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""""'¥"' "(44" 4144,44, 44" 4 ”-74.4" 444444 444 ,4" .4444} '44 "4'44"! 44 41'4"}: I mulllwill\llllllllwwl LIBRARY Michigan Stain This is to certify that the thesis entitled Instructional Media Use By Faculty Members in Almadu Bello University, Zaria: A Study Of Factors Related To. Educational Innovations In A Nigerian University Context ... A. presented by Abraham Inanoya Imogie has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for De t. Sgc. Ed. & Curriculur Bruce L. Miles, Ph.D. Major professor Date November 29, 1979 07639 MSU LIBRARIES OWNER Wefw 5;5_, %» . J ~ 1 7 ,_ K134, ”WEB 2.3 {60 018 fiLKZO'J (FEW 6‘2 LKZ?“ I. h *1h3 RETURNING MATERIALS: Place in book drop to remove this checkout from your record. FINES will be charged if book is returned after the date _stqmped below. INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA USE BY FACULTY MEMBERS IN AHMADU BELLO UNIVERSITY, ZARIA: A STUDY OF FACTORS RELATED TO EDUCATIONAL INNOVATIONS IN A NIGERIAN UNIVERSITY CONTEXT By Abraham Inanoya Imogie A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY COLLEGE OF EDUCATION Department of Secondary Education and Curriculum (Division of Instructional Development and Technology) 1979 ABSTRACT INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA USE BY FACULTY MEMBERS IN AHMADU BELLO UNIVERSITY, ZARIA: A STUDY OF FACTORS RELATED TO EDUCATIONAL INNOVATIONS IN A NIGERIAN UNIVERSITY CONTEXT By Abraham Inanoya Imogie Purpose: The primary purpose of this study was to determine the individual and institutional factors which influence use of instructional media by faculty members in Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. To achieve this purpose, four objectives were set for the study: (1) determine the ex- tent to which faculty members utilize instructional media; (2) determine the extent to which individual faculty members' perceptions about instructional media, their job status, previous skills and sources of information influence their use of instructional media; (3) identify the ways in which institutional factors such as budgetary provisions, personnel reward mechanisms and administrative policies influence faculty members' use of instructional media. The ultimate purpose was to draw conclusions and make recommendations to assist a variety of people concerned with educational innovations involving instructional media Abraham Inanoya Imogie in Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria in particular and in higher education institutions in Nigeria in general. Design and Procedures: The sample used in this study comprised 273 faculty members from nine academic faculties in Ahmadu Bello Uni- versity, Zaria. The sample represented a response rate of 73.8 percent of the total faculty members (370) who were randomly selected for the study. One common questionnaire was completed by the re- spondents. The questionnaire was used to collect data ' about the respondents' personal characteristics such as job status, perceptions, levels of skills and training in . the use of instructional media. Data were also collected on frequency of instructional media use, University support for instructional media, sources of information and the constraints on instructional media use. Five research questions and six hypotheses generated from the literature review were answered and tested re- spectively through descriptive statistics. Results: The answers to the research questions revealed that: 1. There was low utilization of instructional media by faculty members. Abraham Inanoya Imogie 2. There were six major constraints on the use of instructional media: (a) nonavailability of instructional media when needed: (b) heavy teaching load: (0) lack of appropriate in- structional media in some subject areas: (d) lack of training and skills: (e) irregular electrical power supply and (f) lack of infor- mation about instructional media. 3. A majority of the faculty members had strong positive perceptions about instructional media. 4. A majority of the faculty members had no previous training and skills in instructional media use. 5. A majority of the faculty members felt that the University was not providing them the necessary support to encourage them to use instructional media. 6. A majority of the faculty members had little or no information about instructional media which are available for their use. Five of the six hypotheses tested were significantly sup- ported. For example: Hl . The frequency of instructional media use did not vary from one faculty-member grade to another. Abraham Inanoya Imogie 2 . With less perceived constraints on instruc- tional media use, the frequency of instruc- tional media use by faculty members was high. H3 . The frequency of instructional media use by faculty members was high when there were more positive perceptions about instructional media. H4 . The frequency of instructional media use was high when faculty members had more positive perceptions about university administrative support for instructional media innovation. H5 . Faculty members with previous training in in- structional media had a higher frequency of instructional media use than those without previous media training. H6 . Faculty members who have more sources of in- formation about available instructional media and who used these sources more frequently had a high frequency of instructional media use . Conclusions: A variety of instructional media (equipment and materials) were available in the 19 instructional media units in the University. However, there was low utilization of instructional media because of many individual and in- stitutional constraints. Abraham Inanoya Imogie An Instructional Innovations Program (IIP) model in higher education was proposed for implementation. The proposal was designed to minimize the identified constraints and encourage faculty members to use instructional media. DEDICATED To my father, Oyarekhua who at 98 years old fully appreciates the value of investments in western education. To my late mother, Idegbumah who in 1954 enthusiastically inducted me into the process of which this dissertation is a peak. To my brothers and sisters, especially Unuogietse who over the years have constantly supported and sustained my edu- cation. To my wife, Abigail and children (Irhafe, ngitsue and Idegbumah) whose abundant love, co-Operation and support have been crucial factors to my successful career at Michigan State University. ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This study has been completed with the active support in the form of guidance, advice, criticism and encourage- ment from many people. Due to space limitation, it is not possible to name everybody in this category here. However, it is essential to acknowledge some of the people who deserve special mention. Dr. Bruce L. Miles, my academic advisor and chairman of my dissertation guidance committee was very friendly and thoughtful in guidance. His advice, suggestions and keen interest in my academic program facilitated the completion of this dissertation. Dr. James L. Page, Dr. P.M. Riethmiller and Dr. Fellipe Korzenny as members of my dissertation guidance committee offered very useful suggestions and ideas which helped to facilitate the completion of this study. My earlier contact with them in their regular classroom teaching during my course work helped to strengthen the self-confidence and momentum that were vital to the completion of my studies in Michigan State University. Many members of the staff at Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria deserve mention for their moral and material support during the collection of data for this study. They include iii Mr. and Mrs. Saibu Afegbua of Kashim Ibrahim Library: Mr. Samson Abu of Electrical Engineering Department: Mr. Jacob Aigbudume of Chemical Engineering Department: Dr. Bayo Ogunbi, Dr. Oke (Director) and Mrs. Alberta Mayberry (Co- ordinator of Campus Services), all of the Center for Edu- cational TechnologY; and Dr. K.A.N. Esievo of the Veterinary Pathology Department. My sincere thanks and gratitude go to all the persons mentioned above. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Dedication. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Acknowledgements. . . . . . . . . . . List Of Tables. 0 O I O O O O O O O I O 0 L181: Of Figures 0 O O O c O O O O I O O 0 CHAPTER I. THE PROBLEM II. Statement of the Problem. . . . . . The Case for Instructional Media in Nigerian Universities . . . . . Significance of the Study . . . The Purpose of the Study. . . . Generalizability of the Study . . Theoretical Framework . . . . . . . . Research Questions. . . . Research Hypotheses . . . Limitations of the Study. Definitions of Terms. . . Summary . . . . . . . . . Overview. . . . Footnotes for Chapter 1 REVIEW OF LITERATURE. Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . Rationale for Instructional Media in Higher Education. . . . . . . . . . . History of Instructional Media in Nigerian Universities . . . . Instructional Media At Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria . . . . . . . . . . Resistance to Instructional Media Use in Higher Education . . . . . . . . . Diffusion of Instructional Media in Higher Education. . . . . . . . . . . Summary . . . . . . . . . . . Footnotes For Chapter II. . . . . . . . ii .iii . ix . xi H H N V . 42 . 58 II. . .v..\|1.lll|llil.|l'l 11 CHAPTER III. IV. V. PROCEDURES AND METHODOLOGY. . Introduction. . Hypotheses. . . . . . . . . . . The Population. . . . . . . . . The Sample. . . . . . . . . . The Selection of the Sample . Source of Data. . . . . . . . . Instrumentation . . . . . . Pilot Test. . . . . . . . . . Collection of Data. . . . . . Administration of Questionnaire Percentage of Responses . . . . Data Analysis . . . . . . . . Summary . . . . . . . . . . . ANALYSIS OF RESULTS . Introduction. . . . . . . Findings of the Study . . . . Research Question 1. . . . . Answers to Research Question Research Question 2. . . . . Answers to Research Question Hypothesis 1 and Analysis of Research Question 3 (a). . . Answers to Research Question Hypothesis 2 and Analysis of Research Question 3 (b). . . Answers to Research Question Hypothesis 3 and Analysis of Research Question 4. . . . . Answers to Research Question Hypothesis 4 . . . . . . . . Analysis of Results... . Hypothesis 5 . . . . . . . Analysis of Results. . . . . Research Question 5.. . . . Answers to Research Question Hypothesis 6 . . . . . . . . Analysis of Results. . . . . Summary of Findings . . . . . . l 2 Results . 5 (a) Results 5 (b5 Results 4 com. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS. IntrOduCtion. O O O O O O O O 0 vi Summary of Findings. . . . . . . . Low Utilization of Instructional Media. . Major Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . Perceptions About Instructional Media . . Instructional Media Skills and Training . Instructional Media Use and Perceptions . Sources of Information. . . . . . . . . Faculty Members Grade and Instructional Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . University Support. . . . . . . . . . . Instructional Media Use and University Support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Instructional Media Use and Perceived Constraints . . . . . . . . . Instructional Media Use, Skills and Training Levels . . . . . . . . . . . Instructional Media Use and Sources of Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Discussion and Conclusions . . . . . . . . . Recommendations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Priority Recommendations. . . . . . . . . Skills and Training. . . . . . . . . Technical Facilities and Services. . . Availability of Instructional Materials Sources of Information . . . . . . . Services of the Center for Educational Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Major Constraints and University Support. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Comprehensive Recommendations . . . . . . Components of the Instructional Innovations Program. . . . . . . . . . Learning Resources Center . . . . . Center for Educational Technology . Instructional Resources Development Implications for Future Research . . . Reflections. . . . . . . . . . . . . Footnotes for Chapter V . . . . . . . . . APPENDICES A. Statistics of Applications and Offers of Admissions to Nigerian Universities . . . . . . B. Priority Given to Education In The Third National DeveIOpment Plan, 1975-80. . . . . . . C. Universities in Nigeria . . . . . . . . . . . . D. Brief Description of Academic Positions in Nigerian Universities . . . . . . . . . . . . . E. Summary of the Functions of Instructional Media Centers in Higher Education . . . . . . . . . F. Academic Units in Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. vii .143 .144 .145 .146 .148 .150 APPENDICES G. Questionnaire Used in Collecting Data. H. Letter to the Directors, Center for Educational Technology, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria . I. Letter to the Co-Ordinator (Campus Services) Center for Educational Technology, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. J. Researcher's Letter to Respondents . K. Letter of IntroduCtion From Dr. L. Departments and Academic Faculties From Which Sample was Drawn . M. Committee of Deans and Directors BIBLIOGRAPHY viii Bruce Miles. 152 161 162 163 164 165 167 . 169 LIST OF TABLES TABLE PAGE Sampling of Faculty Members. . . . . . . . 74 Distribution of Sample Among Academic Faculties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 Distribution of Responses by Sex . . . . . 81 Distribution of Responses by Nationality 82 Responses from Faculty of Agriculture. . 82 Responses from Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 Responses from Faculty of Education. . . . 82 Responses from Faculty of Engineering. . . 82 Responses from Faculty of Environmental Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 Responses from Faculty of Human Medicine . 83 Responses from Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 Responses from Faculty of Science. . . . . 