AN ANALYSIS OF FEACHER TASKS TO ENABLE IDENTIFICATION OF THE POTENTIAL USE OF AUXILIARY PERSONNEL EN THE INSTRUCTIONAL PROCESS Thesis I09 Ilia Dew. of DI}. D. MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY R. Arden Moon I969. IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII . LIBRARy 3 1293 10390 Michigan State. University 41"“ This is to certify that the" ‘ thesis entitled AN ANALYSIS OF TEACHER TASKS. TO ENABLE IDENTIFICATION OF THE POTENTIAL USE OF AUXILIARY PERSONNEL IN THE INSTRUCTIONAL PROCESS presented by R. ARDEN MOON has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph. D Education degree in gm cam ajor prof¢§§6r Datefixmé‘fix '5 0’ 0-169 1 y -_ .. . _...- ',' ‘w." ’ ‘ 'V'ww “-8 .,. ,. s. l‘ w... . c r? a. , TL 1 m. :9 ... \, . .m. w” _ .r. m . .\ U . .x .m— I K I Iv .u i _ . | . v .. . . fl 4.. a [V- m a . v Iii. 9“,. .1 ABSTRACT AN ANALYSIS OF TEACHER TASKS TO ENABLE IDENTIFICATION OF THE POTENTIAL USE OF AUXILIARY PERSONNEL IN THE INSTRUCTIONAL PROCESS By R. Arden Moon Pquse The purpose of this study was to more clearly and com- provide a rationale for the development of support teams of auxiliary personnel; facilitate the evolution of a teacher who would be able to I utilize his education to a near maximum; I give some general direction to administrative restruc- % turing in regard to the effects of using auxiliary person- .‘ nel I I I give~furtherdirection to teacher education and training programs for-auxiliary personnel. R. Arden Moon These accomplishments would provide added tools and techniques for meeting the new and unique challenges facing the total spectrum of education. Problem This study was designed primarily to identify those tasks which require that unique and specific education which only a fully certificated teacher has received. By identifying those tasks at the teacher end of the continuum it was hoped a differentiation of roles for the teacher and auxiliary personnel could be at least partially established . Major Question Examined What tasks would building principals, teachers, teacher aides, college instructors, and nationally recognized experts agree were tasks only a person certified to teach can do? Secondary Questions Examined 1. On what tasks was there disagreement among the referent groups with respect to the appropriate role of the teache rs ? 2. Did teachers who have had experience working with teacher aides identify fewer tasks which only a teacher can do ? R. Arden Moon 3. Did teachers who have had experience with team teaching identify fewer tasks which only a teacher can do? 4. What, if any, relationship was there between age and identification of the tasks ? 5. Was there any relationship between years of experience and identification of tasks? 6. Did teacher aides identify fewer or more tasks which only a teacher can do than teachers identify? 7. Was there any relationship between the perception of role and the level of schooling? 8. In what tasks, if any, was there agreement that the task could be done by devices substituted for teachers ? 9. What, if any, relationship was there between sex and identification of tasks ? 10. What, if any, relationship was there between grade level taught and identification of tasks? Sample Population The teachers, aides, and building principals were employees of the Saginaw, Michigan, Public School System and the Bay City, Michigan, Public School System. Random sampling was not used but rather questionnaires were submitted to all the aides R. Arden Moon employed in these two systems, the teachers to whom the aides were assigned, and the principals of these buildings. The college instruc- tors included were Michigan State University Student Teaching Coordinators and Directors of the Elementary Intern Centers. The experts were recognized as outstanding in their field, and having experience and/or strong interest in programs using auxiliary per- sonnel. Instrumentation A seventy-four item questionnaire was submitted to the referent groups. The items included in the questionnaire were chosen from (a) a time analysis study done in the Bay City, Michigan, Public Schools; (b) the list used in a study by the Detroit Public Schools; (C) and the writer' 3 own observation of tasks carried out in the classroom. The instrument also asked for a distinction between the feasibility of a non—certificated person doing a task and a machine. Analysis of Data Chi square was the statistical tool used. Chi square was used as a test for homogeneity in examining the major question. For R. Arden Moon the secondary questions, chi square was used to look for differences, according to the variables examined, on responses to individual tasks. Conclusions It was hoped that some small beginning could be made toward constructing a task continuum as a result of this study. The data revealed a clustering of tasks in the following manner. The mean level for that group of tasks is given plus the statistical level used to determine lack of disagreement. There was no significant disagreement among the referent groups except where noted in the left hand margin. Task Mean Number Task 2. 00 16. Do semester or yearly planning of formal curriculum (5 point scale) 32. Introducing a math concept to a class 60. Constructing tests Statistical 63. Setting criteria for a subjective test Level 67. Conducting parent conferences at school in .01 regard to discipline 68. Carrying on research in the school in regard to the effectiveness of a program 70. Conducting parent conferences at school in regard to academic performances 72. Interpreting research findings 73. Aiding in the evaluation of intern or student teache rs R. Arden Moon Task Mean Number Task 2 . 00 12. Do unit planning 14. Initiating innovations in the structure of the Statistical subject matter Level 17. Daily planning for a subject (continuous) .01 18. Developing innovations in instructional methodology (Experts in 19. Initiating major curriculum Change disagreement) 22. Choosing instructional materials on a long term basis 23. Selecting methods of presenting materials and lessons 39. Choosing appropriate motivational techniques 61. Constructing grading scales Task Mean Number Task 2. 50 25. Setting discipline expectations 27. Writing programmed materials Statistical 30. Grouping pupils after diagnosis has been Level made . 01 44. Enforcing classroom discipline 45. Making up daily assignment 59. Giving grades on the basis of a subjective test when the criteria are set Task Mean Number Task 2. 50 3. Ordering instructional aids 10. Developing instructional aids Statistical 13. Planning for one day in one subject area Level 21. Choosing instructional materials on a day . 01 to day basis 24. Establishing classroom routine (Experts in 26. Enforcing discipline disagreement) 28. Diagnosing minor learning difficulties 29. Prescribing for correction of minor learn- ing problems R. A rden Moon 34. Introducing a reading lesson 36. Teaching an art class 38. Conducting penmanship class 42. Individual counseling with pupil 62. Administering tests to evaluate in a subject area 65. Evaluating the citizenship of a pupil 66. Making home visitations to become aware of home needs Task Mean Number Task 2. 11 11. Assuming responsibility for planning bul- (principals letin boards only) 2. 16 33. Conducting a reading class (teachers, college instructors) 1. 89 46. Conducting reading groups (teachers) 2. 37 56. Correcting themes (teachers) The data indicated that teachers see more tasks for cer- tificated personnel only than do aides. Conversely, the aide sees auxiliary personnel in a more expanded role than do teachers. There was a slight indication that the female sex tends to identify fewer tasks for only the teacher. When age of the respondent was examined, the data revealed a tendency for the 21-40 year old age group to see auxiliary _--‘.—_, g».— R. Arden Moon personnel doing more tasks than the older age groups saw them doing . There seemed to be a definite indication that those with less than a BA. saw auxiliary personnel doing more tasks; however, the nationally recognized experts were an exception. This could possibly be because most Of them were involved in working with auxiliary personnel or directing auxiliary demonstra- tion centers. The grade level taught by the respondent seemed to have a very small degree of relationship to task identification. There was a slight indication that upper grade teachers saw a broader role for auxiliary personnel. Kindergarten teachers were an exception. They seemed to see a broad role for auxiliary per- sonnel. When the amount of experience a person had had was examined, there was an indication that those with less than six years of experience saw auxiliary personnel doing more tasks. Team teaching experience and experience working with aides seemed to have a negligible effect on task identification. There was some indication that the following tasks could be performed by either non-certificated personnel or machines. R. Arden Moon Task Number Task 31. Working with a group on drill of basic addi— tion facts 41. Individual tutoring in subject areas 52. Conducting drill on math facts 64. Recording grades on report cards 74. Maintaining pupil records, such as test scores, grades and health Implications Teachers need help, and are generally willing for other personnel to help in the Classroom. There is opportunity for school-community linkage via the use of auxiliary personnel. Teacher training must be more concerned with teaching teachers to plan, evaluate, and handle interpersonal relationships and de-emphasize clerical work and similar activities. Public schools, community colleges and public schools must increase their cooperation if career ladders become available for auxiliary personnel, and proper training is available. There is a need for training programs for all concerned. Administrators must be ready to organize and administer a differentiated staff. Professional personnel will become R. Arden Moon increasingly involved in procedural decision making as staff levels increase. Negotiations will probably become more involved, not less. Specific Recommendations An experimental training program should be established to determine the special training components needed for auxiliary personnel and the teachers working with them. This research should be cooperatively planned and evalu— ated by public school administrators, teachers, community college instructors, and university personnel. The effect on the learning process should be foremost in consideration. Community colleges and universities must plan together to enable ease in transfer of credit, and a more flexible policy on admission to facilitate the preparation of auxiliary personnel. The educational, social, and economic results of the con- centrated use of auxiliary and ancillary personnel in a controlled setting should be researched. The variables should be isolated when possible and their effect on changing attitudes, behavior, and life style determined. Additional Questions for Study What are the advantages of a teacher beginning his train— ing as an auxiliary as opposed to the traditional route of four years on campus with one term of student teaching? Is there a more efficient and meaningful way than task delineation to identify roles within the Classroom? How can we identify the intuitive person who can do high level tasks, and how do we make maximum use of him? Why do the personnel with advanced schooling apparently have a more restricted View of the role of auxiliary personnel? VIH‘V‘ . "" — ‘ KT?71fiu-"~3‘ ‘ . ' 's . 1‘ I R. Arden-Moon . .5. What are the financial implications when auxiliary per— " sonnel are added? 6. How can administrators best maintain a dynamic equilib- rium within the educative framework and still construc- tively employ indigenous personnel with negative feelings about the school? b: ' Perhaps this study raises more questions than it answered. ' @539, that is good. The present crises in education and society pre- a need for individual moral and intellectual involvement in . IIf .4 :bocesses and fewer packages of easy answers. l :-«V "I ,. AN ANALYSIS OF TEACHER TASKS TO ENABLE IDENTIFICATION OF THE POTENTIAL USE OF AUXILIARY PERSONNEL IN THE INSTRUCTIONAL PROCESS By ‘0 o)? R. Arden Moon A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Administration and Higher Education 1969 'v I wwwymw u I" k -i I I ~ ~ W‘f‘VW‘ D — - -0 D . 0 0 I" ' ‘ 8r 'I p n r" y\-V'I r I‘ 1! "i M I To Trudy and. Monty , , . '1 Who patiently waited to play . I - 4 until Daddy finished the thesis . ACKNOWLEDGMENTS To Dr. David C. Smith, chairman of the advisory com- ~mittee, who gave invaluable assistance, guidance and encouragement, speCial appreciation is expressed. To the other members of the committee-—Dr. Clyde Campbell, Dr. George Myers, and Dr. J amesMcKee--appreciation ° .is expressed for their assistance and encouragement. Space would not permit mentioning the many ways and extra time each member of ’ I. ‘ the committee has contributed to this study and the writer' 8 profes- ‘ “ Sional life. A thanks-is also due the teachers, principals, aides, national experts, and fellow coordinators who took time to answer .‘ . the questionnaire and return it. There were many colleagues, friends, and others who deserve a thank you, but space does not '. lpermit hating each of them. 5 Finally, a special kind of thank you is due the writer' 8 " Tswife, Lila, for her patience, encouragement, and faith during the gwears devoted to the doctoral program. Iéannary, 1969 R. Arden Moon , . I'd. l; I. T .J'.‘ ._.-.I iii TABLE OF CONTENTS lob; -'.I Itamsr OF TABLES " {LIEST OF FIGURES . ‘1': I 1". ',".Chapter ajl ‘ 'I. THE PROBLEM AND DEFINITIONS OF TERMS USED The Problem Background . . Definition of Terms . Purpose of the Study Problems to Be Examined Procedure and Methodology . ‘Procedural Background Sample Population Instrument Derivation . Overview of Subsequent Chapters Summary. . ill. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE Historical Background Recent Related Findings - The New Careers Movement The Future m. RESEARCH DESIGN . . . . The Sample . Instrumentation ...... Staff Differentiation and Role Delineation . Page viii H H NCDQNN 13 13 14 16 17 17 18 .18 30 36 I38 42 45 45 48 I 1,! ‘flii‘tc Aster jv t ' I ‘1 I: Follow-up . _ 4 - Scoring of (TDF) Task Discrimination ' Form . . Statistical Analysis Phase One . . . . . . Major-Problem . Secondary Problems -Phase Two . Summary . ANALYSIS OF DATA Summary of Written Comments from Respondents Summary. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND IMPLICATIONS Summary........ Conclusions . ImpliCations Specific Recommendations Additional Questions for Study . "fimBMOGRAPHY . A. LIST OF NATIONALLY RECOGNIZED EXPERTS INCLUDED IN THE STUDY B. QUESTIONNAIRE ‘C. LETTER OF INTRODUCTION 42" in. FOLLOW-UP LETTER ' Page 50 51 52 52 52 53 53 54 55 88 92 98 98 107 111 117 117 119 123 125 135 136 I I LIST OF TABLES - Population distribution of sample . Percent of questionnaires returned . Teacher tasks using 2. 00 mean Teacher tasks where disagreement among groups exists . . Group means for listed tasks "Teacher Only" tasks using 2. 50 mean Group means indicating points of disagreement among groups . . . . . Responses indicating whether the following non- -teacher tasks could be done by machines, non-certified personnel, or either Group means for non-teacher tasks where significant disagreement existed . Number of tasks for teachers only Tasks with significant difference using sex as the variable . . . . . . Tasks with significant difference using age as thevariable . . . . . . . . Tasks withsignificant difference-using level of schooling as the variable vi Page 14 5 0 62 64 65 67 69 72 74 78 80 82 83 .r-m; - ' . . V'VQV' W‘V.T'r—I‘. Page I Ticks with significant difference using grade AME]. taught as the variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 Talks with significant difference using years of experience as the variable . . . . . . . . . 87 Types of experience by the respondents . . . . . . . ‘88- , w— - .__ warrims I LIST OF FIGURES Taskcontinuum................. .11 Analysis of contingency table (sample seeti‘on)....................57 ‘ IIIL'T' . ls iL-..!. CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM AND DEFINITIONS OF TERMS USED Teaching has always been considered an intricate and I . ‘ complex act. Some have described teaching as an art which involves some kind of mystic process which is so ethereal that it cannot be ' ”transmitted, but rather caught, if one happens to be close when the I "mantle falls. " Others seemed to believe that all could be placed ~within>the sciences and the use of the scientific method. But no a matter how the test tubes were rattled, a formula for creating the master teacher has not emerged. This suggested a limited number of alternatives, one of ‘ , which. was to explore and describe "what is. " ._‘ By assuming this was ytpossi'ble by listing identifiable tasks enumerated from time analysis Of." _,' 2 studies, observations, and teacher feedback instruments, a basis was _t1 "4' -' 31.-festab1ishedfor what comprises the teaching act, however inadequate ..7 ‘aajndlincomplete this approaCh may have been. This basic beginning . 1.. A. ’d. t ‘ I mix. 4’. By accepting the above assumption, it was then possible to attempt a differentiation of classroom tasks. This study attempted to place the task into one of two possible categories, either the task could or could not be done competently by only a certificated teacher. The definitions of teacher, auxiliary, paraprofessional, and aide used for this study are given on subsequent pages. The Problem Background The following statement by Senator Gaylord Nelson of Wisconsin illustrates the urgency and need of exploring the best pos- sible use of auxiliary personnel. Here in the Congress we receive continual complaints about the way teachers are wasted during a time of critical teacher shortage. They are forced to spend from one-fourth to one —half of their time doing chores which do not require their degree of professional training and experience. The teacher has been asked to carry an increased load. This has come despite affluence, technology, and higher levels of education. Many of our institutions have shed previously accepted responsibilities. The home and family is not the bastion of training that it once was; the Church seems unable to relate dynamically to 1TEPS Newsletter, National Commission on Teacher Education and Professional Standards, Volume 10, No. 3 (NEA, January 15, 1967), p. 2. basic moral issues; the community has become a nonentity in some cases because of commuting workers, social isolation and a general "don't get involved attitude" which pervades society. Society' 3 black- snake of social crises and personal peccancy has whipped the school to the precipice of an educational cataclysm. This atmosphere has spawned many innovations. Edu- cators have searched frantically for that "breath of fresh air" which would signal some alleviation of the myriad of tasks society asks of them. But, as is often the case, the most obvious help was overlooked until circumstances forced the examination of a previously dismissed alternative. Two principal cultural forces impinged on the school to cause an examination of the use of auxiliary personnel. The first thrust was the shortage of qualified teachers, funds, and facilities. 2 The second thrust of change was the need to employ thousands of poverty level people. 3 2The Fund for the Advancement of Education, A Coopera— tive Study for the Better Utilization of Teacher Competencies, An Evaluation Report Prepared by an Outside Evaluating Committee, Central Michigan University (Mt. Pleasant, Michigan, 1958). 3Arthur Pearl and Frank Riessman, New Careers for the Poor: The Nonprofessional in Human Services (New York: The Free Press, 1965) There is no doubt that the use of auxiliary personnel has become increasingly common across the nation. Michigan alone, in the period from 1953-64, had 106 schools using a total of 1, 096 aides. 4 The National Commission on Teacher Education and Pro- fessional Standards (NCTEPS)5 chose the topic of Auxiliary Personnel for study during 1967. They were particularly concerned with auxiliary personnel who assisted teachers in instruction. It was within this framework that the questions were en— countered which have not been clearly examined. Most have agreed and accepted the use of auxiliary personnel for clerical aides, library aides, housekeeping aides, noninstructional supervisors, and human relation aides, but there has been no delineation of what instructional assistants can do. Further study in this area has been encouraged by private foundations, the Elementary Secondary Education Act, Manpower Development and Training Act, the Office of Economic Opportunity, some state funds, and most recently the introduction of the Educa- tional Professions Development Act. The Winnetka, Illinois, Public 4Central Michigan University, Total List of Schools That Have Employed Teacher Aides Over a 12 Year Period, 1964. (Mimeo- graphed. ) 5Auxiliary School Personnel, National Commission on Teacher Education and Professional Standards (NEA, 1967). _- ‘--=.'~r Schools received money for a limited project from the U. S. Admin- istration on Aging for use in their program using senior citizens. A great deal of concern and study has been evident but few have taken the time or effort to put the total picture into focus. It seems some have approached this problem in a backward fashion. Many have asked questions about who will train auxiliary personnel, qualifications and source of supply, before the role has been defined. The definition of the role for auxiliary personnel has been almost impossible because most educators have not admitted the nebulous nature of the teacher' 8 role. Perhaps it would be beneficial to begin by first sorting out those things which can be done only by a teacher and then proceed from that point. The use of machines and some aspects of the systems approach have been considered for education. This has forced an examination of the need for a definitive role for the teacher. Dean M. Laux said, "There is evidence that the role of the teacher is changing. But how?"6 The use of auxiliary personnel is predicated on the ex- ploration of this question. 