:1 aW?M2I'.IIWNWIififirficbgafla {71315,Irrt:«i;qt?'.;.;:| 2;;.;a.:,‘;‘.-,;;:‘:-:-;. q - ‘ ,-:;:;¢ “ DIFFERENTIATED STAFFING IN THE SECONDARY SCHOOL-- ADMINISTRATIVE COURSES OF ACTION Thesis for the Degree of Ph. D. MICHIGAN. STATE UNIVERSITY 7' ' BARREL ROBERT WELLER 1972 , ¥ IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII I’J mm 1:1? Michigan State University 096 7836 This is to certify that the thesis entitled DIFFERENTIATED STAFFING IN THE SECONDARY SCHOOL - ADMINISTRATIVE COURSES OF ACTION presented by Darrel Robert Weller has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for PHAT); degree in Educ gtional Administration .. 4: {dz/LL jbécéfi/ L Ma r ’o/professor Date April 27, 1972 0-7639 , " III _ HUAG & an< BOOK nmnERv mc. II . ‘4. 3‘30‘5'33. BINDING BY law-*5?" ABSTRACT DIFFERENTIATED STAFFING IN THE SECONDARY SCHOOL-9ADMINISTRATIVE COURSES OF ACTION BY Darrel Robert Weller The purpose of this study was to develop the appropriate administrative courses of action that are needed when a secondary school moves from a traditional staffing pattern to a differentiated staffing pattern. The approach was to look at all components of the secondary school that are related to the staffing patterns. This approach provided the basis for decisions. regarding appropriate administrative courses of action tx> be used during a transition to differentiated staffing. The review of the literature indicated that present staffing patterns evolved out of practice rather- than research. Consideration was given to team teachingr with its unique organizational features. The objective of the review was to bring into focus the feasibility of" the secondary school undergoing major staffing pattern changes. Darrel Robert Weller Questionnaires were submitted to seven secondary school districts presently engaged in differentiated staffing. Analysis of the data indicated that: l. 10. ll. (Differentiated staffing is a rare concept in the secondary schools of the country. Differentiated staffing still\does not have a well-established definition. IDifferentiated staffing mandates a new role for teacher and administrator. \Differentiated staffing will provide more benefits to the student. Differentiated staffing will result in an expanded use of paraprofessionals for instructional tasks. Differentiated staffing requires considerable time for in-service. (Differentiated staffing requires more planning time than a school functioning with a traditional staffing pattern. The teacher will assume a greater degree of responsibility in the organization. . Differentiated staffing} will result in an increase in the cost of operating the secondary school. State certification codes and accreditation standards do not appear to be major problems. The negotiating process was no more difficult because of differentiated staffing. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. Darrel Robert Weller IDifferentiated staffing should permit the staff to be more adaptive to changes that will occur in the future. Differentiated staffinngill result in a greater burden being placed upon the student for his own learning. The transition to differentiated staffing will be more difficult than the operation of differentiated staffing once the pattern is established. Standard methods of evaluating the instructional program will not be enough when evaluation is performed. A number of components of the educational system will all have to change at the same time if dif- ferentiated staffing is going to work. The analysis of the data collected from the seven school districts together with extensive reading of the literature suggested several courses of administrative action that can be employed. Any alteration in the man- power system of a secondary school that moves toward dif- ferentiated staffing should consider the following admin- istrative courses of action. X lo 20 3. 4. Appoint a steering committee. Assess readiness to make a major staffing change. Adopt a performance curriculum. Build, adopt, and incorporate instructional systems. 10. ll. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. Darrel Robert Weller Set a master plan. Prepare for organizational patterns to change continuously. Confront numerous components of the organization at the same time. Provide a process by which roles can be abolished and by which new roles can be created as student needs shift. Retain key people for substantial periods of time. Perform a task analysis. Formalize new role responsibilities. Utilize a matrix system in assessing the present strengths and weaknesses of the staff- Adopt plans in opposition to the self-contained classroom taught by one teacher. Perform a cost analysis. Establish a research and development fund. Pre-negotiate positions when possible. Reject a merit pay plan. Negotiate job security, but not role security. Utilize an evolutionary process- Perform a strong public relations program- Reinforce the principal's leadership role. Plan on changing many aspects of the principal's role- Bring in outside input. Darrel Robert Weller 24. Develop a good feedback system. 25. Do not abandon plans after first evaluation. New staffing patterns will be attempted in the future. It is the intent of this study to provide admin- istrators with courses of action that they may employ in the process of shifting from a traditional staffing pattern to a differentiated staffing pattern. DIFFERENTIATED STAFFING IN THE SECONDARY SCHOOL-~ADMINISTRATIVE COURSES OF ACTION BY Darrel Robert Weller A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Administration and Higher Education 1972 @DCopyright by Darrel Robert Weller 1972 DEDICATION To my loving wife, Nancy, for her continuous support ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The writer wishes to express his gratitude to Dr. Stanley E. Hecker who provided the insight, patience, and moral support necessary for completion of this study. His influence was instrumental at many points throughout my doctoral program. To the other members of the com- mittee, Dr. Richard Featherstone, Dr. George Myers, and Dr. Norman Abeles, appreciation is expressed for their suggestions regarding the thesis and their time and effort in serving on the committee. Gratitude is also expressed to the faculty ofI Ottawa Hills High School and the administrative team of Richard Carlson, James Burress, and Frank Pulte. They tolerated my presence in the building, my questions in the coffee lounge, my continuous pressure for change, and my general use of them as a sounding board. Most of all, appreciation is expressed to my children, Timothy, Katherine, and little Steven for their cooperation and understanding. Their enthusiastic desire to learn has convinced me that schools will change. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter I. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . Background of the Problem . . . . Purpose of the Study. . . . . . Significance of the Study . . . . Assumptions and Limitations . . . Definitions. . . . . . . . . Methodology. . . . . . . . . II. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE . . . . . Rationale for Present Staffing Patterns Teacher's Role. . . . . . . . Team Teaching . . . . . . . . Flexible Scheduling . . . . . . Technological Changes . Teacher Aides . . . . Evaluation . . . Differentiated Staffing. Administrative Leadership . . . . Organizational Change . . . . . Summary . . . . . . . . . . III. ADMINISTRATIVE COURSES OF ACTION . . Introduction . . . . . . . . Questionnaire DevelOpment . . . . Selection of Schools. . . . . . Analysis of Data . . . . Administrative Courses of Action. . Establishing a Rationale . . . . Establishing Organizational Patterns Establishing New Roles . . . . . Economic Considerations. . . . . Negotiations . . . . . . . . Change Process. . . . . . iv Page 11 12 13 15 16 19 19 32 35 44 53 56 65 69 97 107 111 114 114 115 117 120 140 141 143 145 148 149 151 Chapter Leadership . . . . . . . Resistance . . . . . . . Evaluation . . . . . . . IV. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS. Summary . . . . . . . . Summary of Conclusions . . Suggestions for Further Study. BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . APPENDICES Appendix Page 154 156 157 160 160 163 170 173 184 187 192 LIST OF FIGURES Figure . Page 1. How the High School Teacher Divides the Week (Average Work Week of 45 Hours, 54 Minutes) . . . . . . . . . . . 58 vi CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Background of the Problem The urbanization of society, the rapid expansion of the service occupations, the steady growth of our pOpulation, and the communications revolution are upon us. These factors mandate a redefinition of the function of schools and a reallocation of work responsibilities for the school staff. Other conditions mandate reorganization of our secondary schools. The present generation of high school students has been reared on technological growth. They have experienced a period of fantastic change. In this multi-faceted society they have seen rapid changes in modes of transportation, the exploration of the moon, the quest into the oceans, ethnic unrest in the country, the growth of an affluent society with its pollution problems, etc. Yet, the schools that they face are Very similar to those schools that their parents attended. The social milieu in this country is such that "change" is almost expected. But people are not willing to accept "change, just for the sake of perspective." There is a demand for educational impact during change. Technical and organizational changes of themselves are not enough. Misinformation and irrelevant information as the basis for change is taboo. Our institutions are changing in the face of pressures. Etzioni felt that organizations were moving toward more specialization. The process of modernization is one in which old functions are more effectively served rather than one in which new functions emerge. This gain in efficiency is largely achieved by differentiation, whereby the various functions which were carried out in one social unit come to be served by a number of distinct social units.l Traditional staffing patterns are not yet obsolete. It just appears that different staffing patterns may better suit our search for the "maximum mode of operation." Once it has been established that new staffing patterns will better serve the organizational goals, then tra- ditional staffing patterns will become obsolete. Many criticisms have been leveled at the present organizational patterns and the present staffing patterns of the secondary schools. These criticisms are directed at bureaucracy and the inability of the institution to change. Reorganization practices that involve different 1Amaitai Etzioni, Modern Organizations (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: PrentiEe-Hall, Inc., 1964), p. 106. staff deployment have usually been designed to overcome (1) teacher shortage and (2) costs due to high salaries. The local board of education, as the policy-making agency, is responsible for determining the type, quantity, and the caliber of teachers to be employed in the school system.2 The board delegates the actual procurement and assignment to the central administrative staff. Review of the staffing function in terms of dollars and cents alone provides some impression of its importance. School boards, their superintendents, and often other members of the professional staff and the lay public expend great effort in developing current operating budgets that present a picture of the kind of education they seek for children and their schools. Somewhere between 60 and 80 per cent of the funds represented in this effort goes to secure professional personnel. Staff utilization as it now exists has sought to maintain states of equity for teachers. Teachers in turn have been conditioned to look at others within their own ranks and judge the fairness of their own teaching load. Equity, or attempts at equity, have been in three main areas: (1) student load, (2) time spent on the job, and (3) compensation. 2Stephen J. Knezevich, Administration of Public Education (2nd ed.; New York: Harper afidiRow, 1969), p. 335. During the past few years, there has been an increase of interest in the nature and organization of the teacher's work. Attempts have been made at both the elementary and secondary levels to determine the activi- ties required in a teaching position, and to recognize these activities with a View toward improving teaching conditions and the utilization of teacher time and talents. The major concerns of the policy maker were formerly housing, equipment, and supplies. The big problem now is people. The field of personnel manage- ment assumes a greater role today than ever before. Roles are changing as schools examine organization and as they change, they result in new problems for the personnel director of the school system. Administration in general has continuously sought to have schools operate in the ”maximum mode of operation." Staff utilization has been a source of study and experi- mentation. Innovations in the past were usually developed out of the problems of practice rather than out of the theoretical constructs of the basic disciplines. Undoubtedly, the best publicized activity on staff utilization was conducted at the secondary level with the encouragement of the National Association of Secondary School Principals. Most of the experiments and studies reported from this program did not_constitute acceptable research.3 One of the influences of these studies was to persuade schools to organize themselves into teaching teams and to make use of what have come to be called "paraprofessionals." The Ford Foundation col- 1aborated with the NASSP on this project. The NASSP Commission on the Experimental Study of the Utilization of the Staff in the Secondary School was created to examine ways to utilize staff during a period of teacher shortage. The main emphasis was not on the improvement of educational services to the student. Staffing patterns in the secondary schools now are based on criteria which have evolved over the years. The secondary school, with its emphasis on speciali- zation has moved to a departmental approach of instruction. Consequently, most of the difficulty in determining teacher load has resulted from the inability to use class size as the final measure of load. Instead of depending entirely on a single measure of class size, administrators have evaluated the teaching load in the secondary school by the use of a variety of factors. The basis of their practice was given impetus by the regional accrediting associations of the country. These regional agencies have worked and developed a series 3Gordon G. Garford, "Conditions of Employment and Service in Elementary and Secondary Schools," Review of Educational Research, XXXIII (October, 1963), 381490. of teaching load factors, which they believe will prevent the teacher from receiving an excessive work load. Yearly, a printed list of standards is distributed delineating the recommendations that are requirements necessary for membership in the accrediting association. The list of standards explains acceptable teaching load. In general, the accrediting agencies have attempted the evaluation of the teaching load by three different measures: (1) the number of periods taught, (2) the number of pupil periods assigned per week, and (3) the pupil-teacher ratio of the school.4 People over the years have tended to use different numerical methods to judge the effectiveness of a school system. Typical methods of measuring the educational system have included: (1) the number of professional staff per 1,000 students, (2) the level of academic training of the staff, (3) the teacher-pupil ratio, and (4) the number of teachers who have not met their indi- vidual certification requirements. These methods have not always been satisfactory. In general, the emphasis has been on physical measures with little regard for student output and the educational process. Do the possibilities, the probabilities, and the problems of the future suggest a "change" with both the 4Leo M. Chamberlain and Leslie W. Kindred, The Teacher and School Organization (2nd ed.; Englewood CIiffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1949), p. 226. past and the present for which radically new kinds of skills and competencies are required? The answer is undoubtedly yes! The schools of the future, will be organized around three kinds of activities: large-group instruction, individual study, and small-group discussion. These kinds of activities will come about through better utilization of the staff.5 Recent federal legislation (the Economic Oppor- tunity Act of 1964, the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965, and the Education Professions Development Act of 1967) has provided the financial means for employ- ing ”teacher aides," “paraprofessionals," or "auxiliary personnel” in schools throughout the United States.6 Schools are being asked to provide individual instruction to the extent that they attempt to maximize human potential. In January of 1960, the late Paul R. Mort convened a small group of superintendents of the member school districts of the Metropolitan School Study Council at Columbia University. He made the following prediction: 5Lloyd J. Trump, ed., Images of the Future (Wash- ington, D.C., National Education Association: The Com- mission on the Experimental Study of the Utilization of the Staff in the Secondary School, National Association of Secondary School Principals, 1959), p. 7. 6Laurel N. Tanner and Daniel Tanner, "The Teacher Aide: A National Study of Confusion," Educational Leader- ship, XXVI (May, 1969), p. 765. By 1980, the public schools will be required to assume the responsibility for each child's learning as an individual all that he is capable of learning from among those things to which the community gives priority.7 Mort contended that while the profession had been for some time highly vocal about giving attention to indi- vidual differences, most of our schools do not provide for this individualization. The schools were not a place where individuals learn as individuals. Parent unrest centers on the belief that teachers are not doing their job. Thus performance criteria or expectations will probably be included in future bargain- ing agreements. Achievement levels will be specified and possibly linked to salary proposals. Discussions about appropriate performance criteria will sharpen quickly. Attention will be focused upon the goals and objectives of the schools. Consideration of time allowed for learning has placed another mandate upon the reorganization of the secondary school patterns. Whatever the amount of time allowed by the school and the curriculum for particular subjects or learning tasks, it is likely to be too much for some students and not enough for other students. In traditional time periods, the teacher is responsible to 7Paul R. Mort, "Progress Report on the School of 1980,” Unpublished Document, Institute of Administrative Research, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1962, p. 72. fill the time allocated with appropriate learning tasks. Some schools as they employ "flexible scheduling" have sought to alter the organization so that the time fits the task to be learned. Administration has recently through negotiations permitted the teachers to participate in management. The justification for participation in decision making by those responsible for implementation is not made from the standpoint of human relations. Permitting the appropriate colleagues and subordi- nates to participate is not so much a favor to the participants as it is a favor to the administrator. It not only permits pretesting of decisions by exposing them to the scrutiny of those who will have to use them, but it most often assures support instead of sabotage. The prOponents of collective negotiations insist that a change is necessary. Their prediction and their drive are to change the status of principals and super- visors, for example to staff and supporting roles, not line. This proposed change in role, or the change in the perception of the role, will come as a significant mod- ification and threat to the principal. The teacher has become motivated with a political orientation. He is concerned about the criticism being placed upon education. His desire is to modify the school in ways that will make it more professionally sound. He hOpes to change perceptions of the teaching profession. 8Ray E. Brown, Judgment in Administration (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, I9667, p. SI. 10 Much has been written in recent years concerning the professionalization of the classroom teacher. Perhaps no single area in American education has caused as much controversy from within and from without the educational domain as the subject of professional standing. Much of the teacher unrest and agitation instigated by teacher unions and other teacher organizations is centered on a concern for more professional status.9 If the administrator is going to be the edu- cational leader in the future and act as the change agent, he must "seek to modify goals, restructure cur- ricula, restructure organization, remodel decisionemaking practices, shift the allocation and distribution of financial resources, and revitalize professional personnel."10 To challenge the ideas, the organization, or the function of an institution is relatively easy. To modify it becomes more difficult. Personnel are often held more accountable for continuing procedures than for changing procedures. Budgets are usually built for stability and continuity, rather than discontinuity. Institutions have been established to provide continuity and coordination. The school as an institution provides a wide band of resources, services, and personnel. 9Deane W. Wiley and Lloyd K. BishOp, The Flexibly Sgheduled High School (West Nyack, New York: Parker Publishing Company,‘l968), p. 173. 0Luvern L. Cunningham, "Viewing Change in School Organization,” Administrator's Notebook, XI, No. 1 (September, 1962). 11 The personnel have maintenance of function as a signifi- cant responsibility. The institution must change its function if it is to adapt to the changing environment. If staffing pattern changes provide better education, the institution must change. The nature of an organization does make a dif- ference. The patterns of staffing do alter the output. Citizen, student, and teacher pressures are upsetting our traditional thinking about educational organi- zations and, concomitantly, decision making within the organizations. In my judgment the product of these clashes will be healthier institutions. So, on with the fray.11 Purpose of the Study "A staffing pattern is a concrete manifestation of philosophical positions regarding the nature of knowledge, the nature of learning and teaching, and the nature of man."12 Decisions about staffing patterns are central to the operation of a school. Effort must be expended to recruit, select, supervise, certify, evaluate, and assign teachers as well as to consider their welfare. The purpose of this study is: (1) to review the factors that have been used to determine present staffing patterns in the secondary schools, (2) to examine the 11Luvern L. Cunningham, "Crisis in School Organi- zation," Educational Leadership, XXVI (March, 1969), 551. 12Fenwick English, "Teacher May I? Take Three Giant Steps! The Differentiated Staff," Phi Delta Kappan, LI (December, 1969), 211. 12 factors that have been advanced as a rationale for dif— ferentiated staffing patterns, (3) to identify some of the disadvantages of differentiated staffing, (4) to consider the administrative implications of differentiated staffing, (5) to develop the appropriate administrative courses of action that are needed when a secondary school moves from a traditional staffing pattern to a differentiated staffing pattern, and (6) to make suggestions for further research. Significance of the Study, The education profession is continuously search- ing for ways of ordering the meanings behind objective data collected. Considerable work has been carried on in the field of education that should be capable of pro- viding deeper meanings to staff deployment patterns. ”The practices and processes of staffing are not suf- ficiently well understood, nor have they been adequately evaluated.“13 This study attempts to make a contribution to the knowledge about staffing patterns in the secondary school. Theory can give.meaning to research and adminis- trative practice. Theories provide insight into ways of considering apprOpriate actions. The administrator must be sensitive to theoretical developments and also careful 13Harland E. Samson, "Staffing," Review of Edu- cational Research, XXXVII (October, 1968), p. 413. 13 in using theory. This study will bring theory to bear on administrative actions. Educators who promote the concept of differentiated staffing seldom point out the disadvantages. Their rationale is generally centered upon a series of value judgments. Costs, lack of productivity, administrative logjams, and implication of the change are usually of little consideration. This study intends to bring into the open some of counterproductive elements of the new staffing pattern. Assumptions and Limitations Administration can be defined as the constant recon- ciliation of the enterprise to a constantly shifting environment. Fitted administration, however, requires a willingness and ability on the part of the admin- istrator to adapt to, as well as to recognize, chang- ing circumstances. Unless he possesses the necessary degree of flexibility, he cannot expect to accommodate to the shifting circumstances which constantly con- front him and the organization.14 It is assumed that administration will make the necessary adjustments to the shifting environment and will continue to be responsible for staffing the schools in the future. One of the major criticisms is that schools are inefficient. Administration is charged with the responsi- bility of finding different modes of Operation that will provide for greater efficiency. It is assumed that we l4Ray E. Brown, Judgment in Administration (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1966), p. 182. 14 have not reached the "maximum mode of operation." Adminis- tration must struggle to reach the optimal level for each school. Frequently the.major purpose of past research in education seems to have been the justification of a pro- gram. In the future, the conceptualizations of research will form the underlying rationale for the construction and the use of particular Operational procedures. This study does not attempt to assess the educational value of differentiated staffing. Rather, this study will develop the administrative methods that a school dis- trict might use as it changes its staffing pattern to differentiated staffing. The assumption is made that valid responses to the questionnaire can be secured. Appropriate courses of action are to be suggested after a systematic analysis of data collected by the questionnaire. It is further assumed, that the concept of dif- ferentiated staffing is current and worthy of being researched. Emphasis on differentiated staffing will grow on a national level and the results of this study will be useful in future research. Empirical research in the field of staff utili- zation tends to be complicated. A considerable number of variables have to be taken into account. School-wide or system-wide changes in staffing patterns are not easy 15 to accomplish. As the profession considers differentiated staffing, a great deal of attention will have to be given to research, development, and evaluation. Definitions Maximum Mode of Operation.--Hypothetical state of operation in which all components are contributing to give the highest possible output. Traditional Staffing.--Organizational pattern in which all teachers have equivalent teaching responsi- bilities. Differentiated Staffing.--Organizational pattern in which there is a professional hierarchy supported by paraprofessional staff. Teacher.--"A person employed in an official capacity for the purpose of guiding and directing the learning eXperience of pupils."15 Team Teaching.--Organizational pattern that has a hierarchy of personnel, differentiated staff functions, and flexible grouping. 15Carter V. Good, ed., Dictionary of Education (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1959), p. 550. 16 Flexible Scheduling.--Organizational process by which the class size, length of class meetings, and number of classes are varied according to the nature of the subject, teaching methodology, and the needs of the students. Paraprofessional.--Usually a non-certificated person with minimal training and education who performs some of the clerical or instructional tasks now performed by the teacher. Clerical Aide.--A non-certificated person who performs clerical and routine duties under the super- vision of a teacher. Instructional Aide.--A non-certificated person who assumes part of the instructional responsibility under the direction of the teacher. Methodology This study attempts to identify the important factors that should provide the basis for reorganization of a staffing pattern in the secondary school. An exam- ination of the factors that presently determine tra- ditional staffing patterns is necessary. If it can be shown that the factors underlying present staffing patterns evolved out of practice and not out of research and theoretical considerations, then it might be 17 possible to advance a new rationale for staffing the secondary school. This study will survey a few high schools in the country that have moved into dif- ferentiated staffing. It will identify the important items in a rationale for differentiated staffing. Attention will then be directed at developing admin- istrative courses of action that might be used when a school system makes the transition to a differentiated staffing pattern in their high school. Chapter II will undertake the critical review of the literature searching for the factors that have determined present staffing patterns. Consideration will be given to the role a teacher has in the classroom. The evolution of teacher aides will be examined. Some space will be devoted to innovative organizational patterns now being used by school districts. This chapter will also consider the need for reorganization by examining administrative leadership and organizational change. Chapter III will utilize the data gathered by the author's questionnaire. Sources of administrative difficulty will be delineated. Different courses of action, as appropriate to the administrative function during reorganization of staffing patterns, will be developed. 18 Chapter IV will be devoted to implications, conclusions, and recommendations. Future research, in the area of differentiated staffing, will be suggested. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE Rationale for Present Staffing Patterns Over the years there has been much discussion on staffing the high school. Most of the writing is in the form of proposals for policies, descriptions, or theories on staffing. Some studies have tried to show a relation- .ship between staff morale and job dissatisfaction. No studies have attempted to examine if there is a relation- ship between professional growth and enlarged professional responsibilities. A common complaint has been that on the average, teachers' loads are heavy and that something must be done 16 to lighten them. Trump and Baynham pointed to neglected professional tasks that need attention. They suggested that the secondary teacher spend fifteen hours a week with students in class sizes of fifteen students.l7 16Harold E. Moore and Newell B. Walters, Personnel Administration in Education (New York: Harper and’Brothers Publishers, 1955), p. 284. 