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A . ....‘ . .. -. 2 : ,7“ . ..'."' “‘3‘. 1 1 :3 A — .. 3 .3 .0: L. 3: '33. . 3 1'. 3., .1 '-.n. I: — u 11. .t . I ' 1- - . - v A 1 3': V. .1 . '1' ‘ ~ I ' 40‘ ‘1" THEE”: -* g L! 3 RA R Y Michigan State University This is to certify that the thesis entitled PERSON-ROLE CONFLICT: THE CASE OF THE SCHOOL PRINCIPAL presented by Ronni Ellen Maritt has been accepted towards fulfinm‘ent of the requirements for Mena— degree in W 932W; if Major professor Date 3M/f/J/y / / 0-7639 ‘ J {farm r ‘\ ‘5': "W" QXEROUE FINE§: 25¢ per day per it. RENRNING LIBRARY MTERIALS: P'Iace in book return to remove charge from ctrcutatton records .- ———_.——..—.-— ~ - - '- 7...- PERSON-ROLE CONFLICT: THE CASE OF THE SCHOOL PRINCIPAL By Ronni Ellen Meritt A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS Department of Psychology 1981 ABSTRACT PERSON-ROLE CONFLICT: THE CASE OF THE SCHOOL PRINCIPAL B)’ Ronni Ellen Meritt Previous research on role theory and role conflict is discussed. A model of role conflict is outlined. It was hypothesized that tenure, professional orientation, educational background, and previous job experience were influential in the cause of person-role conflict. Furthermore, it was predicted that importance of job dimension would moderate the relationship between nine person-role conflict measures and general role conflict. Person-role conflict was defined as the discrepancy between preferred and actual time expenditures of nine job dimensions of school principals. Previous job experience, pro- fessional orientation, and tenure were correlated significantly with several of the person—role conflict measures. Several person-role conflict measures were significantly correlated with general role conflict. Examination of scatterplots did not reveal any moderating effect for the importance of job dimensions; regression analysis con- firmed this. A path analysis was used to evaluate the hypothesized model. No path coefficients were significant. Implications for the fhture are discussed. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to thank some very important people for helping me get through this project. First and foremost, the people who have helped me every step of the way are my parents. They have shown me unconditional caring, love, and support. Their pride and respect are greatly appreciated. I love you very much, Mom and Dad. I wish also to thank my committee members. Without the patience, concern, motivational ability, and caring of Dr. Neal Schmitt, I don't know what I would have done, in regard to both this project and my entire graduate career. Thanks also go to Dr. Mary Van Sell and Dr. Ben Schneider for sharing their thoughts, ideas, and inspirations. There were several other individuals to whom I would also like to express my gratitude. My thanks go to Michael Fitzgerald for giv- ing me encouragement, useful information, and knowledge whenever I needed it. I especially appreciate his guiding me through the data analysis. Anita Goldmann also deserves recognition, as she provided a shoulder for me to lean on when it was sorely needed. Last, but certainly not least, I would like to thank Gregory Haston for helping me believe in myself throughout feelings of despair and sharing my moments of joy, too. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LIST OF FIGURES . Chapter I. INTRODUCTION AND REVIEW OF LITERATURE . Role . . . . . . . . . . . . . Role Strain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Role Conflict . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Outcomes of Role Conflict . . . . . . Sources of Role Conflict . . . . . . Person-Role Conflict . . . . . . . . . Self-Concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Person-Role Conflict and General Role Conflict Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . II. METHOD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sample . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Instrument . . . . . . . . . . Person-Role Conflict . . . . . . . . . . . . . . General Role Conflict . Importance of Dimension . . . . . . . . . Educational Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . Professional Orientation . . . . . . . . . . . . Previous Job Experience . . . . . . . . . . . . Tenure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Data Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION . . . . . . . . . Scale Reliabilities and Intercorrelations . Role Conflict Scale . . . . . . . . . . . Professional Orientation . . . . . . . . . . Path Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Regression Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . iii Page vi 44 44 45 45 46 46 47 47 47 48 48 48 52 Page IV. CONCLUSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7O Person-Role Conflict and General Role Conflict . . . 70 Professional Orientation and Development . . . . . . 72 Educational Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 Previous Job Experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 Tenure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 Importance as a Moderator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 Implications for the Future . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 Limitations of the Current Study . . . . . . . . . . 82 APPENDICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 A. SCHOOL ADMINISTRATOR TASK INVENTORY . . . . . . . . . . 85 B. INSTRUMENT TO INVESTIGATE THE PERSON-ROLE CONFLICT OF SCHOOL PRINCIPALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 C. OBSERVED VARIANCES AND RESIDUALS OF MEASURED VARIABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 iv ““1“ w A! Fill 3am WW Table LIST OF TABLES Page Definition of Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Outcomes of Role Conflict . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Sources of Role Conflict . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 Means, Standard Deviations, and Intercorrelations Among Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 Lambda Weights for Dependent Variables . . . . . . . . . 64 Path Coefficients Between Variables . . . . . . . . . . 65 Beta Weights and R? Values of Variables Regressed on Role Conflict . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 1. Model of Relationships Between Person-Role Conflict, Potential Sources of Person-Role Conflict, and General Role Conflict . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 2. Combined Structural and Measurement Model of Proposed Relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 vi “I. w; m! 179:3??st 5 m1 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION AND REVIEW OF LITERATURE Role theory, specifically role conflict, has been an issue of considerable research from both sociological and psychological per- spectives (e.g., Merton, 1968; Rizzo, House, 6 Lirtzman, 1970). The literature on the subject either attempts to define what this concept is or describe the consequences associated with it. In this study, an attempt was made to determine some possible causes of a specific form of role conflict--person-role conflict. A model of role conflict was developed and will be outlined in subse- quent sections. However, a discussion of role theory will be pre- sented first. A summary of the relevant terms will be covered in the following sections. For the reader's convenience, a list of the terms and the way they are conceptualized in this paper are presented in Table 1. Role There are discrepancies in both sociological and psychological literatures regarding the definition of this term as well as how people's roles are Specified. In some cases, definitions encompass only the expectations which outsiders hold for incumbents in assigned positions and ignore the part the incumbents play in role specifica- tion (Banton, 1965; Gouldner, 1957; Merton, 1968; Parsons, 1951; Rizzo et al., 1970). From a similar perspective, Walker, Churchill, and Ford (1975) assert that individuals' roles are defined through a process involving three steps. In the first step, the expectations and demands of the appropriate behaviors are communicated to role occu— pants by members of the role set; in the second step, occupants of roles perceive these role expectations and develop conceptions of how the roles should be performed; and during the third step, role percep- tions are converted into role behaviors. They omit the possibility that incumbents have their own ideas about their roles. Table l.--Definitions of Terms. Term Definition Role A set of expectations which the incumbent and role senders within and outside an organization apply to the incumbent. Role Strain The felt difficulty in fulfilling role obligations. Role Conflict A situation in which the individual perceives inconsistencies in the role behaviors which are expected of her/him. Person-Role Conflict The extent to which role expecta- tions are incongruent with the orientations, expectations, or values of the role occupant. In other cases, the definition includes the possibility that individuals' own expectations for their roles contribute to their concepts of their positions. Levinson (1959) includes this idea in his definition of role. According to him, roles are: (a) the norms and expectations associated with given social positions (i.e., the external, situational pressures from the role set or the organiza- tional policies and charter); (b) the incumbents' orientations or conceptions of the parts to play in the organization (i.e., the indi- viduals' inner definition of what persons in these positions are supposed to think and do); and (c) the actions with which individuals carry out their roles (these are a result of the organizational role ‘. "- .- .I i' 1'. demands, expectations of the role set, and incumbents' role concep- L tions). Other authors have also included this notion of the incumbents' expectations in their definition of role. Graen, Orris, and Johnson (1973), Gross, Mason, and McEachern (1958), Hunt (1971), and Sarbin and Allen (1968) defined a role as a set of expectations which incum- bents and role senders within and outside organizations apply to the incumbents. Thornton and Nardi (1973) also believe incumbents' concepts play a major part in role definition. They present a model of role acqui- sition in which the four sources of role expectations are society at large, similar-role others, reciprocal-role others, and incumbents. The first stage they hypothesize incumbents pass through is the Anticipatory Stage. Before obtaining positions, individuals learn about roles from mass media, similar-role others, and future reciprocal-role others. Thus, the first view of a role is usually very generalized and stereotyped, incomplete and idealized. The second stage occurs when incumbents are neophytes in their roles. At this Formal Stage, the expectations usually emphasize "must" behaviors and abilities, and some attitudes; they are idealized, usually explicit and written, and fixed on incumbents by the system in which they operate. Because of the idealized nature, there is usually agreement between the four sources (i.e., similar-role others, reciprocal-role others, society, and incumbents) of what "should" be done. In the third stage, the Informal Stage, expectations arise through interactions with other individuals and are not usually con- veyed by the system itself. They are generally implicit and refer to the attitudinal and cognitive features of the expectations. At this point the expectations from the various sources may conflict, but individuals can start shaping their roles to fit themselves, their past experiences, and future objectives. In the fourth stage, the Personal Stage, individuals impose their own expectations and conceptions on their roles and modify role expectations to fit their own preferences. Thornton and Nardi suggest that social and psychological adjust- ment and adaptation can only occur in this last stage. Social adjust- ment occurs when individuals adequately meet role expectations and perform accordingly. Psychological adjustment occurs when congruity is achieved between the individuals' psychological needs, and desires, and their roles. Adaptation occurs when roles are internalized and assimilated. In short, various definitions of the term "role" have been sug- gested as well as several models of role acquisition. Some omit the idea that incumbents' own expectations play a part in the process, while others include it. As noted in Table l, the incumbents' own expectations are included in the definition of role throughout this paper and are believed to play an important part in the role- acquisition process. Role Strain According to Thornton and Nardi (1973), social and psychological adjustment and adaptation can occur only at the fourth stage of their model. In contrast, another result of this role-acquisition process could be role strain. Goode (1960) defines role strain as the felt difficulty in fulfilling role obligations. Returning to the previous section in which the process Walker et al. (1975) proposed was described, we can see that role strain could occur at the second step. They assert that at this second step, occupants of roles per- ceive role expectations from their role senders. As will be discussed in later sections, conflicts and difficulties may occur as a result of this. The term "role stress" has been used in the literature by some researchers (Brief, Aldag, Van Sell, 6 Malone, 1979; Dornstein, 1977; Szilagyi, Sims, 8 Keller, 1976; Tosi, 1971; Tosi 8 Tosi, 1970) to mean the same thing as role strain. Consistent with this usage, role strain has been substituted for role stress throughout this paper, regardless of the term used by other researchers. Once again, role strain describes a situation in which individuals feel difficulty in fulfilling role obligations. Role Conflict One type of role strain which has received much attention recently is role conflict. Miles and Perreault (1976) found that individuals experience different kinds of role conflict. In view of this, several typologies will be described in this section. Miles and Perreault, for example, distinguish between four dif- ferent types of role conflict: (a) person-role conflict--the extent to which role expectations are incongruent with the orientations, expectations, or values of role occupants; (b) intersender conflict-- the extent to which one or more role expectations from one role sender oppose those from one or more other role senders; (c) intrasender conflict-—the extent to which two or more role expectations from a single role sender are mutually incompatible; and (d) overload--the extent to which various role expectations communicated to role occu- pants exceed the amount of time and resources available for their accomplishment. The classification scheme which Kahn, Wolfe, Quinn, Snoek, and Rosenthal (1964) have outlined is identical to Miles and Perreault's except for an additional type of conflict, interrole conflict. They conceptualize interrole conflict as the extent to which various role expectations for behavior attributed to one posi- tion which individuals hold are incompatible with the expectations for behavior arising from another position which the same individuals hold. Rizzo et al.'s (1970) conceptualization of the various types of role conflict overlaps that of Miles and Perreault (1976) and Kahn et a1. (1964). They conceptualize person-role conflict and interrole conflict in a manner similar to these others, but identify additional possible sources of conflict. According to Rizzo et al., a conflict between the time, resources, or capabilities of focal persons and the defined role behaviors is ”intrasender conflict" if it is generated from one other person in a related role. If the incompatibility is organizationally generated from the point of view of role occupants, then intrarole conflict occurs. Rizzo et al. also include as types of role conflict, conflicting expectations and organizational demands in the form of incompatible policies, conflicting requests from others, and incompatible standards of evaluations. To summarize, different forms of role conflict have been dis- tinguished. Several typologies have been proposed which overlap each other. The different forms of role conflict can be investigated separately in order to determine the antecedents and consequences of each. As previously stated, this research concentrated on person- role conflict. Before elaborating on person-role conflict, the find- ings concerning some of the outcomes and sources of various forms of role conflict as well as general role conflict will be addressed. Outcomes of Role Conflict In this section, some of the outcomes of general role conflict and specific forms of role conflict are discussed. Numerous studies have been conducted to determine the consequences of general role conflict, and several have studied the effects of the various forms of role conflict. The reader is referred to Table 2 for a breakdown of some of the findings over the past 25 years. ucosoohuav. 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.xugucmsc w xum~m=v vumzou «Momma .=0wm:ou w ogafl sown: aohouu odaum fimefiwfipo mo sumcouuw wac~uo>o omom .osmwumm o» ovum—on Afiuoouwn ma: powmmcou ua-00uouwgz .gu no ucoom .mcoflu -~:~m>o acachoocou xuwsuwosa w .gazauuzuwx gnawwogonoxma .uufl~m:ou popcomwuacw .m:o«u -wuuoaxo mewchoucou xuwswmoEm ou voumdou xfiuuouwv ma: uuwdmcoo popcomuoucu .o .oocmspomuon mo muumvcmum Ha:0m -uon w .mmouum .xudzowwwwv ogou .mcwnou on noncommuuc~ vouwfiou x~uuoufiv ma: uuwuucou oqouuoucu .o popcomuou:_ .ofimpoe o» wouwuou xaompo>cw w ogouuoucm “comuwuoaeoo w .cowmcou .mmouum ou voua~ou mucovaum Amomdu magnum dacwwwuo o~ou-=omuom x~uuouwv ma: uofifimcou ouch-:0muom .u ouasvwhu wade: uowuucou ouox mo muouauovoz uuwfimcou o—om mwcwvcwu oqneuw oocououom acoEousmmoz mo vogue: mo onxh .u0udmcou «so: mo moaouuso--.~ essay ofimom Anomzo .Ea no gang .qmsvfi> -«vcm on» you wagon uom o—ou can we when :uao sofigs mnemumu -uoaxo use camped dmuow wcwxma so vocmmuoo changes xucmnopumwo .muozon ucwqu-:omeuov mo newuuoo-u aasuoa w voummov cooruoo oocohommwcuuoh: -maos xocagouummo .p .mofiaum Anomuv .Ha no cgax w Aonmuv .- no can; mo meow .3 60.5 -mmoe mmocmmo~uozoa a .mmocmmodspo: .muum~m icon mo mcoflumoupog .o . 353. 53.30 :6 p.83 0;» mo muonEoE cooxuoo unosooummmg o...» Hugo—o ow «gaspom m--uow~m need noncomaouca mo ousmmoe o>mauonoo .o .moawmw :Mmupou co Amuovcom ouch ocuv p.80: 93 we mucosa... 23 w o>fiusuoxo cm coozuoo suu~uauxu~a cemmho>09u=~ muovcom each mo heron vmo~po>o oaom uo-mcou ofiou "whocou hmvCOmHOU—um .:0wum>wuoe acoeo>owgom "~o>o~ ~0uoum-0su a menu uumo: wanna: “amousu vouaaouunon "newu toemmmummmwv non “coflmcou ooh "gum: vows -wuomma ma: vuo~uo>o ouch o>mumuwucmso .n .Ho>o~ «chop -mo_o;o yoga“; moan» «Lao: voucazo unmounu vouwdouuoon “moumcwvnoosm saw: ceauummmwumm -mwv ”whom; saw: unedumfiou noon mxufigfiusu mo omcom “coflmcou wouauouuoOH Macmuuammwumm non nozog "new: voumfioommm mm: uuwfimcou .a .coMuumumMumm non ou voyage» x—omuo>:w ma: avagmcou mummucodum w .muoocwmco .mhoumuu -mficfisv< Amnmfio cmgmau w cocoon Amkouu .am go who; cosmofiwm magnumsvcm uum_w:ou o~om mo acosouamaoz mo vogue: muoumhovoz uo-mcou odoz mo oak? mucuvcfia cunaam oocouomou .voscmucou--.w odomh 10 o~m0m Aenm~v .aa uo ONNMm odmom Ackmzv .La no ounuz acoso>oflcom how woo: mo suwcohum hovcomuouc~ Q H OH- :Omhom powfiwcoo o~ou Hmpocou .mfiuacw>«vcw unoeo>o«:uauuowuuoo: so“ you saga mfiaavm>wucw acoso>oqgua uuom-voo= saw: you o>wummoc ones who: mouammoe cofiuuammwuam :uoo new uuwaucou hovcomuouew :oozuoo mamzm:0wua~ou och .o .m~omum xuo: on» cu“: cemuuammwuam owmcmuucw was ceauoammwumm non -muo>o on coua~ou agomho>cm mm: Homumeoo o~ou-:0muoa .a .o>mo~ cu xummcoAOHQ new xuoqxca ou voua~ou x~uuouwp and :owuummmwuam can mmo=o>fiuoowmo ~6:0wuauw:uwuo mo mcoflu -aoouoa o» voyagou xdomuo>ca ma: uuwgmcou noncomuom oud>uom ~M>Mu w xuaumHflz mooxo~meo dmuacnoou \uw:0wmmom0hq w umwuomacmz Amhodu acmcwum a :Omcnon Amnmnu aux“: w ease: mowuumsvew Acme scum ofimom uufidm:06 .xuowxcm pea umouzu vo>woo muoumcas avnmgv finch Aonm~v .fim uo onumm o~ou monocou -uon o» poun~op >~uuouwv mm: wommwcou ~o>odusuwz w gonad: maaoo~ ouwm: hovcomuoucm .mso~ooua mcwzom> cos: ovzuwuua uwumw comcsupooa~ Aommmu -:0wumozc Hmcwmflho omouuoucu -mmoucs ca gag: vouaqumma no: uuwmmcou mo muovaoa cuozmmuao o~oupo~c~ .cofiuoammmuam mucovcoucw mammfiv .ua xo>u3m Macaufiho o~oumuu:~ now on voummoh xfiomuo>cw mm: uoammcou uponsm floonum no mmouu noduomsm xo vouuoaou mm macaumuuoaxo new coda Annmau -muomdm mafia .msuom .comuuawmw mumxv camuo w eoozuoo oucouommM: o~op-:0mpog -umm cu poumfiou xdomuo>=fi ma: uufi_ucou Hawpowmcmz ocoouo mucuoshumew Avmmfiu xo>uzm .mmo:o>quuow uuooaumo mono w Hmcfiwwuo w mzofi>hou:_ o~ou~o~¢~ tube“ 0» woummou aduuouwv mm: womawcou xuaufludz m—onuoo .~o>o~ Honoumofionu yoga“; "ouch undo; hoswdz uuaousu woum~ou-56n ”cofiuumwmmummmdv pom “:0wmcou non ”saw: vamMUOmmm we: vaofiuo>o o>wuaum~m=o .o Hafi_m:ou o~om mo muoumuouoz uuw_mcou ofiom mwcfivcfln emaEmm mucouomoz ucoemuzmmoz mo vogue: mo oaxh .uoacnucou--.N ofinae 11 RI .Efl...hu§.:i. suufiuna xuOmM>uoa=m mo Ho>og ucoeo>wgum dmcowuan .280 now poo: mo camcouuw .cofimcou voua~ou-90n can uuwdwcou :oozuoo awsmcofiumnou homcouum m we: auwfiwow zuOmw>uoa=m uozo~ sum: omocb .u .m:6wum~oh gmcomuoahouCM o~ouuo>mw wmoq pea .:0muuwmmwuwm non mmou .xuoaxcu van cammcou voozvcfiuoon once on: unoeo>owzua ~m=0wumnzuoo you coo: sou cu“: awash .n .:0mm:ou vouufioh use“ 0» voumdou xuuuouav was muoncom o_mum wow—ucoo ouch chase» ocsuwuum pea newuummmfiuam Amonmfiv mofiwz nachmfiv Aonmfiv .~m uo o-m¢ mach fimuocoo non ou couauou x—omuo>=w was noggmcou .o mm 02mm mug“: mucocwwco w .mumwu Icowum Anew uw>uom=m=o= .thumumoucw .=0wm=ou ou vouaaou xHuoouwu .muovwou admom audmwcou can muovcom oaou vuasou ovsumuum can :ofiu macaw .mhomu awonmgv Aonmfiv .dm up enumm ofiou ~apocou -umMmfiuam cu venomou xfiomho>cfl mm: uoammcou name newmw>mn mo~wz newuauflcawuo cam aces ucho>ow a :« .unov oocomum .cOMuoeoug you mowu command an o~mum wow—wcou -mcsuuoaao can .xmm .cofimw>uon:m sum: :oflu mo mooxonaeo amanu Acnmfiv .