83 Responses from Faculty of Veterinary Medicine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8“ Cross-Tabulations of Frequencies of Use of Slides by Faculty Member Grades . . . .95 Cross-Tabulations of Frequencies of Use of Overhead Transparencies by Faculty Member Grades. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .95 4.3 Number and Percentage of Faculty Members Rating Constraints on Instructional Media use-O C O I O O O O O O O 97 4.4 Summary of Crosstabulations of Frequencies of Use of Slides by Faculty Members Constraints. .a. . . . . . . . . 99 4.5 Summary of Crosstabulations of Frequencies of Use of Overhead Transparencies by Faculty Members Constraints. . . . . . . 99 4.6 Number and Percentage of Faculty Members Responding to Positive Perceptions State- ment about Instructional Media . . . . . 101 4.7 Number and Percentage of Faculty Members Responding to Negative Perceptions State- ments about Instructional Media. . . . . 101 4.8 Number and Percentage of Faculty Members With Various Instructional Media Skills. 101 l-'l-‘ l—‘H \OCDV QUICK» NH 4:" 4? Com wt.) bout.) wwww CA.) N l-—‘ 1..sz l—‘O ix TABLE 4.9 4.10 4.11 4.12 4.13 4.14 4.15 4.16 4.17 4.18 4.19 PAGE Summary of Crosstabulations of Frequencies of Use of Slides by Positive and Negative Perceptions About Instruc- tional Media. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .103 Summary of Crosstabul tion of Frequencies of Use of Overhead Transparencies by Positive and Negative Perceptions About Instructional Media . . . . . . . . . . . . .104 Number and Percentage of Fa ulty Members Receiving University Support for Instruc- tional Media Use. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .106 Crosstabulations of Frequencies of Use of Slides by University Media-Related Support. .108 Summary of Crosstabulations of Frequencies of Use of Overhead Transparencies by University Media Related Support. . . . . . .108 Summary of Crosstabulations of Frequencies of Use of Slides by Instructional Media Skills. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Summary of Crosstabulations of‘Frequencies of Use of Overhead Transparencies by Instructional Media Use . . . . . . . . . . .112 Summary of Crosstabulations of Frequencies of Use of Audiotapes by Instructional Media Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .112 Number and Percentage of Faculty Member Receiving Information on Instructional Media.114 Summary of Crosstabulations of Frequencies of Use of Slides by Sources of Information. .116 Summary of Crosstabulations of Frequencies of Use of Overhead Transparencies by Sources of Information. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .116 , 110 LIST OF FIGURES FIGURE PAGE 1.1 2.1 2.2 3.1 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 5.1 Student Enrollment in Nigerian Universities 1961- 1978. . . . . . . 10 Total Student Enrollment and Staff Strength at Ahmadu Bello University Zaria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 Organization Chart Centre For Educational Technology, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria. . . . . . . 51 Map of Nigeria Showing the Locations of Some of The Campuses of Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria . . . . . . . . 73 Number of Faculty Members Using Instructional Media . . . . . . . . . . 90 Number of Professors Using Instructional Members . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 Number of Readers, (Associate Profes- sors) Using Instructional Media . . . . 92 Number of Senior Lecturers Using Instructional Media . . . . . . . . . 92 Number of Lecturers Using Instructional Media a o o o o o o o o o o o o 92 Number of Assistant Lecturers Using Instructional Media . . . . . . . . . . 92 PrOposed Model for Instructional Innovations Program at Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria . . . . . . . . . . . 135 Universities in Nigeria (1948-79) . . . 145 xi CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM Statement of the Problem This study is concerned primarily with the determi— nation of the factors related to the use of instructional media at Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. In general, it is a study of factors hindering or facilitating educational innovations in a Nigerian university. The recognition of the power of education as an important instrument of nation building has helped to accelerate the development of uni- versity education in Nigeria. Although the number of uni- versities and the student pOpulation in Nigeria have both increased considerably since 1960, the situation is far from being satisfactory. The prevailing problems in the development of univer- sity education in Nigeria have been articulated in the fol- lowing statement issued by the Federal Nigerian Government: Although, the higher education base of the country has steadily increased in the past decade with the creation of additional universities, nevertheless, the growth rate of enrollment remains rather low. Two main constraints, shortages of aca- demic staff and of accommodation for staff and students have conjoined to im- pose severe limitations on University admission. 2 As a result of the limitations on University ad- missions, the current student enrollments in Nigeria uni- versities represent only about 15 percent of the potential student enrollment in the 13 universities. The current limitations on university admissions amidst the very high demand for university education (Appendix A) are strong indicators that increases in university enrollments are expected to continue in the next decades. Besides, the increases in enrollments are inevitable because the Federal Nigerian Government continues to take several steps to en- able Nigerian universities to increase their annual intakes of students. One of the results of the continuous increases in student enrollments and the shortage of academic staff in Nigerian universities in the late 1960s and the early 1970s was the increased use of instructional media. The innovation became necessary because of the resultant large classes which made the traditional lecture methods increasingly inade- quate and inapprOpriate. The above situation is similar to that which existed in the late 1950s and early 1960s when instructional media became pOpular in higher education in the United States. During that period, it was strongly believed that a potential solution to many of the problems confronting higher education could be found within the field of instructional media. This belief was strengthened by the development of a new trend 3 towards a new kind of support for instructional services and extensive development of facilities to encourage the use of instructional media. According to Brown and Thornton: Time was when the principal teaching resources available to a professor were the books in the college library, his chalkboard, and an oc- casional map on the classroom wall...Recently, higher education has exhibited a trend toward a new kind of support for instructional ser- vices and an extensive development of facilities to encourage the utilization of new media. This trend is founded on the changing roles of college teachers and influenced by increased enrollments, rising costs, and a growing understanding of the psychology of learning. The gradual shift towards the use of instructional media in the United States was encouraged by the increased availability of effective, appropriate, and convenient materials, devices, machines and classroom facilities de- signed for improving teaching. Apart from the availability of materials, some of the reasons for the increased use of instructional media in higher education during the period can be summed up under what Lewis Mayhew called Contributions of New Media.3 These contributions included: 1. Improvement of Teaching . Enrichment of Teaching . Greater Service to Greater Numbers . Conserving Teacher Time 2 3 4 5. Curricular Enrichment 6. Independent Study 7 . Improved Methods of Teaching L, 8. Understanding Learning Theory The increased utilization of instructional media in higher education in the United States was also the result of the encouragement and motivation provided by both the National Defense Education Act of 1958 and the Higher Edu- cation Act, 1965. Following the launching of the Russian Sputnik, there was a renewed commitment to the security of the United States through the "fullest development of the mental resources and technical skills of its young men and women." That commitment called for additional educational opportunities including the use of modern scientific tech- niques. The following extracts from the National Defense Education Act of 1958 (Title VII) stated that the Act was designed to encourage research and experimentation in more effective utilization of the new media for educational purposes: In carrying out the provision of this part the Commissioner, in cooperation with the Advisory Committee on New Educational Media...shall (through grants or contracts) conduct, assist and foster research and experimentation in the develOpment and evaluation of projects involving television, radio, motion pictures, and related media of communication which may prove of value to State or local educational agencies in the operation of their public elementary or secondary schools, and to institutions of higher education, including the development of new and more effective techniques and methods: (1) for utilizing and adapting motion pictures, video tapes and other audio-visual aids, film strips, slides and other visual aids, recordings (including magnetic tapes) and other auditory aids, and radio, or television program scripts for such purposes: (2) for training teachers to utilize such media with maximum effective- ness: and (3) for presenting academic subject matter through such media.4 The Higher Education Act of 1965 was a further demon- stration of the commitment by the Federal Government in the United States to the use of instructional media in higher education. A significant part of this commitment was fund- ing. For example, the Higher Education Act of 1965 had the following financial provisions: There are authorized to be appropriated $50,000,000 for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1966, and for each of the two succeeding fiscal years, to enable the Commissioner to make grants under this part to institutions of higher education to assist and encourage such institutions in the acquisition for library purposes of books, periodicals, documents, magnetic tapes, phonograph records, audiovisual materials, a d other related library materials... The increased use of instructional media in higher education in the United States continued through the 19603 to the 19703. For example, in 1972 the Carnegie Commission on Higher Education Report and Recommendations discussed extensively the role, advantages and limitations of in- structional media in higher education. In the report en- titled The Fourth Revolution - Instructional Technology in 6 Higher Education it was recommended that educational insti- tutions, industries and foundations concerned with edu- cational endeavors should make efforts to advance the utilization and development of available technologies for the instruction of the youths.6 Today, the world is a place where ideas and inno- vations can hardly be confined to one cOuntry. Therefore, The Fourth Revolution has not been confined to the United States for the "revolution" is also taking place in de- ve10ping countries such as Nigeria. There is evidence that some Nigerian universities have embraced The Fourth Revolution by engaging in a variety of instructional technology activities. For example, as far back as 1962, an Audio-Visual Aids unit was established at the University of Ibadan through the aid of UNESCO. Within the last two decades, other Audio-Visual units have been es- tablished at the Universities of Lagos, Ife, and Nigeria (Nsukka). At the Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, the Audio- Visual Aids Communication Unit was established in 1963. The unit at Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, now known as The Center for Educational Technology (CET), has developed to a point where it can be described as a leader in educational innovations involving instructional media in Nigerian universities. It is obvious that instructional innovations cost money, time and energy. Inspite of these, there is a strong belief in Nigeria that instructional media can overcome some 7 of the basic instructional problems created by the new demands and the expansion in university education. However, the crucial issue in Nigeria is the need to avoid situations where educational innovations have been introduced in higher education without commensurate considerations for both in- stitutional and individual faculty members' readiness for the change. The fact that instructional media have been in- troduced and appear to have been accepted in higher education in the United States does not guarantee that the same ac- ceptance will be found in Nigerian universities. Therefore, the problem is: What must be done to create a climate for educational innovations involving instructional media in Nigerian universities? The Case for Instructional Media in Nigerian Universities: A major emphasis in the development plans in post- independence Nigeria (since October 1, 1960) has been on the expansion of educational Opportunities. According to Tayo Akpata, (one time Commissioner for Education in Bendel State of Nigeria), the eXpansion of educational opportunities was in keeping with the "high hOpes which Nigerians place on education as a potent instrument for the transformation and modernization of their society."7 The transformation and modernization of'uuaNigerian society could not be achieved without the active participation of the government. The active participation of the government in the development of education has been illustrated by the magnitude of 8 financial resource allocation given to education. The magnitude has been summarized by the Federal Nigerian Govern- ment in the Third National Development Plan: Historically, education has enjoyed a high priority in Nigeria's development planning. In the first National Development Plan 1962- 68, it ranked fifth, judged by the magnitude of financial resource allocation. This im- plied a sector investment of 10.3 percent of the gross public sector investment of about N1.4000 billion.