6Dean M. Laux, ”A New Role for Teachers?" Phi Delta Kappan, Vol. 46, No. 6 (February 1965), p. 265. The Advantages of Using Auxiliary Personnel The advantages cited for the use of auxiliary personnel usually depend on the circumstances surrounding their use. How- ever, there seemed to be four general areas of polarization usually accepted as advantages for their use. The following have been the most commonly accepted areas. (a) The most evident advantage of using auxiliary person- nel was to add another adult to the classroom. This makes grouping and individualization more feasible. The learning process has the opportunity for enrichment because of the availability of additional resources. (b) Auxiliary personnel were able to relieve teachers of many clerical and custodial assignments. (0) Personnel indige- nous to the neighborhood made possible mutually beneficial inter— action between the school and the community. (d) The creation of new roles and career ladders within the school setting provided needed work for poverty level people, where and when this was a need. In some geographic areas it was not necessary to consider creating jobs for poverty level people. - “0‘ Resistance to the Use of Auxiliary Personnel The major resistance to the use of more auxiliary per— sonnel has come from the teaching profession itself. 7 Teachers apparently reacted negatively to early attempts by some districts to use teacher aides as a financial expedient and to justify large class enrollments. There have been indications that some teachers viewed a second adult as a spy for the community or administration, or destructive of the teacher' 5 rapport with students. There was con— cern that parents might begin to believe certificated teachers are an expendable luxury. The Need for Research Auxiliary personnel are here to stay. They will be used to an increasing extent. This means some basic issues such as supervision; qualifications and training; pay; administration; and role definition must be resolved. Demonstration centers for the purpose of studying various methods of utilization of auxiliary personnel have been established by studies recently conducted by the Bank Street College of Education8 7Garda Bowman and Gordon J. Klopf, New Careers and Roles in the American School, Bank Street College of Education for the Office of Economic Opportunity (September 1967), p. 4. 81bid. for the Office of Economic Opportunity. These studies, along with the Bay City, Michigan, 9 study, have pioneered in the field. Much remains to be done. This study sought to investigate the area of role definition. Definition of Terms Teacher Teacher referred to a person fully certificated to teach at his appropriate level. A person with provisional certification was not considered a teacher. The amount of experience was not a cri- terion for designating a person as a teacher. Anyone who qualifies for certification was considered in the category of teacher even though he may be an administrator, professor, or a member of another group. The student teacher or intern who is finishing his term of clinical experience would have to be considered qualified for certification, assuming he has previously finished the major portion of his education course work. Auxiliary Personnel Auxiliary personnel, aide, and paraprofessional were used synonymously. This referred to any person without the unique -.. i n"' I 9Fund for the Advancement of Education, loc. cit. mr— ~7—-—~—_. training necessary for certification. This person may have achieved an equal or advanced educational level as compared to a teacher. It was not the purpose of this study to categorize the auxiliary personnel into groups or levels, hence various titles were not used to designate different levels and groups of auxiliary person- nel. Purpose of the Study The purpose of this study was to more clearly and effec— tively delimit the role of a fully certificated teacher. It was hoped that information from this study would: (1) provide additional support and information for a rationale for the development of support teams of auxiliary person- nel; (2) facilitate the evolution of a teacher who would be able to utilize his education to a near maximum in meeting the needs of students; (3) provide additional information for formulating adminis- trative rationale when auxiliary personnel were used; (4) give further direction to teacher education and make recommendations for training auxiliary personnel. These accomplishments would provide added tools and techniques for meeting the new and unique challenges facing teacher education. 10 This study was designed to identify those tasks which require that unique and specific education which only a fully certifi— cated teacher has received. By identifying those tasks at the top of the continuum it was possible to draw a line of demarcation between teacher and the paraprofessional. This concept is shown in Figure 1. 1 in more detail. Train— ing and education were used to define the upper level for the profes- sional teacher. The tasks, as identified by the profession, at the top, can be done by only a teacher. Task identification is used to mark the upper level for auxiliary personnel. This upper level of tasks for the auxiliary is also determined by the profession. Com- petency is used to define lower limits for both. The space labelled office code allows for flexibility and professional judgment of ade- quacy of task training of a particular paraprofessional. Dr. Ted Ward of Michigan State University and the mem- bers of a seminar on Teacher Education were instrumental in formulating many of the thoughts contained in this model. It was not the purpose of this study to look into the eco- nomic aspect of using auxiliary personnel in any depth; however, limited attention was given to this aspect. This study was concerned primarily with the importance and possibility of using paraprofessionals as part of an instructional 11 . 5555300 gush: AA oaswmrm mason—cannon ofimgm a“ bacon—cages on :3 use momoono on. on 3 “9833.399 .3 onop on has» #5 mxmau .haflnxsd so a r .JI’O sum» 3:0 momma». nonoaoa 838:8 efiufifiah 5'- 12 »'New evidence in regard to noninstructional tasks should be .and be-valuable but the possible use of paraprofessionals in L“ I-1 ' . 9 factual instructional process was examined most closely. lg ~ " ' Further delimitation was achieved by exploring the ‘5. I. {lo- . 1:: digestion of could the paraprofessional and not should the parapro- . 7" " ' ‘ '. (fixiessional be assigned thesevtasks. , . A ., . 4.. I. Problems to Be Examined A {.1 . y "I? -. ‘ ‘,_Msjor Problem "m C p .r j - What tasks did building principals, teachers, teacher 95%} . 318.5633: college instructors, and national experts agree are tasks only I n." ‘. .5 lie-person certified to teach can do? On what tasks was there disagreement among the referent .j. groups. named above, with respect to the appropriate role of the Didteachers who have had experience with team-teaching ‘gidentify fewer tasks only a teacher can do? Did teachers who have had experience working with teacher '2 identify, fewer'tasks only a teacher can do? What if any relationship was there between age andidenti- ( I l I I - Ami?» ' n" 13 What if any relationship was there between sex and identification of tasks ? What if any relationship was there between grade level taught and identification of tasks? Was there any relationship between years of experience and identification of tasks ? Did teacher aides identify fewer tasks only a teacher can do than teachers ? Was there any relationship between the referent' s perception of his role and his level of schooling? On what tasks, if any, was there agreement that the task could be done by devices substituted for teachers? Procedure and Methodology Procedural Background One of the most thorough studies of the use of auxiliary personnel was done by the Bank Street College of Education. 10 In their study they administered a 95 item questionnaire to the person— nel in 15 demonstration projects. This instrument was designed to compare the aide' s perception of his role with the perception the professional had of the aide' s role. 10Bowman and Klopf, loc. cit. 'w .-- This study utilized the same type of listing of activities but deleted some and added others, so it contained a higher per- centage of instructional tasks. Instead of looking first at the aide' s role, the intention of this study was to look at the teacher' s role and isolate it so it 'would be possible to determine what was appropriate for auxiliary personnel to do. Sample Population The questionnaire was given to five referent groups. The groups were certificated teachers, teacher aides, building principals, college student teacher coordinators, intern program directors, and a group of national experts. The number in each category is as follows: Table 1 . 1. — - Population distribution of sample Item Bay City Saginaw Total Schools 1 3 12 25 Principals 1 1 12 23 Teachers 2 8 3 1 5 9 Aides 2 8 3 1 5 9 College Instructors 25 National Experts 2 1 “"1 v.——— (I...) n. 0. 15 Saginaw and Bay City, Michigan were the school systems from which the sample was taken. Saginaw is a city of approximately 98, 000 population while Bay City has a population of 54, 000. Both cities are considerably industrialized. The schools included in the Saginaw sample are located primarily in the lower income areas, whereas the Bay City sample is more nearly a normal cross-section. It is also of possible importance that the Saginaw aides were part of a recent federally funded project. The Bay City aide program is one of the oldest in the nation. Bay City' s program is part of their total normal operation. These differences in circumstances and composi- tion may have had some effect on attitudes of the aides, teachers, and principals concerning their perception of the teacher' s role. The teachers were those who had had an aide during the school year 1967-68. The aides included in the study were those who worked with the teachers in the sample. The principals were those who were principals in the buildings from which the sample of teachers and aides was obtained. The aides in the study represent the total number in the two cities. There was no selection of specific aides. Michigan State University student teaching coordinators and the staff of the various Michigan State University elementary .‘Lll 16 intern centers constituted the sample of college instructors not designated as experts. The national experts were chosen because of their leader- ship in the study of auxiliary personnel, or their expertise in the area of education and psychology. Instrument Derivation The items included in the questionnaire were chosen from (a) a time analysis study done in Bay City, Michigan;11 (b) the list used in a study by the Detroit Public Schools as one of the Bank Street College Study demonstration centers; (0) and the writer' 8 own observa- tion of tasks carried out in the classroom. The questionnaire sought to distinguish between the feasi- bility of a non—certified person doing a task and a machine, if the task 'was not identified as one which could be done by only a certificated teacher. The data from the questionnaire was summarized and appropriate statistical tools applied. Each task listed in the study was analyzed to determine if it could be done competently only by a teacher. Age, years of experience, sex, level taught, type of experience, and level of schooling are variables which were con- sidered. 11The Fund for the Advancement of Education, loc. cit. 5'“ ['5 j " 17 Overview of Subsequent Chapters ‘ . .1" ~ In Chapter-Two pertinent literature and related studies '. . “will he discussed. Design of the study, the instrument, scoring ‘3.“ :firoeedures, statistical tools, and statistical information regarding ':° )ffills- sample selection will be'treated in Chapter Three. Chm ' ' EZMWHI be devoted to analysis of the data which will be summarized, . Ag: :: uterpreted and the implications for further study sought in Chapter :. Five Summary This, ChapterOne, called attention to the nature of the ffiroblem, definition of terms, purpose of the study, questions to be ale-named, procedure and methodology, and closed with an overview t l {at subsequent chapters. -_ - ..1_1-1._4_4--._.__—.~____._~_.__. —— __ - ._.. - --~—- 4' '4 CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE Historical Background A variety of forces met at the confluence of society, the child, and the public school. The building tides were social, educa— tional, and economic in makeup. It was during the late sixties that the gap between available professional personnel and the expanding needs for school service reached a critical level. The education system needed seven to ten million more teachers in a space of ten years. 1 The role of the teacher became more complex because of new technology, new educational concepts, and a variety of new socio-economic phenomena impinging on all institutions. The gap between school and community; between professional and nonprofes- sional; between have and have-not almost reached a point of no return. The have-not was helpless to compete inan automated society. Cer- tainly one of the most important thrusts for the use of auxiliary 1Frank Riessman, New Careers, A Basic Strategy Against Poverty (A. Philip Randolph Educational Fund, 1967), p. 12 18 19 personnel was the availability of new resources through the Office of Economic Opportunity, the Manpower Development Training Act, Title I and Title III of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act, the Nelson-Scheuer Amendment to the Poverty Act, and the Javitts- Kennedy Act for Impacted Areas, all of which provided federal funds for the employment of low income nonprofessionals in educa— tion. It is well to recall that the training and utilization of low income workers in the public service is not a new phenomenon. During the seventeenth century in England, the Elizabethan Poor Laws included a provision that those unable to find "gainful" employ— ment and dependent upon the state be placed in workhouses and trained to perform ”community improvement" work. Although this was probably far from an ideal setting and the work was undoubtedly far removed from dignified or meaningful labor, still the concept of training the unemployed to perform needed public service was apparent . In our own country the Works Project Administration and the National Youth Administration of the 1930' s were based on the same concept and the socio-economic demands of the time. 20 There can be no doubt regarding the growth of the use of auxiliary personnel when one examines the recent research reports of the National Education Association. Their survey listed one midwest school system as using kindergarten aides since the 1930's and three others indicated their programs were begun prior to 1950. Most, however, have been developed since 1960. A total of 229 school systems participated in the Educa- tional Research Service survey. These systems reported the use of 14, 356 volunteer aides and 29, 995 paid aides. 3 The number and use of aides is growing so rapidly that no one claims to have an accurate accounting. Some estimates are well over the 50, 000 mark. 4 Contrary to the belief of some people, not all programs are begun only because of the availability of federal funds. Over 50 percent of the programs are federally funded, but this leaves a 2American Association of School Administrators and Research Division, Educational Research Service Circular (Wash— ington, D. C.: National Education Association, April 1967). 3Ibid. , p. 3. 4Mary D. Shipp, "Teacher Aides: A Survey," The National Elementary School Principal, XLVI (May 1967), 33. 21 surprising number of programs which are supported entirely or at least partially by local public school funds. 5 One of the first post-depression reports of teacher-aide utilization appeared in 1942. 6 The "helpers" were hired then because qualified teachers weren't available nor were the funds. The employ- ment of teacher helpers was described as an emergency measure, one which should be followed only when professionals aren' t available. Yet, the concluding paragraph of their report would seem to indicate that the utilization of nonprofessionals produces positive effects in its own right and therefore should not be thought of solely as a "stop gap" measure. The report stated: In our experience the teacher helper soon becomes a very valuable assistant to the regular home room teacher. The helper becomes quite expert at checking seatwork, supervising the children during their work and study periods, assisting the teacher in many types of project work, . . . taking charge of some drill work and handling small groups in sight reading. We have found that one teacher can do a thorough job with as many as forty pupils if she has the assistance of a teacher helper for one-half day. 7 5American Association of School Administrators and Research Division, 100. cit. 6M. J. Greenshields, "Big Timbers' Teacher-Helper Plan, " The American School Board Journal, 104: 20, 1942. 71bid. 22 One of the most significant things to note, especially in view of the New Careers8 philosophy, is that all the helpers employed were limited in their education to high school graduation. The modern teacher aide movement seemed to have begun in 1952 in Bay City, Michigan, with a Ford Foundation sponsored proj- ect entitled, A Cooperative Study for the Better Utilization of Teacher Comjietencies. 9 The employment of teacher-aides was only a part of the project, but it was the portion which received the most attention and even today stands as the primary program regarding their utiliza- tion. While Bay City's work with teacher aides has served as a prototype for much of what has followed, it does not directly parallel the current movement since most of the aides employed there had had some college training. While the preceding programs, from the Elizabethan Poor Laws to the WPA, were primarily concerned with opportunities for the unemployed, the stated reason of the Bay City Plan was to increase teacher effectiveness by freeing teachers from an overload of nonpro- fessional functions. 8The term "New Careers" comes from a book by Arthur Pearl and Frank Riessman entitled New Careers for the Poor: The Nonprofessional in Human Services (New York: The Free Press, 1965). 9The Fund for the Advancement of Education, A Coopera- tive Study for the Better Utilization of Teacher Competencies, A Report Prepared by Central Michigan College (Mount Pleasant, Michigan, 1955). 23 Central Michigan University and the Director of the Project conducted an "official, impartial" appraisal of the work at Bay City. 10 Six educational specialists including a classroom teacher visited the classrooms involved for two days and submitted separate reports. Their findings seemed to generally agree that aides should not be considered replacements for teachers. Aside from relieving teachers, the group agreed aides were not suitable justification for extra large class size. Beyond this agreement, however, no clear pattern emerged. The Fund for the Advancement of Education (sponsored by the Ford Foundation) was accused of allow- ing subjective impressions to circulate as absolute fact, while on the other hand there were reports of parents, teachers, and pupils being enthusiastic about the aides. 11 The Journal concluded: Without question . . . we believe . . . the Bay City experiment will prove its worth. We believe that it may have real value as an emergency plan to help relieve over-crowding until we get the needed teachers and classrooms. It will make valuable contributions to teaching. That these contributions may not be as gigantic or as radical even in the areas its pro- ponents are now claiming, is not too important. It is important 10Journal of Teacher Education, "A Symposium: The Bay City, Michigan, Experiment-~A Cooperative Study for the Better Utilization of Teacher Competencies, ” Journal of Teacher Education, 7: 100-152, 1956. 11The Fund for the Advancement of Education, op. cit. , p. 30. 24 that its sponsors lay on the line real proof of what it can do and what it cannot do. We hope to see more, not less, experimenting with it by local school districts. Scates, 13 writing several months earlier in the Journal of Teacher Education, ridiculed the program and expressed great concern lest master teachers become administrators removed from the pupils. Such a program, he argued, would not only fail to alleviate the teacher shortage but would, in effect, compound it by removing the best teachers from the pupils. A similar argument has been put forth recently by Wirth. 14 While Scates and many of the other observers of the Bay City plan were concerned about removal of the master teacher from his students as well as increasing class size as a result of the pres- ence of the aides, Faust saw the innovation as a means of putting teachers in step with other professionals. He commented: In considering possible improvements in the utilization of teaching resources, it is useful to observe that the teaching profession has so far remained outside the professional revolu tion of the last fifty years, the essence of which has been to increase the effective scope of the professionally competent person by relieving him of tasks not requiring his professional 2Journal of Teacher‘Education, op. cit., p. 151. 