THE RELQYQBHSHW BETWEEN SCHOOL CLIMATE ANS EDWARDS? MANEFEST NEEDS 0F THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL TACHER Thesis for the Eegree of Ph. D. MICWGAR SYA'E‘E WVERSITY E. fj-xRRY ESERLESN .1957 mews 3 1293 96 7810 Ill!(If!!!IllIIIIIIIH/lflillfllflllll/DIM/HIIIIHIII W . This is to certify that the thesis entitled THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SCHOOL CLIMATE AND EDWARDS' MANIFEST NEEDS OF THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL TEACHER presented by E. Larry Eberlein has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Counseling & M degree in __ _ Personnel Serv1ces Due June 9th. 1967 0—169 ABSTRACT THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SCHOOL CLIMATE AND EDWARDS' MANIFEST NEEDS OF THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL TEACHER by E. Larry Eberlein The purpose of this study was to investigate and analyze the relationships that exist between the climate of different elementary schools and the teachers who teach within those schools. Basic information was gathered and analyzed using three instruments: The Edwards' Personal Preference Schedule (EPPS), Halpin and Croft's Organizational Climate Description Questionnaire (OCDQ), and basic biographical and vocational data. Twenty-four Michigan schools of diverse characteristics were asked to participate in the study and 359 teachers and principals from these schools provided at least part of the information requested. For that part of the study relating only to female elementary school teachers, 295 teachers pro- vided all the information mentioned above. Hypotheses were formulated relating the EPPS manifest need structure of female elementary school teachers to the OCDQ. For this purpose the OCDQ was divided into three factors: Factor I on openness, Factor II on satisfaction of task goals and social needs, and Factor III on freedom of E. Larry Eberlein the group to take leadership positions. Needs that did appear to have some relationship to climate included Achievement, Abasement, Conformity (a combination of EPPS sub-tests), Exhibition, and Deference. The elimination of novice teachers and teachers new to the building offered little additional information in this area. A strong age-experience interaction was found using the EPPS. Teachers in the present sample ranged from 20 to almost 70 years of age and their EPPS scores reflected this age variance. The need for Deference, Order, Abasement and Endurance showed an increase with age; the need for Exhibi- tion and Heterosexuality, a decrease with age. Affiliation, Succorance and Change had the least clearcut patterns, but were "affected by age." The differences in EPPS needs when the present sample was compared with women in general tended to replicate other studies. When compared on five vocational Scale Questions, teachers who saw their school as being closed or inauthentic tended to have a higher need for Achievement, Autonomy and Heterosexuality, and a lesser need for Deference, Order, and Abasement. Much of this difference, however, could be ac- counted for by age and experience. Teachers whose social needs were not being met tended to be younger, have less experience, score higher on Achievement, Aggression, and Heterosexuality, but lower on Deference, Conformity, Order, Exhibition, and Abasement. The least happy teachers were also younger, less experienced and tended to score higher on E. Larry Eberlein Aggression, Exhibition and Change. They scored lower on Conformity, Intraception and Deference. Teachers who did not feel a freedom to accept leadership positions showed a lower need for Nurturance and a higher need for Succorance. Hypotheses were also formulated relating the OCDQ Factor scores to a series of five vocational Scale Questions. When compared with older teachers, the younger and novice teachers perceived their environment as being more closed, were less satisfied with the way their task goals and social needs were being met, were more unhappy in their teaching situation and did not feel free to take a leadership position in the school. Almost all of the teachers who perceived the behavior of teachers at their school as being inauthentic or superficial had been in the building three years or less. Teachers new to the building also felt less achievement with their task and social goals, were more unhappy and felt the least freedom to take a leadership role. When teachers from open climate schools were compared with teachers from closed climate schools, the former per- ceived their climate as being more open, were more satisfied with the way their social needs were being met, and, overall, were more happy working in such a school. The attainment of task or Job satisfaction was independent of climate openness and the feeling of freedom to take a leadership position was found to be more related to factors other than openness. The thrust of the principal and the intimacy of the group were the two most important variables here. E. Larry Eberlein When teachers from schools in which a high degree of social and task satisfaction was present were compared with teachers from other schools, the former saw behavior at their school as being more open and authentic than the latter. They were happier and felt a greater freedom to take leadership positions. When teachers from schools where the principal was seen as being considerate and non-aloof were compared with other teachers, the former saw their environment as being more open, were more satisfied with the way their social needs were being met, were more happy working in such a school and felt more freedom to take a leadership role in their school. There was no significant difference between the groups of teachers when compared on their responses to the question of-attainment of task goals. A combination of high need for Deference on the part of the individual teacher, high esprit on the part of the group and a high degree of thrust and consideration on the part of the principal combine to form the most satisfying relationship for the teacher in her overall vocational happiness. THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SCHOOL CLIMATE AND EDWARDS' MANIFEST NEEDS OF THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL TEACHER By E. Larry Eberlein A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Counseling, Personnel Services and Educational Psychology College of Education 1967 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The writer wishes to express grateful and sincere appreciation to all who have contributed to the deveIOp- ment and completion of this study, but especially to: The principals and teachers of the 24 schools and the officials of the school systems without whose help this study could not have been completed; Dr. John E. Jordan, my guidance committee chairman, for his encouragement and help throughout, and his careful consideration of each step in the various phases of this study; Dr. Norman R. Stewart, Dr. Leroy A. Olson, and Dr. Norman Abeles, the remaining members of my guidance committee, for their help and encouragement of this study; Dr. Lee S. Shulman, under whose guidance I learned a great deal about the practical matters involved in educational research, and who provided the genesis of this study; my wife, Ellen, whose many hours of assistance and frequent expressions of love and encouragement were essential to the completion of this study; my four children, John, Susan, Robert and David, whose assistance in many of the manual chores associated with the project and whose understand- ing of time pressures will always be remembered. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS . . . . . . . . LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . LIST OF FIGURES . . . . . . LIST OF APPENDICES . . . . . . Chapter I. INTRODUCTION. . . . . The Problem . . . Purpose of This Study. . . Scope and Limitations. . . . II. REVIEW OF RESEARCH. . . . . The Domas and Tiedeman and Barr Surveys. The Getzels and Jackson Review. The The Edwards Personal Preference Schedule Organizational Climate Description Questionnaire (OCDQ) . . . III. METHOD Ryans Study. . . . . . Kirk Study . . . . . . (EPPS) . S AND PROCEDURES Population Instrumentation and Procedure Scoring of the OCDQ . . . . Hypotheses About the Sample. summary 0 O O I O I O 0 IV. PRESENTATION OF FINDINGS. Des Analysis of the Edwards Personal cription of Sample. . . Preference Schedule . . iii Page ii viii ix H (DO‘H-J 11 ll 16 25 28 34 an 56 57 57 59 60 7A 75 76 81 Chapter Page Analysis of the Organizational Climate Description Questionnaire . . . 98 Analysis of the Relationship Between the EPPS and OCDQ. . . . 110 Analysis of the Five Scale Questions and Hypotheses. . . . . . . . 12A Other Findings. . . . . . . . . 1A8 V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS . . . . . . . . 158 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . 158 Conclusions. . . . . . 162 Implications and Recommendations. . . 170 REFERENCES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176 APPENDICES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 iv Table 10. LIST OF TABLES Age, Years Experience in Education and Years Experience in Building for 359 Subjects in Total Study . . . . . . Means and Standard Deviations for the Five Scale Questions, N = 395 . . . . . Edwards Personal Preference Schedule Means and Standard Deviations for Various Sub— samples from Total Study and Differences in Means from Other Studies Using the Edwards Schedules . . . . . . . The Inter—relationships of Age, Years Experi- ence in Education, Years Experience in Building and EPPS Variables . . . . . Correlations Between EPPS Needs and Age, Experience in Education and Experience in Building 0 O O O O O O O I 0 Frequency Count by Classification of Three Inter-related Variables of Age, Years Experience in Education, and Years Experience in Building for 293 Elementary Teachers . . . . . . . . . . Selected Means on Groups of Male Teachers and All Principals for Scores on EPPS Variables . . . . . . . . . . The Sample of 24 School Profiles Grouped in Respect to the Five Organizational Cli- mates Represented . . . . . . . Comparison of 12 Schools Surveyed by Kirk (1963) and Eberlein (1967) on Their Respective OCDQ Sub—test and Climate Patterns . . . . . . . . . . Selected Means from EPPS Needs Grouped by High, Middle and Low Factor Scores on Three OCDQ Factors . . . . . . . . Page 78 81 83 88 92 93 97 103 105 Ill Table ll. l2. 13. 1A. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. Page Statistical Comparisons of the Means on Selected EPPS Variables When Broken Down by Groups of Teachers and Compared with High, Middle and Low Groupings on Factor I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 Comparison of Individual Perception of School Climate with Selected EPPS Sub- scores . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 Statistical Comparisons of the Means of the Five Scale Questions When Compared with High, Middle and Low Groupings on Factors I, II and III . . . . . . . . . . 127 Statistical Comparisons of the Means of the Five Scale Questions when Broken Down by Groups of Teachers and Compared with High, Middle, and Low Groupings on Factor I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 Analysis of Variance Results When Scale Question 1 (Perception of Openness) is Compared with Selected EPPS Variables . . 137 Analysis of Variance Results When Scale Question 2 (Task Satisfaction) is Com- pared with Selected EPPS Variables . . . 137 Analysis of Variance Results When Scale Question 3 (Social Needs Satisfaction) is Compared with EPPS Variables . . . . . 138 Analysis of Variance Results When Scale Question A (Overall Happiness) is Com- pared with EPPS Variables . . . . . . 138 Analysis of Variance Results when Scale Question 5 (Freedom to Lead) is Compared with EPPS Variables . . . . . . . . 139 Analysis of Contingency Tables Involving Age and Five Scale Questions . . . '. . . 1A3 Analysis of Contingency Tables Involving Educational Experience and Five Scale Questions . . . . . . . . . . . 144 Analysis of Contingency Tables Involving Experience in Building and Five Scale Questions . . . . . . . . . . . 145 vi Table Page 23. Correlation and Significant Probabilities Between Computer Created Individual Factors from Individual OCDQ Sub-scores and the Scale Questions and Selected EPPS Variables . . . . . . . . . . 1A9 24. Correlations of Selected Variables with Career and Non-career Teachers. . . . . 153 25. Comparisons on Selected EPPS Scores for 279 Female Elementary Teachers Holding an MA Degree or Less and 16 Teachers Having Work Beyond the MA Degree . . . . . . 155 26. EPPS Profile of 35 Teachers Who Had Remained in a Closed Climate School for Four or More Years Compared with the Profile for the Total Sample . . . . . . . . . 155 vii LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 1. A Conceptualization of the 15 Manifest Needs Measured by the EPPS, Reproduced from the Manual for the Test (Edwards, 1959) . . . 36 viii Appendix A. B. LIST OF APPENDICES Directions and Instrumentation . . . Statistical Tables Table B—1.-—Means and Standard Deviations for Various Sample Groups on Scores on Edwards Personal Preference Schedule Table B-2.-—Mean Scores on Edwards Per- sonal Preference Schedule Achieved by Female Elementary (N=l96) and Second- ary (N=52) Teachers with Varying Amounts of Teaching Experience (Jackson & Guba) and the Stereotype of the Ele— mentary Teacher as Held by the Novice and Experienced Teacher (Hogan) . . . Table B-3.—-Inter-corre1ation Matrix of EPPS Sub-scores for 295 Female Ele- mentary School Teachers. . . . . Table B-A --Ana1ysis of Variance of EPPS SubB scores Using Age as the Category Variable. . . . . . . . . Table B-5.-—Analysis of Variance of EPPS Sub-scores Using Years Experience in Education as the Category Variable . . Table B-6.