* In the second plan, 1970-74, the sector attracted more emphasis. Its pri- ority rating by the same criterion improved to a position second only to transport. Out of the gross public sector investment of about N2.000 billion, it accounted for N77.8 mgllion or 13.5 percent of that total investment. As a result of the high priority which the Federal Nigerian Government gave to education in the 1975-80 National Development Plan (Appendix B) the highest fiscal allocation made by both the Federal and the States Governments went to education in the social sector. 0n the whole, out of 15 sub-sectoral allocations made by all the States Governments, education received the third highest allocations. One of the outcomes of the active participation of the Nigerian Government in the development of education is the increase in the number of universities from one (1) in 1960 to 13 in 1979 (Appendix C). That represented 1200 percent increase in less than two decades. A corresponding increase in student enrollment has also been noted. Between 1960 and 1978, the student *Nl (Nigerian Naira) = $1.65 (United States Dollar) approximately. 9 population grew from 1,395 to 47,000, an increase of 3269‘ percent (Figure l-l). The increase in the number of universities and the overall expansion of higher education Opportunities have created for Nigerian universities problems such as the "shortage of academic staff" and lack of instructional materials. For Nigerian universities to c0pe with the challenges of development and modernization, the quality of instruction has to be improved through the modification of the tra— ditional teaching methods. One method that was considered necessary for improving the quality of instruction was the introduction and use of instructional media in Nigerian uni- versities. In this regard, the different Nigerian universities have decided to develop their campus instructional media services. However, such educational innovations would hardly succeed unless they were backed by a climate that was favor- able to change. Even when the decision makers in higher edu— cation finally realized the advantages of instructional media, such innovations would undoubtedly take time to gain wide acceptance among faculty members whose involvement would be crucial. There is no agreement on the most effective strategy for introducing instructional media in a given situation. However, a variety of factors related to the creation of a lO ¢ 0.5u0(0< 2355 :32. 3:2. mmmauooma $35522: 2:50.... 2. pzmajoczm #535 “pop muse.“— m?! v5-2. auras «hr—n K105 Duran $8 8:50 .552. .20....(030w 20 4.02300 Z<0.¢w2< .uutizoo 282: 9355 62¢ 38: . d .< {32:51 18:38 30.8 3:8 8:3 3:8 manna «0.5 5.89 meamchZD no «30532 mur<0.02_ C(O wemz. awGSDZ 2531:0393 11 conducive climate for innovations have been discussed by writers such as Zaltman and Duncan (1977), Diamond (1975) and Davis (1979). It was never intended that instructional media should replace faculty members in Nigerian universities. Rather instructional media were meant to be integral parts of the teachers' instructional functions. However, these intentions have always been misinterpreted and the use of instructional media by faculty members hindered because of a number of factors such as the inertia of faculty members, apathy of university administrators, and the lack of both material and human support in the universities. Significance of the Study: This study is important for a number of reasons. First, the findings of the study would be useful to the following in Nigeria: 1. Individual faculty members in Nigerian Univer- sities. 2. Heads of departments and/or academic divisions. 3. The directors and staff of Educational Technology Centers in Nigerian universities. 4. The new universities who are contemplating the introduction of instructional media. Second, there are abundant studies on the use and organization of instructional media in higher education in the United States. Some of these studies included those by 12 Evans (1962, 1970), Atwood (1964), Eichholz and Rogers (1964), Miles (1964), and McIntyre (1963). In contrast, there is a dearth of research studies on the use of instructional media in higher education in Nigeria. This study is intended pri- marily to fill the gap created by the absence of formal studies. The diffusion of instructional innovations can be facilitated by a favorable organizational climate coupled with faculty members' readiness. For example, the estab- lishment of the Center for Educational Technology (CET) was a major effort to provide physical facilities to support educational innovations involving the use of instructional media in Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. However, the provision of such physical facilities could be only one of the many factors related to the diffusion of instructional media in higher education. There could be other factors such as availability of instructional materials and equipment, faculty members' perceptions about media, university financial and general support for instructional media use, faculty development and the dissemination of in— formation. In the United States of America where similar in- structional innovations have been introduced in higher edu- cation, studies were conducted in the 1960's to identify factors related to the "extent", "whys" and "hows" of in- structional media utilization. For example, Everett Rogers (1962) identified several variables which he termed antecedents in diffusion theory. In relation to instructional media, 13 Rogers said that these antecedents are factors which exist prior to the introduction of the innovation: Antecedents are those factors present in the situation prior to the introduction of an innovation. Antecedents are of two ma or types: (1) the actor's identity and (2) his perception of the situation.9 The two categories of antecedents are prerequisites to the awareness and the eventual adoption of instructional innovations. Therefore, it was assumed that before the administrators decided to introduce instructional media in Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, considerations of the iden- tities and perceptions of the faculty members would have been considered. Usually, the aspects of organizational plans for instructional media in higher education that have been ex- amined in both prescriptive writings and formal studies in— clude the formulation of guidelines and policies, personnel assignments, provision for physical facilities and budgetary provisions for instructional media use. The assumption has been that when these are ignored in the organizational plans, there would occur low usage of instructional media. Perhaps, this was what Mayhew suggested when he said that: One is also struck by the few people actually using the equipment available...0ne matter which must be settled first is the provision of greater time for faculties to use the devices. Relatively few of the experiments realistically face the budgetary and personnel problems of allowing faculty members more time to use television, teaching machines, laboratories, or slide eguipment to enrich or improve their teaching.1 14 In a study conducted in 1962 at the University of Houston on educational television use, Evans concluded that the absence of guidelines and lack of knowledge of ante- cedents in instructional innovations may increase resistance to instructional media use by faculty members.11 12 Findings from the studies by Atwood, Eichholz and 14 indicated that without an effective Rogers13 and Miles organizational plan for-instructional innovations, faculty members will remain reluctant to modify their traditional instructional practice. These findings implied that an effective organizational plan for the diffusion of educational innovations, is a prerequisite to a high level instructional media usage by faculty members. In a study dealing with faculty members resistance to the use of instructional media, Kenneth McIntyre stressed the need to identify the specific barriers to instructional media use as a way to overcoming the resistance to instruc- tional media in higher education when he said: Although higher education has certainly provided strong stimulus to technology in our society, it has remained resistant to its use...The identification of specific barriers to the optimum use of audiovisual media in education is the first step toward devising ways of overcoming each barrier.15 Third, in view of the complexities involved in in- structional innovations, this study is necessary for the understanding of both the organizational and management techniques required for the successful introduction and diffusion of instructional innovations at Ahmadu Bello 15 University, Zaria. The hope of realizing this goal has been based on the general rationale for research. According to Charles Hoban: The purpose of research is generally accepted to be that of discovering order and regularity of events and identifying and describing the mechanisms and dynamics of orderly and regularly occurring events...testing results for likelihood of random occurence. Once established, order regularity and their dynamics enable prediction of consequences. Prediction of consequenceg permits increased control of consequences.1 The Purpose of the Study: The study is designed: 1. To determine the extent to which faculty members utilize instructional media in Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. 2. To determine the extent to which individual faculty members' perception about instructional media, their job status, previous skills in the use of instructional media and the sources of information about instructional media, influence their use of instructional media in the University. 3. To identify the ways in which institutional fac- tors such as budgetary provisions, personnel reward mechanisms and administrative policies, influence the extent to which faculty members use instructional media in the University. 16 Generalizability of the Study:. The findings from this study at Ahmadu Bello Uni- versity, Zaria, can be generalized to other Nigerian uni- versities. This assertion is based on the effects of the Federal Nigerian Government's intervention in university education. The Federal Nigerian Government has stated categorically that: Government intention to accelerate the production of higher level personnel to meet the huge requirements of the economy provides the motive force for the extent of government intervention in higher edu- cation. With higher education virtually now the exclusive responsibility of the Federal Government the bulk of the capital expenditure proposed will be accounted for by the Federal Government.l7 There are two aspects of the Federal Nigerian Govern- ment's position on higher education which make the general- izability of the findings to other Nigerian universities reasonable. First, all the Nigerian universities are Federal Nigerian Government owned and controlled. Their activities and programs are financed and co-ordinated by both the Na- tional Universities Commission (NUC) and the Federal Ministry of Education. Second, the Federal Government ownership and control affect key aspects of university development and administra- tion such as finance, recruitment, promotion and discipline of staff, administrative policies, academic programs, job status, faculty reward systems, curricula and educational 17 philosophy which have become substantially uniform in all the Nigerian universities. Theoretical Framework This study is based on theories of diffusion of in- novations. In this regard, Zaltman and Duncan's Strategies for Planned Changg (1976), Diamond et al's Instructional Development for Individualized Learning_in Higher Education (1975), Richard Evans' Resistance to Innovation in Higher Education (1970), Abedor and Sachs'...Readiness for In- structional Innovation in Higher Education (1978) provide a useful conceptual framework for this study. Of particular value to this study are the methods of reducing resistance to change treated extensively by Zaltman and Duncan. As prerequisite for effective edu- cational innovations, Zaltman and Duncan have suggested that: There should be top-level support in the system for the prOposed change or in- 18 novation or resistance will be encountered. The two authors have also stressed that: The system should try to provide rewards: -incentives to participants for ad0pting the change or innovation. -that are attractive to them as a way of reducing their resistance.l9 In planning for instructional innovations in higher education, the need for a facilitating environment must not be ignored. According to Diamond, et. a1. : 18 If a program of academic innovation is to be effective, it must exist in an environment that encourages and facil- itates change. The type of supportive climate for instructional in- novations referred to above include committed administrative leadership, support from central administration, formal faculty reward systems, established procedures and policies, formal organization to facilitate change and effective com- munications systems. Considerable attention has been devoted to the issue of organizing for the purpose of achieving the desired cli- mate for educational innoVations. In this regard, there is a school of thought which holds that a successful integration of Faculty DevelOpment (FD), Organizational Development (0D) and Instructional Development (ID) can provide the necessary readiness for instructional innovations in higher education. In support ofthis proposition, Abedor and Sachs had this to say: It is the sum of individual faculty readi- ness and organizational readiness which provides the critical combination of char- acteristics prerequisite to the adoption of a particular innovation.21 The above proposition is pertinent to this study because universities are complex entities with numerous characteristics which can hinder or facilitate the diffusion of instructional