion some students are having difficulty with concept development, lack of understanding the vocabulary in questions raised, clarity of answering questions, the meaning of words in a sentence, in giving global answers to specific questions, and in using proper grammar, dictation, punctuation and rules of writing. In regard to the learning of the Arabic language, some students cannot distinguish between main and supporting ideas, comprehend main ideas, and they make errors in dictation, grammar, and syntax. They are having difficulty in paragraph transition, correct punctuation and correct word usage. In learning English as a second language, students seem to find difficulties in the structure of the English sentence, paragraph writing, understanding questions, writing specific and clear answers, grasping main ideas of a paragraph and answering questions concerning a paragraph. The student often answers a question by recopying the idea verbatim, finds it difficult to use the correct verb form in sentences and to structure interrogative questions. Many errors are made in dictation, punctuation, and in organizing sentences. Developm l. L...m.~.. Additional unique problems as stated in the Jordanian Development Plan for 1973—753 include: 1. Problems caused by overcrowding in the educational fields in all levels. 2. Lack of qualified personnel on administrative levels. (Approximately 10 percent of supervisors are certified.) 3. About 70 percent of the teachers in 1971—72 were unqualified in the elementary and junior high levels. Forty percent of the teachers in the secondary level did not have a university certifi— cate. A paper was prepared at the Ministry of Education showing the need for in-service teacher education. It states that there are 8,000 teachers in the compulsory (elementary and preparatory) level who do not meet the training standards established for teachers.4 Dr. Bukhari has mentioned a similar point of view. He indicates that approximately 70 percent of the teachers of elementary and preparatory levels are secondary graduates, thus they are professionally unqualified. The Ministry has been, and still is, forced into appointing unqualified teachers to teach at elementary and preparatory schools because present pre—service training institutes do not graduate sufficient numbers of teachers.5 3Jordan, Jordanian Development Plan for 1973—75, 11, Youth Education and Welfare (Amman, Jordan: n.d.), p. 3 (Arabic coPY). 4Carroll D. Anderson, The Development of Education in Jordan (Amman, Jordan: September 3, 1969), p. 33. 5Najati Al-Bukhari, Education in Jordan (Amman: Jordan Press Foundation, 1973), pp, 33-39. fl Pu: the high d1 ment by Dr cation is 1 OfIOO Stu. third Seco OfStudeht Secondary Itis felt Wing tr flms StUde A: fin PIOble illiterac: 41 FErCEn. T3859 Cit Umir Chi T accountab of Studen . Th PrEparatO we: ‘ E QQal le‘v’el 8 \ E Furthermore, accountability in Jordan relates to the high dropout rate by students as evidenced in a state- ment by Dr. Bukhari. "The extent to which secondary edu— cation is made available is indicated by the fact that out of 100 students who enter the first grade, 25 reach the third secondary year (twelfth grade); that is, 25 percent of students of the first grade of 1960—61 finished their secondary education with school certificates in 1972-73."6 It is felt by Dr. Bukhari that Jordanian schools are not meeting the needs of a large portion of the population, thus students leave school unprepared for future jobs. Another reason for the need for accountability is the problem of illiteracy. In 1972 the percentage of illiteracy among Jordanian citizens over the age of 15 was 41 percent, while in 1961 the percentage was 67.5 percent.7 These citizens who are illiterate cannot, of course, help their children with their school work. There is further evidence to support the need for accountability in the fact that the failure rate each year of students in the schools at various levels is relatively high. There were 25,854 students who took the Public Preparatory Examination in 1971-72; only 19,292 passed and were qualified to continue their education at the secondary 8 level. In the same year, there were 14,766 students 6 7 Ibid., p. 24. Ibid., p. 39. 81bid., p. 23. (8,852 lite Secondary E and 4,160 5 education a 'nformatior table.) In high drOpm (Flalify te. need for a: CatiOnal s of an acco U) E’Stem wil 3f public I_1 (8,852 literary and 5,914 scientific) who took the Public Secondary Examination; only 9,743 succeeded (5,583 literary and 4,160 scientific) and were qualified to continue their education at higher learning institution.9 (For additional information on repeaters and dropouts refer to the following table.) In conclusion, problems of lack of basic skills, high dropout rate, illiteracy, and continuing education to qualify teachers presently in the classrooms point to the need for an accountability model in the Jordanian edu— cational system. Therefore, it is felt that implementation of an accountability model within the Jordanian educational system will increase the achievement of the students, decrease our educational problems, and improve the quality of public education. The Problem A model of educational accountability in Jordan must be relevant to its educational goals, since educational problems are a result of a nation's economic, technological, and social successes. There is a need to change the focus '\ of the educational curricular framework towards the improvement of basic skills of students, improvement of teacher skills, improvement of physical facilities, and methods of assessment needs and evaluation. 91bid. I p. 26. .23 .532. Eng £0303. noflnauuum _ 1 a: . a no . l .. F I 1 4.. use (I- «a «0 >533... .avsuu use-own on.» 0» 00:13:55. uuuawuuom uo 0H1 oofiunauovn Ono—B.- numa owned moms ovhm onw mnHH om.wh hn.w cna.mH sand worm aoaou nmho mom obn on.¢m Hw.n no.” :uou flamed thHH mnmm new Han w¢.va vw.h on.h nuo nvomu onnofl manH anu moon hH.uo amo.na ch.aH nun hnhmu wmoNN samba nmnn vhHN mn.oh uwH.vH hv.a £05 nwvwn haven Novau Nowv nmnn «h.nh caN.mH «ma.aa duo anchn annnn Mocha omen Hana 00.nw «v.0 oa.o nan ownwv nnnav ooonn nmnm vwma HN.~o can.na A... nuv hanhm ochhv macaw ooom boon ha.ma anh.Hd wN.N cacao 21:3 232.: ouiuo anon-onus canon—Pun 33— 316 35— ug Hausa ungaouom uwmwwfloww :03qu ‘51:";me anon—0M: sign «0 ounuoouuom 05 can :3» can. on» .3253 "Q: .«Q: 5 5:83..“ «o .35 .3 3.59.3 can Juan-om... 630128 Jae-dong.-.” 03-... The identificat accountabi.‘ relationsh direct ace 1. Al H The fundamental problem of this study is the identification of the elements of a framework for an a 1—su-«o accountability model in education, and to indicate the relationships between those elements that will guide and direct accountability development and implementation. Purpose of the Study The general purpose of the study was investigation for the provision of accountability to Jordanian education. The specific purpose of the study may be summarized as follows: 1. Developing an accountability model which is most appropriate for Jordan. 2. Determining a strategy for implementing the account- ability model in the Jordanian system of public education. The design of this model was based on (1) the goals ‘ and purposes of education in Jordan, (2) the national . system of education in Jordan, (3) some of the basic problems in Jordan's educational system, (4) the models of accountability that other states and departments have implemented in the United States, and (5) the role of in- service education in accountability. Significance of the Study This study is an attempt to provide a plan of valuable ideas which may be helpful to educators at all levels in developing instructional accountability. A knowledge and understanding of the information sought in A Luisa. 10 this investigation should prove of value to the following institutions and people: 1. 2. the Ministry of Education the students the community the teachers the local school system administration the local supervisors the institutions of higher education These are the basic references for which the out- comes of this study should have a purposeful focus. Specifically this study will lead to: 1. 2. the teacher's responsibility for spending more time in school solving problems a more positive relationship between teachers and parents a better relationship between the teachers and the students increased communication among teachers and between teachers and administrators to share ideas about meeting the needs of the students achievement of better attitudes and learning abilities on the part of the students more in-service education for teachers increased usage of available resources, focusing on the School Library Media Center introduction of the needs assessment_and the development of performance objectives Considering these basic objectives of educational accountability, the results should lead to increased learning and communication on the part of everyone involved. A Th; following 1 1. De: o—v— 11 Methodology and Sources of Data This study is descriptive and it involved the following procedures: 1. Describing the current educational system in Jordan. The strong and unique aspects of the Jordanian system of public education are identified. The national system of education, the administrative structure, the evaluation system, the teacher certification, and the broad national aims of the Jordanian educational system from different sources are described and considered. 2. Identifying strategies for improving the curriculum. A synthesis of criteria available from literature was undertaken insofar as they were applicable to the Jordanian educational system, with regard to the development and implementation of educational accountability. 3. Examining the concept of accountability in edu- cation. The areas considered were (a) the meaning of the term accountability, (b) the causes and demands for accountability, (c) the role of in- service education in accountability, (d) the criteria for a successful accountability program, (e) the models of accountability with an emphasis on the Michigan accountability model, and (f) a guide on the processes of change within the system. 4. Identifying the elements of a framework for an accountability model for Jordanian education and indicating the relationships between those elements. 5. Determining the approach toward a School Library Media Center within the framework of the account— ability model. 6. Developing guidelines for implementing the account- ability model in the Jordanian system of public education. The major sources of this research consist of (1) documents of UNESCO and the Agency for International Development; (2) publications of the Michigan Department of Education, Cooperative Accountability Project (Denver, Colorado), Michigan Education Association and the National A Education 3 Center (ERJ ability am (4) reports educational did (5) re: University improvement Fr< inter‘liews ability, a of the inv accountabi fCCuSEd ‘10 0t COnfereHCe at the Ste EdHCation. field of e is“ v ‘RSHOP 1 0f Educdt; vile Teach, IHtEmediy 12 Education Association, and Educational Resources Information Center (ERIC); (3) other literature concerning account- ability and various aspects of accountability in education; (4) reports and statistical information about Jordan's educational system from the Ministry of Education in Amman; and (5) research literature available at Michigan State University and the University of Michigan on curriculum improvement, staff development and school libraries. From an analysis of reviewing the literature, interviews of key persons involved in educational account- ability, and the application of inductive logic on the part of the investigator, the elements of a framework for an accountability model in education will be developed and focused toward implementation in Jordan's public schools. Other significant information was gathered from conferences with Specialists in the area of accountability at the State Department of Education, Michigan Board of Education, Michigan State University, and others in the field of education. Also included were an accountability workshop for principals sponsored by the Michigan Department of Education in Ann Arbor, March 27, 1975; a workshop of the Teacher Improvement Project in East Lansing and Lansing, December 5—7, 1974; and a reading workshop of the Ingham Intermediate School District in Mason, February 19, 1975. gig responsibl: cultural e: Ninister w El children a to the sch Cc ‘ elementar) E my and I. the Public SChoOlS hi are "arim vocatmna; catiOnal : E COlleCtiO: 13 Definition of Terms Ministry of Education is the organization which is responsible for all general, vocational-technical, and