~m no cuumm ofioc ~muocou -ummmmumm ow voyages xmomuo>cw mm: powfimcou "acoflmmomoum yea—ox xquwnfixo_m .xuowxcm cam .cofimcou .o>mo~ cu xumm ecumuo>ouu:_ -comopg on voumfiou xAuwopmp ma: uoflamcou .o . .oocaELOCHog can .mmo:o>muoommo :30 mo .mumoc cw: w u:o&o>om;um o_oupou:~ cowuaoopoa ”muoucom o~oy :ufiz newumuwcsaeou .ucfiusuummacme no» woo: poccomnouch mo ucsosm ecu .Eooumo uo>wounom .mcwxfim .mhouumsvuao: neomfig o~mum "nemeuo mo :uwcouum Hoccomauucn .umsuu cu voua~ou xfiomuo>cm ma: unfinmcou .a :m m~o>o~ -< .Hm uo cgmx .oucovconopcw you woo: 30— a o>uc on: omega cane mgmsvfl>wvcw oocoveoaovcw oucovcoaovcfi -uom-coo: zmfi; how o>wumwoc eyes one: cow coo: mousmmos newuomwmwumm zuoo ecu uuw~ucou mo newcouum concomuoucw coozuon maflzm:6wua~ou och .u uowfiwcou o—om mo muoumuopoz uufiflmcou o~om mmcmccdm ofinsam oocouowom unoeouzmmoz mo vogue: mo QQXH .voscwucou--.~ omoub 12 CO.— oococoucaofl vounwxm w .mcowuficzuou .coEmovouu ~o>o~ .muoxuoz ~mcomu douwuoao -onwcmmuo .mooxodmao "occammom mcwxoe noun w ~o>o~ codmwoov uxhuco .mko odoum o>wuoawufluuon powumcoo .comuuommflumm -mocoe Ho>o~ aonnmfiu noumfiv .Ho uo cuuwm mo uenos< ouou uohocoo new 0» voumgou x—omuo>cfi no: uofimmcou ofivvfismwuomn: houszum .o>oo~ cu xuwmcoaoua mooxounso van .=0wm=ou .xuofixco ou vououou xuuuouwv dooflcsoou uo«~m:0u new "coauuowmwuom pom .ucoauuwm_:w \Ho:0wmmomoun nonmdu onoom Hocmwfioo oHoh —ouo:ou too: on pone—op agomuo>cw no: uofigmcou w domuouocoz .no no annwx 555:. 2:48: o~mom powamcoo -Eoo "accououficomuo vco :oMuoowmwuom cosmouom modum Acnmfiu .Ho uo oNNMm ofiou ~onocoo pen on vouogou >~omho>cw no: uowamcou "douom w uo>wuo mofiuw>wuoo .mmo:o>fluoommo vo>woouoa can .muovcom memccomm o~ou whozou mov=umuuo .:0wuuowmwuom non mohmnv o_oum -xoocczon wowfiwcou cu vouodou x~omuo>cw can .coMmcou vouofiou amona~v ausaouuom aonmfiv .~o no onuwm mo unsoe< o~ou douocou -o6n ou vouofiop Afiuoouwv no: wow~m=ou mofiwz no oeom c mo—w: .maoocom ofiou woozou mousumuuo was :Owuoommfluom non omoum uofifimcou cu vouo_ou xgomuo>cw vcm “cemmcou vouofiou moonmfiu Aonmfiv .go uo comma o~0p dohocoo -oon o» vouofioh afluuoumv no: wowmmcou moafiz no oaom Amnmfiv moamz .oocousmmo-u~om Lona“; new: omega can» uuMHmcoo cu om:OQmou cw oocmusmmm xuowxco can cowmcou yoga“; one .mcofluofiou -m~om ~o=0mpoapoucw o~oouo>om mmo~ on: oocmusmmo mo _o>o4 -mgom hozom sud: mmosz>fivcfi omozh .o Hemawcou 0—0”. .«0 whoumhovoz uum~mcou o—om map—ZOE:— vmnfiam oucuuomoz ucosohsmooz mo vozuoz mo onxh .voscquOUuu.N o~noh 13 scum was nuauommscoa o c“ ~o=:0muog Ahomw>uomsm w .ucfinoocwmco .nofluowocoa w “houcoo doowvoe o nonmav :« doccomuon houdox ofimom uofifiucoo .=0wuoommwoom whoansm w w .mem Aonmfiv .Hm uo ONNwm o~oo Hopocou new 0» wouoaou xfiomuo>cfl no: uofidmcou Havavoaouom .Mxmofiwum fioufinmo: o :« ouoo gugoo: you ~o>o~ onommcommou o~oom docowu wom~mcou .:0muoommwuom xfiuuouwv Annmau aonmfiv .fim uo ouufim -onwcomno oHou "ouocou no“ ou vouonou xuomuo>cw no: «omuwcou ~o=:0muom “Auoqwum noncomouucn mucovcou ofioum ~ocfiuwho noncomuoucm .mowuusoMMMMv ucfixoa-=o«mwuov -cwuoasm Annmav vco mzow>uoucu o—ouhoucn cu vouofioh xfiuoouav no: uowfimcou moozom :oEoom HouMAmo: xummuo>wns a :a who uxuox dowuouw neon w outflow .uo«>ozon zoouom new .o>oo~ cu xuwmcom poem w “spam noun .=mecou vouomou-56n .mmouumnxuowxco ucfiuauoomacoe cu vouofion xuuoohwv no: «caducou .o «F: mooonmEo .xuwfiosc oocosnomuoa «nougnmo: mo mmcwuooummom pea mucoso>~o>=fl nan ou o :w woman: ”mofiuwcsupoano cofiuoeoua van .cofimm>uoa:m "anewuouwcmuuo ofioom wow~ucou .mhoxpo3uoo .xon .xuos sum: cemuuowmw acohoMMMv v Annamv .uo Aonofiv ._m no cuuwm o—op Amuocou -umm cu vouogou xfiomuo>afi mo: wowmwaou .o sebwmouasommv uo nodsgow _o>o~ Ankhmfiv o_mom nmcofiu uowdmcoo .=0wuoommwuom nodanom mmnmfiv nonmfiv .fim uo conwm ionmctho ofiop monocou son an vooofioa xgomuo>cm mo: uoaumcou mo oaow nouacow uofi~mcou omom mo muouououoz wommmcou odoz mmcwocwm oHnEom ooconomoz ucosouSmuoz mo vosuoz we on»& .eoscuucou--.~ «snap 14 .muOMaomsm mcowuonwcouuo cw ooeovmwcoo can acauoommmuom mafia» Amom_v muopcom ouch son 6» woumfion xgomuo>cw can "cowm -mavcw o a“ xoocm coo: mzom>houem HovcomuoucH -cou op vououon zauoohwv no: yuanmcou m~o>on HH< w om~03 .vonouesooco meofinoua mo hoses: ecu aucwouuoucs ou couodou smuoouflv can “nonwouum moaocowo -coo anchoocm pea gochouxo uo>o “any no309=os awnafiv ofioom ~ocfiwfipo oovcomuoocH ucoo ow voumHou xHomuo>=w no: powgwcou mo whouoouwn :ouuosz muogomoo Ackagv oumom aonmfiv .am uo uum_m:oo .:o«uoomeuom unaccouom w “mop cuufim o u o moon; ofiop “ouocoo on ou ouofiou xgomuo>ca no: you no xuoucosonm mob ; w o n . .fiw u w « .cofiuuommwuom non onaom Acnmmv .fim uo uoflfimcoo o» voumuou >~omuo>efi veo uuoounu non can muoowumo enufim on» we make; oHou ~ouocoo xuoflxco o» wouofion xfiuoouflv mo: wow—meow coca aanmfiv “mob nowamcou one“ mo uofiflwcou oHom ucoeouamooz mo oozuoz moououovoz mnemocflm odneow oocououom we oaxh .uoacwucou--.~ canap 15 As Table 2 indicates, this type of role strain is associated with many dysfunctional effects for individuals and organizations. This form of role strain affects the individuals' attitudes toward role senders (e.g., Miles, 1975) and changes cholesterol levels and heart rates (French 8 Caplan, 1972). Individuals are less satisfied with work, supervision, pay, and opportunities for promotions (e.g., Keller, 1975) and have less self-esteem (e.g., Brief & Aldag, 1976) as they experience more role conflict. There is a direct relation- ship between the level of role conflict experienced and the amount of job-related stress, tension, anxiety (e.g., Rizzo et al., 1970), ineffectiveness (Getzels 8 Cuba, 1954), job-related threat (e.g., Hamner 6 Tosi, 1974), and uncertainty (Whetten, 1978). The effects on organizations include individuals' decision- making difficulties (Seeman, 1953), lower organizational commitment (Oliver 8 Brief, 1977-78), perceptions that organizations are less effective (House G Rizzo, 1972), and a higher propensity to leave the organizations (e.g., Schuler, Aldag, 6 Brief, 1977). Investigations of variables believed to moderate the relation- ship between role conflict and these outcomes have been conducted in order to obtain a clearer picture of the effects of role conflict. These are also outlined in Table 2. Overall, the moderator variables shown to play a part in the relationship are achievement motivation (e.g., Kahn et al., 1964); extent of introversion/extroversion, degree of flexibility/rigidity, power of role senders (e.g., French 6 Caplan, 1972); self-assurance (Miles, 1976b); organization level (e.g., Szilagyi, 1977); higher-order needs (Beehr, Walsh, 6 Taber, 16 1976); need for independence (Johnson 8 Stinson, 1975); tolerance for conflict (Dalton, 1955); and amount of boundary-spanning activi- ties (Miles 8 Perreault, 1976). In short, it has been fOund that differences on these moderator variables influence the effect role conflict has on individuals. These results suggest that role conflict as an area of investigation is a study of complex interrelationships between individuals' personal attributes and the job requirements which face them. As indicated in Table 2, several studies have concentrated on the more specific forms of role conflict. Since individuals experi— ence different forms of role conflict, it is possible to determine the nature of the consequences associated with these different types. Baird (1969) and Johnson and Stinson (1975) focused their studies on person-role conflict. Their combined findings show that lower satis- faction with work, lowered morale, and higher stress were related to this type of role conflict. The present study was not involved with determining the consequences of role conflict but on investigating the sources of it. Knowledge is available about the dysfunctional outcomes associated with role conflict; however, determining its sources is also an important effort. If one knows the antecedents of a problem, it is hoped that problem situations can be modified. Sources of Role Conflict Several investigations have been carried out to determine some of the sources of role conflict. The majority have focused on cer- tain organizational role requirements, and the reader is referred to 17 Table 3 for an outline of some of those which have been identified in the past 18 years. Generally, most of these studies have explored the effects that boundary-spanning activities (contacts with individuals outside the boundaries of the organization) have on incumbents. The results have shown that the degree of role conflict individuals experience is directly related to the number of boundary—spanning contacts they are required to make (e.g., Kahn et al., 1964). This same relationship exists for role conflict and amount of integration and supervisory role requirements (e.g., Miles, 1976c); formal organizational prac- tices and task-oriented leadership (House 6 Rizzo, 1972); the degree of task-structure-technology incongruence (Schuler, 1977a); extent of diversification of role set (Snoek, 1966); and amount of original problem solving required (Wolfe & Snoek, 1962). An indirect relation- ship has been found between role conflict and the amount of task identity, autonomy, feedback from job, feedback from agents, and deal- ing with others (e.g., Schuler et al., 1977); control over job activi- ties and performance feedback (Oliver 8 Brief, 1977-78); amount of participation (Tosi G Tosi, 1970); and tenure on the job (e.g., Walker et al., 1975). The degree of role conflict has also been shown to vary according to different educational training experiences (e.g., Baird, 1969). As Table 3 indicates, several studies have concentrated on investigating the sources of certain types of role conflict. This is a worthwhile field for investigation since, as Miles and Perreault (1976) discovered, individuals experience different types of role 18 oqou on: Enos ozu mo whoosoe o5 w oiusooxo pnwcoozuon acoEoocummmv one «oouoo 3 335.5» m .uUMHmcou o~ou-:6muon mo meoMugoUhom o» vouogou no: uowmm -cou hovcomuoucm mo ohsmooa o>wuoomoo .o .mmocmmo~uozom w mmocmmo~5hoc mo meoMunoouon o» vouoqou momwuauouco mmocflmzn -luom~ucooo~oo-cowrrumo popcomuouc~ >~uuouwv ouo: uom~m=oo noocomuoucm w uuMum ouoompznmo>wu finnm~v ohamoos o>wuoomoo .o o_on-:omuoa ucoo o~ou-=0muon mo nonsmooe o>muoomoo .o usooxo moflsu :Houmchoo Amo~oodum> mcmco>uoucmv mucououco -wuo owuouo woman: meoMuosumm unmouso a acooaum ooh ~o3uoo new ~ooum Mocodmmomoun .uom_w=oo mo moouwov wcwxuo> ou poo” .momuac poo; Agoa_. coozuon oocouommfio mo acouxm o~op-:0muom moocomponxo ucmcwouu ~o=0wuoosvo econommwn .momhac mmoum =M3uou goofinmo: a an monks: Amkmmv ommom uo-mcou .uow_u:oo ouch mo moouwou mamxuo> cu voo~ osflu-_~=m .uo no aonmau .fio uo cuuwm ofiou monocou moocowuonxo ucficwouu aoCOMHooavo unouomMMQ vouounfiuom mowum Houwmmo: xuwm -ao>fi:= a a“ Aonmdv oflmom wow~mcoo .xso:0u:o one xumu mucoumwmmo w uoo~< mono—V .Am no con“: o~ou ~ouocoo -cocm xmou cu wouofiou xaomuo>cfi no: uowdmcou movwo ucwmhaz w mowum anewuo=~o>o mcflcuoucou xumswwoeo vco .uum~w=ou noncomouunm .muommomoum mo noncommuuc~ More; .m:o«aouuonxo acmchoucou xumswwneo ou popcomuoucm nouodoa xnuooufiv mo: powdwcoo povcomuoucu .o ogouuoucu .muwoxoa mcwchoucoo xuwswwoeo ou mucovsum Hmomfiu ”momfiv vufiom no oEmm odou-=omuom wouo_ou Amuoohwv mo: wowumcoo oaouu=0muom .o ouoscouo vuwom Aofiowuuopznvonwuomovv .uodmmcoo cu vouonou mucovaum n~nmuv momoum docdmwuo o~ou-=0mhom xHomuo>cw no: uoouoo ouoavoum ca onscoh ouoavouo rowan Ho~oowuo> mcmco>houcwv meoduooo_~o cofluoucofluo R_nm—V oewu ~mzuoo can umocw Ha:6wmmouooa .uowdmcoo oaou mo moouwov mcdxuo> cu poo“ moans: .uo uo coozuoo oocouomuda mo acouxm o~0c-:0muog mooeofiuoaxo ucwcwouu mocofiuouavo acouomen acovsum ouu3~< qu_m:ou o—oz uo mucuouovoz womumcou o—oa mmcavcwa onnaom oocououoz acoEousmmoz mo voguoz mo omxh .uomamcou odom mo moousowu-.n oaooh 19 xo>usm ~o: ufimfluo was mzow>hou=~ ouou acovwooo was .uo>o=o:u .Emdoou Icomoo mo m=0muoomvch econoua :ouoomou ~oovw ecu Monaco .mommucomom :oozuoo xoconohommv mo oouwon muozom wcflxoe recamfloop mo cowoou noggo ~o3ooo a vouwmou :oozuoo oucooowmwv--ou: -moos xocoaohomwn .v mofioom Avemfiv .fio uo see: u Achmfiv .~m Go oNNMx mo oeom xo woo: umaoe mmocmmoauozoa w .mmoCmmo_Eho: .wuom—u .:00 mo m:0wuaoouoa .o .mosmmw :wou -uoo co vpmon ozu mo moooeos coozuoa acoe voouwmmdw osu uoouov o» o~=Euom ounuowaucoo hovcomuoucfi mo opsmooe o>fiuoonoo .o mozmmfl :flouuoo co Amhovcom .uofifiucou o~ou mo ~o>o~ on oououou xuomuo> new mo: muoowmuo no whoox .muOuonuum:H .o .oocouomeoo mo ouonmm Amos» saga“: no: dofiuouoe ucwzomou ouo xonu was» doom on: new .mumououew uwozu so“: o:«~ cw no: houuoe uuonosm :omou oa vouwsaou own on: .ucoE=wwmmo ozu omsmou ou xuwczuuogao :o o>on no: cap on: .xusv magnoooa you uooacs mucuoauumcfl avmm_v -~o> uo: can on: muouoshumcwnhoowmmo up uuoofimmo mono w o~ouuouc~ vocmouoo ouoz mouoom uofluwcoo houoouo .o xuoufl—m: mmonuoo sconsoo uoafimcoo “nowsozo a mo . muzoeuuonov ouch uouocoo ucosno~o>ov w :ouoomou vowan -am .gouoom .uom~ueoo «mos osu on: acoEuuomov -ou ammo; on» nmoaav odou-:omoom souoomou cowgnmo ogu ca mumfiucomom ogh cw mumfiucowom =o>m .uoflamcoU odou-:0muom mo macaw -aoohon ou vouomou xguoouwv mo: powmmcoo o~op-:0mhoa mo oosmoos xuconopomwo .o wom_u:ou ofio: mo acosohamooz mo cospo: uuz_c:ou one: we on»? mwcwvcfiu ofizsww ooconomoz mAOuahovoz 11'. 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The present study was concerned with person-role conflict. The conflict sources studied include tenure on the job, extent of professional orientation, educational background, and previous job experience. Their hypothesized relationships to person-role conflict are outlined in detail in the sections following the discussion of person-role conflict. Person—Role Conflict As defined by Rizzo et al. (1970), person-role conflict is the conflict between incumbents' internal standards or values and their defined role behaviors. In many of the studies which investigated this form of role conflict, the term "person-role conflict" was not utilized. Alutto, Hrebiniak, and Alonso (1971), Bates (1962), Brief et al. (1979), Corwin (1961, 1969), Evan (1962), Haga, Graen, and Dansereau (1974), Johnson and Stinson (1975), Nix and Bates (1962),and Oliver and Brief (1977-78) have utilized terms such as "general role conflict," "role strain," "role stress," "moral con- flict," "activity conflict," "value conflict," and "role inadequacy" when researching what is conceptualized here as person-role conflict. In order to avoid confusion, the term "person-role conflict" will be used consistently throughout this paper instead of the terms the original authors used. To return to Thorton and Nardi's (1973) model of role acquisi- tion, it is postulated that in the third stage, individuals begin to assimilate the role expectations to which they are exposed. 24 These may be in conflict among themselves (from society at large, similar-role others, and reciprocal—role others) as well as being in conflict with what the incumbents believe should be done. Thornton and Nardi suggest that individuals will begin to mold their roles at this point and that in the fourth stage the individuals modify roles to fit their own preferences as well as the role expec— tations from others. In some cases, however, because of external role demands indi- viduals can not mold their roles to fit what they believe should be done. These external demands may require the performance of role behaviors which individuals do not believe are part of their jobs, and so they experience person—role conflict. For example, Johnson and Stinson (1975) found that person-role conflict was related to the degree to which incumbents were required to perform role behaviors which were not perceived to be part of their jobs. This form of conflict could also be experienced when individuals feel they devote excessive time and attention to certain role obligations (Goode, 1960). In addition, Litterer (1965) says if the formal task role and the individuals' self—concepts are incongruent, tension, conflict and feelings of insecurity will result. Several other authors have iden- tified a role conflict occurring when normative expectations of roles conflict with individuals' value systems or self-conceptions (Bates, 1962; Brief et al., 1979; Nix 6 Bates, 1962; Sanford, 1962; Wolfe G Snoek, 1962). In view of this, it was proposed that the internal beliefs which individuals hold contribute to their person-role conflict. 25 Person-role conflict is seen as being comprised of two factors: (a) incumbents' self-concepts or expectations and (b) the demands put on incumbents by others or by the system in which they work. When these are discrepant, person-role conflict occurs. In the next sec- tion the notion of self-concept is addressed. This will be followed by a discussion of the components of the model of role conflict. (See Figure l.) Self-Concept Incumbents' self-concepts contribute to the expectations for the roles which they are to carry out. These expectations are in part an outgrowth of needs, values, training, aspirations, general knowl- edge and experiences, specific experience, skills, and abilities (Caplan, Cobb, French, Van Harrison, 8 Pinneau, 1975; Kahn et al., 1964; Rizzo et al., 1970; Thornton 8 Nardi, 1973; Wolfe G Snoek, 1962). As Bay states, "Different persons approach the same kind of roles with very different degrees of independence, 'willingness to play the game,‘ loyalty to various reference groups, personal involvement in the objectives, etc." Formal education and job experiences also influence individuals' role conceptions (Levinson, 1959). Moreover, Caplan et al. (1975) assert that strain occurs when there is not a match between these factors and role demands. Person-role conflict occurs when there is an incongruence between role requirements and orientations, interests, and values (Miles, 1976b). 26 .uuflawceo oHeH Houocow use .uefiwwceo owen ucemhom e moonsem Hoapcouem .ueHH :oo owehucemnom :oo3uo mad mceapofion e Ho 02 "H ohswaw w . . w o .5 . w e . :ewuoucoflno Hocefimmowehm we acouxm oocownomxm 8H. maefi>oum :efimcoefio we ooceunemew eo>wooooe mucoEoeH~< . mcewpepcowoo uewwwceu oflem oEwH Hmeuo< .moswm> .mEpez :fleppm owom Honozoo wcflcfiene Heeeflpoosem oHSmeoz uefiwwceu oHem:COmHom new onu co onscoh 27 Professional orientation. Individuals may have various orien- tations which motivate them to behave or think in certain ways (e.g., achievement, affiliation, professionalism). As mentioned in the sec- tion which presents sources of role conflict, professional orientation was explored as a source of person-role conflict in this study. In the present section, a discussion of this issue is presented as well as a statement of the hypothesis which was investigated. According to Haga et a1. (1974), professionally oriented employees look outside the organization to such reference groups as occupational associations, professional peers, or "invisible colleges" for knowledge about how to do their jobs and for evaluations of their performance. Gouldner (1957) called these individuals "cosmopolitans" and expressed the belief that they were more committed to their pro- fession than to the organization in which they worked. He found, for example, that for a sample of teaching, research, and administrative personnel in a college, the cosmopolitans were significantly higher on commitment to specialized role skills, were significantly lower on organizational loyalty, and had an outer reference group orientation. In contrast, the "locals" were significantly lower than the cosmo- politans on skill commitment, higher on organizational loyalty, and had an inner reference group orientation. In addition, Gouldner found that the cosmopolitans reported that they were more likely than the locals to get most of their intellectual stimulation from sources outside of the college (i.e., professional associates else- where, periodicals, books, and other publications). 28 Gouldner's findings are consistent with what Reissman (1949) found when he studied various types of bureaucrats in a government setting. The individuals he labelled as "functional bureaucrats" were more interested in conforming to professional standards and more deeply committed to their professional skills than other types of bureaucrats. They also had deeper job commitment (as opposed to organizational commitment). His findings concerning organizational loyalty and reference group orientation were also in accord with Gouldner's findings. In addition, Haga et a1. (1974) obtained an indication of managers' professional orientation by counting the number of profes- sional journals subscribed to and the number of professional associa- tion memberships. They found that individuals with high professional orientation had higher scores on the amount of time and effort they expended (i.e., they worked harder and longer on all tasks) and had higher job involvement than those individuals with low professional orientation. As Table 3 indicates, a professional orientation may cause person-role conflict in certain situations because of external demands from the organization. For instance, Haga et al. (1974) found that managers with high professional orientation reported having more trouble with organizational procedures or "red tape" than managers with low professional orientation. They reported that the organiza- tion's troublesome procedures tended to make their jobs more diffi- cult. 29 In a similar vein, Blau and Scott (1962) found that the profes- sionally oriented employees of a public welfare agency, in comparison to those oriented to bureaucracy, were more likely to deviate from agency rules. Those with professional orientations were also in more frequent agreement with the statement that agency rules and proce- dures interfered with professionalperformance. In addition, Gouldner (1957) found that cosmopolitans were significantly less likely to solve group problems using the formal rules and regulations of the organization than locals. Blau and Scott (1962) and Scott (1965), in a series of papers, reported that individuals oriented primarily toward their professional norms were more critical of their organi- zations and more likely to ignore administrative details. Finally, Alutto et a1. (1971) report that professionals dislike administrative interference with, or obstruction of, activities they believe consti- tute an integral part of their professional role behavior. As is evident from the above discussion, individuals who are professionally oriented will experience conflict when operating in organizations that can be labelled bureaucratic. This person-role conflict occurs because the situational and job demands are at odds with personal orientations. Competing sources of loyalty put pressure on individuals with high professional orientations--the organization's bureaucratic principles and the individuals' professional orienta— tion. Bureaucratic organizations assume that the individuals' role prescriptions are solely from the organization. The conflict arises because the professionals look toward outside reference groups as well to define their roles. 