-—Ana1ysis of Variance of EPPS Sub-scores Using Years Experience in Building as the Category Variable . . Table B-7.-—Corre1ations of Computer Created EPPS Factor Scores with the EPPS Sub-tests from Which Created Table B-8.--(Part A) Inter—correlation Matrix of OCDQ Sub-scores (by Indivi- duals) and OCDQ Factor Scores (from Group Consensus) for 316 Female Ele- mentary School Teachers. . . ix Page 183 19A 195 196 197 198 199 200 201 202 Appendix Page B-8.--(Part B) Inter-correlation Matrix of OCDQ Raw Sub-scores for Entire Sample of 358 Subjects . . . . . . 203 B-8.——(Part C) Inter-correlation Matrix of OCDQ Double Standardized Scores for the Entire Sample of 358 Subjects . . 20A B-9.—-Correlations of Individual Teacher Factors with OCDQ Sub-test Scores . . 205 B-lO.--Correlation of School Factors and Individual Factors from the OCDQ. . . 206 B-ll.—-Resu1ts of Analysis of Variance Tests for 15 EPPS Needs and 2 EPPS Factors When Compared Separately on Each of Three OCDQ Factors. . . . . 207 B-l2.--Frequency of Elementary Teachers Distributed by Age, Years Experience in Education and Years Experience in Building Used in the Analysis of Vari- ance of Factor I--Openness. . . . . 209 B—l3.--Frequency of Elementary Teachers Distributed by Age, Years Experience in Education and Years Experience in Building Used in the Analysis of Vari- ance of Factor II--Satisfaction . . . 210 B-lA.--Frequency of Elementary Teachers Distributed by Age, Years Experience in Education and Years Experience in Building Used in the Analysis of Vari— ance of Factor III-~Leadership Initiation . . . . . . . . . . 211 B-15.--Frequency of Elementary Teachers Distributed by Age, Years Experience in Education and Years Experience in Building Used in the Analysis of Vari- ance of School Climate . . . . . . 212 C. Code Book . . . . . . . . . . . 213 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION The Problem In spite of fifty years of research, little is known about teacher personality, its nature, measurement, and relation to teacher effectiveness. Education, selection, and placement of teachers has been done largely on an intui- tive basis. The quantitative data about a specific teacher and Job has consisted of the personnel file for the place— ment office, and a tour, "handbook" or "advertising brochure" for the teacher. In 1966 the Board of Examiners of the New York City Board of Education, under a study sponsored by the United States Office of Education, concluded that teacher selection was "inadequate and unsophisticated" (Phi Delta Kappan, 1966). In a sample of 320 of the nation's largest school systems, only 13% gave an examination as part of the selection process and less than 1% used any kind of personality measure. The typical system used a 20-30 minute interview and rated a candidate on a dozen characteristics. Personality factors Eire usually considered only in the broadest sense, and yet (Eetzels and Jackson (1963) point out that the personality of true teacher is a significant variable, if not the most :significant variable, controlling what happens in the classroom. That placement efforts can be so minimal and arbitrary for the largest single employer in many communi- ties is especially tragic when compared with the well developed personnel offices that exist in industry. Literally thousands of studies have been done touching on one or another aspect of this problem. After surveying 800 studies reported between 1950 and 1963, Getzels and Jackson concluded: Despite the critical importance of the problem and a half-century of prodigious research effort, very little is known for certain about the nature and measurement of teacher personality, or about the relation between teacher personality and teaching effectiveness. The regrettable fact is that many of the studies so far have not produced significant results. Many others have produced only pedestrian findings (p. 574). Over the years one major obstacle to effective place- ment has been the identification of adequate criteria for teacher evaluation. Barr (1961) as early as 1920 studied supervisors, administrators, and educators observing the same teacher at the same time under identical conditions. He found that their perceptions would vary so much that this particular teacher could be rated both the best and worst ever observed. Even in 1967, a seminar at the American Edu- cational Research Association meeting in New York devoted to this problem convinced this writer that we still have a long way to go just in the area of criteria. The September 1961 issue of the Journal of Experimental Education was devoted to the "Wisconsin Studies of the Measure and Prediction of Teacher Effectiveness." It reflected Barr's work over a 40 year period and detailed over 75 doctoral studies conducted at Wisconsin during this period. Barr discussed the "Nature of the Problem" begin- ning with this statement: To select, recruit, educate and assign teachers to particular teaching positions in an acceptable manner, one must have more precise information about the many meanings associated with teaching, in general, and in particular, situations; and how to identify the personal, academic and profes- sional prerequisites to effectiveness (p. 5). Missing from this statement and often overlooked in the literature and studies are crucial situational factors which are in part beyond the control of the individual teacher. These are factors of which the teacher needs to be aware before accepting a position, and include the inter— personal relationships and climate of the individual school chosen. This is all the more important when we consider Hunt's (1965) conclusion that most of the variance identi- fied in findings from personality studies can be attributed to factors in the situaiton and interactions with the situ— ation, rather than just in the people studied. Hunt found in one study that the main source of variance came from the modes of response and the second principal source came from the situation. Among the many factors involved in successful teaching are those related to happiness and job satisfaction. These are crucial to the elementary teacher who will serve as a model to children who are just beginning to solidify previously formed attitudes toward teachers, teaching, and education itself. A survey of the literature does not provide a single pattern of what a successful teacher should be like. There are some characteristics that seem more helpful than others, but no teacher or type of teacher is "ideal." Good teaching can take many forms and many teachers with varying person- ality patterns can be "good teachers." One teacher can be "good" for some children and "bad" for others. He can be good on one day and bad on another, or good in one subject area and bad in another, or good in one school and less ef— fective in another. When you add these variables to the personality of the school itself you come up with a difficult assessment situation. Forehand and Gilmer comment: . there have been few attempts to develop multivariate definitions of environment, and fewer still to study behavior as a function of the simultaneous variation of personal and situational factors (196“, p. 361). In teaching, the ability, need, and personality structure of the teacher are related to both the job expecta- tions held by the teacher and those held by the school. Often these expectations are neither clearly delineated nor the same in all parts of the school system. One man or group may do the interviewing, selection and placement inde- pendent of the building principal. There may be frequent unstated clashes in philosophy in employment situations. The prospective teacher is often at a loss to discover just what kind of role she is expected to play. If her guess about what is expected is correct, and her behavior matches, she should be happy and fit in quite well. What are some of the factors which characterize teacher behavior? There are endless individual studies but the most completezmuiextensive study of teacher charac— teristics to date has been the Ryans study (1960). The specific needs which prompted the Ryans study were: 1. The need for the accumulation of evidence permitting extension of understanding of the personal, social, and intellectual attributes of persons who teach in the schools, and perhaps contributing to the development of teacher behavior theory and to the improvement of teacher education. 2. The need for procedures for appraising certain characteristics of prospective teachers before or during pre-service training and at the time of employment by school systems to help improve teacher selection and assignment (p. 9). The ultimate purpose of the Ryans study was two-fold: The Teacher Characteristics Study was conducted with two possible uses of'the results in mind: first, by school systems as an aid in identifying teachers who, at the time of selection for employment or perhaps in connection with promotion, have character- istics similar to those deemed important and desirable by the particular school system and the culture it represents; and, second, by teacher education institutions as an aid to a better understanding of teacher characteristics and associated conditions, which would contribute to improved procedures for selecting teacher candidates and to the improvement of professional courses and curricula (p. 11). Ryans observed that educators cannot agree as to the specifics contributing to effective teaching. Some believe it is the result of the teachers' training in certain college or university courses. Some believe it is related to diverse aspects implied in personality definitions. Some are convinced it is related to classroom discipline. Much of the confusion in this area comes from the inability to test the validity of various assumptions because of the lack of adequate descriptions or measures which characterize teachers. Ryans classified teacher traits into two major categories: first, those which involve the teacher's mental abilities and skills, his understanding of psychological and educational principles, and his knowledge of general and special subject matter to be taught, and second, those qualities which stem from the teacher's personality, his interests, attitudes, beliefs, and his behavior in working relationships with pupils and other individuals. Ryans then observed that the intellectual characteristics can be meas- ured with considerable success, but that little information is available about the second group of characteristics--the personality of the teacher. Reliable and valid methods for identifying and measuring behavior variables in this area are scarce. Some of Ryans' findings will be presented in the next chapter. Purpose of this Study The dearth of significant findings in the field of teacher personality is discouraging; yet to give up would suggest that new instrumentation or new approaches would contribute nothing of value to this area. A great deal of research still needs to be done on the nature and measure- ment of teacher personality and its relationships with other factors. The many conflicts in the literature suggest the presence of variables and interactions which are confounding results. The purpose of this study is to concentrate on a small portion of the inter-personal relationship variables which previously have not been thus combined and to analyze these few in some depth. The two basic instruments utilized are the Edwards Personal Preference Schedule (EPPS) and the Organizational Climate Description Questionnaire (OCDQ), along with some biographical data, vocational data, and five Scale Questions (see Appendix A). The present study is concerned with two similar but divergent themes. First, the research plan calls for a look at elementary teachers, their manifest needs (as measured by the EPPS), and the relationships that these have to the climate of the school (as measured by the OCDQ). This will be done on the basis of the EPPS sub-scores and three OCDQ factor scores. The climate factor scores offer a group con- sensus about the school and reflect the responses of the principal and all teachers within the school to the OCDQ. The eight OCDQ sub-scores can be combined into these three factor scores: I. Authenticity of group behavior or openness II. Satisfaction of task and social needs III. Freedom to initiate leadership acts Using this information, teachers will be assigned to groups based upon similarity of the environment within which they teach. For example, the main hypotheses relate to "openness," and teachers who work in an "open" environment will be grouped together for purposes of com- parison with teachers who teach in a "less open" environment. The related theme is an analysis of demographic data and its relation to the teacher. What are the relationships that make a teacher happy or unhappy? Teachers are known to be happy in some schools and unhappy in others. Why? Is there something about the individual or about the school that makes this so? This portion of the study is intended to be more exploratory in nature. Scope and Limitations The study uses data collected during February, March, and April of 1967 from over 300 teachers in 24 schools and eight school districts in Michigan. The schools represent a variety of locations within a 150 mile radius of Lansing, Michigan. They include rural areas, suburban areas, and industrial areas; rapid growth and stable areas. Sometimes all elementary schools in a district were represented; some- times only a few. The schools include young teachers in their first year of teaching, women who see teaching as a temporary job, career teachers, experienced teachers new to the building,and teachers with over 40 years experience, much in the same school. The sample includes teachers in new school buildings, old school buildings, one, two, and three story buildings. It includes schools where the prin- cipal