innovations. These complex characteristics are the principal targets of both Faculty Development and Organizational DevelOpment. For example, while Faculty 19 Development activities are usually focused on the knowledge, skills, sensitivities and techniques of individual faculty members, Organizational Development activities are directed at affecting changes in the structure, policies and environ- ment in which the changes are to take place. Research_Questions: Data collected for this study were used to answer the following research questions which have been derived from literature dealing with instructional innovations in higher education: 1. To what extent are the instructional media in Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria being used by faculty members? Which grades of faculty members in Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria make the most use of instructional media? (a) What are the constraints on instructional media use by faculty members in Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria? (b) What individual factors hinder or facilitate the use of instructional media by faculty members? What specific support is provided by the Univer- sity administration to encourage faculty mem- bers in the use of instructional media in Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria? 20 What are the sources from which faculty members in Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria obtain information about instructional media resources? Research Hypotheses: In this study, the following research hypotheses were tested: H1 . The frequency of instructional media use will vary from one faculty-member grade to another. . With less perceived constraints on instructional media use, frequency of instructional media use by faculty members will be high. . The frequency of instructional media use will be high when faculty members have more positive perceptions about instructional media. . The frequency of instructional media use will be high when faculty members have more positive perceptions about University administrative sup- port for instructional media innovation. . Faculty members with previous training in in- structional media will have a higher frequency of instructional media use than those without previous media training. . Faculty members who have more sources of infor- mation about available instructional media and who use these sources more frequently will have a high frequency of instructional media use. 21 Limitations of the Study: This study had some limitations. First, the study did not consider: (a) the impact of instructional media on student learning in Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. (b) the qualitative use of instructional media by the faculty in Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. (c) the characteristics of the classrooms and other physical facilities provided as they relate to instructional media innovations. (d) the attitudes of students to instructional media in Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. Second, the mobility of faculty members between Nigerian universities could be high because of the uni- formity of roles and conditions of services. This mobility might have affected the study as some of the randomly sel- ected faculty members might have just arrived from other universities. The responses from such faculty members might have affected the validity of the findings on instructional media innovations at Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. Third, although the questionnaire had been tested for reliability and validity, there were no independent and scientific ways of preventing faculty members from injecting their personal motives, grievances and frustrations about their jobs into their responses. Definition of Terms: In order to establish some degree of commonality of meaning for the readers of this study, the following 22 definitions of unique terms have been provided. In most cases, the source of each definition has been identified. The definition of terms which have not been so identified, are those derived from general usage. 1. Audiovisuals: (1) refers to seeing and hearing (2) the equipment and materials used for com- munication in instruction. Includes motion pictures, television, printed materials, com- puter-based instruction, graphic and photographic materials, sound recordings and three-dimensional objects. (Seibert, et. al (eds) - Educational Technology: A Handbook of Standard Terminology..., 1975. p. 213—214). Change: in a social context refers to the process by which alteration occurs in the structure and functions of a social system (Rogers, 1973, p.7.). Constraints: refers to the state of being held back, restricted, limited or’compelled to avoid or perform some action. Department: a division within a faculty of a uni- versity, organized around particular subject area (Walker, et a1, 1973, p.37). Deputy Vice-Chancellor: the senior executive and academic officer who assists the Vice-Chancellor in the day-to-day administration and management of a university. v6. 10. 11. 12. 23 Developing_nations: those nations of the world which are considered to be technologically back- ward by the western world standards. Development: a widely participatory process of social changes in a society, intended to bring about both social and material advancement for the majority of the people through a greater con- trol over their environment (Rogers, 1973). Education: the aggregate of all the processes by means of which a person develops abilities, attitudes and other forms of behavior of positive value in the society in which he lives (Dictionary of Education, 1959, p.191). Educational Innovation: is any willed, planned and novelty idea, practice or object which is con- sidered to be more effective and efficient in ac— complishing a desired goal in the educational system. Effectiveness: the degree to which an effort pro- duces the desired results. Expatriate: any non-Nigerian member employed or working in a business or organization in Nigeria. Faculty: unit within university structure e.g. faculty of education, organized around a general area of knowledge, having its own courses, reg— ulations and organization of staff members and granting particular degrees (Walker, et a1, 1973, P. 51). l3. 14. 15. 16. 17. 24 Faculty Development: is a process of enhancing the talents, expanding the interests, improving the competence and otherwise facilitating the pro- fessional and personal growth of faculty members, particularly in their roles as instructors (Gaff, 1975.p.14). Faculty Members (Lecturers): the members employed primarily to teggh in a Nigerian university. See details in Appendix D. Higher Education: refers to the education given in the post—secondary section of the national education system. It covers education given in Universities, Polytechnics and College of Tech- nology (Nigerian National Policy on Education, 1977, p.14). Higher Education as used in this study refers exclusively to university education. Individual Readiness: is a combination of char- acteristics which influence an individual's de- cision to innovate (Bass, et a1, 1978, p. 7). Institute: used generally for a grouping together of a.number of disciplines often working in a degree of administrative separation for purely research purposes but ultimately responsible to the univerSity (The Development of Higher Education in Africa, 1963, p. 315). Instructional Development: is the systematic and continuous application of learning principles 1' 200 21. 22. 25 and educational technology to develop the most effective and efficient learning experience for students (Gaff, 1975. p. 47). Instructional Media: self-supporting devices which can be used by instructors to present a complete body of information in the teaching- 1earning processes. (AECT, Audiovisual Process in Education, 1971, p.86). Instructional media as used in this study is limited to optical and electronic materials and equipment such as tele- vision, motion pictures, sound recordings, graphic and photographic materials. Instructional Technology: a complex, integrated process involving peOple, procedures, ideas, de- vices, and organization for analyzing problems and devising, implementing, evaluating and man- aging solutions to those problems in situations where learning is purposeful and controlled. Ministry of Education: government department headed by a Minister of Education, appointed by the President of the Federation of Nigeria. The Ministry of Education is responsible for all as- pects of primary, secondary and higher education in Nigeria. National Universities Commissign (NUC): a stat- utory arm of the Ministry of Education established ir11963 with powers to oversee the development of university education in Nigeria. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 26 Organizational Development: is an effort to improve an organization's problem-solving and renewal processes, particularly through a more effective and collaborative management of organization culture (Gaff, 1975, p. 76). Organizational Readiness: is a combination of characteristics which influence the acceptance or tolerance of an innovation in the organization (Bass, et al, 1978, p.8). Perception: the way things look or sound to us. Senate: a body composed largely of heads of departments with some other representations in the university, of which the Vice-Chancellor is “Unaex-officiochairman, is the chief academic body subject to the power of the council. It approves and coordinates the work of faculties, makes recommendations for academic appointments (The Development of Higher Education in Africa, 1963. p- 315). Skills: abilities acquired by observation, study or experience in mental and/or physical performance (Seibert, et a1, 1975. p. 218). Traditional Teaching Method: face-to-face lecturing or tutoring by a teacher making use of print ma- terials mainly. Training: a planned and systematic sequence of instruction under competent supervision designed to impart predetermined skills, knowledge or 30. 31. Summary: 27 abilities with respect to designated occupa- tional objectives (Seibert et a1, 1975, p.219). Vice Chancellor: the principal executive and ' academic head of a university. (Walker, et a1, 1973, p. 129). This is similar to the office of President in a United States University. University: a chartered institution of higher education...having usually two or more profes- sional (and liberal arts) schools or faculties empowered to confer degrees...in various fields of study (Walker, et a1, 1973, p. 128). A center or an institution of higher learning. University in this study refers to Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. The development of education in Nigerian Universities in the last two decades has been affected by the lack of ade- quate academic staff to match Uuaincreases in student enroll— ment. Although the number of universities have increased over the years, the current annual students intake in all the thirteen universities represent only 15 percent of the potential students annual admissions. One of the outcomes of the above situation was the realization that the traditional teaching methods have become both inadequate and inappropriate for the new situation. As a result, instructional media was introduced into most Nigerian universities. 28 Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria is one of the Nigerian Universities where it has been assumed that the potential solutions to the educational problems referred to above, can be found within the field of instructional media. This as- sumption was based on the same rationale that encouraged the diffusion of instructional media in higher education in the United States in the last two or three decades. Several Nigerian Universities have introduced in- structional media into their educational systems. For ex— ample, in 1962 the first Audio-Visual unit in a Nigerian university was established at the University of Ibadan. In 1963, the nucleus of the present Center for Educational Tech— nology (CET) at Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, was established. However, many instructional innovations have been introduced in higher education without adequate consider- ations for both the individual and institutional factors that may work against the success of such changes. This study is therefore designed to determine the individual and insti- tutional factors influencing instructional media innovations at Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. The need for this study is strengthened by the absence of research studies on the diffusion of instructional media innovations in Nigerian universities. The findings and recommendations frbm this study can benefit faculty members, Department Heads, Deans of academic faculties and university administrators in their decisions concerning the introduction and diffusion of instructional 29 media innovations at Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, in particular and Nigerian universities in general. Overview: In Chapter I, the need for and purpose of this study were stated. It stated that educational innovations in- volving instructional media in higher education require both institutional and individual faculty-members' support. A review of literature pertinent to this study has been done in Chapter II. The procedures and methodology for the study have been presented in Chapter 111. These included a description of the pOpulation, the sampling technique and the instru- mentation. In Chapter IV, analysis of the data and the findings were presented, against the set probability for rejecting or accepting each null hypothesis. The summary, conclusions and recommendations made on the basis of the findings were presented in Chapter V. FOOTNOTES FOR CHAPTER I 1Federal Republic of Nigeria, Third National Development Plan, 1975- 80, Volume I (Lagos: The Central Planning Office, Federal Ministry of Economic Development, 1975), p.245. 