30 Corwin (1969) also conducted a study (in school settings) to investigate this relationship between bureaucratization and conflict. He used individuals' professional orientations as a moderator. He found that the extent to which the organization utilized standardi- zation procedures (a sign of a bureaucratic organization) was posi- tively associated with the amount of conflict between teachers and administrators and with the total level of tension within the school. When the schools were classified according to the professional and bureaucratic orientations of the individuals within them, standardi- zation was positively associated with conflicts over authority issues between teachers and administrators in the professionally oriented, less bureaucratized schools. Thus, standardization and emphasis on rules were associated with tension under conditions where they are least compatible with an organization's orientation and with the belief of employees in their right of self-direction (i.e., in the less bureaucratic and more professionally oriented schools). In a similar effort, Evan (1962) investigated role strain among a sample of chemists from three departments of a research organiza- tion to see if professional orientation was a source of conflict. One department,:h1which the chemists conducted basic research, con- sidered its goal to be investigation for the advancement of scien- tific knowledge with no specific commercial objectives. The second department, applied research, conducted investigations directed to the discovery of new scientific knowledge with specific commercial objectives of products and process in mind. The individuals in the third department, development, were involved in technical activities 31 of a nonroutine nature concerned with translating research into products or processes. The findings indicated that the applied researchers had consistently higher rates of accidents, absenteeism, lateness, and labor turnover than the other two departments. As indicated in Table 2, these are outcomes which are associated with role conflict. When Evan calculated a discrepancy measure which indicated the difference between scientists' actual research projects and their ideal research project, the applied scientists had the largest dis- crepancies. The discrepancy measure can be considered to be an indi- cation of person-role conflict. Evan postulated that the applied researcher was confronted with a conflict of loyalties to competing reference groups (the scientific community and the employing organi- zation). The individuals in this department had training comparable to the individuals in the basic research department, but their train- ing was not being utilized the way they would have liked it to be. The applied researchers may have wished to pursue problems more deeply than they were allowed to, but their assignment was to obtain results of potential value to the company. The basic researchers may "seek refuge in [their] status as [members] of the scientific com- munity with its norms of contributing to the body of scientific knowledge" and thus, would not be bothered by conflicts with the goals of the organizations (Evan, 1962). On the other hand, the development chemists' tasks were explicitly structured to promote the employer's interests and so they also would not feel conflict between the organi- zation's expectations and the expectations of their professional peers. 32 A study of nurses has yielded comparable results. Corwin (1961) obtained measures of bureaucratic and professional role conceptions of employed nurses and student nurses and stratified the participants according to these orientations into four groups (high on both, low on both, and conflicting orientations). This way he was able to investigate the effects that the combined orientations had on conflict. He found that the nurses who scored high on both orientations had higher discrepancies between their ideal conceptions and perceived opportunities to fulfill their roles in practice than the other three groups. It can be inferred from this that professional and bureau- cratic conceptions prescribe opposing programs of action, and if the individuals subscribe to both, they feel the most person—role conflict. The smallest role discrepancies were consistently found among per- sonnel who were low on both orientations. Corwin's results showed that diploma students were more likely to hold low professional and high bureaucratic orientations while degree students frequently held high professional and low bureaucratic orientations. This suggests that the on-the-job training which diploma students received indoctrinated them with the bureaucratic orientation which the organization wanted them to hold. After graduation, the degree nurses modified their bureaucratic orientations to fulfill the organization's demands, but they still maintained their high profes- sional orientations which might have been the source of their conflict. In summary, professionalism is one orientation to which indi- viduals may adhere which influences their self-conceptions of their roles. Research cited in this section demonstrates that the extent 33 to which individuals report they abide by a professional orientation is directly related to the amount of conflict they experience. This is especially true when they are in bureaucratic organizations. This is interpreted to mean that individuals are pressured by competing sources of loyalty--professional values and the organization's bureaucratic principles. As the model in Figure 1 indicates, it was predicted that a direct relationship exists between the extent of professional orientation and person-role conflict. That is, the stronger the professional orientation, the larger would be the dis- crepancy between what the individuals believe should be and what they state actually exists. Educational training. Corwin's (1961) and Evan's (1962) studies demonstrate the important contributions that individuals' professional orientation and training make to their self—conception about their roles and potential person-role conflict. Several other studies, indicated in Table 3, have been conducted with nursing personnel and student nurses to determine how different educational training experi- ences relate to professional orientation and to person-role conflict. Nurses can go through any of three educational experiences in which they receive different types of training. In an in-house hospital-affiliated program, they receive a great deal of experiential training while earning a diploma. The nurses can also earn an asso- ciate degree at a vocational school or junior college. If they earn a bachelors degree at a four-year college, they learn professional ideals over an extensive period of time. 34 Alutto et al. (1971) asked graduating student nurses the per- centage of on-duty time they expected to spend performing a compre- hensive list of nursing activities. They obtained a measure of person-role conflict for each individual by having these same indi— viduals report the allotment of their eventual job time they believed they should devote to the performance of each activity and summing the differences between professional ideals and perceived reality for each activity. They found that the students from the bachelors programs anticipated experiencing the greatest amount of conflict while stu- dents in the diploma (hospital-affiliated) program expected to encounter the least amount of person—role conflict. Brief et al. (1979) administered a scale of general role conflict to a sample of nurses and found the same results as Alutto et al. Those nurses who received more professional education experienced more role conflict on the job than those nurses who had received their training in less professional and more experiential situations. Similarly, Corwin (1961) measured the role discrepancy of employed nurses and student nurses who were in diploma (hospital-affiliated) and degree (college) programs. He obtained responses to normative state- ments of what should be and reality perceptions of what actually is for certain situations. His results were consistent with Alutto et al.'s (1971) and Brief et al.‘s (1979): Degree student nurses indicated high professional conceptions more often than diploma stu- dent nurses. An interesting finding was that employed nurses who had already earned diplomas expressed lower professional conceptions than diploma students did. This suggests that they modified these 35 conceptions after graduation when discovering that professional ideals did not resemble reality. The results which Alutto et al. (1971), Brief et a1. (1979), Corwin (1961), and Evan (1962) found suggest that training programs andeducational experiences which individuals are exposed to influence the conceptions which they form for their roles. In many cases indi- viduals receive their training from nonpracticing specialists and teachers and, because of this, what is learned is generally a mixture of what ought to be and what actually is. As a result, individuals may get idealistic pictures of the roles they will be entering. Indeed, Brief et al. (1979) suggest that if the individuals' educa- tionally defined role is incongruent with the role as defined by the employing organization, then person-role conflict occurs. As depicted in the model, it was hypothesized that differences in educational background might be related to the extent of person-role conflict to which individuals are exposed. Specifically, those who had been edu- cation majors would have less person-role conflict. Previous job experience. Just as educational and training experi- ences may be sources of role conceptions, previous job experience may influence individuals' views of what their roles should entail. Jacobson, Charters, and Lieberman (1951) assert that persons' experi— ences in earlier positions provide frames of reference for the adap- tation to new role expectations. They express the belief that when persons change to a new position, the attitudes and perceptions they operate with are in part a "carry-over" from their old role behaviors. 36 In a study conducted with a sample of foremen in an automobile factory, Jacobson et al. found that those individuals who had pre- viously been union stewards differed from those who had not in their answers to questions regarding workers' attitudes toward the job, the company, the industrial union, the company foreman, the union steward, and union-management relationships. Foremen who had not been union stewards were more likely to take the company's position on union- management relations, and those who had been union stewards were more likely to take both points of view--the company's and the workers'. It may be possible to infer from this that if individuals move to other positions in an organization, they do not relinquish the values and role conceptions which were a part of their previous positions, and these will have a bearing on the individuals' expectations for their new roles. Individuals may encounter situations where it is not possible to fulfill the expectations of the new positions and still act in accord- ance with the values they believed in while in their former positions. Situations such as these can be causes of person-role conflict. The prediction explored in this study was that the jobs held before the present job will affect the amount of person-role conflict differen- tially. Tenure. March and Simon (1958) hypothesized that the greater the past experience that individuals have had with a situation, the less likely person-role conflict will be. Several studies, some of which are summarized in Table 3, have borne this out. Corwin (1969), for example, found that the age of the teachers and administrators (taken 37 as an index of experience in the situation) in his study was inversely related to the incidence of conflict. In a similar effort, Baird (1972) conducted an investigation of graduate students who were at different levels of their graduate careers. He found that person-role conflict (the extent to which students perceived demands of graduate school as incompatible with personal interests, preferred activities, and personality traits) declined significantly as the students' level increased. Oliver and Brief (1977-78) and Walker et al. (1975) found this same result in their studies of salesmen, and Graen et al. (1973) found tenure to be inversely related to role conflict in a longitudinal study of new uni- versity employees. Conversely, Brief et a1. (1979) did not find a relationship between time on the job and perceived role conflict. Individuals reported experiencing role conflict, and those with longer tenure did not report less conflict. A proposition which was explored in this study is that the amount of time on the job is inversely related to person-role conflict. In the previous four sections, the factors believed to influence the amount of person—role conflict an individual might experience were described (i.e., professional orientation, educational training, pre- vious job experience, and tenure). In addition to trying to deter- mine some sources of person-role conflict, this research sought to measure the extent to which discrepancies between what should be and what actually is (person-role conflict) are related to a perception 38 of general role conflict. In the next section, this objective is discussed in further detail. Person—Role Conflict and General Role Conflict Person-role conflict is one form of general role conflict. As discussed in an earlier section (i.e., Role Conflict section), vari- ous forms of role conflict have been distinguished. Because several other potential sources of general role conflict exist, it is not expected that person-role conflict will account for all of the vari— ance in general role conflict. An objective of this research was to investigate how much of the variance in general role conflict can be accounted for by a discrepancy measure of person-role conflict. A measure of the individuals' perception of person-role conflict was not utilized because it was believed that individuals might not perceive the conflict even if their values or orientations and their role senders' expectations conflict. In view of this, a discrepancy measure between what the individuals believed should be and what they reported actually exists was used. Indeed, Jacobson et al. (1951), Laulicht (1954), and Seeman (1953) refer to situations in which role senders report holding conflicting expectations for incumbents but the focal persons do not necessarily perceive themselves as experi- encing intersender conflict. In addition, discrepancies might exist and the individuals do not experience a feeling of general role conflict. In this research, it was postulated that a high discrepancy would lead to a high degree of general role conflict. However, there is a possibility that the 39 importance of a particular job dimension moderates the effect which a discrepancy has on the perceived general role conflict. Even if individuals must perform in ways which they do not think they should (i.e., a discrepancy exists), general role conflict may not be experi- enced if the demand in question is not important to the individuals. Previous research in which importance was used as a moderator resulted in mixed findings. Dornstein (1977) found that the degree of perceived role conflict of chief executives in a corporation, measured by a general scale (Rizzo et al., 1970), was dependent upon the saliency of the role discrepancies and on their potential for creating frictions in the daily conduct of the corporation. However, as Schneider (1978) points out, significant algebraic interaction terms are rare. Moreover, the addition of a moderator adds little variance to prediction (Locke, Mento, G Katcher, 1978). Mitchell (1974) points this out in his review of the expectancy theory of motivation. He concludes that multiplying by importance adds little to the predictive power of the theory being tested. In addition, multiplication of scales other than ratio is theoretically not a meaningful operation (Schmidt, 1973). Although there has been a general belief that multiplying by importance does not add significantly to the prediction, it was included in this research in order to test this belief empirically. As Schneider (1978) asserts, only by having both kinds of information (with and without moderators) will accurate predictions at the indi- vidual level be possible. The prediction was that a high discrepancy would lead to a high degree of general role conflict only if the 40 individuals perceived the particular dimension as critical to per- forming at a fully competent and effective level. Summary It this section, the objectives of the research will be reviewed. In addition, a discussion of the sample chosen to be studied is pre- sented. One objective of this research project was to determine some factors which might be influential in contributing to various degrees of person-role conflict as measured by a discrepancy. A second objec- tive was to explore how much variance in perceived general role conflict was accounted for by this discrepancy measure of person- role conflict. The overall objective was to test the relationships which are depicted in the model in Figure 1. In previous studies (e.g., Kahn et al., 1964; Miles, 1976), attempts have been made to determine sources of general role conflict. (See Table 3.) Some of those which have been investigated in the past are the same as those in the present study (i.e., professional orientation, tenure, educational training). However, in the present study, an attempt was made to see whether these personal variables cause general role conflict by first causing a discrepancy in what individuals believe should be and what actually exists. If this dis- crepancy was more strongly related to general role conflict than the personal issues (i.e., professional orientation, tenure, educational training, previous job experience), it could be concluded that the 41 discrepancy is more important in contributing to perceived general role conflict. The sample which was chosen to be studied was school principals. They are the chief executive administrators of their schools-- ultimately responsible for everything that occurs in their schools: for the administration, supervision, and curriculum of the schools as well as for carrying out the school districts' policies, proce- dures, and programs. Principals can expect to spend an average of 56.5 hours in a typical week to accomplish their responsibilities, as reported by a nationwide sample of 1,131 secondary school principals (Byrne, Hines, G McCleary, 1978). In this survey, conducted by the National Asso- ciation of Secondary School Principals (NASSP) (Byrne et al., 1978), principals were asked to rank the areas of their jobs (i.e., school management, personnel, student activities, student behavior, curricu- lum development, district office duties, planning activities, commu- nity relations, and professional development) according to the amount of time spent on each. They were also asked to rank these areas according to the amount of time they thought should be spent on each. There were significant discrepancies in all areas except personnel and community relations. In another item of the survey, the principals indicated that certain "roadblocks" had affected them in the previous year. The most frequently mentioned roadblocks were time taken up by adminis- trative details and lack of time to do what they wanted or thought they should do. Together, these two findings concerning time 42 allocation suggest a source of conflict for these individuals. Even if principals work more than 55 hours per week, if the job demands are inconsistent with what the individuals think they should be focusing time on, person—role conflict occurs. The responses of the principals in the NASSP study suggest that their professional orientation can lead to a discrepancy between preferred and actual time expenditure (i.e., biggest constraint on their job performance is the time taken up by administrative detail). That is, their professional orientations led to this difference between what they believed they should be doing and what they were actually doing. Another finding in the survey can be inferred to mean that edu- cational training contributes to these discrepancies. The principals were asked to indicate which courses from a list of 25 generally offered as preservice courses in schools were essential and useful for a beginning high school principal. It is interesting to note that School Management was the highest—rated course by 96% of the princi- pals. When this response is compared to the rankings which some of the other courses received (i.e., Psychology of Learning-~13, Adminis- trative Theory--18, Philosophy of Education--20, Political Science and the Politics of Education--22), it may be proposed that the prin- cipals believe that practically oriented courses in which they learn the actual procedures for school management are more helpful and essential than the values and philosophies which theory-based courses offer. 