is new and schools where the same principal has been there for many years. The more detailed description of the sample in Chapter IV will indicate the heterogeneity of the sample used. In addition to this diversity, one of the criteria for selecting schools was to get representation of the extremes of school climate in an attempt to maximize the variance due to the climate itself. One of our first considerations will be to see what effect this heterogeneity had on the EPPS scores. Elementary schools were selected because one of the two principal instruments (OCDQ) was originally developed in this setting. Information about the manifest needs of elementary teachers is also available from other studies that have used the Edwards Personal Preference Schedule, the other major instrument (see Table 8-1). The study was limited to those schools and teachers who agreed to participate. On the whole, cooperation was excellent. Although no teacher was required to participate, few returned the questionnaires without responding. No school that was personally contacted refused to participate after an explanation of the nature of the study was given to the teachers (see Appendix A for standard information provided to each school and each teacher). Anonymity was insured as teachers were designated only by number, the main purpose of which was to keep the two parts of the instrumentation together. One of the limitations to the study is the generali- zability of results as they relate to schools. No attempt 10 at complete randomization was made. It was the plan to get many contrasting and differing schools within the total sample. While anticipating that the teachers are representative of Michigan and midwest teachers, the schools will not be. Thus, some statements, such as the following, cannot be made as a result of this study: "Most schools in Michigan have a Paternal Climate" or "Most schools in Michigan have teachers with a high need for Achievement." CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RESEARCH The number of studies that relate to the personality and characteristics of teachers are numerous, but fortunately many have been reviewed by others. A brief summary of selected portions of these reviews has been abstracted. These will reflect information and concerns pertinent to the present study. In addition, a major portion of this chapter will be devoted to consideration of the theoretical foundations underlying the major instruments, the Edwards Personal Preference Schedule and the Organizational Climate Description Questionnaire. Studies involving these instru- ments and teacher personality will also be considered. The Domas and Tiedeman and Barr Surveys Domas and Tiedeman in 1950 reviewed the literature and offered an annotated bibliography as one of a series of re- ports from a study of teacher competence. It listed over one thousand annotations and described the major ideas about and investigations of teacher competence to that date. Although older, six of these studies are mentioned here be- cause they bear on the problem under study. Peck.(l936) gave 100 women teachers, 52 women students, and 26 male students and actual teachers the Thurstone ll l2 Personality Schedule and the Otis Test of Mental Ability, Personal and adjustment data were obtained by questioning the individuals. It was found that woman teachers were less-well-adjusted than women students (using the Thurstone); women as a whole were not so well adjusted as men; and.one— third of women teachers were maladjusted while one—sixth needed psychiatric care. In another study by Blum (1947) it was reported that the correlation between the MMPI personality scores and the Strong Vocational Interest Blank "were slight" in a study of 25 male students in each of five professional schools at the University of Wisconsin, including education. A survey of the literature by Archer (1946) revealed a trend toward the use of personality as a criterion for teaching success. It was reported that there is a growing recogni- tion that no one clear pattern for a successful teacher exists. A review of studies of teaching success by Dur- flinger (1948) showed no single criterion wholly satisfactory and no one without its merits. Also no personality test yet applied had been avalid measure of the personality traits of the successful teacher. Cattell (1948) suggested that selection of teachers should be carried out through estima- tion by tests for each individual of a number of independent personality factors. Symonds (1947) urged that teacher selection be by competent psychologists similar to those in the assessment Office of Strategic Services. The devices which such a group might use are: \OGJNCMU'l-EUONH 13 personal-history blank ratings interviews situation testing discussion shared tasks instruction stress situation . role-playing-psychodrama lO. projective techniques 11. sociometric techniques Barr in 1948 surveyed over 150 studies and concluded in part that teaching efficiency had been characterized in five ways: 1. in terms of 2. in terms of 3. in terms of 4. in terms of generalized and ideals 5. in terms of ground data qualities of the person expected competencies desired pupil outcomes behavior controls; knowledge, skills, interests, attitudes, a miscellaneous collection of back— and personal data Certain observations were made about the data of the various studies: 1. A very large number of-data—gathering devices are available. 2. The reliabilities of these various devices seem to be relatively high; their validities rela— tively unknown. 3. The data are many times inconsistent (probably due to non-comparability of conditions). 4. The reliability of examiners is not usually known. 5. The need is for evaluation of data as well as measurement alone. In terms of prediction of teaching efficiency, Barr concluded in part that the accuracy of prediction seems to have improved as more and better measures have been employed 14 and as the criterion of efficiency has been refined. Multiple correlations in the 70's and 80's were not uncommon in carefully designed studies. The best prediction seems to be from combinations of subjective and objective measures. While subjective measures are in general more unreliable than objective measures, they appear to provide data in some areas as yet inadequately covered by objective measures. In 1961 Barr summarized the major findings of studies reviewed in the Wisconsin Studies and pointed to the development of an abbreviated list of terms and cate- gories that may prove useful in discussing personality traits that are prerequisite to effective teaching. The 25 traits suggested by Charters and others (1929) were reduced to the following 15 qualities: 1. Bouyancy — Surgency, optimism, enthusiasm, cheerfulness, gregariousness, unsuspiciousness and uninhibitedness, talkativeness, sense of humor, pleasantness, carefreeness, vivacious- ness, alertness, wittiness. 2. Considerateness a Concern for the feelings and well-being of others, tolerance, sympathy, understanding, unselfishness, patience, help- fulness, friendliness, easy-goingness, geniality, generousness, warm-heartedness, thoughtfulness, kindliness. 3. Cooperativeness - Proneness toward joint action, willingness to share responsibility, readiness to work with others, respect for others, help- fulness when things need to be done, agreeable to working with others, a good team worker. 4. Dependability - Reliability, loyalty, honesty, punctuality, responsibility, conscientiousness, accuracy, painstakingness, trustworthiness, sincerity. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 15 Emotional Stability - Realism in facing life's proElems, freedom from emotional tensions, not easily upset, poised, self-controlled, relaxed, steady, unhurried, consistant. Ethicalness - Good taste, modest, morality, conventionality, cultural polish, refinement. Expressiveness - Skill in communication, responsiveness, verbal fluency, articulateness, agreeableness of voice, good inflection, audibility. Flexibility - Capacity for approching things in a novel manner, imaginativeness, adaptability, inventiveness, initiativeness, originality, creativeness, enterprisingness, resourcefulness. Forcefulness - Ascendance, dominance, confidence, independence, self—sufficiency, self-reliance, persistence, purposefulness, intending to accom- plish, persuasiveness, commanding respect, aggressiveness. Mental Alertness - Brightness, intelligency, academic aptitude, capacity for thinking, power to comprehend. Judgment - Wisdom in the selection of appropriate courses of action, discretion in dealing with others, foresight, common sense, clearheadedness. Objectivity - Fairness, impartiality, openminded— ness, freedom from prejudice, use of factual evidence in making criticisms and decisions. Personal Magnetism - Attractively dressed, good physique, absence of distracting physical defects, absence of distracting mannerisms, cleanliness, posture, personal charm, appearance. Physical Energy and Drive - Readiness for action, drive, physical vigor and energy, determination, desire to get things done, vitality, endurance. Scholarliness — Scholastic aptitude, thorough knowledge of subject, being well informed on many subjects, high verbal aptitude, widely read, literateness (p. 136). Barr concludes that the range of interest in personality aspects of teacher effectiveness needs to be broadened. 16 Concerns should be extended to include source traits as well as surface traits, and unique teacher occupational charac- teristics. Teacher behavior should also be related to principles of learning. The Getzels and Jackson Review The major review of the literature of the previous dozen years was made in 1963 by Getzels and Jackson. They attempted several classification schemes and finally organized some 800 references according to a number of cur— rent psychological concepts relevant to the dynamic defini- tion of personality, such as attitudes, values, adjustments, etc. Some investigations were separated because of the use of radically different instruments and an account of teacher cognitive ability research was added. From this mass of information a summary of the more important studies relating to our particular interest area has been made. These have been supplemented by more recent studies. References prior to 1962 will be found in the Getzels and Jackson reference list. Attitudes, Values, and Interests Many research studies have been reported using the Minnesota Teacher Attitude Inventory (MTAI). The validity of this instrument was determined on an empirical basis similar to that of the Strong Vocational Interest Blank. Patterns which discriminated "superior" from "inferior" teachers were utilized. One hundred teachers in each 17 category were nominated by 70 elementary and secondary prin- cipals in Pennsylvania and Ohio on the basis of their ability to win the affection of pupils; fondness for, and understand- ing of children; and ability to maintain a desirable form of discipline. Later validity studies indicate only a moderate validity (.43 to .59). A recent study by Sister Mary Misaela Zacharewicz (1963) used the MTAI in conjunction with the Guilford-Zimmerman Temperament Survey to assess teacher-pupil attitudes vs. real and ideal self. Elementary teachers tended to be higher on MTAI scores, but secondary teachers on Restraint and Thought- fulness on the Guilford. Pivetz (1963) found no significant relationship between teachers' MTAI scores and students' gains in academic achievement or social acceptance by peers, teacher, or school. A number of other studies using the MTAI show very contradictory results which throw doubt on its usefulness as a research or hiring device. Gage (1957) points out one of the main problems is the empirical scoring procedures which raise a question about the "psychological sense of such scoring weights." He concluded that the reliability and validity were raised when scored with a logical key. This test has been widely used for the study of teacher attitudes and selection of teachers and yet it is subject to evasiveness and response set on the part of the testee. The test can also be faked, although there is some dispute about this among those making the studies. 18 Callis (1950) suggests the test is only slightly susceptible to faking "good." Although Stein and Hardy (1957) found considerable faking, they explained it in terms of the test's ability to reveal biased attitudes toward children from the extremes, a rather weak explanation. These studies strongly suggest that the instrument can be faked if an applicant is so motivated and should be used only with this restriction in mind. The Allport-Vernon-Lindzey Study of Values is designed to measure the relative prominence of six basic interests or motives in personality and is based upon Edward Spranger's work on values and evaluative attitudes. The test consists of a number of forced-choice questions to which two or four alternative answers are provided. There are considerable sex differences on this text. The six variables and their theoretical bases are: . Theoretical (discovery of truth) Economic (interest in what is useful) Aesthetic (value in form and harmony) Social (love of people) Political (interest in power) Religious (value in mystical unity) O\U"|J='LA)|\JI—' The manual presents information on 68 male graduate students in education who appear to be higher on aesthetic and social values and lower on religious and economic values than the general sample. MacLean, Gowan, and Gowan (1955) present a more comprehensive View of 1700 teaching candidates at UCLA. The differences among teaching areas are large enough to indicate some interest for further work using this instrument. 