cultural educational activities of Jordan. The head is the Minister who is a member of the Cabinet. Elementary school means the school which admits children at the age of 6-7 for a six year education. The preparatory schools (junir high schools) refer to the schools between elementary and secondary. These schools have seventh, eighth, and ninth grades. Compulsory education is a term which refers to the elementary and preparatory education. Secondary schools mean the schools between prepara- tory and university. These schools admit students who pass the Public Preparatory Education Examination. Also the schools have tenth, eleventh, and twelfth grades. There are various types of secondary schools, such as general and vocational. For further description of the Jordan edu— cational system, see Chapter II. School library media center is an organized collection of printed and audio-visual materials under the supervision of a librarian. In—service education for teachers is a series of activities sponsored by the Ministry of Education for helping the teachers to increase their knowledge and skills so that the achievement of their students may be improved. A sharing de tudent pe the proces to meet tr determine 3 exPectatic the educat to find 0t dents have 14 Accountability has been defined as the process of sharing decision—making for the purpose of improving the student performance and the institution.10 It also means the process of setting goals, having sufficient resources to meet those goals and conducting regular evaluation to 11 determine if the goals have been met. Performance objectives are statements of minimum expectations for students as they reach certain levels in the educational system.11 Needs assessment is a test given before instruction to find out exactly which performance objectives the stu— dents have already mastered.l3 Delivery system has been defined as whatever the teachers do to help their students reach the goals and the performance objectives.14 loDr. Bauer, Michigan Department of Education, interview, March 27, 1975. 11James R. Richburg, "The Movement for Account- ability in Education," ED 058145 (March 1973), p. 38. 12John W. Porter, Objectives and Procedures (first Report of the Assessment Program, Michigan Department of Education, October, 1971), P. l. 13Chauncey W. Smith and Reuben Chapman, "Account- ability: A Management Tool for Teachers" (prepared for the Michigan Department of Education, ALLIED Printing, Lansing, 1974), p. 22. 14Porter, Objectives and Procedures, p. 31. £1 process 0: cational a 9 design of value sys It 15 the the educa and Ethic whiCh cov C — the Strut growth. 1 persoas x. _ :ui‘ll 15 Evaluation of programs is defined by Porter as the process of obtaining information relating to the edu— cational activities for the purpose of making decisions.15 Curriculum is defined by Cay as the educational design of learning experiences for students. It is the value systems, beliefs and philosophies of the people. It is the cooperation of educators and parents for improving the education. It reflects the political, religious, social, and ethical values of the society. It is like an umbrella which covers the school experiences.16 Curriculum improvement refers to the improvement of the structure and documents of the curriculum, stimulating growth, learning, and alteration of perceptions of the persons who are concerned with the curriculum.17 Assumptions of the Study 1. The basic skills of the student will depend increasingly on the type and quality of his edu- cational experiences. 2. The national aims of education change with social changes and the educational accountability must be 15 . . Michigan Department of Education, "Educational Accountability" (1972). P. 6. 6 . . 1 Donald F. Cay, "Curriculum: DeSlgn for Learning" (Indianapolis: The Bobbs-Merrill Company, Inc., 1966), p. 1. 17Ronald C. Doll, Curriculum Improvement: Decision- I“akin and Process (Boston, Mass.: Allyn and Bacon, Inc., ' p. o sen: SOC. 3. Lit: edm dev: mode in 1 thi: l. The thi: (gr.- 2° The: Chd] Jorc 3‘ The Stu: dit: JOrC The imp] JOrd |.. 16 sensitive to the changing conditions and needs of society. Literature related to problems of basic skills, educational accountability concerns and the development and implementation of accountability models in the school systems which are available in the United States, can be used as a guide in this study. Limitations of the Study The educational accountability model developed in this study refers only to the schools in Jordan (grades 1-12). There is no attempt to describe the psychological characteristics and the socio-economic status of the Jordanian student as related to learning. The proposed program designs are descriptive studies and have not been tried under field con— ditions and were not the products of experiments in Jordan. The cultural, social and political aspects in the implementation of educational accountability in Jordan were not considered in this study. Organization of the Study Chapter I. Introduction and Research Procedure. In this chapter, the need for the study, the problem, the purpose of the study, the significance of the study, the A method: assump1 rgani. This c curren litera the ad cation at r £1 resea; 17 methodology used and sources of data, definition of terms,' assumptions of the study, limitations of the study, and organization of the study are included. Chapter II. Current Educational System in Jordan. This chapter will serve to introduce the reader to the current educational system in Jordan. The review of the literature will deal with the national system of education, the administrative structure, broad national aims of edu- cation, evaluation system, and teacher certification. Chapter III. Review of Related Research and Liter- ature. This chapter consists of a review of related research and literature, dealing briefly with the definition of accountability, causes and demands for accountability, who is to be held accountable, curriculum improvement, the role of in-service education in various models of account- ability, the innovation process and accountability model development, criteria for models of accountability, and the Michigan Department of Education and accountability. Chapter IV. Presentation and Implementation of Educational Accountability. Chapter IV is a presentation of the elements of an accountability model for public edu- cation in Jordan. Also included in the chapter are guide- lines and plans for implementing the accountability model. Chapter V. Summary, Conclusions, and Recommenda- tions. This chapter will contain a summary, conclusions drawn from the study, recommendations and suggestions for further research in the area of accountability. 0f 37 ,7 Thirty- East JO Israe1i bordere on the CHAPTER II CURRENT EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM IN JORDAN Introduction. Jordan is located in southwest Asia and has an area of 37,700 square miles. It is about the size of Ohio. Thirty-five thousand and five hundred square miles are in East Jordan and the West Bank of Jordan, currently under Israeli occupation, is 2,200 square miles. Jordan is bordered on the north by Syria, on the south by Saudi Arabia, on the east by Iraq, and on the west by occupied Palestine. Jordan's population in 1973 was about 2.5 million including the residents of the West Bank. The population of the East Bank was only about 1,800,000. The population has been increasing so rapidly (estimated at 3.1 percent annually) that it has almost doubled in the past 25 years. Approximately half of the East Bank population are refugees or displaced persons from lands occupied by Israel as a result of the Arab-Israeli war of 1948-49 and the war of June 1967.1 Religion plays an important role in the life 1Agency for International Development, Aid Economic Data: Book for Near East and South Asia, NationaI Technical ormat on Service (December 1973), pp. 1—2. 18 A of the Jo Moslems a E Jordanian governmen Agency fo (r) cational 1970-71 E of the st the eleme “ENE tc and abOu' Here in . uniVersi Students foreign 19 of the Jordanians. About 93 percent of the population are Moslems and most of the others are Christians. Education has become increasingly important to the Jordanians. There are three types of schools in Jordan: government, private, and United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees. School enrollment is high in Jordan. The edu- cational pyramid, chart 1, shows the school levels and the 1970-71 enrollments by grade. In 1970-71 about 90 percent of the students aged six to eleven years were enrolled in the elementary level. Approximately 65 percent of the twelve to fourteen year olds were in the preparatory unit, and about 35 percent of the fifteen to eighteen year olds were in the secondary level. Jordanian enrollment at the university level is also high. In 1969-70 about 24,000 students were continuing their education in Arabic and foreign universities. Today many students prefer to com- plete their education in Jordan. There is one university in Jordan, the University of Jordan, which was established in the academic year of 1962. Originally the purpose of the University of Jordan was to meet the needs of the Jordanians and the society. The University started with only the Faculty of Arts. Since that time it has expanded and it currently includes the Faculty of Science, the Faculty of Economics and Commerce, the Faculty of Islamic Law, and the Faculty of Medicine. The University is planning to establish faculties of On. HQ! 8 K.” lehddONZU 52.»er Ul \ ‘~ «A \rkshkh>uz\~ \P Q‘dk bu I‘D h. I (385. 20 .H>\0hma .maoonom HH¢ ca nusuEHHousm .casauam ausowuuocum "cuckoo >umsson .su non usosuummoo uoonOum soaumosom .MmMI Inn .02 uuomom .cmuuoo. cw poo. cum sowuooscu umuam a no amnion d .sOAuuuomuoo ousmcam HmsoaucsuousH .usosmoao>mo can scauosuuusouom nan xsum Honouuosuuusn .8. .0 Icon- ... 8.3 .5352... blc—k. .0 ton! of to. £503. 55: one 2... .2230 c232". .0 .215: .99. o .9 coco-ox. 2:. J8. om 2:03 0:! .3233». .212 2.. .33.! so 253.. 9.3.2. :9. 22.33.. 08.4” 2.. 2 eat: 5 £2.25... 2.52. a... :21: 25... v8 (:23 ..coEEo>oa ova—2.: 85a: 2.5.86 .1320 can .53.! .0 .5... i 8 22.22:- 32— .939: 0...... 80.8 8e. 8 see. on 8nd... 80.2 i— - b! L 80.0. Soda _ . H. .. a ..,...........,.._.“.....nm}. as...» H . . , . +3.8. WE}: _ . , .. _ .312 c.3137,“ _r .. . 318 0.8.3.. A . . , 39.2 5.8 [fl , .. . ; ,,3e.o... .36...“ r. 58...: ...e_...,....._.. . I it..!v(l.l‘| 8— 03-. 92W Euawm "condom .a uuuao .>¢<<‘g N a o >uO._.(uBnflZZD >Qflaho Agricultu: dents enri increased Presently departmen fields. T and uniqu SYStem is religion knowledge Koran, it Recit Great Low Pen . The c I System is Supplied 1964 has nine Year investmet ”But. Be “More a iIlVeStmer need an e vanities States, e 21 Agriculture and Engineering. In 1962 there were 185 stu— dents enrolled in the university. The enrollment has increased to approximately 4,000 students this year. Presently, the university grants M.A. degrees in the department of education and B.A. degrees in all the fields. The educational system in Jordan has many strong and unique aspects. One aspect that strengthens Jordan's system is the support religion gives to education. Islamic religion encourages education and motivates Moslems to seek knowledge and continuous education. In the Holy Book, the Koran, it is stated: Recite in the name of your Lord who created all, who created man from a clot of blood. Recite, for your Lord is Most Gracious. It is He who taught by the pen. He taught man what he did now know (chapter 96, The Clot of Blood, verses 1-6). Another beneficial aspect of Jordan's educational system is that all public schools are free and students are supplied with textbooks. Further, the education law of 1964 has extended compulsory education to include the first nine years of schooling. Education is considered a positive investment of human resources by the people and the govern- ment. Because of the low level of development in agri— culture and industry in Jordan, the government feels this investment in the people is very important. Individuals need an education for making a reasonable living. Oppor- tunities are available for the educated to work in Arabic States, especially the Arabic oil countries. cational structm that ch; parents for you] educatir take ca: Jordanii SECUIit: 22 A final beneficial aspect of the Jordanian edu- cational system comes from the support that the family structure gives to education. It is a Jordanian custom that children take the responsibility of supporting their parents if necessary. Therefore, education is important for younger members in the extended family because the more education they obtain the easier it will be for them to take care of their parents. This is important because the Jordanian government does not have a complete social security program. The National System of Education The system of education in Jordan covers three years of pre-school, six years of elementary, three years of preparatory, three years of secondary education, two and three year post—secondary vocational and teacher training institutes, and four to six years of university education (see charts 2 and 3). There are four education authorities in Jordan: The Board of Trustees of the University of Jordan, government authority (Ministry of Education, Defense, Social Affairs and Labour, and the Ministry of Health), United Nation Relief and Works Agency (UNRWA), and national and foreign private education authorities. The Ministry of Education is the most important education authority in Jordan. It has the responsibility for public elementary, preparatory, and secondary education. The UNRWA provides 21 percent of the elementary and preparatory 'Uhafi-FQZ- oz-z-‘.P .I. UXU‘UF Jd‘rnv'lvlvdou .U.