43 Furthermore, individuals may be teachers, counselors, athletic coaches or directors, or assistant principals prior to becoming principals. The values and attitudes which individuals develop while in these previous positions may be an influence in the role-conceptions they bring to the principalship. The principal sets the climate of the school, and schools are an important part of American life. For this reason, the principal's potential role conflict is of significant concern because of the dys- functional outcomes for the individual and the organization which have been related to role conflict. CHAPTER II METHOD Sample A total of 800 school principals were sent a "School Adminis- trator Task Inventory." The names of the principals were randomly selected by a mailing list company, Market Data Retrieval. This random sample was stratified according to the level of the school (i.e., secondary, middle, and elementary schools) as well as the size of the district (i.e., urban, suburban, small-town, and rural) in which the principals were employed. The Inventory was sent to an even number of principals within each stratum. There were approximately 150 responses, equal to a response rate of 18%. A possible reason for this low response rate is that the Task Inventory took approximately four hours to complete and was sent at. the end of the school year. The responses that were received, however, were approximately evenly represented from each stratum, with a slightly higher percentage of middle school principals from urban and suburban districts responding. The percentage of males and females who responded (89 and 11, respectively) seems to approximate the actual percentages of principals. In the 1977 NASSP survey (Byrne et al., 1978), the distribution of principals by sex was as follows: male 93%, female 7%. The average age of the principals 44 45 was 47. They reported working an average of 50 hours per week. Their average tenure was seven years. Instrument A list of task statements relevant to a principal's job was generated from a review of the literature and job descriptions obtained from various schools. This was accomplished as part of a larger study concerning the validation of an assessment center. Interviews with principals, district—level personnel, teachers, par- ents, support staff, and students were then conducted in 13 districts in the United States to generate more statements. These were edited for overlaps and repetitions and the 160 which were left were grouped into nine job dimensions by the researchers. The "School Administrator Task Inventory," which can be found in Appendix A, was used to ascertain a detailed understanding of the work performed by the principal. The Inventory included items inquiring about the background of the respondents, each individual task, and each of the nine dimensions. The present study utilized responses from some of the background information questions and the items concerning the nine dimensions. A discussion of the constructs investigated in this study follows, and the reader is referred to Appendix B for the operational defini- tion and items for each construct. Person-Role Conflict This refers to the conflict between the focal person's internal standards, values, and orientation and the defined role behavior. 46 This was measured by taking the discrepancy between the amount of time (relative to the other dimensions) that the respondent indicated a principal should spend on a given dimension and the amount of time (relative to the other dimensions) which the individual indicated is actually spent on the given dimension. General Role Conflict Rizzo et al. (1970) developed an instrument which gauges role conflict and role ambiguity. Eight items are used to measure role conflict, conceptualized by them as the degree of incongruity of expectations associated with a role. Six items are used to measure role ambiguity, which is conceptualized by them as a lack of clarity of role expectations and the degree of uncertainty regarding the out- comes of one's role performance. House and Rizzo (1972), Rizzo et al. (1970), Schuler et al. (1977), and Szilagyi et al. (1976) report favorable evaluations of the scales' construct validities and inter- nal consistency reliabilities. Schuler et al. (1977) concluded in their scale analysis that the role conflict and role ambiguity scales are two separate factors :nul the continued use of the scales is warranted. The role conflict scale was utilized in this study. Importance of Dimension This refers to the subjective perceptions of the incumbent con- cerning the significance of each dimension for overall job performance. The individual was asked to indicate on a scale of 0-5 the extent of criticality of the dimension for performing at a fully competent, effective level. 47 Educational Background This is defined as the individual's major in undergraduate and graduate careers. Two items were utilized to measure this which were also part of an earlier survey conducted by the NASSP (Byrne et al., 1978). Professional Orientation This refers to the extent to which the individual looks toward reference groups outside the organization (i.e., occupational asso- ciations, professional peers, or "invisible colleges") for knowledge about how to do the job and for evaluations of performance (Haga et al., 1974). Following a procedure used by Hall (1968) and Haga et al. (1974), this orientation was measured by items in which the indi- vidual reported the number of subscribed publications, the number of professional activities attended in the past year, and the number of professional organizations of which the individual is an active mem- ber. These three items were utilized in a survey conducted by the NASSP (Byrne et al., 1978). Previous Job Experience This includes the positions the individual has held previous to becoming a principal in the educational occupation. The item which was used to determine this was utilized by the NASSP in their national survey (Byrne et al., 1978). 48 Tenure This measure identified the number of years the individual has held his/her present principalship. Procedure The questionnaire was sent to the principals with a cover letter explaining the purpose of the entire study and offering a monetary incentive. Confidentiality was assured in the letter. A follow-up letter was sent three weeks after the questionnaire to remind the principals to complete the survey and send it back. Data Analysis The analysis was conducted in four steps. In this section the procedures are described. The first step was to compute the internal consistency relia- bilities of the scales. The Rizzo et al. (1970) scale of general role conflict was analyzed as well as the three items which purported to measure professional orientation. The scoring of these items is discussed later in this section. The second step was to compute the person-role conflict variable. Person-role conflict is defined in this study as the difference between the amount of time an individual believes a principal should spend on a particular dimension and the amount of time actually spent on that dimension. Cronbach and Gleser's (1953) D2 measure was utilized to assess the discrepancy for each dimension for each indi- vidual since the difference, on the conceptual level, was desired. D2 was chosen in order to make all differences positive as it was 49 believed that both positive and negative discrepancies would con- tribute to a feeling of general role conflict. D2 was chosen over a correlation of the degree of fit between the "norm" and the "actual" since a correlation would not highlight large differences (i.e., if all the "norm" scores are at the high end of the scale and all the "actual" scores are at the low end, the correlation would be near 1.00 even though the differences are large). The D2 measure is also sensitive to the profile level, dispersion, and shape of the data, whereas the correlation measure is not, and lends itself to powerful methods of analysis (Nunnally, 1967). In addition, as mentioned in the introduction, a question about the perceived amount of person- role conflict was not utilized because it was felt that individuals might not be aware of the existence of a conflict. The discrepancy score seemed to be a more objective measure of the existence of any conflict. For the third step, a score was obtained from each individual's responses concerning the importance of each dimension to perform at a fully competent, effective level. In other words, there were nine scores for each individual. These scores were multiplied by the cor- responding discrepancy scores for each individual as part of the pro- cedure for determining whether perceived importance moderated the relationship between person-role conflict and general role conflict. In the final step, a path analysis procedure was utilized to evaluate the relationships proposed in the model. This process comprised several steps involving the independent variables. Educa- tional backgrounds and previous job experiences were reported as 50 nominal data. The item which is concerned with graduate majors was surveyed to determine whether there were differences between the individuals or if they all majored in Education. Since there were no differences in graduate majors, only the undergraduate majors were utilized. The participants were categorized according to whether or not they had majored in Education as undergraduates. The potential previous job experiences were collapsed into two categories: (a) teacher, with the number of years teaching used and (b) nonteacher. Since the tenure variable yielded responses which were interval, the raw data were utilized. The level of professionalism was measured by three items, as indicated in the Instrument section. As a result of the internal consistency reliability analysis, the number of subscribed publica- tions and active memberships were added together to form the index. The number of professional development activities attended was retained as a separate indicator. The measure of general role conflict was obtained from the Rizzo et al. (1970) scale. The participants responded to each statement using a scale from 1 (Always false) to 7 (Always true). The mean of the responses was computed and this score assigned to each individual. As previously mentioned, there are different forms of role con- flict. The Rizzo et al. (1970) scale measures four (person-role, intersender, interrole, and role overload). The correlation and path analysis used a general role conflict score as well as scores for the four separate forms of role conflict. The regression analy- sis used only a general role conflict score. It appeared that these 51 four forms of role conflict were not altogether distinct. Therefore, they are used as indicators of general role conflict. This issue is described in further detail in the Results section. The data were analyzed using LISREL IV (Joreskog 8 Sorbom, 1978). The resulting information yielded an overall test of the model as set forth previously. Thus, it reported the importance of person- role conflict, multiplied by importance, in accounting for general role conflict. It also showed the relationship between each of the independent variables-~educational background, previous job experi- ence, tenure, and level of professionalism--and person-role conflict. In this way, a comparison could be made regarding their relative contribution to person-role conflict. In addition to the above, nine multiple regression analyses were carried out. The six independent variable indicators along with nine absolute difference scores of discrepancy, nine person-role conflict (i.e., D2) scores, nine importance scores, and the nine interaction variables between person-role conflict and importance were regressed on general role conflict. This was accomplished mainly to determine if an interaction did exist between person-role conflict and importance. The outcomes of these analyses are reported in the following section. CHAPTER III RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Scale Reliabilities and Intercorrelations In this section, correlations of all the variables involved in this study are reported. In addition, the reliabilities of the role conflict and professional orientation scales are detailed. A brief discussion of the means is also presented. Table 4 contains the intercorrelations of the independent, dependent, and moderator variables; this includes the indicators and the scales. Means and standard deviations are also presented in Table 4. An examination of the means indicates that the principals have been in their positions an average of seven years. Fifty-five (37%) of them majored in education as undergraduates. They subscribe, on the average, to two and a half professional publications and have active memberships in close to three professional organizations. They participated in an average of six developmental activities in the past year. On the average, if they had been teachers prior to becoming principals, they taught for almost eight years. One hundred thirty- four (89%) of them were teachers before becoming principals. The squared difference scores (D2) for each of the nine dimen- sions imply that the most person-role conflict could be felt in the area of curriculum and instructional leadership. 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ON. cc. .ucao: ceenow .nN O.~ ON. ac. .uu: couaca .NN O.— cc. .Oceou uuaauacO .cN c.c .acoa access-cc .ca .a>auo< wwoum .ac noua>com acenmzm .ac .a>cao< acoeaum .ac Incaoccceu .cc ”we 853.39: aceaaouccslaeu .ac .ucce: ceegom .cc .uuz caoacw .nc .vaooo auccuaaO .N— .acca accccssoe .cc .a>cuu< wwccm .Oc nooc>uom caeeasm .O .a>cuo< acoeeam .O 533.25 .a ”we coacweeu oce¢-:eaaoa conumoh an .ac» .o .a>cco< .co>oO .n anazaaoeaoz .uaO .v .anam cecaaee .m .caca .uccc .a oaecoh .c mm mm Om mm cm mm mm cm on ON ON NN ON mN VN mN NN ~N ON ounawuo> .;u.tcn.l14“3d.‘4 .I. u. “Iii u u E II Haul] .NN“ " 4.: MI“4§£HZ.H$HN .lgnagtluflqufl‘ fifii~iquflqfli.;flqtnqfll.w*q 1344 ”I“ III“! ‘I 1 .‘.fl ‘Ifi a .cccccccce--.c occaa 55 by dimension four, staff selection, evaluation, and development; dimension eight, maintenance of school plant; and dimension five, development and maintenance of community relations. The least amount of difference between preferred and actual time allotments is in the area of coordination of student activities. A review of the importance scores shows that curriculum and instructional leadership is the most important dimension. Coordina- tion with district and other schools and maintenance of school plant are the least important. The intercorrelations between the independent variables are low, ranging from .02 to .17. The nine D2 scores comprising the person- role conflict measure for the individuals are weakly correlated (range is 0 through .445). The rated importance for each dimension is quite strongly correlated with the "should be" score for the cor- responding dimension (average correlation is equal to .59). The importance scores for the nine dimensions are weakly intercorrelated, with the lowest r_equal to .008 and the highest 5 equal to .445. The importance ratings are weakly correlated with their corresponding D2 scores (ranging from a low of -.007 to a high of -.335). The reliability of the Rizzo et al. (1970) scale was computed to determine whether four separate forms of role conflict are being measured. This did not appear to be the case. The Cronbach alphas of the individual types of role conflict (i.e., intersender, person- role, overload, and interrole) as compared to the correlations between them indicate that they are not separate constructs as measured by this scale. A possible exception is role overload. The alphas and 56 correlations are reported in the section entitled Role Conflict Scale. Because there is no evidence that they are separate constructs, in the remaining sections of this paper the relationships between the independent variables and the general role conflict scale are reported. The next issue to be addressed is the relationship between the independent variables (i.e., tenure, educational background, years as a teacher, number of developmental activities, journal subscriptions, and organizational memberships) and the general role conflict vari- able. Most of the previous research concerning general role conflict, as was mentioned earlier, investigated the outcomes of role conflict. The findings were mixed, with some correlations as low as .07 (Miles, 1976a), and some as high as .61 (French & Caplan, 1972). The majority are between .15 and .30. This research was concerned with some pos— sible antecedents. Unfortunately, only one of the correlations between general role conflict and the independent variables was significant, and that was low (r_= .16 for developmental activities). Previous research involving antecedents of general role conflict had mixed results. The correlations ranged from 0 to .53 with most between .10 and .30. The results can be analyzed at a more micro level, that is, examining the correlations between the independent variables and the D2 score for each dimension. It seems that the person-role conflict associated with certain dimensions is related to several of the inde- pendent variables. For instance, tenure is significantly negatively related to the discrepancy score for coordination of student activi- ties (r_= -.l4) but is run: significantly related to any other 57 dimension. Apparently, the longer principals have been at their jobs the less conflict they feel concerning this dimension of their jobs. The professional orientation items are also significantly related to several dimensions. The higher the professional orientation, as measured by these items, the more conflict the principals have concern- ing coordination of student activities, staff selection, and struc- turing communication. However, the item concerning journal subscrip- tions was negatively correlated with the person-role!conflictassociated with staff selection. The correlations also reveal that whether the principals had been teachers prior to their present position has some bearing on conflict. Specifically, the correlations between previous job experience and the discrepancy scores for staff selection, evaluation, and develop- ment (r_= .25) and coordination with district and other schools (r_= -.l4) are significant. Another set of relationships which can be examined is that between the D2 score for each dimension and the general role conflict score. Four of the nine correlations are significant though low (highest cor- relation : .19). This finding can be interpreted to mean that the more conflict principals feel in the areas of curriculum and instructional leadership (r_= .19), coordination of student activities (r_= .15), development and maintenance of community relations (r_= .16), and coordination with district and other schools (r_= .15), the more gen- eral role conflict they experience. As mentioned in the summary of the Introduction, the relationship between the independent variables and the D2 scores would be compared 58 to the relationship between the independent variables and the general role conflict score. If one examines the correlations in Table 4, it is apparent that in almost all cases, there are stronger correla- tions between the D2 scores and general role conflict than between the personal variables and general role conflict. This can be interpreted to mean that this type of measure is more important in accounting for the variance in general role conflict than the personal issues which have been measured in the past. Role Conflict Scale As mentioned previously, the role conflict portion of the Rizzo et al. (1970) scale was utilized (Items 1, 3, 5, 6, 8, ll, 12, and 14). The internal consistency of this scale, as summarized by the coefficient alpha, is .77. This figure is consistent with that which Rizzo et al. (1970) and Schuler et al. (1977) found. Their alphas ranged from .557 to .820 in eight samples. An interesting finding resulted when the scale was analyzed to see whether the four types of conflicts were really distinct con- structs. When the alphas were compared to the correlations between the conflict types, there was no evidence that they were separate. The exception is role overload. The alphas for each construct were as follows: Intersender--.54; Person-role--.4l; Overload--.79. Interrole conflict was measured by one item. As can be seen in Table 4, the values of the correlations are approximately the same as their internal consistency reliabilities. As already mentioned, over- load may be a distinct construct. 59 Professional Orientation The three items which were used to measure professional orien- tation were analyzed for their internal consistency reliability. The coefficient alpha was .50. The items measuring the number of journal subscriptions and number of organization memberships correlated .51. When the item which measured number of developmental activities was deleted, the alpha went up to .67. Based on this information it was decided to use the activities item as a separate construct in subse- quent analyses. Path Analysis The model presented in Figure l was examined by an approach to path analysis which uses ordinary maximum likelihood analysis of structural equations. The computer program used was LISREL IV (Joreskog 8 Sorbom, 1978). The LISREL program contains two distinct components: a measurement model relating observed variables to theo- retical variables and a structural model which estimates the inter- relationships among theoretical variables. The combined structural and measurement model is presented in Figure 2. There are five exogenous (independent) variables, labelled €(KSI) in the model. These are: (a) tenure (£1); (b) educational training (52); (c) previous job experience (53); (d) professional development (5.); and (e) professional orientation (£5). The endoge- nous or dependent variable is the degree of person-role conflict the individual experiences for each of nine dimensions in interaction with the importance of each. This is labelled n1 (ETA 1). It was 60 .mmacmceaueaoa Ooaemenm we coves acoansmooE vco Honouoshum vocaoeeu .N oHOMNw .acaocuuucEIbu I u Jug-c.3513 .cc—cum I E .ac—alumna! :31 1! .53-5203 515:: I u: ca.a-co: 3.5.8 I 5 ca.c—=23 ww-um I vv . «chm» I N.>Nu a :» S I .c. ... cc.c-:3 m. 2.3 2:5an > m!« —IE=°—r no we 54!: My Nu —u _ cc ca canine—win coccc>auu< c a a .a cugocaaowei c .uccclecoccne c a a an .25. aa (a .c c.» A x c c ac a c c . J a. n: c» 3.3.591“. huge-ow. n c 899 4 0. HI...) v 35.1.3... Ionic-um we hit ”I —I :5 Nu he?! N c. a 5:59.... NJ manage-:12. A] a . o .529; . 7:033:3— avian-cues: N. 5:230 33. .caoccoo aa.—.250 ~93 .cc £03033. _ c.c . . p a .335... u 95.5... a an c.c-co» .0 we .cuAIaz .Na . 