13D. Scates, "The Prior Meaning of Increases in Teach- ing Staff, " Journal of Teacher Education, 7: 82-88, 1956. 14A. Wirth, "A New Hierarchy for the Teaching Profes- sion, " Changing Education, 1: 3-5, 1967. 25 wisdom and skill. . . . Moreover an adequate supply of non- professional aides for teachers is at hand. Technological advances in the last few years give many women a good deal of time which might be spent in relieving the teacher of clerical chores, supervising responsibilities and other tasks for which professional training and experience are not re— quired. It is apparent that at this early date there was uncertainty in regard to what tasks should be done by whom. Teacher-tasks were always referred to as belonging in that abstract nebulous group which required the wisdom, training, and experience of a professional. Few tried to say exactly what tasks required this type of person. Bay City carried out a detailed job analysis as well as time and motion studies. The following eight areas, which were included in their study, were closely allied with instruction; and the changes which occurred, because of having an aide, provided inter- esting comparisons. l. The teacher spent over twice as much time on lesson plans when she had an aide. (144% more). She spent more time making assignments. (20% more). Recitation time increased over one full hour each day. (57% more). The teacher herself gave less time to directed study, but the aide supplemented this activity to the degree that more total time was given than previously. (17% more). The teacher gave more time to desk-to-desk help. (27% more). This was also supplemented by the aide, result- ing in a 90% increase each day. 15C. Faust, "Utilization of Teaching Resources in Secon- dary Schools, " California Journal of Secondary Education, 32: 292- 294, 1957. 26 6. The teacher gave more time to pupil counseling than when she didn' t have an aide. (80% more). 7. Considerably more time was put in by the teacher in supervision. (41% more). The aides supervised most of the non-instructional activities to the amount of forty-eight minutes each day. 8. The teacher gave ten minutes more time each day to dictation to the group. It is interesting to note that in their final report the out- side evaluating committee at Bay City had this to say regarding the role of the aide. As a result of the finding that no universally agreed upon definition of teaching responsibilities (and, it follows, of no non-teaching responsibilities) can be established, the project found it necessary to withdraw from the position that a teacher aide does not carry some instructional responsibilities. The project would, however, emphasize that the teacher has the main instructional responsibility for optimum use of the aide' s capabilities. Other advantages noted in the Bay City Plan were teacher stimulation, the development of teacher leadership, flexibility of operation, and teacher recruitment. Problems cited by the evaluation committee in the Bay City Plan were: a) Professional opposition b) Use of the program as a temporary expedient c) Legal restrictions d) Aide qualifications 16 The Fund for the Advancement of Education, op. cit. , 17The Fund for the Advancement of Education, A Coopera- tive Study for the Better Utilization of Teacher Competencies, A Final Report (Central Michigan University, 1958), p. 18. 27 e) Aide supervision f) Aide recruitment The Bay City Study was followed by two similar studies financed by the Ford Foundation: The Yale-Fairfield (Connecticut) Study and the Rutgers (New Jersey) Plan. The purpose of these studies was to assist administrators in preserving quality education in the face of severe shortage of professional personnel, the rising costs of education, and the resultant problem of oversized classes. The teaching profession appeared to react negatively on the whole to an employment device which would assign available educational funds to the employment of untrained personnel rather than to the employ- ment of more teachers. It was apparent from this discussion that the verdict on the use of teacher aides depended primarily upon one' s perceived role and previous experiences. There was a great deal of uncertainty, some bitterness and considerable promise expressed. John Deason reviewed fifty-six of the fifty-nine articles on teacher aides appear- ing in the literature between 1942 and 1957. He notes: It is perhaps significant that, almost without exception, authors who are involved in some way with a teacher-aide project are favorably impressed, while by and large, those 18mm. pp. 34-36. 28 who afg critical are not connected with any experiment in this field. critical: a) b) c) d) e) Deason summarizes the points made by those who are Justifying larger classes by using teacher-aides con- stitutes a threat to the welfare of children. Not all teachers, even good ones, can work with aides. Measuring results accurately is difficult. There is a danger of a return to rote learning and the possibility of a departure from facilitating broad learn- ings. Dividing the experiences of students into curricular activities and non-curricular activities seems question- able. 20 The advocates of the program make these points: a) b) C) d) e) f) . . A temporary measure in time of crises. Possibility of the plan as a teacher recruitment device. Enrichment of the curriculum through the efforts of out- side talent. Creation of a wholesome atmosphere which encourages wholesome personality development. Greater involvement of lay citizens in worthwhile activities. Slightly higher achievement on the part of students in classes with aides. More recent literature indicated a shift to a more positive view of the use of teacher aides. The field became more inclusive and used such terms as consultant, paraprofessional, auxiliary 19John Deason, "What They Say About TeaCheI‘ Aides: " School Executive (December 1957). 20113101., p. 59. 21Ibid. , p. 60. 29 personnel, ancillary personnel, and technicians to label the various levels and role assignments. One of the best known writers in the area of organizing for instruction is J. Lloyd Trump. Trump22 proposed a restructur— ing of the teacher function into six distinct categories: professional teacher, paraprofessional assistant, clerk, general aide, community consultant, and staff Specialists. (Trump' 8 paraprofessional assis- tant would probably be a person with college training.) His team approach apparently did not allow for movement up a career ladder but we see some evidence of a plan to integrate the nonprofessional into the overall school design. Schmitthausler, 23 in his doctoral dissertation, demon- strated that the addition of nonprofessionals helps increase the productivity of the classroom. The teachers were unable to pinpoint specific improvements but felt they were able to accomplish more with an assistant. 22 l J. L. Trump, "A Look Ahead in Secondary Education,‘ National Association of Secondary School Principals Bulletin, 42: 5-15, 1958. 23C. Schmitthausler, "Analysis of Programs Using Nonprofessional Teacher Helpers in Public Elementary School Classrooms" (unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Cali- fornia, Berkeley, 1966). 30 Recent Related Findings More recently, primarily during the sixties, there has been additional impetus given to the use and study of auxiliary per- sonnel. Part of the impetus has come from additional funding by the federal government. The necessity for community-school linkage in the riot torn cities, and a shortage of certificated personnel willing to teach there has forced a re-evaluation of the existing structure. The National Commission on Teacher Education and Professional Standards (NCTEPS) was one group which devoted a full year of study to the use of auxiliary personnel in the schools. Davies pointed out the priorities in this area. What should be done? a) b) C) d) e) f) Teacheretraining institutions must help prospective teachers get ready to work with auxiliary personnel. School districts and junior colleges must start training programs for aides. Leaders must show this is only one way for more effective staff utilization. What jobs can aides do, what should be shared and which should be reserved for the qualified professional? Learn from experience of others. Lead public to see impact on schools and possibilities for children. Although a few are still discussing the question of whether schools will continue to have aides, most have adopted the stance of NCTEPS which states: * 24Don Davies, "Editorial, " The National Elementary School Principal, 46: 4-5, April 1967. 31 The question today is not: Are teachers going to have aides? It is: How can aides be selected, trained, and used effectively ? The rationale for this renewal of interest in the use of auxiliary personnel seemed to possess three salient dimensions. The first was the acceptance that all people have a right to essential human services. The second emphasis was development of the career ladder and appropriate training. The third emphasis was perhaps the most striking and potent. It was the belief that the have-nots should be involved in the solution of their own problems. They became par- ticipants in problem solving. This was sometimes referred to as the "consumer as participant" concept. As a result of the addition of more personnel into the school setting, team organization and school plant design have been areas of recent examination. Savage26 reported on a team-teaching, and team—planning project involving school plant design and innovation in a junior high school. This project was apparently based on a philosophy of how to best meet student needs. Team rooms were located in the same area. Multi-subject, horizontal teams were developed. An effort was made to achieve a 25Auxiliary School Personnel, National Commission on Teacher Education and Professional Standards (NEA, 1967). 26Wilbur Savage, "Teacher Oriented Programs, A Venture into Team Teaching," Associated Public School Systems Yearbook, 1966, p. 8. 32 balance of experience and inexperienced personnel. Classroom control ability was considered and compatibility was found essential. Paraprofessionals were available for support functions. The advantages were: teachers learning from each other, exchanging information concerning individual student needs, oppor- tunity to correlate subject matter, and a chance to work with special- ists. A major problem encountered was inadequate time for team-planning. One period per week was insufficient. This study seemed to reinforce what many others indi- cated: that the team approach is beneficial but planning must be done carefully to correlate subject material and to delineate the task assignments. The team approach, including differentiated staffing pat- terns, encourages the acceptance of the "teacher—leader" concept, which views the teacher as an orchestrator of personnel and mate— rials. The training of auxiliaries was apparently more success- ful when carried on as a team involving both professional and non- professionals. Adequate and proper training is one key to the degree auxiliaries are utilized. 33 NCTEPS stated: . Preparing teachers to train and use aides may be the best way to initiate widespread employment of auxiliary per- sonnel in effective roles and to overcome th2e7great reluctance of many teachers about working with aides. Again, in regard to the team approach, the Bank Street Study had the following recommendation: 1. Team training of administrators, teachers, other pro- fessionals, and nonprofessionals, so that the needs of children become more important than the needs for per- sonal achievement and recognition. 2. Application of the team approach simultaneously to~ the school as a whole and to each class situation . . . in fact the development of ”teams within a team, " so to speak. In reviewing the most recent studies and interviewing those who are participating in pilot projects and established programs, three major developments seemed to be apparent. a. More attention is being given to the adult-pupil ratio and less to the teacher-pupil ratio. b. There has been an increased awareness of the potential for new jobs within the teaching profes- sion. This has caused the job of teaching to be broken into functional job levels in order to create career ladders. 27NCTEPS, loc. cit. 8Garda W. Bowman and Gordon J. Klopf, New Careers and Roles in the American School, Bank Street College of Education for the Office of Economic Opportunity (September, 1967). 34 c. New job levels have created a growing need for task delineation. Adding to the confusion, an abundance of new titles for personnel have been created as tasks are differentiated. A detailed discussion of these developments follows. George W. Denmark, dean, School of Education, Uni- versity of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, points out the seriousness and need for moving ahead in the use of auxiliary personnel. The job of today' 3 teacher has become virtually unmanage- able. Unless something is done to remedy this situation, creative, competent teachers will find themselves hopelessly bogged down in technical and clerical duties which could be per- formed by others. Or they will be overwhelmed by so many complex and important things to do, that few if any of the tasks will be done well enough to leave them with any sense of accom- plishment. Potentially outstanding teachers are growing dis- couraged over their inability to be educators rather than tech- nicians. And thousands of promising cqléege students are turning away from careers in teaching. Because of the magnitude of the task, and certain social phenomena, the job of recruiting teachers for the cities, and spe- cifically the inner city, has become almost impossible. Many large city administrators are looking toward auxiliary personnel to provide more adults per pupil and provide for the needed community-school linkage. There are inner city schools which would be in real danger 29George W. Denmark, "The Teacher and His Staff, " National Education Association Journal (December 1966), p. 17. 35 if it were not for the presence in the school of indigenous personnel with whom the community can identify. Brunner referred to the importance of a low adult-pupil ratio by pointing out that ". . . if learning for young children is to occur in an atmosphere which encourages individual development, it is important that child-adult ratio be small. "30 The concern for creating job opportunities for large numbers of our population has come from a number of people. Mar- cella Brenner, Principal of the Lone Oak Elementary School in Rock- Ville, Maryland, expresses the concern that many in her profession feel for those who desire to enter the profession but cannot for eco- nomic or educational reasons. Brenner stated: We desperately need to create job opportunities for large segments of our population. Althoughautomation is only in its infancy, the problem of joblessness is already serious; and unemployment is recognized as one of the major threats of the future. . It is critically important to develop new careers for young people and to provide interim employment for othgrs who face long years of training for professional specialties. 1 0Cathrine Brunner, "A Lap to Sit on and Much More !" Childhood Education (XLIII, September 1963), p. 20., 1Marcella Brenner, "The School Technician--A New Career, " Innovations for Time to Teach, Department of Classroom Teachers (NEA, 1966), p. 118. 36 The New Careers Movement Concern by many, as expressed by Brenner, gave impetus to the idea of New Careers. This concern was added to the feeling expressed by some Negro groups that they must and should control I their own destiny. The concept of "consumer participation,’ as stated earlier, was already part of the philosophy of the utilization of auxiliary personnel. The principal authors of the New Careers philosophy have been Frank Riessman of New York University and Arthur Pearl of the University of Oregon. The New Careers philosophy is that utilization of the nonprofessional worker can: a. Provide millions of new jobs for the unemployed. b. Create human service positions which cannot be automated out of existence. 0. Rehabilitate the poor through meaningful employ- ment. d. Provide more and "closer" service for the poor. Reach the unreached. Reduce the manpower shortage in education, health, and social work. g. Free the professional for more creative and super- visory roles. r50 Proof that this was not merely a "pie-in-the-sky” idea was the Speed with which it prompted action. The National Commis- sion on Technology, Automation and Economic Progress has called 32Frank Riessman, New Careers, A Basic Strategy against Poverty (New York: A. Phillip Randolph Fund, 1967), p. 1. 37 for the designing of more than five million socially useful subprofes— sional jobs; the Congress has passed the Scheuer-Nelson Act which provided a down payment of seventy million dollars for moving in this new direction; and political organizations like Americans for Democratic Action have given the new career approach a central position in their program. New Careers centers have been estab- lished in a number of major cities, such as Los Angeles, Eugene, Newark, Minneapolis, and New York. The New Careers program advocates establishing levels for the entry to teaching as follows: Step 1 -- Aide Step 2 -- Assistant Teacher Step 3 -- Associate Teacher Step 4 -- Intern Step 5 -- Certificated Teacher An example of the strong feeling and belief attached to this movement and an indication of its educational potential is given in an excerpt from a speech by Wilfred T. Ussery, National Chair- man, CORE, before the House Committee on Education and Labor, July 17, 1967. He said: The organization of such advocate groups should be based upon their areas of interest. Take for example the field of education. Think of the tremendous impact that the concept of New Careers could have on "quality education" with perhaps 38 the assignment of a new careerist to every 5 Black children in the Urban Areas of America, the impoverished towns of Appalachia, the poverty-stricken Mexican—American concen- trations in southwestern United States, the impacted areas throughout the South and, of course, the Indian reservations throughout the country. This approach is possible, irrespec- tive of the field, be it education, medicine, recreation, public welfare or private organizations. To the degree that that effort succeeds it will be an indi- cation of the ability of this country to find the means to plug people into a system that now finds ways to exclude people, i. e. , racism, technology, cybernation, microminiaturization. Staff Differentiation and Role Delineation Allen34 advocated a differentiated staff for the school, but his levels were different. Allen seemed to be interested in dif- ferentiated functional levels, however hewas more concerned with the upper limits than Riessman, and not necessarily looking for new jobs for the unemployed. Allen explained his staffing as follows: Senior staff members, for purposes of illustration called Professors and Senior Teachers, would represent no more and usually less than 25 percent of the total staff and could not hold tenure in these positions other than that for which their annual performance qualified them. They might hold tenure, however, 33Wilfred T. Ussery, A speech given as National Chair- man of CORE, before the House Committee on Education and Labor (July 17, 1967). 34Dwight W. Allen, "A Differentiated Staff: Putting Teaching Talent to Work, " Occasional Papers by National Commis- sion on Teacher Education and Professional Standards (Washington, D. C. : NEA, December 1967), p. 2. 39 at the two lower levels, labeled here as Staff Teachers and Associate Teachers. Despite what the labels might imply, I am not suggesting a new bureaucracy or a hierarchy that gives recognition to an elite. I am suggesting a structure based on levels of responsi- bility in a teaching organization that takes its overall shape from what needs to be done educationally, now and in the future, in a given school, from what teachers are available and best quali- fied to be responsible for the tasks identified. This of course, presupposes a differentiation of tasks far beyond what the inter- changeable--parts pattern has so far allowed. Considering the number of practical educational innovations now standing in the wings waiting for such an opening, this "new tasks" dimension should not surprise anyone. ’ Professor Allen} s differentiated staffing pattern and his concern with the ”new tasks" dimension forcefully pointed out the third major development stated earlier. It seems likely that auxiliary personnel are going to demand an open door to upward mobility on a career ladder. As this ladder, however it is structured, is developed, the need for task delineation becomes more apparent. Clement36 pointed out that teachers are not treated like professionals and perhaps one reason they are not is because there is no differentiation among professional, semiprofessional, and parapro- fessional levels of teaching tasks. 351bid.. pp. 2, 3. 36Stanley L. Clement, "More Time for Teaching, " National Association of Secondary School Principals Bulletin (Decem- ber 1962). 