‘ r. P. F. 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Najati al-Bukhari, Education in Jordan (Au-an: Jordan Press Foundation, 1973) , p. 10. Source : 32 H. The Director of Curriculum and School Textbooks Division. The chairman of the committee is the Minister of Education. The Education Committee, which plays the most important role in improving the work, is composed of: A. The Minister (chairman). B. The Under-Secretary (vice-chairman). C. The Directors of the departments. D. The head of the School Curricula and Textbooks Division. E. The head of the Financial Affairs Division. The main duty of the Education Committee is to supervise all of the projects of the Ministry; to approve the general policy which will be followed by each directorate; plan the administrative structure of the ministry and districts; provide the draft laws, regulations, and directives that will control all activities and supervise public examina- tions and all educational publications.11 The Ministry of Education is made of up twelve directorates for World Bank project, West Bank education, administration and services, examinations, personal affairs, educational supervision research and training, chief clerk office, technical education, general education, curriculum, and educational planning. The Ministry of Education c00perates with UNESCO and other ministries such as the Ministry of Defense, the 11Najati al-Bukhari, Education in Jordan (Amman: Jordan Press Foundations, 1973), pp. 9—11. 33 Ministry of Public Health, the Ministry of Social Affairs and Labour, and the Ministry of Religious Affairs in carrying out its educational programs. Jordan is divided into fifteen educational districts.(z Five of these districts are in the West Bank.12 The director of the district has the authority to assign teachers, select principals, plan the local budget, plan the local facilities, organize in-service education for teachers and administrators, and organize the work of the supervisors in the schools. Broad National Aims of Education The national aims of education have been defined by the Education Law No. 16 of 1964. These educational aims may be summarized as follows:13 1. Helping the students to develop good citizenship. 2. Beginning with the home, through the school, the village, town, city, the country, and the world community, relaying an understanding of the natural, social, and cultural environment. 3. DevelOping the skills of oral and written communi- cation in Arabic, using arithmetic in everyday life, using scientific ways of research and thinking, being objective and constructive in criticism, and forming good reading habits in and out of school. 4. Helping the student to grow physically, mentally and emotionally, and to give special help to both retarded and gifted students. 12Richard F. Nryop, et al., Area Handbook for the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan (Washington, D.C.: The American University, Foreign Area Studies, 1974), p. 99. 13UNESCO, World Survey of Education, V, Educational Policy, Legislation and Administration (Paris, 1971), pp. 50-510 s 0 pr fa Th 5‘. \ ~u .3 3%» p. 34 Having available information on maintaining good health habits. DevelOping recreational and cultural form for the student and the community. Increasing the standard of living by providing for equal opportunity in education for the present and future needs of the country. Within the wide field of goals of the education system in Jordan, the elementary and preparatory schools are of major concern and importance. The elementary and preparatory schools form the basis of education and provide fundamentals of higher levels of the eudcational system. The specific objectives of this compulsory level can be summarized as follows: 1. 2. 14 Helping the student's physical growth through good health care. Guiding the student toward intellectual growth necessary for social behavior. To help the student grow socially to enable him to carry out his responsibilities as a member of a group. To help the student grow emotionally so that he can feel confident of himself and others. To help the student grow Spiritually to enable him in following the rules of his religion, which lead him to proper behavior. To help the student learn the basic skills which enable him to read, write, and speak his language, use numbers easily, and think scientifically. To provide the student with knowledge of social science and social studies. 14Ministry of Education, Collection of Bylaws, Regulations, and Instructions of the Ministry of Education, pp. 50-51. 35 ,/” 8. Teaching of a foreign language for use in his future career, studies, or his life in general. 9. To teach acceptance and respect for all levels of jobs, and the people who hold these positions. 10. To teach the enjoyment of leisure time through the use of dance, art, music, and other hobbies. 11. To help the student discover his abilities and interests, and guide him to sources which can better fulfill his needs. Following the intensive preparation of students for secondary or higher levels of education, the next step is introducing objectives for further study. The aim of secondary education is to prepare the student to enter the society and fulfill its needs in industry, higher education, agriculture, etc. The needs are to be develOped according to the interests and capabilities of the students. The 15 specific objectives are: 1. Positive self-concepts to build complete personality and importance in the community. 2. Through education to gain an understanding of the importance of the family to every individual and society. 3. Through knowledge, skills, and experiences the student attains independence to provide for himself and to be of value to his society. 4. To use free time wisely in hobbies that round out the whole person. For example: sports, reading, art, and music. 5. To practice democratic life and to be a good responsible citizen. 6. To help interested students who are qualified to continue their education. lsIbid., pp. 52-53. 36 Once the goals of the secondary level of education have been achieved, specific stress is placed on the development of personal skills and interests. The aim of the education at higher learning institutions is to prepare students to further develop in entering more specific areas of education, agriculture, art, industry, business, etc. The Specific objectives of higher education in two 16 or three year academic or vocational colleges are: l. Continuation of the development of emotional, social, mental, and physical aspects of the student. 2. Continuation of preparing a good citizen according to the previous aims and objectives of general edu- cation. 3. To provide students with specific and general academic or vocational skills to make him good in his field. 4. To provide students with practical field experience in their major field of interest. It would seem that the aims and objectives of the educational system lead to a broad preparation for Jordan's younger population. However, there is a lack of perfor- mance objectives which gives specific information about the behaviors that comprise a goal. Evaluation System The Ministry of Education provides, supervises, and administers two public examinations: the General Preparatory Examination which is held at the end of the ninth grade and 16Ibid., p. 54. 37 the General Secondary Examination, which is held at the end of the twelfth grade. The main purpose of the public examinations is to find out which students are qualified to study in the secondary schools and university level. These two public exams are managed by the Examina- tion Division of the Planning and Evaluation Department in H the Ministry of Education. The General Secondary Examination has two types: the scientific and the literary sections. The students who want to study in tenth grade should pass r?" the General Preparatory Examination. In addition to that only the students who pass the General Secondary Examination can continue their education at the University level. The amount of students who took the General Prepara- tory Examination in l97l-72 was 25,854; only 19,292 passed and were qualified to continue their education at secondary schools.17 In the same year the amount of students who took the General Secondary Examination was 14,766 (8,852 literary and 5,914 scientific). Only 9,743 succeeded (5,583 literary and 4,160 scientific) and were qualified to continue their education at higher learning institutions.18 A study was carried out by Dr. Badran and his associates pertaining to the Secondary School Education and the two public examinations for ninth and twelth grades. 17Najati al-Bukhari, Education in Jordan, p. 23. 181bid., p. 26. Be U, h .3. Eu 38 Dr. Badran, within his extensive study, criticizes the public exams. His major criticisms are: 1. 2. Badran 0 19 The exams concentrate on memorizing the material rather than complete comprehension. Education in the ninth and twelfth grades revolves around simply passing the test rather than learning the material very well. Tests are taken directly from the textbooks rather than from the curriculum of the Ministry of Edu- cation. The Ministry of Education is using too many resources--time, money, teachers, evaluators--in order to administer the test. Test committees are changed yearly and therefore the Ministry of Education is not using their experience to make tests a better reflection of student capabilities. There is a lack of communication and c00peration between the Ministry of Education and the Univer- sity of Jordan in making up the tests. The Ministry does not take advantage of the experience of teachers from the University who specialize in testing and evaluation. According to the critique of the public exams, Dr. states the following recommendations for improving the quality of general public exams: 1. 2. Concentration on comprehension of material rather than only memorization. Measuring the student's ability to apply the material. Taking advantage of testing specialists to improve the quality of the tests. 19Adnan Badran, et al., Report on Secondary School Education (Amman: Ministry of Education, 1972), pp. 35-36 (Arabic book). 201bid., p. 39. 39 4. Committees should be formed from both the Ministry and the University in test administering. 5. A continuous program for test improvement by retaining some members of the Test Committee from year to year. During the time of a student's education, the schcxols give exams to aid in evaluating and determining the stutlent's final grade. The exams given during the academic Yealrs of first through third grades help to determine the sturient's final mark on the average of the following two units. 1. Grade reflecting the teacher's evaluation of the student's work in every subject during the first semester. 2. Grade reflecting the teacher's evaluation of the student's work in every subject during the second semester. With reference to chart 6, in fourth through eleventh grades, the student's final mark is the average of the following three units:21 1. First Unit A. The average of the grades in September and October. B. Comprehensive exam at the end of October. C. The average of the grades in November and December. D. The average of the grades from sections A, B, and C. \ Re, 21Ministry of Education, Collection of Bylaws, Volulations, and Instructions of the Ministry of Education, ~ 5, pp. 122—25. 