61 Glossary for Figure 2 UnderlyingConstructs Indicators £1 Tenure x1 = Number of years as principal 52 Educational Training X2 = Education/noneducation undergraduate major £3 Previous Job Experience x3 = Number of years as teacher £5 Professional Development Xu = Number of developmental activities g. Professional Orientation x5 = Number of journal subscriptions x6 = Number of organization member- ships nl Person-Role Conflict y1 = Curriculum and instructional leadership y2 = Coordination of student activities y3 = Direction of support services y. = Staff selection, evaluation, and development ys = Community relations ya = Coordination with district and schools y7 = Fiscal management ya = Maintenance of school plant yg = Structuring communication n2 General Role Conflict ylo = Intersender Conflict Y11 = Person—Role Conflict y12 = Role Overload y13 = Interrole Conflict 62 hypothesized that the exogenous variables cause this endogenous variable. The secondary endogenous variable, a measure of general role conflict, was hypothesized to be caused in part by the primary endogenous variable. This is labelled n2 (ETA 2). The symbols 5 (K51) and n (ETA) represent the underlying theoretical constructs, and the letters x and y represent the observed measures of each. As depicted in Figure 2, there are single observed measures for five of the variables. Professional orientation has two indicants--number of journal subscriptions and number of active memberships in professional organi- zations. The person-role conflict score has nine observed measures. The individuals received nine scores representing the dimensions of their jobs. The actual measurement of these nine indicators, as previously mentioned, was a difference score between how much time the individuals believe they should spend on each dimension and the actual amount of time spent on each. These were squared to eliminate any negative values. This squared term was then multiplied by the importance attached to each dimension by the individuals. The gen- eral role conflict scale was separated into four indicators using the definitions suggested by Rizzo et al. (1970). This approach led to distinct scores for intersender (Items 1, 3, and 4), person-role (Items 5 and 12), overload (Items 6 and 11), and interrole (Item 8) conflicts. The intercorrelations among these four indicants, as can be seen from Table 4, range from .2 to .5. These four scores were used as indicators of general role conflict in order to add more precision to the analysis. 63 Each observed measure is an indicant of only a single construct. Each is a function of some weight (designated in LISREL terminology as A X[LAMBDA X] for independent variables and Ay [LAMBDA Y] for dependent variables), plus a residual. The weights for the indepen- dent variables were fixed at 1.0. Those for the dependent variables are reported in the top portion of Table 5. The residuals contain both error and unique variance. They are labelled 6 X(theta delta) for independent variables and 6y (theta epsilon) for dependent vari- ables. Residuals for the observed measures of the independent vari- ables (X1, 2, 3, ., 5) were fixed at 0 except for X6. The residuals are standardized and squared in order to determine the variance in the measured variables (X1-6 and y1-13) not accounted for by the model. These values can be found at the bottom of Table 5. When these values are compared to the observed variances of these vari- ables (found in Appendix C), it can be seen that there is a lot of unexplained variance in the dependent variables. The formula 73:27 enables us to calculate the variance accounted for in the dependent variables (that is, the underlying constructs) by the model. This value was the same (.36) for the ZETAs (g) assoc ciated with both dependent variables. The evaluation of the structural model is depicted by the unstandardized path coefficients relating the theoretical variables. In Table 6 the path coefficients representing the relationships between the exogenous and endogenous variables are shown. Based on these coefficients and the t;values of these y (GAMMA) and B (BETA) coefficients, it can be concluded that none of them are significant. 64 Table 5.--Lambda Weights for Dependent Variables. Person-Role Conflict General Role Conflict Ayl = 1.00 Aylo = 1.00 Ayz = .778 Ayll = 1.710 kyS = .482 Aylz = 1.692 Ay4 = .378 Ayls = 2.090 Ays = .273 Ay6 = .311 Ay7 = .449 Ay8 = .396 Ayg = .593 Variance:h1the Measured Variables Not Accounted for by the Model Residuals Percent of Residuals Percent of Observed Variance Observed Variance 61 = 61 = 98.8 68 62 = 82 = 12.3 42 63 = Fixed at 0 E3 = 29°9 73 64 = 64 = 210.2 96 65 = 55 = 51.9 92 56 = .8 57 c6 = 13.2 74 e7 = 10.3 57 £8 = 65.2 88 89 = 40.9 71 610 = .2 62 611 = .3 54 612 = .7 68 e - 1.9 77 H (N 65 Table 6.--Path Coefficients Between Variables. Y11 from Tenure to Person-Role Conflict = from Educational Training to Person-Role Conflict = from Previous Job Experience to Person-Role Conflict = from Professional Development to Person—Role Conflict from Professional Orientation to Person-Role Conflict from Tenure to General Role Conflict = from Professional Orientation to General Role Conflict = from Person-Role Conflict to General Role Conflict = [H It'" Ir't Ifl Id ln [fl Id - .127 - .903 2.455 1.553 - .035 - .286 .586 1.643 .420 .786 - .007 - .909 .017 .615 - .011 -1.886 66 The critical tfvalue for df_equal to 148 is 1.96 for p_< .05 and 2.576 for p_< .01. The LISREL program also computes a reproduced variance/covariance matrix based on the restrictions in the model. The X2 value is a test of how well the observed variance/covariance matrix is recreated given the restrictions placed on the model. This gives an indication of the overall fit of the model to the data. The X2 test with 139 degrees of freedom is 230.77 (p_< .001). One would want the value to be non- significant indicating that the models are not different. However, a x2 test is almost always significant with a large number of cases. Another test is to examine the ratio of the x2 and degrees of freedom. This ratio is 1.66:1.00. The criteria Joreskog and Sorbom (1978) suggest is 10:1. This would tend to indicate that the model is closely fit to the data based on this test. This conclusion is mis- leading, however, because even though a large N_would not affect the absolute value of the ratio, it could make a low ratio significant. In addition, since there are no strong relationships among the vari- ables, basically any model will fit the data and thus make the Xz/Ef. test look impressive. A final test of the fit between data and model is to examine the residuals obtained when the reproduced and observed variance/covariance matrices are compared. (See Appendix C.) Ideally, one would want these residuals to be as close to 0 as possible. An examination of the residuals from this test of the model indicates a poor fit. The residuals are large when compared to the observed matrix, which 67 indicates that there is a lot of unexplained variance in the observed variance/covariance matrix. Regression Analysis Regression analyses were computed with general role conflict as the dependent variable. This was accomplished in order to investigate the linear and nonlinear relationships which were not evaluated in the path analysis. It was also accomplished to see if the interaction between the D2 and importance rating existed. A step-wise regression program was used to analyze nine different equations for the nine dimensions of the principal's job. The independent variables (i.e., educational background, previous job experience, number of deve10pmental activities, tenure, number of professional organizational meetings attended, and number of journal subscriptions) were entered in the first step. In the second step, the absolute value of the difference between what the individual thinks should be the time allotments and what they actually are was entered. This gave an indication of the linear effects. In the third step the importance ratings of each dimension were added, and in the fourth step the difference score squared (nonlinear measure) was evaluated. The interaction term was entered in the last step (i.e., difference score squared x importance). Table 7 presents the beta weights of each independent variable for the nine separate equations. Most of them are not significant. The item reporting number of journal subscriptions has significant beta weights for the equations involving dimensions two through nine. 68 .AmO. v.mO aocuc>wuo< wwwuw Ono iacsocuaau pew uceucwwcwca ma Oovva a. oheoa oocauaoasc .aco. v.mv acewuoado occc ——o new aceowwwcmwa a. Oovvo ma ocean oocoaowwcv ous—cane ozu cos: ogu cos: .—0. v Noe .mO. V“. I.: omen u 0 Nu m a SEQ a cc oueosu.ogho N OOO. NON. OON. NON. mom. mcn. OON. OON. vnn. Ocu— gum: Nm. OON. NON. OON. NON. «on. ONO. OON. OON. ONO. O-~ :uc: Nm aaa. aaa. aaa. aaa. aca. aca. aaa. caa. cca. c-c cccx am mON. mON. mON. mON. mON. mON. mON. mON. mON. NI. :ucx mm cnc. unc. cm". .nc. cnc. .ac. .nc. cON. cnc. On. :ua: mm oucouaeaac OOm.- awn. OVN. cac.- ONm.u NNO.u mNN.- we..- OON.- x uoccwceo onoxiceauom .Oc Oan.N- Ocn.- NOO.n- .NN.N- Nac.m- nnN.a- ONO.n- OOO. vOn.O- now—wceo oneuuceahom .O OmO..N- OOO.m OOO.~ OOO.N~- IOOO.ON- cOON.ON- NaO.a~- nO0.0~- Ichn.Oc- oocouhealw .O OcO.N Och. OOv.n O¢O.N OOO.m NNO.N OOc.O Omm.- OO0.0 oucouowwqo ounceaa< .N IOmN. IQON. IcON. IncN. cOcN. Iva. INcN. cOnN. NcN. aceaunaaoaasm cuccseO .O .vv.vc- Ono.v.- OO..mc- ON0.0.- O.a.ac- ON0.0.- am0.0n- OOa.m~- Nn0.0- anczaaoOlox ndceuueaccduco .m OcO.- vcm.- vmv.u OO..- NON.: O—O..- OO..- MOO. VON.- oascoh .v cOm.- OOO.- OOO.- OOa.- aca.- cOm.- NOO.- cON.- OO.. nocuc>auo< conga-neco>oa .n OR; OON. OmO. aaa.; OOOA nOvN n3... OOOJ IO; accede». - a. 93o» we hung: .N Omc.v- acc.Nc- mOn.O- .Oa.O- an.a- cOv.N~- Onn.m- Nc..O- OOO.m- Ocaeuuxoun caceauousvm .— acecuuocficficeu .ucccc: ucosowaco: .ccaeeu 20323. 33:33. aooa>aom aoauc>cuo< 5303.26 033.22. .eezom .eoacu cocauaca ac.c:EEeu wwecm uaonnzm acovsum III.” II .uoccwceu o.e¢ :e Ooaaocuom aocoucce> we aoace> III N a can accacoz «aca--.a occca 69 The importance beta weights are significant in the equations for dimensions 1, 4, and 5. As is evident in the table, there were no significant beta weights for the interaction term. The bottom portion of Table 7 presents the R_square for each of the five steps for each of the nine equations. The R_square for Step 2 round off to .285 for all nine equations, but they range from .28481 to .28546. This similarity is because the independent vari- ables are highly intercorrelated. Looking at the changes in 3?, the jump from .131 in Step 1 to .285 in Step 2 is significant for all nine equations (p_< .01). In other words, when the linear function of the absolute difference score is added to the equation it adds signifi- cantly to the prediction of general role conflict. Most of the other changes in R? are not significant. The two exceptions to this are the changes from Steps 2 to 3 in the equations for dimensions one, curriculum and instructional leadership, and four, staff selection, evaluation, and development. These changes are significant (p_< .05). CHAPTER IV CONCLUSION This research project attempted to ascertain some possible determinants of person-role conflict. The relationship between a discrepancy measure of person-role conflict and an index of general role conflict was also examined. In this section, some possible explanations for the findings will be outlined. Each independent variable will be discussed in turn followed by implications for the future. As previously mentioned, the independent variables and their relationships to general role conflict will also be discussed. Person-Role Conflict and General Role Conflict A main objective of this research project was to determine the extent to which a discrepancy between principals' actual and ideal time allotments is related to a general feeling of role conflict. The correlations between the person-role conflict scores for four dimensions and the general role conflict score were weak but signifi- cant. This implies that the more conflict principals have in the areas of curriculum and instructional leadership, coordination of stu- dent activities, development and maintenance of community relations, and coordination with district and other schools, the more general role conflict they experience. 70 71 Jacobson et al. (1951), Laulicht (1954), and Seeman (1953) allude to situations in which discrepancies exist but individuals do not actually experience a general feeling of role conflict which would lead to anxiety and stress. In addition, Wolfe G Snoek (1962) dis- tinguish between objective and subjective role conflicts and add that the former can exist without the latter. Thus, there can be con- flicting pressures but no experience of conflict. Apparently, in this study a differential effect is operating for certain dimensions and not for others. Perhaps the way person-role conflict was opera- tionalized (i.e., time expenditures) has something to do with this differential effect. Amount of time may be a more important con- sideration in these four dimensions of the job than the others. In several other investigations, discrepancy scores were used to assess different types of role conflict. Bernardin (1979) used a squared discrepancy measure of intersender conflict and the Rizzo et a1. (1970) role conflict scale to predict performance and satis- faction of focal persons. He found that the Rizzo et al. scale was a much better predictor than the D2 scores in all analyses. He also found that the squared discrepancy measure was not correlated with the Rizzo scale. Dornstein (1977) used a discrepancy measure of person-role conflict to look at the disagreement between what focal persons think should be and what role senders think. She also used a role stress scale, combining Rizzo et al.'s (1970) and Kahn et al.'s (1964) scales. Three factors emerged from the role stress scale: (a) anomie, (b) self-role stress, and (c) intersender role stress. 72 The present study's findings are consistent with Dornstein's to some extent. In Dornstein's study, the discrepancy measure of person- role conflict for seven dimensions of the job tun; not significantly correlated with the self-role stress measure. She concluded that disagreement between role senders and focal persons is not asso- ciated with the focal persons feeling that they must act against their better judgment. This conclusion can be drawn from the present study as well since five of the person-role conflict measures were not corre- lated with the general role conflict index. Professional Orientation and Development It was hypothesized that the more professionally oriented the principals were, the more conflict they would experience. The results of the present study were mixed for relationships involving profes- sional orientation. The findings from the correlational analysis indicated that there was a significant positive relationship between number of developmental activities and general role conflict. Neither of the other items was significantly correlated with general role con- flict. When the professional orientation items were correlated with the discrepancy measures of person-role conflict, it appeared that the higher the professional orientation of the principals, the more con- flict they have with certain dimensions. These dimensions are extra- curricular activities, staff selection, and structuring communication. The regression analysis also resulted in mixed findings. The only item with significant beta weights was concerned with journal 73 subscriptions. This was significant for dimensions two through nine. Apparently, an increase in journal subscriptions influences the change in general role conflict significantly for just about all areas of the principal's job. The other items concerning professional orientation did not affect role conflict the same way. Previous investigations of the relationship between role conflict and professionalism have found mixed results. Several investigations have found a significant relationship between level of professional— ism and perceived conflict (Corwin, 1961, 1969). Evan (1962) found significant differences in a discrepancy measure of person-role con- flict when scientists were categorized according to professional orientation. Other investigations, however, have not found this result. Haga et a1. (1974) compared managers (classified as high or low pro— fessionalism) on the extent of difficulty encountered in six job problems. They hypothesized that high professionally oriented indi- viduals would have more difficulty. Their findings revealed a differ- ence in the means, but this difference was not significant. When Reissman (1949) studied government workers, he found that four differ- ent types of bureaucrats existed. One type he labelled functional bureaucrats who feel no conflict between professional ethics and their jobs because only the former standards exist. Another type are specialist bureaucrats who identify more with the bureaucracy. They feel some ambivalence because they seek most recognition from co- workers. Service bureaucrats are in conflict because they are ori- ented in terms of the bureaucracy but seek recognition in the job they 74 do from other professionals like themselves. Entirely immersed in the structure of the bureaucracy are the job bureaucrats. This classification scheme could have implications for the find- ings in this study. Depending on the identification individuals have and the extent of it, conflict can be experienced or absent. Reissman (1949) believes that values undergo modifications and inter- pretation as the incumbents are faced with fulfilling the requirements of their jobs. This idea of compromise was also expressed by Corwin (1961). His findings supported this notion. His study of nurses and nursing students revealed that the individuals modified their orien- tations in order to fulfill the organizations' demands. Corwin con- cludes that while it is quite possible to express beliefs in conflicting principles, the natural consequence of simultaneously conflicting demands is compromise. Educational Training_ The principals in this study were classified according to whether they had majored in education or not. It was presumed that those who had majored in education would have a better idea of what the educa- tional system, specifically the principalship, would be like. As previously mentioned, 37 percent majored in education; the rest were divided in other majors such as arts and humanities, social and physical sciences, and business. The hypothesized relationship was not borne out in any of the analyses. This finding conflicts with previous research, mostly with nurses, about differential effects of educational training experiences. 7S Alutto et al. (1971), Brief et al. (1979), Corwin (1961), and Evan (1962) found that nurses who went through hospital-affiliated diploma programs experienced or expected to find less role conflict than those from associate degree or baccalaureate programs. One reason suggested for this differential influence is that students in different programs learn different professional values, and this causes conflict. Corwin (1961) found that degree student nurses indicated high professional conceptions more often than diploma student nurses. However, Alutto et al. (1971) found that newly socialized professional nurses from associate, diploma, and bacca- laureate programs did not differ in organizational or professional commitment orientations. This finding is partly consistent with the findings of the present study; that is, if they majored in education, they are likely to be active in more professional organizations. This relationship between educational training and professional orientation was not apparent in any of the other analyses. Another explanation for differential experiences of conflict is that learning which takes place in a classroom away from a hospital, in the case of nurses, is very idealized and generalized. Moreover, diploma students who have training in a hospital get a more realistic idea of what the job entails. There are several possible explanations for the absence of a relationship between educational background of the principals and their role conflict. Most of the studies involving nurses explored their conflict or expected conflict just subsequent to graduation. 76 The principals had been in the school system and possibly had better exposure to the job prior to obtaining their positions. Another possibility is that the time lapse between the indi- viduals' undergraduate educations and their becoming principals is usually long. Therefore, any possible influence their undergraduate educations would have on conflict is suppressed. The principals' graduate experiences might have more of an effect on subsequent con- flict. However, as could be expected, most principals were in educa- tion graduate programs. An additional explanation for the nonsignificant relationship between the principals' undergraduate educations and their role con- flict is that many individuals who end up in educational administration major in a specific subject instead of concentrating on education. These individuals might get a teaching certificate but are not neces- sarily exposed to educational values until graduate school. Therefore, even if they had different values as undergraduates, they received much the same socialization when graduate students. This topic of socialization will be covered in another section. Previous Job Experience The findings of this study indicate that teachers who became principals may experience conflict differently than principals who had not been teachers. Although there was no relationship between number of years as teacher and general role conflict, two of the dis- crepancy scores were significantly related to this variable. Based on the correlations, it seems that the longer the individuals had 77 been teachers the more conflict they report in the area of staff selection, evaluation, and development. The evidence of a carry-over effect from their previous job experiences is quite evident here. According to Jacobson et a1. (1951), individuals' previous job experiences provide frames of reference for their adaptation to new role expectations. Their study in an automobile factory bore this out. They found that foremen who had once been union stewards felt conflict more often than those who had never been stewards. In addi- tion, they found that foremen who had not been stewards were more likely to take the company's position on union—management relations, while those who had been stewards were more likely to take both the points of view of the workers and the company. This is what could be happening with the principals when they are involved in this dimension of their jobs. They developed ideas and values when they were teach- ers and the expectations of the principalship may be counter to these values. The other significant correlation with previous job experience was its relationship to the person-role conflict for coordination with the district and other schools. This indicates that the longer the principal had been a teacher, the less conflict they experienced in this area. A possible explanation for this relationship is that the values developed while a teacher have nothing to do with this dimen- sion of the principalship. Therefore, there is no chance for conflict since there are no previously formed norms. 