17Lloyd Trump and Dorsey Baynham, Guide to Better Schools-~Focus on Change (Chicago: Rand McNalIy and Company, 1969). P. 109. l9 20 They insisted that the time is needed by the teacher to perform quality teaching. The teacher's load has evolved over a period of time and is usually measured in terms of one of the following: (1) Average class size; (2) Student-teacher ratio; (3) Number of classes per day; (4) Total enrollment in classes taught; (5) Total credit hours in courses taught; (6) Number of different subjects taught; (7) Total clock hours. These measures are all present an incomplete picture. They do not take into account numerous factors which influence the time and energy devoted to different aspects of the professional task. One must realize that all attempts at setting teaching loads consists of an arbitrary measure which reflects norms in the culture at that time. The concept of teaching load has not changed much in the last forty years. Research on teaching load in the year 1926 used the following measures: 1. The size of classes taught. The mode of presentation of the class exercise. The number of preparations necessary each day. The number of classes taught each day. .th coo 21 5. The number of pupils for each teacher. 6. The total number of clock-hours spent in all school work.18 ward suggested that other components should be added to any computations about teaching load. He added the following components: 1. The time per week spent in class, study halls, homerooms and all other duties given a definite allotment on the schedule. 2. Twenty minutes daily for each separate lesson preparation for the week. 3. Reasonable time for coaching, sponsoring, student conferences and other extra activities. 4. Three minutes per student per class for grading tests and other written work.19 The sum expressed in hours per week equals the teaching load. It was then the principal's task to try and equalize the teaching loads throughout the teaching staff. Teaching load is generally understood to include all the time and energy a teacher must expend in ful- filling duties and responsibilities related to the task of teaching. Teaching load studies appear to mirror the contemporary socio-economic conditions. When school enrollments rise simultaneously with prices, there is renewed activity in teaching load studies. 18Clifford WOody and W. G. Bergman, "The Measure- ment and Equalization of the Teaching Load in the High School,” North Central Association Quarterly, I (1926), 339. 19William A. ward, "Figuring the Teacher's Load," Nation's Schools, XVII (March, 1936), 22. 22 Unless specifically defined in the teacher's con- tract or in the state statutes, a teacher's instructional load is not determined by law. Classroom teachers in some towns have questioned the legality of their per- forming noninstructional tasks. The courts have not answered this question directly. The courts have estab- lished some guidelines . 2 ° ' 21 A classroom teacher may be assigned duties outside the classroom if those duties are of an educational nature. A school board may arrange for nonrelated services for extra compensation, but need not pay extra compensation when the extra duties are con- nected with the teacher's classroom work. Supervision of a playground is within the scope of a classroom teacher's duties. A school board may delegate to principals the executive function of making teaching assignments. The teaching load a teacher carries is now built into the teacher's master contract in those states or localities having "master contracts." The teaching load has been established at the bargaining table. Deviations from the arbitrary standards set forth may usually be made by mutual consent of the two parties. Questions continue to occur on how measurement of load within a building should be determined. Almack and Bursch 20Parrish, et al. v. Moss, et al., 106N.Y.S. 2d, 577 (New York, 1'9'51‘)’. 21Hoose v. Drum, 22 N.E. 2d, 233 (New York, 1939). 23 suggested that the only way to arrive at a measurement of load was through a consensus of faculty members concern- ing the relative difficulty of the various duties.22 They suggested that the teaching load should be stable. A principal should not bring unexpected tasks to bear upon the teacher. The load should be adjusted to the teacher's ability. The problem of deciding who should arrange the assignments of teachers will depend upon the size of the particular school and the size of the school system. Douglass suggests a pattern that is prevalent. 1. In small schools (6-8 teachers), the superin- tendent should take the initiative. 2. In medium size schools (9-60 teachers), the principal should take the initiative. 3. In large schools (61-90 teachers), the department heads are usually designated.23 The first problem of the administrator who is building a traditional staffing pattern is to discover how much work the teacher can and should do. The next step is to assign equitable teaching loads to the indi- vidual members of his staff. In order to accomplish these purposes, the administrator must find out what factors determine the teaching loads. He must then set 22John C. Almack and James F. Bursch, The Adminis- tration of Consolidated and Villa e Schools (Boston: Houghton Mifflin and Company, 1925 , p. 87. 23Harl R. Douglass, Modern Administration of Secondary Schools (2nd ed.; Boston: Ginn and Company, 1963), p. 78. 24 up measures that will permit him to evaluate these loads objectively and with a reasonable degree of accuracy. In the interest of fairness, the good will of the teaching staff, and the working efficiency of the school, the principal should exercise considerable care to make his assignments in such a way that the load will be equally divided among the members of his staff. The administrator should be alert to every opportunity to reduce the demands made upon their time and their physical and mental energy. The administrator is faced with the burden of making a sound base for staffing decisions. It may be relatively simple to dismiss the problem by assigning each staff member a designated number of teaching hours. But one must recognize that individual differences operate in teacher load. Staff members differ in terms of health, experience, age, interest in extra curricular situations, and quality of their teaching. Some faculty members are willing to carry additional responsibilities. Some have additional assignments placed upon them, because they are available. Other staff.members lack confidence in their abilities. Although the teaching load is probably heaviest in large schools, the evidence is not in complete agreement on the point. Student unrest in large schools creates an additional work responsibility for each teacher. A survey 25 in California revealed that classes in large high schools tend to average more students per class than in small 24 Research done some twenty years prior to the schools. California survey sheds some interesting light on past patterns. 1. Smaller schools have heavier teacher loads. 2. Teachers of foreign languages, industrial arts, home economics and physical education have lighter loads than do other teachers. 3. Teachers in accredited schools have greater loads than those in unaccredited schools. 4. Beginning teachers have greater loads than experienced teachers. 5. Administrators carry loads sufficiently large to invite criticism.25 Considerable discussion has centered on variations in teaching load. Complete agreement regarding the weight that should be given to several subjects is lacking. All administrators are faced with the arguments of the English teacher with her stacks of themes to correct. They also must face the convincing appeals of most of their other teachers about time-conSuming activities. The essence of all of these appeals proves little except that the setting of teacher load is controversial and difficult to resolve. 24Thomas A. Shellhammer, "Can We Lengthen the Work Week of High School Teachers," National Association of Secondary School Principals BulIétifi, XXXIX (November, 1955),756. 25Martin Quanbeck and Harl R. Douglass, "Teaching Loads in High Schools," Nation's Schools, XV (February, 1935), 37. 26 Teaching load involves more than class size. In 1938—1939, the N.E.A. Research Division broke away from the traditional emphasis upon class size and investigated the assignment, pressures, and feelings of nearly 4,000 26 It was the first nationwide study classroom teachers. of what classroom teachers knew and believed about teacher load. About 55 per cent of the classroom teachers reported their teaching loads as reasonable, but 45 per cent of them said that their loads were heavy. This study identified forty-four load factors which created pressures, fatigue, and tensions. The ten most commonly mentioned factors could be classified under four major headings: (1) Class size or number of students; (2) Plant facilities; (3) Teaching methods; (4) Administrative procedures. In 1949-1950, the N.E.A. Research Division obtained the cooperation of classroom teachers in report- ing existing teaching load conditions.27 Among the 2,200 26National Education Association, Research Division, "The Teacher Looks at Teacher Load," Research Bulletin No. 17 (Washington, D.C.: National Educat1on Association, November, 1939), pp. 221—70. 27National Education Association, Research Division, "Teaching Load in 1950," Research Bulletin No. 29 (Washington, D.C.: National Education Association, February, 1951), pp. 3-51. 27 elementary and secondary school teachers reporting, 51 per cent estimated their teaching load to be heavy or extremely heavy. Forty-nine per cent estimated their teaching load to be reasonable. A survey of subject combinations and teaching load for secondary school teachers was made by Romine.28 The replies of 2,128 teachers from Colorado showed that about 53 per cent of all teachers were assigned in a single field, approximately 33 per cent in two fields, 12 per cent in three fields, and 2 per cent in four or five fields. Assignments involving more than two fields were rare in the larger schools. He provided some other con- clusions in this study. 1. There was considerable variation of loads in a given subject field. 2. There was considerable variation of loads between different fields. . Teaching experience did not appear as much of a factor. The median load of inexperienced personnel was below that of all teachers. Sex was not a significant factor. Teaching loads appear to be slightly heavier in larger schools. mm 05 (d 0 Evidence regarding the burden which an increased number of preparations adds to the teaching load is conflicting. Romine suggested that with some exceptions, time require- ments for out-of—class preparation seem to be less in 28Stephen Romine, "Estimating the Time Required for Out-of-Class Teaching Preparation," American School Board Journal, CXVII (November, 1948), 25. 28 a single field assignment than in those involving two or more fields.29 Attempts to equalize the teaching loads in a building have in the past involved the use of formulas. The formula most often mentioned and most widely used was the one developed by Douglass in 1932. Before that time no reasonable measure was available. The formula took into consideration the number of classes taught, the length of the period, the amount of time spent in duplicate section, and coefficients to equalize dif- ferences in school subjects. A revision appeared in 1950. Differences in teaching load formulas are those of approach to an emphasis on the different components that make up a teaching program. Clark reduced teaching load to two major components: 1. The amount of time required to do the job. 2. The cumulative wearing effects of the various tasks which make up the teacher's job.3 The teacher determines the time spent per week on each teaching activity. His teaching load is the sum of each teaching activity multiplied by a coefficient of wearing effect of that activity. Clark based his coefficient of 291bid. 3oLeonard H. Clark, "Wearing Effect of Various Teaching Activities," School Executive, LXXIII (February, 1954), 47-49. 29 wearing effect on 1,099 questionnaires returned by 106 New England public secondary schools. Pettit proposed that experience be used as a factor in a formula of teaching load. His formula com- pletely ignores subject matter difficulty on the grounds that this factor varies with the individuals.31 The influence of experience is inconclusive. Koos found that the beginning teacher Spends a little more time for every 40-minute class period than one with four or more years' experience.32 Another clock-hour formula, developed cooperatively by a group of school principals was reported by Frost. They assumed equal preparation time for all subjects.33 A weakness in formulas is that they cannot deter- mine the quality of work done or the relative importance of different aSpects of the tasks. The formulas cannot indicate the probability that Some teachers will not work well. Most components of a formula have to be arbitrary at some point. It is almost impossible to 31Maurice L. Pettit, "Determining Teacher Load," American School Board Journal, CXXVIII (March, 1954), 34. 32Frank H. Koos, "The Load of the High School Teacher," American School Board Journal, LXV (August, 1922), 49. 33Norman Frost, "What Teaching Load," American School Board Journal, CII (March, 1941), 43. 30 measure nervous strain. Nervous strain is inherent in the person and may not necessarily be the result of the teaching position. A formula has not been designed that will give community patterns and characteristics. While a number of different formulas for teaching load have been proposed, they are either so complex as to be impractical or too simple to be of any value. A unit of student credit does not offer a valid measure of teacher load. At one time teacher load formulas were frequently used. Some administrators consider them additional work. Most principals rely on volunteer methods for extra- curricular assignments. Most principals seemed to place little reliance on solving their work assignments by the use of formulas.34 Various surveys indicate that during the past quarter of a century the average teaching load in the high school, measured in terms of sections taught, has diminished from approximately six to approximately five daily.35 Douglass indicates that this reduction in 34Thomas A. Shellhammer, "Can We Lengthen the Wbrk Week of High School Teachers?" National Association of Secondary School Principals Bulletin, XXXIX(November, I955),754. 35Harl R. Douglass, Modern Administration of Secondary Schools (Boston: Ginn and Company, 1954), p. 93. 31 teaching load has been counterbalanced by the increased responsibility for the extra—curricular program of the school. Another factor cited as increasing load is the demand for greater attention to individual needs. It is not possible to completely equalize the work load of teachers. Adjustments in the number of sections taught or adjustments in the number of prepar- ations does not totally solve the problem. The variations in teaching load occurs almost entirely in the extra hours 36 different individuals feel they need to devote to the job. New concepts of the nature and the purpose of the educational process further emphasize the pivotal role of the teacher and imply many new responsibilities. EaCh expansion of educational objectives has the effect of multiplying the number of pupils. Major obstacles in attaining the most effective use of the skills and talents of teachers in secondary schools have been the stumbling blocks caused by the rigidity of ideas about school staffing, class size, and scheduling. Over the years a pattern of planning has developed which has required that teachers meet with a limited number of students at a specific time, day after day. Two overriding aims have been to restrict teaching 36Elmer W. McDaid, J. Wilmer Menge, and Paul Rankin, "What Is Your Teachers' WOrk week?" School Executive, LXVI (July, 1947), 41. 32 load to a reasonable level and to routinize, and thereby lighten, the task of organization. Teacher's Role A society's mode of making a living decides what the most important roles within it are going to be. If the most suitable people are to be found for these roles, many peOple must be encouraged to compete for them so that the best can be chosen. It is important that the teaching profession be able to attract and retain some of the top peOple in the country.‘ Creative and imaginative preparation of new models must be undertaken. Investigation into the dimensions of course structure and school structure must be sought. A thorough look at staff preparation and utilization is necessary. Teachers could be trained for differentiated roles, but if these roles do not exist their skills would never be used. The fulcrum point in professional staff differentiation is to shake up existing school organization into different patterns. The present role of the teacher implies that he be clerk, custodian, operator of audio-visual equipment, part lion tamer, psychologist, sociologist, prison guard, substitute parent, and sometimes a minister. Many edu- cational theorists have advocated that teachers act as 33 leaders of the c00perative inquiry, a role that judging from the studies on teaching, very few teachers actually fulfill. In a traditional school there are conflicts. The conflicts are between pupil and pupil, between pupil and teacher, but not usually between teacher and teacher. The system places teachers in positions of equality. Deeply ingrained in the American educational sys- tem of the teacher's role is the concept of seniority. The seniority system favors the older teacher getting the lightest load or at least the preferred load. New teachers get the toughest classes and the most prepar- ations. As the profession moves toward differentiated staffing, the strong sentiment for retention of seniority as a central measure for promotion will certainly be a strong barrier. One of the main tenets of professionalism must be peer regulation of technical performance. Sub- stitution of a seniority principle for one of performance does not represent a good alternative. Concern is expressed that if some teachers gain additional responsibilities and status, there will be a resultant loss of status for those who were not advanced. The positions of those who were not accorded additional reaponsibilities will probably be weakened, as explained by Lortie. III,AlIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIlllllllllllllllllllliill 34 Where the status "teacher" is undifferentiated, the status of an individual teacher stems primarily from the status of the group. Where some teachers are accorded special recognition, however, the position of those who do not receive special recognition is weakened, for other teachers may ask, overtly or covertly, why they have not attained the more honored post.37 Differentiated staffing can only succeed if experimental conditions keep going until teachers learn their new roles. Teacher acceptance will rest upon the differences in the new roles. It is important that the administration recognize that new roles exist for the teacher as well as the administrator. Teachers have continuously tried to place a smokescreen in front of their roles. One of the extreme assumptions purported by the teacher organizations is that teaching is so complex a set of technical behaviors that it resists objective assessment, especially by administrators and supervisors. Therefore, a seniority system is preferable to any system which attempts to translate competence into material and status rewards. The classroom teacher has enjoyed a great deal of autonomy. They have been permitted to carry out our- riculum in their own mode. What is essential for effec- tive learning is not necessarily highly correlated with 37Dan C. Lortie, "The Teacher and Team Teaching: Suggestions for Long-Range Research," in Team Teaching, ed. by Judson T. Shaplin and Henry F. Olds, Jr. (New York: Harper and Row Publishers, 1964), p. 290. 35 what teachers prefer. What teachers consider to be good teaching may not result in the most effective learning. The spotlight should be focused on the learning process rather than on the teaching process. Basic changes within the instructional life of a school demand new dimensions in the roles of the staff. Some of these new dimensions are: Preparing for large-group instruction. Becoming skillful in small-group leadership. Using new communicational media. Working together in teams. Understanding new developments in subject area fields. Becoming sensitive to independent study pos- sibilities.38 mbWNH .0000 ON 0 All of these new dimensions require a redefinition of how the staff Spends its time. Team Teaching The concept of better use of teaching staff can be traced back at least twenty years. The recency of the phenomenon is reflected in the fact that "team teaching" first appeared in the Education Index only in 1957, and referred to the project at Franklin School in Lexington, Massachusetts.39 38Maxwell W. Griffin, "Schools of the Future-New," Bulletin of the National Association of Secondary School Principals, XLIV (May, 1962), 271. 39Robert N. Bush, "A Searching Appraisal of New Developments," Journal of Secondary Education, XXXVII (October, 1962), 321. -' V 'w 36 Probably one of the most important writings on staff utilization patterns in general and team teaching in particular was set forth by Heathers.40 He stressed the need for research in the design and implementation as well as in the evaluation of new plans. He suggested that team teaching is incompletely designed, inadequately implemented, and improperly evaluated. Comparative studies between two different organizational patterns are not as important to him as studies that show the accomplishment of essential objectives against well-defined standards of excellence. When two or more teachers appear to work together rather loosely as associates, meeting occasionally, and dividing up the responsibility for instruction and students, a minimum of joint activity is necessary. This type of arrangement is many times improperly called team teaching. When the formal organization of a team is loosely defined, it may deteriorate into a minimum of cooperation. The necessity in planning insures an effective staffing pattern. It is important that the decisions be made deliberately and consciously rather than by default. 40Glen Heathers, "Research on Team Teaching," in Team Teaching, ed. by Judson T. Shaplin and Henry F. Olds, Jr. (New YOEk: Harper and Row Publishers, 1964), pp. 306- 44. 37 In coordinate teaching the typical classroom unit, one teacher with thirty students, is preserved, but classes are rescheduled so that they may be combined at certain times for certain purposes. When the purpose of combining classes has been accomplished, the larger unit is broken down into component classes. The term "team teaching" continues to be applied to a wide variety of arrangements involving c00peration and collaboration among teachers. The term should be used only when referring to ventures embracing three characteristics: 1. Hierarchy of personnel. 2. Differential staff functions. 3. Flexibility of grouping.41 The long-standing notion of a self-contained classroom of thirty pupils taught by one teacher is giving way to different organization patterns. The present organizational structure of the schools has made new approaches to division of labor difficult. The relatively isolated position of each individual teacher and the absence of working groups of teachers has made it hard to create efficient working situations for teacher aides. Team teaching does represent a constructive force in the identification of problems and the search for 41John I. Goodlad and Kenneth Rehage, "Unscramb- ling the Vocabulary of School Organization," NEA Journal, LI (November, 1962), 36. 38 solutions. It stimulates professional growth among team members. It probably requires greatly increased time commitments for planning and coordination.42 It is pertinent to the topic of this thesis to establish some of the characteristics of teaching teams. Olds describes it as follows: First, a teaching team is a close association of professional teachers, not an association of non- professionals or of one professional teacher with one subprofessional assistant. Secondly, this association of professional teachers takes on certain types of responsibilities that have normally been the responsibilities of the school administration, namely the allocation of teachers to tasks and the allocation of pupils to taSks. And third, this professional association with the responsibility for accomplishing certain tasks is a formal organi- zation and, as such, is one administrative unit within a larger unit, the school.43 One of the major goals of team teaching has been the attempt to transfer certain managerial functions to the technical staff. For best utilization of staff the grouping and scheduling of pupils and staff on a sublevel should be permitted. There are some drawbacks to this plan. The transfer of managerial functions assumes that certain members of the teaching force have the necessary skills to make decisions regarding the 42Robert O. Hahn, Jack Nelson, and Gertrude Robinson, "Team Teaching: A Second Look," Journal of Teacher Education, XII (December, 1961), 508. 43Henry F. Olds, Jr., "A Taxonomy for Team Teaching,” in Team Teachin , ed. by Judson T. Shaplin and Henry F. 0133, Jr. (New York: Harper and Row Pub- lishers, 1964), p. 103. 39 allocation of teachers and pupils to instructional activities. Disadvantages can occur. New possibilities for confusion and logistical difficulty appear. Loss of security found in the old staffing patterns becomes noticeable. There are large increases in the amount of time required for planning, communication among team members, supervision, and evaluation.44 Shaplin also concludes that there exists the possibility of a reduction in productivity if the team is not properly functioning. Setting up a new staffing pattern may be more expensive in time, space, and money. The new approaches may cost more than either the self-contained or the departmental type of organization. The reason for this is simple. More varied types of curriculum materials are needed. The additional expense should mean a better education for the individual child. The cost of bringing teachers together for planning, either during the summer or after school hours, is an additional expense which is necessary if new organizational patterns are to succeed. As usual, boards of education throughout the country give the green light for administrators and teachers to participate in team teaching patterns, but then fail to supply the necessary resources to carry out 44Judson T. Shaplin, "Toward a Theoretical Rationale for Team Teaching," In Team Teaching, ed. by Judson T. Shaplin and Henry F. Olds,3r. (New York: Harper and Row, 1964), p. 73. 40 the plan. In many cases, it is true, that an innovation can limp along without proper resources or facilities, but a barrier in the early stages of team organization Can lead to ultimate failure. It seemed clear to Shaplin that the staff utili- zation projects and particularly team teaching suffered from their initial preoccupation with staff organization.45 In many cases the existing curriculum was inadequate and major revisions were necessary. The curriculum has to be differentiated in terms of the teaching skills. The cur- riculum also has to be structured in such a way that dif- ferent grouping patterns are possible. Team teaching has spread considerably in the secondary schools since 1956 with English, Social Studies, and Physical Education being the most affected subject areas.46 In the same article, Singer noted that financial compensation was still uncommon and that more time was needed for team planning. Olds suggests that if all teams that claim to work on a purely cooperative basis were carefully studied, a 45Judson T. Shaplin, "Antecedents of Team Teach- ing," in Team Teaching, 92: cit., p. 42. 46Ira J. Singer, "Survey of Staff Utilization Practices in Six States," Bulletin of the National Associ- ation of Secondarnychool PrincipaIs, XLV (January, 1962), 52 41 very clear vertical authority structure would be apparent.47 It is important that once groupings and task allocations have been established at the beginning of a school year, that they should remain relatively fixed for the remainder of the year. It is theoretically possible for the team to form new groupings every day. Most designs of team teaching are not inherently that flexible. This kind of daily demand flexibility must be carefully planned for and built into the everyday Operation. There is some danger in having haphazard personnel plans or specialization which seeks temporary relief from an inflexible salary schedule.48 If organizational staffing patterns are to be effective, the new structures must be affiliated with a rank or position type of clas- sification system which brings order to the staffing arrangements. Many problems need to be solved if staffing changes are made. Some of these are: (l) The procurement of effective team leadership and energetic staff.members; (2) The definitions for the staffing pattern.must be well written; 47Henry F. Olds, Jr., "A Taxonomy for Team Teach- ing," in Team Teaching, 22, cit., p. 119. 48Charles S. Benson, The Economics of Public Education (Boston: Houghton Mifflifi, 1961), p. 440. 42 (3) The establishment of mutual respect and the alleviation of jealousy among team members; (4) The development of a willingness to experiment; (5) The obtaining of administrative support and the cooperation of other school departments. It is clear at the moment, therefore, that people will join hierarchical teams. They will also accept a variance in salary according to responsibility.49 Attitudes toward team teaching, as seen by the principals who reported experience with this innovation 50 Both elementary and secondary were generally favorable. principals who reported these plans strongly approved of this method of organization. They believed that teachers both in, and outside of, the team were favorable to the plan. Student teachers taught by teacher teams were reported as enthusiastic about the teaching teams, particularly at the secondary level. Staff rearrangements can take shape in numerous formats. At Long Beach, New York, there were nine and 49Philip Lambert, "Team Teaching for Today's WOrld,” Teachers College Record, LXIV (March, 1963), 482. 50National Education Association, Project on the Instructional Program of the Public Schools, The Princi- pals Look at the Schools: A Status Study of Selected Instructional—Practices (WaEhington, D.C.: NationaI Education Association, 1962), p. 19. 43 one-half more teachers on hand than were needed to meet 51 Instead of the requirements of a dual progress plan. releasing teachers, administrators provided them with more unscheduled time, increased the number of sections in some classes, and undertook the initiation of a developmental reading program. The Lexington school system in an alliance between itself and Harvard's Graduate School of Education undertook a program called SUPRAD (School and University Program for Research and Development). They presented four findings: 1. Team teaching is feasible. 