40 The average of the grades in September and w October Exam at the end of October m g m The average of the grades in November and o .4 December r}: U) The average of the grades of A, B, and C U " c First semester exam to 3. rr The average of the first semester (average w of D and E The laverage of the first half of the second (n g semester until March 15 m .E m March 15 exam m 8 ——‘ o The average of the last half of the second a semester H c: ——* o The average of I, H, and G C4 :3, _—i a x 3'3 Second semester exam H-H d’Q F' t" Ina]. average (average of F, J, and K) Chart 6. The Units of the Final Grading System.a R aMinistry of Education, Collection of Bylaws, —§51Efi£gtions, and Instructions of the Ministry of Education, PP - 122-25. 41 E. First semester exam. F. First semester average (average of sections D and E). II. Second Unit G. The average of the grades from the first half of the second semester until March 15. H. March 15 exam. _F__, I. Average of the marks of the last half of the second semester. J. Average of sections G, H, and I. 4 III. Third Unit "L_ -_ K. Second semester exam. IV. Students' Final Mark L. Final average (average of F, J, and K) In the twelfth grade there is no second semester exam. The student's final grade is comprised of the first tWO units or the average of sections F and J. Besides just taking the examinations, the basis for dec iding whether or not the student passes is the amount of Poflirrts he achieves. The highest grade point achievable is one hundred, but if the student receives fifty or more in all_ asubjects, he can proceed to the following grade. All of ‘tdne students pass the first, second, and third grades. Theta is no failing or making up exams in this level of education. A student proves to be successful in other grades (4"141) if he passes all subjects such as religion, Arabic langulage, English language, mathematics, science, social 3 . . . tudles, etc. If a student fails in three or more 42 subjects, he is required to repeat that grade; but if he fails in only one or two of these subjects, he is able to make them up at the end of the summer. IF he succeeds in all subjects he is able to continue to the next grade level. As a result the grade point system of zero to one hundred points is the means by which a student is allowed to pass or continue in the same grade. It is noted that the schools give exams during the year to aid in evaluating and determining the student's final grade. However, there seems to be a lack of needs assessment tests which are given before instruction to determine which performance objectives the student has already mastered. Teacher Certification The Education Law No. 16 of 1964 requires that no teacher is to be hired in government or private schools unless he gets a license from the Ministry of Education. To receive a license in teaching the following requirements should be completed: 1. For the kindergarten, elementary, and preparatory 1evel--The General Secondary Education Certificate and two years of study in professional educational courses or its equivalent. 2. For the secondary level--A bachelor's degree and one year of professional educational courses. of 43 3. For higher educational institutes and post-secondary institutes--A Specialized university degree is required (M.A. or its equivalent). It is desirable for teachers' institutes to have some educational methods.23 According to Article 23 in the Education Law of 1964, the Ministry of Education is responsible for providing the teachers of the public and private schools, who were hired before the 1964-65 academic year and who do not meet the required qualifications, with proper educational opportunities to raise their qualifications.24 For that reason the Ministry of Education did this by increasing the professional and academic level of unqualified teachers who are teaching in elementary and preparatory schools and offering in-service training courses for administrators and qualified teachers.25 In the summer of 1971, there were 214 teachers who studies in three different institutes, while in the summer 26 of 1972, there were 387 teachers. The Ministry of Edu- cation, with the cooperation and the financial assistance which is offered by UNICEF, is going to certify about 6,000 teachers during the next ten years.27 22UNESCO, World Survey of Education, V, pp. 685—86. 23Najati al-Bukhari, Education in Jordan, p. 28. 24 25 Ibid., p. 38. Ibid., p. 39. 26Ibid. 44 In summary, the Ministry of Education has specific standards for every teacher to reach, and for those who do not reach these standards, the Ministry has set up insti- tutes. In addition to that, the Ministry is working diligently in offering in—service courses for teachers and administrators to improve the quality of education. Summary The purpose of this chapter was to introduce the reader to the educational system of Jordan. The following aspects of Jordanian education were examined: the national system of education, the administrative structure, broad national aims of education, evaluation system, and teacher certification. These provide background for the develop- ment of the model of accountability for Jordan. The following chapter will review literature on some aspects of accountability. CHAPTER III REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE Introduction Accountability is one of the most crucial issues in public education today. Students, administrators, teachers, the community, and parents are concerned about the quality of public education. The general idea of accountability is not new. In the past, teachers were held accountable for teaching their students certain information. Educators have been accountable for finances, resources, and teaching for years. The major difference now is that the emphasis has been shifted from input to the outcome. The peOple want some proof from the educational system that it is doing what it is supposed to do. They want to see a relationship between the money they appropriate for education, the time the students devote, the experiences that the educators share, and the outcomes of the educational process. The Definition of Accountability The concept of accountability was introduced to public education to improve educational Opportunities for 45 46 all students in the United States. The term accountability appears in the literature frequently with four implications. The first meaning is responsibility. The second is the process of holding public schools answerable for the out- come of their students' learning. The third usage means setting goals, having sufficient resources to meet those goals, and conducting regular evaluation to determine if the goals are met. The fourth definition provides a way of improving instruction in the schools. Accountability is defined in Webster's New World Dictionary as reSponsibility, liability, or something that can be explained. There are differences of opinion about accountability among educators. Definition One: Accountability as Responsibility In 1971, Forsberg1 quoted Kreger's definition of accountability as the responsibility to provide educational programs and to use the resources allocated for this purpose more efficiently. On the basis of opinions expressed in his survey on accountability, Johnson2 con- cluded that accountability involves the acceptance of 1James R. Forsberg, "Accountability and Performance Contracting," ED 055336 (October 1971), p. 4. 2Charles Wendell Johnson, "An Analysis of the Status of Accountability in Macomb County, Michigan . . ., Dissertation Abstractions International, Humanities and Social Sciénces (1973), pp. 11-12. 47 responsibility for planning, job performance, students' achievement, and demonstration that the criteria have been met. Accountability is defined by Wescott3 as the process of expecting each member of an organization to answer to someone. LOpez4 has offered a similar definition. He says that accountability refers to the process of expecting each member of an organization to answer to someone for doing definite things according to definite plans. Also Wilsey 5 have stated the same definition. Account- and Schroeder ability is defined by them as the condition of the public schools being answerable or liable to the citizens in general for the efficient use of resources in achieving the goals which have been established for the public schools. Definition Two: Accountability as a Function of Learning Outcomes The most well-known definition has been offered by Lessinger.6 To him, accountability is the product of a 3J. P. Wescott, "Accountability: From Who, To Whom, For What?" ED 059964 (February 1972), p. 2. 4Felix M. LOpez, "Accountability in Education," Phi Delta Kappan (December l970):23l. 5Carl E. Wilsey and Glenn B. Schroeder, Roles of the Participants in Educational Accountability (Denver, Colo.: C00perative Accountability Project, 19 4), p. l. 6Leon Lessinger, "Engineering Accountability for Results in Public Education," Phi Delta Kappan (December l970):217. 48 process. He means that an agent, whether private or public, entering into a contract to perform a service will be held answerable to the terms of the contract. According to his definition, accountability provides the means for dealing with methods and outcome together. According to Radcliffe,7 the term accountability ' means that a person gets full credit if a specific result has been achieved. Radcliffe points out that everyone is accountable for all parts of his job and for all the results of his work. Richburg also states a working 9 definition of educational accountability: Accountability is a construct describing the product of an educational process in which an instructional program is assessed as to its effectiveness and effi— ciency in achieving student learning, and educators are held responsible for the failures and successes of the instructional program.8 This assessment is extremely effective and goes hand in hand with Porter's process. A definition of accountability for the future is given by Porter.9 This definition says that the school will not transfer the student from level to level only because he has been physically present in the classroom. Promotion would be based on the performance of specific objectives. 7Vickey W. Radcliffe, "Planning . . . Accountability - . .," ED 078559, p. 21. . 8James R. Richburg, "The Movement for Accountability in Education," ED 058145 (March 1973), p. 38. 9John W. Porter, "The Accountability Story in Michigan," Phi Delta Kappan (October 1972):99. 49 Definition Three: Accountability as a Function of Goals Setting goals and plans, having sufficient resources to meet the goals, and conducting a regular evaluation to determine whether those goals are met is what Crawford10 defines as accountability. In 1971, Richburg quotes Wilson Riles' definition I: of accountability as a "process of setting goals, making available adequate resources to meet those goals, and WV' _.. arm—5' conducting regular evaluation to determine if the goals are 11 .fiwhfl met." Woodington and others12 have stated this definition: "Accountability is a process: a way of going about and doing things. It's something like building and maintaining a house; only in this case, it's a system." Woodington et al., believe that there are several important parts of an accountability process. First, they explain that goals at all levels need to be determined or reexamined for the system. They suggest that goals should be improved through interaction between different groups who are concerned about education. Woodington also relates the objectives to the 10Harold R. Crawford, "Implication of Account- ability," Accountability, Competency and Evaluation of Vocational Agriculture (Speech at Central State Seminar in Chicago, February 4-6, 1974), p. 14. 11James R. Richburg, "The Movement for Account- ability in Education," ED 058145 (March 1973), p. 38. 12Donald D. Woodington, and others, "A Primer for Accountability in Education" (Colorado Department of Edu- cation, March, 1973), pp. 3-4. 50 goals which are the learning experiences to be offered by the schools. The second part of an accountability process is to determine where the system falls short in meeting the goals. This is called "needs assessment." Another part of an accountability process is the evaluation. This is needed to find out whether there is a difference between what is and what ought to be learned in the schools. Definition Four: Accountability as Incentive for Instructional Improvement Improving the quality of instructional programs is how Lovel3 describes accountability. He believes that there are three steps in particular that could improve instruction in the school significantly. First, we need to realize that individual achievement should not be measured only by time and grade but also by performance. Then we need to develop the philOSOphy that every learner can succeed to the limits of his capability. Lastly, instead of offering a few rigid subjects to which all students are assigned, we need to expand, extend and improve individual learning alternatives so that each student will have his own curriculum. 