2James W. Brown and James W. Thornton, Jr., New Media in Higher Education, (Washington, D.C.: Association for Higher Education and Department of Audiovisual Instruction, NEA, 1963), p.VII (Preface) 3James W. Brown and James W. Thornton, Jr., Ibid. (1963), p 166-168. “United States Statutes at Large, National Defense Education Act of 1958, (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1959), Vol. 72, Part I, p. 1595. 5United States Statutes at Large, Higher Education Act of l 6 , (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 62), Vol. 79, p..1224. 6The Carnegie Commission on Higher Education Report and Recommendations, The Fourth Revolution: Instructignal Tech- nology in Higher Education (New York: McGraw Hill, 1972), p.45. 7Tayo Akpata, "Take-Over of Schools," Take-Over of Schools In Mid-Western Nigeria, (Benin City: A Midwestern Nigerian Government Publication, 1973), p.6. 8Federal Republic of Nigeria, _pc it, (1975), p. 237. 9Everett M. Rogers, Diffusion of Innovations (New York: The Free Press, 1962), p.305. 10Lewis B. Mayhew, "A Summing Up", in New Media in Higher Education, (ed) by James W. Brown and James W. Thornton, Jr. ’(Washington, D. C.: Association for Higher Education and the Division of Audiovisual Instructional Service of the National Education Association, 1963), p. 173. 30 31 11Richard 1. Evans, The University Faculty and Education Television: Hostility, Resistance and Change, (Title VII Report, Grant No. 741015, 1962, University of Houston). 12M.S. Atwood, "Small-scale Administrative Change: Resistance to the Introduction of a High School Guidance Program", in Innovation in Education, ed. by Matthew B. Miles (New York: Teachers College, Columbia_ University, 1964), p.49. 13Gerhard Eichholz and Everett M. Rogers, "Resistance to the Adoption of Audiovisual Aids by Elementary School Teachers: Contrasts and Similarities to Agricultural In- novation," in Innovation in Education ed by Matthew B. Miles (New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1964). p-299. 14Matthew B. Miles, "Educational Innovation: Some Gener- alizations", in Media and Educational Innovation ed by Wesley C. Meierhenry (The University of Nebraska: The University of Nebraska Extension Division and the Univer- sity of Nebraska Press, 1964), p. 198. 15Kenneth M. McIntyre, A Study to Determine Specific Sources of Resistance to the Use of Audiovisual Materials by College and University Teachers and the Development of Procedures for Overcoming the Barriers to Optium Use, Title VII (A) Final Report, Grant No. 731052, 196—, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. 16Charles F. Hoban, "Dial "T" Tryst", in Media and Edu- cational Innovation, ed by Wesley C. Meierhenry (The Uni- versity of Nebraska: The University of Nebraska Extension Division and the University of Nebraska Press, 1964), p.346. 17Federal Republic of Nigeria, pp cit, (1975), p.256. 18Gerald Zaltman and Robert Duncan. Strategies for Planned Change (New York: A Wiley Interscience Publication, 1977), p.88. 19Gerald Zaltman and Robert, Ibid (1977), p.89. 20Robert M. Diamond, et a1, Instruptional Development for Individualized Learning in Higher Education, (New Jersey: Educational Technology Publications, 1975), p.17. 32 21Allen J. Abedor and Stephen G. Sachs, "The Relationship Between Faculty Development (FD), Organizational Develop- ment (OD) and Instructional Development (ID): Readiness for Instructional Innovation in Higher Education," in Instructional Developments: The State of the Art, ed by Ronald K. Bass et a1 (Columbus, Ohio: Collegiate Publishing, Inc., 1978), p.6. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF LITERATURE INTRODUCTION This chapter contains a review of the literature dealing with instructional media in higher education. This review has been subdivided as follows: 1. Rationale for instructional media in higher education. History of instructional media in Nigerian universities. Instructional media in Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. Resistance to instructional media in higher education. Diffusion of instructional media in higher education. A majority of the studies and writings were done in the 19503 and 19603. However, they are still relevant to this study because of the similarities between the characteristics of higher education in the United States during that time and the current characteristics of higher education in Nigeria. 33 34 The characteristics include massive increases in student enrollments, shortage of qualified academic staff, and the availability of Federal Government funds. Addition- ally, universities in both Nigeria and the United States are basically centers of research, teaching and preservation of knowledge. The similarities between higher education in the United States and Nigeria encouraged some universities in both Nigeria and United States to develop some working re- lationships during the 19603. In particular, many United States agencies and organizations also helped in the intro- duction of instructional media in higher education in Nigeria. They include the United States Agency for International De- velopment (USAID), Indiana University, Ford Foundation and Carnegie Corporation of New York. Another important factor in the adoption of instructional media innovations in higher education is that most of the present instructional media leaders in Nigeria were trained in the United States. Rationale for Instructional Media in Higher Education The use of instructional media in higher education in the United States in the sixties was in response to in- creasing enrollments, and the lack of trained faculty and Federal Government support. The belief at that time was that instructional media would provide potential solutions to the instructional problems created by increasing enroll- ments and faculty shortage. 35 One of the arguments for the use of instructional media in higher education was their ability to stimulate students through both visual and auditory controls especially in large classrooms. According to Miller: Teaching at any level requires that the student be exposed to some form of stim- ulation. Learning cannot take place in a sensory vacuum. As a minimum physical requirement the instructor must be able to produce stimuli having enough strength and definition to get through to the student... the student must notice something. In a large classroom or auditorium students in the back rows must be able to hear and if there is something to see, they must be able to see it. By the use of modern technology we can control the size of the visual image and the amplitude the sound. We can control the rate of apparent motion or show inacces— sible things OI those that are remote in space or time. In a situation of explosive increases in student enrollments, Brown and Thornton have argued that instructional media can be used to great advantage: There is need to point out here the obvious advantages offered by the new media in instances where it becomes necessary or desirable to conduct instruction or certain phases of instruction on a large-group or mass basis. However, it is apprOpriate to note that the added powers of instruction available through the use of modern techno- logy do not necessarily tend to increase the size of instructional groups or to produce any particular type of instructional config- uration. The true meaning of this added power is that we have a vastly greater degree of control, or freedom to vary the size of group and format of instruction to achieve various educational goals.2 Another argument for the use of instructional media in higher education is that slides, filmstrips, motion 36 pictures, overhead transparencies and other new media can be readily adapted to serve the instructional needs of both large and small groups. There are those who argued that the characteristics of the new media made them very apprOpriate for instructional purposes in a variety of forms in higher education. The char- acteristics which suggest the potential benefits of instruc- tional media in higher education have been explained by Brown and Thornton as follows: The new media comprise a diverse group with variant prOperties, capabilities and psycho- logical implications. Some are mass media; some are adapted to smaller groups or in- dividuals. Some transmit both visual and auditory stimuli: others are limited to one sensory mode. Some media can transmit live presentations whereas others are limited to the reproduction of recorded materials. Some can serve as channels for total in- structional presentations, as in t e case of television and motion pictures. The roles of instructional media in higher education have been expressed in terms of research, substance, method, structure, quality and quantity. For example, in a Ford Foundation Report (1973) on the uses of instructional tech- nology. Armsey and Dahl concluded that instructional tech- nology can be used: to improve instruction (qualitative): to educate more peOple (quantitative); to learn about learning (research): to reform the curriculum (substance): to improve the process 4 (method): and to anticulate the system (structure). The above conclusions of the Ford Foundation Report (1973) corresponded with most of the findings of the 37 President's Commission on Instructional Technology (1970) which enumerated several potential benefits of educational technology in higher education: 1. Technology can make education more productive. 2. Technology can make education more individual. 3. Technology can give instruction a more scienti— fic base. 4. Technology can make instruction more powerful. 5. Technology can make learning more immediate. 6. Technology can make assess to education more equal.5 A basic reason for the adoption of instructional media in higher education include the evidence provided by research studies that learning can take place through instructional media. Over the years, several studies have shown that effective learning can indeed take place through motion pictures, slides, filmstrips, television, radios and other instructional media items. The use of instructional media represents one of the most heavily researched areas in modern education. For example, in the 1969 Encyclopedia of Educational Research, Twyford6 summarized the findings of several studies dealing with the effectiveness of media in higher education. Sim- ilarly, over 137 studies of research projects under the first two years of the National Defense Education Act, Title VII (New Educational Media) have been reviewed. The results of most of these studies showed that instructional media are effective nwans of instruction. 38 There is overwhelming evidence that peOple learn from motion pictures. Results of studies conducted by 7 Hoban and Knowlton8 showed that people learn factual in- formation, perceptual-motor skills,and concepts from motion pictures. On the application of instructional television, Carpenter concluded that it has been used successfully for school, college, regional.state-wide and national programs: Successful models are in existence for public school systems, for colleges and universities, for regional and sgate-wide areas, and for national programs. The effectiveness of learning from television has always been measured either by comparison with conventional instruction or by comparison with some absolute or assumed standard. According to Chu and Schramm: Television instruction has frequently been compared with pp instruction. In other words, does the student learn from television? A surprisingly large number of experiments have been done this way... ...compared 58 education majors who have been randomly assigned either to a television group or a control group. The former group watched six 45-minutes art lessons over six weeks, while the later did not. A post-test showed, ...a significant difference in favour of the television group.lo From this study, it was concluded that instructional television is not only an effective but also an efficient medium of instruction in higher education. This result agreed with the conclusions of Chu and Schramm in their comprehen- sive review of studies on instructional television: 39 1. Given favorable conditions, children learn efficiently from instructional television. 2. Instructional television can be used efficiently to teach any subject matter where one-way com- munication will contribute to learning. 3. Given favorable conditions, pupils can learn from any instructional media that are now available. 4. The use of visual images will improve learning of manual tasks, as well as other learning where visual images can facilitate the association process. Results of some of the studies cited by Chu and Schramm showed that instructional television is an effective instruc- tional medium: Lottes (1961) randomly assigned 213 primary school teachers to two treatment groups. The experimental group viewed 15 half-hour programs on reading instruction. The control group was told to write weekly reports on reading instruc- tion so that any Hawthorne effects could be assessed. The TV group teachers showed a significant increase in classroom performance, while the control group had no improvement. ‘ .- ..~«~‘ : Pasewark (1957) conducted an experiment on teaching typewriting by television. Both the TV group and the face-to-face group received 48 hour-long typing lessons from the same in— structor. At the end of the course, the tele- vision group students typed significantly faster than the face- to- face group students. 12 quv.