19 In an older study, Seagoe (1946) correlated scores on the Study of Values (along with other scales) with student- teaching scale ratings and "field success" scores. She found a r = -.33 between Economic and a student effective- ness scale and a r = +.26 between Aesthetic and field success rank. Interestingly, none of the six variables related highly to_bgth criterion measures of teaching suc- cess. Most of them were at or close to zero on one criterion or the other. The California F Scale has been used in a few studies. A few small correlations were found by Remmers (1954). Sheldon, Coale, and Copple (1950) used the WAIS, Study of Values, TAT, EPPS as well as the F Scale and found that the "warm teachers" were substantially lower in "authori- tarianism." Both the F Scale and similar authoritarianism measures have been under heavy suspicion of late, however, because of response set factors. McGee (1955) in a major study in this area concluded that: there is a positive relationship between a measure of anti-democratic potential and a measure of teachers' overt authoritarian behavior in the classroom; teachers as a group are less authoritarian than other adults of similar status; and men were lower than women on the F scale and an observation measure of authoritarianism. The Strong Vocational Interest Blank (SVIB) is based on a pattern of likes and dislikes in a vocational area. The 20 older norms for women teachers were based on the patterns of 238 teachers rated superior by school superintendents in four mid-west states. New norms for men are anticipated after some experience with the new version (Campbell, 1966). Interest patterns suggest the elementary teacher was charac- terized by conservative moralistic values and did not tend toward intellectual pursuits. Quite a different pattern existed for the secondary teacher--and within this group, the kind of subject taught became a significant factor. Schulz and Ohlsen (1955) attempted to use the Strong as a predictive device but got only chance success. They did find the "best" students were interested in working with people. Personality Inventories The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) has been used in over 100 studies a year and has become one of the most popular personality inventories. It has not, however, been too useful in trying to discriminate between teachers and non-teachers and among interest areas of teachers. The original MMPI key provided scores on nine scales shown empirically to discriminate between "normal" subjects and various types of psychiatric patients. The scales are: 1. Hs - Hypochondriasis 2. D — Depression 3. Hy — Hysteria 4. Pd - Psychopathic Deviate 5. Mf — Masculinity--Femininity 21 6. Pa — Paranoia 7. Pt - Psychasthenia 8. Sc — Schizophrenia 9. Ma - Hypomania In addition, correction or control keys are used to identify people who are considered evasive or careless or who seem to deliberately fake the test. In 1946 Lough reported on education students preparing to be music teachers and those preparing to be elementary school teachers. In 1947 she reported on nursing students and those in a general liberal arts program. She found no significant differences in any of her studies and concluded that the MMPI has "little or no value in educational selec- tion; it is not a useful instrument for differentiating between those who are more suited for one occupation than another." A study by Blum (1947) showed education students had few deviations worthy of comment. MacKean, Gowan, and Gowan (1955) found that entering education students at UCLA were slightly high on the Hysteria, Psychopathic Deviate, Schizophrenia, and Hypomania scales. The researchers comment that "perhaps this is a reflection of the teacher's self-control, absence of social fear, scholarly withdrawal, or idealism and energy." Since this study offered general norms for more than 1700 students on a number of different tests, it may have some value for the study of teacher personality, at least at the undergraduate level. Hedlund (1953) reports a COOperative study involving 840 education students from 18 colleges in New York State 22 beginning in 1949 which attempted to develop a predictive index to indentify applicants who might fail in the train- ing program or become ineffective teachers. A low Paranoia score was the only MMPI score that differentiated good teachers from poor teachers and also from those who failed to complete the program. In addition, the students who be- came good teachers received lower L(1ie) scores. A number of studies have found that the more recently developed K control score is an important scale. The score was an effort to correct for the tendency of respondents to be defensive and obtain plus scores. Gowan (1955) reviewed a number of studies using the K scale and concluded: It seems evident that K represents much more than a validating key, and that high scores on it have intrinsic significance for positive personality integration in general and for teacher prognosis in particular, over the test-set factor. . . . These facts argue for a picture of the high K individual as tending to be responsible, conscientious, conforming, controlled and friendly, with a strong ego and good performance in interpersonal relations. He thinks well of others, as he tends to see the best in everyone, himself included. Rather than pointing to an absence of basic problems, this delineation indicates some degree of social anxiety overlaid with a reaction formation in which emphasis is directed towards control of self and adaptation to the needs and demands of others (Getzels and Jackson, 1963, p. 541). A number of attempts have been made to develop scales of specific items shown to discriminate between groups of effective and ineffective teachers or student teachers. Gowan's Teacher Prognosis Scale was made up of 98 items which were found to discriminate between very effective 23 teachers and those who are "normally successful." Follow— up studies of the UCLA group give some but not unqualified, support for the use of the scale. Other research suggests that "the success of empirically derived scales is far from assured." The majority of MMPI studies used personality variables to predict teacher effectiveness. Two studies were carried to the point of testing the accuracy of classification that could be used with predictor variables. These used a variety of multivariate techniques and in general found in— significant results. LaForge (1962) has reported a factor correlation study between the MMPI and the Catell test which has been used to a limited extent to study teachers. This Catell Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire (16 P.F. Test) purports to measure all the main dimensions of personality revealed by factor analysis. Ten to thirteen items for each factor are included in the 187 item test. Burdick (1963) used this test with 86 elementary student teachers and found five traits where the sample scored above the normal elementary teacher group. She suggested that diagnostic use to predict problem areas would provide the most profitable use of this test. Issacson, McKeachie, and Milholland (1963) used the 16 P. F. Test to study teaching fellows at the University of Michigan and related them to student rating of teacher effectiveness. Only tentative results were reported. 24 Conclusion Getzels and Jackson also review the Ryans study and several studies on the Edwards Personal Preference Schedule, but since these are considered later in this chapter, they are for the present omitted. After extensive review, Getzels and Jackson (1963) concluded that many of these studies produced non-significant results. They went on to say: Many others have produced only pedestrian findings. For example, it is said after the usual inventory tabulation that good teachers are friendly, cheerful, sympathetic, and morally virtuous rather than cruel, depressed, unsympathetic, and morally depraved. But when this has been said, not very much that is especially useful has been revealed. For what conceivable human interaction-—and teaching implies first and foremost a human interaction--is not the better if the people involved are friendly, cheerful, sympathetic, and virtuous rather than the Opposite? What is needed is not research leading to the reiteration of the self-evident but to the discovery of specific and distinctive features of teacher personality and of the effective teacher (Getzels, 1955). But this desideratum is more easily asserted than achieved, for a number of obstacles face the research worker in this area. To mention only three, there is first, the problem of definition; second, the problem of instrumentation; third, the problem of the criterion. In addition to these general conceptual limitations, there are a number of specific experimental limitations. For example, there is the limitation of treating teach- ers—-ma1e and female, young and old, primary grade and intermediate grade, teachers of English and of science-- as a single group. Often this is done even though differences within the teaching profession may obscure the very differences that need to be revealed. Or, to mention just one other obvious but serious limitation, there is the problem of varied teaching situations. Variations in the teaching situation from one school to another may exist in such factors as educational vieWpoints, nature of the student body, conditions in 25 the community related to teacher status, and so on, but little provision is made for taking into account the effect of such situational variables on the ex- perimental results. The application of theory to research on teacher personality . . . has several distinct advantages over the empiricism currently typical of the field (Guba and Getzels, 1955). . . . A theory is not only taxonomic; it is relational. It attempts not only to describe but to explain. And precisely because it contains such relational elements, theory leads to hypotheses, and ultimately the findings resulting from tests of these hypotheses serve not only a descriptive function but also, and more vitally, an explanatory function. Finally, theory provides a framework for interpreting observations already made and data already collected. . . (pp. 574-576). The Ryans Study Probably the most comprehensive report on the back- ground, characteristics, and environmental variables of teachers alone was the Ryans report in 1960, published by the American Council on Education. It involved 6000 teachers in 1700 schools and 450 school systems. Observers went into the classrooms to watch the inter-action patterns within a learning environment. A large portion of the report related the efforts of the staff as they tried to find psychometric concomitants to these patterns and to develop instruments to measure them. A very basic problem of concern was the assessment of teacher behavior. To achieve this the study used exploratory observations, pre— vious investigations, and the critical-incidents procedure. The classroom observation form developed over a one-and—a- half year period had four dimensions of pupil classroom 26 behavior and 18 dimensions of teacher behavior. Inter— rater reliability was between .50 and .60 on separate dimensions and between .70 and .80 on the total instrument. Three behavior patterns found through factor analysis and seven characteristics TCS pattern X - TCS TCS TCS TCS TCS TCS TCS TCS TCS pattern Y - pattern Z - were isolated. They were: warm, understanding, friendly vs. aloof, egocentric, restricted teacher classroom behavior. responsible, businesslike, systematic vs. evading, unplanned, slipshod teacher classroom behavior. stimulating, imaginative vs. dull, routine teacher classroom behavior. characteristic R - favorable vs. unfavorable opinions of pupils. characteristic Rl- favorable vs. unfavorable opinions of democratic class- room procedures. characteristic Q - favorable vs. unfavorable opinions of administrative and other school personnel. characteristic B — learning centered ("traditional" or "directive") vs. child- centered ("permissive" or "in- directive") educational view- points. characteristic I — superior verbal understanding (comprehension) vs. poor verbal understanding. characteristic 8 - emotional stability (adjustment) vs. instability. characteristic V - validity of response vs. invalidity of response. Comparisons were made of gorups of variously classified teachers. It was found that teachers who did not participate 111 school-related play in childhood or adolescence (activities 27 such as playing school, taking charge of a class for a teacher, etc.) differed significantly on these factors: Patterns X, Y, Z and Characteristics R, R1, Q and B. Age differences were significant. Teachers above age 55 were at a disadvantage when compared with young teachers, except on Pattern Y (systematic and businesslike classroom behavior) and Characteristic B (learning centered, traditional educational vieWpoints). Part of the explana— tion offered here lies in the fact that teacher preparation today is vastly different from that of previous generations. Men and women teachers in elementary school differed only on four personal social characteristics with the men being significantly lower on Pattern Y. At the secondary level, sex differences were fairly general. Women here were higher in Patterns X, Y, and Z, and Characteristics R, R1, B, and I. Men were high on factor S (emotional adjustment). Size of school seemed to affect Patterns X and Z and Characteristics Q, I, and S, with teachers in large schools scoring higher than those from small schools. Teachers who were assessed uniformly high (on Patterns X, Y, and Z) did differ significantly from those assessed low on these Characteristics: R, R1, Q, B (child-centered), I, and S. One would assume that there is a relationship between ‘teacher characteristics and pupil behavior in the classroom, and.such is the case in elementary school. Pupil behavior there is closely related to teacher behavior. In the 28 secondary school, however, it