13Gene M. Love, "Three Steps Toward Accountability," American Vocational Journal (March l973):38. 51 14 Taking another viewpoint, Grady defines account- ability as improvement of instruction in the schools. Grady believes that the key to this achievement of accountability is improved teacher effectiveness. Causes and Demands for Accountability There are several reasons and causes for the accountability movement in education. Lessinger15 states the important causal factors in the growing demand for educational accountability. He believes that the increased costs of education, the poor academic performance of minority students, and the lack of definite results of federal compensatory education projects are the main factors. Forsbergl6 explains that the federal government has increasingly demanded accountability for the money issued under its programs. There is an emphasis on evaluation and assessment. Forsberg also mentions demands for placing pressure on educators to focus on the outputs of the edu- cational system. 14Roslyn M. Grady, "Accountability. A Personal Point of View," COOperative Accountability Project, June, 1974, p. 1. 15 in Public Education," p. 217. 16Forsberg, "Accountability and Performance Con— tracting,” p. 5. Lessinger, "Engineering Accountability for Results 52 In 1972, McPhaill7 explained that the recent inter- est in accountability can be attributed to four major areas: (1) increased cost of education, (2) some of the students are not being educated, (3) loss of public confidence in the public schools as evidenced by failure of many bond issues, and (4) the interest of educators in assessing success in teaching. By 1973, Kaufman18 indicated that accountability must be accepted for several reasons. The importance of the educational process is beginning to be questioned by students and parents alike. Citizens also are beginning to reject the popular idea that education, by definition, is good and that more education is better. A form of com- petition that has not been faced in the past is that edu- cation has to fight for limited public dollars. Important questions concerning the effectiveness of the education establishment are brought up by an educational minority along with behavioral and social scientists. These are concerned with application of certain broad theories of learning and human development. Federal and state govern- ments, too, are faced with competitive demands for limited 17Augustine H. McPhail, "Accountability: Will It Improve Education?" ED 068946 (Jackson: Mississippi State Department of Education, April, 1972), p. 4. 18Jacob J. Kaufman, "A Rational Approach to Edu— cation," American Vocational Journal (March l973):28. 53 resources. These reasons all show that the quality of the educational system is becoming a pOpular issue. In 1974, Crawford19 pointed out the causes for the current emphasis on accountability: (l) the general state of the economy, (2) teachers are now Speaking of policing their own organizations, seeking merit pay, and having direct input upon certification, (3) new develOpments in technology are making it easier to measure inputs and out- puts, (4) more people are educated today, and (5) the whole world is talking about the ineffectiveness of public edu- cation. The circumstances which led to the movement of edu- cational accountability are discussed by Richburg.20 His categories include federal government influence, a dis— contented public, and technological cultural influences. In summarization it seems that the writers' per- ceptions of the circumstances in the movement for edu- cational accountability vary. Most articles include a tendency to look at education in terms of cost effective- ness, loss of public confidence in the schools, federal government influence, education of minority children as a priority of public school education, new developments in 19Crawford, "Implications of Accountability," p. 13. 20 . I C C Richburg, "The Movement for Accountability in Education," p. 3. 54 educational technology, and the larger number of people educated today“ Who Is To Be Held Accountable? 21 According to Wildavsky, to hold someone account— able is to determine how well he is performing. Many edu- cators have asked, "Who is accountable?" and, "To whom are they accountable?" In 1972, Rosenshine and McGaw22 stated that there are difficulties in holding teachers responsible for student growth and classroom transaction. They ask these questions: "If a teacher assigns homework and the student does not do the work, who is responsible? If the school district does not have funds to purchase the materials, who is responsible?" They doubt that the teacher alone is entirely at fault for not motivating the students. They assume that students, administrators, parents, publishers, educators, and the general public as well as teachers are each accountable for some aspect of the edu- cational program. 23 Wescott explains that the administrators, super— visors, Specialists, and classroom teachers should be held 21Aaron Wildavsky, "A Program of Accountability for Elementary Schools," Phi Delta Kappan (December 1970):212. 22Barak Rosenshine and Barry McGaw, "Issues in Assessing Teacher Accountability in Public Education," Phi Delta Kappan (June 1972):642-43. 23Wescott, "Accountability: For Whom, To Whom, For What?" pp. 3-8. 55 accountable to each other. In addition, he believes that all the adults of the community and the parents should be held accountable to the school system, students, and them— selves for positive attitudes toward learning and for edu- cational direction. Wescott added that the teachers who have been most threatened by the movement of accountability, should be held reSponSible to their students, to the com- munity, to their superiors, their associates, and to them- selves. Paul Salman agrees with Wescott in the preface of Lesley Browder's handbook24 when he explains that account- ability Should expand to the principal, administrators, Superintendent, board of education, citizens, the state legislature, and the federal government. Ober25 follows this view when he states that every— one in the society is accountable to some degree for the success and failure of the schools. Establishing a good accountability program, according to Fruehling and FrLIehling,26 must have two basic premises. Accountability is not the responsibility of the teacher alone. Teachers, .\ Ed 24Lesley Browder, "An Administrator's Handbook on ucational Accountability," ED 079831 (1973), p. iii, of A 25Richard L. Ober, "Preparing Teachers in the Age c-‘—<:ountability," ED 083160 (February 1973), p. 2. "Ac 26Donald L. Fruehling and Rosemary T. Fruehling, <2<>untability as a Teaching Tool," American Vocational Jo W (March 1973) :47. ¥ 56 administrators, producers of instructional media, parents, and the community are responsible for the products of the schools, and the establishment of procedures for reaching the goals. Everyone associated significantly in public education is responsible according to Grady, 7 who believes that the board of education, superintendent, administrators, L instructional staff, teachers, parents, and students are all accountable to one another and to the general public. Although there are many points of view concerning H accountability, most authors believe that everyone is re5ponsib1e in some way for the failures and successes of the schools . Curriculum Improvement and Accountability It is well—known that one aspect of accountability is curriculum. Curriculum is defined in Webster's New W__0r ld Dictionary as a course of study in a school. There are differences of Opinion about curriculum among educators. Oliver28 defines curriculum as a program used by the School to achieve its purposes. He believes that every SChool should have these elements: proqram of studies, PrOgram of activities, and prOgram of services such as 11bra-ries, health services, guidance, and counseling ser- Vices \ 27 "Accountability--A Personal Point of View," pp. 1‘2 Grady, Pro 28Oliver, Curriculum Improvement: A Guide to Wems, Principles and Procedures (New York: Dodd, Mead Company, 1965), p. 15. ¥ 57 Crary29 has offered a Similar definition. He defines curriculum as the program of intended learning 30 planned by the school. Curriculum is defined by Doll as all the experiences that the learners have under the direction of the school. According to his definition the curriculum involves activities in the classroom, auditorium, gymnasium, hallway, and in other places under the guidance of the school. A similar definition has been offered by Fleming.31 He says that curriculum is the totality of the Student's experiences for which the schools are responsible. Crosby32 defines curriculum as the philOSOphy and the goals which are established for the students in the school. The most widespread definition of curriculum has been offered by Cay.33 To him, curriculum is the edu- cational design of learning experiences for students. It is the value systems, beliefs, and the philosophies of the 29Ryland W. Crary, Humanizing the School: Curriculum Dfive 10pment and Theory (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1969) , P- JLJ3. 30Ronald C. Doll, Curriculum Improvement: Decision- Makin and Process (Boston, Mass.: Allyn and Bacon, Inc., W p. 24. and . 3'1Robert S. Fleming, Curriculum for Today's Boys lrls (Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill Books, Inc., \G__ 1963) O p. 150 32Muriel Crosby, Curriculum Development for Ele- In My Schools in a Charging Society TBoston: D. C. Heath Company, 1964), p. 3. 33Donald F. Cay, Curriculum: Design for Learning (1: . ndlanapolis: The Bobbs-Merrill Company, Inc., 1966), p. 1. ¥ 58 people. It is the cooperation of the educators and parents It reflects the political, It for improving the education. religious, social, and ethical values of the society. is like an umbrella which covers the school experiences. Wright34 states that "curriculum is a global word that encompasses the development of individuals and the learning experiences they have. Curriculum is composed of the diversified learning situations for which teachers have responsibility and through which teachers design with children, tasks appropriate for each child's learning." Saylor and Alexander 5 write that curriculum is the things we wish students to learn in the school. A product of the educator's mind is what Frost and Rovvland36 define as curriculum. They point out that curriculum is understood as the subject matter, a set of materials developed by a group of specialists, or materials deve10ped by associations at the national level. Metcalf and Hunt37 do not define curriculum as all the experiences —h 34Betty Atwell Wright, Elementary School Curriculum (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1971), p. 139. C - 35J. Galen Saylor and William M. Alexander, Hulum Planning for Better Teaching and Learnim (New rk = Rinehart and Company, Inc., 1954) , p. 3. 36Joe L. Frost and G. Thomas Rowland, Curricula for t . o 0 SW (Boston: Houghton leflln Company, 1969) u ’ *5. Van 37Lawrence E. Metcalf and Maurice P. Hunt, "Rele- by a? and the Curriculum," Curriculum: Quest for Relevance, llliam VanTil (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1974) , ‘ 266. 59 a student has in school, but agree with the traditional definition which is formal course-work taken by students. In the summer of 1974, Corl38 wrote a list of curriculum definitions for a curriculum improvement course. His definitions are: the whole effort of the school to krrwing about desired results in and out of school locations; t11:iect area, to be aware of new develOpments in learning thfiac>ryq and know the new instructional techniques. 2953;_;Purpose of In-Service Education In-service education for teachers is a crucial aspeCt of improving educational programs and classroom lnEitzruction. Smith49 believes that in-service education is \ 46G. Sharp, Curriculum Development as Re-education 9£;_;§ggg Teacher (New York: Bureau of Publication, 1951). P 47Henry W. Dyer, "Toward Objective Criteria of CIfgfessional Accountability in the Schools of New York 1‘33'," Phi Delta Kappan (December l970):33. 