‘ Macomber (1956) compared television instruction and conventional instruction in a college human biology course. He found that the TV— —taught stu- dents scored significantly higher than the face- to- face students.1 4O Schramm (1962) summed up 393 experimental comparisons on television vs. classroom teaching, including a considerable amount of unpublished material. He reported that 255 of these comparisons showed no signifi- cant differences, 83 were significantly in favor of televised teaching, and 55 signifi- cantly in favor of conventional teaching.l Several hypothetical writings and empirical studies dealing with audio visual devices have supported the view that effective instruction can be made through instructional media. For example, a major rationale for the use of instruc- tional media in instruction is the assumption that in instruc— tion, sound can be used to establish association of ideas and the development of thought through audio-visual materials. According to Travers: London (1936, p. 135) states that one of the functions of music in the audio input of a motion picture is "to establish associ- ations of ideas and carry on development of thought."15 The effectiveness of audiovisual materials in instruction has been viewed from both auditory and visual perspectives. For example, many studies have been undertaken in which verbal material has been presented through the eye alone, the ear alone, and through both senses. The studies cover a great diversity of materials, subjects, and learning and retention conditions. A number of generalizations emerged from these studies: 41 A combined visual and auditory presentation of materials leads to more efficient compre- hension than the presentation of eigher auditory or visual material alone.l Usually difficult material is more ef- fectively received with a visual presen- tation, whereas particularly easy material is better understood with an auditory presentation. The relative effectiveness of the visual presentation increases with increasing difficulty of the material.17 When comprehension is tested by an im- mediate recall of the material, a visual presentation is favored: if the test of comprehension is made after a considerable interval of gelay, an auditory presentation is favored.1 One of the most significant advantages of the visual type presentation system is the relatively greater referability, or op- portunity for reviewing the material, that it affords. It has been found that the less the referability afforded by a visual pres- entation system, the less is its advantages over an auditory presentation.1 The role of audiovisual devices in instruction has been presented in literature. For example, the first section of Dale's (1954) book which is entitled Theory of Audio- Visual Instruction implied that the construction and use of audio-visual devices are based on a set of principles. Dale pointed out that audio visual materials are ef- fective media of extending the range of our experiences by bringing the world to the classroom. He also argued that many who dropped out of school did so because their work was bookish and lacked contact with reality. The use of suitable audio visual material will make school work more interesting. 42 In conclusion, Dale cited the following as proven contributions of audio visual materials: 1. They supply a concrete basis of conceptual thinking and hence re- duce meaningless word responses of students. 2. They have a high degree of interest for students. 3. They made learning more permanent. 4. They offer a reality of experience which stimulates self-activity on the part of pupils. 5. They develop a continuity of thought: this is especially true of motion pictures. 6. They contribute to growth of meaning and hence to vocabulary development. 7. They provide experiences not easily obtained through other materials and contribute to the efficigncy, depth, and variety of learning. 0 History of Instructional Media In Nigerian Universities Reference has already been made to the growth in the number of universities and student enrollments in Nigerian universities during the last two decades. In- structional problems created by the expansion in higher education opportunities demanded quick solutions. The use of instructional media was seen as a potential solution to some of the problems. The introduction of instructional media in Nigerian universities occurred in stages. Before the 1960's, in- structional media, especially Educational Television and 43 Educational Radio services, were limited to secondary schools and Teachers' Training Colleges. These programs were de- veloped by the Educational Broadcast Units of the Ministries of Education and were broadcast off-air by commercial tele- vision and radio stations during specified hours of the day. It was not surprising, therefore, when the first official support for instructional media in Nigerian univer- sities was directed towards the pre-service and in-service education of teachers and audio—visual loan services for secondary schools. A historical review of the early use of audio-visual aids in the older universities in Nigeria was made by Owuna21 in 1977. The older universities in Nigeria are the Univer— sities of Ibadan, Lagos, Ife, Nigeria (Nsukka) and Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. The Audio-Visual Aids Unit of the Institute of Edu— Cation, University of Ibadan was established in 1962 with the assistance of UNESCO. By 1967, more material and fi- nancial assistance were received by the unit from other inter— national organizations such as the United Kingdom Ministry of Overseas Development, the Carnegie Corporation of New York and the Canadian Universities Overseas. This as- sistance enabled the University of Ibadan to establish an Audio-Visual Aids Center which provided the following: 1. Audio-Visual loan services to secondary schools and teachers' training colleges. 44 2. Resource services to members of the university community. 3. Closed-circuit educational television programs which were transmitted by the Western Nigerian Television (WNTV) through the cooperation of theixmn1Western Nigeria Ministry of Education. 4. Instructional media courses for school teachers. 5. Film library services for schools. 6. Publication of two Educational Research Journals-— (West African Journal of Education since 1962; and West African Journal of Educational Research since 1974). At the University of Lagos, there is an Audio-Visual Aids unit in each of the academic faculties. The various departments have been using the facilities, especially the television services, to support their undergraduate in- structional programs. In this university, the College of Education and the Department of Mass Communication are the leaders in instructional media utilization. Through the help of a Ford Foundation grant, the Comparative Education Studies and Adoption Center (CESAC) was established at the University of Lagos. This center has been utilizing instructional media extensively in its off-campus non-degree education programs. The Institute of Education at the University of Ife was established in 1968 partly with funds provided by the 45 Ford Foundation. The Institute has been able to provide the following: 1. Audio-Visual Aids loan service for secondary schools and teachers' training colleges. 2. A closed-circuit instructional television service. 3. Educational television programs for public schools. 4. Graphic and photographic laboratories. The University of Ife has an excellent closed- circuit television service which has been extensively utilized in the General Studies instructional programs for undergraduates. The enrollments have always been in the hundreds because the General Studies courses are part of the university's requirements for the baccalaureate. The university was, therefore, compelled to instruct these extra-large classes through closed-circuit television. The University of Ife recently took steps to upgrade the status of instructional media in the university of creating a Department of Educational Technology in the Faculty of Education. One of the primary functions of the department was to organize courses in instructional media for pre-service teachers in the Faculty of Education. This measure was taken in response to the growing demand in Nigeria for teachers who are well versed in educational technology. This current emphasis on instructional media at the University of Ife required a general review of the Faculty 46 of Education teachers' training program. The review re- sulted in the integration of instructional media into the undergraduate curriculum in the Faculty of Education. Ac- cording to Johnson and Agun, the current policy requires that: ...the bachelor's degree candidate at the University of Ife, Faculty of Education, takes a general education program that was revised in 1978 placing more emphasis on course work in education...plus required courses in educational technology...Each candidate for the B.S....in Education must take a course in the foundations of edué-2 cational communications and technology. At the University of Nigeria, Nsukka, the Curriculum Development and Instructional Materials Center (CUDIMAC) of the Institute of Education provides audio-visual ser- vices for the entire university community, neighbouring secondary schools and teachers' training colleges. Instructional Media At Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria: Greater attention will now be given to the develop- ment of instructional media at Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, because the university is the main object of this study. The develOpment of instructional media services at Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, was a part of the general response to increasing enrollments and shortage of trained faculty in Nigerian universities. The period between 1962 and 1979 was one of rapid increases in student enrollments in the university (Figure 2.1). Although there were some 47 It: 8842 In- t 2:: :1‘ :5» 9552.5 3.6- § 2 35.3.5 .5:- 22 5238.33 :33: .32 "..u go: :8. do: = .8532. .39.! 3.38.88.58.21! 38.8.. flu-2.3 9:! 3.3.: "8.33 pli 48 staff (administrative and academic) increases, the official reports often complained of shortages of academic staff during the period. The authorities of Ahmadu Bello Uni- versity, Zaria, reacted to this situation by introducing instructional media. The first official support for instructional media in Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, was given in 1963 when the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) and a team of experts from Indiana University helped to es- tablish the Audio-Visual Aids Communication Unit within the Faculty of Education. The unit provided a variety of in- structional media services for various academic departments on the campus. At the time the Institute of Education was established in 1965, there were increased demands for materials such as slides, graphics and transparencies. The unit assumed new roles and was renamed Center for Educational Technology (CET). The Center for Educational Technology has grown and now provides a variety of services to faculty members and other members of the university community. As a result of the new roles of the Center, a decision was made to allow it to Operate as an autonomous unit under a Director and an Advisory Committee. A temporary building was provided for the Center. Although the performance of the Center between 1965 and 1970 was encouraging, there was need for improvement and 49 further development. In 1975, at the request of the Uni— versity, the British Inter-University Council for Higher Education Overseas sponsored Dr. G.D. Moss, who was then the Director of the Center for Educational Technology, University College, Cardiff, to look into the future de- velOpment of Educational Technology program at Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. Several problems related to the adoption of instruc- tional media in the university were identified by Dr. Moss. These problems included the lack of: 1. An overall policy regarding the functions, purchase, allocation and housing of equipment. 2. Well dispersed and well equipped teaching and lecture rooms. 3. Qualified staff. 4. Comprehensive services to meet the needs of individual departments. 5. Adequate spare parts and repair manuals for equipment. 6. Suitable vehicle for equipment delivery services. 7. Efficient internal or external communication His report indicated that faculty members in the university would welcome the further development of the services being provided by the Center for Educational Tech- nology. He also discovered that many faculty members did not favor the centralization of instructional media. 50 Finally, the report contained the following recom- mendations aimed at improving instructional media services in the university: 1. An assessment of the specific instructional media needs of all the academic departments. 2. Equipping the major classrooms with basic audio-visual aids. 3. The building Of a permanent physical facility to house the Center for Educational Technology. 4. The provision of short technical courses for staff at both the University College, Cardiff and at Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. 5. Adequate financial allocation to meet all pur- chases. 6. A decentralization of instructional media services. In an attempt to implement some of Dr. Moss' recom— mendations, the Center for Educational Technology has been reorganized to provide a variety of instructional media and resource development services in the University. (Figure 2.2). As of June, 1979, considerable improvements have been made in the develOpment of the Center for Educational Tech— nology. First, a temporary building has been completed to accommodate the activities of the Center. The building has spaces for staff offices, a multi-media laboratory, a photo- graphic laboratory and a conference room. .HZD .N.N mmDUHm oqqmm DQeo\>oc£ .5 son 2.21.». 8383... 358059.... 833...: eases—om 93.8.3.6 no.8 8236 A .5309 00:32 .- .0..— 00 fl _re=_ss; _ _ meefiene<.a)_ —.>eo have: _._o==so._.o_ Tess-5L —eo.8seo£_ W22...“— E E .5 outta—:00 .v< lllll rllllllll 5:00:20 loo; 52 Second, the staffing situation has improved. There were eight senior academic staff members in the Center by June, 1979. Third, the Director of the Center is directly re- sponsible to the Vice-Chancellor for the development and management of the Center for Educational Technology, as an autonomous unit. Fourth, instructional media services in the univer- sity have been considerably decentralized as there are currently 19 different instructional media units located as follows: Institute of Education Kashim Ibrahim Library . Institute for Agricultural Research (IAR) Division of Agriculture and Livestock Services Training (DALST) Advanced Teachers' College, Zaria Faculty of Human Medicine (CTV/VideoUnit) Center for Adult Education and Extension Services . Chemical Engineering Department . Chemistry Department 10. Institute of Administration 11. School of Basic Studies 12. School of Agriculture, Samaru—Zaria. 