78 Tenure It was hypothesized that conflict would decrease with experience in the job. The results did not support this hypothesis except for one dimension of the job. The longer principals are in their posi- tions, the less person-role conflict they experience in the area of coordination of student activities. A possible reason for the significant relationship in the area of student activities is that the longer they are principals, the more they delegate this responsibility. If they are not involved in this area of their jobs, they would not experience conflict. March and Simon (1958) posited that with experience in a situa- tion came less conflict. There has been mixed support for this notion. Corwin (1969), Baird (1972), Graen et al. (1973), and Oliver and Brief (1977-78) found support for this negative relationship between tenure and conflict. However, Brief et al. (1979), Getzels and Guba (1954), Rizzo et al. (1970), and Walker et al. (1975) found very weak, if any, relationships (e.g., r_= .12 for Walker et al.). A possible interpretation for the lack of a relationship between tenure and con- flict is that individuals learn how to cope with conflict in some way not related to tenure. Importance as a Moderator It was believed that one way for principals to deal with con- flicting role demands was to determine how important the job dimension was that the discrepancy involved. It was predicted that the relation- ship between person-role conflict and general role conflict would be 79 moderated by importance of the dimension. In other words, a high discrepancy would lead to a high degree of general role conflict only if the principal perceived the particular dimension as critical to performance at a fully competent and effective level. This predic- tion was partially supported by the analyses. The beta weights for the importance term in the regression equa- tions for dimensions one, four, and five were significant. Thus, when the independent variables, the absolute difference scores, and the importance scores were regressed on general role conflict for the dimensions involving curriculum, staff selection, and community rela- tions, importance was a significant factor in the differences between people in role conflict scores. This would appear consistent with the fact that the principals considered these dimensions of their jobs as the most critical for effective performance. If one turns back to Table 7, in order to see whether the impor- tance score moderates the relationship between the person-role conflict scores and the general role conflict score, one must examine the R? change from the fourth step to the last step in which the interaction term is added. As Table 7 depicts, there are no significant changes in any of the equations involving these steps. Therefore, this hypothesis was not supported. This is consistent with previous research in which importance was used. Locke et a1. (1978) and Mitchell (1974) both conclude that adding a moderator or multiplying by importance adds little to the predictive power of the theory being tested. 80 Implications for the Future The goal of the research reported in this paper was to identify antecedents of role conflict. Ultimately, if one knows the ante- cedents of a problem, is is hoped that problem situations can be modified. Previous research found that there are many dysfunctional outcomes for individuals and organizations associated with role con- flict. Future research attempts should be directed at finding other sources of conflict. In addition, research should be conducted to find out the best strategies for coping with conflict as well as to examine what strategies are utilized under various conditions. Another area which needs further investigation is the measurement of role conflict. The Rizzo et al. (1970) scale is used in many of the studies concerning role conflict. However, only one scale analy- sis has been attempted (Schuler et al., 1977). There is also a need for good measurement procedures for the individual types of role con- flict. Discrepancy scores have been tried but without much success in other studies (Bernardin, 1979; Dornstein, 1977) and in the present research. In the present study, this can be determined by inspecting the residuals in the path analysis which are very large. The low zero-order correlations between the discrepancy scores and general role conflict are also evidence of this problem. An area of relevance which has not received much attention is anticipatory socialization. Anticipatory socialization is mentioned in Van Maanen's (1976) stage model of organizational socialization. It refers to the role preparation which has occurred prior to formal acceptance of the role. Individuals take on the values of the group 81 to which they aspire. This can aid their rise to the group as well as ease their adjustment after obtaining the job. Thornton and Nardi (1973) also include anticipatory socializa- tion in their four-stage model. They believe that individuals obtain knowledge prior to obtaining roles both directly and indirectly. Several sources are mass media, incumbents, and future reciprocal- role others. From these contacts, individuals develop their own con— ceptions of what the roles would be like. Unfortunately, the knowledge is idealistic and their psychologi- cal preparation and anticipation may not be congruent with what will actually be experienced. This is dependent on the degree of accuracy of what is conveyed and perceived. The degree of congruity between what individuals learn to anticipate and what they subsequently experience will likely determine how quick and smooth the process of adjustment will be (Thornton G Nardi, 1973). Apparently, a strategy for coping with conflict is to curb it before it starts. If individuals receive realistic previews of what the demands and expectations of their jobs or professions will be like, they will be better psychologically prepared. They can learn the values and norms before entering the job, and there will be less chance of conflict once in the job. As Schein (1971) points out, organizations are most concerned about correct values and attitudes at the point where they are grant- ing members more authority. Individuals are most vulnerable to socialization just before and after passage to a new job. For 82 principals, this would mean that it is necessary to give them a better understanding of the job before they are promoted to this position. Limitations of the Current Study There are certain problems with this research which must be taken into account when interpreting the results. In terms of the measurement, there has been some controversy over whether difference (or change) scores should be used. Cronbach and Furby (1974) believe that difference scores are systematically related to any random error of measurement. In addition, Wall and Payne (1973) assert that because of the constraints inherent in the derivation of deficiency scores, relationships obtained between such scores and another vari- able may reflect no more than the relationship between one of the two component measures of the difference score and that other variable. There is also a possibility that since all the data were col- lected from the same instrument the correlations between the variables will ordinarily be higher than between independent observations. This must be taken into account when examining the correlations between the variables. Most are low (below .30) even when they are significant. A possible reason for the low correlations is that the variance within the independent variables and the general role conflict vari- able is not high. This is especially true with the educational background variable which did not correlate with anything else. Another aspect of this research to be considered is that it involves perceptions of conflict. There has been some controversy 83 over whether this type of perception-perception research is generaliz- able to other individuals. Moreover, the individuals' answers may be distorted in order to reflect what they think is the socially desir- able answer or to make their answers conform to each other, especially in the difference scores. The path analysis was utilized to determine the overall accuracy of the hypothesized model. As mentioned previously, the data did not support the model. This must also be considered when interpreting the results of the correlational and regression analyses. The lack of support for the model suggests that the theoretical structure and/or the measurement of the variables need to be refined in order to develop and evaluate a model of sources of role conflict. The preliminary findings of this study, however, suggest that this is a valuable area for future research. APPENDICES 84 APPENDIX A SCHOOL ADMINISTRATOR TASK INVENTORY 85 APPENDIX A MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY DEPARTMENT OF PSYCHOIOGY EAST [ANSING ' MICHIGAN ' 48824 SNYDER HA1 1. Dear School Administrator: In 1975, the National Association of Secondary School Principals and the Division of Industrial/0rganizational Psychology of the American Psychological Association established an "assessment center" as a means of demonstrating a more effective and unbiased method of selecting beginning school admin- istrators. The NASSP center has been used as a selection technique by five pilot school districts. Currently a validation study, funded by the Rockefeller Family Fund, is being conducted to determine how effectively these assessment centers have identified and measured managerial and administrative potential (enclosed is a short synopsis of the study for your review). In this stage of the validation project we are asking you to help us with your knowledge of and experience in the administrative position you currently hold by completing the attached School Administrator Task Inventory. Your responses will provide us with a detailed understanding of the work performed by the school administrator. This information is vital in the development of performance evaluation instruments. We are aware that the imposition of this lengthy questionnaire on your ex- tremely busy schedule is inconsistent with NASSP's effort to decrease the paperwork requirements of the principal's job. We apologize in this regard but feel the assessment center is a potentially valuable educational innovation and view its rigorous evaluation as extremely important. We discussed split- ting the questionnaire and mailing separate portions to different samples but this would preclude intercorrelating parts of the instrument. We estimate that the total response time is between two and three hours. If you want we will send you or a designated charity an honorarium of $l0.00 for your effort, but think your major payoff will have to be the belief that you helped us in an important professional endeavor. This task inventory consists of several components. First. you are asked to provide some background information about yourself. This is necessary to identify the differences in responses among administrators with different jobs and backgrounds. Next, you are asked to read through and respond to a list of task statements. These statements were generated by a nationwide sampling of your peers, district personnel, teachers, parents and students. To make it easier for you to complete the inventory, these tasks have been grouped into nine clusters, which we refer to as task dimensions. You are asked to rate each task in terms of: (A) the importance of the task for successful performance on your job; (B) the degree to which you delegate this task to others; and (C) the frequency with which you perform the task in comparison to other duties. 865 87 The task list also provides spaces for writing in additional task statements that you feel are missing from the prepared inventory. We are interested in determining those tasks school administrators perform so as to develop ap- pr0priate performance evaluation instruments. In the last section, you are asked to respond to a series of questions con- cerning the stress involved in your position. He will attempt to relate these items to your perceived ability to deal as effectively as you would like with various aspects of your job. While much research has been done concerning the perceived role of principals, little or none has been directed toward ascertaining the personal implications of this role conflict. If you would like a summary of our study, and/or the $l0.00 honorarium, please print your name and address on the next page and we will mail them to you. when we receive your responses we will separate your name and address from the rest of your responses so as to maintain your confidentiality. All information that you provide about yourself and your job in this inventory will be used for research purposes only. Please remember that this is not an evaluation of your work habits or performance. We hope you will take the time to respond and very much appreciate your help. Sincerely, / Neal Schmitt Encl. NS/am 88 Please send a summary of the study to: NAME ADDRESS Please indicate with a check mark one of the options below. I would like $l0 donated to: Name of Organization Address I would like $l0 mailed to me at the above address. I do not wish to receive the $10 honorarium for my cooperation. 89 BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE NASSP ASSESSMENT CENTER and A VALIDATION RESEARCH ACTIVITY In recent years, the assessment center has become a very significant technique for identifying and measuring managerial and administrative potential. Widely used by business, industry, and many governmental agencies, assessment centers have proven extremely successful in measuring skills needed for success in a variety of supervisory, managerial, and administrative areas. In l975, the National Associa- tion of Secondary School Principals and the Division of Industrial/ Organizational Psychology of the American Psychological Association established an "assessment center" as a means of demonstrating a more effective and unbiased method of selecting beginning school adminis- trators. This synopsis contains a brief review of the NASSP work with assessment centers followed by a description of the validity study to be conducted during 1979-8l. The assessment center is a method, not a place. Most centers are designed to identify individuals for advancement into or within man- agement. In a typical center, 12 assessees are evaluated by six highly trained assessors. These assessees are candidates for one of a number of personnel actions--selection, promotion, or development. The assessees participate in a number of activities designed to simulate behaviors typically found in an administrative job. Measurement tech- niques include group exercises, business games, simulated problem- solving exercises, and such traditional methods as interviews and tests. The key to the assessment center process, however, is the use of simu- lations tapping a wide variety of behaviors. Each participant is observed as he/she goes through the assessment exercises, reports are prepared by the assessors, and each individual's performance is evalu- ated on a number of key dimensions viewed as important for success. Reports summarizing performance in the center are provided to both the participant and the sponsoring organization. The assessment center technique is most useful and effective in pre- dicting job performance when applied to “threshold jobs"--jobs that differ substantially in skill and ability requirements from the posi- tions in which candidates for these new openings typically are found. For example, in education the technique can be used when teachers are being considered for administrative openings. These candidates are seldom observed or evaluated with respect to their administrative performance. The assessment center offers a means to supply more relevant information on which to base placement and selection deci- Sions. 90 The NASSP Assessment Center was designed to assess l2 behavior dimen- sions which reflect the characteristics of successful assistant prin- cipals and principals. The dimensions were developed following initial work :ith administrative personnel in two pilot school districts. They inc u e: ..Problem Analysis . Range of'Interests . Judgment . Personal Motivation . Organizational Ability . Educational Values . Decisiveness . Stress Tolerance . Leadership . Oral Communications Skill . Sensitivity . written Communications Skill To assess the behavior dimensions, three exercises are used in the centers which simulate activities a principal and assistant principal actually experience on the job. They include (l) a leaderless group activity, (2) a fact-finding and stress exercise, and (3) paper and pencil "in-basket" tasks dealing with school problems. In addition, a structured personal interview and a participant feedback session are important to this process. The district NASSP assessors, who are selected and trained under rigorous standards, observe the assessess' behaviors in each exercise, record their observations, and discuss these observations as a team. An assessment report is prepared describing the strengths and weak- nesses of the person with respect to the l2 behavior dimensions. It is reviewed with the assessee within one week after participation in the assessment exercises. As noted earlier, one of the major objectives of the NASSP center is "to assist in making better administrative personnel selections." The effectiveness of this technique as a selection device, however, can only be assumed until scores from the assessment center are shown to be related to measures of subsequent job performance. Put simply, the question to be answered is: Do judgments of'principals' perform- ance in the assessment center correlate with judgments of'their sub- sequent job performance? The process of determining if such a rela- tionship exists between assessment scores and measures of job performance is referred to as criteria-related validation. Many such validation studies have been conducted with assessment centers used in business and governmental agencies. The large majority of these have shown that an impressive relationship does exist between assessment center ratings and subsequent job performance. None of these, however, dealt with the educational setting. (The NASSP center is the first application of such methodology in this sphere.) The present criterion-related validity study in which selected dis- tricts are asked to participate will determine if the assessment center is as effective in the educational environment as it has been in the business setting. The researchers and the NASSP share in the 91 belief that positive results from this validity study could have a profound impact on the quality of elementary and secondary education throughout the country. Assessment center scores will be matched with the performance measures, which are being developed with your aid, and correlational techniques will be employed to determine what relationship exists between them. Therefore, the great value of this project is that performance in an educational assessment center will, for the first time, be carefully compared with administrative performance in a school district assign- ment. The information derived from this study will greatly assist NASSP in building better assessment procedures that identify competent personnel for the principalship. This study may also provide an ancillary benefit related to additional objective instrumentation for the evaluation of assistant principals and principals. 92 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATOR TASK INVENTORY l. BIOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION. Circle the appropriate response or simply write your response in the blank provided. l. 10. ll. 'What is your present position? l) Principal of senior high school 2) Principal of junior high or middle school 3) Principal of elementary school 4) Principal of combined junior-senior high school or combined elementary- secondary school 5) Assistant principal of senior high school 6) Assistant principal of junior high or middle school 7) Assistant principal of elementary school 8) Assistant principal of combined junior-senior high school or combined elementary-secondary school 9) Other? What other position? Are you currently employed by a publicly or a privately supported elementary or secondary school or school system? l) Public-supported 2) Private, church-related 3) Private, non church-related How would you describe the school district in which you are currently employed? 1) Urban 2) Suburban 3) Small-town 4) Rural What is your school's enrollment? students What is your school district's enrollment? students What is the approximate per student expenditure (exclusive of capital outlay) for your district during the past academic year (1978-79)? In which state do you reside? What is your age? What is your sex? 1) Male 2) Female How many years have you been at your present position? What is the highest degree you have earned? 1) Less than Bachelors 2) BS or BA 3) Masters degree 4) Masters degree plus some additional graduate work 5 Masters degree plus all course work for a doctoral program 6 Specialist degree 7) Ph.D. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 93» Approximate number of hours spent on the job each week. l 40 or less 2) 4l-45 3) 46-50 4) 51-55 5) 56-60 6) 6l-7O 7) over 70 hours a week Are teachers in your school system covered by a collective negotiation agreement? 1) Yes 2) No Are principals in your school system covered by a collective negotiation agreement? 