48 "The Future of Teacher Education," Prederson, P- 33. Se 49Therman Thomas Smith, "The Relationships Between 1-<3‘-cted Professional Concerns of Experienced Elementary 66 a means of assisting teachers in the performance of new reSponSibilitieS, helping them to sharpen skills and extend knowledge, increasing job satisfaction, and influencing the develOpment of morals. The over-all purpose of an in-service education prOgram, according to Dagne and Bales,50 is the improvement of the professional skills and function of the teacher. In relation to this basic purpose, they point out these Specific goals: (1) providing a climate for on-the-job learning, (2) covering any gaps left by the pre-service PrOgrams of the university, and their educational impli- cations, (4) increasing the teacher's efficiency in dealing With daily classroom problems, and (5) developing a unified PhilOSOPhy of education. In implementing an in-service program Dagne and Bales also mention some areas that need to be considered. One must find the human skills that teachers must under- stand to be proficient, the conceptual skills needed by teac hers for dealing with abstractions and understanding the relationship between school and society, and finally the in-service media which is needed to achieve the stated purE>Oses. \ Eeachers, the Availability of In-service Programs, and the Msachers' Morale" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of lchigan, 1973), p. 12. I 50Frank A. Dagne and Carol Bales, "An Innovative TV pn‘service Program," Illinois Education (March 1969) , 9- 274—75. 67 In describing the needs of an in-service program, JungSl identifies several types of training. According to him, we must frist train teachers in new curriculum and then train them in the use of technology. After the first two steps have been completed, he suggests that we train teachers in organizational improvement, in intercultural needs and in general process. Taking another viewpoint, Sankowski, 2 who is the director of the Pre-and-Inservice Training Center Project, Lg indicates that the aim of the Training Center Project is to improve the educational services for the students through Continuing education for teachers. Sankowski also provides fi\7ee guidelines for the Training Center Project. Four of theasse guidelines include directing its resources to the fieillxd where the problems are, approaching the analysis and res<>lution of problems through the schools and teachers, ln"€3=.sting its resources in continuous research and evalu- atj_c>Jn, and helping teachers in identifying K-12 students whfi> lnave learning disabilities. Finally, he emphasizes pre3._ and in-service training in diagnostic/prescriptive and pre(zise teaching with direction toward both the learning \ f _ 51Charles Jung, "Instructional Systems for Pro— e53551Lona1 Development," Theory Into Practice (December 19'72) , p. 277. Pr 52Eleanor Sankowski, "Kanawha County Schools PACE e"<'3tnd--In--Service Training Center," Theory Into Practice (DeCember 1972), pp. 314-15. 68 disability and the academic subjects, techniques for changing teacher behavior, and adult-child relationships. Problems related to the teaching of reading are the most prominent concerns among elementary and secondary teachers. Specific in-service activities have to be develOped to meet teachers' needs. Moon53 and others State that proficiency modules in reading and mathematics were develOped in 1971 by Atlanta Public Schools and University of Georgia staff members to be used as the basis for in- service training. The reading modules are word recognition skills, phonics, comprehension Skills, study Skills, teaching a directed reading lesson, classroom management for reading instruction, and notes from a linguist. The math modules are fractional concepts, addition and sub- traction of rational numbers, multiplication and division of rational numbers, drill activities, and geometry. In conclusion, the purpose of an in-service program is to provide teachers with Opportunities to become -fandliar with new materials, methods, and their educational ianlicationS; to discuss common problems; to exchange creative ideas; and to take part in develOping the curricu- lCUm. 53Jeannette B. Moon, R. Ruel Morrison, and Eunice H. Sims, "Staff Development in Atlanta," Theory lilsp Practice (December 1972), p. 297. 69 In-Service Education for Administrators For some time the State Department of Education has encouraged and recognized the teachers for participating in in-service education. Providing encouragement for in- service education of administrators is also important. Pulley and Hart54 State that according to a study .,“ of the in-service education of public school superintendents in Missouri, it was found that superintendents do feel a if‘ need to take part in programs of continuing education. The areas they seem most concerned about are curriculum and instruction, curriculum development, community school leadership, and human relations. Pulley and Hart also write several recommendations which a board of education could use to cultivate the professional growth of its superintendent. These recom- mendations are: providing paid sabbatical leaves and paid leaves of shorter duration for the purpose of professional :hnprovement; paying fees and expenses for workshOps, credit CM)urses, conventions, conferences and other in—service edu- CEition programs; providing salary incentives to administra- tOrs for participation in programs of in-service education ‘13 well as advanced degrees and graduate credit courses; arKidevelOping a written policy which encourages and expects \ 54Jerry L. Pulley and James Hart, "In-Service Edu- (Zailion for Superintendents," School and Community (February 1972), p. 16. “m 70 the superintendent to take part in programs of professional development. In 1969 Bent55 stated that the training of secondary school principals can be designed to help them develop knowledge, skills, and attitudes necessary for leadership. In addition Bent states some desirable qualities of a secondary school principal. He Should have an understanding and knowledge of the nature of secondary school students, the psychology of learning, Skills in the dynamics of human behavior, school administration, techniques of supervision of instruction, guidance and counseling techniques, curricu- lum, techniques of research, and statistical methods. He should also have a major in some subject matter area. In summary, some educators believe that education of administrators is of extreme importance to the school system. The Media of In-Service Education Media are used in in-service programs to help 56 tweachers increase their skills and knowledge. Doll lists tdne media which are commonly used: meetings and institutes, C=Onferences and work conferences, courses, study groups, ‘lrltervisitations workshops, clinics, consultant services, \ 55Rudyard K. Bent and Adolpy Unruh, Secondaty §E§hpol Curriculum (Lexington: Heath and Company, 1969), pp . 251-52 . 56Doll, Curriculum Improvement: Decision-Making and Firocess, pp. 341—42. VT". \ H 71 and others. According to Oliver,57 there is a growing body of knowledge which teachers need to pass along to their students and because better methods are being found for teaching the various subjects, the Arlington County Public Schools have devised an in-service program which attempts t1) use school year time efficiently. The prOgram allows for tfluree professional days before the school Opens in September, tliree mid-year days when the schools are closed near the erud of January, plus the prOgram suggests hour long bi- 3 monthly conferences of the school. Oliver also believes that in-service opportunities Stuch as sabbatical leaves for studying and scholarships fcxr'teachers improve education. He feels that it would be Ixr<>fitable for teachers to band together and study subjects tkuat.consider the thoughts of instructors, administrators, lanai other teachers. He adds that attendance at workshops, federally or state funded, can improve teachers' education. Dagne and Bales58 mention some similar media which can be ‘1SEK1 to achieve the purposes of an in-service education EerMgram: workshops, seminars, demonstrations, case studies, 93r13up dynamics, writing, reading, instructional seminars, amna self-evaluation. S7Albert I. Oliver, Curriculum Improvement: A Guide ifiiggroblems, Principles. and Procedures. pp- 432-33. 58Dagne and Bales, "An Innovative TV In-service PrOgram," p. 275. 72 In 1972, Jirik59 indicated that programs were developed to help teachers become more involved in the total educational plan by the Ohio Education Association In- structional Services Division and Ohio Education Association Commission on Improvement of Education. The fundamental :staff develOpment programs of the Ohio Education Association are divided into three media. First: Professional Development Seminars. The senninars start with a dinner meeting on Friday and are finished around 2:00 p.m. on Saturday. The format consists (>f’ several major presentations. Also, summaries and kiiloliographies are prepared on subject areas like middle schools, team teaching, instructional material centers, elementary math, and ethnic studies. Second: Inner City Seminars. These seminars are fcxzused on the Specific problems of the staff of one building. The staff meets several times before the seminar and determines problems and student concerns. During the Seminars, the whole staff listens to the consultants' Su9(3estions. After every seminar, they divide into small discussion groups to react to the seminar and to develOp 906113 for the school and themselves. At the end of the day tine staff identifies a new direction for improving education 111 their school. \ 59Edward F. Jirik, "The Ohio Education Association's Staff DevelOpment Programs," Theory Into Practice (December 1972), pp. 291, 295. 73 Third: Instructional Advocate Seminars. Educators from the whole state participate in seminars held in two stages. The first one involves identification of in- structional problems through small groups. The purpose of the second stage is to identify solutions to the problem areas. Characteristics which are important for the success 60 0f any in-service program have been stated by Heald and others. The staff is responsible for participation in in— service educational programs and is to consider it a requirement. A definitive program should be planned for the whole school staff and especially for first year teachers. The program Should be designed for a specific school district, considering its needs and problems in terms of self-improvement for individual teachers and the general PrOgram of the school. Every in-service education prOgram Should be designed to help staff members be familiar with Current research and study. The administration is to Orgéinize the program and see that in-service time for teachers does not conflict with daily planning for individual Classes. 60James E. Heald, Louis G. Romano, and Nicholas P. Georgiady, Selected Readings on General Supervision (London: The Macmillan Company, 1970), pp. 313-16. 4.1 74 The Innovation Process and Accountability Model Development One of the broadest guides on the processes of change is the Havelock guide which is designed for edu- cators at all levels. This guide is written for educators lmno are concerned and interested in the processes of planned cflnange, innovation, and knowledge utilization of the various rt>les of the change agent. Havelock61 illustrates the stages that educators Mnght follow in solving a problem. He suggests two models. The process in its simplest terms is shown in Figure la wTLich contains a disturbance, an activity for dealing with true disturbance, and the effects of the activity. In the sencond model, in Figure lb, Havelock recommends more detailed and more rational problem solving. This model is clixrided into six steps: disturbance, decision to do some- thuingy definition of the problem, search for solutions, application of a potential solution, and satisfaction or disSatisfaction with the solution. In addition to the stages in solving a problem, H<'=1Velock62 states the fundamental roles in which a person (3331 act as a change agent. The following change agent :rtiles which are represented in Figure 2 are the change .l“y__ I 61Ronald G. Havelock, The Change Agent's Guide to llyflpvation in Education (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Educational Technology publishers, 1970), pp. 4-5. 62Ibid., p. 6. 75 a. Simple Reflex Model: [Disturbance Effects of activity felt, leading to satisfaction or to dis- satisfaction and repeat the cycle Activity to deal with disturbance / 13. Rational Problem Solving Model: Initial disturbance (pressure from inside or outsideL‘criSisL etc.) fl / / . Satisfaction that problem 18 solved or dissatisfaction resulting in repeat of cycle f . \ Feeling of need and decision to do "something" about the need ApplicatiOn'of a possible solution to the need 1 Diagnosis of need as a problem '\\\JSearch for solutionS] Figure 1. Stages in Innovation from the Point of View of the People Who are Changed (the Client System). '76 Change Agent as PROCESS HELPER / \ /, \\ /' / ‘ / / \\ // \\ / I \ \\ I’ \\ I o Cha“9° ‘b i \ " 0’ rban e Change Agent IStu c as CATALYST Decision I Sat-Dissat. to get I \ (1.15m ’ SYSTEM Application Search Change Agent as SOLUTION GIVER Figure 2. Three Ways to be a Change Agent. 