seems almost "unrelated” to teacher behavior in the classroom. Only "stimulating- imaginative teacher behavior" seems to be a major factor at the secondary level. The Kirk Study In the fall of 1963 Kirk surveyed 73 elementary schools in Michigan using the Organizational Climate Descrip- tion Questionnaire and the Opinion Survey (which included the Rokeach Dogmatism Scale). She arranged schools and teachers on an open-closed continuum based on an "openness factor." In May of 1964, new teachers in these same build- ings were asked to answer a Situation Survey to find specific incidents where they sensed a problem, their level of concern about the problem, and where they sought help in resolving the situation. Kirk's selection of new teachers for her final analysis was made using 18 teachers in each of four groups: open schools-open teachers; open schools-closed teachers; closed schools-open teachers; and closed schools-closed teachers. In every one of these four groups Kirk found discipline to be the major concern and thus unrelated to school climate. Indeed, for no problem area were differences related to climate or to school.size. In some 19 areas of satisfaction, on the other hand, five were significantly related to climate of the school and seven were related to school size. Those satisfactions that differed according to the climate of the 29 schoOl (significant at the .05 level) included: adequacy of supplies, interest shown by students, teaching load, helpfulness of supervision and fairness with which duties are distributed. The following satisfactions differed according to the size of school (significant at the .05 level): salary compared to other jobs, discipline, school building, working conditions, interest shown by students, relations with students, and relations with other teachers. Frequency of contact with teachers of the same grade and in the same building did show a significant difference among the groups for the school climate (as well as for dogmatism). She summarized the comments of new teachers: The number one problem for teachers new in a building was the unwritten rules. Next in order of importance was the item of building procedures and school policies, followed next by discipline. Regular teachers advised and helped new teachers in this order: building procedures and school policies, getting materials and supplies, discipline. Neglected were expectations in daily routine outside the classroom but in the school. Old teachers and their unwillingness to learn new ways or change their ways were the major gripes about other teachers. The major difficulty about principals seems to be their lack of time totalk to new teachers about prob- lems. This was also borne out in the two—way analysis of variance conducted earlier in the study. However, for new teachers, perhaps this one answer summed it up very succinctly: "All offered to help, and it was all different" (pp. 167-170). This writer was able to obtain the original data from Ifliss Kirk with respect to the school climates of the 73 ealementary schools and half of the present sample is composed 30 of schools that were in the earlier study. Kirk touched on a number of areas important to the present study in her review of the literature. They are summarized here. Many writers had suggested that there should be a systematic study of a school before teachers are placed. Professors from Central Michigan University reported that there were some schools where first year teachers should not be placed. One commented: "Much of the success of the first year teacher depends upon the right location of the teacher. An understanding principal can be of great help to the teacher. The college needs to know the schools well-- to help the students with the right locations. The college might also be of help to the schools in analyzing their supervisory program." Assumptions arising from the earlier perceptions of schools as social organizations included one that the existing climate in a school had important effects on the performance of the school and that no two schools had exactly the same climate. It was recognized that teachers behave differently when faced with different cliamtes and that this has an effect on learning. The NBA publication of Who's A Good Teacher (Kirk, 1965, p. 28) recognized school climate and its variations. It concluded that the teacher function varied from school to school. The function could be rigidly specified or vague and broad. Teacher role studies also partially recog- nized school climate since the behavior would have to fit 31 into the pattern of role expectation and also self-concept, i.e., what teachers expected of themselves. The book, Professional Problems of Teachers (Stinnett and Huggett, 1963, p. 96) offered the following summary: Most of our happiness and much of our success depends upon human factors. We can have the finest physical surroundings for work and play and still be unhappy and poorly adjusted. On the other hand, we can enjoy ourselves and be at least moderately successful in rather unpleasant surroundings if we are associating with those whom we enjoy. A teacher's associates are those with whom he works, eats lunch, and visits back and forth. They are the ones with whom he exchanges views on education, talks over trying experiences, and secures assistance in instructional procedures. Many a good beginning teacher has been handicapped and discouraged by having undesirable associates. A. young teacher, for example, may be placed with a group of traditional older teachers who deride all modern methods. They make fun of his efforts to decorate the classroom and laugh at dramatizations and choral reading. They tell him to stop worrying about individ- ual differences and social maladjustments. 'You'll soon learn', they will say, 'that it doesn't pay to do all those extra things because nobody appreciates them. All the people here want is for you to keep the kids quiet and teach them the 3 R's.‘ Usually the young teacher in such an environment eventually loses all his drive toward doing things differently. Soon he is a routine teacher. It is unfortunate when begin- ning teachers find themselves so boxed in. Almost in- evitably, they will be unhappy and unsuccessful. A report by Watson describing social patterns in schools in New Zealand found the following ngt to be significant factors: building, type of community, age and experience of teaching staff,number ofyears the school had been established, intellectual calibre of pupils, scholastic standards as meas- Ixred by tests, size of enrollment, presence or absence of be considered a random selection of all schools in Michigan. Instrumentation and Procedure The major instruments used in this study have been reviewed in some detail in Chapter II. These include the Edwards Personal Preference Schedule (EPPS) and the Organ- izational Climate Description Questionnaire (OCDQ). To these two instruments was added material necessary for vocational and biographical information and the five Scale Questions. The standard EPPS booklets and score sheets were 58 obtained from the Psychological Corporation and used as published. The other information was worked into one nine- page booklet with 81 questions. The general directions given to all teachers who took the instruments, together with the General Information schedule (including the OCDQ), is included as Appendix A. The directions asked each teacher to first complete the General Information part of the study. The questions here were short, varied and of inherent interest to teachers because they related to their present vocational environ- ment. The EPPS was completed second. It took longer, was more repetitious, and likely appeared to be unrelated to the school setting. Partial completion of the material and missing data are taken into account in the analysis. When completed, each teacher's data becomes a single observation and is recorded on IBM cards in accordance with the coding system in the Code Book (see Appendix C). The EPPS sheets were scored by hand using the scoring keys provided by the author. That and all other data were recorded on data Sheets for key punching. All IBM cards were "listed" and proofread using the original data. There are IBM cards for each subject based upon this original data. The set of cards containing the in- dividiual responses to the OCDQ were sent to Dr. Don B. Croft, co—author of the OCDQ, who agreed to score that portion of the data at the University of New Mexico. The other card contained the basic vocational and biographical 59 information, the scores from the EPPS, and the summary of OCDQ factor scores and individual perception of climate as scored by Croft. Scoringof the OCDQ How does one use the OCDQ to determine the climate of a school? The step by step approach used by Halpin is: Step 1 — Each participating teacher and principal answers the 64 item questionnaire (see Appendix A). Step 2 - These questionnaires are scored on the basis of the eight sub-tests, each item in a particular sub-test contributing from six to nine points to the score for that sub-test. Step 3 - These raw scores are then normatively stan— dardized for the school as a whole by equating each sub-test to the longest (10 item) sub-tests, and using the mean and standard deviation values of a larger, nation—wide sample. The resultant sub-test values can then be compared to the larger sample which has a mean of 50 and a standard devia- tion of 10. Step 4 - These normalized scores are then ipsatively standardized to obtain the sub-test profile for the school which is then compared with the ideal climate profiles described by Halpin (1966, p. 174). These ideal climates are based on the original factor analysis of 71 schools and 1151 teachers and are rarely duplicated in practice. How close the profile of sub-test scores for each school comes 60 to each of the six ideal climates is measured by the sum of the absolute differences in the profile measurements. Where the resultant scores are tied or close to being tied, a sub-test by sub-test analysis is sometimes needed to place the school into the best classification. Croft suggests that the smallest climate similarity score be selected to identify the climate of the school. The largest similarity score indicates which climates the school is not like. Croft comments: If the climate similarity score is greater than approximately 45, the climate of the organization is not clearly one type or another. If an organ- ization obtains low similarity scores for two types of climates, the organization possesses characteristics of both climates. For example, the organization may have the attributes of both an open and autonomous climate. Step 5 - The double standardization process, this time on an individual by individual basis, is then repeated for each respondent. In addition to the raw scores, the "T" scores for each sub-test and profile similarity scores for each climate are computed subject by subject. These five steps provide two kinds of data. One describes the school climate as perceived by all teachers taken together; the other provides a measure of the individ- ual perception of each participant. Hypotheses About the Sample The Edwards Personal Preference Schedule One hypothesis, although not directly critical to the results of this study, affects the degree to which the 61 results can be generalized. This hypothesis reflects how the EPPS results from this study compare with those of other studies involving the EPPS and elementary school teachers. The results of the Jackson and Guba Study (1957) are reproduced in Table B-1. These results were compared with the data from the present study to answer the question of whether the present sample was drawn from and is repre- sentative of all elementary school teachers in Michigan and the mid-west. It was not anticipated that the sample would reflect the adult women's norms also found in Table B-1, but it was hypothesized that the results would be close or substantially close to the data from the Jackson and Guba study involving elementary school teachers. A significant departure (.01 level) was deemed sufficient to cast doubt on the wisdom of generalizing data involving the EPPS. The Organizational Climate Description Questionnaire Several alternative ways are available for looking at OCDQ results. The 64 items of the OCDQ are combined into the eight sub-tests, which in turn can be reduced to three factors. There is a different set of factors when talking about the group consensus sub-test scores than there is in talking about individual teacher perceptions. These differ- ences will be discussed in Chapter IV. The eight sub—test scores also provide the school or individual pattern which yields the "climate similarity scores." (See Step 4, above, in the scoring process of the OCDQ.) The schools upon which 62 the ideal climates were based, however, were selected because they essentially loaded (either positively or negatively) on only one of the three factors. The ideal open and closed climates respectively loaded positively and negatively on Factor I; Familiar and Controlled Climates on Factor II; Autonomous and Paternal Climates on Factor III (Halpin, 1966, pp. 186-192). Using the factor analysis one can look at school climate from a different viewpoint. The specified climate can be conceived as being described by a single point in eight dimensional space, i.e., the one point closest to the eight points (one in each of the eight dimensions) provided by the eight sub-tests. The eight dimensional solution assumes that all eight sub—tests are independent and no one of them is a linear combination of any of the others. This is not entirely true as the Esprit sub-test correlated .60 with Thrust, .42 with Consideration, and —.36 with Disengagement in the original analysis. Thrust correlated .49 with Con- sideration. Other