40 EsbensonB’7 and Stafford38 both reinforce this viewpoint. Stafford believed that aides should share in supportive teaching activities rather than only the menial duties. Esbenson cited teacher aides as another instructional aid such as films and com- munity resource people. The expansion of the aide' s role is neces- sary and desirable when the teacher' 8 role is viewed as analytical and prescriptive. The aide' 3 training and personal limitations are the only restrictions. The Classroom Teachers National Study Conference in 1966 stated that the teacher' s job was: a. The management of the teaching assignment. b. The development of the policies that affect the classroom teacher and the educational program entrusted to his care. c. The dirggtion of continuing in-service education pro- grams. A list of jobs which can be done by teachers and a list of jobs which can be done by others gives an idea of the two roles. However, no 37Thorward Esbenson, "Should Teacher Aides Be More Than Clerks?" Phi Delta Kappan (Vol. 47, No. 5, January 1966), p. 237. 38Curt Stafford, "Teacher Time Utilization with Teacher Aides, " Journal of Educational Research (October 1962), pp. 82-88. 39The Classroom Teacher Speaks on His Supportive Staff, Report of the Classroom Teachers National Study Conference on the Classroom Teacher and His Supportive Staff (Washington, D. C.: NEA, November 25, 26, 1966), p. 11. 41 schema was presented to determine where new tasks, not listed, should go. One of the most interesting schemata for differentiated task analysis was one presented by Fine for designing New Careers programs. . Using this strategy, the first step is to determine what needs to be done to achieve a particular objective--let us say, urban planning. This is followed by an examination of the states-of—the-arts involved to establish the technologies and various alternatives available to get the work done. On this basis, it is then possible to move directly into the technical considerations described above, whereby: (1) the work that needs to be done to achieve objectives is clearly delineated; (2) the optional ways in which workers can perform the work are explored; (3) the functional performances of the workers are decided upon in relation to the technologies to be used; (4) the functional performances are then organized into jobs; (5) the jobs are related to each other by delineating experiences which lead to higher functional performance; and (6) curricula are developed that lead to achievement of competencies neces- sary to promote to each higher functional level. Schmitthausler, in his doctoral dissertation, also gave his opinion regarding task delineation as follows: It is the writer' s opinion that of the several controver- sial issues surrounding the introduction of nonprofessional classroom workers to schools, the question of task delineation has the greatest potentiality for resistance; while teachers struggle to retain professional autonomy, they are doubtless faced with the uncomfortable knowledge that they are uncertain 4OSidney A. Fine, Guidelines for the Design of New Ca- reers, A Staff Paper for the W. E. Upjohn Institute for Employment Research, Kalamazoo, Michigan (September 1967), pp. 16, 17. 42 of jgpt what it is that teachers can do that no one else can do. The Bank Street College Study, which was the most com- prehensive study done recently, has the following recommendations concerning role definition and development. . That role specifications of auxiliaries be defined initially, in order to provide a frame of reference for a new set of relationships, thus preventing either underutilization by unconvinced professionals or overutilization by administrators faced with manpower shortages. . That teaching functions be further examined to identify the more complex and highly professional fuggtions which should be performed by a teacher alone, . . . The Future The three recent major developments which have been documented were of course accompanied by a host of peripheral issues. Auxiliary personnel and teacher liability; unionization; pro- fessionalization or nonprofessionalism; job titles; institutionalization; training; administrative flexibility; and funding were only a few of the concerns facing those who were working in this area“. There is still a great deal of fear and opposition to the use of auxiliary personnel in the schools. Some local and state TEPS 4EISchmitthausler, op. cit., p. 35. 2Garda W. Bowman and Gordon J. Klopf, New Careers and Roles in the American School, Bank Street College of Education for the Office of Economic Opportunity (September 1967). 43 Committees are taking stands regarding auxiliary and ancillary personnel. The entrance gate to the profession is guarded jealously and certificated teachers are hesitant to allow licensing at a level lower than full certification. This seems to be prompted by: (a) a fear of the continued issuance of 90 day permits to teach and a result- ing lowering of standards; (b) some concern that the public may mis- interpret the use of assistant teachers to mean that certificated teachers are really not needed in each classroom, thus eliminating job slots for teachers; and (c) because of the high cost of education, some may use this as a budget cutting device or to at least hold the line on cost. Despite these fears and potential pitfalls, more and more teachers, auxiliaries, and parents are coming to agree with the con- cluding evaluative statement from the Model School Division' 3 Teacher Aide Program, Principals' and Teachers' Advisory Committee: . The introduction of teacher aides into our schools has had a significant effect on the morale and productivity of all concerned--principals, teachers, and children. It is evi- dent that the aides chosen to participate in the TAP program were selected for their personal warmth and interest in chil- dren as well as for other strong personal qualifications. The contributions that these aides have already made in the schools are highly valued: by teachers, who are unwinding and begin- ning to see an end to their weariness, many for the first time in their teaching career; by the children, who now have someone in their school life with time for the little personal attentions often lacking altogether in their lives; and by the principals, whose faculty is generally less frustrated and overburdened with work. In short, we applaud Superintendent Hansen' s 44 statement, made last September, that "Teacher aides are here to stay. ". Indeed, after this taste of the gggd life, it would be very difficult to return to the old system. The growth of the use of auxiliary personnel in education seemed to be predicated on these basic premises. 1. The needs of boys and girls in the learning process can more nearly be met with the addition of auxiliary person- nel to the school setting. 2. Teachers will have an opportunity to be truly professional only when they are relieved of most of the tasks which can be done by someone other than a teacher. 3. Participation in the learning-teaching process by people indigenous to the community provides for valuable inter— action between the school and neighborhood. 4. Total community involvement in planning educational pro- grams may add to the social relevance of such planning. ' 5. It is evident that employment must be provided for a large segment of our population, and one method of doing this is by carefully redefining existing roles into additional functional job levels. 43TAP: The Teacher Aide Program, A Project of the Model School Division of the Public Schools of the District of Columbia, conducted by the Washington School of Psychiatry (August 1967), pp. 91, 92. CHAP TER III RESEARCH DESIGN The Sample The sample population included five referent groups. The groups included were elementary building principals, teacher aides, teachers, student teaching coordinators and elementary intern directors, and national experts. The aides, teachers, and principals were from Bay City, Michigan, and Saginaw, Michigan. Bay City has a population of approximately 54, 000, while Saginaw has an approximate population of 98, 000. Bay City is normally considered a rather conservative city with some industry and located in an agricultural area. In former years it was one of the booming lumber towns of the state. It has had an unusual amount of experience using aides. Bay City has used aides for over twenty years in the public schools and the aides are considered a normal part of the school budget and operation. 46 Saginaw is also located in an agricultural area, but the city is considered to be highly industrialized. It has a large concen- tration of lower socio-economic class in one section of the city, with many of the typical social problems of the big city ghetto. The prob- lems seem to vary only in intensity from a large city. Saginaw does not have an extensive history of using aides. The aides included in our sample did not have more than one or two years of experience as an aide. The salary for the aides in Saginaw was paid from federal funds. To the extent that these two cities are typical of other cities this size, generalizations can be made. The total number of aides used in the elementary schools of both cities was included. There was no random sampling within the two cities but rather the total number of aides available was used. The grade levels were not concentrated at either upper or lower ele- mentary. The teachers in the sample were those to whom the aides were assigned. The principal of the building where the teacher and aide worked were the principals includedin the sample. Regional student teaching coordinators and elementary intern directors of Michigan State University were used for the sample population of college instructors. These people function as 47 liaison persons between the university and the public school. They instruct at the college level and supervise students in the public schools. The regions included were statewide and not concentrated in any one area. The fifth referent group was composed of identified national experts. The criteria used for identifying this group of experts were (a) an interest in the area of staff utilization and more specifically in the use of auxiliary personnel, (b) recognized as an authority in their field of specialization, and/or (c) experience as director of a demonstration center using auxiliary personnel. These experts were not from any one region, but selected throughout the nation. The experts included a research specialist for a private foundation who has worked in the model cities program; a director of extension and an auxiliary training program for a major university; a special consultant and writer for the board of education of a large city; a reading specialist; two leaders in the area of learning theory; a leader in teacher education; a well-known author on the subject of "New Careers"; two department of education chairmen; three directors of auxiliary personnel demonstration centers; three educational psy- chologists; a national officer of a teacher' 3 organization; head of a state department of public instruction; research assistant for a col— lege of education; and two directors of training programs for auxiliary personnel. 48 The numerical size of the staff included ranged from a five teacher school to a thirty-three teacher school. The range was well distributed with no concentration of numerically large or small school staffs. lnstrumentati on The instrument used to collect data was a seventy-four item questionnaire. The items listed were specific classroom tasks. The respondent was asked to mark each item on a five point scale and then respond on a second scale if the item was marked as being done by "other than a teacher. " The first page gave instructions for marking the questionnaire and the last page asked for personal data. The items included were obtained from three sources. The first source was a list of tasks enumerated on a time analysis study done during the Bay City Experiment. 1 The second source was the list used in the "Activity Sheet" for demonstration centers by the Bank Street College of Education study. 2 The third source was the 1The Fund for the Advancement of Education, A Coopera- tive Study for the Better Utilization of Teacher Competencies, A Report of the First Two Years of the Study (Central Michigan Uni- versity, 1955). 2Garda W. Bowman and Gordon J. Klopf, New Careers and Roles in the American School, Bank Street College of Education for the Office of Economic Opportunity, 1967. 49 author. The author made an effort to fill in any apparent gaps, avoid needless duplication yet allow for some shades of the same basic task. Those used by the author for additions were developed from numerous classroom visitations. The instrument was administered to a group of twenty- four student teachers, who were near the end of the term of student teaching, for pretesting. As a result of the pretest procedure, the instrument was further refined. In an effort to further clarify and validate the instrument it was given to two college instructors. These two men were each from a different university. They proofread the instrument and sug- gested further refinement. The questions listed by Scates and Yeomans3 were con- sidered. According to Scates and Yeomans the validity of a question- naire and its parts may be judged by the following types of evidence: 1. Is the question on the subject? 2. Is the question perfectly clear and unambiguous? 3. Does the question get at something stable, which is typical of the individual or the situation? 4. Does the question pull or have extractive power? Will it be answered by a large enough proportion of respon- dents to have validity? 5. Do the responses show areasonable range of variation? 3Douglas E. Scates and Alice V. Yeomans, The Effect of Questionnaire Form on Course Requests of Employed Adults (Washington: American Council on Education, 1950), pp. 4-7. 50 6. Is the information consistent, in agreement with what is known, and in agreement with expectancy? 7. Is the item sufficiently inclusive? 8. Is there a possibility of obtaining an external criterion to evaluate the questionnaire? Follow-up The instrument was mailed in a large envelope with a letter of explanation and a self-addressed, stamped envelope included. A post card with a handwritten request for a response was sent in a follow-up effort. Later a complete questionnaire was sent again to those who had not responded in any way. In one case a second detailed letter of explanation was sent. The percent of response follows: Table 3. 1. -- Percent of questionnaires returned Number Number Percentage Group - ’ sent returned of return Aides 56 44 79% Teachers 56 45 80% P rincipals 2 3 1 7 7 4% College Instructors 29 25 86% Experts 20 10 50% Totals 184 141 78% 4Ibid. 51 Scoring of (TDF) Task Discrimination Form The respondents were asked to respond to each item on a five point scale. A-I believe strongly only a person certified to teach can do this. B-I believe only a person certified to teach can do this. C—I am uncertain. D-I believe a person _r_10_t certified to teach or devices substituting for teachers can do this. E—I believe strongly persons flit certified to teach or devices substituting for teachers can do this. In addition to this scale, if D or E was checked, a choice of 1, 2, or 3 on a second scale was checked. 1-Can be done by machines. 2-Non-certified personnel. 3-Either. An open-ended statement asking for any comments regard— ing the kinds of tasks teacher aides can most effectively help teachers with was included at the end of the questionnaire. These comments were summarized in chapter IV. The responses on the TDF were transferred to an IBM scoring sheet. This task was accomplished by only one person as a safeguard against errors in coding and grouping. The data from the IBM scoring were placed into the computer for analysis. 52 Statistical Analysis Phase One The data were analyzed by use of frequency distribution tables and application of the chi square statistical test for significance. Responses from the five referent groups were placed in frequency distribution tables. Chi squares were run for each task using all referent groups. If there was general agreement among the five groups, the chi square was not significant; but if they did not agree, the chi square was statistically significant. When this occurred the tables were examined to determine the point of disagreement. If the point of disagreement was not apparent, post hoc analysis of that individual task was run. The preceding analysis was used in exploring the follow- ing problems. Maj or Problem What tasks will building principals, teachers, teacher aides, college instructors and experts agree are tasks only a person certified to teach can do? 53 Secondary Problems 1. On what tasks is there disagreement among the five referent groups with respect to the appropriate role of the teachers? 2. Do teachers who have had experience with team-teaching identify fewer tasks only a teacher can do? 3. Do teachers who have had experience with teacher aides identify fewer tasks only a teacher can do? 4. What if any relationship is there between age and identi- fication of the tasks only a teacher can do? 5. Is there any relationship between years of teaching expe- rience and identification of tasks only a teacher can do? 6. Do teacher aides identify fewer or more tasks which only a teacher can do than teachers? 7. Is there any relationship between the aide' s perception of his role and his level of schooling? 8. Is there any relationship between sex and task identifica- tion? 9. Is there any relationship between grade level taught and identification of tasks? Phase Two The second step in the analysis was a summarization of the comments written in answer to the open-ended statement at the 54 end of the questionnaire. No conclusions were drawn from these data but they were used only for comparative and descriptive purposes. Phase Three The third step was an analysis of the data in the second column of the- instrument in an effort to answer this question: 10. On what tasks, if any, is there agreement that the task can be done by devices substituted for teachers? The method of analysis was frequency distribution and chi square, as had been done for the preceding data. Summary This chapter has given an explanation of the procedures used to obtain and analyze the data. The method of obtaining, and a description of the sample was given. The instrument was discussed and the basis for its validity and reliability given. The steps used for follow-up of unreturned questionnaires was enumerated. Scoring procedures and the statistical method used were explained. Chapter IV will be devoted to an analysis of these data. CHAPTER IV ANALYSIS OF DATA The delineation of the role of a certified teacher and the implicit role for auxiliary personnel was the major relationship analyzed in this study. The identification of tasks which can be done by only a certified teacher served as a basis for the role delineation. Each task was judged by respondents on a five point scale to indicate the degree to which he felt the task belonged in the realm of teaching tasks. The Task Discrimination Form (TDF) was administered to five referent groups. The method of selecting these groups was outlined in chapter 111. The groups included were teacher aides, teachers, principals, college instructors, and nationally recognized experts. The nationally recognized experts selected included a research specialist for a private foundation, a director of extension for a major university who was the director of an experimental auxiliary personnel program, a central office administrator of a large city system who has written training manuals and such for auxiliary programs, an expert in the field of reading, a leader in 55 56 teacher education, three major psychologists, head of a state department of instruction, directors of three auxiliary personnel demonstration projects, a national officer of a teachers' organiza- tion, one of the major authors in the area of the use of auxiliary per- sonnel in the helping professions, a research assistant for a college of education, two deans of schools of education, and an expert in learning theory. The reader may refer to the Appendices for a list of the experts. The criteria used for selecting the experts were out- lined in chapter 111. The major question to be investigated concerned what tasks building principals, teachers, teacher aides, college instructors, and national experts agree are tasks only a person certified to teach can do. A contingency table was computed for each item on the Task Discrimination Form to facilitate the analysis of data (see Figure 4. 1). The information supplied on a contingency table is shown by examining the sample of responses for one group to one task concerning one variable. Figure 4. 1 represents only the data from one group (Teacher Aides) for one task (conducting opening period of day). There were five groups responding to each task. This meant five sections, such as Figure 4. 1, for each task. There were ten 57 OH.“ and oo .mv miv .mm mat .mm oodofi oodw . «5. mm. rm . .mm .2 oo. mm mm mm.m 23mm mmdm magmas >m.mm ooém rod om; and oo.mm mom ooé Hm. mm om. mm mm oo. .1: SH .m: mad man mmé mvdfi «Em oo.m 83% Eu :8 hososqoam Hmo Schema. “much. mo psooaom ESQ «coosmm mmosoafl “coupon mocoSdmsm 30: so xmmu :bso Monomer. a ma xmmu of .852?» 3 mm Manon mo common massages 3 Bobsoamos 9%. mo. coxswfi Baum ”Egon mv cos umgofl sumecmsm amp—2 Awash. aAanaq Kfiuoais LO 0p ueo <11 pastures 10M uteiiaoun m 0p ueo pennies KIUO N 8A9 naq KIBuons .—. oboU ramp mo person mswcoao mcfiosucouilam xmmfiv xmmh. ”among: onEmkw 33513 96.10 “Aspen: o3m€w> Asofloom 3&8me 3an monomcfisoo mo Embassies: .H .w charm 58 different variables examined for each task. This resulted in a minimum of fifty sections such as Figure 4. 