77 agent as a catalyst, as a solution giver, and as a process helper. In innovation and in the processes of problem solving, the most important change agent role is that of helper. As Shown in Figure 3, Havelock 3 believes that the process helper can provide assistance to a person in the I .following ways: (1) recognizing and defining needs, (2) ciiagnosing problems and setting objectives, (3) requiring Iralevant resources, (4) selecting or creating solutions, ‘ 1" (5) adapting solutions, and (6) evaluating solutions to deetermine if they are satisfying the needs. Also Havelock64 puoints out that before a change agent begins working with tile people in a step-by-Step problem solving process he sliould establish contact and build a relationship with them. Criteria for Models of Accountability If an accountability prOgram is to be effective, everyone must be responsible for his specific roles. AL‘lgustine65 mentions the following criteria for a success- fill accountability program: 1. Members must be given information as to what is to be done, by whom it is to be done, and how it is to be done through important communication means. 2. The members must reflect an organizational philoso- phy that inspires confidence and trust among them. 63Ibid., p. 7. 64Ibid., p. 11. 65Augustine, "Accountability: Will It Improve Edu- cation?" pp. 3-4 . \ 78 EDUCATION THE WAY IT IS NOW J K F f STAGE i Building a Relationship gjbetween change agent 8 client STAGE ll Diagnosing the Problem Acquiring Relevant Resources r STAGE lII STAGE IV Choosing the Solution STAGE V Gaining Acceptance STAGE VI Stabilizing the Innovation and J Generating Self-Renewal J Q ‘.. .‘ - "I‘ '2: J J / Figure 3. Change Agent as a Process Helper: EDUCATION THE WAY WE WOULD LIKE lT TO BE IN THE FUTURE is Organized. How the Guide 79 3. The program must be based on moral principles that can be implemented by a set of flexible standards, procedures, and practices. 4. The program must clearly Specify its purposes so that standards, procedures, and practices can be adjusted to those purposes. 5. It must be designed essentially to improve the performance of the job duties of each member. 6. The way in which the supervisor discusses his evaluation with the subordinate must form the most important part of the process. 7. People who use the accountability program, and those who will be evaluated by it, must participate in the design, administration, and review of the entire accountability system. In addition to the components of the models in accountability which are recognized by writers in the field, ‘Wilsey and Schroeder66 state that any successful account- alrility program must include these elements: 1. DevelOpment of staff Skills in different areas that are necessary to the success of the program. 2. Involvement of the community, staff, and students in ways suitable throughout the program cycle. 3. Placement of priorities among goals, Objectives, and programs. 4. DevelOpment of long-range and short-range plans. 5. Attainment of technical help to make the program function. 6. Development of a powerful management system. 7. DevelOpment of suitable methods for more effectively reporting to the peOple. T“~\a_ 1L 66Wilsey and Schroeder, Roles of the Participants T‘nsiijgducational Accountability, p. 9. 80 Models of Accountability Models of Authors Crawford67 identifies three elements for building an accountability system. First, one must develop plans and Objectives to meet one's goals. Secondly, one must compose a set of learning experiences, and then finally evaluate data from these learning experiences. In another applicable model, set up by Fruehling and Fruehling,68 they suggest the following: (1) identify the goals, (2) determine the skills and the knowledge the Course should concentrate on, (3) develop a curriculum, (4) select the appropriate media, and (5) have a testing SYStam In 1974, DeNovelliS and Lewis69 provided four guide- lidmes for applying accountability to Schools. These guide- lidmes include improvement of the quality of education; accountability of anyone or of a group influencing the qUality of educational experiences; measurement of account— abillity in terms of input, process, and products of edu- cation; and finally accountability of schools, teachers, ‘alléi others for objectives in the cognitive, affective, and ps".‘1’chomotor domains. el~gttt 67 Implications of Accountability, p. 14. Crawford, “Fe 68Fruehling and Fruehling, Accountability as a “§\§‘phinngool, p. 48. 69Richard L. DeNovellis and Arthur J. Lewis, ‘§~91§Jpols Become Accountable, Association for Supervision griti Curriculum DevelOpment, 1974, p. xi. h 81 The following steps which provide a guide to a school-based approach to accountability are stated by DeNovellis and Lewis. According to their model one must first organize a planning accountability team before identifying constraints and assessing needs. After the first three steps have been completed, it is suggested that one identify instructional goals and determine their objectives. Once these five steps have been finished, one must identify facilitating goals. Finally, one Should be reSponSible for conducting an evaluation and providing an accountability report. MOdelS of States and Departments One of the more comprehensive programs is the accountability program which was established for the State (Jf (Zolorado. On June 7, 1971, the Colorado Educational Accountability Act,71 which was adopted by the Colorado State Board of Education, illustrated an accountability Prcgram for the state's schools as follows: Improving, analyzing, redefining and develOping a 1. statement of goals. 2. Identifying statements of performance and Operational objectives. liNyttt 7olbid., p. 18. 71National Education Association, "Accountability," (Washington, D.C.: Divisions of Instruction and §§¥§L 077894 13¢) e351onal Development, December 1972), pp. 9-12. 82 3. Modifying programs for achieving performance objectives and operational objectives. 4. Evaluating and ascertaining the effectiveness, efficiency, and costs of the organized programs in terms of stated goals and objectives. 5. Redefining and modifying any of the sequential phases or parts of a sequential phase within the program, in terms of the strengths and weaknesses that may appear. In describing the components of an accountability program, the Department of Public Instruction for the State of North Carolina, as Wilsey and Schroeder state,72 applied phraseology which is not commonly used by other authors. These basic steps are: l. Conduction of a status study to determine how well a school system is doing with its present program. 2. Preparation of a report on the results of the status study. 3. DevelOpment of a mission statement representing the central and continuing purpose of the system. 4. Development of a statement of continuing objectives based on philoSOphical statements. 5. Establishment of priorities. 6. Development of specific objectives--a statement of desired results. 7. DevelOpment of strategies to meet objectives. 8. DevelOpment of evaluation procedures which are consistent with performance criteria. 9. DevelOpment of a program budget. , 72Wilsey and Schroeder, Roles of the Participants EfllgEducational Accountability, p. 8. ‘A r 83 Wilsey and Schroeder state that Raymond Kitchell, advisor for Operation PEP,73 also determined a model of Six components for the State of California which differs some— what from the accountability program for the State of North Carolina. His model states the following: (1) create long- range goals, (2) develop a plan, (3) establish temporary objectives, (4) develop a program outline, (5) organize operational directions, and (6) develop a plan of operation. In 1973, the faculty of the Vocational and Applied .Arts Education Department (VAE)74 at Wayne State University 80Michigan Department of Education, The Common ‘-~4§gls of Michigan Education (September 1971). 88 B. Democracy and Equal Opportunity 1. Equality of Educational Opportunity 2. Education of the Non-English Speaking Person 3. Education of the Exceptional Person 4. Allocation of Financial Resources 5. Parental Participation 6. Community Participation C. Student Learning 1. Basic Skills 2. Preparation for a Changing Society 3. Career Preparation 4. Creative, Constructive, and Critical Thinking 5. Sciences, Arts, and Humanities 6. Physical and Mental Well-being 7. Self-worth 8. Social Skills and Understanding 9. Occupational Skills 10. Preparation for Family Life 11. Environmental Quality 12. Economic Understanding 13. Continuing Education The second step is develOpment of performance ()kDZlectives. Performance objectives include much more £3Ipecific information than goals. The Michigan Department Ic>15 Education has started to develOp pre-school through Itr‘v‘elfth grade performance objectives for different subjects. 5? . . he performance objectives are de31gned to represent 3k. 3\. IIII-._ 89 minimal levels of expectations. The Michigan Department of Education81 believes that certain things the students ought to know at various levels in their process of develOpment must be translated into performance measures. The third step in Michigan educational account- ability is needs assessment. Smith and Chapman82 define a I need assessment as a test given before instruction to find out exactly which performance objectives the students have already mastered. The purposes of Michigan's Educational K Assessment Program have been stated by Womer.83 The first purpose is to determine whether the students have mastered basic skills in reading and mathematics. The second is to find out exactly which districts have the highest percent- ages of low achieving students in order to award compen- 84 satory funds to them. Porter mentions that the essential goal of the Michigan Educational Assessment Program is to Provide educators and citizens with information regarding the status and progress of certain aspects of Michigan's \ 81Ibid., p. 7. 2Chauncey W. Smith and Reuben Chapman, Account- §E§E§Llityz A Management Tool for Teachers (prepared for the 1974). p. 22. <=higan Department of Education, ALLIED Printing, Lansing, 82Frank B. Womer, Developing a Large Scale Assess- ggSEglt Program (Denver, Colo.: COOperative Accountability 1?<>ject, 1973), p. 126. 84John W. Porter, "Where Research Evaluation and :Sessment Fit In," Michigan Department of Education, JPjJ.l973, p. 2. 90 public educational system. This is done so that they can make better educational decisions. Within this broad goal, Porter states these four specific objectives: providing information to state level public school systems, to local school systems, to parents, and providing information regarding the progress of education. The fourth step is analysis of delivery systems. The Michigan Department of Education describes the delivery system as the part of the educational system that provides that which assessment indicates is needed. Also, Smith and Chapman have stated a similar definition. To them the delivery system is whatever the teachers do to help their students reach the goals and the performance objectives.85 The Michigan Department of Education86 suggests new plans which may be used to improve the delivery systems. These plans are compensatory education, experimental and demon- stration schools, year-around schooling, pre-school edu- cation, school meals improvement, and performance con- tracting. The fifth step is the evaluation of programs. 87 lPorter defines evaluation as the process of obtaining ‘ 85Smith and Chapman, Accountability: A Management £1 for Teachers, p. 31. 86Michigan Department of Education, "Educational Accountability," 1972, p. 6. , 87Porter, "Where Research Evaluation and Assessment Fltx" 3 n, p. . ¥ __ _ 91 information relating to the educational activities for the purpose of making decisions. The primary aim of the Evaluation Program as Porter88 points out, is to describe and evaluate the effectiveness of educational programs which are administered by the Department of Education and funded from state and federal sources. The sixth step is recommendations for improvement. This step involves sharing the results of the use of the previous steps. This includes making recommendations as to ‘what new priorities must be established, how improvement <:ould be made, and as to whether new delivery systems are needed . 