13. Agricultural Extension and Research Liasion Services 1A. National Animal Production Research 15. College of Veterinary Medicine 16. English Language Department 17. French Department 18. Department of Community Medicine 19. Department of Physiology (Faculty of Medicine). \OCI) \)O\U\ C'KJONl-J Resistance to Instructional Media Use in Higher Education: The development of learning resources centers in the United States has helped to increase the use of instruc- tional media in higher education. The major functions of 53 these centers have been summarized in Appendix E. After several years of initial resistance, instructional media services have increasingly gained acceptance in higher edu- cation. The sources of initial resistance to instructional media use by faculty members in higher education were many. First, there was no agreement about the need for instructional media in higher education. This lack of agreement between administrators/planners and faculty mem- bers originated from two sources: 1. Vagueness of Educational Goals: The two groups often disagreed about the objectives and goals of higher edu- cation. This disagreement often caused questions to be raised about the general application of the new media in higher education. According to Brown and Thornton, the degree of acceptance or non-acceptance of instruc- tional media has been highly influenced by the level of liberalism or conservatism about fundamental questions such as: What are the purposes of college instruction? How can new media contribute to the achievement of these purposes? Are the new media more effective in reaching some aims and relatively useless for attaining others?23 The difficulty in finding acceptable answers to the above basic questions was a factor in the non—acceptance of instructional media in higher education. For ex- ample, the excuse for the non-use of instructional media by many faculty members was that most of the objectives of higher education were so general and 54 remote in their accomplishment that it might be im- possible to determine whether their accomplishment could be attributed to traditional lecture—methods or to any of the new media. Many faculty members have argued that the objectives of higher education could only be accomplished through the traditional lectures, tutorial and seminar methods. 2. Traditional concepts about instruction: The initial resistance by faculty members to the use of instruc- tional media in higher education could be attributed to the traditional concepts of teaching. Among these were: a. The tenureship system which prevented many univer- sities from adding young faculty to their staff. Usually, such young faculty constitute an important stimulus to instructional renewal and innovations in higher education. Their absence meant the ab- sence of possible earlier adopters of instructional media. b. The academic folklore which held that "a teacher is born, not made" and that "teaching is an art, not a science" implying that little can be done to assist university professors. Therefore, the view was that instructional media was not necessary for instructional improvement. Two other factors in the resistance to instructional media use by faculty members have been given by Gaff as academic freedom and professionalism: 55 Such negative injunctions are interwoven with the traditions of academic freedom, and faculty have come to feel that "a professor's classroom is his castle," that it is somehow unprofessional for a faculty member to criticize, interfere with, intrude upon, or even 0 serve another instructor in his classroom.2 Such extreme positions on academic freedom and professionalism did not only make it difficult for instruc- tors to improve their teaching by learning from their col— leagues but also made it difficult for faculty members to accept and use instructional media. Another category of professors' resistance to instruc- tional media was the fear of technology which took several forms. One of the leaders in the field, Edgar Dale, once probed the feelings of a college professor who rejected the new media on the excuse that instructional media threatened his academic privacy and autonomy. He noted that the class— room is one place where his dreams and ideals could hold sway. As Edgar Dale noted, the college professor felt that: If he is making the presentation for a large group he must plan his lectures with others, follow what group consensus dictates. The applause, if any, is no longer individual. It is dispersed nebulous. And when he must expose his teaching to the view of others, he may feel that he is not quite up to it. The professor's classroom is no longer his castle. Some of the reasons for faculty members resistance to the use of instructional media were discussed in a 1971 Ford Foundation study. One of the reasons was the fear that technology would replace the teacher. Armsey and Dahl concluded: 56 It is a concept that arouses emotions among both its advocates and its adver— saries. Some theoreticians conceive of instructional technology as supplementary to the teacher: others, anticipating a more active role, see it as a replacement for the traditional teacher.26 The findings in The Ford Foundation studies have been correlated by studies conducted by Anderson,27 Berkman28 and DuMolin29 on instructional television. In addition to the findings of The Ford Foundation study, these studies found another cause of resistance to instructional media to be the non-involvement of teachers in the planning of educational programs. Not only were faculty members ignored in the planning, curriculum designing, and decision-making processes in higher education, they were also neglected in the training necessary for instructional media use. This view was also expressed by the International Council for Educational Development: We have generally neglected to train our teachers in the use of the new media and with other factors, this has resulted in resistance to the technology as a regular feature in many classrooms.30 There have been several studies dealing with aspects of resistance to instructional media utilization in higher education. For example, the Committee on Utilization of College Training Resources for the Fund for the Advancement of Education31 in its 1959 report stated that the lack of internal motivation on the part of faculty members and ad- ministration was chiefly responsible for their failure to utilize new media in higher education. Macomber and others 57 32 in their study in Miami Uni- versity concluded that faculty members made inadequate use of instructional media mainly because the media were not easily available when needed. The findings of studies in the sixties showed that the technological revolution had caught most higher educa- tional institutions unprepared. The introduction of in- structional media into higher education, therefore, posed some decision-making problems. In a study by McIntyre 33 on the use of instructional media by faculty members at the University of North Carolina. The following were found to be the constraints on instruc— tional media use: 1. Limited financial support for purchase or rental of materials. Suitable materials were not available for col- lege use. Lack of information on instructional materials. Lack of technical assistance for preparing materials. Lack of time to locate and preview good ma- terials. Lack of adequate facilities for showing materials. Films, equipment or Operators unavailable when needed. One major barrier to instructional media utilization in higher education is the cost factor which can be viewed 58 from different perspectives. Media costs imposes numerous restrictions on media utilization in a variety of ways. According to Barson34 these include: (1) the physical characteristics of the instructional space, (2) the avail— ability of equipment and technician services, (3) the faculty member's time in regard to booking, production or experi- mentation, (4) the suitability of existing resource ma- terials in terms of cost and.time. Diffusion of Instructional Media in Higher Education: There are diverse opinions on methods for imple- menting educational innovations in higher education. This part of the literature review will cover some of the programs, policies and organizations that have helped to place instruc- tional media in good standing in higher education in the United States. In a consideration of factors which, when ignored, could impede instructional innovations in higher education, Michae135 identified what he called the inhibitors of edu- cational innovations to be: 1. Idealogical factors which involves lack of con- sensus in educational objectives and therefore resulting in ethical differences about innovation. 2. Institutional factors involving different inter- est groups, regulations and procedures which could be sources of resistance rather than facilitators of change. 59 Political factors which often affect edu- cational innovations include vested interests and arguments over the allocation of time, money and personnel for instructional innovations. The political factors need not come from out- side the campus, for very often, the various power bases in the academic units and the ad- ministration can prevent the introduction of anything they perceived as unfavorable instruc- tional innovations. These inhibitors can be minimized through the adoption of several strategies such as the: A. DevelOpment of physical facilities for change. These facilities include: Instructional Materials Center, Instructional Resources Center, Instruc- tional Services Center, Learning Resources Cen- ter and Instructional Technology Center. DevelOpment of a climate for change. This is a process of ensuring that the essential elements of educational innovations are provided. The essential elements include a formal Organization, Budgeting and Communications. According to Diamond, gt_al,36 any successful educational innovations must have the following administra- tive support: 1. A formal faculty reward system with emphasis on quality teaching and instructional 60 innovations. The reward system includes salary, promotion, personal recognition and fringe benefits such as travelling, grants, graduate and secretarial assistance, release time and research grants. 2. Budgeting special funds to support and fa- cilitate educational innovation projects through: a. the establishment of policies, Operational systems, creating flexible time frame and a grading system compatible to the new change. b. the establishment of a relatively high level unit in the administrative structure to handle instructional innovations. The head of such a unit should have direct access to the Provost or the President and other heads of academic units in the university. According to Diamond, §t_§l, an essential element in the creating of a climate for change in higher education is an effective Communication System which include the use of faculty newsletters, professional staff seminars, staff meetings, interim reports and memoranda through which: The administration, the teachers, the students and the community should be kept continually in- formed of what is happening... People should know where the center is going, how it is getting there and what is happening on the way.37 61 In general, the conditions for a successful dif- fusion of instructional media in higher education can be likened to Havelock's38 Stages of Planned Change, Gaining Acceptance and Stabilizing Innovation and Generating Self- Renewal processes. Currently, the most talked about con- ditions for gaining success in the diffusion of instructional media in higher education include a program whose components are: 1. Faculty DevelOpment. 2. Organizational Development. 3. Instructional Development. The belief of most change agents in higher education is that these three elements are crucial to successful in- structional innovation. The mistake often made by edu- cational innovators is to introduce a wide range of in- structional materials into the campus without prior modi- fication of existing instructional and administrative struc- tures. Effective processes of modifying the status quo without causing major crisis include a combination of Faculty Development, Organizational Development and Instruc- tional DevelOpment. Many experts including Gaff39 and Davis“0 have evolved different models for carrying out the three processes. One of the best examples of educational innovation programs in the United States is the Educational Development Program (EDP) at Michigan State University. The program was designed to enhance innovation in undergraduate higher edu- cation through expert consultation on teaching, learning and 62 the use Of advanced technology. According to Davis: As originally conceived the Educational Development Program was based on the premise that innovation in higher edu— cation requires eXpert consultation on the teaching and learning process, the use of advanced technology, and the #1 availability of discretionary dollars. The components of the Educational Development Pro- gram at Michigan State University include: 1. Instructional Media Center 2. Learning and Evaluation Services 3. Instructional Television Services The program has been successful because of the following basic characteristics: 1. Central authority and support 2. Action/Service Orientation 3. Faculty Consultation u. Faculty Involvement 5. Funding 6. Philosophical and Theoretical Framework In general, in order to minimize faculty members' resistance to instructional media in higher education, the introduction/diffusion process should be based on the fol- lowing broad guidelines: Source Credibility: The right people must sponsor the introduction of the media... Proper Timing: Two time factors are important. First, when the media are introduced to a significant degree may determine their success or failure. Second, the amount of time provided for the introduction is important...Time must be allowed for familarization, for accommodation, for changes in attitudes, for changes in roles and habits of teachers, and for learning how to use and learn from the newer media... Summary: 63 Perceived Needs: The introduction of the media must have clear relations to needs as perceived by faculty members... Competent Specialists: Many of the newer media require the services Of competent specialists. If these needed skills exist in the "in group" of the faculty, the introduction is madeleasier; if the specialists do not exist in the family and "outsiders" must be engaged, the introduction is made more difficult. Budget Considerations: The costs of the newer media should be provided as supplements to regular instruction... Service Operations: It is not only advantageous but also essential to have media equipment systems that are eliable and work well, when and where needed... In this chapter, a review of the literature pertinent to instructional media in higher education has been made and covered the following basic areas: 1. Rationale for instructional media in higher education. 