1 for each task. In addition to this the data from the five groups were totalled for each task and for each variable. The frequency on the sample shows that three teacher aides believed strongly only a person certified to teach can conduct opening periods, eight teacher aides believed (but not strongly) only a person certified to teach can do this, one aide was uncertain, thirty-one aides believed a person not certified to teach can conduct opening periods, and six aides believed strongly a person not certified to teach can conduct opening periods. This frequency distribution was computed for all groups. The percent across category on the Figure shows the per- centage of aides marking that column. For example, it is easy to see that over half or 63. 27 percent of the aides believed that a person not certified to teach can conduct opening periods, and 12. 24 percent believed strongly other than a certificated person could perform this task. It then is easy to see that over 75 percent of the aides believed that this task was not a teacher task. The percent down represents the aides' percentage of responses when all five groups are included. Thus it is possible to see that of all the responses to this task for this variable, the aides 59 represent 25 percent of the respondents from all groups marking the uncertain category. If this is correct, it is possible to conclude that for all groups only four respondents marked the uncertain category. Examination of additional data proves this correct. The percent of the total indicates the percentage of responses for all groups, all columns combined. Since 20. 53 percent of all responses are represented by the 31 aides marking column four, the total responses should be approximately 150. Examination of the totals proves this to be true. The theoretical frequency indicates the distribution that theoretically should occur if the distribution were normal. The cell chi square shows the relationship between the observed frequency and the theoretical frequency. The chi square indicates whether the disagreement is statistically significant. The degrees of freedom must be considered in determining significance. The mean response for each group is given, and the standard deviation. The mean response and the standard deviation are also given in the totals for all groups. The mean response for the aides to task 51A is given as 3. 59. The mean response for all groups to task 51A was 3. 16. It is apparent that the mean for the aides is somewhat greater. This indicates that when compared to the total of all groups, they believe somewhat more strongly that 60 conducting opening periods can be done by a person not certified to teach. In addition to the information given for each group as indicated in Figure 4. 1, a total for all groups was computed. The pertinent totals were the chi square for all groups, and the mean for all groups. The chi square indicated the significance of disagreement among the groups and the mean was used as a criterion for placing it in the ”teacher only" category or leaving it in the ”noncertified per- sonnel" category. The first criterion used to select those tasks appropriate to a certificated person was the mean for all referent groups on that specific task. If the mean was 2. 00 or less, the task was considered a task for certificated personnel. The rationale for using 2. 00 was to allow a closer examination of tasks near the teacher end of the con- tinuum and to guard somewhat against excluding tasks which were borderline. The use of the 2. 00 mean meant that if even one-half of all respondents indicated that they believed the task could be done by only a certificated person, and there was not significant disagreement among the groups, the task was placed in that category. The second criterion used to discover teacher tasks was the chi square statistic. Chi square analysis was used as a test for homogeneity. If the chi square was significant at the .01 level, the 61 null hypothesis could be rejected. In other words there was disagree- ment among the groups at that level. Conversely, if the chi square was not statistically significant at that level, the null hypothesis was not rejected. A nonsignificant chi square did not establish perfect agreement but rather that any disagreement was not significant at the .01 level of rejection. Thus the task was included as a "teacher only” task. The . 01 level of significance was used to gain finer dis- crimination. The .05 level was not satisfactorily discriminatory. The data revealed a significant chi square for most tasks when the . 05 level was used. Since some nonsignificant chi squares were necessary to establish any points of discrimination, the .01 level was chosen. Admittedly this is a high level for social science research, but the results should be more meaningful. An alternative would have been to use the .05 and look for nonsignificant chi squares when using only four or three referent groups. However, this was rejected because our original purpose was to investigate the possibility of agreement among all five groups; and if agreement on a task can be established, it would be more solidly established if agreed on by five rather than three groups. Using these two criteria, the following tasks were identi- fied as tasks which can be done only by certified personnel. 62 Table 4. 1. -- Teacher tasks using 2. 00 mean Chi Squares Task (16 degrees Mean Standard Number ' DeV1ation of freedom) Semester or yearly 16 . 25.986 1.38 0.81 planmng 32 Intmducmg math 25. 473 1. 61 o. 94 concept . 60 Constructing tests 28. 670 1. 61 0. 85 63 set .Cmt.ema for 28.272 1. 61 0.77 subjective tests 67 Parent °9M5rences 20.452 1. 72 1. 02 Re: disC1pline 68 Program research 27. 041 1. 96 1.22 Parent conferences 70 Re: academic per- 30. 720 1. 62 0. 98 formances 72 Interpreting research 17. 797 1. 79 1. 14 73 Evaluation of interns 15. 052 1.59 0.99 X2 > 31 necessary for significance at . 01 level. Tasks with chi square less than 31 necessary to indicate lack of disagreement (or agreement). The five referent groups did not demonstrate significant disagreement at the . 01 level in choosing the following tasks to be done by only a certificated person. 63 16. Do semester or yearly planning of formal curriculum 32. Introducing a math concept to a class 60. Constructing tests 63. Setting criteria for a subjective test 67. Conducting parent conferences at school in regard to discipline 68. Carrying on research in the school in regard to the effectiveness of a program 70. Conducting parent conferences at school in regard to academic performances 72. Interpreting research findings 73. Aiding in the evaluation of intern or student teachers If only the criterion of a minimum of 2. 00 is used, the following tasks can be added to "teacher only" tasks. Disregarding the chi square means disregarding the disagreement among the groups at this time. In other words, there was significant disagreement among the groups regarding these tasks but over half the responses were in the "believe strongly" and "believe only a certified person can do these tasks" categories. Since over half the total responses were in these two categories, the mean was 2. 00 or under. A closer examination of the tasks listed in Table 4. 2 begins to give data for one of the secondary questions in the study. The question was designed to identify those tasks where there was disagreement among the referent groups with respect to the appropri- ate role of the teacher. 64 Table 4. 2. -- Teacher tasks where disagreement among groups exists Task Chl Square Standard (16 degrees Mean . . Number DeViation of freedom) 12 Unit planning 38.518 1.54 0.88 14 Innovation of subject 47. 710 1. 71 0. 89 matter 17 Daily planning 43. 865 1. 64 1.01 Developing innovations 18 . 45.396 1.55 0.86 in methods Initiating curriculum 19 48.200 1.33 0.78 change 22 Choosing instructional 39.446 1. 63 0. 92 materials 23 Selecting methods 65. 359 1. 75 1. 01 39 Ch°°sfmg mouvatmn 61.490 1. 73 o. 98 techniques 61 Construction of grade 33. 531 1. 71 0. 92 scales X2 > 31 significant at .01 level. When the mean response for each group was examined it was evident which group disagreed on each task in the previous list. These data may be found in Table 4. 3. 65 Table 4. 3. -- Group means for listed tasks _, s ‘4 2 a) 3 7; Task 2 '3 ' go 2." g 1: Number . m U c: .... ‘* ..—. m "U (U "-1 rd *5; ~H CL .... o s. o c: :6 >4 <2 [-4 D. U ... Z [:1 12 Unit planning 75 1. 33 1. 47 1. 26 2. 27 14 Initiate innovations . 81 1. 70 1. 68 1. 37 2. 18 17 Daily planning . 89 1. 35 1. 44 1. 41 2. 64 18 Develop methods .52 1.38 1.58 1.48 2.45 19 Ma3°.r Changes 1“ .39 1.15 1.26 1.22 2.18 curriculum 22 Choosing materials . 60 1. 60 1. 37 1. 63 2. 36 23 Presentation methods .96 1. 49 1. 58 1. 54 2. 82 39 Ch°°sfmg mouvatmn .79 1.50 1. 74 1. 44 3.09 techniques 61 Construct grading scales .71 1. 61 1. 74 1. 59 2. 40 group of experts. The group which was in obvious disagreement was the significant disagreement among the groups. Other than the experts there was apparently no The aides tended to be a few points closer to the 2. 00 mean but did not differ greatly from the other three (excluding experts). 66 It can be said then that, except for the experts, the groups did not disagree that the following tasks are also teacher tasks, when we use 2. 00 for establishing significance. 12. Do unit planning 14. Initiating innovations in the structure of the subject matter 17. Daily planning for a subject (continuous) 18. Developing innovations in instructional methodology 19. Initiating major curriculum change 22. Choosing instructional materials on a long term basis 23. Selecting methods of presenting materials and lessons 39. Choosing appropriate motivational techniques 61. Constructing grading scales When the arbitrary division point was moved to the 2. 50 mean rather than the 2. 00 mean, still more tasks were added to the teacher' 8 role and it was possible to examine points of disagreement among the groups. By examining the tasks using a 2. 50 mean it was possible to begin thinking of a possible task continuum such as was suggested in chapter I. The five referent groups did not significantly disagree, at the .01 level of rejection, that the following tasks can be done by only a certificated person. This was when the mean was moved to 2.50 on a 5 point scale to increase the opportunity for further dis- c riminati on. 67 Table 4. 4. -- "Teacher Only" tasks using 2. 50 mean Task ‘ Chl Square Standard (16 degrees Mean . . Number DeV1ation of freedom) 25 Discipline expectations 21.013 2 . 02 1. 24 27 Writing material 25. 371 2. 21 1. 32 30 Grouping pupils 31.664 2. 05 1. 21 44 Enforcing routine 29.227 2. 45 1. 34 45 Reading groups 24.269 2.09 1. 13 59 Correcting themes 11.915 2. 45 1.18 X2 > 31 significant at .01 level. Using 2. 50 as the mean to establish significance between tasks for certificated personnel and tasks for auxiliary personnel, the following items can be added to our previous list. There was no significant disagreement among the five referent groups, at the .01 level of rejection, that the following tasks could be done by only certificated personnel. 25. 27. 30. 44. 45. 59. Setting discipline expectations Writing programmed materials Grouping pupils after diagnosis has been made Enforcing classroom discipline Making up daily assignment Giving grades on the basis of a subjective test when the criteria are set 68 It was possible, when not looking for agreement among the groups, to disregard the chi square values. By comparing the group means it was possible to see the points of disagreement among the groups. When this list is examined it seems apparent that the experts are the group which was most in disagreement. However, it is important to identify some other points. The aides tended to have a larger mean than the other three groups. The teachers tended to be the most conservative. Although these tendencies exist, the amount of disagreement among the four groups (excluding experts) was not significant at the .01 level. Using a mean of 2.50 as the arbitrary point of significance, it was possible to say that, except for the experts, the groups did not significantly disagree that the following tasks are also teacher tasks. 3. Ordering instructional aids 10. Developing instructional aids 13. Planning for one day in one subject area 2 1. Choosing instructional materials on a day to day basis 24. Establishing classroom routine 26. Enforcing discipline 28. Diagnosing minor learning difficulties 29. Prescribing for correction of minor learning problems 34. Introducing a reading lesson 36. Teaching an art class 38. Conducting penmanship class 42. Individual counseling with pupil 62. Administering tests to evaluate in a subject area 65. Evaluating the citizenship of a pupil 66. Making home visitations to become aware of home needs 69 Table 4. 5. -- Group means indicating points of disagreement among groups ,_, 1. s4 “5 3 H G) 0" Q.) C) (U +1 Task .4: '8 W :3 ‘3 L. a) 0 c: 3 ‘4 .3 0’ Number '0 c8 ... .... +1 ... o. ... o 1.. o ”1 :6 x <: i-4 n. u E. z m 3 Ordering aids 69 74 2. 63 2. 74 3. 91 10 Developing aids .54 .85 2. 37 2.11 3. 45 13 .Planmng f‘.” one day .56 ' .96 1.74 1.81 3.18 in one subject area 21 Choosing mStruCtmnal .38 .04 1. 95 1. 85 3. 27 materials 24 Establish routine . 15 .92 1. 79 1. 89 2. 82 26 Enforce discipline .67 .04 2. 42 2. 42 3. 18 28 13.139108: learmng .40 .96 2. 53 2.07 3. 36 difficulties 29 come“ mmor learmng .98 .87 2.16 1. 88 3.00 problems 34 Introduce reading lesson .69 .60 1. 74 1.70 2. 73 36 Teach art class .17 .40 2. 26 1. 96 3. 64 38 Conduct penmanship class .40 .28 2. 00 2. 56 3. 27 42 Individual counseling . 36 . 81 2. 47 1. 89 3. 55 62 Administer tests .00 . 87 2. 42 3.07 4. 40 65 Evaluate citizenship . 40 . 13 2. 32 1. 74 2. 89 66 Make home visits .43 .15 1. 84 1.93 4. 00 70 When the remaining tasks (those with a mean of over 2. 50) were examined, there was not significant disagreement, at the .01 level of rejection, among the five groups regarding the following tasks. Since the 2. 50 mean dichotomizes the responses into "teacher tasks" and "non-teacher tasks, " these remaining tasks, with a mean of over 2. 50 and no significant disagreement among the groups, would be "non-teacher tasks. " 4. Shelving instructional materials 6. Adjusting classroom heat, light and other physical needs 7. Operating audio visual equipment 15. Carrying out short-term field trips in connection with class instruction 20. Participating in group planning in the classroom 31. Working with a group on drill of basic addition facts 37. Instructing a physical education class 40. Conducting spelling class 43. Enforcing classroom routine 48. Supervising recess 69. Acting as truant officer 71. Conducting after school interest groups, such as flower arranging, leather work, etc. Another secondary question which had been asked originally was: ”On what tasks, if any, is there agreement that the task can be done by devices substituted for teachers?" Using the preceding list of tasks, it was possible to look for agreement. This list was used because these tasks represented those which had no significant dis- agreement, at the .01 level, among all five groups and with a mean 71 greater than 2. 50. In other words, these were "non-teacher” tasks and had the potential for being identified as a task which could be done by a device substituted for a teacher. This is not to say that there are not other tasks which would be designated as auxiliary tasks, but in those remaining cases there was significant disagree- ment among the groups as to whether the task was or was not a "non- teacher" task. Table 4. 6 gives the chi square, mean and degrees of freedom for those tasks which did not have significant disagreement and a mean greater than 2. 50 (regarding teacher-nonteacher tasks). These data identified whether the task could be done by (1) machine; (2) noncertified personnel, and (3) either. Task number 31 (working with a group on drill of basic addition facts) is the only one where there was significant disagree- ment. The group means for this task were as follows: Aide 2. 26 Teacher 2. 2 1 Principal 2 . 18 College Instructor 2. 46 Experts . 2. 88 A comparison of the means indicate the experts generally agree that this task could be done by either a non-certified person or a machine. According to the data, when using only the tasks where there is £12 72 Table 4. 6. -- Responses indicating whether the following non-teacher tasks could be done by machines, non-certified person- nel, or either Degrees Task Chi . Chi Number Square Mean . Of Squarei‘< Freedom‘ 4 Shelving materials 15. 151 2. 06 8 20. 1 6 Adjusting heat, etc. 9. 632 2.15 8 20.1 7 Operate audio Visual 18. 971 2.08 8 20. 1 equipment 15 Field trips 2.256 2. 08 4 13.3 20 Group planning 9. 224 2. 05 4 13.3 31 Drill addition 24.647 2. 31 8 20. 1 37 InStru‘Ft physmal 3. 207 2.13 4 13.3 education 40 Conduct spelling 3. 347 2. 18 4 13. 3 43 Enforce routine 3. 482 2.03 4 13. 3 48 Supervise recess 2. 748 2. 05 4 13.3 69 Aclmg as truant 4.865 2. 04 4 13.3 officer 71 conducung after 2. 249 2. 03 4 13.3 school interest groups *Chi square necessary for significance at . 01 level given in last column. 73 significant disagreement among the group means for non-teacher tasks, task 31 is the only one which has one group indicating that it could be done by either a machine or a non-certified person. Again, the reader is reminded that as the remaining tasks were analyzed, more tasks, where there was significant disagreement on group means, had significant data indicating it could be done by either machine or non-certified personnel. Since there was disagreement among the groups regard- ing the remaining tasks, it was necessary to more closely examine the mean for each group on each task. This information is given in Table 4. 7. By examining this table it is possible to establish where the groups disagree regarding "teacher only" or "non-teacher" tasks. The points of disagreement which are important to this study occur on tasks 11, 33, 46, and 56. On these tasks there is evidence that one or more groups see the task as one which only a certificated per- son can do. On task 11 the principals have a mean of 2. 11. This would place it under the 2. 50 criterion previously explained. The teachers and college instructors both have a 2. 16 mean on task 33. The 1. 89 mean on task 46 for the teacher group meets the criterion. On task 56 it is the teacher group again with a mean of 2.37, which would place it in the "teacher only" category. 74 Table 4. 7. -- Group means for non-teacher tasks where significant disagreement existed 4 Nimiir Aide Teacher 1 Decide seat arrangements 3. 35 2. 55 2 Prepare bulletin boards 4. 10 3. 92 5 Construct aids 3. 46 3. 79 8 Service equipment 3. 49 3. 85 9 Arrange furniture 4. 04 3. 54 ‘ 11 Plan bulletin boards 3. 60 2. 67 I 33 Conduct reading class 3. 46 2. 16 35 Conduct "for fun" music lesson 3. 54 3. 06 41 Individual tutoring 3. 63 3. 09 r 46 Conduct reading groups 3. 21 1. 89 47 Supervise study time 3. 73 3. 43 49 Desk helping students 4. 00 3. 40 50 Writing lessons on board 3. 81 3. 43 5 1 Conduct opening period 3. 59 2. 89 52 Conduct drill on math 3. 00 3. 62 53 Lead intramural sports 3. 00 2. 96 54 Monitor class in machines 3. 43 3. 28 55 Carry on spelling drill 3. 92 3. 72 “56 Correct themes 2. 61 2. 37 57 Correct arithmetic papers 4. 02 3. 63 .. 64 Record grades on cards 3. 92 3. 49 .. 3213:2333:$5.223.“est 75 Table 4. 7. -— Continued Mean for Machine; Principal College National All Groups Non-certified Instructor Experts Combined Personnel; ’ Either Responses 2.32 2.70 3.73 2.89 2.15 3.95 4.15 4.90 4.09 2.04 3.89 3.96 4.64 3.79 2.11 4.11 4.41 4.91 3.95 2.09 3.47 3.78 4.73 , 3.82 2.06 2.11 2.74 3.84 2.99 2.03 2.72 2.16 3.09 2.72 2.17 3.79 3.48 4.55 3.49 2.10 3.68 3.04 4.00 3.39 2.18 2.53 2.44 3.27 2.59 2.17 3.68 3.30 4.18 3.59 2.09 3.58 3.04 4.45 3.63 2.06 3.95 4.26 4.82 3.86 2.05 3.16 2.56 3.90 3.16 2.04 3.79 3.92 4.70 3.57 2.30 2.84 3.41 4.50 3.14 2.00 3.47 3.63 4.70 3.51 2.08 3.79 3.56 4.70 3.83 2.15 2.63 2.81 4.20 , 2.68 2.11 3.68 3.44 4.90.. 3.81 2.16 3.74 3.81 4.60 3.57 2.19 3.95 4.48 4.80 3.95 2.23 3.951 4.04. 4.89 3.92 2.20 76 From this analysis it seemed that the above indicated groups would place these tasks in the category of "only a certificated person can do" when the 2. 50 criterion was used. 11 . Assuming responsibility for planning bulletin boards (principals 2. 11) 33. Conducting a reading class (teachers and college instructors 2. 16) 46. Conducting reading groups (teachers 1. 89) 56. Correcting themes (teachers 2.37) The remaining tasks would be "non-teacher" tasks as indicated by all groups. When the data were examined in regard to whether the "non—teacher" tasks could be done by machines, non-certified per- sonnel, or either, there was agreement on most tasks that it should be done by non-certified personnel. Tasks 41, 52, 64, and 74 were the only ones where significant disagreement occurred. Task 41 (individual tutoring in subject areas) had a mean of 2.50 for the experts. One-half of the experts felt this task could be done by ”either. " Task 52 (conducting drill on math facts) had a 2. 50 mean for the experts and a 2. 58 mean for the college instructors. This indicates that a significant number from these two groups believe the task could be done by "either. " 77 Task 64 (recording grades on report cards) had a 2. 54 mean for the college instructors. Task 74 (maintaining pupil records, such as test scores, grades, health, etc.) had a 2. 67 mean for the experts and a 2. 42 mean for the college instructors. Hence it was possible to say that one and in some cases two groups had one-half or more choosing ”either" for the following tasks. 