2. During the period of trial and development of the team teaching program, the children's achievement results did not suffer despite the shifts and turmoil that instituting such a program imposed. 3. The children's personal, emotional and social adjustments are at least as good as before, and there are indications that gains have been made. 4. The building influences program possibilities.52 In a study of high school biology in Wausau, Wisconsin, it was reported that few differences were found between traditional staffing patterns and team teaching patterns. They were quick to point out that some minor objectives were not to be ignored. Some of these hidden gains were: 51Glen Heathers, Or anizing Schools Through the Dual ProgressiPlan (DanviIIe, IIlinois: The Interstate Printers and—Publishers, 1967), p. 33. 52Educational Facilities Laboratories, School for Team Teaching (New York: Educational Facilities Labora- tOries,_l961), p. 40. 44 1. Improved teaching effectiveness even when teaching groups of traditional size. 2. An increase in the breadth and depth of subject coverage. 3. More interesting and stimulating class presen- tations. . 53 4. A more challenging course for the students. One of the most detailed designs is that offered in a report on the Norwalk Plan of Team Teaching.54 This design specifies the team structure and the roles of team members, describes the interrelationships among team members, and outlines the steps to be taken in planning and implementing the instructional program. The model says little about how the program is to be placed in Operation administratively. Flexible Scheduling For a number of years students of education, ranging from the philosopher to the curriculum worker have known that the conventional secondary schedule, regardless of its virtues as a system of educational bookkeeping, is learning nonsense. The need to break out of this straitjacket has been expressed for a long time. As is often the case in education, however, the 53Milton 0. Pella and Chris Poulos, "A Study of Team Teaching in High School Biology," Journal of Research in Science Teaching, I, No. 3 (1963), 239. 54Glen Heathers, "Research on Team Teaching," in Team Teaching, ed. by Judson T. Shaplin and Henry F. Olds, Jr. (New York: Harper and Row Publishers, 1964), p. 311. 45 difference between knowing what is needed and knowing how to implement was enough to prohibit the change. Pleas to adapt, innovate, and experiment came forth. But business in most cases continued as usual in its routine form. In the case of a change in the conventional schedule, the engineering job needed between the idea and the act was not accomplished until recently. Perhaps it took the advent of the computer age to provide us with some of the necessary logistical skills. In order for the flexible school to be viable, schedules adaptable to varied patterns of vertical and horizontal organization as well as to varied teaching methods must be developed. This need for adaptability has focused attention on the flexible schedule. Many articles in the past few years have dealt with one or more aspects of flexible scheduling. The great bulk of writing has been argumentative. Little work has been done to show the connection between a particular schedule and increased flexibility. When Dwight Allen first asked Oakford if it were practicable to use electronic computers to generate school schedules, the latter replied by asking if Allen could furnish a detailed description of the logic of schedule making.55 Further investigation indicated that 55Robert V. Oakford, "Machine Assistance for Con- structing the High School Schedule: An Industrial Engi- neer's Report," Journal of Secondary Education, XXXVI (October, 1961), 375. 46 the process of school scheduling is not a routine logical procedure. The school executive is reluctant to delegate to his clerical staff the responsibility for making many of the compromises needed. Because of the variables that must be considered in designing a schedule for a flexible school, many persons have viewed the computer as the answer. Machine programming, as now utilized, involves both a first phase in which the master schedule is devised with only limited use of a computer and a second phase in which the stu- dents are assigned by the computer to the previously pre- pared master schedule. The administrator is faced with systematic attempts to reduce the elements of the problem to mechanically manageable descriptive dimensions. Besides the grouping of students, the machines will provide aid in inventories of resources, space utilization studies, and will probably yield useful insights into efficient approaches.56 There are many ways to consider grouping students. Each school should seek a format that will work best for its students and staff. Results of achievement tests which stress concept formation should be a primary 56Robert N. Bush, et al., "Using Machines to Make High School Schedules," School Review, LXIX (Spring, 1961), 48. 47 consideration in grouping. Suehr also points out that the interest factor is a key to any effective system of grouping.57 Comprehensive instructional systems need to be done in this area. Very little has been done to examine the impact of schedule changes on student behavior. Man- machine systems should have the effect of turning edu- cators toward the development of comprehensive instruc- tional systems. Flexible scheduling obtained its impetus from the Secondary Education Project at Stanford. Robert Bush and Dwight Allen led the way in definition building as well as technological development. Experimental attempts were made at developing a schedule by machine and including the assignment of students to the schedule in the same operation. The New England School Development Council (NESDEC) used computers to provide member schools with flexible schedules. The chief computer service in their scheduling process dealt with the assignment phase and included the checking of prerequisites and conflicts. Additional services include attendance taking, test scoring, grade reporting, and other clerical tasks. 57John Suehr, "Eight Questions and Answers Con- cerning Flexible Scheduling," Michigan Journal of Secondary Education, V (Spring, 1964), 6. 48 Each generation has seen the emergence of a variety of new administrative and instructional plans designed to bring flexibility into the school organization. These designs are made to allow for a greater variety of grouping of students for instruction, and to provide oppor- tunities for individualization of instruction. What con- clusions are reached about flexible grouping? Partridge states that, "One can safely conclude, however, that these experimental approaches are not worse educationally and cost no more financially than the more orthodox brands."58 Trump and Baynham reviewed the studies of staff utilization connected with NASSP projects and drew some general conclusions about the effectiveness of the projects. They concluded that the level of achievement in large classes generally was as high as, and sometimes higher than, that in traditional classes.59 They also concluded that students involved in the experimental group did develop better independent study habits than did students in other groups. The concept of flexible scheduling mandates dif- ferent size classes for different instructional encounters. 58Arthur Partridge, "Staff Utilization in Senior High Schools," Educational Leadership, XVIII (January, 1961), 221. 59Lloyd J. Trump and Dorsey Baynham, Focus on Chan e: Guide to Better Schools (Chicago: Rand McNally and gompany, 1961), p. 75. 49 The setting of class size is an area of much controversy. The National Commission on Teacher Education and Pro- fessional Standards stated that, . . . twenty-five pupils should be the maximum number enrolled in any class or grade taught by one teacher. The total number of pupil-class enrollments taught by a teacher of academic subjects in secondary or departmentalized schools should not exceed one hundred per day.61 Theories about Optimum class size for instruction began to emerge after the NASSP studies. The advantages and limitations of independent study, small-group instruction, conventional-sized group instruction, and large-group instruction began to be understood. There exists the possibility that class groups of twenty-five to thirty pupils long cherished as ideal, may prove on the whole to be somewhat less efficient and desirable than are smaller or larger groups. Anderson reviewed historical and emerging practices of pupil group- ing and identified a trend away from fixed groups and toward fluid, flexible patterns.62 He suggested four instructional groups: 61Will French, J. Dan Hull, and B. L. Dodds, American High School Administration--Poligy and Practice (New York: Rinehart and Company, 1951), p. 163. 62Robert H. Anderson, "The Organization and Admin- istration of Team Teaching," in Team Teaching, ed. by Judson T. Shaplin and Henry F. Olds, Jr. (New York: Harper and Row, 1964), p. 208. 50 Large groups--above 12 and up to 400 pupils. Discussion groups--12 pupils or fewer. WOrking and interacting groups-~5 to 8 pupils. Individual student. hWNH Historically the questions of optimum class size and of staff adequacy were approached in terms of an assumed static grouping situation. Ratios of professional staff to pupils were sometimes examined with less interest than were the average sizes of fixed class groups. With the emergence of team teaching and flexible scheduling, historical convictions about class size and grouping practices have had to be modified. Class size and staff- ing adequacy directly relate to teacher utilization and deployment. The optimum number of pupils has never been established with sufficient validity to receive universal acceptance.63 The number of pupils is a critical factor, not only in the educational activities of teachers and learners, but in the size and arrangement of rooms in school buildings. Staffing patterns must be interpreted with respect to the context in which it is placed. Build- ings and technology play an important part in determining the context. Research on class size has been derived from two sources. The first comes from the professional's concern about the deleterious social and academic effects 63Judson T. Shaplin and Henry F. Olds, Jr., "Editor's Introduction," Ibid., p. xiii. 51 presumed to be associated with overcrowded classes. The second source comes from administration's attempt to find better ways to use the available monies. Callahan noted that most of the inquiry into class size between 1911 and 1951 was related to the efforts of administrators to cut costs and to increase efficiency.64 Various teacher organizations have in the past looked askance at experimentation with large group instruction. This reluctance to alter staffing patterns and class size groupings has shown some decrease since 1961. One obstacle to more flexible use of personnel and time is the inflexibility of facilities. High school buildings must be designed for the flexible use of space if we want to promote the flexible use of student time, student talent, and teacher competence. Most buildings now under construction are obsolete before they leave the drawing boards.65 These buildings will bind educators firmly to tradition. There appear to be two basic approaches to the problem of providing new organizational spaces: 64Raymond E. Callahan, Education and the Cult of Efficiency (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 19627, p. 232. 65Arthur Partridge, "Staff Utilization in Senior High Schools," Educational Leadership, XVIII (January, 1961), 221. 52 l. The creating of spaces that can adapt to dif- ferent educational demands as the situation arises. Furniture, seating arrangements, partitions, etc. provide the constraints needed. 2. The creating of different kinds of permanent spaces that are used in different situations. The seminar room, lecture hall, educational resource center are examples of this mode. The first approach seeks to provide convertible space. The second approach attempts to build into the structure itself the basic spaces of different sizes and types. The second approach, sometimes designated as planned varia- bility, implies that enough is known about the reordering of student groups and teacher teams to permit the planning of spaces to fit the needs of groups of varying size and purpose. Any discussion about flexibility must consider the simplest concepts of game theory. In decision making, each decision made limits the scope of successive choices and decisions.66 Thus the concept of flexibility changes to a different concept. The new concept entails the establishment of rigorous priorities among choices with 66Herbert A. Simon, Administrative Behavior (2nd ed.; New York: Macmillan, 1960), p. 67. 53 a full knowledge of the consequences which follow from alternative strategies.67 Technolggical Changes Concurrent with computerized scheduling has been revived interest in other mechanical aids for the teacher. Auto-instructional technology, as it becomes more widely used in schools, will force a reappraisal of the role of the teacher. Pressey, in originally advocating the adoption of machines, never believed that machines would replace teachers. Rather, the machine would take over some of the routine instructional tasks, giving the teacher more time for individualization and creative teaching. Advocates of teaching machines feel that teachers should welcome the opportunity to concentrate on those instructional functions which only a human teacher can fulfill. Educational functions are not, in practice, fragmented, and it is therefore difficult for teachers to see just how they will go about being creative in a classroom where subject matter is taught by programmed materials and teaching machines. Inno- vation in the schools must be built around the teacher. Teachers must be trained to use the instructional aids effectively. There appears to be a widespread feeling 67Judson T. Shaplin, "Toward a Theoretical Rationale for Team Teaching," in Team Teaching, 92. cit., p. 74. ——— 54 among teachers that it detracts from their professionalism if they capitalize on the products of technology.68 To replace the instructor with a teaching machine without respect to the motivation of the student or to require varying degrees of independent study without respect to the training of the students to play their new roles seems as unsupported by research as it is by common sense. Vital new roles will be played by media at Michigan State University. In 1962, President John Hannah outlined a program for the improvement of teaching. Included in this report were the following suggestions: 1. Greater reSponsibility by each student for his own learning. 2. Coordination of learning and teaching resources, re-definition of the role of faculty members, assistants, aides and students. 3. DevelOpment of new materials, aids, and methods. 4. Attention to physical and organization arrange- ments which foster learning and encourage inde- pendent study.69 The Norwalk Plan reports significant increases in the use of overhead projectors, tape recorders, controlled readers, and Open-circuit educational television; and heavy use has been made by the teachers of the resources of the system's curriculum-material center.7O 68Alfred Strogoff, "Business Takes A New Look at Education," Michigan Journal of Secondary Education, VIII (Winter, 1967i) 11. 69John Barson, A Procedural and Cost Analysis Study of Media in InstructiOnal Systems Development (East Lansing: Michigan State University, 1965), p. 1. 7oBryce Perkins, et al., "Teamwork Produces Audio- Visual Techniques," Grade Teacher, LXXVII (June, 1960), 55-72. 55 Program reorganization frequently requires new staffing patterns, but it also includes a manipulation of other variables, including time, space, equipment, and schedules. One must alter the organizational structure. Organizational structure refers to properties essentially internal to an organization, such as levels of authority. The mechanisms or processes by which the organization turns out its products or services are called organi- zational technology. In the days prior to the American Revolution, manufacturing capability had not developed. Muskets in those days were made piece by piece by skilled gunmakers.71 Eli Whitney visualized being able to produce the inter- changeable parts by "tooling up" for the work. The pre- investment of labor in the "tooling up" process allowed rapid production of interchangeable parts with improved quality. The result was that production occurred at a rapid rate once the tooling was completed and thus pro- duction occurred at reduced costs. Consideration should be given to "tooling up" for educational tasks. There are some drawbacks to teaching aids. Bruner commented: 71Robert N. Lehrer, The Management of Improvement. (New York: Reinhold Publishing Corporation, 1965), p. 17. 56 The devices themselves cannot dictate their purpose. Unbridled enthusiasm for audio-visual aids or for teaching machines as panaceas overlooks the paramount importance of what one is trying to accomplish.72 Organizational innovation will not by itself solve non- organizational problems. Teacher Aides It ought not be necessary to argue that the notion of introducing aides into the classrooms of the country is worthy of serious consideration. All who have had experience within a modern hospital know how necessary the aide is to its efficient operation. The aides in the hospital make it possible for nurses to engage in the business of nursing. Schools which have used teacher assistants for several years point out certain advantages. Differenti- ation can now be made between professional responsibilities and other duties which are subprofessional in nature. A second advantage is the reduction of teaching load with- out increasing the cost of education. Park concluded that the results of working with teacher aides in the elementary schools for more than four years argued for an attempt to apply some of these ideas 72J. S. Bruner, The Process of Education (Cam- bridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1961), p. 84. 57 73 Since 1959 the Secondary Schools in secondary schools. Division of California has employed upper division and graduate students to assist classroom teachers. Since 1963, a training certificate has been required under California law, so the college students are now cre- dentialed employees serving as paraprofessionals and called "teacher assistants."74 Consideration of how the professional spends his time gives valuable insight into the problem. The National Education Association reported the following job analysis (Figure 1).75 Evanston High School recognizing the implications of the analysis sought to change the professional's time allocation by relieving him of nonprofessional tasks. Team teaching provides the kind of organization in which non-professional teaching assistants and clerical aides may be used with maximum efficiency. These non—professional members of the team can perform many tasks that do not require professional compe- tency. It is estimated that approximately one-third 73Charles B. Park, "Increasing Teacher Competency by Using Teacher-Aides," Journal of Secondary Education, XXXI (November, 1956), 383. 74Dwight E. Twist, "Improving Instruction Through More Effective Utilization of Certificated Personnel," Journal of Secondary Education, XLIII, No. 1 (January, I968), SIT. 75National Education Association, "How the High School Teacher Divides the Week," in NBA Research Bulletin (Washington, D.C.: National Education Association, 1962), 87. 58 Class instruction, 23 hrs., 36 min. Miscellaneous, 9 hrs. Related out-of—class instructional activities, 13 hrs., 18 min. Correcting papers--4 hrs., 54 min. Personal preparation--3 hrs., 30 min. Preparing materials--2 hrs., 30 min. Individual help--1 hr., 36 min. Parent contacts-~48 min. Study halls--l hr., 48 min. Monitorial duties--1 hr., 30 min. Records and report cards—~l hr., 30 min. Coaching athletics--54 min. Sponsoring clubs, pupil activities--54 min. Official meetings--48 min. Other--1 hr., 36 min. Figure l .( ' ‘5‘. £36312 {2.}. .1 2': I a, ' J How the High School Teacher Divides the Week (Average work week of 45 hours, 54 minutes) Source: National Education Association, NBA Research Bulletin (Washington, D.C.: October, 1962), p. 87. The Association, 59 of the duties typically done by most teachers could be done as well or better by teaching assistants or clerical aides.76 It should be remembered that the presence of subordinate teaching personnel has been a familiar feature of the American educational system since its inception. In the last decade the position of super- ordinate has been created. We already have a great many persons employed as nonprofessionals in the school system. There were about 120,000 employed under Title I of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act in 1968.77 For the most part they get very little money and are offered few meaningful tasks. The origin of paraprofessionals may be traced back to the monitorial system, developed principally by Bell and Lancaster. This method used advanced students as monitors so that the teacher could teach a larger number of students. It has been suggested that the schools of the future will depend heavily upon clerical assistants.78 76"Our Attempts to Assess New Practices," Evanston School District, Evanston, Illinois, December, 1963. (Mimeographed paper.) 77Arthur Pearl, "Staff Differentiation and the Preparation of Educational Personnel," American Associ- ation of Colleges for Teacher Education Yearbook, XXI (1968)] 103. 78Robert N. Bush and Dwight W. Allen, A New Design for High School Education (New York: McGraw-Hill BoOk Company, 1964), p. 155. 60 Even in some very large and apparently well- organized systems, the clerical load falls upon the teachers and principals of a school. The burden of clerical work has been allowed to develop without proper examination of the function it serves. A check of the size of the clerical staff in the medium-to-large school systems indicates that this group of employees make up for 7-10 per cent of the total staff.79 Most of the research on the use of auxiliary persons in the schools has been aimed at working out minimal roles for such personnel and proving that they do not harm the children who are exposed to them. A number of projects have sought to identify the kinds of tasks the paraprofessional can do.80' 81 A great deal has been written on the use of the paraprofessionals. There seems to be three competencies needed by these persons. 79H. E. Moore and N. B. Walters, Personnel Admin- istration in Education (New York: Harper andfiBrotHers, I955), p. 74. 80J. W. Rioux, "At the Teacher's Right Hand," American Education, II (December, 1965), 5. 81"Initial Application for Operational Funds, E.S.E.A., P.L. 89-10, Title III," Wayne County Inter- mediate School District ParaprofessiOnal Progect (Detroit: Wayne County Intermediate School Distfict, 1968), p. 89. 61 (l) Manipulative skills; (2) Theoretical components of teacher education; (3) Developing interpersonal skills. Beggs reports on an outline of an operable secondary school program which utilizes volunteer and paid auxiliary personnel.82 He describes methods to be employed in obtaining teacher aides. There are problems in the teacher aide program too. There is difficulty in getting substitutes, lack of time for in—service training plus the regular disci- plinary problems. Teacher organizations fear the encroach- ment upon their professional status by the paraprofessionals. Their fear can be allayed by a study of the Yale-Fairfield Study of Elementary teaching, conducted at Fairfield, Connecticut. The study showed that assistants tended to increase the professional position of teachers provided their use did not replace the use of qualified teachers when professional direction was needed.83 The legal bases for classifying the nonteaching personnel vary widely in the various school districts of the United States. Generally, the board of education 82David W. Beggs, The Decatur—Lakeview Plan: A Practical Application of the Trump Plan (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1964), p. 266. 83Marilyn H. Cutler, "Teacher Aides are Worth the Effort," Nation's Schools, LXXIII (April, 1964), 116. 62 policy is the principal element of control. In the larger cities, the legal controls are especially varied. In a survey of cities over 200,000 people in the United States, Roelfs found the following distribution of con- trols: 1. Board of education policy 24 systems 2. State constitution or statutes 7 systems 3. City charter or municipal ordinance 4 systems 4. State law and city charter 12 systems 5. Special state legislation 1 system 6. Federal civil service 1 system84 Clearly the resources available to education and the competing demands within education at the professional level will not allow the introduction of nonprofessional personnel to be on an additive basis.85 Most pilot programs using the nonprofessional represented an added personnel cost. One project (in Norwalk, Connecticut) utilized nonprofessionals without changing the total payroll. Will the staffing patterns cost more money? Trump suggested that as a first step, it is possible to provide clerical assistants and instruction without adding to 84R. M. Roelfs, "Job Classification Procedures for Non-Certificated Positions in Large City School Systems" (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Colorado, 1951), p. 284. Cited by H. E. Moore and N. B. Walters, Personnel Administration in Education (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1955T, p. 78. 85Judson T. Shaplin, "Toward a Theoretical Rationale for Team Teaching," in Team Teaching, ed. by Judson T. Shaplin and Henry F. Olds, Jr. (New York: Harper and Row, 1964), p. 77. 63 staff cost.86 In the final analysis, professional teachers will be paid salaries considerably above those now being paid. He contends that the additional expen- ditures will be warranted, because of better use of com- petencies. Although it seems clear that nonprofessionals can and should be used more widely in the schools than they have been used, it remains to be learned by research whether a reduction in the professional staff is warranted or desirable. The waste of talent of certified teachers on routine and minor tasks becomes more evident as teachers' total responsibilities are examined. However, where the line should be drawn between professional and nonprofessional tasks is by no means clear at this point. Most people assume that quality education will cost more. The important consideration is to find the relationship between economical input and academic output. It is important to know what extra quality may be procured by additional paraprofessional help. Many schools attempt to run experimental programs and find themselves failing to anticipate increased costs of this experimentation.87 86J. L. Trump, "Some Questions and Answers About Suggestions for Improving Staff Utilization," NASSP, XLV (January, 1961), 26. 87Kenneth W. Reber, "A Study of the Persistence Tendencies of Foundation-Supported Innovations in Organi- zation for Instruction in Selected School Systems" (unpub- lished Ph.D. dissertation, Michigan State University, 1964), p. 72. 64 Taking the teacher out of such nonprofessional responsibilities as cafeteria duty, study hall supervision, and clerical functions must not be interpreted as a move to reduce the teacher-student relationship to a simple classroom teaching situation. More and more teachers are becoming commuters to school and Opportunities for them to relate to students in roles outside of the class- room are being reduced.88 Consideration must be given to the use of para- professionals in the schools. Careful planning in order to eliminate overlapping is needed. The planning stage should include division of responsibility and a working agreement for the division of authority. Planning should provide for a number of aspects: (1) The services to be performed by the para- professional; (2) The process of selection, which also involves the qualifications; (3) Job classification and descriptions; (4) In-service training; (5) Contractual consideration, such as wage, working hours, vacations, etc. 88Arnold Glovinsky and Joseph P. Johns, "Para- professionals: 26 Ways to Use Them," School Management, XIII, No. 2 (February, 1969), 48. 65 Evaluation The development of differentiated staffing in common with the development of any other innovation in education practice, should proceed through four inter- related phases: design, implementation, evaluation, and dissemination. Based on an analysis Of the reports of the various staff utilization schools, it is obvious that many of the schools experienced some difficulty in developing and carrying through evaluation procedures which would produce reliable evidence of the results of experimentation.89 The pressures from critics of innovations often force innovators to proceed too quickly to assess the effects of staff utilization patterns on pupil achieve- ment. Another problem affecting this type of field research is that systems thinking has come slowly to the area of public education. Innovations like dif- ferentiated staffing cannot be successful without full- scale organizational change occurring. Research in the field of staff utilization tends to be complicated because usually a given school is involved simultaneously with two or more of the new or emerging arrangements. The school normally ends up 89Kenneth W. Reber, "A Study of the Persistence Tendencies of Foundation Supported Innovations in Organi- zation for Instruction in Selected School Systems," 9p, Elfin! p. 80. 66 with various patterns of collaborative or cooperative teaching. Greater use of resources proceed along with the addition of teacher aides. Schedule modifications and variable-sized instructional groups are generally associated with such experimentation. As a result, systematic inquiry into the usefulness of any of these experiments is difficult. Numerous evaluative studies Of team teaching employ a control group design in comparing a team teach- ing plan with another organizational plan. Serious dif- ficulties must be surmounted in designing an evaluation using a control group because of the necessity of matching 90 Any attempt at assessment of educational two schools. practices is, of necessity, made from a value base. In most previously published reports, an attempt has been made to assess practices in team teaching by utilizing three types of data. 1. Achievement as measured by standardized or by locally constructed tests. 2. Teacher opinions (sometimes buttressed by stu- dents and parent opinions). 3. Per-pupil costs.91 The results of these studies produced the following con- clusions: 90Esin Kaya, "Problems in Evaluating Education Plans in the School Setting," The Journal of Education Sociology, XXXIV (April, 1961), 355. 91Harold D. Drummond, "Team Teaching: An Assess- ment,” Educational Leadership, XIX (December, 1961), 166. 67 1. Students do as well or perhaps a little better on standardized tests when taught by team teaching. Usually the differences are not significant. 2. Teachers, generally, are willing to continue the team approach, although there are numerous indi- cations that not all teachers make good team members. 3. Students and their parents generally favor what has been tried. Many learners are at first skeptical or negative, but as teachers gain con- fidence and competence in their changed roles, reports from them indicate positive support for the team approach. 