correlations ranged from -.32 to +.3l (Halpin, 1966, p. 155). Because of the factor analytic studies using the OCDQ (Halpin, 1966, p. 190) one can also alternatively picture climate in three dimensional space. This means that each of the eight sub-tests is placed into one of the three factor scores which represents a single dimension. They can be weighted but this essentially only complicates the handling and interpretation of data. 63 Halpin tries to push the OCDQ results to the point where he can explain "climate" in a single dimension. He admits that the six climates cannot be "ranked on this continuum," only that they can be "arrayed in respect to it" (1966, p. 134). To find a more accurate dimension of "openness" or "authenticity," however, Halpin turns to Factor I. He describes a school high on this openness factor as being high on the Esprit and Thrust sub—tests while low on Disengagement: These scores describe an energetic, lively organiza- tion which is moving toward its goals, but which is also providing satisfaction for the individuals' social needs. Leadership acts emerge easily and appropriately as they are required. The group is not preoccupied exclusively with either task— achievement or social-needs satisfaction; satisfac— tion on both counts seems to be obtained easily and almost effortlessly. Contrariwise, the Closed Climate is marked by low scores on Esprit and Thrust, and by a high score on Disengagement. There seems to be nothing going on in this organization. Although some attempts are beingmade to move the organization, they are met with apathy; they are not taken seriously by the group members. In short, morale is low, and the organization seems to be stagnant (pp. 189-190). While useful for comparing teachers who come from a "Paternal Climate" (or some other climate) with those who come from a "Familiar Climate," the climate itself is merely a category variable, non-continuous in nature. Climate for a given school comes from the sum total of all teachers' reSponses to all questions on the OCDQ and is often an arbitrary decision. Climate alone, then, is not enough. There are two choices. The data can be analyzed on the basis of individual perceptions of climate. This has 64 some of the same limitations of the group consensus method, but will be useful. An even more useful approach is to visualize the climate in its three major dimensions and to compare teachers who come from schools ranking high or low on a given dimension. This factor approach was adopted because it is based upon the original OCDQ study, because each of the factors seems to represent a single continuum, and because the climate is only a single dis- tillation of the information represented on these three factors. EPPS and OCDQ One of the prime questions of concern in this study was the relationship between the EPPS and the school climate as pictured by the various factors. Although the principal concern was With the "openness" of the school as measured by Factor I, the same considerations that led to the conclusion that there may be a relationship between EPPS needs and Factor I also led to the conclusion that there may be rela— tionships with the other two factors. Theoretically the three factors are essentially unrelated. The extent of relationship in the present sample will be explored in Chapter IV. The plan was to divide the total number of teachers into two or three groups on the basis of climate "openness," the measure used by Kirk (1965) and which is Factor I in the present data. It was agreed that at least 290 teachers would 65 be tested and no less than 75 would be placed in a group for this phase of the analysis. After the data is collected, the 75 teachers from the most open and the 75 teachers from the least open schools will be selected. Since all teachers at a given school will be assigned the same Factor I score, something more than 75 may have to be included in the top and bottom groups to account for tied scores. The third or middle group will be retained to make sure the direction or trend of a given result is consistent with the hypotheses. It is possible, for example, to find a significant difference between high and low groups without the mean of the middle group being be- tween the other two means. In such a case the result is suspect and either a chance factor may be affecting the results or an inappropriate grouping has been made. EPPS and OCDQ Hypotheses.--It was hypothesized that teachers from open climate schools (those with high scores on Factor I) would score higher on the EPPS needs in List "A" than teachers from less open climate schools. It was also hypothesized that teachers from less open climate schools (those with low scores on Factor I) would score higher on the EPPS needs in list "B" than teachers from the more open climate schools. 66 List "A" List "B" l. Achievement l. Deference 2. Exhibition 2. Order 3. Autonomy 3. Dominance 4. Affiliation 4. Abasement 5. Intraception 5. Endurance 6. Succorance 6. Aggression 7. Nurturance 7. EPPS Factor Conformity 8. Change 9. Heterosexuality 10. EPPS Factor Sociablity It was further hypothesized that teachers from schools with a high task and social needs satisfaction (low scores on Factor II) would score higher on the EPPS needs in List "A" than teachers from schools with high needs dissatisfaction (high scores on Factor II). This latter group would, it was hypothesized, score higher on List "B". It was also hypothesized that teachers from schools with a high degree of non-aloofness and much consideration from the principal (low scores on Factor III) would score higher on the EPPS needs in List "A" than teachers from schools where there is more aloofness and less consideration. It was hypothesized that this latter group would score higher on the needs in List "B". In all cases the hypotheses related to List "A" might be statistically represented thus: H0: 1111112 5..“3 where pl is the mean for teachers from schools that are 67 "most open," "most satisfied," or "most non-aloof and con- siderate," and u3 is the mean for teachers from schools that are "most closed," "most dissatisfied," or "most aloof and non-considerate." In an analysis of variance routine, if the direction of the differences in the means is appro- priate and consistent, large values of the "F" statistic will lead to the rejection of the null hypothesis. A signi- ficance level of .05 was deemed acceptable. In all cases the hypotheses related to List "B" might be statistically represented thus: H0: H1 1 H2 1 “3 H1: u1< 1.12 < 113 where "1 is the mean for teachers from schools that are "most open," "most satisfied," or "most non-aloof and considerate," and u3 is the mean for teachers from schools that are "most closed," "most dissatisfied," or "most aloof and non- considerate." If the direction in the means is appropriate and consistent, large values of the "F" statistic will again lead to the rejection of the null hypothesis. A significance level.of .05 was deemed acceptable. Scale Questions and OCDQ.——Although the five Scale Questions were developed for separate presentation to the teacher sample, four of the five were based upon the con- clusions drawn by Halpin in his factor analysis of the OCDQ. The reason for this is two-fold. Were Halpin's factors 68 measuring what he claimed they were measuring? Can a teacher scale directly that which a group of sub-tests scale indirectly? SQl asks for the teacher's perception of the group's behavior in terms of openness: "How real, authentic or Open is the principal or teacher behavior at this school?" Respondents are asked to circle a number from 1 to 7 where 7 is labeled "Very much so," 4 is labeled "Moderately so," and l is labeled "Not at all." The other numbers are un- labeled. This question came from Halpin's comments about the meaning of Factor I (1966, pp. 190—192). The other Scale Questions ask teachers about them- selves. SQ2 asks "How satisfied (happy) are you with your attainment of task or job goals?" SQ3 asks "How satisfied (happy) are you with the degree to which your social and interpersonal needs are being met at this school?" Both are scaled on the same basis as SQl. Both are inversely related to Halpin's Factor II which includes task accom- plishment and social needs satisfaction. High scores on Factor II would result from a great deal of Production Emphasis by the principal and a high degree of Hindrance with very little intimacy among the group members. Thus, low scores on Factor II would tend to indicate satis- faction; high scores, dissatisfaction. The question of happiness (SQ4) had no specific basis in the OCDQ but was designed to let the teachers rate just how happy they felt in their present teaching situation. 69 While a teacher could intentionally or unintentionally fake a high score by convincing herself that she really felt happy, it is doubtful that hmuscores would be so faked. The question asks, "Overall, how happy are you working in this job in this school this year?" It is thus limited to the present environmental situation and the current year. The last Scale Question (SQ5) asks "How free do you feel to take a position of leadership in the school on some issue that concerns you?" This again was related to Halpin's analysis, this time to Factor III on Leadership Initiation by group members. High scores on Factor III come from a high degree Of aloofness by the principal together with a small amount Of consideration. Accordingly one would expect that high scores on Factor III would not be conducive to a feeling of freedom to take a leadership role in the school. Since the major concern is with the openness of the schools, hypotheses were formulated that teachers in more open schools would respond to these questions with high scores. Because of the importance of the other two factor scores, hypotheses were also formulated to test rela— tionships between the factors and these Scale Questions. Hypotheses concerning Scale Questions.—~The following three sets of hypotheses reflect the theoretical manner in which each of the five Scale Questions should be answered by teachers from schools high and low on each of the three factors. 70 Al. Teachers from the most open schools will perceive their school environment as being more open or authentic than those from the least Open schools. A2. Teachers from the most Open schools will feel a greater satisfaction with attainment of task goals than those from the least open schools. A3. Teachers from the most open schools will feel a greater satisfaction with attainment of social and inter—personal needs than those from the least open schools. A4. Teachers from the most Open schools will feel a greater overall sense of happiness than those from the least open schools. A5. Teachers from the most open schools will feel more freedom to take a leadership role than those from the least open schools. In all cases the direction of these hypotheses is the same and statistically might be represented thus: HO: 1111112 1113 H1: “1 > “2 > 113 where pl is the mean for teachers from the most Open schools and H3 is the mean for teachers from the least open schools. An analysis of variance routine is appropriate to test these hypotheses and if the direction of differences in the means is appropriate and consistent, large values of the "F" 71 statistic will lead to the rejection of the null hypothesis. A significance level of .05 was deemed acceptable. B1. B2. B3. B4. B5. Teachers from schools with a high degree of dis- satisfaction (high scores on Factor II) will perceive their school environment as being less open than those from an environment where greater satisfaction is felt by the staff. Teachers from schools with a high degree of dis— satisfaction will feel less satisfaction with attainment of task goals than those from an environment where greater satisfaction is felt by the staff. Teachers from schools with a high degree of dis— satisfaction will feel less satisfaction with attainment of social and interpersonal needs than those from an environment where greater satisfaction is felt by the staff. Teachers from schools with a high degree of dis- satisfaction will feel less of an overall sense of happiness than those from an environment where greater satisfaction is felt by the staff. Teachers from schools with a high degree of dissatisfaction will feel less freedom to take a leadership role than will teachers from an environment where greater satisfaction is felt by the staff. 72 In all cases the direction of these hypotheses is the same and statistically might be represented thus: H0: 41 ; U2 ; “3 where ul is the mean for teachers from the schools with most dissatisfaction (high scores on Factor II) and mg is the mean for teachers from schools where teachers are the most satis- fied. If the direction of differences in the means is appropriate and consistent, large values of the "F" statistic will lead to the rejection of the null hypothesis. A signi- ficance level of .05 was deemed acceptable. Cl. Teachers from schools with a high degree of aloofness and little consideration from the principal (high schools on Factor III) will perceive their environment as being less open than those from an environment where the principal is considerate and not aloof. C2. Teachers from schools with a high degree of aloofness and little consideration from the principal will feel less satisfaction with attainment of task goals than those from an environment where the principal is considerate and not aloof. C3. Teachers from schools with a high degree of aloofness and little consideration from the 73 principal will feel less satisfaction with attainment of social and interpersonal needs than those from an environment where the principal is considerate and not aloof. C4. Teachers from schools with a high degree of aloofness and little consideration from the principal will feel less of an overall sense of happiness than those from an environment where the principal is considerate and aloof. C5. Teachers from schools with a high degree of aloofness and little consideration from the principal will feel less freedom to take a leadership role than those from an environment where the principal is considerate and not aloof. In all cases the direction of these hypotheses is the same and statistically might be represented thus: H0‘ 111 1142 3.113 Hl= M < 112 < 113 where ul is the mean for teachers from schools high on Factor III and u3 is the mean for teachers from schools low on Factor III. If the direction of differences in the means is appropriate and consistent, large values of the "F" statistic will lead to the rejection of the null hypothesis. A significance level of .05 was deemed acceptable. 