8 9 Michigan's accountability model is continuous and c:ircular as shown in Figure 4. Goals ———-> Performance Objectives———> Needs Assessment Recommendations <——— Evaluation <——— Delivery System Analysis Ffiigure 4. The Michigan Six-Step Accountability Model. The State Board of Education asks this question: "that is it that a child or youth should know and be able to do at graduation?" Beyond answering the question in general terms, such as adequate preparation for a job, \ 88Ibid. GD 89Smith and Chapman, Accountability: A Management w. for Teachers, p. 31. 92 citizenship, etc., the State has sought to define more specifically the steps leading toward ultimate goals. It addresses the intermediate stages and devises a model that can be used for each step along the way. Drs. House, Rivers, and Stufflebeam have prepared a specific study entitled "An Assessment of the Michigan Accountability System." The Michigan Education Association and the National Education Association supported and financed the study. The purpose of the study was to evaluate the educational soundness and usefulness of this study for Michigan with a special focus on the assessment component.9 In the introduction of the study, House and <>thers state that accountability should be practiced at 6111 levels of education because it improves the quality of education. In their report they discuss the strengths and vvemknesses of the implementation of the state accountability System. The staff of the Michigan Department of Education kLas responded to the study by House and others and its nine recommendations . The staff91 and the panel consisting of House and others agree on these recommendations: that the State School \ 90Ernest House, et al., An Assessment of the Michi- %?Eg1_Accountability System (a report under a contract with lie: Michigan Education Association and the National Edu- cation Association, March 1974), p. 1. 91John W. Porter, "A Staff Response to the Report: fizf? .Assessment of the Michigan Accountability System." JL<3higan Department of Education, May 1974, p. 14. 93 Aid Act Program, which provides Special funds to school districts, is not perfect and changes in the program for 1975-76 are necessary; that the evaluation process of the accountability model needs to be develOped; that testing all pupils in all subject areas would lead to prohibitive costs; that locally developed learner objectives are very important and will continue to assist local school personnel in develOping objectives; that matrix sampling would be an essential ingredient in future assessment designs; and finally, that the State should provide assistance to local «educators in the implementation of the accountability model. However, these two groups disagree on the following Jaecommendations: that the selected objectives are minimal 61nd represent a statewide consensus; that plans to publish at book of objectives for parents are good; and finally, that assessment tests should be implemented with minority c hildren . In September of 1974, Kearney, Donovan, and Fisher92 Ellso responded to the criticism by researchers House, Rivers, and Stufflebeam. In their article they defend ”4142higan's accountability program. They feel that House's Study appears to be based on information gathered too rapidly without much strictness. In reSponse to the \ I?‘ 92C. Philip Kearney, David L. Donovan, and Thomas H. P1§her, "In Defense of Michigan's Accountability Program," -£12L_Delta Kappan (September l974):l4. 94 criticism of Kearney and his colleagues, House93 and others state that they are still in disagreement with the Michigan Department of Education on the minimal nature of the objectives, the validity of the tests, the publishing of a book of objectives, the desirability of testing every pupil, and the tying of funds to gains in the test scores. I. VII Summary The purpose of this chapter was to review literature V r on different aspects of accountability. The chapter con- ! tains reviews of definitions of accountability, causes and demands for accountability, who is to be held accountable, curriculum improvement and accountability, the role of in- service education in various models of accountability, the innovation process and accountability model development, criteria for models of accountability, models of account- ability, and the Michigan Department of Education and accountability. In comparison to these models, the Jor- danian educational system has common goals, a curriculum, and limited material resources. However, the system does not have performance objectives, assessment of needs, nor a big enough emphasis on resources such as a school library media center. In the following chapter this information 93Ernest R. House, Wendell Rivers, and Daniel L. Stufflebeam, "A Counter-ReSponse to Kearney, Donovan and Fisher," Phi Delta Kappan (September l974):l9. 95 will be used as background information for the develOpment and implementation of a model of accountability for Jordan. CHAPTER IV PRESENTATION AND IMPLEMENTATION OF EDUCATIONAL ACCOUNTABILITY Section 1: Introduction This chapter presents the educational accountability model and the guidelines for its implementation. The presentation will focus on answering the following questions: 1. What are the elements of the educational account- ability model? 2. Within the portion of the model identified as "delivery system" what are the processes involved in establishing the School Library Media Center? What are the guidelines for organizing an in- service workshop? 3. What are the steps in implementing educational accountability in Jordan? The educational accountability model and its imple- mentation is one basis for curriculum improvement, curricu- lum develOpment, or curriculum construction. It is an alternative for improving the quality of education and may be a way to solve the problems of the lack of basic skills, high dr0pout rate, illiteracy, and the problem of continuing education to qualify teachers presently in the classrooms. 96 97 Section II: The Model Step One: Identifying Goals The education of the children and the youth is the main concern of most societies. The first responsibility of the Ministry of Education and the State Board of Edu- cation, who are concerned with the quality of educational experience of every pupil in the schools, is to specify general goals. The goals are statements of direction in general terms. They indicate the purposes of the schools and the directions in which they determine to change, and should be available to all citizens who are concerned about the edu- cational process. In the past, the develOpment of rational goals for education has been considered the duty of educators. But presently, educators recognize that the schools can serve (Society better when everyone participates in setting the sgoals. The goals must be develOped by committees made up (Df educators, students, parents, and citizens. The goals nnay be derived from.citizen statements gathered during nmeetings held throughout the country, statements from the Sitate Board of Education, and research on the way in which DUpils learn. The goals can be divided into the following cate- 901‘ ies: 98 l. The content goals are the general skills needed to live at a both personally and socially rewarding level. Some examples of content goals are achieve- ment of communication skills, achievement of computation skills, and development of economic understanding. 2. The process goals are the abilities and attitudes that the procedures, environment, and activities of the school influence. Some examples of process goals are knowledge of self, ability to adjust to change, and respect for law and authority. The reSponSibility for achieving the goals rests on teachers, administrators, school board of education, parents, community, and students. Step Two: Defining Performance Objectives The second step of educational accountability model is the develOpment of performance objectives. Performance objectives are statements of minimal expectations for students as they reach certain levels in the educational system.2 They are written in measurable terms to describe :some of the skills which students ought to know at various astages in their develOpment. The performance objectives eare develOped to support and contribute to the achievement (3f the established goals. They are concerned with a Specific achievement within a specific time period. 1National Commission on the Reform of Secondary Edu— Cation, The Reform of Secondary Education (a report to the PLilblic and the Profession, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1973) , pp. 31-32. Lq- 2John W. Porter, Objectives and Procedures, :LCIhigan Department of Education, October, 1971, p. l. 99 Performance objectives of students include the answers to the following questions: What should the successful students be able to do? Under what conditions will the students perform? To what degree of excellency will the student prove his ability to perform? The performance objectives can be measured in different ways such as by multiple-choice tests, essay tests, oral recitations, group discussions, true and false ‘tests, completion tests, matching tests, informal question and answer periods, or combinations of these. It is impor- tant for the teacher to recognize that not all of the Students will reach all of the objectives, although some of t1mem.will go beyond them. Also there are several ways to help students reach these objectives. faculty The performance objectives are very helpful to the in the following ways: Providing a picture of a subject area as a whole and by grade level. Helping teachers see what they are actually doing. Providing a good foundation for curriculum improve- ment. Selecting or develOping tests for needs assessment and evaluation. Serving as a basis for understanding the different levels of instruction. Providing a basis for choosing textbooks and other resources. Providing more specific ways to evaluate teachers in terms of what they do. 8. 100 Communicating to students and parents the progress of the students. Three basic principles should be utilized in establishing performance objectives: 1. Identify the observable behavior by name. Describe what the students should be able to do—-e.g., what they must write, recite, identify, list or say. Define the criterion of acceptable performance. Describe how well the students must perform --e.g., how accurately or at what speed or rate. Define the conditions under which the students are to perform-~e.g., what will be given to them, what restrictions they will be under, what physical conditions or visual aids will be available. Examples of performance objectives that could be ‘written at the school level utilizing the above structure might be: 1. Given addition problems involving two or three sums with three, four or five digits, with or without regrouping, the student will find the sums, using any techniques. Given verbal problems consisting of one or two Operations involving money values less than or equal to $50, the student will solve the problems. Given the list of 100 sightwords, the student will pronounce each word with 100 percent accuracy. Given a reading selection at the sixth grade level, the student will select from a number of short summaries the ones which best summarize the selection. The Appendix presents more complete examples of written performance objectives. The reader is encouraged to Scan this appendix as an aid for better understanding performance objectives . 101 Step Three: Needs Assessment This next section explains needs assessment as a part of the accountability model. Needs assessment is a test given before instruction to find out exactly which performance objectives the students have already mastered.3 The assessment of needs is designed to answer the question a of where the students are in relation to the goals and ‘ performance objectives. The general aim of the needs assessment is to provide enough information as a basis from *1 which priorities can be established and decisions can be ' made to improve education. The needs assessment is the third step of the educational accountability model and it is closely related to the first and second steps, which are identifying goals and defining performance objectives. The test items may be develOped by teachers and other educators from several districts. These tests can be reviewed and edited by specialists and tried out in some school districts. Due to the time limitations of the tests and the great number of performance objectives being taught, only some of the objectives may be chosen to measure the Students' achievement. Educational assessment can provide the State Board