4. Costs rise slightly.92 Most research on staff utilization has relied mainly on the questionnaire method. Lambert stated that no valid scientific study has been made of team teaching as a whole, and predicted that there will be no such 93 study in the next ten or fifteen years. Woodring was also quite critical of the evaluation of staffing patterns involving team teaching. He concluded that: An adequate evaluation of team teaching or the self- contained classroom which it is designed to replace will require the establishment of a better criterion than has yet been applied. It will be necessary to measure long-term changes in the students as a result of experience in schools using the new as against the old staffing pattern. For a time the Hawthorne effect will be at work. The variables obviously are many, and difficult to control. But until such a criterion is used, reliance must be placed on the judgment of professional people who are unlikely to agree about the outcomes. 4 921bid., p. 166. 93Philip Lambert, "Team Teaching for Today's World," Teachers College Record, LXIV (March, 1963), 480. 94Paul WOodring, "Reform Movements from the Point of View of Psychological Theory," in Theories of Learning and Instruction, Sixty-Third Yearbook, Part I, ed.’By Ernest R. Hilgard (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1964), p. 293. 68 Most research aims at establishing the positive effects of an experiment. Staff utilization studies usually omit the consideration of counterproductive elements. Problems occur in the reorganization of a teaching staff. There is a laxity in reinvesting the "saved time." Inequalities in assuming the responsi- bilities for the work of the team develop. The possi- bility exists that there will be a dissipation of pupil- teacher rapport. Inadequate facilities is another common problem. There are several areas that require further investigation and research. Little has been done on the methods of implementation. Research should be conducted on group dynamics pertaining to team membership. The effect of staffing patterns upon the administration of a building should be measured. Evaluation relative to eXperimentation in changing staffing patterns has used some of the following measures: (1) Standardized achievement tests; (2) Teacher-made tests using multiple choice, true- false, or completion-type tests to measure infor- mation acquisition and understanding; (3) Observation to assess work-study skills; (4) Informal observation to assess power of thinking; Students are made to draw inferences or 69 interpret verbal, graphic, and statistical data in specially constructed test exercises. (5) Observation, writing Of anecdotal records, rating scales, and check lists may be used in finding attitudes; (6) Some kind of standard inventory may be used in measuring interests; (7) Some kind of standardized self-descriptive personality test or rating scale may be used to measure personal-social adaptability; (8) Use of sociometric techniques. The little objective research that has been done has been limited in scope, incomplete in statistical data, and lacking in both a comprehensive rationale and an adequate research design. Differentiated Staffing A definition of teaching has many facets. One definition that would seem to fit the context of this thesis is set forth by Arnstine. Teaching is a "per- formance that influences a person to act in a certain way, deliberately specified by someone else: further- more, this performance must in some way enable that person to so act when it is appropriate, on future 70 95 This occasions without being similarly prompted." definition does not mandate a traditional school organi- zation. It permits a teacher to act as a director of learning. It does not insist on daily contact with the student. A ruling of the Supreme Court, Kings County, New York, stated: "The day in which the concept was held that teaching duty was limited to classroom instruction has long since passed. . . . "96 The structural elements of education are teachers, subjects, students, methods, times, and places. Inno- vations such as television, team teaching, ungraded classes, the use of paraprofessionals, and the flexible scheduling of large and small group instruction require significant shifts in the normal arrangements of these structural elements. During the 1950's and the 1960's the conception of staffing the schools with only one kind of person was replaced with the conception of the man-machine systems. Technicians, lower-order personnel, technological devices, and instructional resource centers were brought into the institutional patterns. Differentiated staffing is a 95Donald Arnstine, "Some Problems in Teaching Values," Educational Theory, II (1961), 159. 96Parrish, et al. v. Moss, et al., 106 N.Y.S. 2d, 577 p. 584 (1951). 71 natural outgrowth of this movement. Dwight Allen, from his position as an educational innovator, made the following comment: It seems to me, and I might as well express my bias immediately, that the notion of differentiation of staff will be the preeminently preoccupying notion of the profession over the next decade. I see no other issue that comes even close to the issue of staff differentiation in terms of importance for professional development.97 Historically the field of education has been slow to respond to a subdivision of labor. Preoccupation with the problems of improving the qualifications and status of the teaching force has been a paramount issue. Teacher turnover has been another consideration, as well as the increasing demand for new teachers. In the face of a shortage of necessary labor, management in fields other than teaching have handled the perpetual problem differently. They have examined job requirements and attempted to make a division of labor so that the professional could be strategicially located in the organization and could be supported by the necessary cadre of technicians and other types of assistants. To gain the advantages of specialized skill in a large organization, the work is sub-divided, so far as possible, 97Dwight W. Allen, "The Education Professions Development Act and Staff Differentiation," American Association of College§_for Teacher Education--YearBook IOneonta, New York, XXI, 1968). 72 in such a way that all processes requiring a particular skill can be performed by persons possessing that skill.98 Some of the assumptions which seem to undergird current proposals for school practice and staff utili- zation are: l. The best teachers should be given extra pay and recognition for instructional leadership. 2. The particular talents of teachers should be used. 3. Members of a faculty cannot function effectively in isolation. 4. Teachers should have personal knowledge of their students. 5. Teachers should be freed from routine clerical tasks. 6. Teachers have an increased responsibility for assisting in the training and educating of new members of the profession. 7. Teachers should keep up with the growth of knowl— edge, particularly in their own subject matter areas. 8. Effective programs for curriculum development require teacher responsibility for and involvement in innovations.99 Differentiated staffing is an outgrowth and refine- ment of team teaching. It aspires to bring a wide range of manpower to bear on educational problems. Two kinds of staff differentiation are possible. Horizontal dif- ferentiation involves the establishment of more jobs at the same skill level. The subject material is further subdivided into areas of specialization. A second type 98Herbert A. Simon, Administrative Behavior (2nd ed.; New York: Macmillan, 1960Y, p. 137. 99John A. Brownell and Harris A. Taylor, "Theoreti- cal Perspective for Teaching Teams," Phi Delta Kappan, XLIII (January, 1962), 150. 73 of differentiation can be called vertical differentiation. In this arrangement, the teacher is given a supportive staff consisting of teachers and paraprofessionals. The major goals of differentiated staffing are aimed at increasing expertise and responsibility for teachers. Seldom is a goal mentioned that relates to student learning. The most common statement made related to students is the goal of providing for individual dif- ferences. The most commonly stated goals of differ- entiated staffing are: (1) Transfer of managerial functions to teachers; (2) DevelOpment of new in-service training; (3) Creation of a problem-solving unit; (4) Provide for a career pattern in teaching; (5) Permits more efficient use of the professional force; (6) Demands efficient utilization of resources. The NBA National Commission on Teacher Education and Professional Standards (CTEPS) believes that the differentiated staffing concept is a promising idea worthy of development and testing and that it should receive the Opportunity of an objective trial.100 100National Commission on Teacher Education and Professional Standards, "A Position Statement on the Con- cept of Differentiated Staffing" (Washington, D.C.: National Education Association, 1969), p. l. 74 Supported by its executive secretary, Roy A. Edelfelt, this commission supports the idea of having salary dif- ferentials based on differences in degrees of responsi- bility. The American Federation of Teachers (AFT) has not taken a formal position on differentiated staffing yet, but President David Selden gave it the back of his hand at the organization's 1969 convention.101 Mr. Selden feels that the idea of differentiated staffing Originated outside of either NEA or AFT and was imposed upon teachers without mutual consent. This organization feels that it is another administrative scheme similar to merit pay. Attention in the past has been given to staffing patterns by the NASSP. In the year 1956, the Commission on the Experimental Study of the Utilization of the Staff in the Secondary School was created by the Executive Com- mittee of the organization to assess high school programs. The purpose of the Commission was to find new ways of producing quality education in the face of a teacher shortage. From observation of one of the programs, reactions of participants and the results of achievement tests, the following inferences were made: 101Education U.S.A. Special Report, Differentiating Staffing in Schools (Washington, D.C.: National School Public Relations Association, 1970), p. 8. 75 l. The achievement of pupils appears to be equal to or greater than that of pupils of comparable ability in regular classes. 2. Pupils have more opportunities to develop the ability to do independent research and to engage in self-directed learning experiences. 3. Teachers have more opportunities to meet the differential needs of high-ability and low-ability pupils, for enrichment and remedial work. 4. Professional growth of the participating teachers was one of the most important outcomes of the project. 5. There are a number of different ways in which teams might be organized and function--no one best approach was identified during the two years of the project.102 Some consideration has been given in research to the concept of staffing adequacy. The Review of Edu- cational Research mentions three studies in a 1961 article.103 In the first study, Landerholm (1960) found that the most adaptable school systems, as measured by Mort and others, had an average numerical staffing adequacy index of 68 professionals per 1,000 pupil units; employed 18 professional specialists per 1,000 pupil units; and kept class size smaller than did less adaptable schools. In the second study, Vincent, McKenna, and Swanson (1960) examined the relationship 102Lee L. Bloomenshine and Malcomb T. Brown, "San Diego, California Conducts Two-Year Experiment with Team Teaching," Bulletin of the National Association of Secondary SEhoOl Principals, XLV Tjanuary, 1961i, 147-66. 103D. Richard Wynn and Richard W. Deremer, "Staff Utilization, Development, and Evaluation, Review of Edu- cational Research, XXXI, No. 4 (October, 1961), 396. 76 between numerical staffing adequacy and adaptability in 132 school systems and concluded that the larger classes should be instituted only, if at all, as a tactic for paying higher salaries to obtain better teachers. The last study reports the judgment of administrators, super- visors, specialists, and teachers in 12 suburban school systems. This work by Wynn (1958) developed guides and standards for staffing adequacy. In the past school districts had two alternatives open to them as they staffed a school system. They could hire more professionals at smaller salaries or they could hire fewer professionals at higher salaries. Recently, school districts have acquired the ability to allocate greater or lesser funds to resources with which the staff works. Just as they can make choices in the deployment of professional staff, they can now also make choices in the kind and number of supportive staff they provide for the professional. McKenna classified staffing patterns into eight patterns of professional staff deployment.104 The patterns identified represented variants of local choice about the number of teachers at the elementary level, numbers of teachers at the secondary level, and number of professional specialists in relation to a given number 104Bernard H. McKenna, Staffing the Schools (New York: Teachers College, Columbia University Bureau of Publications, 1965), p. 29. 77 of pupils. He points out that expenditure level seems to be a key factor in providing the "rich soil" for Optimum staffing patterns. The search for Optimum staffing patterns seems to be enhanced by expenditure levels that permit additional personnel to be provided besides the teachers. Studies by the Metropolitan School Study Council established the following conclusions: 1. Numerical staff adequacy is a better predictor of school quality than average class size. 2. Individuals are more apt to get attention in small classes. 3. It is patently indefensible to argue for any arbitrary, common-size class. Local conditions, purposes, quality desired in education and the abilities of the teachers must be weighed. 4. Non-classroom personnel are at least as important as classroom teachers.105 In considering the quality of a school an investi- gation is needed into the three interrelated net current expenditure components of (1) the number of persons employed, (2) the level of professional salaries, and (3) the amount spent upon teaching supplies and other enriching materials. There are considerable combinations of these three variables. Different schools use different combi- nations. One of the important conclusions of a study 105D. Richard Wynn, Organization of Public Schools (Washington, D.C.: The Center for Applied Research in Education Inc., 1964), p. 72. 78 conducted by Swanson was the Optimum apportionment of funds varies according to the general level of expen- diture.106 Generally educators believe that they are the pivotal point in the quality of a school. Another factor is important. A Pennsylvania study showed that almost anywhere you scratch a community you find a relationship with the quality of the schools.107 It also pointed out that there was a low relationship of quality with most of the measures of the teaching staff which had commonly been thought of as strong indicators of school quality. Little research has been done since 1961 on staffing adequacy as such. Most of the research has been directed at various patterns of student grouping and subgrouping. Much of the literature is descriptive and written to justify educational programs. The success of differentiated staffing rests upon the ability of team members to merge their combined potentials into increased Opportunity for the students. In most of the experimentation on changing staffing 106Austin D. Swanson, Effective Administrative Strategyé-An Analysis of SeveraliAspects of Staff Recruit- ment and Deployment (New York: Institute of Administrative Research--Teachers College, Columbia University, 1961), p. 19. 107Paul R. Mort, "School and Community Relation- ships to School Quality," Teachers College Record, LV (January, 1954), 201. 79 patterns, students are treated more like young adults and given more responsibility for their self-direction. These projects usually provide that students be given additional responsibilities as they respond. The reactions of students revealed that they thought that experimental classes provided more oppor- tunity than regular classes. They considered it advantageous to be in classes with teaching teams and modified schedules. Some of the advantages suggested by Johnson and Lobb are: 1. Using other kinds of printed materials besides the textbook. Hearing about the experiences of other students. Helping the teacher plan some of the classwork. Learning to think for oneself. Getting individual help when needed. 108 Assuming some leadership in class activities. CNU‘IAOJN O A clear-cut advantage of differentiated staffing is the opportunity for the student to come into close proximity with top performance. He experiences a chilling feeling when the best perform. The research on modeling tells us that if we would maximize subject matter approach tendencies in our students we must exhibit those behaviors ourselves.109 Students learn more by imitation if the 108Robert H. Johnson and Delbert M. Lobb, "Jeffer- son County, Colorado Completes Three-Year Study of Staff- ing, Class Size, Programming, and Scheduling," Bulletin of the National Association of Secondary School Principals, XLV (January, 1961), 74. 109Albert Bandura, "Social Learning Through Imi- tation," in Nebraska Symposium on Motivation, ed. by M. R. Jones (Lincoln, Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press, 1962), p. 211. 80 model has prestige for the student. The student will perform more Of what he has seen the model doing. A distinct disadvantage lurks in the background with dif- ferentiated staffing. Instruction tends to become more formal and less spontaneous. In hierarchal plans, young and inexperienced teachers undoubtedly are used with the small groups. Learners, as a result get individual help from teachers who probably are least qualified to give it.110 Goldberg's conclusion of research summarized the expression of the need for differentiating teachers to improve students' learning. A significant implication of the studies of teacher characteristics, teaching process, and teachable groups is the recognition that variations in pupil attainment in the classroom are related to variations in teacher performance, and that a particular teacher affects different pupils differently.1ll Waetjen's conclusion, too, from a finding of Flanders' studies of teacher influence by means of interaction analyses, was a testimony to flexibility in teaching style. Students who achieved most and had significantly high scores on aptitude tests were in classes exposed to flexible patterns of teaching response. 110Harold D. Drummond, "Team Teaching: An Assessment," Educational Leadership, XIX (December, 1961), 164. 111Miriam Goldberg, "Adapting Teacher Style to Pupil Differences: Teachers for Disadvantaged Children," Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, X (April, 1964), 166. 81 . . . The greater the teacher's repertoire of teaching styles, the more likely there was to be greater student achievement. . . . Recent models of staff differentiation did not make the assumption that teachers ought to be organized according to how students best achieve. Most plans pro- vide a basis for differentiation by cataloguing what teachers do. These designs for differentiation are generally aimed at raising the professional person with little consideration given to the learner. Any organi- zational shift which alters variables and produces no gain in student output is pure folly. When Temple City, California undertook to dif- ferentiate the teaching staff, a basic assumption was behind the rationale. The assumption is made that a differentiated staffing plan will improve the teaching profession and thus increase the effectiveness of instruction. Since such a plan has not been tried before, evidence to the contrary cannot help but be conjectural at this point. 113 The district realized that it was embarking on a new frontier and that better instruction would result. They tended, therefore, to minimize the difficulties in break— ing the organizational pattern that had persisted. 112Walter B. Waetjen, "Recent Analyses of Teach- ing," The Bulletin of the National Association of Secondary School Principals, L (December, 19667) 26. 113"Temple City Differentiated Staffing Project" (unpublished brochure, Temple City, California, September, 1967), p. 2. 82 Closely related, but clearly distinguishable from the native curiosity of the student, is the need to not be bored. From the consistency of a schedule and an organized round of life comes the security to predict in advance. Change is the greatest challenge to the individual's coping skills and the highest purpose of a 114 Any school which embarks upon the useful education. experimental path continuously will serve the learner immensely. People will do anything to break daily routine. Somewhere between complete organization and chaos an individual seeks a balance. The administration has the job of taking the organization to a similar point. It is important that any plan for reorganization of a teaching staff takes into account the need to train teachers to make use of new-found time. The findings of the Pugh study on small group learning showed that even in groups of twenty or less, there were many instances in which teachers were not taking fullest advantage of the situation to assume responsibility for individual 115 learning. One of the major assumptions of the 114Martin Haberman, The Essence of Teaching: A Basis for Differentiating Roles (WaShington, D.C.: National Commission on Teacher Education and Professional Standards, National Education Association, 1970), p. 8. 115James B. Pugh, Jr., "An Analysis of the Charac- teristics of Teaching and Learning Related to Pupil-Teacher Ratio" (unpublished Ed.D. Project, New York, Teachers Col- lege, Columbia University, 1963). Quoted in Bernard McKenna, Staffing the Schools (New York: Teachers College, Columbia University Bureau of Publications, 1965), p. 51. 83 movement to differentiate roles in education is that such differentiation will lead to more efficient utilization of professional personnel. The emerging consensus of educational discussion more and more suggests that learners are better served by a variety of instructional groupings. The range of achievement within an unsegregated class places an almost impossible burden on teachers trying to satisfy individual differences. The idea of the omnicapable teacher is now an outworn ideal. Learners must be served by different organizational patterns. Education is gearing up to keep pace with change. There is a necessity to bring professionals together to perform the educative arts that a traditional staffing pattern could never carry Off. Teachers are taking a militant stand and are fighting for one thing or another. This activism is often oversimplified and summed up as a push for more money and more benefits. The public at all levels has demonstrated its acceptance of the crucial role of edu- cation as an instrument of national policy. The new climate of public opinion has encouraged teachers to feel more confident that their work is important. They feel justified in demanding greater recognition for their services. —They seek a more central seat at the edu- cational decision-making table. Differentiated staffing should provide the teacher with this benefit. 84 Teachers as professionals should recognize that the negotiation process has contributed to other develop- ments such as formalization, legalization, standardization, and centralization. Certain agreements must be reached by some process. This is the standardizing procedure and while it has been resisted when it comes from the central office, it can now be accepted when it comes from a different group. Bilateral management describes the new organi— zational concept that has been established. Planned or otherwise, unilateral management (where the board decides and passes the word down to the teachers) turns into bilateral management (teachers are involved, consulted, and their agreement is sought on matters that affect their personal and professional welfare).116 Differentiated staffing should provide the teacher with more power. The search for power equalization touches the administrative dimension of authority when teacher organizations seek greater control over the rules and regulations which govern their behavior. There is some question as to whether an increase in teacher power will automatically result in less power for administration and governing board of educations. Tannebaum, for 116William H. Medlyn, "First Swallow Hard: 'Bilateral' Management is What Teachers are After," American School Board Journal, CLVI (January, 1969), 10. 85 example, suggests that the "power pie" is variable and not fixed. He argues that the power of both managers and workers in industry has expanded as a result of collective bargaining agreements.117 It seems reasonable to assume that as teachers acquire increased status by new staffing patterns, they should acquire greater control over the allocation of financial and human resources available to the enterprise. They are most directly concerned with the implementation of the purposes of the enterprise. Rugh presented a penetrating analysis of the frustrations and of the problems resulting from the public's exaggerated expectations of schools.118 He con- cluded that the public credited teachers with too much potential, set goals beyond the level of teacher compe- tence, and indulged in wishful thinking about "what schools should do as against what they can do." The false security of tenure and automatic incre- ments, coupled with the deadening effects on an individual of knowing that he cannot better his salary beyond a certain predetermined increment, is likely to create an attitude of bitterness in the profession. In Stahl's words, 117A. S. Tannenbaum, "Unions," in Handbook of Organizations, ed. by J. G. March (Chicago: Rand McNally, 118Douglas Rugh, "The American Teacher-Victim of Role Inflation," Journal of Teacher Education, XII (March, 1961), 54. 86 Opportunity for advancement and the chance to make the best possible use of one's capacities, form one of the well springs of human motivation--no system of increases, unless accompanied by recognition of superior performance, is adequate to secure the utmost incentive value from compensation.119 In a country such as the United States, where success is measured largely in terms of advancement, it is funda- mental that the employee has goals toward which to strive if he is to make his maximum contribution. teacher 1. Sergiovanni drew some interesting conclusions on morale: A good salary structure, a benefits program, adequate communications system, good interpersonal relationships, and other conditions associated with the environment of work are important factors in preventing job dissatisfaction for "profes- sional" teachers. The environment of work factors, however, are hygienic in that they prevent trouble but they are not potent enough to motivate teachers to approach self fulfillment. They lack the power to provide job satisfaction for professionally oriented teachers. Job satisfaction depends upon Opportunities for teachers to experience personal and professional success, to have responsibility that counts to them, and to receive recognition for their pro- fessional efforts. The absence of these factors will tend not to affect job dissatisfaction of teachers but job satisfaction depends upon their presence.120 1190. Glenn Stahl, Public Personnel Administration (New York: Harper and BrotHErs, 1956), p. 235. Morale: 120Thomas J. Sergiovanni, "New Evidence on Teacher A Proposal for Staff Differentiation," The North Central Association Quarterly, XLII (Winter, 1968), 266. 87 We need supportive and adequate supervision. We need a structure that permits self-fulfillment. Teachers need help if they are to make effective decisions about instruction at the operational level. The organizational plans must promote smooth day—to—day Operational decisions. Weber, the father of modern organization analysis, defines authority as legitimated power. Legitimation refers to acceptability by subordinates of the exercise of power by their superordinates, in particular the exercise of influence over organizational behavior. The authority structure is a direct derivative of the organizational need to monitor the performance of its members. The source of discipline within a bureaucracy is not the colleague group, but the hierarchy of authority. Performance is controlled by directives, rather than by self-imposed standards and peer-group surveillance. Something must eventually be done to help teachers achieve their professional destiny. Differentiated staff- ing aims to permit teachers to achieve their professional destiny. One of the first things that must be done is to stop pretending that all teachers make the same contri- bution. That myth lingers with us. New ways must be found to place teachers in new organizational positions. The status of an organizational position is its location in the rank order of relative influences in the organi- zation. When persons holding positions of unequal status interact, the higher-ranking member ordinarily exercises 88 the greater influence and modifies the behavior of the other member. Most organizations take pains to make status as definite as possible. It is understandable that the public does not always like the school's organizational patterns. "Many board members take a business firm (as the model) of how "121 The business to organize the school or college. model stresses clear lines of authority and sharply demarcated jurisdictions for which officials are held reSponsible. Bureaucracies tend to develop increasingly complex patterns of authority. A direct benefit to the teacher during differen- tiated staffing is the increased responsibility acquired by status change. The teacher acquires a greater control over his environment. He becomes immersed in more decision making on a broader scale. He too, must be willing to accept his role as a leader. The Claremont experiments found that teachers were willing to accept the differences in "status" associated with the creation of team leaders, senior teachers, or aides, as long as full participation was welcomed from all and the status leaders did not assume the right to 121Fred E. Katz, Autonomy and Organization (New York: Random House, 1968i] p. 40. 89 set team standards and determine procedures.122 This research points out that the establishment of hard lines of responsibility and authority will be met with resistance in the teaching profession. Normally teachers insist that decisions will be made by the total professional group by the democratic process. Often, they have felt that it is best to let authority in any given situation evolve out of the group process. The establishment of teacher hierarchical groups should resolve one sore spot that teachers complain about. In general, they express their dislike about the competence Of administrators to exercise supervisory authority. They reject in many cases, the rights of administration to make decisions on teacher assignment and assessment of teaching performance. The drive towards reorganization has as one of its focal points the establishment of a career ladder. The criterion will be professional competence. The career pattern will permit teachers to assume additional reSponsibilities as they mature professionally. The new responsibilities would include selection of new staff members, supervision and evaluation of peers, research and development, active and effective participation in 122Arthur R. King, Jr., "Planning for Team Teaching: The Human Considerations," Journal of Secondany Education, XXXVII (October, 1962T: 364. 