1) Yes 2) No What is the number of full time equivalent (F.T.E.) administrators (assistant principals, deans, halls principals, guidance directors, etc.) assigned to your school? Count yourself. l) One 2) Two 3) Three 4) Four 5) Five or more In which of the following areas did you major as an undergraduate? If you majored in more than one, choose the one in which you earned the most hours. Select only one. 1) Business 2) Education (other than physical ed.) 3) Fine arts 4) Humanities (e.g., literature, languages, etc.) 5) Physical education 6) Physical or biological sciences 7) Social sciences (e.g., history, sociology, etc.) 8) Other, specify What is your major field of graduate study? Choose only one. 1) Educational administration and supervision 2) Secondary education 3) Physical education 4) Some other educational specialty, Specify 5) Humanities or fine arts 6) Science or engineering 7) Business 8) Other, specify 9) No graduate study 94 In which of the following kinds of positions have you had one full year or more of experience? Write the number of years in the space provided next to each. Place a "0" if none. Position Years l) High school principal 2) Junior or middle school assistant principal or principal 3) Elementary school assistant principal or principal 4) College administrator or instructor -5) Counselor, other guidance work 6) Secondary school dean, registrar 7) High school assistant principal 8) Athletic coach or director 9) Teacher (prior to present position) lO) Other administrative service, specify Consider the following list of nationally circulated periodicals. Put a "l" next to the ones you presently subscribe to and a "0" next to the ones to which you don't subscribe. Subscribe? 1) Administrative Science Quarterly 2) Education Digest 3) Educational Leadership 4) Education USA 5) Harvard Educational Review 6) Momentum/Today's Catholic Teacher 7) NASSP Bulletin 8) National Elementary Principal 9) Regional Accredidation Association Quarterlies 10) Phi Delta Kappan ll) Saturday Review l2) Teacher College Record Identify the professional activities in which you have participated during the past school year. Put a "l" if you have participated and "0" if you have not participated. Activities Participated 1) National meeting of NASSP or NAESP 2) National meeting of other educational organizations 3) State meeting of principals' association 4) State meeting of other educational organizations 5) Studies through formal courses and workshops for credit 6) Travel for visitation outside of district 7) Involvement in formal project or research in education 8) Participated in conference and workshops, not included above and outside of district 9) Participated in conference and workshops within district 10) Participated in a study group on a planned, regular basis not included above ll) Gave speech at national convention or conference, at state level, at a university or college, or at local gathering 12) Published an article or book l3) Taught a course in a college or university 14) Other type of professional activity, specify 95 Indicate whether you are an active member in any of the following pro- fessional organizations. Put a "l" if you are and "0" if not. Organization Active Member? NASSP NAESP ASCD AASA Phi Delta Kappa State Principals Association Local Principals Association \IO‘ U‘ h (A) N —‘ vvvvvvv 96 2. JUDGMENT 0F TASKS. In this section, a comprehensive list of tasks, representing all the possible activities expected of a school administrator are presented. You will be asked to rate each task on three different rating scales. Please do each step in the specific order described in the instructions. STEP A. TASK IMPORTANCE JUDGMENTS In this judgment task, you are to note the importance and/or criticality of different tasks for a principal performing at a fully competent, effective level. Use the following rating values in making your judgments: O - Indicates that the task is never done, or the principal is not ultimately responsible for its accomplishment, and is therefore unimportant to the job. l - Indicates that the task has minor importance or criticality relative to other tasks. Considering all tasks, it would have the lowest priority of importance. 2 - Indicates that the task is fairly important relative to other tasks. How- ever, it does not have the priority of importance of most other tasks. 3 - Indicates that the task is moderately important for overall job performance relative to other tasks, and has about average priority among all tasks performed. 4 - Indicates that the task is very important to overall job performance. It has a higher degree of importance or priority than most other tasks or activities. 5 - Indicates that the task is one of the few most essential tasks or activities performed. It is one of the most critical aspects of the job. Now turn to pages 8 through 19 and rate each task's importance in column one. Tear out this page and use it as a guide when rating the tasks. When you finish rating all of the tasks, you can use the additional task statement space to add to the task list if necessary. When you are finished rating task importance, please turn to page 6 and proceed with Step B. 97 STEP 8. TASK DELEGATION JUDGMENTS In this judgment task, you are to judge the degree to which you must delegate to others the responsibility for performing specific tasks in the position. Use the following scale to make your judgments: O - Indicates the task is never done by anyone or it is performed by district or centrally located personnel and you have no responsibility. .l - Indicates the task is performed by district or centrally located personnel, but you must monitor their activities. 2 - Indicates the task is delegated to staff member(s); your responsibility consists of occasionally monitoring the task outcomes. 3 - Indicates the task is delegated to staff member(s) but requires frequent supervision. 4 - Indicates the task is shared with staff member(s) though primary responsi- bility remains yours. 5 - Indicates the task is very rarely shared with anyone; you usually perform the task. Now turn to pages 8 through 19 and rate each task in terms of how much is delegated to others in column two. Tear out this page and use it as a guide when rating the tasks. When you finish rating all the tasks, you may fill in additional tasks if necessary. When complete, please turn to page ‘7 and proceed with Step C. 98 STEP C. TASK FREQUENCY JUDGMENTS In this judgment task, you are to judge the frequency with which you (and/or the the the 0- individual the principal has delegated the responsibility for accomplishing task) perform the specific tasks. Your ratings should reflect how often 'task is performed, ppt_how frequently it should be done. Indicates that the task is never done or is performed by others that the principal has no responsibility over. Indicates that relative to other tasks, it is one of the least frequently performed tasks or activities. Indicates that the task is one that is done only fairly often relative to other tasks which the individual must perform. Indicates that the task is something done somewhat frequently, and about average relative to all other tasks performed by the person in the job. Indicates that the task is something done more frequently than most other activities. Indicates that the task is one of the few most frequently performed tasks or activities. It is something which is done almost constantly. Now turn to pages 8 through 19 and rate each task in terms of frequency in column three. When you finish rating all the tasks with this scale, you may use the additional Tear out this page and use it as a guide when rating the tasks. space to add to the task list. When complete, please turn to page 20 and proceed. 9S) Dimension One: Curriculum and instructional leadership l. Implements program to provide additional instruction to students who do not pass minimal competency tests. 2. Monitors staff to determine the extent to which curriculum goals and objectives are being met. 3. Plans, develops and implements a process for student, teacher, and parent involvement in determining curriculum goals and objectives. 4. Determines studentinterestin new courses and encourages their development. 5. Reviews and monitors educational programs to insure that they meet different students‘ needs. 6. Implements and refines what is developed by central office in the area of curriculum. 7. Coordinates with local vocational education groups for cooperative programs. Organizes programs to evaluate student competencies. 9. Encourages staff to search for and implement new programs. l0. Seeks the input of local employers to make vocational programs sensitive to employers' needs. ll. Monitors and encourages individual student progress. 12. Meets with students to explain academic requirements and availability of various programs. l3. Assigns teachers/professional staff to classes. l4. Organizes bilingual curriculum for foreign students. l5. Evaluates curriculum in terms of objectives set by school or district. 16. Reviews use of instructional materials (books, audio-visual equipment, etc.) in the school. CI :7" 5 a" e g «e d? d? i} s s s a- c» a q, 0 g a e - ‘3 “' Innn In! '. I 10C) Dimension Two: Coordination of student activities 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. Attends various student extracurricular events. Approves, oversees, and works with student fundraising efforts/ exercises. Arranges transportation of students to extracurricular events. Meets with leaders of student organizations. Supervises or provides for supervision of bus trips to special events or extracurricular activities. Elicits staff participation in extracurricular activities. Trains student leaders to be more effective student leaders. Develops and coordinates student activities (athletics, debates. etc.) with other schools in and out of the district. Attends banquets or special events to honor outstanding students and/or athletes. Reviews the number and nature of student activities or establishes a system to review and eliminate or add activities. Confers with coaches and other activity leaders to insure space. time, and resource requirements for various activities. Elicits student participation in student government. Plans student assemblies and cultural productions. Encourages and secures parent involvement in student activities as participants and chaperones. Selects and assigns staff to direct extracurricular activities. Authorizes and supervises field trips. Provides for supervision at student activities. Determines, communicates, and maintains standards for participation in student activities. maxim ‘1 we... 101 Dimension Three: Direction of support services of the school 1. 2. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. Coordinates with fire department and traffic personnel for smooth operation of school and provisions for emergencies. Conmunicates with nurses, health officials, parents, etc. so that students' special health problems (e.g., allergies, epilepsy, etc.) can be recognized. Produces student handbook to explain students' rights and responsibilities. Trains and monitors students to keep them in line with the prescribed traffic and cafeteria flow charts. Establishes procedure to use teacher aides and to evaluate them. Organizes activities and provides space for school psychologists, speech pathologist, and similar professionals. Coordinates with local police to insure smooth functioning of school both during school hours and after school at extracurricular activities. Monitors keeping of records about students (i.e., medical needs, registration, tardiness, absenteeism, etc.) Organizes system whereby discipline problems are dealt with. Selects and supervises safety patrols. Monitors the enforcement of various health regulations involving immunizations, health standards in cafeteria, etc. Establishes orientation activities for incoming students. Resolves conflicts in class schedules, works with data processing and teachers to effect solutions. Provides teachers with uniform procedures for keeping and reporting attendance. Coordinates testing programs required by the state or otherwise requested of the school. Patrols parking lots. Ensures that fire and tornado drills are carried out and reports their conduct to appropriate authorities. Structures a cafeteria schedule and traffic flow chart. Solicits substitute teachers and supervises their classes. Defines and implements the objectives and standards fer an effective library/media center. Finds and develops programs to reduce absenteeism, tardiness, and/or behavioral problems. Supervises the transportation of students. Monitors or oversees free lunch program to insure that appropriate students receive lunches. w .4» g a a e a ‘o e» “5 a .9 a 5 ~ 5 1. é: la & c, O- “ 8’ L5 o‘" a. N 102 e: S s? té' {;° 0? c? ~9 6} § '0 Q ‘9 I. 0 1'“ q é 3‘ .e g Dimension Three continued N 3' h. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. -33. 34. 35. Monitors disciplinary actions involving students to insure due process is followed. Supervises the lunchroom. Writes faculty handbook to describe school policies, procedures and attendance. Arranges to have parents called or otherwise notified when child is tardy or absent from school. Monitors the racial/sexual composition of student groups and the compliance of the school with the provisions of Title IX. Schedules work hours of support staff. Sets up procedures to deal with ill or injured students. Coordinates programs with various agencies employing students in co-ops. Constructs a class schedule. Develop procedures for efficient office routine. Oversees the activities of the guidance counselor. Develops standards, objectives, and procedures to maintain counseling services. - W.) 5.17.-“1‘4‘ TFWM~PHH 1()3 Dimension Four: Staff selection, evaluation and development 1. 2. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. Establishes orientation for new teachers/staff. Maintains current knowledge of union-management contracts so as to develop personnel policies consistent with their provisions. Provides training for staff to enable them to deal with parents and community. Communicates the various roles of resource personnel (nurses, psychologists, curriculum experts, etc.) to staff and teachers. Provides inservice training for teachers to increase effectiveness. Involves current staff in the selection of new staff. Confers with other principals and/or district personnel to coordinate educational programs across schools. Interviews personnel to select people and/or provide input into the selection decision. Helps staff members set professional goals. Observes teachers' classroom performance for the purpose of evaluation and/or feedback to teacher. Recruits applicants for staff positions. Provides fer meetings or training sessions in which people can share ideas they picked up from professional associations. Provides feedback to teachers concerning their perfbrmance. Encourages involvement of staff in professional organizations and supports involvement in workshops and classes. Surveys various segments of the school to assess how he/she is perceived. Provides feedback to custodial, secretarial and other support staff as to job performance. Evaluates the job perfbrmance of custodial, secretarial, and other support staff. Supervises job performance of custodial, secretarial, or other support staff. Encourages and helps faculty to develop innovative teaching methods. Keeps oneself informed about new techniques (computer technology, human relations, etc.) and how they might affect various staff elements and encourages appropriate educational effort. Provides resources and/or training to help staff in recognizing and dealing with student behavior problems. 0 a" a a” ‘3' ‘;° 6? a .9 a e. a. re '9 a.” S" 4;} -E' if’ ., c? A. 22. 23. 24. 25. 104 Dimension Four continued Teaches class to serve as a model. Encourages teachers to get certified in areas for which expertise is lacking. Participates in professional growth activities: attends professional meetings, reads professional journals, takes classes or attends seminars on relevant topics. Meets with other colleagues to discuss problems, their solutions and new developments in education. 105 Dimension Five: Development and maintenance of community relations 1. 10. 11. 12. 13. Responds to requests for input or ideas on various community programs and actiVities not directly involving the school. Works with booster clubs to raise money for various school needs or activities. Elicits community sponsorship of school programs. Develops conmunication channels for minorities to voice concerns. Seeks to know the parents and to interpret the school's programs to them. Conducts orientation session for parents, develops special programs for parents new to the school. Oversees and contributes to newsletter to parents and public to keep them informed of school policies and activities. Prepares community for educational innovation. Responds to requests forinformation or help from various conmunity groups, agencies, etc. Works to convince the community to pass bond issues. Participates in various community agencies and concerns, not solely academic (Kiwanis, churches, Chamber of Commerce, Lion's Club, senior citizens groups, etc.) Attends parent-teacher organization meetings and otherwise supports similar groups. Provides structure for dialogue and cooperation between faculty and community groups. Coordinates and oversees use of school facilities by community groups (for example, church, recreation, or other purposes). Works with conmunity to develop student activities. Organizes community advisory groups consisting of parents, teachers, and administrators and meets with them. Organizes community members to lobby for support for programs in which she/he/community have a Special interest. Writes and/or presents reports of school activities to community groups. Aids the community to raise money for the United Fund and other . charitable or service organizations. Communicates with public the nature and rationale of various school programs. Develops relationships with local media to insure exposure of school activities and needs. 1(36 '3 5 5' e g e 6' .9 a} Q Q Q Q g 0 . :2" 8’ c? Dimension Six: Coordination with district and other schools 5? <§7 49' N l. Coordinates with district to procure equipment to render services for transportation needs. 2. Sets up strategies to implement activities, priorities and programs set at district level. 3. Responds to requests for information, paper work, annual reports, etc. from district. 4. Attends district budgetary meetings and provides needed input. 5. Counsels teachers, students, and staff on personal problems and refers them to appropriate groups. 6. Establishes communication lines with other principals in the district. 7. Confers with district to determine how best to fulfill legal requirements of various programs. 8. Explains reasons for district-level and federal rules and regula- tions to staff, students, and comunity. 9. Defends budget needs to Board of Education or district personnel. l0. Serves on district-level curriculum and policy committees. 107 0 ~E' :7 ~3 e e " a: ¢ 9? 8 8' a} ¢ '0 ¢ «3’ ° 3" , - k i? o- Dimension Seven: Fiscal management A? 37 {P .4? S3 “~ I. Monitors the expenditure of funds raised by booster clubs. other community groups or student activities. 2. Involves staff and/or community in process to refine annual budget. 3. Accounts fbr and monitors expenditure of school funds in accordance with existing laws and regulations. Insures that approved budget monies are received. 5. Seeks resource alternatives within and outside district if original proposals are not accepted. 6. Sets priorities for provision of materials and resources according to financial limitations. 7. Supervises ordering, receipt and distribution of supplies. Provides information to financial auditors on expenditure of school funds. 9. Writes grant proposals to seek money from district, county, and federal sources. .108 Dimension Eight: Maintenance of school plant 1. 10. Sets standards; communicates and monitors standards for orderly maintenance of school facilities. Follows established district procedures for selection of new staff members. Establishes procedures and techniques for adequate plant security. Assesses physical plant and equipment needs in terms of school goals and objectives. Reports on nature and cleanliness of the building and its maintenance to district. Requests and pursues district or central resources for maintenance and repair of school plant. Attempts to instill pride in school facilities and equipment so as to control vandalism. Requests and follows up requests for maintenance, repair, and equipment (people and material needed). Develops a comprehensive plan for the orderly improvement of school plant facilities and equipment. Involves professional and custodial staff in school maintenance problems which affect them. a; 5' 5 e" e g e <3" a? i} s z: s a o: e A? «3' A?” m s Q a. 1()9 9.: a" 5 a" e g e 6’ -.9 a} s :r a a. a. «a & a; O é? a 6' Dimension Nine: Structures communication which provides for cooperation «4 ‘3 ‘k 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. among various groups in the school. Deals with conflicts that arise among teacher-student-parent-support staff relationships. Meets with union officials as specified by union contract. Solicits and coordinates parent volunteers and cooperation in school committees, tutor pool, health services, etc. and other school activities. Confers with parents when they visit the school. Exercises responsiblity for teacher and parent meetings when a parent requests such a meeting. Meets with and informs parents and health officials regarding various school problems including nutrition and hnnunizations. Meets with faculty representatives to discuss faculty problems. Evaluates new students to facilitate their integration into the school. Strives to know and understand students and considers requests. Communicates his/her priorities regarding resources and material to staff, community, and students. Informs parents of any disciplinary action involving students. Explains disciplinary code to students, parents and staff in accordance with student bill of rights. Exercises leadership role in developing mechanisms for integration of various cultural groups in the school. Insures appropriate use of community agencies and refers students with special needs. Meets with various parties involved (teachers, parents, students, and professional people) in accordance with legal requirements. Maintains accessibility to students, parents, teachers, and other groups interested in school activities. Vii! m 3.1.31 nth! m ' 11() 4? «9 a . . a (3’ .3: Please use the spaces below to add additional tasks you perform a; “a .9 that are not included in the inventory. a _é$ .5 é‘ a é’ av g, s Additional Task Statements g a" g? N Q a. 1. 