74 Summary In this chapter the purpose of the study has been discussed, along with the population to be used, the instru— mentation, hypotheses, and the research procedures. The bases for the research hypotheses were then presented and discussed in some detail as they relate to the EPPS and the OCDQ and the factor analysis of the OCDQ. The procedures for relating the data, the research hypotheses, and the statistical hypotheses were also specified. The relationship between the OCDQ and the Scale Questions was discussed, research hypotheses presented, and statistical hypotheses specified. CHAPTER IV' PRESENTATION OF FINDINGS This chapter is divided into six main sections. In the first portion of the chapter the sample will be de- scribed in terms of averages for the entire group that participated. An analysis of the Edwards Personal Preference Schedule (EPPS) will follow, considering the female elementary school teacher separately from the men and all principals, and relating this data to the findings of other studies and to norms for adults in general. Of particular importance is the age-experience inter—relation- ship. The next portion will analyze the Organizational Climate Description Questionnaire (OCDQ) findings for the whole sample, the factor scores used in testing the hy- potheses of the study, and the individual perceptions Of climate. An analysis of the 51 hypotheses relating the OCDQ school climate factor findings to the EPPS data, and an interpretation of this data, will be followed by a similar analysis of the 15 hypotheses related to the five Scale Questions and the climate of the school. The relationship between the EPPS and Scale Questions will also be con- sidered. The chapter will conclude with a section on other 75 76 findings not directly related to the hypotheses from this study but which provide information of importance for further research in this area. Description of Sample Twenty-four Michigan schools and 420 teachers and principals were asked to participate in the study. All schools did participate and 359 (or 86%) of the teachers and principals provided at least part of the information re- quested. Of the 61 teachers who did not respond, 31 were from the two schools where the investigator was not per- mitted direct contact with the staff. In only two other schools did the response drop as low as 67% and half the schools provided 100% participation. All of those who re— sponded completed the OCDQ, the biographical data and the five Scale Questions (see Appendix A). In only a few cases were any items omitted. Of the 359 subjects who participated, 37 were male and were excluded from parts of the study. An additional five women were principals and thus excluded from the portion re- lating to teachers. Of the remaining 317, 22 teachers fail- ed to complete all or a substantial portion of the EPPS and were dropped from that part of the analysis. All of these remaining 295 subjects omitted less than 15 items on the EPPS. In most cases where the schedule was not complete, one or two items were missing; in a few cases whole groups of five were missed, probably because of inadvertent 77 skipping on the answer sheet. The breaking point was between 10-13, and past this point large numbers were usually skipped. One person "gave up" after completing 150 of the 225 items. One did not finish, and several started and quit after doing only a dozen items. The criterion for elimination from the sample was 15 or more items missed. In accordance with the EPPS Manual, a coin was flipped on all missing items to provide a total score consistent with all other respondents. Each test was then double checked to be sure that the sum of all responses added to 210, the number required by the forced choice format. The final sample for analysis of the EPPS con- tained 295 subjects (all female) or more than 90% of the total. Some of the information gathered from the sample can be analyzed in more general terms. The average age of those participating in the study was 40.45 years with a standard deviation of 14.76. There was a distinct difference be- tween schools On this factor. Some schools had as many as two-thirds or more of their teachers under age 30 while others had 80% or more over age 30 or age 40. The average age in a school ranged from a low of about 25 to over 50. Table 1 shows, by 10 year groupings, the distribution in the sample. The average number of years of experience in edu- cation was 12.42 years with a standard deviation of 10.86. Again this was distributed unevenly among the schools as 78 TABLE l.—-Age, years experience in education and years experience in building for 359 subjects in total study. Years Experience Years Experience Age in Education in Building 20—29 N = 130 0 - 3 N = 102 0 - 3 N = 211 30—39 46 4 - 9 83 4 — 9 104 40—49 54 10 - 19 80 10 — 19 37 50-59 88 20 — 29 60 20+ 7 60-69 41 30+ 34 one might expect considering the varied age distribution. (See the next section for comments on this age-experience interaction.) The distribution by groupings is shown in Table l. The years in a building category provided a mean of 4.44 and a standard deviation of 4.81. This figure must be considered carefully, however, because some buildings were relatively new and thus restricted the length of time a teacher could have been active within the building. A number of teachers had been in their present teaching lo- cation since the building was constructed, having trans- ferred from a consolidated district or an older building. This distribution is also shown in Table 1. Educational background varied among the schools. Of the total sample, 15 teachers did not have their BA degree and 27 teachers and principals had work beyond the Master's level. Between these extremes, 108 had only the Bachelor's degree, 178 had work beyond this level, and 31 had com- pleted the Master's degree. Both extremes were distributed 79 well across the sample with only one school having as many as three non-degree teachers. Seventeen schools had per- sonnel with work beyond the Master's degree but only three schools had as many as three such people. The vast majority of the sample were married with only 42 single teachers, 14 who were separated or divorced, and 21 who were widows. In terms of vocational aspirations the following pattern emerged: 4 saw teaching as only a temporary job. 3 planned to teach only until marriage. 37 had plans to teach until they had children. 45 saw themselves teaching less than five years now but coming back to education later. 26 were planning for a non-classroom position in education. 91 were planning to teach for the forseeable future. 142 planned to teach until retirement. One question in the general schedule asked why the teacher chose a particular school. The answers here are subject to qualifications since categories and assignment of respondents to categories was done after the answers had been received. Many times subjective judgment placed the subject in one or another of the categories. In~a rough \ sort of way, then, these are a distillation Of the reasons given for choosing a school1 and how many were assigned to each reason: lSee PageléK)for a discussion of the differences between teachers who chose to be in a school and teachers who were present because of situational factors. 80 93 location (close to graduate school, close to home, etc.) 40 husband working in area 6 size of school or system 26 administrative reasons (such as closing a school or transfers) 31 only job available that met teacher's situation 58 school philosophy, atmosphere or facilities (as choosing a new building) 20 personal contact (as in student teaching) 55 placement by administrative Office with little or no choice possible by the teacher The questions relating to job success did not achieve the goal since the mean for the whole sample was 8.16 (on a scale of 3 to 9) with a standard deviation of only 1.14. Two hundred six rated the maximum 9 and only two went as low as 4. These questions did not differentiate the teachers as well as was desired and in retrospect it would appear that another Scale Question would have achieved better results. In coding the answer sheets a number of the respondents seemed to have misunderstood the intent of the questions, for their answers were not always consistent with other data available. It is also interesting to note that this group of questions relating to job success did not correlate with anything else. They were excluded from further consider- ation. The five Scale Questions did distribute themselves much more normally and slightly above the mid—point (4) of the scales. The means and standard deviations are given in Table 2. More detailed information regarding all of these variables are given in subsequent sections as the details 81 TABLE 2.——Means and standard deviations for the five Scale Questions, N = 359. Scale Standard Question Mean Deviation SQl - Perception of Openness 5.18 1.41 SQ2 - Task Satisfaction 5.20 1.19 SQ3 — Social Needs Satisfaction 5.30 1.49 SQ4 - Overall Happiness 5.46 1.53 SQ5 - Freedom to Lead 5.20 1.59 are important to a discussion and analysis of the topic then under consideration. Analysis of the Edwards Personal Preference Schedule One of the two major instruments in this study is the Edwards Personal Preference Schedule (EPPS). Several questions of concern will be discussed in this section. One concerns the nature of the EPPS data gathered and the extent to which it is representative of all women and/or teachers generally. Another relates to the relationships between the EPPS variables and the age-experience interaction in teachers. Other questions relate to the EPPS factors of sociability and conformity, the consistency score and the findings relating to male elementary school teachers and all principals. The Inter-correlation Matrix of the EPPS A master inter-correlation matrix of the EPPS sub- scores for the female teacher group was formed and is reproduced in Table B-3. Only three of the 210 correlations 82 were .40 or higher. This tends to support Edwards' con- tention that the variables being measured by the EPPS are relatively independent. When compared with Edwards' inter- correlations (1959, p. 20) there were no noteworthy de— partures. The direction was the same in every case and the magnitude approximately the same, and certainly within chance fluctuation. Edwards' largest correlations were .46 and -.36; the present study found the largest corre- lations to be .44 and -.44. Considering that Edwards used 1509 subjects and all college students, while this sample consisted of 295 elementary school teachers who were all female and varied in age from about 20 to almost 70, the findings suggest that the EPPS inter-correlations tend to hold up regardless of age or population. It also tends to support the conclusion that this volunteer sample is not biased. Representativeness of Sample The question was raised in Chapter III as to how repre- sentative was the present sample of the population from which the sample was taken. NO effort was made to randomly select schools for this study, but rather to select schools of varying characteristics. To gain some idea of the repre— sentativeness of the present sample, it was compared with both the Edwards' norms for adult women and the Jackson and Guba 1957 data on 196 female elementary school teachers. The second portion of Table 3 shows the results of this TABLE 3.--tdwards Personal Preference 83 Ll Schedule Means and Standard Deviations for various sub-samples from total study and differences in means from other studies using the Edwards Schedules.a Differences in Means and Significance Level (Stud't) Female Elem. Female 1 Need Variable Males and All Teachers Elem. S:;::?: 332%: gigzsggmand Principals Con 10 Teachers ° — E1. Teach. N=38 N=251 N=293 N=4932 N=196 Achievementz, Mean 14.66 13 62 13.38 -.20 NS +.15 NS Standard Deviation 3 7 4 01 4.00 Deference: Mean - 14.98 14.7 14./1 - 01 NS -.39 NS Standard Deviation 3.79 3 67 3.59 Order: 3 Mean 11.55 13.16 13.19 -2 4O .01 +.O4 NS Standard Deviation 5.38 4.99 4.92 Exhibition: Mean 13.76 13.04 12 98 +1.50 .01 - 27 NS Standard Deviation 3.34 3.96 3.78 Autonomy: Mean 13.29 12.94 12.87 +.77 .01 +1.18 01 Standard Deviation 4.31 3.86 3.91 Affiliation: Mean 15.66 17.09 17.19 -.57 NS —.45 NS Standard Deviation 4 2 3.99 3 93 Intraception: Mean 16.61 17.25 16.95 +1.67 .01 +.l4 NS Standard Deviation 5 5 4.11 4.11 Succerance: Mean 10.24 11 77 11.93 - 93 .01 -.99 NS Standard Deviation 4.59 3 9 3-93 Dominance: ' Mean 16.74 11 3 11 25 +1.01 .01 - 54 NS Standard Deviation 5.38 4 73 4 62 Abasement: Mean 12.21 15 00 15.06 -1.83 .01 +.53 NS Standard Deviation 4.42 5.16 5 02 Nartarance: Mean 14.53 15.90 15.94 -2.54 .01 —.85 NS Standard Deviation 4 35 4.26 4 21 Change Mean 17.03 17.37 17.52 +1.53 .01 +.83 NS Standard Deviation 4.48 4.76 4.71 Endurance: Mean 13.74 15.32 15.28 —1 22 .01 +.33 NS Standard Deviation 5.28 4.62 4.52 Heteresexuality: Mean 12.76 10.94 11.18 +3.06 .01 -.17 NS Standard Deviation 7.17 6.85 6.80 Aggression: Mean 12.26 10.49 10.52 +.36 NS +.37 NS Standard Deviation 3.43 4.38 4.24 Consistency: Mean 10.66 11.83 11.32 - 27 NS Standard Deviation 1 76 1.77 1-33* 8‘The elimination of 42 subjects with consistency score below 10 reduced the standard deviation to a point where the variance (compared to the Edwards Norms) is significantly different at the .01 level. 