9O policy making and decisions regarding resource allocation decisions in the school. Long-run satisfaction with an organizational career depends on whether the subject's initial level of aspiration is achieved or exceeded. Aspirations are developed in various ways and are partly independent of an individual's actual prospects. The expectations so acquired are crucial in establishing the demand, so to speak, which the individual makes on the organization 123 Lewin in the course of his subsequent participation. was the first to point out that the morale of indi- viduals in an organization is not explicable by their situation at a given time but is heavily affected by their ”psychological future" and to a lesser extent by their past.124 It is important to realize that benefits will become available to the professional staff. That cannot be the sole criteria used for adoption of changing staff- ing patterns. The establishment of high student per- formance will be the only criteria recognized by the public in the present milieu. Another benefit available to the profession deals with a change in teacher training procedures. College 123Kurt Lewin, Resolvin Social Conflicts (New York: Harper and Brothers, 194%), p. 143. 124Ibid. 91 students can be placed in schools at an earlier point in their training with a reduced degree of responsibility. The induction period into the profession could be spread out over a longer period of time. The responsibility for training would begin to shift away from the college. The importance of aSpirants seeing and working with teachers during their training period is well documented.125 The day-to-day interaction generates its own kind of reality and develops its own kind of experience for the person. A danger inherent in permitting junior teachers and college students into the hierarchy in large numbers is that of faculty solidarity. Junior teachers may identify closely with students. The problem of aligning student response with faculty hierarchy may prove too difficult, and it could be a strong pressure countering rank and favoring collegial equality.126 The organization should benefit from a shift to differentiated staffing. Several investigators maintain that team teaching promotes professional growth by making better use of teacher talent and time, by improving 125D. E. Himmon, "Morris Experiments with College Student as Teacher," Minnesota Journal of Education, XLVI (April, 1966), 17. 126Dan C. Lortie, "The Teacher and Team Teaching, in Team Teaching, ed. by Judson T. Shaplin and Henry F. Olds, Jr. (New York: Harper and Row, 1964), p. 291. 92 teacher effectiveness, and by helping teachers to meet the needs of all levels of students. Advantages that accrue to the profession will have impact upon the organization. Johnson and Lobb reported that teacher prestige, morale, and adaptability were enhanced by relieving teachers of routine chores and by increasing their status.127 The corps of career teachers will offer a superior kind of preservice guidance and instructions to apprentices, interns, or other kinds of auxiliary workers.128 The profession will need to be aware of the problems in Specialization. Excessive specialization is sometimes called the micro-division of labor. Adam Smith's classic case was the example of pin-making in Glasgow two centuries ago. His analysis suggested that the advantages of increasing specialization increases indefinitely; the fewer operations performed by the worker, the greater his dexterity and the less time wasted in changing operations. Excessive specialization reduces cooperation and teamwork, so that under some con- ditions the worker is isolated from primary-group 127Robert H. Johnson and Delbert M. Lobb, "Jeffer- son County, Colorado, Completes Three-Year Study of Staff- ing, Class Size, Programming, and Scheduling," Bulletin of National Association of Secondary-School Princ1paIs, XLV (January, 1961), 58. 128Robert H. Anderson, "Team Teaching in Action," The Nation's Schools (May, 1960), p. 65. 93 contacts, and under others the primary groups that form are hostile to the production program. When work is minutely subdivided, the voluntarism of works with regard to the enterprise is constantly threatened by the status loss they experience through the degradation and reduction of their skills and the loss of the public identity of their jobs. The factors with great motivational potential must be utilized. When a secondary staff considers the process of change and attempts to make differentiated staffing a part of the daily operation of a school, the school takes on a different personality. No magic formulas may be transmitted to others. The benefit to the organi- zation is that preconceived notions and many traditional ideas are no longer considered foremost in curriculum planning. Schools gain much of the spirit of spontaneity and creativity. There is a great need for fundamental curriculum reform. It is one of the biggest problems that emerges as the staff carries out the new organi- zational pattern. No longer should teacher turnover be considered a standard consequence of Operation. The notion that teachers are interchangeable units in the organization is not true. Certain teachers are valuable focal points in the operation. 94 Span of control in the conventional school is too large for administration. The segmentation of super- vision is possible. This structure also permits the creation of numerous steps in the organizational ladder which is a distinct disadvantage. As educational units move to more complex arrangements, the number of levels of authority in the organization will increase. The ratio of supervisors to total personnel will increase with increases in technical complexity. Reduced teacher turnover should produce stable lines of communications and stable lines upon which useful work may flow. It seems logical that team efficiency is related to team stability. The creation of new staffing patterns should attract some of the more capable students into the pro- fession. The Education Professions Development Act established several task force reports to the United States Commissioner of Education on planning the develop— ment of the education profession. Many of the nation's leading educators have been concerned with staff inno- vation. Priority was given in the report to the enhancing of the profession. "It was agreed that dif— ferentiated staffing is a basic objective to enhance future holding power and recruitment capacity of the 95 education profession."129 The thread of differentiating staffing continues on in the report. "The basic overall strategy essential to achieving this goal is the develOp- ment of differentiated staffing patterns to meet the needs of any given local school district or system as fully as possible. . . . "130 Although the organization should benefit from a new organizational approach, all problems do not dis- appear. Counterproductive elements will be inherent in differentiated staffing. Role problems will spring up that cannot be handled by simplistic guidelines. Each small hierarchy with Special responsibilities will demand differentiated salary consideration. Each group or sub-group will require special arrangements that must be reconciled with requests from other groups. All of this group resolution of internal conflicts will require longer negotiation periods. Some districts have pro- ceeded by pre-negotiating positions before anyone was hired. Some degree of antagonism between positions of different status is an inevitable feature of organizational 129"Report of Task Force on Recruitment, Selection and Evaluation of Educational Manpower" (unpublished report of a meeting held in Washington, D.C., October, 1967). Cited by D. K. Sharpes, "Differentiated Teaching Person- nel: A Model for the Secondary School" (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Arizona State University, 1969), p. 28. lBOIbid. 96 structure. Some of the antagonism has to do with salary and fringe benefits. The incentives that the modern organization offers to its executives are very different from those that it offers to its workers. Executives are hired, in theory, for an indefinite continuous tenure, and their long-term incentives are offered in the form of status gain. The popularity of decentralization in recent years is partly explained by the fact that additional organi- zational positions were created. This raised the status of the existing positions. The status of the adminis- trators in the central office was raised while their operating responsibilities were reduced. They then had a wider range of responsibilities. Differentiated staffing is based upon a number of philosophical assumptions. One assumption is that the teacher is the key facilitator of the learning process. Logically then the organization should try to strengthen and enhance the position of the key facilitator. Many times the organization assumes that all teachers are competent to do all of the functions related to the teaching role. Many teachers cannot adequately use the technological innovations of the last decade. Not all students learn in the same manner. Therefore, objectives of the organization as they relate to each 97 student, must become differentiated. The organization possesses differentiated methods to reach students. Differentiated staffing has linked hands with modern thinking on curriculum improvement. Recent writings indicate that we must abandon the curriculum notion of a sacred body of content to be "learned" by all children.131 A danger in establishing a more complex organi- zation is that communications must move faster and be more accurate. Administrators normally favor a flatter organizational structure, providing them with a greater sense of autonomy and responsibility.132 Differentiated staffing has appeared in many ele- mentary schools, some middle schools, and very few high schools. Administrative Leadership The principal is the key man in building change. If he does not exhibit the courage to desert convenience 131Elizabeth Z. Howard, "A Look at Specialization," Educational Leadership, XXVI (March, 1969), 549. 132Stuart Lee Openlander, "The Development of an Administrative Structure in a Middle-Sized City School District" (unpublished Ed.D. dissertation, Michigan State University, 1968), p. 212. 98 133 Different and security then neither will his teachers. leadership styles may be imposed upon groups to create differences in the interaction process. Potential leaders have traits which tend to be found in clusters around the concepts of "authoritarian" and "equalitarian." Well-known studies by Lewin, Lippitt, and White contrasted three group atmospheres. Members Of the authoritarian groups showed more dependency on the leader and more hostile and apathetic behavior between members. In the laissez-faire groups there was little dependency on the leader, but greater irritability and aggressiveness among members and dissatisfaction with the task. The democratic group showed less dependency on the leader,.more friendliness, and satisfaction with the activities of the group. Groups under the direction of an authoritarian figure tend to turn out the largest quantity of work, while the products of the democratic groups are usually of the best quality. Democratic leadership usually results in better staff morale. There are two ways the organization can obtain the needed leadership. The first method entails select- ing an individual with a given set of traits or 133Ira J. Singer, "Survey of Staff Utilization Practices in Six States," The Bulletin of the National Association of Secondary_SEhool Principals, XLVI Tfianuary, I962), 132' 99 characteristics. The second method involves a training program to modify existing behaviors in the person. Differences in skills required for leadership in manual and intellectual tasks have led to the development of a number of situational tests to assess the leadership potential. The military has provided a great deal of research in this area. Almost without exception, studies Of staff utili- zation focused on the classroom teacher, on nonprofes- sional workers assisting teachers, on technological devices or pupil-teacher grouping patterns. All experi- ments in this area hope to supplement, extend, and simplify the work of the teacher. A great deal of research should be performed in the area of changing administrative patterns. The utilization and deployment of administrators has been overlooked. Administrators have the legal power to make decisions, to run the schools, but teachers and usually only teachers have the necessary ability to carry out these decisions and to fulfill the schools' purposes. The "real" power in schools is shifting and will continue to Shift from administrators to teachers.134 Normally organizational changes have revolved around personalities rather than philOSOphies. Sometimes 134Victor Thompson, Modern Organization (New York: Alfred Knofp, 1961), p. 65. 100 a leader's enthusiasm for an idea is so strong that the idea spreads. It is important that the administrator recognize the difference between staff loyalty and staff understanding of concepts. In redesigning the structure of educational administration, three elements are critical: 1. Allocating resources against needs and oppor- tun1t1es. 2. Initiating collaborative activities. 3. Establishing a process for identifying and attacking problems.135 Central to the suggestions offered here about each of the three elements is the recognition of the necessity for a team approach. The administrator must also be cognizant of the steps in the change process: research, invention, design, dissemination, demonstration, trial, installation, and institutionalization.136 As an organization tries new staffing patterns, horizontal Specialization will occur. Vertical speciali- zation is absolutely essential to achieve coordination among the Operative parts. Horizontal specialization permits greater skill and expertise to be developed by the operative group, in the performance of their tasks. Vertical specialization permits greater expertise in 135Edwin C. Coffin, "Designing an Administrative Structure For A Changing Education Structure," Journal of Secondary Education, XLIII (January, 1968), 27. l361bid. 101 the making of decisions by administration. Vertical Specialization permits the operative personnel to be held accountable for their decisions.137 It is important that the administrators be well aware of Gresham's Law of Planning. Stated briefly, when an individual is faced both with highly programmed and highly unprogrammed tasks, the former tend to take precedence over the latter even in the absence of strong over-all time pressure.138 March and Simon state the conditions that must be met in order for unprogrammed activity to take place. 1. Allocation of resources to goals requiring non- programmed activity. This means to create independently budgeted "planning" units that are kept out of the stream of day-to—day operat- ing tasks. 2. Deadlines provide the second condition for unprogrammed activity.139 One cannot always determine the rate at which innovations will occur. The greater the pressure attached to an activity, the greater the propensity to engage in it. The stimulus of deadlines tend to direct attention to some tasks rather than others. Clarity of goals is 137Herbert A. Simon, Administrative Behavior (2nd ed.; New York: Macmillan, 1960), p. 9. 138James G. March and Herbert A. Simon, Organi- zations (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1958), p. I85. 1391bid. 102 important. The clearer the goal, the more people will tend to try and accomplish it. Leadership is not a familiar, everyday idea. It is a slippery phenomenon that eludes definition. What leaders do is hardly self-evident. And much of the failure that occurs is due to misconceptions and inade- quate understanding of its nature and tasks. Some ideas related to educational leadership are: 1. Leadership is a kind of work done to meet the needs of a social situation. 2. Leadership is not equivalent to office-holding or high prestige or authorit or decision—making. 3. Leadership is dispensable.14% Principals in the past have not seemed to under- stand the urgency of changing the bureaucratic structure to allow it to respond to societal pressures which it was unable or unwilling to meet. It is difficult for principals to realize that it is their position which holds the autocratic organization together and thus pro- vides it stability. By denying the necessity for chang- ing themselves, they preserve the rigor mortis of the edu- cational bureaucracy.141 140Philip Selznick, "Leadership in Administration," in Managerial Behavior and Organizational Demands: Manage- ment as a Linking of Levels of Interaction, ed. by Robert T. Golembiewski and Frank Gibson2IChicago: Rand McNally and Company, 1967), p. 361. 141Fenwick English, "The Ailing Principalship," Phi Delta Kappan, L (November, 1968), 159. 103 The actual student-teacher relationship found in most schools, the interpersonal methods which they employ, are largely bureaucratic in nature, and the bureaucratic methods are very far from educational ones. In virtually every important respect the behaviors and attitudes appro- priate for bureaucracies are quite the Opposite of those appropriate for education.142 Schools must direct their reorganization toward the ideals which schools profess to value. The instruc- tional program must promote due process, responsibility development, allegiance to the Constitution, and rights to personal privacy. The principal must take the leader- ship role. Clute points out that recognition of the existence of students' rights implies that principals have a direct responsibility to effect those curricular and organizational changes that must ensue to comply with recent court decisions.143 Liphan provides a distinction between administration and leadership. He defines the term "leadership" as "the initiation of a new structure or procedure for accomplish- ing an organization's goals and objectives or for changing 142Buford Rhea, "The Large High School in Its Social Context," The Bulletin of the National Association of Secondary School Princ1paIs, LII (November, 1968), 35-45 a 143Morrel J. Clute, "Rights and Responsibilities of Students," Educational Leadership, XXXVI (December, 1968), 240. 104 an organization's goals and objectives."144 He continues by saying, “the leader is concerned with initiating changes in established structures, procedures, or goals; he is disruptive of the existing state of affairs."145 Adminis- tration is defined as: . . . the utilization of existing structures or pro- cedures to achieve an organizational goal or objec- tive . . . the administrator is concerned primarily with maintaining, rather than changing, established structures, procedures, or goals. Thus, the adminis- trator may be viewed as a stabilizing force.146 Without any doubt, the ability to determine and refine goals is one measure of leadership capacity. The principal should be aware that participation in the pur- pose defining role constitutes a major aspect of any leadership role and enables a person to have a signifi- cant impact on the total pattern Of organizational behavior. Redfern sees the principal of the future playing an active coordination role for teachers committees 147 within schools. Apparently, whatever influence is to 144James M. Lipham, "Leadership and Administration," in Behavioral Science and Educational Administration, Sixty-Third Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, Part II, ed. by Daniel E. Griffiths (Chi- cago: University of Chicago Press, 1964), p. 122. l4SIbid. 146Ibid. 147George B. Redfern, "Negotiation Changes Principal-Teacher Relationships," The National Elementary 105 be possessed by principals in this setting would be a direct result of the degree to which their expertise was of value to teachers as they functioned within their classrooms and committees. Preparation for the position may include a period of internship.148 Available evidence indicates that the principal- ship is in a transitional period, filled with conflict and uncertainty. Principals are aware of the fact that traditional responses are often inappropriate when deal- ing with contemporary problems. Students are increasingly discontent with the manner in which the schools relate to them and to the society as a whole. Principals will find it necessary to initiate new structures and processes for incorporating students into the policy-making aspect of the schools and for providing them with an effective means of voicing their concerns without having to resort to the methods which serve to intensify rather than reduce existing levels of conflict. As the principal tries to exert leadership traits, pressures are exerted at all levels to include within the school curricula information regarding topics that a great many principals would prefer to ignore. Among them are 148Conrad Briner, "The Role of Internships in the Total Preparation Program for Educational Administration: A Frontier Perspective," in The Internship in Adminis- trative Prgparation, ed. by Stephen P. Henclay (Columbus, Ohio: Ufiiversity Council for Educational Administration, 1963), p. 16. 106 demands upon the schools to provide students with infor- mation about sex and its role in our society, about con- scientious objection to war and military service and about the nature and use of drugs. Simultaneously, principals are asked to cope with concerns such as mili- tant parents, extremist groups, community involvement, and decentralization. Negotiations have played a big part in making an impact on administrative leadership. Taffel points out that the process serves to restrict the latitude which principals traditionally have possessed with regard to such areas as assignment of teachers, program development, transfer of teachers, and handling of grievances.149 Although it is possible that the worst fears of some students of the principalship will come true, there is also a distinct possibility that the role, rather than being diminished, will instead be enhanced and redefined to encompass areas of responsibility not presently within its domain.150 149Alexander Taffel, "The Principal and Teacher- School Board Negotiations," The Bulletin of tng_Nnnional Association of Secondary School Pfincipais, LII (Septem- BEr,’l968), 71-83. 150Harvey Goldman, "Principals for Community Schools," The Community School and Its Administration, Flint, Michigan: The Flint Board of Education and the Mott Foundation, Vol. 7, No. 1, September, 1968. 107 Principals in the past have been fearful of the risks involved in assigning authority and autonomy to teachers and also of being held responsible for the evaluation of staff performance. As a result, they relied on the centralization of authority and on the establishment of rules which served to control rather than liberate teachers. The administrator found himself measuring teacher compliance with set norms instead of attempting to measure teacher effectiveness.151 In many systems, extensive and detailed rules exist that pre- scribe what the teacher will teach, when he may and may not leave his classroom, and how many staff meetings he must attend. This set of rules in many cases has reduced the work effort of the staff members. Numerous research investigations have shown that the performance of any employee, whether teacher or assembly line worker, is depressed by close supervision.152 Organizational Change Perhaps the best understood elements of change are what might be called the substance for change. Interpret- ing broadly, the phrase includes such new technology as 151James G. Anderson, "The Authority Structure of the School: System of Social Exchange," Educational Admin- istration Quarterly, No. 3 (Spring, l967)[_l30-48. 152Alvin W. Gouldner, Patterns of Industrial Bureaucracy (Blencoe, Ill.: THE Free Press, 1954). 108 television and teaching machines, new curricula, novel staffing or scheduling arrangements, new facilities, and different ways of organizing pupils to expand learning capability. Most people tend to Operate at the level of substance for change. More is necessary than just the acquisition of the substance for change. To be successful, change must either be upward or downward. Both are legitimate strategies, and both have weaknesses and strengths. Change produced by the teacher may indeed be the more creative approach. Change pro- duced by the administrative mandate is also needed. Many schools have procedures for accepting change-pro- ducing ideas, but most of them are a technique that tends to generate a large degree of frustration. The human being operates on what has been called “economy of effort" basis. Normally, it is much easier to follow established paths than to blaze new ones. The status quo approach requires a minimum of effort for its maintenance, and reduces the risks of failure which one encounters. In today's language accountability is a prime word. The emphasis in administrative circles is on following established procedures. No one encourages the administrator to take the school to the brink of learning chaos and then back off. Accountability for producing change is not usually considered a major item of evaluation. 109 It is often claimed that the personality traits required of top executives during the stages of innovation are different from the traits required during the sub- sequent program execution stage. Rarely are decisions made during the early stages Of innovation re-examined during the stages of execution. An important step in change revolves around the process of commitment during the program elaboration stage.153 March and Simon hypothesized that whatever relations are established in the initial phase, they will tend to be relatively stable. Hence, the process of commitment is not reversible. The extent of involvement and commitment from top administration depends on a number of factors. In general, vigorous innovative activity will take place only in organizational units that are not assigned sub- stantial responsibilities for programmed activity.154 Change can be managed. Fragmentary approaches must be brought together. Realistically, one must con- sider a strategy for implementation of change. We cannot completely tear down what we have. We can talk about strategy for change that is based on the establishment 153James G. March and Herbert A. Simon, Or ani- zations (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1958), p. 185. 