41. Individual tutoring in subject areas (experts) 52. Conducting drill on math facts (experts and college instructors) 64. Recording grades on report cards (college instructors) 74. Maintaining pupil records, such as test scores, grades and health (experts and college instructors) This completes the analysis of the tasks with the group as the variable. It was possible to draw certain conclusions from the preceding data regarding tasks only certificated personnel can do and also which tasks can be done by either machines or non- certificated personnel. This discussion may be found in Chapter V of this study. The major question, "What tasks will building principals, teachers, teacher aides, college instructors, and national experts agree are tasks only a person certified to teach can do?" and the 78 secondary questions, "On what tasks is there disagreement among the referent groups with respect to the appropriate role of the teachers?" and "On what tasks, if any, is there agreement that the task can be done by devices substituted for teachers?" have been analyzed. Now the other variables will be examined. Do teacher aides identify fewer or more tasks which only a teacher can do than teachers? This was positted as a secon- dary question. If the 2. 00 and 2.50 means are arbitrarily set as points of division to increase discrimination on a task continuum, again the number of teacher tasks chosen by each group would be as follows. Table 4. 8. -- Number of tasks for teachers only 2. 00 Mean 2.50 Mean Teachers 3 1 44 Aides 20 31 The data in Table 4. 8 indicates that teachers did tend to see more tasks as "teacher only" tasks, while aides saw fewer tasks as "teacher only" functions. Among the other variables examined was sex. The ques- tion was, "What, if any, relationship is there between sex and identification of tasks?" 79 The . 10 statistical level of significance was chosen with an awareness of the possible pitfalls. There was a realization that this increases the chance for. what is statistically termed a Type I error. However, the use of the .05 level in social science research is arbitrary, as pointed out by Barnes. 1 It should be noted that there is nothing sacred, other than custom, about the 1 and 5 per cent levels. There may be situations in which an individual is willing to operate at the 10 per cent level or more. . deciding is contingent upon the nature of the risks, or values, which are involved. The nature of this study did not involve a high risk, since it was primarily exploratory in nature. It did not set out to accept or reject hypotheses, but to find differences. Certain subtle differences were evidenced when the . 10 level was used. Perhaps these differ- ences merit further consideration in a more tightly designed research study. An examination of Table 4. 9 shows a significant chi square, at the . 10 level, for nine tasks. Of the nine tasks included, as sig- nificant at the . 10 level, two had greater means for the male respon- dents while seven tasks had greater means for the female respondents. 1Fred P. Barnes, Research for the Practitioner in Educa- tion (Washington, D. C. : National Department of Elementary School Principals, 1964), p. 80. 21bid. 80 The greater mean indicated that particular sex placed the task more nearly or more completely within the "non-teaching" category. The trend seemed to indicate the females were more willing for the non- certificated personnel to do certain tasks than the males were. Table 4. 9. -— Tasks with significant difference using sex as the variable Task Chi Number Square Female Male 8 Servicing equipment 9. 606 3. 83 (+) 4. 35 15 Short-term field trips 10. 163 (+) 2. 87 2. 45 26 Enforce discipline 10.135 (+) 2.51 2.18 H H ' 35 conduc" fun mus“: 8. 289 (+) 3. 59 3.12 lesson 44 E.nf°.r°3 Classroom 8. 525 (+) 2.56 2. 06 disc1pline 47 Supervise study time 9. 297 (+) 3. 67 3. 29 49 Desk helping students 16. 947 (+) 3.81 3. 00 51 Conduct opening period 16.801 (+) 3. 35 2. 50 62 Administer tests 7. 835 2. 30 (+) 2. 59 X2 > 7. 8 significant at . 10 level. 4 degrees of freedom. A plus (+) indicates which Female Male sex has the larger mean. 7+ 2+ 81 Age was also examined as a variable. What, if any, relationship is there between age and identification of the tasks? For 32 degrees of freedom a chi square greater than 42.6 is neces- sary for significance at the . 10 level. An examination of the tasks listed in Table 4. 10 shows significant disagreement for eighteen tasks at the . 10 level. A plus (+) was placed by the greatest mean for each task and a minus (-) by the lowest mean for each task. By totaling these it became easier to see where the higher means occurred and where the lower means occurred. The totals showed fourteen plus marks and two minus marks falling into the 21-40 year old age cate- gory, and six plus marks and seventeen minus marks falling into the 45—65 year old age category. The plus or higher mean scores indicated a greater will- ingness for the task to be done by non-certificated personnel. A minus or lower mean score indicated less willingness for the per- forming of the task by a non-certificated person. 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It was possible to determine some differences at the . 01 statistical level for this variable. The respondents were divided into two groups for the purpose of discover- ing any trend that might exist. Those with some college or less schooling were placed into one group and those with a B. A. or more were placed into another group. The plus and minus were used to designate the highest and lowest mean. The group with less schooling had eighteen plus and nine minus while the group with a higher level of schooling had two plus and eleven minus. The data suggest that those with a higher level of school- ing see a more restricted role for the non-certificated. An exception here would be the national experts, who see a large role for auxiliary personnel. Table 4. 12 considers the answer to grade level taught as a variable. The . 10 level of significance was used again to view any subtle differences. Using this level of significance twenty tasks showed disagreement. A plus was placed by the highest mean for each task and a minus by the lowest. The highest mean indicated that this task is more completely or nearly, as the case may be, within the area of tasks performed by non-certificated personnel. 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Indications from the data were that upper grade teachers see a somewhat larger role for non-certificated personnel. Kinder- garten and grade eight seem to be exceptions. Is there any relationship between years of experience and identification of the tasks? This was positted as a secondary ques- tion. Table 4. 13 is a sample of the data collected for this variable. There was significant disagreement on six of the classroom tasks at the . 10 level. Again the plus and minus were used to desig- nate the greatest and the least mean for each task. These were then compiled in order to have a composite picture. It was of interest to note that four plus and zero minus were found for those with one to six years of experience. For the years of experience from seven to fifteen a leveling trend appears with zero plus and one minus occur- ring. Three plus and five minus occurred for the sixteen to twenty- eight year category. There seems to be a slight trend for those with less than six years of experience to see certain tasks more completely within the role of non-certificated personnel than the other levels of expe- rience. 87 4964 64 . 65 66 8:842:63 no.“ hpmwmooo: 6.2.3 A X 80456.46 .40 66.6.6666 W6 66.3 665 no.“ onoom 538 669264 63.8465 - 663 665 no.4 muoom :38 6604463 636046444 + -6 -4 -6 +6 +6 +3 -6 -o -6 -o -o -o -o -4 -o -o 6.36360 £060 :4 +6 +4 +6 +6 +6 +6 +6 +6 +6 +6 - 4.43 + .40 609852 36.6 33.6 66.6 To 2.6.6 2.6 46.3 66.6 42.6 66.3 2+6 44.3 664.66 36 66 .4 2.6.6 4+6 66.4 To 66 .6 2.66 +6 36.6 66.6 66.6 66.6 2.66 6: .63 66 46.6 66.6 66.4 2; 66.6 .666 66.6 66.6 34 .6 66.6 63.6 $6 663.66 44 66 .6 34 .3 66 .3 64 .3 66 .3 64 .3 46 .3 2.6 .6 To 66 .3 2+6 36 .3 636 .2.6 6 66 .6 To 66 .6 62. .6 66 .6 66 .3 2+6 66.3 2.2.6 34 .3 62.6 66.3 464 .46 6 66 .4 To 44 .6 66.6 66.6 62.6 46.6 66.6 66.6 66.6 66.6 2+6 62.2.66 4 +66 2.6-66 36-66 46-64 64-64 64-64 64-64 6-2. 6-3 6-4 0.46456 3468374 EU 666.4. 00453644664 6o 6.36% 04964.45, 05 mm. oocofloaxo .4o 6.4696 656: 3:28.446 6:363:63 543 9466.4. - .64 .3 63.6.4. 88 The experience of the respondents with aides and/or team-teaching merited consideration. Do teachers who have had experience with teacher aides and/or team-teaching identify fewer tasks which only a teacher can do? Table 4. 14 gives this informa- tion using 2. 00 and 2. 50 as the arbitrary points of discrimination. Table 4.14. -- Types of experience by the respondents Respondents ‘Who ‘ Teacher Only Tasks Usmg .Had Had 2, 00 Mean ' .2. 50 Mean Experience with Teacher Aides 23 41 Experience with 31 41 Team-Teaching Experience with Neither 23 39 The differences among the three categories was slight. All three totals were within a two point spread, which seems to indi- cate these two types of experience affected their perception of the teacher' 5 role very little, if at all. Summary of Written Comments from Respondents Anvopportunity‘ was provided for the respondents to write any comments they might feel were important. 89 Perhaps the most striking thing about the comments written by the aides was the general positive view of their job and its importance. Many of them expressed "thanks" for someone being interested in their opinion. The comments written by the aides are summarized as follows: a. Aides can help with the many clerical details big they want to be more than someone who does the tasks the teacher doesn't care to do. The most common area of help mentioned was working with small groups and individuals. Aides felt cheated and abused when they did "baby—sitting" so the teacher could take a coffee break. A number of aides felt they could make a real contribution in bringing the community and the teacher closer together. There was evidence of a communication problem. The aides didn't know exactly what they were to do, and they felt the teachers lacked understanding of them. Some teachers receive the same information in a workship as the aide receives. Some aides admitted doing most of the tasks listed on the questionnaire at one time or another. Many expressed confidence they could do many more tasks if they were given some training. Reading was the subject area mentioned most as the area where they could be the most help. The teacher should ask the aide to help rather than waiting for the aide to do something on her own. A few felt this would help ease the resentment some teachers have toward an aide. Personality and attitude were stressed as being very important. 90 Teachers, generally, were positive in their comments. However, many of them qualified their comments concerning how well their aide performed by saying, "My aide is unusual. " A few comments were vehement in their opposition to the use of aides. The reaction seemed to be against the "system" rather than the aide. They felt someone was not giving them a fair deal so compensated by allowing them to have an aide. In summary the teachers' comments were as follows: a. Used mostly for clerical duties, helping individuals, and working with slow groups. b. Aides are a "stopgap, " Size. an excuse for not lowering class 0. Reading was mentioned most as the subject area where they could be used. d. Often the aides are treated as "essentially equal in major and minor tasks. " e. Flexibility is the best approach. f. Teachers and aides need training. g. Aides are invaluable in developing rapport with some ethnic groups. h. Aides should not be asked to check all the papers. It numbs the aide and the teacher loses touch with the child' 5 problems. i. Aides are appreciated. 3'. One felt certification is no criterion for teaching ability and another person felt it was very necessary. 91 Aides can do everything but "unit and lesson planning and the direct teaching thereof. " Aides should be able to handle class unexpectedly if the teacher is called out for an emergency. The principals were probably more positive than any group. Such phrases as "most pleased, " "superior, ” "very unusual, " "most helpful, " ”every teacher should have one !" were used to describe the aides in their building. way: Principals tend to see the aide functioning in the following Helping with remedial work. Enforcing discipline. The most important thing is "the aide as a person. " The training provided within the building was felt to be crucial. Can be used for supervision, group work, individual help, clerical, and routine duties. College instructors were, as could be expected, much concerned with training and selection. There was some disagree- ment with using certification as a criterion. Some felt that some of our best teachers are uncertified. The outstanding performer in music and art, and the textbook writer were examples given of people who might do an excellent job of teaching but are not certified. A summary of their comments is given below. 92 Aides can and should do routine and clerical tasks. Aides can supervise lunch periods. Aides permit learning to occur in a crowded classroom but "hinder the interpersonal relationship between teacher and child. " Other variables should be considered such as: personality and maturity of aide, setting and needs of students, ability of supervisor to analyze task, interpret and train aide. Aides can ”help with everything except analysis and diag- nosis. " Their use depends on training and supervision. Summa ry The major question asked in this study was, "What tasks will building principals, teachers, teacher aides, college instructors, and national experts agree are tasks only a person certified to teach can do?" Using the 2. 50 mean as the line of demarcation, the data revealed no significant disagreement, at the .01 level, among the five groups for these tasks. Thus the following tasks seem appro- priate to certified teachers. *16. 25. 27. 30. *32. 44. Do semester or yearly planning of formal curriculum Setting discipline expectations Writing programmed materials Grouping pupils after diagnosis has been made Introducing a math concept to a class Enforcing classroom discipline 93 45. Making up daily assignment 59. Giving grades on the basis of a subjective test when the criteria are set *60. Constructing tests *63. Setting criteria for a subjective test *67. Conducting parent conferences at school in regard to discipline *68. Carrying on research in the school in regard to the effectiveness of a program *70. Conducting parent conferences at school in regard to academic performances *72. Interpreting research findings *73. Aiding in the evaluation of intern or student teachers * denotes no significant disagreement using the 2. 00 mean for demarca- tion--i. e. more highly differentiated tasks. On what tasks is there disagreement among the referent groups with respect to the appropriate role of the teacher? The data showed the experts disagreeing with the other groups on tasks 12 (do unit planning), 14 (initiating innovations in the structure of the subject matter), 17 (daily planning for a subject), 18 (developing innovations in instructional methodology), 19 (initiating major curriculum change), 22 (choosing instructional materials on a day to day basis), 23 (selecting methods of presenting materials and lesson), 39 (choosing appropriate motivational techniques), and 61 (constructing grading scales). The other four groups would identify these as teacher tasks, using the 2. 00 mean as the line of demarca- tion. Do teachers who have had experience with team-teaching identify fewer tasks which only a teacher can do? 94 Do teachers who have had experience working with teacher aides identify fewer tasks which only a teacher can do? There was a two-task difference in identification for teachers with these experiences or without either experience. Teachers with neither type of experience identified 39 tasks while the other two groups each identified 41 "teacher only" tasks. What if any relationship is there between age and identi- fication of tasks? The data did seem to indicate some discrimination by age. The 21-25 year old age group seemed the most willing to have the non-certificated person perform certain classroom tasks. The 56-65 year old group seemed extremely reluctant to have certain tasks performed by non-certificated personnel when compared with other age groups. Generally it can be stated that the data revealed the younger person somewhat more willing to have fewer tasks labelled "teacher only" tasks, and, conversely, more tasks within the role of non-certificated personnel. Is there any relationship between years of experience and identification of tasks ? A trend seemed to be indicated by the data. The respon— dents with fewer years of experience had greater means, which indicated more willingness to place the identified tasks within the 95 role of the non-certificated person. The group with less than six years of experience saw the role of a teacher more narrowly than any other group. The period of seven to eighteen years seemed to be a rather neutral time, with no strong indication either way. How- ever, from nineteen years to twenty-four years of experience the trend seemed to indicate some resistance to certain tasks being per- formed by non-certificated personnel. Do teacher aides identify fewer or more tasks which only a teacher can do than teachers? Using a 2. 50 mean as a line of demarcation, the teachers identified 44 tasks as "only certificated personnel" tasks, and the teacher aides identified 31 tasks for "only certificated personnel. " The data indicated that teachers saw more tasks as "teacher only" tasks while aides saw fewer tasks as being done by only teachers. Is there any relationship between the perception of role and the level of schooling? The relationship between level of schooling and role per- ception yielded some apparently significant data. Twenty tasks indicated disagreement among the groups at the .01 level. The dif- ferences were apparent at the .01 level, which lessens the chance for error. The trend was for the groups with a lower level of school- ing to judge the tasks more nearly or completely within the role of non-certificated personnel. Groups with a higher level of education 96 judged the tasks more nearly or completely within the role of the teacher. The nationally recognized experts were an exception, since they saw an expanded role for auxiliary personnel. What relationship is there between sex and identification oftasks? When the responses of men and women were compared, the data revealed the women with a greater number of high means. The women seemed to see the teacher' 5 role in a somewhat more restricted sense than men. In other words, the women would apparently favor non-certificated personnel doing more classroom tasks than would men. What if any relationship is there between grade level taught and identification of tasks ? There were twenty tasks with significant disagreement at the . 10 level. However, trends were hard to ascertain from examining the data. There was some indication that the upper grades tend to see more tasks done by non-certificated personnel. Excep- tions to this would be the kindergarten group, which favored an expanded role for non-certificated, and the eighth grade group, which saw the role for the non-certified in a more restricted fashion. On what tasks, if any, is there agreement that the task can be done by devices substituted for teachers? 97 From the data, it was possible to say that one and in some cases two groups had a significant number choosing "either non- certified personnel or machine" for the following tasks. 31. 41. 52. 64. 74. Working with a group on drill of basic addition facts Individual tutoring in subject areas Conducting drill on math facts Recording grades on report cards Maintaining pupil records, such as test scores, grades, health, etc. The written comments were generally positive in nature. There were many indications of a need and desire for training of all concerned and a more clearly defined role for auxiliary personnel. There was general agreement that clerical work can definitely be done by auxiliary personnel and they can also be of help in areas such as reading, art, music, and physical education. CHAPTER V SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND IMPLICATIONS Summary The purpose of this study, as stated previously, was to more clearly and completely delimit the role of a fully certificated teacher. 1. 2. By doing this it was hoped that the study would provide a rationale for the development of support teams of auxiliary personnel; facilitate the evolution of a teacher who would be able to utilize his education to a near maximum; give some general direction to administrative restruc- turing in regard to the effects of using auxiliary personnel; give further direction to teacher education and training programs for auxiliary personnel. Certain questions were established which, if data could be collected, would give added information for these stated purposes. Classroom tasks were identified as the indicators which could hope- fully be placed on a continuum of tasks. The continuum might then be used as a basic construct for further refinement of the educative process. It was decided that the four performance groups most 98 99 affected (aides, teachers, principals, and college instructors) should be asked for their perceptions concerning identification of "teacher only" tasks. Responses from nationally recognized experts were also used as a benchmark, and to give perspective to the investiga- tion. The major question asked in this study was, "What tasks will teachers, aides, principals, college instructors, and national experts agree can be done by only a person certificated to teach?" If this question could be answered, a beginning could be made toward establishing the certificated personnel end of the task continuum. This study was not typical because it did not endeavor to accept or reject a basic hypothesis, but rather to discriminate among classroom tasks by responses from the identified groups. Because of this statistics were viewed as a tool to show some differ- ences if there were any statistically visible. No one statistical level was viewed as the absolute for the entire study. Chi square was used as a test for homogeneity when the comparison of responses from the various groups was examined. This meant that using a higher statistical level for finding disagree- ment actually meant a lower degree of agreement. The .01 level was used to identify tasks where there was lack of disagreement because the .05 level did not show lack of 100 disagreement among most of the tasks. Since our purpose was to discriminate among the tasks if possible, and the .05 level did not discriminate, the .01 level was used. The 2. 