84 comparison (the data from which comparisons were made is presented in Table B—l). There were significant differ- ences on 11 needs when compared with adult women in general, but only on one need when compared with Jackson and Guba findings-~a different, random sample of female elementary school teachers. Variances on each need were compared using the "F statistic" and in no case was the assumption of equal variances brought into question. On the one need of Autonomy the present sample could be slightly higher than average for women teachers, Jackson and Guba's mean could be lower, or both could be true. The teachers in the present sample seem to be slightly lower on the need for Succorance than other data would indicate might be ture. The inter- action of these two could account for the difference. The other possibility is that the present data is more reflective of reality than is Jackson and Guba's. From this analysis it was concluded first, that this was a representative sam- ple, with respect to EPPS need scores, of all female ele- mentary school teachers in the Midwest, and, second, that female elementary school teachers, as a group, differ significantly‘from other adult women. When compared with women in general (Edwards' data) women elementary school teachers in the present sample were found to be significantly higher than other women on these sub-test scores: Exhibition, Autonomy, Intraception, Domi- nance, Change, and Heterosexuality. They were significantly lower than other women on these sub-test scores: Order, 85 Succorance, Abasement, Nurturance, and Endurance. Jackson and Guba's 1957 sample of teachers were high on Exhibition, Intraception, Dominance, Change, and Heterosexuality. Their sample was lower on Order, Abasement, Nurturance, and Endurance. The only difference in these two lists is the addition of Autonomy and Succorance by the present study to the Jackson and Guba list. Jackson and Guba found their sample of elementary school teachers to have.less need for Autonomy than Edwards' norms suggest for women in general. The present study showed the reverse and this is the one need score where there is a significant difference between this study and the Jackson and Guba data. An examination of the data and correlation matrix suggests that the present sample is more "true to life" in this respect than Jackson and Guba data. Both Table B—3 and the Edwards' inter— correlation matrix show negative correlations between the Succorance and Nurturance sub-tests when compared with the Autonomy sub-test. Since, in the present sample, both the Succorance and Nurturance scores are lower for female teachers than for women in general, it is not unexpected to find Autonomy higher. Since there seems to be less need mani— fested for teachers to depend on others (or to be depended upon by others), it is reasonable to expect that they would also show a desire to be more autonomous. The study by Guba, Jackson and Bidwell (1959) found the needs characteristic of veteran teachers (10 years or more) to be high Deference, Order, and Endurance with low 86 Heterosexuality, Dominance, and Exhibition and.called this "representative of an emergent occupational pattern." They also noted the absence of high Achievement, Intra— ception and Nurturance. Recognizing that the present sample consists only Of elementary teachers, and that the earlier study was com- pleted before the advent of adult norms, only Deference, in the present sample, maintains a high position relative to other women. Order and Endurance are both lower. On the other side, the coin shows the needs for Heterosexuality, Dominance and Exhibition are all higher, not lower, than for women in general. As for the "missing needs," Intraception is significantly present, but neither the need for Achieve- ment nor Nurturance is abundantly represented in the present sample. The age-experience interaction was also not ade— quately taken into consideration in the earlier study. This will be discussed in the next section. With these differences in mind the following conclusions are drawn from the present data: When compared with women in general, women who teach in an elementary school are more apt to desire to be the center of attention and their own bosses. They are more apt to desire to analyze their own and other's motives and behavior, and do new and different things. They have a need to dominate, persuade and influence others to do as they desire. They have a higher need to engage in activities with men. 87 On the other hand, female elementary school teachers have less of a need to keep things in order, well organized and to plan in advance. They manifest less need to have others provide help and encouragement and also have less need to help their friends when in trouble (and thus to be more independent and autonomous). They have less need to feel guilty, accept blame when things do not go right and to stick with a job until it is finished. This is in con- trast with the stereotype of the teachers as "sexually im- potent, obsequious, eternally patient, painstakingly demand- ing, and socially inept" (Jackson and Guba, 1957, p. 189). The Inter-relationship of Age and Experience with EPPS Scores One of the most interesting and difficult problems that kept arising in the analysis of the data from this study re- lated to the effect of age upon EPPS scores. Jackson and Guba (1957), for example, had found that novice teachers showed less of a need on Deference, Order, Endurance, and Aggression than did veteran teachers. They also found that veteran teachers had less need in the areas of Exhibition and Heterosexuality. Except for Aggression, the findings of the present study can clearly explain every one of the Jack- son and Guba findings in terms of age or an age—experience interaction. The nature of these inter-actions are set forth in Table 4. The ramifications of these inter-actions should be apparent for they must enter into every attempt to 88 TABLE 4.—-The inter-relationships of age, years experience in education, years experience in building and EPPS variables.a Nature of the EPPS Variable Relationship With EPPS Need For: Age Years Exp. Ed. Years Ex. Bldg. Deference Older people have More experienced have 0-3 years in building greater n-deference greater n-deference have less n-deference Exhibition Older people have More experienced have n-exhibition decreases Heterosexu- ality Order Affiliation Succorance Abasement Endurance less n-exhibition Older people have less n-neterosexu- ality, but stable between ages 30-50 At about age 40, Older people have more n-order Sharp increase at age 60 in n-affili— ation Decreases to age 45 and then increases 3:229 increase after age 5; in n-aoase- ment Sharp increase at age 40 in n-endur- ance None less n—exhibition More experienced have less n-neterosexu- ality More experienced have more n-order None None More experienced have more n—abasement More experiended have more n-endurance More experienced have less n-change with years in building n-heterosexuality de- creases with years in building 0-3 years in building have less n-order None None 0-3 years in building have less n-abasement n-endurance increases with years in building 0-3 years experience in building have most n- change; 4-9 have least Frequency Distributions Age 20-29 114 30-39 33 40-49 39 50-59 74 60-69 32 Exper. in Bldg. aThe following EPPS variables were unrelated to any of the other variables: Achievement, Autonomy, Intraception, Dominance, Nurturance and Aggression. 89 interpret findings where there are differences in the Edwards which might stem from other causes. If there were a significant difference between two groups of teach- ers on an EPPS need--say the need for Deference--it would be essential that age and experience be controlled before a meaningful distinction could be made. As an example, there were nine teachers in the pre- sent sample who had a substantial number of items omitted but for whom scores were computed (by tossing a coin for the missing items). These were all older teachers and the results of the EPPS showed them to have scored higher on the following needs: Deference, Order, Affiliation, Suc- corance, and Endurance. They scored lower than the main sample on Exhibition, Dominance, Change, and Heterosexu- ality. With the single exception of Dominance (which showed a curvilinear relationship), all of these other differences could be explained in terms of age. In Table 4, material has been abstracted from Tables in Appendix B which reproduce analysis of variance details. In many ways, the information in these tables has proved to be of more significance than the hypotheses in this study which attempted to relate the EPPS to school climate. The three age-experience tables (B-4, B-5, B-6) provide im- portant data for consideration when using the EPPS in re- search on teachers. 90 Spangler and Thomas (1962) sampled 20 men and women at 10 year intervals between ages 40 and 79. They found a sharp increase in the EPPS need for Affiliation at age 60. Deference showed a steady increase to age 60 and then leveled off. Succorance showed a sharp increase into the 50's but then the rate of increase began to slow down. The finding for Deference is definitely affirmed by the present data as is the need for Affiliation. There is a sharp in- crease in this need among teachers when they approach the retirement age. It is suggested that this increase in later years is related to the sense of loneliness which often comes with age and with the death of close friends and associates. The Succorance finding by Spangler and Thomas was not repli- cated. Rather, in the present study, a curvilinear relation- ship was found with the need decreasing to age 45 and then increasing. It would seem that in the earlier years the de- crease could be accounted for by the striving for independence and the movement away from dependence on others. As middle age approaches there may be an awareness that friends are needed and that more help and encouragement from others is also needed. Spangler and Thomas also found that scores on Heterosexuality declined with age, a fact very clearly de- lineated in the present study. Gauron (1965) explored 322 EPPS records of routinely admitted psychiatric hospital patients. Of this number 163 were females ranging from age 15 to age 59. He reported results for 34 females ages 15-19 and 37 females ages 40-59 91 with the following patterns (groupings between the extremes also showed appropriate placement and direction): Deference, Order and Endurance showed a pattern of increases with age. These findings are replicated in the present study and seem to be independent of the population being sampled. Exhi- bition, Abasement, Change, Heterosexuality, and Aggression showed decreases in need scores with increases in age in the Gauron sample, although the difference in Change was minor. Exhibition.and Heterosexuality are replicated in the present study, but Abasement and Aggression are not. The only significant difference is in Abasement and it is possible that this pattern is related to the teaching pro- fession since teachers have less need for Abasement expressed (as a group), and the most notable increase in teachers is in the later years. Another manner of checking this data is to look at correlations on a particular EPPS need and the corresponding age or experience variable. Table 5 gives the correlations between the different EPPS needs and these other three vari- ables. Note also that age is most directly related to experience in education (.84) and less so to experience in a given building (.55). The reason for this can be found in Table 6 where there is presented a frequency distribution of these three variables. There are built-in limitations here. For example, if the teacher had been teaching for less than three years, he could not have been in the pre— sent building for more than three years. By the same TABLE 5.—-Corre1ations between EPPS needs and age, experi- ence in education and experience in building. EPPS Need Age Exp. Educ. Exp. Bldg. Achievement —.06 -.09 -.04 Deference .42 .44 .28 Order .21 .23 .12 Exhibition -.28 -.32 -.22 Autonomy -.03 -.05 -.01 Affiliation .12 .13 .O9 Intraception —.05 -.07 -.00 Succorance -.08 -.02 -.08 Dominance -.O7 -.l4. -.07 Abasement .22 .28 .15 Nurturance .12 .12 .14 Change —.l6 -.16 -.09 Endurance .32 .31 .19 Heterosexuality -.39 -.38 -.27 Aggression -.10 -.11 -.07 Age . 1.00 .84 .55 Experience Educ. 1.00 .65 Experience Bldg. 1.00 argument, if the teacher had spent over ten years teaching in a single building, he would also have had to have been in teaching for more than ten years and obviously would have been at least above age 30. This high degree of inter- relationship is noticeable in all the age groupings. Most of the teachers in the age 20-29 group are in their first three years of teaching. Most of the teachers in their fifties have taught for more than ten years. Returning to the analysis of variance reflected in Table 4, Affiliation, Succorance and Change have the least clear-cut patterns in terms of direct relationships. The 93 mmm mm mm ma a: H: om mampoa mm 5 ma 0 m o o mmlom :s mm mm m ma m o mmlom o: : a: o m m m m:lo: mm o m o m :H m mmlom :HH 0 o : s ma :m mmlom .dxm .me .Oxm .me .axm .me mampOB .sw +oa .sw +oa .9: ml: .nw +oa .nw ml: .pm Mlo mm¢ wcHoHHsm CH wsaoafism pcmmopm mafipaasm ucmmomm mummy +oa OH mammw ml: Ca mnmow mlo .mnonomOp mumpcmsmao mmm pom wcfioafisp ca oocofismdxo mnmom cam .COHpmoscm 2H mocOHAOOxm memo» .mwm mo moanmfinm> pmpmampleSCfi oops» mo coameHMHmmmHo an assoc mocOSUOAmll.m mam