154Ibid. 110 of a variety of beachheads. Support can be provided for those people who are ready to move. In the process of change, a great deal of talk centers on the innovator or the "change agent." In many cases the resistors of change perform an important ser- vice also. They tend to hold in check the initiators of change. Change can then take place at a more orderly pace and in an evolutionary stance. Organizational change has to deal with what is being changed, how it is being changed, and who are the crucial parties in the process of change. Literature uses words like process and relationship to express components of change. A false notion is recurrent in educational experiments. Educators feel that they need total staff loyalty and commitment as they proceed with pilot pro- grams. It is unrealistic to assume that any project will ever obtain 100 per cent cooperation. More impor- tant, one must have methods to cope with the lack of support and to alter resistance levels. It is almost certain that any proposed change in the structure of a large organization will be perceived by some of the people involved as a threat of status loss. There are few innovations that do not have adverse effects for someone, and therefore their fears are well founded. The resistance to status threat Often has 111 made it difficult to eliminate positions in an organi- zation. Noteworthy is the Obvious conclusion that success was seen as closely related to the understanding gained by both teachers and parents. Check lists and repertories are used both in finding innovative solutions to problems and in checking feasibility. The extent of involvement of tOp levels in the innovate process depends on a number Of factors in addition to those we have already mentioned. In general, vigorous innovative activity will take place only in organizational units that are not assigned substantial responsibilities for programmed activity. The attention of high levels will be directed principally to those proposed innovations that have significance for the maintenance of organizational structure. Procedure becomes important at the top level. Since decision making is generally undertaken in stages, one must consider that the change process will and must occur in stages. The decision-making process is one of successive approximations. Administrators must set general goals and then discover means to achieve them. Refinement of purpose will take place as the process moves through the different stages. Summary Traditional staffing patterns have developed over a period of time. The concept of teaching load in this 112 pattern has not changed much over a period of years. All deployment of personnel has used some form of quantitative measure to arrive at equity states for the teachers. Administration had the responsibility for deciding teaching load. Additional remuneration was provided for duties beyond the normal day. As schools grew more complex and curriculum changes became.more common, the administrator was faced with a more difficult job. Department heads became involved in the process of determining teacher load and assignment. The teacher's role has been easy to understand until recently. Technological changes, team-teaching arrangements, and the use of paraprofessionals have demanded a new look at the role. The computer has made possible new ways of placing students into scheduled programs. Flexibility has become a common educational phrase. Research related to teacher aides indicates that the concept is not a new one. The number of ways in which they are used in a school system has increased considerably. Their primary purpose has not been one of instruction. Their main function has been to support the professional staff and to relieve the teacher of clerical duties. Differentiated staffing is a search for an organizational pattern that will incorporate a wide 113 variety of personnel along with the various new techno- logical devices in efforts to provide better education. Individualization of instruction seems to be its main rationale for the learner. Enhancement of the professional is the rationale for the teacher. The organization profits by reducing teacher turnover and utilizing the talents of the professional where needed. The literature supports the idea that leadership is important in the operation of any organization. Change will take place continuously. The role of the principal may change and the nature of his responsibility may be altered in the future. But with careful planning, the pace and direction of the change may be altered so that the principal may continue to be the educational leader of the organization. CHAPTER III ADMINISTRATIVE COURSES OF ACTION Introduction The major purpose of the study as set forth in the first chapter was to develop courses of action that the administrator could use during the implementation of differentiated staffing into the secondary school. Chapter II reviewed many of the factors that have led to present staffing patterns. Major emphasis was placed upon team teaching. An evolutionary process has taken place as schools moved from traditional staffing to the team teaching patterns and now appear to be ready to move to differentiated staffing patterns. Technological advances have occurred rapidly in the last decade and many new tools are now available to the professional administrator. The literature also suggests that the social milieu is such that change in the educational format is more acceptable now than previously thought possible. It was imperative that data be collected from school districts presently engaged in differentiated staffing before suggesting how one might proceed-with 114 115 the implementation process. Analysis of the data will indicate the factors advanced as rationale for dif- ferentiated staffing. Analysis will also indicate where school districts have encountered difficulties during implementation. Using the data as background information, appropriate administrative courses of action can be set forth. Questionnaire Development A questionnaire was developed by initially writing down all items that one might want to measure relating to staffing patterns. Extensive reading suggested items that might have otherwise been overlooked. The first draft of the questionnaire was designed and tested against four administrators in the Grand Rapids school system. Consolidation of items produced eight major categories to be used in the study. Considerable attention was paid to the wording of items in the question- naire. Directions used on each page of the questionnaire were pretested on a sample of administrators and teachers for clarity of expression. Item analysis was done by the use of a jury of three national experts in the field of staffing. They analyzed each item on the eight-page questionnaire and made suggestions relative to inclusion, exclusion, and rewording of Specific items. A phone call was used to secure participation of the respondents. A letter was 116 then sent to the jury members (Appendix A). Another phone call after their analysis of the questionnaire proved to be very useful and cleared up minor areas of concern. The jury was selected by analyzing responses to a survey letter sent throughout the country. The survey letter was sent to persons mentioned in the review of literature (Appendix B). The letter sought to find two pieces of information. (1) Names of experts in the area of differentiated staffing; (2) Names of schools in their region that were actively engaged in differentiated staffing. The survey letter produced a 70 per cent return. The jury selected for validation of the questionnaire were the three most commonly mentioned. The jury used in the study consisted of: 1. Dr. Richard Clark Staff Director of MESPU Assistant Professor of Education School of Education University of Massachusetts 2. Dr. Fenwick English School of Education Department of Secondary Education Arizona State University 3. Dr. Donald Sharpes Program Specialist Bureau of Educational Personnel Development U.S. Office of Education 117 The questionnaire was subsequently refined once more before being presented to the guidance committee for approval (Appendix C). Selection of Schools One of the most difficult parts of the study was finding secondary schools that were truly engaged in dif- ferentiated staffing. As mentioned previously a survey letter was sent throughout the country to numerous persons connected in some way with differentiated staff- ing. Contacts were made with ASCD, NASSP, NBA, and the AFT requesting information relative to schools that were employing new staffing patterns. Every possible school mentioned was checked out by a long-distance phone call to the principal of the school. Many of the schools supposedly engaged in differentiated staffing did not fit the criteria used for selection of the schools. Some schools had introduced auxiliary staff to help the teacher and had proceeded to call this dif- ferentiated staffing. A number of schools had attempted implementation on a departmental level. In order to establish a common base for the study, criteria for school selection were developed. The project charac- teristics required of schools funded through the School Personnel Utilization Program of the United States Office of Education were used with modification. The criteria used were: 118 1. No unit smaller than an entire school staff is differentiated. 2. All instructional staff Spend at least 25 per cent of their time in direct contact with students. 3. All instructional staff in the unit designated as operationally differentiated is on a dif- ferentiated salary schedule. 4. The differentiated roles of the instructional staff as well as the selection criteria is clearly delineated. 5. The school has been operating with differentiated staffing for at least one year. 6. The school must be one of secondary school organization. 7. The school must have three levels of instructional staff. An important consideration in selecting the schools dealt with the contact person. It was important that the questionnaire be answered by the administrator most closely responsible for the implementation process. In some cases, the questionnaire was completed by a con- tact person working out of central administration while in other cases the questionnaire was answered by a build- ing administrator. The School systems contacted were extremely quick in channeling all requests regarding 119 differentiated staffing to one person within the system. At no time was there doubt that this person would be capable of providing objective data for the study. Again phone calls were made to each of the con- tact person requesting their participation in the study. Prior to return of the completed questionnaire, another phone call was made to clarify any unforeseen situations. Each school was promised anonymity in terms of Specific results being published in the study. The schools selected along with the contact persons who completed the questionnaire are listed below in alphabetical order only. Throughout the study the data will in no way be linked with the individual school. School District School Involved Beaverton School District #48 Aloha High School 4855 S.W. Erickson Street Mountain View Jr. Beaverton, Oregon High School Mr. Harold Wik--Project Director Hood River School District Hood River Valley Hood River, Oregon High School Mr. Charles Bowe--Principal Kansas City School District Martin Luther Jr. 4201 Indiana High School Kansas City, Missouri Dr. Odell Thurman--General Director of Extended Services Minneapolis School District #281 Neil Armstrong High 4148 Winnetka Ave. N. School Minneapolis, Minnesota Dr. Robert Cameron-Director of Secondary Education 120 School District School Involved Orangeburg School District Tappan Zee High School Orangeburg, New York Mr. James Evergetis--Principa1 Temple City Schools Oak Avenue Intermediate 9516 E. Longden Avenue Temple City, California Mr. Bruce Caldwell--Director Weber County School District Five Junior High Schools 1122 Washington Boulevard Ogden, Utah Mr. Bruce Griffin--Director Analysis of Data The questionnaire consists of eight pages of items that relate to staffing pattern changes. On some pages of the questionnaire the respondents were expected to indi- cate an increase or decrease in a particular item, as experienced by their particular school district. On the other pages the respondents were expected to indicate relative degree of importance of the items. The following chart indicates the type of response expected for each of the eight categories. Establishing a Rationale Degree of Importance Establishing Organizational Patterns Increase/Decrease in Item Establishing New Roles Increase/Decrease in Item Negotiations Increase/Decrease in Item Economic Considerations Increase/Decrease in Item Change Process Increase/Decrease in Item Areas of Resistance Degree of Resistance Evaluation Amount of Time Spent Each item on the questionnaire had four possible places where reSponses could be made. For the purpose 121 of quantitative analysis, responses to each item were given the following numerical value: Item in the Left Space Item in the Second Space Item in the Third Space Item in the Right Space I-‘Nbdh A total score could then be computed for each item. In some selected cases a respondent omitted an item. Divid- ing the total score indicated for each item by number of respondents gave a composite average score for each item in the questionnaire. (Total score for each item is shown on the right hand side of each page.) No item on the total questionnaire produced total consensus of the seven respondents. As the questionnaires were returned, a number was assigned to each of them (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, or 7). This assigned number was then recorded in the corresponding space on a blank questionnaire. After the results from all seven respondents were recorded a composite score for each item was computed along with an average score for each item. The average score for each item is used in drawing conclusions. The conclusions for each category follow the data as presented. 122 ESTABLISHING A RATIONALE FOR DIFFERENTIATED STAFFING Instructions: Each of the following statements has been advanced as a rationale g for d1fferent1at1ng a staff. Rate p u 0 8 u a how 1mportant they were to your fi 5 13 5 5 m 5 sghgoltazfyou moved to d1fferent1- >4é 4% '3 4g «g ‘31:: a e s a 1ng. u o.» o u s a a :3 s a a 2 .3 1. Searching for efficiency. 3:5 16 2 3'42 2. Providing students with a greater responsi- 135 24 3.71 bility for their own learning. 67 3. Building of a career ladder. 135 2: 4 3'1 4. Providing teachers with a stronger voice 145 23 3 57 in determination of school policy. 6 7 ° 5. Creating an active role for the learner. 123 4 P.8 567 6. Placing the teacher in a new role as 123 4 3.8% facilitator of learning. 567 7. Providing better accountability for 125 347 3.57 the organization. 6 8. Individualizing instruction. - 1:: .7 4 3.57 9. Preparing for the advent of man-machine 5 12 6 4 2.71 ' learning systems. 37 10. Establishing teacher performance as the essential criteria to be used in 346 127 3'sq staffing a school. 11. Promoting the ability of the organization 34 12 3.33 to become adaptive. 56 12. Strengthening the status of the teacher. 357 246 l 3.28 13. Bringing more community people into the school staffing pattern. 127 346 5 3'28 123 The data indicate that new roles will emerge for the learner and the teacher as a result of dif- ferentiated staffing. The student will be required to take an active role for his own learning with multiple options being Opened up through individualized instruction. Likewise, the teacher will assume a new role. The terms "manager" or "facilitator" of learning will probably become more common. The status of the teacher will be strengthened in differentiated staffing arrangements. This will be accomplished by permitting teachers to have a stronger voice in the policy-making mechanism and the curriculum decision process. Concurrently, the role of the teacher will also require greater commitment and increased responsibility. All respondents to the questionnaire considered teacher performance as crucial to the school. The impact on the organization will be significant. Changes in organizational procedures will be mandated as the secondary school attempts to individualize instruction. Continuous emphasis will be placed on accountability within the organization. Organizational changes which result in man-machine learning systems were not considered important by the respondents. 124 ESTABLISHING NEW ORGANIZATIONAL PATTERNS o Instructions: Indicate by checking the appropri- 3 ate category, any change in the a following items, after your school 3; g 0 g m 5 moved to a differentiated staffing m8 8 g 8 g‘fi pattern. 33 as) 3 3 3 3 :4 ms: 0 c o c m > o Ahi m H 2 H D at“ 1. Data processing and computer capability 35 127 46 g 00 within your system. ° 2. Subgrouping of students by the professional. 67 124 5 32.85 4 2 .42 3. Time set aside for planning and coordination. 63 13 4. Flexibility permitted a department to change 123 45 .71 their staffing pattern. 67 5. Time spent by teachers developing instruc- 135 4 2 3.42 tional materials. 67 6. Time spent in long-range planning. 36 1:; 3'28 7. Length of the work year for the professional. 6 1:3 3'14 8. Number of courses available to the student. 367 12; 3'42 9. Input from consultants from outside the school system. 17 36 45 2 P571 10. Ability of teachers to create new organi- 26 13 4 3.14fl zational patterns. 57 11. Amount of time needed for coordination 46 13 2 3.1% between teachers. 57 12. Restrictions placed on class size. 2: 231J66 13. Restrictions placed on the number of 145 231,71 teacher preparations. 67 14. Amount of in-service time needed to famili- 12 34 3,57 arize teachers with new organizational 67 5 patterns. 15. Mini-courses available to students. 347 :2 3'42 16. Amount of actual teacher-student contact 13 4 2 5 F3131 hours allocated to a course of study. 67 17. Time needed by administration for supervision. 16 37 245 2'42 125 Some benefits will accrue to the student due to changes in the organizational pattern. More courses will be available to the student during the selection process. At the same time many courses may be subdivided into mini-courses with grouping of students according to interest areas. In general, the data suggest that most of the benefits are not for the student. Differentiated staffing promotes benefits for the professional staff member to a large extent. Individual teachers and departments will exercise greater autonomy over their staffing patterns and their instructional materials. All schools participating in the study indicated an increase in departmental flexi- bility to reorganize staffing patterns. The indication is that teachers through practice will develop more skill in making internal organizational changes. The teacher will become a year-long professional engaging in the design of materials and the long-range planning of curriculum. This will in effect lead to a broadening of their background in subject matter areas. Money will have to be spent for summer work as well as for continuous in-service programs during the year. Outside consultants will not be as important as expertise develops within the school system. 126 Instructional supervision will probably occur on a departmental level with less involvement of adminis- tration. Internal modifications of class size, number of teacher preparations, and teaching load will take place at the departmental level. 127 ESTABLISHMENT OF NEW ROLES Instructions: Indicate by checking the appropri- 3 ate category, any change in the 8 . . m following items, after your school 3 a g o 5 moved to a differentiated staff- a m m g giu 04) a) 4) 0 6H ing pattern. a u o u u u u u o g o o u o u 3 c c g c 8 > o HmH H (M 1. Time spent writing job descriptions. 137 :2 '42 2. Time spent in analysis of staffing patterns. :3 2: 3'5 3. Commitment by teachers for differentiated 234 15 3.42 staffing. 67 4. Number of different positions open to 35 124 3.28 the professional. 67 5. Time spent on legislation and certification 7 123 2.14 relative to the paraprofessional. 456 6. Conflict between teachers and adminis- 1 26 341,51 trators over working conditions. 57 7. Conflict between teachers and adminis- 67 24 1351.85 trators over wage differences. 8. Conflict between teachers and adminis- 24 131.57 trators over work load. 67 5 9. Time needed by the new teacher to function 12 46 52.42 effectively. 37 10. Departmental involvement in teacher 23 147 3.57 load determination. $6 11. Adult-pupil ratio within the building 145 3 2672.51 (count profeSSionals and auXiliaries as adults). 12. Student acceptance of the new roles 27 34 3.31 for teachers. 56 13. Community acceptance of the new roles 2 567 34 2.83 for teachers. 14. Amount of independent study time assigned 15 23 4 8.14 to students. 67 15. Amount of time the professional spends 12 36 4 572.57 in contact with students. 16. Number of students contacted by the 126 4 35 '72.85 professional. 17. Instructional tasks performed by the 123 6 3.85 paraprofessional. 457 18. Use of teacher load formulas. 6 :3 231.85 19. Autonomy for the professional. 25 :3 6 3'1q 20. Number of formal meetings within the 13 5 242,3 building. 57 128 A new role for the teacher is a reality when one discusses differentiated staffing. The data indicates that the commitment of teachers to differentiated staff- ing is present in districts now engaged in the practice. Students have trouble accepting the roles created for teachers. Two factors may account for this problem. First, increases in independent study time is paralleled by a decrease in the amount of contact the student has with the professional staff member. In addition, the teacher generally has an increased number of student contacted within the standard work week. The community will accept the new role for the teacher, but not as readily as the administrator would like. A large increase in the use of paraprofessionals in instructional roles may be partly responsible for this reaction. The establishment of new roles present new impli- cations to the organization. Additional time must be found to design new job descriptions and analyze staffing patterns. The organization must also face the task of deciding what activities the paraprofessional person can and should perform. Reduction in conflict between teachers and administrators over work load, working conditions, and wage differences appear to be indicated by the data. 129 Teacher load formulas are not important to the schools involved in this study. Another interesting feature is that the new teacher can fit into differen- tiated staffing formats as easily as a traditional staffing pattern. The respondents indicated that a wider range of instructional positions is available to the professional staff member. 130 NEGOTIATIONS Instructions: Indicate by checking the appropri- 8 ate category, any change in the 0 following items, after your school m m m 8 E moved to a differentiated staffing g g g 3 3‘3 pattern. m w w m m m H U‘H m u u u w u o s o o o m u m c o c o c m > o A H U) H 2 H O 4: Q4 1. Ability to change teacher—pupil ratios. 256 7 34 2-71 2. Time spent on negotiations. 26 1:3 2'28 3. Time needed to process grievances. 2 1:3 52'00 4. Restrictions placed upon administrative 5 16 234 '72.42 decision making. 5. Length of the working day for the 36 124 f.28 teacher. 57 6. Time needed for evaluation of teachers. 13 467 252.00 7. Responsibilities for the teacher. :3 3: 3'57 8. Ability to dismiss a professional. 5 12 2: 2'57 9. Time spent on overall conflict 7 15 46 232.23 resolution. 10. Deviations from the master contract. 67 345 2.40 11. Conflict between professional and 124 361J71 paraprofessional. 57 12. Teacher demand for merit pay. 2:: 151'7L 13. Support of the local teacher negotiating 3 5 146 272.1 unit. 14. Involvement of the state teacher's 5 l 34 2 2.28 association. 67 15. Bilateral management (teachers involved, 135 24 3.7 consulted, and agreement sought before 67 decision making) at the building level. 131 The data on negotiations indicated a significant increase in bilateral management for the teacher. At the same time the teacher will incur increased responsibili— ties. 0n the whole, negotiations were not a problem to those school districts involved in this study. Further study should try and replicate this conclusion. It is important to note that nothing is known about negotiations in these districts prior to the implementation of dif- ferentiated staffing. It is possible that these school districts might have always had good working relations with their employees. It is also possible that the local negotiating units were not powerful. The respondents reported little change occurred in the amount of time spent on negotiations, the number of deviations from the master contract, the time needed for evaluation of teachers, the time needed to process grievances, and the time spent on conflict resolutions. Particularly interesting is the lack of conflict reported between the professional and the paraprofessional. An interesting feature of differentiated staffing is the decrease in the demand for merit pay. The data suggests that a school district does not employ both differentiated staffing and merit pay plans. 132 ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS Instructions: Indicate by checking the appropri- 3 ate category, the impact made upon 8 the budget for your school after m m o m m E you had moved into a differentiated m m m m m w . m m m m oxu staffing pattern. m m m w m m H aim m u u u u u u E u o o m u m c o c o c m > o H H m H 2 H D 4*H 7 56 12 2.57 1. Amount of money spent per student. 34 2. Budgetary amount allocated to teacher 35 2 142.28 salaries. 67 3. Budgetary amount allocated to adminis- 6 123 52.00 trative salaries. 47 4. Budgetary amount allocated for . 6 357 124 2.14 instructional materials and equipment. 5. Budgetary amount allocated to para- 145 36 27 3.14 profeSSional salaries. 6. Time spent on long-range cost analysis. 27 156 34 3.00 7. Time spent evaluating economic input 7 12 46 2.85 with specific outputs. 35 8. Time spent for in-service training 123 4 3.85 programs. 567 9. Budgetary amount allocated for 14 231.57 substitute teachers. 67 5 10. Additional wages paid the professional 56 12 7 3.11 for summer work. 34 ‘ . 5 23 16 2.85 11. Data proceSSing and computer costs. 47 456 12 2.4 12. Total budget allocated for your school. 37 2 6 134 2 2.00 13. Demand for administrative secretaries. S7 . 56 13 2 3.00 14. Demand for clerical help for the teacher. 47 133 Economic implications are key in any discussion of staffing patterns. Schools engaging in differentiated staffing incurred increased costs as more time was spent on in-service programs. Two other items of the question- naire indicated increased costs. Monies had to be allo- cated to the paraprofessional budget for additional personnel. .Also, additional money was allocated for professional salaries during the summer months. Small increases which might be expected occurred in budgets for instructional materials and computer costs. Additional costs occurred because of demand for clerical help for the teacher. Three of the respondents reported a reduction in the budgeted amount for substitute teachers. No increases were allocated to administrators in terms of salaries. At the same time, no additional money was spent for secretarial help at the administrative level. In terms of planning, five of the seven respon- dents reported long-range cost analysis related to dif- ferentiated staffing patterns they projected for their school district. Three of the seven school districts reported some increase in total budget. Considerable research is needed in this area. 134 CHANGE PROCESS Instructions: Indicate by checking the appropri- 8 ate category, any change in the 8 following items, after your school m m m m m 8 moved to a differentiated staffing g g g g 3.3 pattern- 38 a, a: e s: 3H m o E o o o m u m c o c o c m > o A H m H Z H O a: *H 1. Ability of teachers to set goals. :2 13 3'57 2. Ability of teachers to solve problems. :2 l: 9'57 3. System's ability to involve teachers in 35 12 3.42 formal decision making. 6 47 4. Research under field conditions. :3 12 4 3'42 5. Community involvement in the change 25 13 4 3.42 process. 67 6. Strength of informal groups within the 46 12 33.00 professional ranks. 57 7. Student involvement in the change process. 23 :3 1 3'14 8. Use of educational rhetoric about change. :3 4 23 '85 9. In-service training sessions within the 123 4 7 .42 system. 56 10. Federal money for the effort. 57 23 4 16 2'57 ll. Tolerance level of the staff for more 23 157 3.57 change. 46 12. Written procedures for operations. 136 :3 3°42 13. Willingness of teachers to accept 36 124 5 '72.85 decisions of others. 14. Ability of teachers to interact with 236 147 5 3.28 others. 15. Ability of the system to change or 23 14 3.57 modify plans. 56 7 16. Number of teachers who have leadership 234 l 3.85 roles. 567 I'll}: II Al I 1111 It" 135 This particular category of the questionnaire produced the most significant results. Extensive emphasis on the change process is suggested by the data collected. All aspects of the results suggest more involvement of teachers, administrators, students, and community. At the same time, the informal group takes on added sig- nificance in the communication process. The organization must recognize the need for improved communications. Need is present for written procedures to guide the transition process. Some problems might be encountered by the increased use of educational rhetoric during the change process. As the organization improves upon its ability to respond and communicate, it should find that it becomes more adaptive in its ability to alter plans for the future. The change process provides the administrator with an important tool. The process can be used to develop staff capacity and competency. The data indi- cates that teachers increased in their ability to set goals and solve problems. Teachers experienced a growth in their tolerance levels for future change. Concurrently, they became more involved in decision making and they assumed more and different types of leadership roles. 136 AREAS OF RESISTANCE Instructions: Listed below are possible areas where resistance may occur as a school moves to differentiated a staffing. Indicate by checking o . a) o w w o the appropriate category the extent m o u o o m of resistance that your school u 5 5 5 5 cu 5 . . . «4 u u m u u mu experienced as it moved into a c m m H m m m H . . . -H-HOJ-HJJ-H Hw differentiated staffing pattern. H 3 8 u: t: 3 8 3 L04 8 a: m a .J a: 2 a: It u-a 1. Lack of experience with new professional 1 34 25 2.85 roles. 67 2. Lack of experience with new organizational 7 13 26 2.85 patterns. 45 3. Resistance to change in general. 1 357 246 2°71 4. Fear of a teacher hierarchy. l 57 24 36 2.2 5. Increased time for negotiations. l7 2 221.71 . - . . . h 6 Increased adm1nistrative tasks for t e 24 135 672.00 profeSSional. 7. Community acceptance. 3 24 157 6 2.42 8. State certification codes. :2 1671'57 9. High turnover rate for the professionals. 7 2:211‘1 10. High turnover rate for the para- 24 1351.28 professionals . 57 ll. Accreditation association standards. 1 457 236 1.71 12. Local teacher negotiating officials. 7 12 4 356 2.1 13. Additive cost of the program. 7 :2 211'71‘ 14. Leadership vacuum. 257 346 1.50 15. Loss of key people promoting the change. 4 :zn'sd 16. Personnel department ramifications. 7 14 :21'57 17. Demand by teachers for more planning time. 137 245 6 2.28 18. Changing role for the administrator. 1 25 2:11.57 19. Student attitudes. 35 246 17 2.00 20. Seniority clauses in the master contract. 1 3231“” 137 In the seven school districts reporting in this study, resistance to differentiated staffing is not sig- nificant. There may be field conditions in each school district that made the transition easy. It is important to note that this data in no way suggests that other districts might not encounter stiff resistance. Lack of experience with new roles and new organi- zational patterns caused greatest resistance. Resistance to change in general showed some resistance. Local teacher negotiating officials constituted a concern to three school districts. As mentioned before, community acceptance does present some problems. Demand for more planning time was apparent to some of the districts. A large number of the items showed little resistance where it might normally be expected. Student attitudes, loss of key people promoting the change, accreditation association standards, and state certifi- cation codes seem like problems that never materialized. Additive cost of the program, personnel department ramif- ications, increased time for negotiations, and changing role for the administrators were items that also showed very little resistance by the school districts surveyed. 138 EVALUATION m .5 3’. Instructions: Indicate the amount of time spent 3‘9 m >‘g 8 on evaluation of the following 3'8 5 g'g o m E items, after your school moved to A u W > w 2 3‘3 a differentiated staffing pattern. '2 5'3 w'gfj'g m 3 H m o m E m u m E m u 0.5 QrH 0rd QVH > o m m B m g m B 4'm 1. Assessment of academic achievement. 5 :23 3'14 2. Assessment of student study habits. 1467'235 3.57 3. Assessment of student self-responsibility. :2: 2 3°85 4. Assessment of teacher attitudes. :23 4 3°71 5. Assessment of community awareness and 23 17 4 3.42 acceptance. 56 6. Assessment of student attitudes. :3 1: 3°57 7. Assessment of work performed by para- 123 5 2.85 professionals. 467 8. Assessment of attitudes of para— 123 5 2.85 professionals. 467 9. Assessment of teacher load. 36 47 125 2.85 10. Assessment of student drOpout rate. 37 1:: 2'28 11. Assessment of student attendance 6 37 245 1 2.42 patterns. ~ 12. Assessment of college entrance rates. 6 23: l7 1'85 13. Assessment of number of scholarships 234 17 1.71 earned. 56 14. Amount of research being performed 35 267 4 l 2.85 at the building level. 139 The most significant conclusion that can be drawn from the data is that the traditional methods of evaluat— ing educational programs are not important to the school districts involved in this study. Greater reliance is being placed upon new assessment instruments. Assessment of dropout rate, student attendance, college entrance rates, and number of scholarships earned are not being used. Only academic achievement remains as a traditional evaluating tool. The new forms of evaluation being used are assessing attitudes of students, teachers, parapro- fessionals, and peOple in the community. Some evaluation is being performed on student study habits. More emphasis is being placed on measurement of student self-responsi- bility. Some assessment has been conducted on the work performed by the paraprofessional. Five of the seven school districts are doing building level research. 