00 mean and the 2. 50 mean were arbitrarily set as division points on the task continuum. Using the 2. 00 mean as the division point and lack of disagreement among the five groups, at the .01 level, as the criteria, the following tasks were identified for the "teacher only" end of the continuum. 2. 00 mean 16. Do semester or yearly planning of formal curriculum 32. Introducing a math concept to a class 60. Constructing tests 63. Setting criteria for a subjective test 67. Conducting parent conferences at school in regard to discipline 68. Carrying on research in the school in regard to the effectiveness of a program 70. Conducting parent conferences at school in regard to academic performances 72. Interpreting research findings 73. Aiding in the evaluation of intern or student teachers A secondary question concerned points of disagreement on task identification among the five groups. When the data were examined they revealed that the nationally recognized experts were most often in disagreement with the other groups. All the groups, except the national experts, agree that the following tasks should also 101 be "teacher only'l tasks. If the task continuum is considered again, these tasks would be placed next on the continuum. The tasks were: 2. 00 mean -— (all groups agreed except the experts) 12. 14. 17. 18. 19. 22. 23. 39. 61. Do unit planning Initiating innovations in the structure of the subject matter Daily planning for a subject (continuous) Developing innovations in instructional methodology Initiating major curriculum change Choosing instructional materials on a long term basis Selecting methods of presenting materials and lessons Choosing appropriate motivational techniques Constructing grading scales When the 2. 50 mean and lack of disagreement among all five groups were used as the criteria, the following tasks were iden— tified . 2. 50 mean 25. 27. 30. 44. 45. 59. Setting discipline expectations Writing programmed materials Grouping pupils after diagnosis has been made Enforcing classroom discipline Making up daily assignment Giving grades on the basis of a subjective test when the criteria are set Using a mean of 2. 50 as the arbitrary point of significance it was possible to say that, except for the experts, the groups did not significantly disagree that the following tasks are also teacher tasks. 102 2. 50 mean -- (all groups except experts agreed) 3. Ordering instructional aids 10. Developing instructional aids 13. Planning for one day in one subject area 21. Choosing instructional materials on a day to day basis 24. Establishing classroom routine 26. Enforcing discipline 28. Diagnosing minor learning difficulties 29. Prescribing for correction of minor learning problems 34. Introducing a reading lesson 36. Teaching an art class 38. Conducting penmanship class 42. Individual counseling with pupil 62. Administering tests to evaluate in a subject area 65. Evaluating the citizenship of a pupil 66. Making home visitations to become aware of home needs This gives a basic construct of tasks for the ”teacher only" end of the continuum. Those tasks identified using the 2. 50 mean could possibly be in the "office-code" (refer to Figure 1. 1, Chapter 1) section of the continuum. In other words, these tasks could possibly be assigned to well qualified auxiliary personnel. Further examination of the data revealed that one group, and for one task, two groups place the following tasks in the category of "only a certificated person can do,’ when the 2. 50 criterion is used. 11. Assuming responsibility for planning bulletin boards (principals 2. 11) 33. Conducting a reading class (teachers 2. 16 and college instructors 2. 16) 46. Conducting reading groups (teachers 1. 89) 56. Correcting themes (teachers 2. 37) 103 The remaining tasks listed on the questionnaire were considered non-teacher tasks by all groups. Another secondary question was, "Do teacher aides identify fewer or more tasks which only a teacher can do than teachers?” The data indicated that teachers did tend to see more tasks as "teacher only" tasks while aides saw fewer tasks as ”teacher only" functions. When sex was examined as a variable the trend was for the female to view the tasks as more nearly or completely within the non-certificated personnel category. Nine tasks had a significant chi square at the . 10 level. The females had a higher mean response on seven tasks while the males were higher on two tasks. The data indicated that females tend to view auxiliary personnel as more able to perform certain tasks in the classroom than males do. Another variable considered was the age of the respon- dents. When the data were examined significant disagreement at the . 10 level was found for eighteen tasks. When the age groups were divided into two larger sections the trend seemed more clear. The forty to forty-five year old group was used as a division point. The totals showed the 21-40 year old age group with higher means on fourteen of the eighteen tasks. Apparently the younger person sees auxiliary personnel doing more tasks in the classroom. 104 The relationship between perception of role and level of schooling completed by the respondent was examined. The level of disagreement was higher when level of schooling completed by the respondent was examined than for any other variable. It was possible to discriminate at the . 01 level of significance. Twenty classroom tasks showed disagreement among the various level of schooling groups. The groups which had some college or less schooling had higher means on eighteen of the tasks. The group with a B. A. or more was higher on only two tasks. The evidence suggests that respondents with less than a college degree tend to see auxiliary per- sonnel doing more tasks in the classroom. The higher the level of schooling completed, the less likely the person will see auxiliary personnel competent for an expanded role. Nationally recognized experts were an exception. The experts saw an expanded role for auxiliary personnel. Is there any relationship between grade level taught and perception of role? This question was examined. There was sig- nificant disagreement on twenty tasks at the . 10 level. Although the respondents working in fifth through eighth grade had a higher mean on twelve of the twenty tasks, the trend was not strongly evident. For example, the kindergarten group had a relatively large number of high means when compared with the other individual groups, yet this does not follow the general trend as previously indicated. 105 The number of years of experience a respondent had had seemed to affect the way the tasks were judged. There were high means, which reflected a broader role for auxiliary personnel, for those with six years of experience or less. A leveling trend seemed to occur after seven years of experience until twenty years of expe- rience. After twenty years of experience the respondent viewed the teacher' s role expanded and a more narrow role for auxiliary per- sonnel. The identification of tasks seemed to be little affected by whether the respondent had had experience working with aides or in a team-teaching situation. Forty-one ”teacher only" tasks were identified by those with experience with aides and forty-one "teacher only" tasks were also identified by those who had had experience in team-teaching. Thirty-nine tasks were identified by those who had had neither type of experience. Apparently these two types of expe- rience do not greatly influence the perception of role. It was hoped that some indication would be given concern- ing whether the "non-teacher" tasks could be done by non—certificated personnel or machines. Nearly all the non-teacher tasks were identified as being within the province of the non-certificated person- nel. Various groups identified the following tasks as ones which could be done by either machines or non-certificated personnel. 106 31. Working with a group on drill of basic addition facts (college instructors and experts) 41. Individual tutoring in subject areas (experts) 52. Conducting drill on math facts (experts and college instructors) 64. Recording grades on report cards (college instructors) 74. Maintaining pupil records, such as test scores, grades, and health (experts and college instructors) This list, while small, is indicative of the type of func- tions which have potential for being performed by machines if the need and opportunity presents itself. The written comments were generally positive. This was true of all groups which responded. Aides presented a good self-image in most cases. While they admitted they had done nearly all of the tasks listed on the ques- tionnaire at one time or another, there was a feeling they should not do all of them. There was confusion concerning what the aide' s role was supposed to be. Most aides resented doing only "baby-sitting" and menial tasks. Teachers had mixed reactions. Most were positive about their experience with aides but usually left a psychological loophole by saying their aide was "exceptional. " A few felt someone or "the system" was not treating them fairly so compensated by giving them an aide. Flexibility, a need for training, and the opportunity for community linkage were common threads of expression. 107 The principals were the most positive of any group in their view of the performance of auxiliary personnel. The one addi- tion they provided was that training should be done within the building where the aide is assigned. College instructors seemed concerned with training and selection. The instructors appeared to do more fence straddling than any other group. Generally they favored increased use of auxiliary personnel but when, how, and to what extent depended on numerous variables. The importance of the supervisor' s ability to analyze and interpret tasks were mentioned as extremely important. Conclusions This study sought to establish a cornerstone for building a more efficient and relevant educative process by considering the potential for using auxiliary personnel. While the cornerstone has not been laid, perhaps it has broken the ground. By looking specifically at classroom tasks it was possible to see some agreement on a group of tasks which might be done com- petently by only certificated personnel. It was recognized that there might be that one rare exception who could do it all without any school- ing, but the emphasis here was on the rule. The degree of agreement, or lack of disagreement, was evidence that a common ground can be reached. 108 What areas were indicated to be considered as areas for only certificated personnel? Agreement on the following tasks indicated a concern for keeping evaluation as an area for certificated personnel. 60. Constructing tests 63. Setting criteria for a subjective test 68. Carrying on research in the school in regard to the effectiveness of a program 72. Interpreting research findings Planning the formal curriculum was considered an area for certificated personnel. This was indicated by task sixteen. 16. Do semester or yearly planning of formal curriculum Although the distinction was not as clear, there was evidence that discipline is a function for certificated personnel. This did not follow some of the general comments written by the professionals. Task sixty-seven had agreement among all five groups. 67. Conducting parent conferences at school in regard to discipline There was agreement among all five groups, when the 2. 50 mean was used, that task twenty-five and forty-four were "teacher only" tasks. 109 25. Setting discipline expectations 44. Enforcing classroom discipline This would reinforce task sixty-seven and the proposition that dis- cipline can be done by certificated personnel only. The introduction of new concepts should be accomplished by certificated personnel. 32. Introducing a math concept to a class Teacher associations have indicated a desire and belief that teachers must control entrance to teaching. Agreement among all five groups on task seventy-three shows that classroom teachers are not alone in their opinion. 73. Aiding in the evaluation of intern or student teachers To the extent that one can say the following tasks relate to interpreting classroom activities to parents, it can be concluded that interpretation of the classroom program to parents can be done by only certificated personnel. 67. Conducting parent conferences at school in regard to discipline 70. Conducting parent conferences at school in regard to academic performance 110 This gives the following areas which are the responsi- bility of only certificated personnel. rum mac‘s» Evaluation Planning Discipline Introducing new concepts Entrance to the profession Interpretation of program to parents These were the areas where there was lack of disagree- ment among the five groups. Where disagreement occurred, the most pronounced variance was caused by the nationally recognized experts. The areas of disagreement seemed to be primarily: Q-OC‘QJ Innovation Selecting methods Choosing motivational techniques Short term planning There was indication that only five tasks could be done by machines as well as non-certificated personnel. Although this seems like a small number, when the tasks are examined the impli- cations for related tasks and the amount of man-hours which would be saved if done by machines gives added weight to this possibility. Briefly the areas are: a. b. Drill on basic facts Reports It was possible to conclude from the data that sex, years of experience, age, level of schooling, and grade level taught are 111 variables of varying significance which should be considered when using auxiliary personnel in the classroom. The differences indicated some preference for the female sex; personnel less than forty years of age; six years of experience or less; not a high level of schooling; and a slight preference for upper grades. There were some exceptions. These were only differences and should be interpreted as such. The study did not seek to accept or reject a hypothesis regarding these variables. Others may desire to do more extensive research in regard to the points of difference. Aides saw fewer tasks as ”teacher only" tasks than teachers. This could indicate a basic conservatism on the part of teachers, a lack of information for both parties, or the belief by the aides that their role is expanding. Whatever the case, it must be recognized and remembered when training programs are planned and in various interpersonal situations. Implications The implications of this study were considered with the original purposes of the study providing a framework for building a viable pattern of relationships. The implications were hopefully con- cerned with relevant change and not incarcerated in the dizzy arena of erudite self-delusion. The review of literature implicitly, if not explicitly, pro- vided a basis for the rationale of developing instructional support 112 teams. The need and potential for using auxiliary personnel was further reinforced by the written comments from the respondents. Teachers expressed a need for help. A variety of success experi- ences were related, The fact that some agreement on a group of tasks was accomplished seems to indicate that task differentiation and role delineation are not pipe dreams, but can become reality. Perhaps the most potent anchor pin in the rationale for using auxiliary personnel is the linkage between the community and school. The written comments expressed the need for and limited success with using auxiliary personnel to gain rapport with the home. This seemed especially true for minority ethnic groups. Societal changes have begun to force the school out of the cocoon of compla- cency and into the torrent of neighborhood upheaval. If the teacher is to be a successful orchestrator of learning experiences, all the instruments must be heard. The establishment of a task continuum lends credence to the potential for building career ladders. This must be done if auxiliary personnel function with any degree of self- esteem. A dead end job may create petrified performers. While care must be taken to guard against dead end jobs, proper recognition should be acCorded each job level so the worker can retain his self-esteem should he choose to remain in that job slot. The proper training and education of a teacher is a costly * matter. Generally, a high level of instruction is provided the novice 113 but the valuable theoretical underpinnings are lost in the halocaust of classroom trivia and the necessity of survival. The data revealed a somewhat surprising amount of agreement that many tasks could be done by auxiliary personnel. Machines also hold a great deal of potential for permitting the teacher to make the maxi- mum use of his education. It should be remembered that the use of ancillary personnel was not considered in this study and the tasks generally done by ancillary personnel were purposely deleted. If those tasks were included, the potential help for teachers becomes apparent. Perhaps then teachers could be primarily concerned with strategy development and less concerned with the technical aspects. The possibility would then exist for teachers to look more at the learning process and less at teaching. Administrative restructuring would be necessary for the school system using auxiliary personnel extensively. The creation of additional levels of personnel would magnify the problems of com- munication. The hierarchy could easily become too sharp a pyramid. Master teachers would become integrally involved in procedural decision making. The administrator would be forced to become more than ever a catalyst for meaningful group interaction. There would be no time for the nuts and bolts operation. These functions would all be delegated. The administrator would liken his role to that of an architect, constantly designing better functional relationships. 114 Negotiations would increase in complexity; but as the variables increase, so do the possibilities for new vectors of change. The administrator should be aware of such variables as sex, age, experience, level of schooling, and grade level taught when hiring new personnel and in making assignments. The data indicated some preference should normally be given to the younger female with a small degree of experience, teaching in the upper grades, and without advanced schooling when beginning a program using auxiliary personnel. This seems to imply that the-older, more experienced, and better educated would need more intensive in-service training. Of course it should be remembered that what is true for a group is not necessarily true of each individual within the group. Extreme care would be necessary in planning the in- service training. The data indicated neither experience working with aides nor experience in team-teaching greatly changed the percep- tion of role. Perhaps the quality of experience is the crux of it. It does seem evident from the data that some model for role differentiation could be established. Role specifications would provide more clearly defined functional performances. which could then be more explicitly communicated to trainees and professionals. There seems to be implied a need for a high level of openness and security on the part of all involved. 115 The approach to different groups should vary. For example, the data indicated that auxiliary personnel possess a reasonably positive feeling about their ability to perform an increas- ing share of classroom tasks. The aide sees his role expanding. On the other hand, teachers tend to see the aide' s role in a more restricted fashion. The auxiliary must be controlled but not emaciated while the teacher needs illumination on the potential of using auxiliary personnel more extensively. The desire and need for training to take place in the school setting was expressed often in the written comments. This would of course necessitate an open school laboratory. As auxiliary personnel become an increasingly integral component of the educative process it is apparent teachers will be able to concentrate on the more complex functions. The metamor- phosis within the public schools will force teacher education to have a highly selective focus. Teacher education cannot afford to spend a great deal of time on clerical training, construction of instructional aids, material files, the use of audio-visual equipment, bulletin boards, and other similar activities. The primary areas of concern indicated by the data should be interpersonal relationships with students and adults, 1. evaluation of the program in view of the dynamics of learning, and 116 a field approach to educational planning. The directed focus would permit a highly selective program at the college level. Because of the variety of public school programs evolving, the teacher' 8 train- ing must have the potential for individualization. A new order of partnership between public schools and colleges will be necessary to integrate theory and practice. This partnership in providing experientially based training will enrich \ both programs. It will require two basic thrusts: (a) Certificated XX, I teachers must become more involved in guidance, screening, and j " training of prospective teachers. (b) College curricula must be flexible enough to enable the reversal of course sequence when neces- sary. For example, the educational methodology should come before the liberal arts course work because the methodology would be neces- sary for some auxiliary job levels. This direction was indicated by the agreement among the groups that evaluation of externs should be done by certificated per- sonnel. Also the entire structure of the maximum use of indigenous auxiliary personnel is predicated on the second major thrust given. The training of teachers will be within a new construct of the university, public schools, and community colleges. Com- munication and liaison personnel will be a necessary ingredient for SUCCESS . 