10. When completed with the importance ratings, please turn to page 6 and proceed. When completed with the delegation ratings, please turn to page 7 and proceed. When completed with task frequency ratings, please turn the page and proceed. 111 3. JUDGMENT 0F TASK DIMENSIONS In this section, you will be asked to rate the task dimensions on three different rating scales. In making your ratings, consider all the tasks within each dimension as they are described on the previous pages. - In this first rating scale, we wish to ascertain your view of the princi- pal‘s role and the kinds of activities a principal should ideally spend her/his time on. We ask you to judge the degree of time you think a principal should spend on each specific dimension relative to all the others. In making these judgments, indicate the time you think a principal should personally spend on each dimension, rather than the time that might be spent by soneone to whom it is delegated. Use the scale below. Place your answers on the line next to the dimensions. Principal's Role Scale On this scale indicate how much attention should be directed to the tasks in these dimensions using this scale. 0 - Indicates that the tasks in this dimension should never be done or should be performed by others. Principal should have no responsibility. 1 - Indicates that relative to other task dimensions, tasks in this dimension should be the least frequently performed tasks or activities. 2 - Indicates that the tasks in this dimension should be done only fairly often relative to other tasks which the individual must perform. 3 - Indicates that the tasks in this dimension should be done somewhat frequently, and about average relative to all other tasks performed by the person in the job. ’ 4 - Indicates that the tasks in this dimension should be done more frequently than most other activities. 5 - Indicates that the tasks in this dimension should be some of the most frequently performed tasks or activities. They should be done almost con- tion among various groups in the school stantly. Dimension Sppplg_§g l. Curriculum and instructional leadership 2. Coordination of student activities 3. Direction of support services of the school 4. Staff selection, evaluation, and development 5. Development and maintenance of community relations 6. Coordination with district and other schools 7. Fiscal or monetary management 8. Maintenance of school plant 9. Structure communication which provides for coopera- 112 The second rating that we are asking you to make is a judgment of the degree of time you actually spend on each dimension, relative to all the others, as opposed to the time that someone to whom you delegate it might spend. Use the scale below to indicate the degree of time you spend on each task dimension relative to other dimensions. Place your answers on the line next to the dimension. Current Freguency of Performance O - Indicates that the tasks in this dimension are never done or are performed by others that the principal has no responsibility over. l - Indicates that relative to other task dimension, these tasks are some of the least frequently performed tasks or activities. 2 - Indicates that the tasks in this dimension are done fairly often relative to other tasks which the individual must perform. 3 - Indicates that the tasks in this dimension are done somewhat frequently, and about average relative to all other tasks performed by the person in the job. 4 - Indicates that the tasks in this dimension are done more frequently than most other activities. 5 - Indicates that the tasks in this dimension are the few most frequently performed tasks or activities. It is something which is done almost constantly. Dimension Current Frequency 1. Curriculum and instructional leadership 2. Coordination of student activities 3. Direction of support services of the school 4. Staff selection, evaluation, and development 5. Development and maintenance of community relations 6. Coordination with district and other schools 7. Fiscal or monetary management 8. Maintenance of school plant 9. Structure communication which provides for coopera- tion among various groups in the school In- “ mime-£177 an; . , r 1113 The third judgment we are asking you to make is concerned with the impor- tance which you personally attach to each dimension. We ask you to note how significant you believe each dimension is for your position. Indicate on the scale below the relative significance of each dimension relative to the other dimensions in terms of its importance and/or criticality for your overall job performance. That is, rate the dimensions as to how important it is for you to perform at a fully competent, effective level. Place your answers on the line beside the dimension. Dimension Importance Judgment O - Indicates that the dimension is never done, or I am not ultimately responsible for its accomplishment, and it is therefore unimportant to the job. 1 - Indicates that the dimension has minor importance or criticality relative to other dimensions. Considering all dimensions, it would have the lowest priority of importance for me. 2 - Indicates that the dimension is fairly important relative to other dimensions. However, it does not have the priority of importance I attach to most other dimensions. 3 - Indicates that the dimension is moderately important for my overall job performance relative to other dimensions, and has about average priority among all dimensions performed. 4 - Indicates that the dimension is very important to my overall job performance. I believe it has a higher degree of importance or priority than most other dimensions or activities. 5 - Indicates that I believe the dimension is one of the few most essential dimensions or activities performed. It is one of the most critical aspects of my job. Dimension Importance l. Curriculum and instructional leadership 2. Coordination of student activities 3. Direction of support services of the school 4. Staff selection, evaluation, and development 5. Development and maintenance of community relations 6. Coordination with district and other schools 7. Fiscal or monetary management 8. Maintenance of school plant 9. Structure comnunication which provides for coopera- tion among various groups in the school 114 4. REACTIONS T0 J08 The following items ask for your general reactions to your job responsibilities. Please respond according to the following scale. 12. 13. 14. Always true Usually true More often true than false Equally likely to be true or false More often false than true Usually false Always false HwamO‘V II II II II II II II I have to buck a rule or policy in order to carry out an assignment. Explanation is clear of what has to be done. I do things that are apt to be accepted by one person and not by others. _____I know what my responsibilities are. I work on unnecessary things. I receive an assignment without the manpower to complete it. I have clear, planned goals and objectives for my job. I work with two or more groups who operate quite differently. I know that I have divided my time properly. I know exactly what is expected of me. I receive an assignment without adequate resources and materials to execute it. I have to do things that should be done differently under different conditions. I feel certain about how much authority I have on the job. I receive incompatible requests from two or more people. 115 By relating your responses in earlier sections to the responses in this section, we hope to ascertain how and if certain aspects of the Here are some words to describe the way people may feel that tells how often ypp feel that way when you think 0 present job. Almost Not Very Quite Never Often Sometimes Often I 2 3 4 15. ______Nervous 22. ______Fearful 29. l6. _____Safe 23. _____Worried 30. 17. _____4Afraid 24. _____Secure 31. 18. _____0ittery 25. _____Alarmed 32. 19. ._____Panicky 26. _____Tranquil 33. 20. _____Wonderful 27. _____}ndifferent 34. 21. _____Comfortable 28. _____Apprehensive All of us occasionally are bothered by certain things. been in your present job have you had the following? job affect principals. . Indicate the response f yourself and your Nearly All The Time 5 _____Relaxed ______Anxious ______Fidgety ______Scared _____Uneasy Tense How often since you've Almost Not Very Quite Nearly Never Often Sometimes Often All The Time l 2 3 4 5 35. Trouble getting up in the morning 44. Heart pounding or racing 36. Pains in back or spine 45, Dizzy speiis 37. Trouble sleeping 46. Hands sweating so they feel . clammy 38. Feeling fatigued 47. Loss of appetite 39. Headaches "“" 48. Nightmares 40. Loss of weight 49. Skin problems 4l. Gain of weight 50. Colds 42. Upset stomach "“" Sl. Hands tremble enough to 43. Shortness of breath for no ap- bother you parent reason APPENDIX B INSTRUMENT TO INVESTIGATE THE PERSON-ROLE CONFLICT OF SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 116 E.“ .L a” “nu-.mpzt. 0“ APPENDIX B The following questions will be used to obtain demographic information of the participants: Circle the appropriate responses or simply write your response in the blank provided. 10 12. SCHOOL ADMINISTRATOR TASK INVENTORY I. BIOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION What is your present position? 1. Principal of senior high school Principal of junior high or middle school 2 3. Principal of elementary school 4 Principal of combined junior-senior high school or combined elementary-secondary school Assistant principal of senior high school Assistant principal of junior high or middle school Assistant principal of elementary school m\lO\U'l Assistant principal of combined junior-senior high school or combined elementary-secondary school 9. Other? What other position? How would you describe the school district in which you are currently employed? 1. Urban 2. Suburban 3. Small-town 4. Rural Approximate number of hours spent on the job each week. 1. 40 or less 2. 41-45 3. 46-50 4. 51-55 5. 56-60 6. 61-70 7. Over 70 hours a week 117 The 10. The cational 11. 16. 17. 118 next item will be utilized to measure the tenure on the job: How many years have you been at your present position? following three items will be utilized to measure the edu- background of the individual: What is the highest degree you have earned? 1. Less than Bachelors 2. BS or BA 3. Masters degree 4. Masters degree plus some additional graduate work 5. Masters degree plus all course work for a doctoral program 6. Specialist degree 7. Ph.D. In which of the following areas did you major as an under- graduate? If you majored in more than one, choose the one in which you earned the most hours. Select only one. 1. Business Education (other than physical ed.) Fine arts Humanities (e.g., literature, languages, etc.) Physical education Physical or biological sciences Social sciences (e.g., history, sociology, etc.) mVO‘iU'l-bMN Other, specify What is your major field of graduate study? Choose only one. Educational administration and supervision Secondary education Physical education Some other education specialty, specify Humanities or fine arts Science or engineering Business Other, specify SDWNO‘U'l-h-MNH No graduate study ‘~"':.TT “W..-“ 119 These three items will be used to measure the extent of profes- sional orientation of the individual as defined by Haga et al. (1974): 19. Consider the following list of nationally circulated periodi- cals. Put a "1" next to the ones you presently subscribe to and a "0" next to the ones to which you don't subscribe. Subscribe? 1. Administrative Science Quarterly _____ 2. Education Digest ______ 3. Educational Leadership ______ 4. Education USA ______ 5. Harvard Educational Review ______ 6. Momentum/Today's Catholic Teacher ._____ 7. NASSP Bulletin ______ 8. National Elementary Principal ______ 9. Regional Accreditation Association Quarterlies _ 10. Phi Delta Kappan I_____ 11. Saturday Review ______ 12. Teacher College Record 20. Identify the professional activities in which you have par- ticipated during the past school year. Put a "1" if you have participated and "0" if you have not participated. Activities Participated 1. National meeting of NASSP or NAESP 2. National meeting of other educational organizations 3. State meeting of principals' association 4. State meeting of other educational organizations 5. Studies through formal courses and workshops for credit 6. Travel for visitation outside of district 7. Involvement in formal project or research in education 8. Participated in conference and workshops, not included above and outside of district 21. The next question will be utilized to determine the individual's 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. Indicate whether you are an active member in any of the fol- lowing professional organizations. 120 Activities Participated in conference and workshops within district Participated in a study group on a planned, regular basis not included above Gave speech at national convention or con- ference, at state level, at a university or college, or at local gathering Published an article or book Taught a course in a college or university Other type of professional activity, specify Participated "0" if not. Organization NASSP NAESP ASCD AASA Phi Delta Kappa State Principals Association Local Principals Association previous job experience in the educational field: 18. In which of the following kinds of positions have you had one full year or more of experience? in the space provided next to each. Position High school principal Junior or middle school assistant principal or principal Elementary school assistant principal or principal College administrator or instructor Put a "1" if you are and Active member? Write the number of years Place a "0" if none . Years In. 121 Position Years Counselor, other guidance work Secondary school dean, registrar High school assistant principal Athletic coach or director OWNO‘U‘I Teacher (prior to present position) 10. Other administrative service, specify The following section (3) will be used to measure person—role conflict and importance of dimension: 3. JUDGMENT OF TASK DIMENSIONS In this section, you will be asked to rate the task dimensions on three different rating scales. In making your ratings, consider all the tasks within each dimension as they are described on the previous pages. In this first rating scale, we wish to ascertain your view of the principal's role and the kinds of activities a principal should ideally spend her/his time on. We ask you to judge the degree of time you think a principal should spend on each specific dimension relative to all the others. In making these judgments, indicate the time you think a principal should personally spend on each dimension, rather than the time that might be spent by someone to whom it is delegated. Use the scale below. Place your answers on the line next to the dimension. Principal's Role Scale On this scale indicate how much attention should be directed to the tasks in these dimensions using this scale. O--Indicates that the tasks in this dimension should never be done or should be perfbrmed by others. Principal should have no responsi— bility. 1--Indicates that relative to other task dimensions, tasks in this dimension should be the least frequently performed tasks or activities. 2--Indicates that the tasks in this dimension should be done only fairly often relative to other tasks which the individual must perform. 3--Indicates that the tasks in this dimension should be done some- what frequently, and about average relative to all other tasks per- formed by the person in the job. 122 4--Indicates that the tasks in this dimension should be done more frequently than most other activities. S--Indicates that the tasks in this dimension should be some of the most frequently performed tasks or activities. They should be done almost constantly. Dimension Should be . Curriculum and instructional leadership Coordination of student activities Direction of support services of the school . Staff selection, evaluation, and development Coordination with district and other schools Fiscal or monetary management I 1 2 3 4 5. Development and maintenance of community relations 6 7 8. Maintenance of school plant 9 Structure communication which provides for cooperation among various groups in the school The second rating that we are asking you to make is a judgment of the degree of time you actually spend on each dimension, relative to all the others, as opposed to the time that someone to whom you dele- gate it might spend. Use the scale below to indicate the degree of time you spend on each task dimension relative to other dimensions. Place your answers on the line next to the dimension. Current Frequency of Performance O--Indicates that the tasks in this dimension are never done or are performed by others that the principal has no responsibility over. 1--Indicates that relative to other task dimensions, these tasks are some of the least frequently performed tasks or activities. 2--Indicates that the tasks in this dimension are done fairly often relative to other tasks which the individual must perform. 3--Indicates that the tasks in this dimension are done somewhat frequently, and about average relative to all other tasks performed by the person in the job. 123 4--Indicates that the tasks in this dimension are done more fre- quently than most other activities. S--Indicates that the tasks in this dimension are the few most frequently performed tasks or activities. It is something which is done almost constantly. Current Dimension Frequency . Curriculum and instructional leadership . Coordination of student activities . Direction of support services of the school . Staff selection, evaluation, and development 1 2 3 4 5. Development and maintenance of community relations 6 Coordination with district and other schools 7. Fiscal or monetary management 8. Maintenance of school plant 9 . Structure communication which provides for c00peration among various groups in the school The third judgment we are asking you to make is concerned with the importance which you personally attach to each dimension. We ask you to note how significant you believe each dimension is for your posi- tion. Indicate on the scale below the relative significance of each dimension relative to the other dimensions in terms of its importance and/or criticality for your overall job performance. That is, rate the dimensions as to how important it is for you to perform at a fully competent, effective level. Place your answers on the line beside the dimension. Dimension Importance Judgment O--Indicates that the dimension is never done, or I am not ulti- mately responsible for its accomplishment, and it is therefore unim- portant to the job. 1—-Indicates that the dimension has minor importance or criti— cality relative to other dimensions. Considering all dimensions, it would have the lowest priority of importance for me. 2--Indicates that the dimension is fairly important relative to other dimensions. However, it does not have the priority of importance I attach to most other dimensions. 124 3--Indicates that the dimension is moderately important for my overall job performance relative to other dimensions, and has about average priority among all dimensions performed. 4--Indicates that the dimension is very important to my overall job performance. I believe it has a higher degree of importance or priority than most other dimensions or activities. 5-—Indicates that I believe the dimension is one of the few most essential dimensions or activities performed. It is one of the most critical aspects of my job. CDOONO‘UThmmi—a O O OO. Dimension Importance Curriculum and instructional leadership Coordination of student activities Direction of support services of the school Staff selection, evaluation, and development DeveIOpment and maintenance of community relations Coordination with district and other schools Fiscal or monetary management Maintenance of school plant Structure communication which provides for cooperation among various groups in the school The following section (4), consisting of items from the Rizzo et a1. (1970) scale, will be utilized to measure general role conflict: 4. REACTIONS TO JOB The following items ask for your general reactions to your job responsibilities. Please respond according to the following scale. HNu-me‘xl Always true Usually true More often true than false Equally likely to be true or false More often false than true Usually false Always false TM m1 2mm ‘6'. _l '1 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 125 I have to buck a rule or policy in order to carry out an assignment. Explanation is clear of what has to be done. I do things that are apt to be accepted by one person and not by others. I know what my responsibilities are. I work on unnecessary things. I receive an assignment without the manpower to complete it. I have clear, planned goals and objectives for my job. I work with two or more groups who operate quite differently. I know that I have divided my time properly. I know exactly what is expected of me. I receive an assignment without adequate resources and mate- rials to execute it. I have to do things that should be done differently under different conditions. I feel certain about how much authority I have on the job. I received incompatible requests from two or more people. 49.-Laya- .-' N1 - ' ‘..ffik.~._. APPENDIX C OBSERVED VARIANCES AND RESIDUALS OF MEASURED VARIABLES 126 127 .... fun i. aaa.—ant $11.... .. ....i .aoucuwuu> vo>uouao o>uuuonuuu on» :uqocon mononucuu-n :« mun oHnavuoura AHN. v Ask. iv Ace. v Aoo. iv Ace. iv aaa. v Aa~.~ iv Aao. v .N«. iv an. -. mm. A”. ma. 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Ill-II” M.J.I .IN confinmaum> wounded: uo nausvunom can moucuwua> vu>uomno 128 Ace. v Ace. v Ame. v “as. v Ace. v “as. v Ana. v Ame. iv Ana. iv Ace. iv as.” am. we. o”. No. me. so. no. no. ~o. aaasauoaaux .uuo .aa Aoo. v Aoo. v Ace. v Ace. v Roe. v Aoa. v Roe. v And. iv Aao. v a_.~ as. we. as. H_.~ so. we. no. no. ..aam Suzanna .n~ Ace. Ace. v hoe. v Aoo. v Aka. v ASS. v Awe. iv ANo. iv ca.a ma.~ no. No. i «v. ed. aa. aa. .n>«uu< .~o>on .ha .ac. v Ago. v goo. v Aoo.~ v AsN. iv Anw. iv Ame. v mm.wn cc. i ao.~ so. i no. i no. i No. i Hosanna on .au» .om Roe. v Aoo. v Ana. v Aoo. iv Awe. iv Aoo. v MN. am. #8. do. ac. dc. .euan .uaeu .nH Ace. v Aam.~ iv .ac. v ASN. v a-. iv kk.o~ as. i an. i an. i Nu. i nuance .a~ Roe. v Ana. iv Ace. iv Awe. v SN.” oo. on. an. Sudanese odouuoueu .n~ Aoo. v “No. v Ana. iv ~n.~ as. 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