140 Administrative Courses of Action The intent of the last portion of this chapter is to suggest administrative activities that can be used in altering the manpower system of a school district. As secondary schools increase their ability to operate as a client service system, a natural change will result in the manpower system. It would be helpful if a specific "logic sequence" could be developed that would detail all aspects of the shift from traditional staffing patterns to differentiated staffing patterns. Since very few secondary schools are Operating a differentiated staffing pattern, the develop- ment of such a "logic sequence" is impossible. Rather, the data collected from the seven school districts in this study together with extensive reading of the literature suggests several courses of adminis- trative action that might be employed. The courses of action set forth are broad guidelines that permit internal modifications needed to adapt to local situations. Con- siderable latitude is available to the competent adminis- trator. Much is being currently written about the subject of differentiated staffing and more comprehensive guide- lines of administrative courses of action should be available in the future. Administration will be required to utilize many administrative techniques that are not 141 even suggested in this study. An important fact to remember is that administration will have to take the lead if differentiated staffing is to succeed in the secondary school. Establishing a Rationale Appoint a steering committee. The steering committee should be appointed by the superintendent and should consist of a broad cross— section of the personnel of the school system. This committee will have the task of developing the program until a specific budget committment is made to the implementation phase. Set up a list of definitions. Educational change can be best promoted by the use of a standard set of definitions. This list should be drawn up early in the planning process. Some Change may occur during the transition to differen- tiated staffing. Where possible educational rhetoric should be kept at a minimum. Eliminate superficial abstractions. Involve a wide range of people. Staff involvement throughout the process is one of the major criterion in success of the operation. Since they will be totally immersed in any final plans, they should have input. It is also necessary to involve students and parents for their input. Assess readiness to make a staffing change. Substantial input is necessary from teachers, students, administrators, and community people to make the change. An assessment of concerns should be collected. Two types of communities would have an advantage when it comes to making a change. The first would be a community which had always supported the school in its effort to find better methods. The second type of community would be one which was very dissatisfied with its schools and would view most any change as 142 better. The most difficult community to change would be a community that was conservative and con- tent with most aspects of its schools. It is impossible to get consensus on a rationale. Most administrators are reluctant to make changes without the support of most of the teachers. The steering committee should assess the degree of com- mitment to change. It is important to have consensus from the formal and informal leadership. The strengths of the teacher leadership will permit the change to be made. Remember that establishing a new rationale involves a learning process for most people. It takes time for teachers, students, administrators, and community people to assimilate new ideas. A wide variety of learning experiences must take place so that new words and new operating procedures can be adopted. Implementation of differentiated staffing will require a great deal of learning during the transition. Creative methods can aid the learning process. The rationale should place a heavy emphasis on learning. Traditionally the concept of differentiated staffing has been aimed at improving career opportunities for the teacher. Main emphasis should be placed on new learning patterns. The role of the teacher and the student will change. It will be the responsibility of the school to enhance the learning process. Make an objective assessment of potential problems. Pursuit of differentiated staffing should never be undertaken by a school that feels it is not capable of overcoming identified problems. The thorough study of inherent problems is useful in reaching the goal. Problem solving sessions can be utilized in developing strategies to overcome problems. Staff strength will help in the identification of potential problems. Adopt a performance curriculum. When the student meets the specified criteria, he will have completed the program. The performance curricu- lum will mandate student initiative. What teachers 143 and administrators consider to be good teaching may not result in the most effective learning. Performance criteria will place the focus on the learning process. Establishing Organizational Patterns Set a master plan. A written plan plays an influential role in promoting change. It provides people with the security they need as they move through a transition. PERT tech- niques should be used when appropriate. Build, adopt, and incorporate instructional systems. With the advent of industry into educational tech- nology, broader schemes of instructional packages are available. These instructional packages should be utilized where feasible. Move in an orderly fashion using time tables. The change should be promoted with deadlines and specific tasks to be accomplished. The time tables can be integrated into the master plan. Don't expect organizational patterns to last forever. It is important that the organization stabilize itself for segments of time during the change process. People need the security of structure at different times. Continuous change will overwhelm people. It is important to secure input and remodel curriculum at periodic times. All educational structure is nothing more than temporary means to achieve what appears to be important at the time. Make a thorough inventory of resources. The ease with which changes are achieved is very closely related to the resources available and their deployment. Obsolete resources should be gathered to a central location. After a final check they should be discarded. Develop models for each department or cluster of teachers. These models must emphasize the individual while dealing with the mass of students. The models must deal with ways of thinking and learning together 10. 11. 144 with content acquisition. They must suggest school structure that provides for variations in program and rates of progress. Recognize that diversity and conformity are in a con- stant battle. The strength of a school engaged in differentiated staffing lies in its diversity. This presents a problem in trying to run an efficient program. It is important to determine the degree of diversity you can tolerate. Utilize a system approach making a broad attack on many fronts. A number of tasks must be confronted at the same time. The development of resource centers, team planning sessions, modifications in physical plant, cur- riculum revisions, equipment acquisitions, staff retraining programs are but a few of the tasks that await the staff ready for the challenge. The organization will permit minor changes to occur with very little resistance. A change involving many facets of the organization will encounter great hostility. Resistance will diminish with good planning. Most of the problems can be overcome. Thorough written plans that provide answers to most major concerns will facilitate any change. It is necessary to have a number of people in the organization who are competent at setting structure and developing plans. Provide experiences which simulate actual situations. Continuous experimentation should be carried on which develops prototypes of anticipated changes. Teachers and administrators need experience to develop new skills regarding organizational abilities. More difficult organizational tasks can be confronted with increased expertise. After making changes, stabilize your organizational patterns. The organization is the instrument that is used as a means of reaching group goals. Stabilization permits the group to see their goals being better achieved. 12. l3. 14. 145 Stabilization also permits individuals in the organization to have brief periods of needed security before moving onto new changes. Have a periodic review of organizational staffing pattern. Minor modifications over a period of time may cause some unrealistic distortions in the staffing patterns. The staffing pattern should be checked at different times against stated goals. Provide a process by which roles can be abolished and by which new roles can be created as students' needs shift. Periodically priorities should be re-established. The pattern of the organization should permit changes in roles and manpower location. Seek answers to own unique problems. No models capable of common application as yet have been developed. Emphasis should be placed on develop- ing staff by focusing on internal problems and their solution. Establishing New Roles Recognize that the individual within the organization wants his role to continue. Effort is required in learning a new role. Role changing for a teacher is a delicate and difficult process. The role of the administrator may be even more difficult to change. It will be necessary to have ways to deal with role changes. The student will have a new role. A school participating in differentiated staffing will reject the standard curriculum. The teacher will establish instructional encounters where the student will assume more of the burden for his own learning. Open labs, self-directed learning projects, and interactions with other students will provide new avenues of learning. Student dependency on a teacher will be a difficult norm to change. 146 The teacher will no longer be the sole provider of individual attention. If the kind of attention that the teacher provides is qualitatively different, it may not be important to maintain the same amount of instructional time per week with a student. It is important to increase the adult density within the building. Conduct in-service programs for the staff. It is highly important that potential leadership development be a constant program. It is also important that the total staff be in continuous training programs. Teacher education at the uni- versity can only be to prepare the professional educator. Creative planning for professional growth must be an integral part of the administrator's job. Be responsive to the community. A comprehensive communication network must be established with the community. It must also be maintained at considerable effort. Attention should be given to the public's unlimited expectation of what the school is capable of doing. Differentiated staffing must provide for more responsiveness. Retain key people for substantial periods of time. Build on the staff strength that you have established. This frame of reference should provide the stability needed. Blend the staff with a backup of potential leaders and some followers. It will be necessary to secure staff committment for some reason other than just a monetary reason. The highly qualified pro- fessional is mobile and can usually find a good salary elsewhere. Perform a task analysis. This thorough study should suggest the types of personnel that will be needed to move to differentiated staffing. It is in this area that considerable con- troversy will rage. Agreement on the tasks to be accomplished by a school would make the running of the school much easier. 10. 11. 12. 13. 147 Compile a staff inventory. Utilize some matrix system in assessing the present strengths and weaknesses of the staff. Match the staff against the tasks to be completed. Where necessary realign the staff. Differentiated staffing is linked to differentiated instruction. A wide Spectrum of professional and non-professional staff should permit individualization of instruction to a much fuller degree. At the same time dif- ferentiated staffing should permit teachers more opportunities for self-fulfillment in their pro- fessional jobs. Formalize new role responsibilities. Each new role carries with it certain specific duties associated with the teaching tasks. These duties should be weighted and ranked according to degree of difficulty and responsibility. General guidelines for the new role should be written. Create new positions. A substantial number of new positions could be developed that would permit the administrator greater latitude in arriving at staffing patterns. Pay for the jobs could be the same, but the function of the jobs could be different. Or jobs with different levels of responsibilities could be established. New staff members must possess certain characteristics. One characteristic is the ability to learn quickly. Another characteristic that will be mandated in some staff members is a flexibility that will permit them to change roles with passage of time. A strong emphasis will be placed on public relations. Logisti- cal skills are required in any move to a more complex organization. A teacher will need certain skills. The most commonly mentioned are motivational behaviors, environmental control skills, structural design skills, and situational stimulation. 14. 15. 16. 148 Adopt plans in opposition to the self-contained class- room taught by one teacher. Teachers that move into new instructional patterns seldom return to the traditional classroom setting. It is essential that continual effort be expended seeking new approaches to the learning system. Plans that infringe upon the autonomy of the teacher in a private setting should be encouraged where feasible. Do not be afraid to remove staff presenting the most resistance to new plans. This would include paraprofessionals, administrators, teachers, secretaries or custodial staff. All moves should be well thought out and should be of a lateral transfer type. These transfers should be by mutual consent if possible and involuntary transfers would occur as a last resort. Be prepared to pull out of the accreditation associ- ations. Most school systems experience little difficulty being accreditated provided that they have instruc- tional aides in addition to the standard amount of professional staff. The time that it takes to justify new procedures and patterns to the accredi— tation association may not be worth the benefits that belonging to the organization provides. Politi- cally the recommendation to drop out should be done by a citizen's advisory committee and not the secondary school principal. Economic Considerations Perform a cost analysis. This should be a five-year projection. It should be a realistic appraisal based upon input from the personnel department, the business office, plant planning office, secondary director's office, principal, and others in the organization as appro- priate. This information should be made available to the board of education at the time of the approval of plans for the differentiation of staff. 149 Be prepared to secure additional money. In realistic terms, differentiated staffing will cost more money. The community will support their schools provided they see a direct benefit. For differentiated staffing to succeed, additional services must be provided. Operational cost of the program should be computed on a building level. In large school districts, expenditures are to be recorded against a building level operation. Notification must be given to the principal of current budget balances so that pacing of expen— ditures may occur. Members of the organization should be expected to live within budgetary allocations. Teachers and administrators should be involved in budget building. Then they should exercise fiscal reSponsibility in adhering to the budget. Great care should be taken in utilizing existing resources when possible. An incentive program could be developed to help in budgetary control. Additional expenditures should be provided for com- munity school programs. The rationale for differentiated staffing lends itself well to the establishment of broad community education programs. Part of the manpower pool can be utilized in such a program. Establish a research and development fund. This fund should be provided during the transitional period from regular staffing patterns to differen- tiated staffing. Some restrictions on the categories for which the money may be expended should be set forth. Control of such a fund must be through one person in the organization. Negotiations Pre-negotiate positions. A number of different classifications can be estab- lished with corresponding salary schedules. The computer will be involved to a greater extent in 150 payroll Operation and control. Considerable input can be permitted by teachers and administrators in creation of the new positions. Negotiate a budgetary amount for resources and equip- ment. Only when the teacher negotiating unit recognizes the need for more resources will this item occur. The bargaining unit must also consider the need for reallocation of the monies available. Reject a merit pay plan. Professionals desiring additional remuneration will have to accept wider responsibilities. Emphasis will be on pay as it relates to responsibilities and not on the time Spent. Be certain that you have a mutual consent clause. This provision permits the school district to enter into temporary trial situation as organizational evolution is taking place. Temporary Situations should later be put into the contract. Keep local teacher organization informed of plans. The administrator in the building must have experience in dealing with master contracts and negotiations. Continual dialogue Should be going on between the school and the bargaining unit. Negotiate criteria for staffing decisions. Generally a student-teacher ratio has been the base for secondary school staff allocations. Some other factors Should be considered, such as variety of educational program, total credits attempted, total credits passed, social and economic levels of stu- dents. Anticipate points of difficulty. Continual effort must be expended in this area. Cer- tain major problems may be headed off by proper timing. ‘ 151 Be prepared to infringe upon teacher autonomy. Management will exercise more internal control over such practices as training, entry into the pro- fession and standards Of work. Autonomy must be provided the teacher in execution of his job with students. Negotiate job security, but not role security. A great deal more lateral movement must occur within the organization. Some jobs should be selectively destroyed. New jobs should be created. Pro- fessionals must be provided with job security, but their role should be expected to change from time totmm. Change Process Build a convertible building. A new structure Should provide multiple options. One Option that should not be permitted is the ability of the organization to return to its Old patterns. In most cases, the construction of an open space high school with some modifications should be encouraged. Major tasks to be accomplished according to the master plan Should be assigned to different people. New blood has to be continuously pumped into any change process. If different people have major responsibilities, it is difficult for the building and instructional program to be solely the creation of a few people. This plan insures a broader base for commitment. Establish a plan for securing commitment. Many methods will have to be incorporated into any plan. Visitation to other schools, work sessions, simulating possible plans are but a few of many possible plans. It will require an extremely creative professional to secure commitment to differentiated staffing. The lead administrator must be highly committed. Accept willingly a degree of crisis. The control of crisis is essential to any major educational innovation. Crisis will occur at 152 different times during the change process. Techniques of conflict management must be applied to release tension that passes tolerable levels. A strong overall plan provides security to leadership in the midst Of crisis. Promote continuous staff self-renewal. In the past people have pursued activities with a desire for economy of effort. Those staff members that enjoy doing what they are doing will have large amounts of energy. They will be capable of partici- pating in new relationships. They will continually seek their own self-development. Read extensively in the area of change planning. Thorough understanding of the different mechanisms for bringing about change is important. Reading should help one in establishing the roots of the change. Planning strategies will evolve from this venture. Plot an evolutionary process. Don't be in a hurry to make the change. Provide periods of time during which change is minimal. This stabilization period will aid the next change movement. During the evolution people can understand the smaller steps much easier. Develop a strong information processing system. A great deal of reluctance by people to go along with change lies in their belief that poor data supports top-level decisions. The information processing systems should be continuous in its retrieval and should have contact points with all elements of the organization. Perform a strong public relations program. Most people do not have the time to be immersed in the change process. Usually the change is affecting them with very little involvement on their part. A good public relations program shows that the school cares. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 153 Use time to your advantage. Overreacting to a conflict or crisis may just pre- cipitate another problem. Continue to check progress against a time line in your master plan. Provide an allocation of time for planning. Every segment of the school involved in the change to differentiated staffing must have time for planning. This time may be secured in a variety of ways. Staff may be released from regular commitments. Staff may be paid for additional hours worked. Many of the staff members will commit additional time for no pay. Usually a combination of all three methods will be employed. Increase the amount of interactions between people. Forums, workshops, dialogue sessions are but a few ways of increasing the interactive process. Additional interaction can provide the organization with a feedback mechanism. Create Situational leadership roles for teachers. Small, short-lived organizations must be created to solve internal problems in the school. New leadership must be found for these organizations. These organi- zations must seek an answer to a problem and then dissolve. Each teacher, if possible Should be given some degree of involvement as a leader of one of these organizations. It is assumed that a great deal of learning occurs during the leadership process. A sophisticated system must be ready to deal with mediation and adjustment Of conflicts. It will be necessary that this mechanism react fast and be simple in basic principle. It will of necessity be used a great deal. Recognize that differentiated staffing can be imple- mented with a strong commitment to the change process. The data suggests that the transition itself is of a difficult nature. Great emphasis should be directed to dealing with the process. 16. 17. 18. 19. 154 Get major problems on paper. Once problems are delineated on paper, their solutions can be sought. Systematic steps can be undertaken to seek solutions. People feel more secure as some of the major problems seem to disappear. Recognize that the actual steps and skills necessary to produce change within the organization are not known. Different methods, different change agents, different in-service plans provide different motivational impact for change. Anything that brings about the stated objective without leaving a wake Of hostility behind it would be considered acceptable. Recognize that 100 per cent commitment is not needed. The degree of resistance depends upon the degree to which persons can resist without endangering them- selves in the Situation. Since a number of forces are at work in the change process, total commitment is a myth. The pattern of commitment can be analyzed and used in future planning. Problem solving should be task oriented. Usually a great deal of energy is expended in main- taining certain aspects of the organization. A problem-solving session should engage in the design of solutions and appropriate responses to realities. This may require the dismissal of some traditions. Leadership The principal will still be the leader in a high school utilizing differentiated staffing. His function will have to change if he is to remain the leader. The community will continue to view this person as the leader. Staffing allocations and assignments will remain under his jurisdiction. The principal will be responsible for setting the time table for change. He must be perceptive of needs. He Should have the responsibility for setting up deadlines for 155 tasks that need to be completed. Intermittently he will have to set structure and then decide when to change the structure. Communication techniques must improve. With an increasingly complex organization, the demand is for better and faster communications. The admin- istration must streamline this process. New methods must be used to prevent chaos. Once new communi- cations have been established, it will probably be necessary to continue them. The principal must manage change. Conflict resolution will become a top priority. It is not necessary that he be the change agent, but rather that he is capable of managing the change process. The principal must be capable of reducing the dis- tortions Of reality in conflict situations. Through communication, mediation, and deliberation the con- flict must be compromised. The principal's role must change. Differentiated staffing cannot succeed without a change in the principal's role. It is unlikely that only the teacher's role will change in the new organizational format. The administrator may be extremely reluctant to change his role. There must be an increase in mutual consent procedures. The dynamic leader will Share with the professional staff many Of the decisions that need resolution. By allowing for participation in such a process, he will insure a greater degree of acceptance in the final decisions. The leader must be capable of sustaining energy on more than one front at a time. The administrator in a high school utilizing dif- ferentiated staffing must be knowledgeable in a wide variety of situations. Staff deployment, resource allocation, scheduling procedures, conflict resolution, public relations, student activities are but a few of the areas where competence will be required. The true leader must be capable of understanding and coordinating all of these areas as well as others. 156 The leader must have a high level of tolerance for ambiguity. The tolerance level must be high during the tran- sition from traditional staffing to differentiated staffing patterns. Once the organization has reached a point where some standard operating procedures can be employed the ambiguity will partially disappear. Until that time the leader must be able to feel com- fortable in situations where no answers appear. The reality of his job is action. The leader must move into action which changes con- sistently with his own commitments. This action breeds further action. Most decisions that the leader makes are designed to bring about some degree of change. He must acquire sensitivity to timing and knowing when motions can be made in the direction of his commitments. Resistance State goals clearly. Recognizing that there may be value dilemmas inherent in the stated goals, it would seem wise to delineate goals in trying to establish differentiated staffing in the high school. Some members of the staff will see the stated goals as inevitable positions and will thus proceed to get on with the tasks. Bring in outside input. It is difficult for an organization to change itself without input from the outside. Visits, workshops, and consultants are but a few of the ways that this input can be achieved. Involve a wide range of peOple when seeking solutions. Utilize diagonal slice groups when possible. These groups composed of people from different levels of the organization aid in communication also. Involving a wide range of people insures that most genuine con- cerns will be raised. It also gives a mechanism to disseminate solutions back to the people concerned. 157 People must think in terms of helping the organi- zation. Generally people think in terms of helping them- selves. Classroom teachers have in the past expected themselves to decide internally and indi- vidually questions of classroom organization and method. It is understandable why they might oppose differentiated staffing. AS they help the organi- zation there must be benefits that they are capable of securing. A favorable environment supports good planning. The organization must be seeking better ways of running the learning process. Continuous experi- mentation must be carried on. Improvement must be attacked from a number of angles. The environment that the organization establishes will be instrumental in making any staffing changes. Develop new techniques to deal with resistance. Usually the resistance is a reaction from incomplete information. Permit participation in how the change will be made and not in the philOSOphy of it. It is also important to keep personal Opinions out of the change process. Tie the change to organizational objectives, rules, and the present state of affairs. Evaluation Be prepared to design or adopt new assessment tools. As a school moves to differentiated staffing, new methods of evaluation will be sought. The data sought will also be different. It would seem important to set the list of educational Objectives prior to any change in staffing patterns. Use a wide variety of sources for data. In making an overall evaluation of the worth of a program, a number of yardsticks should be applied. The evaluation should be continuous and involve all segments of the organization. Attitudinal information will be important. 158 Use an outside source for any thorough evaluation Of the program. Prestate the criteria for success of the program. Members within the organization have a biased interest in seeing that the program does succeed. An outside source could be much more Objective. The outside source could also be responsible for the design of the measuring tools. Make evaluation a long-range process. Differentiated staffing is not an experiment, but rather an evolution. Evaluation Should be used to guide the development of the system. Evaluation Should not succeed in forcing the return to tra- ditional staffing patterns. Three to five years will probably be required to make any significant change in the organization. Increased efficiency should result when people become familiar with new operating procedures. The organization should have a feedback mechanism. The leadership Should be aware of internal difficul- ties. Corrections which are necessary must be made when convenient. Continuous feedback is a Sign of a healthy system. The evaluation should measure services provided. Differentiated staffing contends that increased services can be provided. If additional money is to be Spent, these increased services must be docu- mented. Make the evaluation as simple as possible. Any thorough statistical study will be discarded by many as rhetoric. Results Should be tabulated in an easy-to-understand form. Plans should not be abandoned after the first evalu- ation. The measurement should guide any directional changes that need to be made. The rate of progress should be determined if possible. The measurement Should also state the location of the organization in relation to the stated goals. Generally, a school retreats fast in the face of any initial poor evaluation. 159 Community acceptance must be measured. The availability of survey results is a great asset at this stage because they often contain disturbing truths which cannot be explained away with wishful thinking. Thus, community relations has a built-in reality principle, which can never be ignored. CHAPTER IV SUMMARY , CONCLUSIONS , H RECOMMENDATIONS Summary Great interest is being shown throughout the ,J country in differentiated staffing. Administrators see it as a way to achieve better utilization of available resources. Teachers see it as a way to achieve greater professional status. Generally, the concept has made progress into the instructional programs of the elementary school. Resis- tance has occurred at the secondary school level. The organization of the secondary school has promoted the dissemination of subject matter content. Paraprofessionals have not had the appropriate skills and background to take over many of the duties and responsibilities required of the teacher. An interesting feature is that most of the para- professionals that have been hired have been women. They have found it easy to adapt to the instructional program of the elementary school. They work short periods of time with very little outside responsibility. Their pay has been very minimal. 