117 Specific Recommendations The implications give consideration toward some specific recommendations. A. An experimental training program should be established to determine the special training components needed for auxiliary personnel and the teachers working with them. This research should be cooperatively planned and evaluated by public school administrators, teachers, community college instructors, and university person- nel. The effect on the learning process should be fore- most in consideration. Community colleges and universities must plan together to enable ease in transfer of credit, and a more flexible policy on admission to allow the role of auxiliary person- nel to develop. The educational, social, and economic results of the con- centrated use of auxiliary and ancillary personnel in a controlled setting should be researched. The variables should be isolated when possible and their effect on changing attitudes, behavior, and life style determined. Additional Questions for Study What are the advantages of a teacher beginning his train- ing as an auxiliary as opposed to the traditional route of four years on campus with one term of student teaching? Is there a more efficient and meaningful way than task delineation to identify roles within the classroom? How can we identify the intuitive person who can do high level tasks, and how do we make maximum use of him? Why do the personnel with advanced schooling apparently have a more restricted view of the role of auxiliary personnel? 118 5. What are the financial implications when auxiliary per- sonnel are added? 6. How can administrators best maintain a dynamic equilibrium within the educative framework and still constructively employ indigenous personnel with nega- tive feelings about the school? Hopefully this study has pointed to some differences, shown some areas of agreement, created new questions. Perhaps more was left unanswered than was asked originally. If so, some degree of success was reached. BI BLI OGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY Allen, Dwight W. "A Differentiated Staff: Putting Teaching Talent to Work. " Occasional Papers. National Commission on Teacher Education and Professional Standards. Wash- ington, D.C.: NEA, December, 1967. American Association of School Administrators and Research Division. Educational Research Service Circular. Washington, D. C. : National Education Association, April, 1967. Auxiliary School Personnel. National Commission on Teacher Edu- cation and Professional Standards. Washington, D. C. : NEA, 1967. Barnes, Fred P. Research for the Practitioner in Education. Wash- ington, D. C. : National Department of Elementary School Principals, 1964. Bowman, Garda, and Gordon J. Klopf. New Careers and Roles in the American School. A Report Prepared for the Office of Economic Opportunity. New York: Bank Street Col- lege of Education, September, 1967. Brenner, Marcella. ”The School Technician--A New Career. " Inno- vations for Time to Teach. Department of Classroom Teachers. Washington, D. C. : NEA, 1966. Brunner, Cathrine. "A Lap to Sit On and Much More !" Childhood Education, XLIII (September, 1963). Central Michigan University. Total List of Schools That Have Employed Teacher Aides Over a 12 Year Period. Mt. Pleasant, Michigan: Central Michigan University, 1964. 119 120 Clement, Stanley L. "More Time for Teaching. " National Associa- tion of Secondary School Principals Bulletin, December, 1962. Davies, Don. "Editorial. " The National Elementary School Principal, 46: 4-5 (April, 1967). Deason, John. "What They Say About Teacher Aides. " School Executive, December, 1957. Denmark, George W. ”The Teacher and His Staff. " National Educa- tion Association Journal, December, 1966. Esbenson, Thorward. "Should Teacher Aides Be More Than Clerks?" Phi Delta Kappan, Vol. 47, No. 5 (January, 1966). Faust, C. "Utilization of Teaching Resources in Secondary Schools. " California Journal of Secondary Education, Vol. 32 (Sep- tember, 1957). Fine, Sidney A. Guidelines for the Design of New Careers. A Staff Paper for the W. E. Upjohn Institute for Employment Research, Kalamazoo, Michigan, September, 1967. Fund for the Advancement of Education. A Cooperative Study for the Better Utilization of Teacher Competencies. A Report Prepared by Central Michigan College, Mt. Pleasant, Michigan, 1955. Fund for the Advancement of Education. A Cooperative Study for the Better Utilization of Teacher Competencies. An Evalua— tion Report Prepared by an Outside Evaluating Committee, Central Michigan University, Mt. Pleasant, Michigan, 1958. Greenshields, M. J. "Big Timbers' Teacher-Helper Plan." The American School Board Journal, 104: 20 (1942). Journal of Teacher Education. "A Symposium: The Bay City, Michigan, Experiment--A Cooperative Study for the Better Utilization of Teacher Competencies. " Journal of Teacher Education, 7: 100-152 (1956). Laux, Dean M. "A New Role for Teachers. " Phi Delta Kappan, Vol. 46 (February, 1965). 121 Pearl, Arthur, and Frank Riessman. New Careers for the Poor: The Nonprofessional in Human Services. New York: The Free Press, 1965. Riessman, Frank. New Careers, A Basic Strategy Against Poverty. A. Phillip Randolph Educational Fund, 1967. Savage, Wilbur. "Teacher Oriented Programs, A Venture into Team Teaching. " Associated Public School Systems Yearbook, 1966. Scates, Douglas. "The Prior Meaning of Increases in Teaching Staff. " Journal of Teacher Education, 7: 82-88 (1956). Scates, Douglas E. , and Alice V. Yeomans. The Effect of Question- naire Form on Course Requests of Employed Adults. Washington: American Council on Education, 1950. Schmitthausler, C. "Analysis of Programs Using Nonprofessional Teacher Helpers in Public Elementary School Classrooms. " Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, University of Cali- fornia, Berkeley, 1966. Shipp, Mary D. "Teacher Aides: A Survey." The National Elementary School Principal, May, 1967. Stafford, Curt. "Teacher Time Utilization with Teacher Aides. " Journal of Educational Research, October, 1962. Steinberg, Sheldon S. , and Eunice O. Shatz. "Junior Colleges and the New Careers Program. ” Junior College Journal, February, 1968. TAP. The Teacher Aide Program. A Project of the Model School Division of the Public Schools of the District of Columbia, Conducted by the Washington School of Psychiatry, August, 1967. TEPS Newsletter. National Commission on Teacher Education and Professional Standards. Volume 10, No. 3. Washington: National Education Association, January 15, 1967. The Classroom Teacher Speaks on His Supportive Staff. Report of the Classroom Teachers National Study Conference on 122 the Classroom Teacher and His Supportive Staff. Wash- ington: National Education Association, November, 1966. Trump, J. L. "A Look Ahead in Secondary Education. " National Association of Secondary School Principals Bulletin, 42: 5-15 (1958). Ussery, Wilfred T. A Speech Given as National Chairman of CORE, before the House Committee on Education and Labor, July 17, 1967. Walker, Helen M. , and Joseph Leu. Statistical Inference. New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1953. Wirth, A. "A New Hierarchy for the Teaching Profession. " Changing Education, 1: 3-5 (1967). APPENDICES APPENDIX A LIST OF NATIONALLY RECOGNIZED EXPERTS INCLUDED IN THE STUDY APPENDIX A LIST OF NATIONALLY RECOGNIZED EXPERTS INCLUDED IN THE STUDY It should be remembered that not all responded to the questionnaire. Sidney A. Fine, Ph.D. W. E. Upjohn Institute Jack Ferver, Director Center for Extension Programs University of Wisconsin Dr. Lee S. Shulman Michigan State University Dr. Ben Bloom School of Education University of Chicago Dr. Abrahaum H. Blum Department of Educational Psychology University of Wisconsin John Lindlof, Director Auxiliary Demonstration Center University of Maine 123 Dr. Edsel Erickson School of Education Western Michigan University Barry Greenberg Research Assistant Bank Street College of Education Dr. James G. Kelly Department of Psychology University of Michigan Bruce Rosen School of Education Atlanta University-Georgia Clarence Olsen, Director Volunteer Programs, Mott Institute Michigan State University 124 Mrs. Stella Zahn Director of Training New York City Dr. Wilton Anderson Board of Education New York City Dr. William Durr Reading Specialist Michigan State University Dr. Jean M. Lepere Teacher Education Michigan State University Dr. David T. Turney Department of Education George Peabody College Milan Dady, Director Auxiliary Personnel Demon- stration Center Morehead State University Sumner M. Rosen, Ph.D. New York University Frank C. Emmerling State Department of Instruction Raleigh, North Carolina Dr. Curtis Gear School of Educational Psychol- 083' University of Wisconsin Dr. Arthur Pearl School of Education University of Oregon David Selden Assistant to the President American Federation of Teachers Mrs. Esther Wattenberg University of Minnesota APPENDIX B QUE STIONNAI RE 125 TASK DISCRIMINATION FORM (For K-6 Level) The purpose of this questionnaire is to identify those tasks requiring a certified person and those which can be done by a non- certified person. Consider each task listed below and indicate if you think it i_s or i_s_ got a task which can be done competently only by a person who is certified to teach. We are not concerned with the question of should in this questionnaire. For purposes of this study, ”certifi- cated teacher" may be broadly enough interpreted to include other professional educators, for example principals, whose background includes certification and teaching experience. It is assumed that when a task can be done by persons got certified to teach it would be performed under the supervision and guidance of a certified person, after training was given to the non-certified person. When we speak of "devices substituting for teachers" we mean teaching machines and computer aided instruction and other such devices . USE THE FOLLOWING CHOICES: A - I believe strongly only a person certified to teach can do this. B - I believe only a person certified to teach can do this. C - I am uncertain. D - I believe persons £9". certified to teach or devices sub- stituting for teachers can do this. E - I believe strongly persons not certified to teach or devices substituting for teachers car—i_do this. 126 A - I believe strongly gnly a person certified to teach 5:33 do this. B - I believe only a person certified to teach can do this. —_ ...... C - I am uncertain. D - I believe persons _n_o_t_ certified to teach or devices :3 .4 substituting for teachers can do this. .9. g E - I believe strongly persons-En certified to teach or '8 S . . . — . cu m deVIces substituting for teachers _ca_n do this. a :3 >, D.- DIRECTIONS: f) '8 sea PLACE A CHECK IN THE ONE SQUARE THAT MOST 6 t: NEARLY INDICATES YOUR BELIEF. CHECK THE 3 8 3; APPROPRIATE SQUARE IN THE SECOND COLUMN .1 3: 5 WHEN APPLICABLE. 53 ,2 a C D E 1 2 3 . Deciding on seating arrange- ments for pupils Preparing bulletin boards and such displays . Ordering instructional aids Shelving instructional mate- rials Constructing instructional aids . Adjusting classroom heat, light and other physical needs . Operating audio visual equip- ment Servicing audio visual equip— ment If you check box D or E, be sure to make a choice of box 1, 2, or 3. 127 ',> I can do this. I believe strongly only a person certified to teach B — I believe only a person certified to teach can do this. C - I am uncertain. D - I believe persons M certified to teach or devices substituting for teachers can do this. E _ I believe strongly persons not certified to teach or devices substituting for teachers can do this. Can be done by machines Non-certified personnel Either H (A) 9. Arranging classroom furni- ture and equipment 10. DeveIOping instructional aids 11. Assuming responsibility for planning bulletin boards 12. Do unit planning 13. Planning for one day in one subject area 14. Initiating innovations in the structure of the subject matter 15. Carrying out short-term field trips in connection with class instruction 16. Do semester or yearly plan— ning of formal curriculum 17. Daily planning for a subject (continuous) 18. Developing innovations in instructional methodology If you check box D or E, be sure to make a choice of box 1, 2, or 3. If you check box D or E, be sure to make a choice of box 1, 2, or 3. 128 A - I believe strongly only a person certified to teach can do this. B - I believe only a person certified to teach can do this. - I am undertain. U 0 I I believe persons BEE certified to teach or devices substituting for teachers can do this. E - I believe strongly persons 953 certified to teach or devices substituting for teachers can do this. Can be done by machines Non-certified personnel Either H N W 19. Initiating major curriculum change 20. Participating in group plan- ning in the classroom 21. Choosing instructional mate- rials on a day to day basis 22. Choosing instructional mate- rials on a long term basis 23. Selecting methods of present- ing materials and lessons 24. Establishing class room rou- tine 25. Setting discipline expe cta- tions 26. Enforcing discipline 27. Writing prog rammed mate- rials 28. Diagnosing minor learning difficulties If you check box D or E, be sure to make a choice of box 1, 2, or 3. If you check box D or E, be sure to make a choice of box 1, 2, or 3. 129 A - I believe strongly only a person certified to teach g .4 En do this. .5 g B - I believe only a person certified to teach gag do ’5 g this. g f} C - I am uncertain. >3 8, D - I believe persons n_ot_ certified to teach or devices -° '0 substituting for teachers 522 do this. 2 :2; E - I believe strongly persons n_o_t certified to teach or .8 {5 devices substituting for teachers gin do this. 8 8 2.). I 6 8?. D Z Ell C D E 1 2 3 29. Prescribing for correction of minor learning problem 30. Grouping pupils after diag- nosis has been made 31. Working with a group on drill of basic addition facts 32. Introducing a math concept to a class 33. Conducting a reading class 34. Introducing a reading lesson 35. Conducting a "for fun" music lesson 36. Teaching an art class 37 . Instructing a physical educa- tion class 38. Conducting penmanship class If you check box D or E, be sure to make a choice of box 1, 2, or 3. If you check box D or E, be sure to make a choice of box 1, 2, or 3. 130 A - I believe strongly gn_ly a person certified to teach can do this. B - mlieve 9L1): a person certified to teach can do this. C - I am uncertain. D - I believe persons no_t certified to teach or devices substituting for teachers 232 do this. E .. I believe strongly persons _n_gt certified to teach or devices substituting for teachers can do this. Can be done by machines Non-certified personnel Either H [\3 DO 39. Choosing appropriate motiva- tional techniques 40. Conducting spelling class 41. Individual tutoring in subject areas 42. Individual counseling with pupil 43. Enforcing classroom routine 44. Enforcing classroom disci- phne 45. Making up daily assignment 46. Conducting reading groups 47. Supervising directed study time 48. Supervising recess If you check box D or E, be sure to make a choice of box 1, 2, or 3. If you check ’ box D or E, be sure to make a choice of box 1, 2, or 3. 131 A - I believe strongly only a person certified to teach can do this. B - I believe only a person certified to teach can do this. — I am uncertain. U 0 I I believe persons n_ot certified to teach or devices substituting for teachers can do this. E - I believe strongly persons gqt certified to teach or devices substituting for teachers can do this. Can be done by machines Non-certified personnel Either H N 00 49. Desk to desk helping of students 50. Writing lessons on the board (assignments, etc.) 51. Conducting opening period of day (sharing, etc.) 52. Conducting drill on math facts 53. Leading intramural sports 54. Monitoring a class which is using teaching machines 55. Carrying on a spelling drill 56. Correcting themes 57. Correcting arithmetic papers 58. Giving grades on the basis of an objective test when the scale is set If you check box D or E, be sure to make a choice of box 1, 2, or 3. If you check box D or E, be sure to make a choice of box 1, 2, or 3. 132 can do this . this. - I am uncertain. U 0 U3 :9 I - I believe strongly only a person certified to teach I believe only a person certified to teach can do - I believe persons got certified to teach or devices substituting for teachers can do this. E - I believe strongly persons ngt certified to teach or devices substituting for teachers can do this. Can be done by machines Non- ce rti fied pe rsonnel Either H N 00 59. Giving grades on the basis of a subjective test when the criteria are set 60. Constructing tests 61. Constructing grading scales 62. Administering tests to evalu- ate in a subject area 63. Setting criteria for a subjec- tive test 64. Recording grades on report cards 65. Evaluating the citizenship of a pupil 66. Making home visitations to become aware of home needs 67. Conducting parent conferences at school in regard to dis- cipline 68. Carrying on research in the school in regard to the effectiveness of a program If you check box D or E, be sure to make a choice of box 1, 2, or 3. If you check box D or E, be sure to make a choice of box 1, 2, or 3. 133 A - I believe strongly only a person certified to teach can do this. _— B - ITelieve m a person certified to teach gin do this. - I am uncertain. I believe persons n_ot certified to teach or devices substituting for teachers 3313 do this. E - I believe strongly persons not certified to teach or U Q I Can be done by machines Non- ce rtifi ed pe rsonnel devices substituting for tea—ch-ers can do this. :3 £3 '63 A B C D E 1 2 3 69. Acting as truant officer 70. Conducting parent conferences at school in regard to academic performances 71. Conducting after school inter- est groups, such as flower ar- If you check ranging, leather work, etc. box D or E, be sure to 72. Interpreting research findings make a choice of . . . . box 1, 2, 7 3. Aiding In the evaluation of . or 3. Intern or student teachers 74. Maintaining pupil records, such as test scores, grades, health, etc. *PLEASE CHECK TO BE SURE YOU HAVE MARKED 1, 2, OR 3 IN THE SECOND COLUMN FOR EACH TIME YOU CHOSE D OR E IN THE FIRST COLUMN. 134 PERSONAL INFORMATION FORM 1. Name 2. Age 3. School system or college 4. Grade level assignment 5. Years of experience 6. Have you had experience working with: Number Check One of Years (a) teacher aides no [:1 yes E1 years (b) team-teaching no [:1 yes [:1 years (c) working as teacher aide no [3 yes '3 years 7. What is the highest level of schooling you have completed? some high school 0‘93 high school graduate school beyond high school (e.g. business or trade) some college bachelor' 5 degree f” (D some graduate work “9 UUUUUUU master' 3 degree 9 some graduate work beyond the masters Please add any comments you have about the kinds of tasks teacher aides can most effectively help teachers with. APPENDIX C LETTER OF INT RODUCTION 135 462 S. Tuscola Road R. R. #2 Bay City, Michigan 48706 May 8, 1968 Dear Colleague: The recent interest and concern regarding the function of auxiliary personnel in the school has caused a re-examination of just which tasks require a fully certificated teacher. In an effort to answer this question we would greatly appreciate your cooperation in completing the enclosed questionnaire. All the personal information is confidential. Please answer each item carefully as each is pertinent to our study. The questionnaire takes approximately 20 minutes to complete. Even though participation is voluntary, I believe you will agree this is an opportunity to help our profession move forward. A brief summary of the study will be available for anyone who desires the information. Place the questionnaire into the self addressed envelope and return directly to me. Thank you for your cooperation. Sincerely, R. Arden Moon Graduate Student Michigan State University RAszm APPENDIX D FOLLOW-UP LETTER 136 462 S. Tuscola Road R. R. #2 Bay City, Michigan 48706 May , 1968 Dear Colleague: Recently you received a letter and questionnaire regarding task identification. This is part of a research study to help in identifying the proper role for the teacher and the aide. The findings should be very helpful to all concerned. I want to assure you again that all personal information is confidential and individual responses are treated as part of a group in the analysis of the data. Please fill out the questionnaire and return in the self addressed, stamped envelope, if you have not done so. Your cooperation is greatly appreciated. Sincerely, R. Arden Moon Graduate Student Michigan State University RAszm