160 161 Wealthy districts have added paraprofessionals to their ranks to support the professional staff member. In almost all cases, the addition of the paraprofessional has been an additional Operating expense to the school district. The rationale used to justify the additional cost has generally been that greater services were being provided. Any system that provides expanded services to its clients will find itself with an increased amount of coordination being required. No longer will a principal be able to understand and coordinate all aspects of a comprehensive secondary school. Technological changes will exert a pressure on the system to seek new methods for learning. Differentiated staffing itself places a mandate on the system to move to differentiated instruction. The ultimate goal of differentiated staffing is to increase the degree that the organization will be able to provide individualized instruction. Additional demands are placed upon the system to change the grading system, the time format, the scheduling process, certification requirements, library Operation, etc. Since all of these demands come at the same time, teachers and administrators find themselves faced with a stiff challenge. .11". ‘.._._._ ‘M 162 In the past, the teacher has been permitted to operate in a self-contained classroom with very little restriction from the outside. Recently the advent of the open sapce school has mandated increased demands on the teacher to work cooperatively with other adults. The teacher has found himself faced with the task of sharing ideas and structuring curriculum with other teachers. Gradually, this process led to "team teaching" arrangements. Differentiated staffing has evolved somewhat from the "team teaching" concept. Team teaching requires a team leader who provided structure and leadership and received additional remuneration. Differentiated staffing requires further refinement of reSponSibilitieS and redefinition of roles. It results in more of a vertical hierarchy to carry out the instructional program. In the past, the supervision of the instructional program has been tflue responsibility Of the principal. AS the structure of the secondary school has become more complex it has become necessary to create departmental leadership positions. The process of reallocating roles and resources is not an easy one. Many school districts are on the verge of implementing the concept. Considerable change will occur after some districts work out the Operational problems that are inherent in differentiated staffing. 163 This study has undertaken to identify some of the areas of difficulty that secondary schools faced as they made the transition from traditional staffing patterns to differentiated staffing patterns. In Chapter III, administrative courses of action were proposed that a school district might employ during such a transition. . ' us.---..-.. _ Axum Summary of Conclusions Data collected from questionnaires sent to seven 4 school districts presently engaged in differentiated staffing suggested numerous conclusions. This section will summarize the major conclusions drawn from the analysis of the data. A few of the conclusions will not be supported by the data directly, but are the objective evaluation of the author after two years of extensive work on the concept of differentiated staffing. Little research has been conducted in the area of differentiated staffing. Differentiated staffing is a rare concept in the secondary schools of the country. As more of the 30,000 high schools experiment with new staffing patterns, one can expect to see a corresponding increase in research on the subject. A great deal of educational rhetoric has been used in explaining the concept but differentiated staff- ing still does not have a well-established definition. 164 The presence of three levels of instructional staff with different pay scales is accepted as a common criteria. The other important characteristic of differentiated staffing is that all members of the professional staff are engaged in direct instruction with students. ———” Differentiated staffing mandates a new role for teacher and administrator. Individualization of instruction is the common goal. Students will be exposed to more options than ever before. They will have greater burden placed upon them for their own learning. Teachers will take on roles where they emphasize learning rather than the teaching of content. Teachers will need time to learn their new roles. With more teachers assuming leadership roles in the school, the role of the administrator will change. He will be in charge of a more complex operation requiring a wide variety of skills to administer. All new educational programs should be weighed against the effects upon the student. Differentiated staffing will provide more benefits to the student. More courses will be offered to the student. The quantity of student-teacher contacts will lessen, but the quality of the contacts should be much better. The student will find some disadvantages with differentiated staffing. As the services that the school provides are 165 expanded, the student will experience some problems inherent in the new bureaucracy. Differentiated staffing will result in an expanded use of paraprofessionals for instructional tasks. It is important that these auxiliary persons have enough training and in-service to be able to perform !_ the tasks the school will assign to them. Staff selection, staff training, and staff J development will become a major task to perform in EJ schools of the future. Differentiated staffinggrequires considerable time for in-service. Planning, coordination, and design of instructional programs will all demand more time. Differentiated staffing requires more plan- ning time than a school functioning with a traditional staffing pattern. 3‘ g\ Considerable variety is available in the new instructional roles being created throughout the country. Regardless of the titles given to the new roles, teachers will find their role in the schools strengthened because of differentiated staffing. At the same time the teacher will find himself taking a greater responsibility in the organization. Bilateral management will become very common in the Operation of the school. Ix) Differentiated staffing will result in an increase in the cost of operating the secondary school. Most of the original schools engaging in experiments on 166 / staffing patterns received grants from the United States Office of Education via the EPDA School Personnel Utili- J zation Project grants. The rationale for additional expenditure of money is usually based upon expanded / services to 'he student and community. )3 State certification codes and accreditation 1 standards dofnot appear to be major problems. Most school districts engaged in differentiated staffing spend con- siderable money on their educational program and have Usually added nonprofessional staff to support the pro- fessional personnel.fl The data also suggested that the neggtiating process was no more difficult because of differentiated staffing. :V' Teachers working in this system will find them- selves with greater degrees Of flexibility. Department decisions will take care of many of the internal modifi- cations. Differentiated staffing will require teachers to acquire increased abilities to set goals and solve problems. /;. The transition to differentiated staffing will require additional energy and endurance from adminis— trators involved in the process. On paper, the process may look easy, but in reality theié will be many logjams. Planning time will not always be available. Extra fiscal support will be lacking at times. Much of the manpower may seek to return to domains where they feel more 167 secure. If administration is to lead in establishing the process, they will have to be able to sustain greater effort. RJ A number of the components of the educational system will all have to change at the same time if dif- ferentiated staffing is going to work. Modifications must occur in the physical structure of the building. Curriculum revisions are necessary. Staff retraining programs are a must. New methods must be employed in scheduling students. Consideration must be given to modifications in time format, class size, and even teacher load. Any attempt to move to differentiated staffing without increasing instructional resources will fail. /{ Differentiated staffing should_permit the staff to be more adaptive to changes that will occur in the future. Change is the natural characteristic of our society. Our organizations are being asked to respond rapidly to changing environmental factors. The manpower pool available in the educational setting must assess changing conditions and adjust the organization accord- ingly. IL. Differentiated staffing will result in a greater burden being placed upon the student for his own learning. It is now impossible in the secondary School to give a student an adequate command of the facts in each major 168 subject area which will serve him throughout the balance of his life. The student must be taught how to learn. The dissemination of content knowledge is no longer the number one priority of the secondary school. Any model for differentiated staffing Should take into account that change is constant and that modifi- E cations will be needed in the future. It would be foolish to move into a differentiated staffing pattern that becomes rigid. The change process will require a T‘D‘Es' "“ great deal of energy from the leadership.AJCoordination needs, structural requirements of the organization, authority structure, and degree of specialization will all require the establishment of new operating procedures. The transition to differentiated staffing will be more difficult than the operation of differentiated staffing once the pattern is established. (3‘ A wide variety of new instructional roles will be created. Standardization will become difficult. A school district might be wise to limit the possible .number of job classifications. Provision will have to be made to permit people to change job classifications. 4n Standard methods of evaluating the instructional prggram will not be enough when evaluation of dif- ferentiated staffing is considered. Measurement of -attitudes will become a more important category of the evaluation. Amount of use of resources will become more 169 important. Another measure will consider the Options Open to students. Many components will be considered during the evaluation of a school using differentiated staffing. 1 The seven school districts used in this study did not consider man-machine systems as an important part of the rationale for differentiated staffing. AS industry moves more into the educational field and when the total delivery system for the instructional program begins to change, differentiated staffing will be an important concept that will be employed. In the future, many high schools will use different patterns of differentiated staffing. .pi'Constructive community membership in the use of schools will also give impetus to increased use of a wide variety of manpower in the secondary school. Recreational directors, security officers, community school directors, water safety instructors, stage crew technicians are but a few of the many new types of jobs that will become available. Usage of the school from morning until night twelve months of the year will change the manpower needs. Different people employed for dif- ferent responsibilities will permit people to better use their schools. 170 Suggestions for Further Study Considerable interest in differentiated staffing has developed recently. There is definite need for further investigation with many of the components of a differentiated staffing program. Much of the recent literature is rhetoric and is not substantiated by research. A lack of secondary schools actually engaged in differentiated staffing explains the absence of suf- ficient research on the concept. As more schools make the transition to differentiated staffing patterns, hard data should become available. It is suggested that more research be done on the following topics: 1. Characteristics of school districts utilizing differentiated staffing patterns. a. Are they large or small districts? b. What type of students attend these schools? o. Is there more than one secondary school in the district? d. What is the economic base of the school dis- trict? 2. Rearrangement Of the administrator's role. a. What tasks were deleted from his role? b. What new tasks were added because of dif- ferentiated staffing? c. What is his position in the decision-making process? d. Has he maintained his salary position in relationship to teachers? 3. Reallocation of budgetary dollars. a. Has there been an increase in money budgeted for resources? 10. 171 b. Has there been an increase in money budgeted for planning and in-service? c. Have teachers been involved in budget allo- cation? Teacher retention rates. a. Has the evaluation process changed? b. Has differentiated staffing retained the good teachers? Student-teacher ratios. a. Has the student-teacher ratio increased? b. Has the adult density increased? Number of instructional levels. a. What is the usual number of instructional levels for the professional? b. Are there communications difficulties between levels? Teacher involvement in the decision-making process. a. Is a new structure set up for decision making? b. Are the teachers held accountable for decisions? c. Are there more decisions to be made? Amount of clerical work performed. a. TO what extent does the professional still have clerical work? b. Is there an increase in the total amount of clerical work? Differentiated instruction. a. Are there more benefits for the student? b. To what extend is individualized instruction performed? Building modifications. a. What type of working spaces do the para- professionals need? b. What amount of Spaces should be large group or small group Spaces? 11. 172 Colleges and universities preparing teachers. a. How many are preparing personnel for dif- ferentiated staffing programs? b. What type of program are they employing? c. What are the long-range supply and demand projections for the teacher job market assuming all schools were utilizing dif- ferentiated staffing? BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY Books Almack, John C., and Bursch, James F. The Administration of Consolidated and Village Schools. Boston: Houghton Mifflin and Company, 1925. 88998. David W. The Decatur-Lakeview Plan: A Practical Application of tHE Trump Plan. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: PrentIEe-Hall, 1964. Benson, Charles S. The Economics Of Public Education. Boston: Houghton MiffIin and'Company{II96I. Brown, Ray E. Judgment in Administration. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1966. Bruner, J. S. The Process of Education. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 196I. Bush, Robert N., and Allen, Dwight W. A New Design for High School Education. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1964. Callahan, Raymond E. Education and the Cult of Efficiency. Chicago: University of Chicago Press,’1962. Chamberlain, Leo M., and Kindred, Leslie W. 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Wayne County Intermediate School District Paraprofessional Project. "Initial Application for Operational Funds, E.S.E.A., P.L. 89-10, Title III." Detroit: Wayne County Intermediate School District, 1968. APPENDICES APPEND IX A February 23, 1971 Dr. Fenwick English Arizona State University Tempe, Arizona Dear Dr. English: During our telephone conversation on Tuesday, February 23, 1971, you consented to help validate my questionnaire on "Differentiated Staffing." I appreciate the time you are willing to take. You have been selected by me because of your competency in the field of staff utilization. My committee chairman, Dr. Stanley Hecker of Michigan State University, has con- curred with my selections. Your comments relative to my questionnaire will serve to make the instrument much more realistic. The title of my dissertation will be "Differentiated Staff- ing: Administration Courses of Action." The question- naire will survey secondary schools in the country that have changed their staffing pattern. It will be mailed to the person considered most responsible for the imple- mentation to "Differentiated Staffing." My data will be reported in the following broad cate- gories: 1. An analysis of the rationale for "Differentiated Staffing." 2. An analysis of counterproductive components. 3. An analysis of each of the major areas of the survey. 4. An analysis of the overall feasibility of "Dif- ferentiated Staffing" from an administrative vieWpOint. 5. An analysis of evaluation as it relates to administrative courses of action. It is important that you realize that the questionnaire consists of a number of factors that tend to change when staffing patterns are changed. The respondents will be expected to indicate an increase or decrease in the par- ticular factor, following their schools' shift to 184 um: .u. '.l'l ‘m-qr' 185 "Differentiated Staffing." (Pages 2, 3, 4, S, 6, 7). The respondents will also be expected to indicate relative importance of factors dealing with rationale and evalu- ation. (See pages 1 and 8.) As you analyze items in the questionnaire please use the following format. If possible please use a red pencil or pen. 1. If item is pertinent and should be retained, make a check beside it. 2. If item is pertinent, but needs revision in word- ing, mark a capital R beside it. 3. If item is not pertinent, run a line through it. In order to make my questionnaire as pertinent as pos— sible, I would like to contact you again by telephone on Tuesday, March 2, 1971, at 10:30 A.M. to clarify any concerns that you might have with the instrument. After the telephone conversation, I would appreciate the return of the questionnaire. Sincerely, Darrel Weller Assistant Principal Ottawa Hills High School Grand Rapids, Michigan 186 GENERAL COMMENTS 1. Length 2. Format 3. Omission of Important Material 4. Clarity of Instructions 5. Items Included in Questionnaire 6. Other Suggestions APPENDIX B APPENDIX B Dwight Allen School of Education University Of Massachusetts Amherst, Massachusetts 01002 Edgar H. Beebe--Superintendent 5203 W. Genesee Street Camillus, New York 13031 Robert Bhaerman A.F.T. Department of Research 1012 14th Street N.W. Washington, D.C. 20005 Lloyd Bishop School of Education New York University Washington Square New York, New York 10003 Jack Bookbinder Director of Art Education Board of Education 21 and Parkway Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19103 ROSS L. Bortner Coatesville Area School District #1550 1515 E. Lincoln Highway Coatesville, Pennsylvania 19320 Norman J. Boyan Graduate School of Education University of California Santa Barbara, California 93106 Harold Braustein District #3 New York City Public Schools 80 Montgomery Street New York, New York 10002 187 188 Dr. Harold Buffie School of Education Indiana University Bloomington, Indiana Dr. Robert L. Buser Professor of Secondary Education Southern Illinois, University Carbondale, Illinois 62901 Evelyn F. Carlson Chicago Board of Education 228 N. LaSalle Street Chicago, Illinois 60601 Mr. Julian D. Crocker, Principal Norwood Elementary School 19810 N.W. 14th Court Miami, Florida 33169 Floyd David, Project Director Florida School Staffing Study Sarasota County School Board 2418 Hatton Street Sarasota, Florida 33577 Donald E. Davis Associate Professor College of Education University of Minnesota 203 Burton Hall Minneapolis, Minnesota 55418 Dr. Mike DeBloOis School of Education Florida State University Tallahassee, Florida 32304 Allen L. Dobbins John Adams High School 5700 Northeast 39th Avenue Portland, Oregon 97211 Thomas L. Dugger Thurston School 2100 Park Avenue Laguna Beach, California 92651 Carolyn Ellner Claremont Graduate School Claremont, California 189 Car M. Foster 506 W. Hill Street Louisville, Kentucky 40208 Alan Gartner Associate Director New Careers Development Center School of Education 238 East Building New York, New York 10003 Mr. JO Glick, Project Manager Florida School Staffing Study Leon County Public Schools Tallahassee, Florida 32304 Arnold Glovinsky Wayne County Intermediate School District 1500 Guardian Building Detroit, Michigan 48226 Wilfred Gunderson Ferndale School District #502 P.O. Box 698 Ferndale, Washington 98248 Richard Hammes School of Education Wisconsin State University Oshkosh, Wisconsin 54901 David D. Island School of Education Washington University Seattle, Washington Dr. Kenneth Jenkins, Principal North Miami Beach Senior High School 14027 N.E. 16th Court North Miami, Florida 33161 Morton A. Johnson School Information and Research Service 100 Crockett Street Seattle, Washington 98109 Morris Keeton, Dean Antioch-Putney Graduate School of Education Yellow Springs, Ohio 190 Mr. Jerry Krumbin Stanford University Graduate Student Cost Estimation of Staffing Clark Lewis Ontario-Montclair School District P.O. Box 313 Ontario, California 91764 Mr. James Lewis Assistant Principal wyandanch High School Wyandanch, New York Russell Merrill Western States Small Schools Project 1400 University Club Building Salt Lake City, Utah Roy Meyer Mounds View Independent School District #621 1900 West County Road F St. Paul, Minnesota 55112 Hollis H. Moore Marin County Schools 201 Tamal Vista Blvd. Corte Madera, California 94925 James Moore 374 Knott Building Tallahassee, Florida 32304 Dr. Joseph Oakey Office of Research and Development Niskayuna Public Schools Niskayuna, New York 13209 James L. Olivero--Director Southwestern Cooperative Educational Laboratory Inc. 117 Richmond Drive N.E. Albuquerque, New Mexico 87106 Rudophy Onstad Bremerton Consolidate School District Burwell and Montgomery Bremerton, Washington 98310 M. Pettigrew--Superintendent 101 Johnson Moberly, Missouri 65270 191 Dr. Gene M. Pillot Assistant Superintendent Sarasota School District 2418 Hatton Street Sarasota, Florida 33577 Dr. Edward Pino Cherry Creek Schools 4700 South Yosemite Street Englewood, Colorado 80110 Dr. Robert Pommerenke School of Education Ohio University Athens, Ohio Malcolm Provus Directory of Research Pittsburgh Public Schools 371 S. Bellefield Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15213 Region II Curriculum Improvement Center Shepherd College Shepherdstown, West Virginia Dr. James A. Reynolds 2420 Woodson Road Overland, Missouri William A. Volk Prince William County Schools Independent Hill Annex Manassas, Virginia 22110 Mr. Oscar P. Weaver, Principal Rickards High School 3013 Jim Lee Road Tallahassee, Florida 32304 W. E. Whaley Administrative Associate Florida School Staffing Study Department of Education Room 374, Knott Building Tallahassee, Florida 32304 Dr. Wayne WOrner--Superintendent 115 North 4th Street Grand Forks, North Dakota 58201 James Zaharis 809 W. Main Street Mesa, Arizona APPENDIX C APPENDIX C ESTABLISHING A RATIONALE FOR DIFFERENTIATED STAFFING Instructions: Each of the following statements O has been advanced as a rationale 3 for differentiating a staff. Rate u u m 8 u 8 how important they were to your g 5 '3 g g o 5 ' ‘- u u u u schgoltagfyou moved to differenti >.3 8 '3 g 8 gig ate 5 a ing. 3 2‘ 3“” 2‘8 2‘? S >H H OHZHKIIM 1. Searching for efficiency. 2. Providing students with a greater responsi- bility for their own learning. 3. Building of a career ladder. 4. Providing teachers with a stronger voice in determination of school policy. 5. Creating an active role for the learner. 6. Placing the teacher in a new role as facilitator of learning. 7. Providing better accountability for the organization. 8. Individualizing instruction. ~ 9. Preparing for the advent of man-machine ' learning systems. 10. Establishing teacher performance as the essential criteria to be used in staffing a school. 11. Promoting the ability of the organization to become adaptive. 12. Strengthening the status of the teacher. 13. Bringing more community people into the school staffing pattern. 192 193 ESTABLISHING NEW ORGANIZATIONAL PATTERNS w Instructions: Indicate by checking the appropri- 3 ate category, any change in the a following items, after your school 3; g g g m 5 moved to a differentiated staffing mg g g 8 3‘3 pattern- 2:: 2 a z: a a: .. ms: 0 c o s m > 0 AH U) H 2 H (3 4 )H 1. Data processing and computer capability within your system. 2. Subgrouping of students by the professional. 3. Time set aside for planning and coordination. 4. Flexibility permitted a department to change their staffing pattern. 5. Time spent by teachers developing instruc- tional materials. 6. Time spent in long-range planning. 7. Length of the work year for the professional. 8. Number of courses available to the student. 9. Input from consultants from outside the school system. 10. Ability of teachers to create new organi- zational patterns. 11. Amount of time needed for coordination between teachers. 12. Restrictions placed on class size. 13. Restrictions placed on the number of teacher preparations. 14. Amount of in-service time needed to famili- arize teachers with new organizational patterns. 15. Mini-courses available to students. 16. Amount of actual teacher-student contact hours allocated to a course Of study. 17. Time needed by administration for supervision. Instructions: 1594 ESTABLISHMENT OF NEW ROLES Indicate by checking the appropri- ate category, any change in the o H o 8 following items, after your school 3 g 3 3 5 moved to a differentiated staff- 8 m m e g~u . 0 o m o o e H ing pattern. a w o u w w u u o E o u o m w 3 c o c o c 8 > o HmHZH at“ 1. Time spent writing job descriptions. 2. Time spent in analysis of staffing patterns. 3. Commitment by teachers for differentiated staffing. 4. Number of different positions open to the professional. 5. Time spent on legislation and certification relative to the paraprofessional. 6. Conflict between teachers and adminis- trators over working conditions. 7. Conflict between teachers and adminis- trators over wage differences. 8. Conflict between teachers and adminis- trators over work load. 9. Time needed by the new teacher to function effectively. 10. Departmental involvement in teacher load determination. ll. Adult-pupil ratio within the building (count professionals and auxiliaries as adults). 12. Student acceptance of the new roles for teachers. 13. Community acceptance of the new roles for teachers. 14. Amount of independent study time assigned to students. lS.' Amount of time the professional spends in contact with students. 16. Number of students contacted by the professional. 1?. Instructional tasks performed by the paraprofessional. 18. Use of teacher load formulas. 19. Autonomy for the professional. 20. Number of formal meetings within the building. WI) fw:.;;__-_ 195 NEGOTIATIONS Instructions: Indicate by checking the appropri- ate category, any change in the following items, after your school moved to a differentiated staffing pattern. Increase Increase No Increase Decrease for Item Some Large Average Score 1. Ability to change teacher-pupil ratios. 2. Time Spent on negotiations. 3. Time needed to process grievances. 4. Restrictions placed upon administrative decision making. 5. Length of the working day for the teacher. 6. Time needed ior evaluation of teachers. 7. Responsibilities for the teacher. 8. Ability to dismiss a professional. 9. Time spent on overall conflict resolution. 10. Deviations from the master contract. ll. Conflict between professional and paraprofessional. 12. Teacher demand for merit pay. 13. Support of the local teacher negotiating unit. 14. Involvement of the state teacher's association. 15. Bilateral management (teachers involved, consulted, and agreement sought before decision making) at the building level. 196 ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS Instructions: Indicate by checking the appropri- 3 ate category, the impact made upon 0 o the budget for your school after 6 w m o m 8 you had moved into a differentiated g g g 3 3‘3 staffing pattern. m o o m m m H own m n H u u u o E o o o m w m c o c o c m > o AHmHZH Q «tn 1. Amount of money Spent per student. 2. Budgetary amount allocated to teacher salaries. 3. Budgetary amount allocated to adminis- trative salaries. 4. Budgetary amount allocated for instructional materials and equipment. 5. Budgetary amount allocated to para- professional salaries. 6. Time spent On long-range cost analysis. 7. Time spent evaluating economic input with specific outputs. 8. Time spent for in-service training programs. 9. Budgetary amount allocated for substitute teachers. 10. Additional wages paid the professional for summer work. 11. Data processing and computer costs. 12. Total budget allocated for your school. 13. Demand for administrative secretaries. l4. Demand for clerical help for the teacher. 197 CHANGE PROCESS Instructions: Indicate by checking the appropri- 3 ate category, any change in the 8 following items, after your school m m m m m E moved to a differentiated staffing g g g g g‘g pattern. 3.3 o 8 S 3 H H o E o o o m u m c O c O c m > o A H m H 2 H o «'H 1. Ability of teachers to set goals. 2. Ability of teachers to solve problems. 3. System's ability to involve teachers in formal decision making. 4. Research under field conditions. 5. Community involvement in the change process. 6. Strength of informal groups within the professional ranks. 7. Student involvement in the change process. 8. Use of educational rhetoric about change. 9. In-service training sessions within the system. 10. Federal money for the effort. ll. Tolerance level of the staff for more change. 12. Written procedures for Operations. 13. Willingness of teachers to accept decisions of others. 14. Ability Of teachers to interact with others. 15. Ability of the system to change or modify plans. 16. Number of teachers who have leadership roles. 198 AREAS OF RESISTANCE Instructions: Listed below are possible areas where resistance may occur as a school moves to differentiated a staffing. Indicate by checking o . o o o w o the appropriate category the extent 0 o o U o m of resistance that your school u 5 5 5 5 o 5 . . . -H u u o u u o~u experienced as it moved into a c m m.H m m m H . . . ~H-H Q-H U-H -H u differentiated staffing pattern. 'H 8 g m;: g o 8 g a 8mmgqmzx‘g 8 on evaluation of the following 3‘8 g 8‘; o W E items, after your school moved to Q u m > o 2 3,3 . . . m a differentiated staffing pattern. '3 g'g m'gfj'g w u H 4045434533 m 5 m 9 m A WIB dlu 1. Assessment of academic achievement. 2. Assessment of student study habits. 3. Assessment of student self-responsibility. 4. Assessment of teacher attitudes. 5. Assessment of community awareness and acceptance. 6. Assessment of student attitudes. 7. Assessment of work performed by para- professionals. 8. Assessment of attitudes of para- professionals. 9. Assessment of teacher load. 10. Assessment of student drOpout rate. 11. Assessment Of student attendance patterns. 12. Assessment of college entrance rates. 13. Assessment of number of scholarships earned. 14. Amount of research being performed ' at the building level. "‘iiii‘vmiiiiii