2. History of instructional media in Nigerian universities. 3. Instructional media in Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. 4. Resistance to instructional media in higher education. 5. Diffusion of instructional media in higher edu- cation. The literature concentrated heavily on abundant research studies and conceptual writings conducted in the 64 sixties in the United States. This period in the develop- ment of instructional media in the United States had many similarities with the current situation in Nigerigan higher education. Available literature has revealed those individual faculty member variables that constitute what can be re- garded either as readiness or resistance to instructional media use in higher education. The review covered the development of instructional media services in Nigerian universities. This develOpment has taken place with very active support from international / organizations such as the Ford Foundation, British Inter- University Council for Higher Education Overseas, Indiana University, United Kingdom Ministry of Overseas DevelOpment, UNESCO, USAID, Carnegie Corporation and the Canadian Univer- sities Services Overseas. Currently there is a variety of instructional media services being offered by the Center for Educational Tech- nology and 19 other departmental media units in Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. However, there is no available research studies on the extent of usage of these services in the university. Available literature in areas of Faculty De- velopment and Organizational Development in higher education in the United States provided information to the acceptance or non-acceptance of instructional media by faculty members. 65 Literature review on planning for instructional media ser- vices in higher education provided helpful recommendations for the improvement and provision of effective media ser- vices in higher education. 66 FOOTNOTES FOR CHAPTER II lN.E. Miller, "Graphic Communication and The Crisis in Education," in Audio Visual Communication Review, Vol. 3 No. 2, December 1957, p. 117. 2James W. Brown and James W. Thornton, Jr. (eds.), New Media in Higher Education, (Washington, D.C.: Association for Higher Education and Department of Audiovisual Instruction, NEA, 1965), p.17. 31bid, p.19. “James W. Armsey and Norman C. Dahl (eds.), An Inquiry into the Uses of Instructional Technology (New York: A Ford Foundation Report, 1973), p. ix. 5Commission on Instructional Technology, To Improve Learning: A Report to the President and the Congress of the United States (Washington, D.C.: United States Government Printing Office, 1970). 6Loran C. Twyford, Jr., "Educational Communications Media," in Encyclppedia of Educational Research, uth Edition (Toronto, Ontario: Collier-Macmillan Canada, Ltd., 1969), p.367-380. 7Charles F. Hoban, et a1, Instructional Film Research 1918- 1259l_lecnnical_fiepgrj_(New York: Special Devices Center, 1950. 8D.C. Knowlton and J.W. Tilton, Motion Pictures hiHistory Teaching, (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1929). 9C.R. Carpenter, "A Commentary on Television Research, 1948- 1960" in Newer Educational Media (University Park: Pennsylvania State University, 196177’p.104. loGodwin C. Chu and Wilbur Schramm, Learning From Television: What The Research Sgyg, Revised by Monty Stanford (Washington, D.C.: National Society of Professionals in Telecommunication i967). 67 11Ibid, p. 10 2 1 Ibid, p. 11 13ibid, p. 12 1”Ibid, p. 5 lSRobert M.W. Travers (ed), Research and Theory Related to Audiovisual Information Transmission, University of Utah, Bureau of Educational Research, Interim Report, July 1964, p. 2.49. 16 Ibid, p. 6.12 17ibid, p. 6.13. 18Ibid, p. 6.13-6.14. 19ibid, p. 6.14. 20E. Dale, Audio-Visual Methods in Teaching, Revised Edition (New York: The Dryden Press, 1954), p. 65. 21Sunday Owuna, The Develppment of Educational Technology at Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria (A Dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the Master of Education (M.Ed.) degree in the Department of Education, University College, University of Wales, Cardiff, 1977). 22Jenny K. Johnson and Ibitayo Agun, "Educational Technology in Nigeria" in Selected Monographs from International Window Audiovisual Instruction 1978-79 (New Orleans: 1979 AECT Convention) p. 1. 23James W. Brown and James W. Thornton, Jr., pp. cit., p.8. 2L’Jerry G. Gaff, Toward Faculty Renewal: Advances in Faculty, Instructional and Organizational Develppment (San Francisco: Jossey—Bass, Inc., Publishers, 1975), p.3. 25James W. Brown and James W. Thornton, Jr., op.cit., p.14. 26James W. Armsey and Norman C. Dahl, 9p. cit. 68 27Robert H. Anderson, "Organizational and Administrative Changes Needed In Schools and Colleges in Order for New Techniques to Effectively Improve Instruction," in Sidney G. Tickton (ed.), To Improve Learningl Volume II, (New York and London: R.R. Bowker Company, 1971.) 28Dave Berkman, "The Learning Industry and ITV," Educational Broadcastinngeview, Volume V, Number 3, June 1971. 29James R. DuMolin, "Instructional Television Utilization in the United States," Memorandum No. 71—6, St. Louis, Washington University, October, 1971. 30"Instructional Broadcasting: A Design for the Future," A paper prepared for the Corporation for Public Broadcasting by the International Council for Educational Development, January, 1971. 31Fund for the Advancement of Education, Committee on Utilization of College Teachin Resources, Better Utilization of College Teaching Resources %New York, 1959). 32F.G. Macomber, et al., Experimental Study in Instructional Procedures, Report NO. 2 (Oxford, Ohio: Miami University, 1957). 33Kenneth M. McIntyre, A Study to Determine Specific Sources of Resistance to the Use of Audiovisual Materials bprollege and University Teachers and the Development of Procedures for Overcoming_the Barriers to Optimum Use (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina, 1963). 3“John Barson, A Procedural and Cost Analysis Study of Media in Instructional Systems Develppment, Parts A and B., U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare Report, 1965. 3f’Donald Michael, "Inhibitors and Facilitors to the Acceptance of Educational Innovations" in Inventing Education for the Future (ed.) Warner Z. Hirsh (San Francisco: Chandler Publishing Co., 1967) Chapter 14. 36Robert M. Diamond, et a1, "Developing a Climate for Change," in Instructional DevelOpment for Individualized Learning in Higher Education (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Educational Tech- nology Publications, Inc., 1975). 37Ibid, p.25. 69 38Ronald G. Havelock, The Change Agent's Guide to Innovation in Education (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Educational Technology Publications, Inc., 1973), p. 39—140. 39Jerry G. Gaff, Toward Faculty Renewal, (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, Inc., Publishers, 1975). 40Robert H. Davis, "A Behavioral Change Model With Impli- cations for Faculty DevelOpment," The International Journal Of Higher Education and Education Planningy Vol. 8, Number 2, March 1979 (Amsterdam: Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company). ulRobert H. Davis, et a1. Commitment to Excellence: A Case Study of Educational Innovation (East Lansing, Educational DevelOpment Program, Michigan State University, 1976), p.14. 42C.R. Carpenter and L.P. Greenhill, "Providing the Conditions for Learning: The New Media," in Higher Education (ed.) Samuel Baskin (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1965), p.146-148. CHAPTER III PROCEDURES AND METHODOLOGY Introduction: The primary purpose of this study was to determine the individual and institutional factors which influence the use of instructional media by faculty members at Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. To achieve this, the following four basic Objectives were set: 1. To determine the extent to which faculty mem- bers utilize instructional media in Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. To determine the extent to which individual faculty members' perceptions, their job status, previous skills in the use of instructional media and the sources of information about in- structional media influence their use of in- structional media in the university. To identify the ways in which institutional factors such as budgetary provisions, personnel reward mechanism and administrative policies influence the extent to which faculty members use instructional media in the university. 7O HYDotheses: 71 The following null hypotheses were tested: 1. There will be no significant relationship between the frequency of instructional media use and faculty members' grade levels. There will be no significant relationship between the perceived constraints and the frequency of instructional media use by faculty members. There will be no significant relationship between the frequency of use and faculty mem— bers' perceptions about instructional media. There will be no significant relationship between faculty members' perceptions about the university's support and the frequency of in- structional media use. There will be no significant relationship between faculty members' frequency of use and the levels of training and skills in instructional media. There will be no significant relationship between the frequency of use and the amount of information which faculty members receive about instructional media. 72 The ngulation: The population for this study comprised faculty members who were actively engaged in teaching in the fol— lowing academic faculties in the Samaru main campus of Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria: 1. Agriculture 2. Arts and Social Sciences . Education . Engineering . Environmental Design 3 4 5 6. Human Medicine 70 Pharmaceutical Sciences 8. Science 9. Veterinary Medicine The limitation of the population to only the teaching staff in the Samaru main campus of the university was neces- sitated by two factors: 1. Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Operates in many campuses (Figure 3.1) 2. Not all the faculty members, even in Samaru main campus, are engaged pricipally in teaching (Ap- pendix F). The Sample: ' In Chapter I, it was explained that in Nigerian universities, faculty members are officially classified into the following grades in descending order of seniority (Ap- pendix D): 73 MAP OF NIGERIA SHOWING THE LOCATIONS OF SOME OF THE CAMPUSES OF AHMADU BELLO UNIVERSITY, ZARIA CHAD NiGER I". ‘ eonuo sun Salon I can are u e 1 ._so:oro sun I: G 2 2 “Di." sure 0 5 saucm suit 3:: I! M 0.3:». o ,:.. morn sun 0 swan 6 “W1. _ '0“ STATE ‘ 0‘, a e A! A r r " ‘ U s ‘ ‘ concou- °"°"" in 7 c S I Ovo var: .. ONOO ‘5’ “»II* '3‘” snrr ‘ emu: sure 0 :: ‘fi‘ 0 “m ‘ . ocu sun ”I“ . “‘“tflwfi I'M-Cw n u" sum union sung cu [a sun 0...... 5' " CAMEROON smut or cram ' can vtns arc.- GULF OF GUINEA College of Agriculture. Bakura National Animal Production Research institute, Shika Samaru Main Campus Institute of Administration and Advanced Teachers' College, Zaria College of Agriculture and Animal Sciences, MandooKaduna PS‘P.‘ institute of Agricultural Research (Substation). Mokwa College of Agriculture. Kabba institute of Agricultural Research (Substation) and Advanced Teachers' College, Kano 9399' 74 Professors Readers (Associate Professors) Senior Lecturers Lecturers UK its.) N I-‘ . Assistant Lecturers The sample comprised 370 faculty members who were randomly selected from nine academic faculties (Appendix L). The Selection of the Sample: The sample was drawn up in the following prOportion (Table 3-1) from the target population. Table 3-1: Sampling of Faculty Members Faculty Member Strata Sample Size Grade Population (N) (45%_x N = n) Professors (n1) 52 23 Readers (n2) 41 18 Senior Lecturers (n3) 234 105 Lecturers (n4) 398 179 Assistant Lecturers (n5) 100 45 Total N = 825, n =37O A further analysis of the sampling design in Table 3-1 has resulted in the distribution shown in Table 3—2. For each academic faculty, a list of faculty members and the component departments were extracted from the Ahmadu Bello University 1978/79 Staff Directory/Calendar. From the 75 Table 3-2: Distribution of Sample Among Academic Faculties Academic Pro- Senior Assistant Faculties fessors Readers Lecturers Lecturers Lecturers Total Agri- culture 2 3 1O 18 8 41 Arts and Social Sciences 2 2 13 20 8 45 Education 2 2 12 26 7 49 Engineering 3 2 15 17 5 42 Environ- mental Design 2 l 6 16 3 28 Human Medicine 3 2 14 21 4 44 Pharma- ceutical Sciences 2 2 8 12 3 27 Science 4 2 15 31 4 56 Veterinary Medicine 3 2 12 18 3 38 Total 23 18 105 179 45 370 76 lists, random samples were drawn from each academic Faculty (Table 3-2). Efforts were made to ensure that there were adequate representatives from all the Departments in each academic Faculty sample. For example, the 56 faculty mem- bers from the Faculty of Science were selected from the Departments of Bio-chemistry, Biological Sciences, Chemistry, Geology, Mathematics, Microbiology, Physics and Computer Sciences. Source of Data The data used in this study was collected in a field survey conducted by the researcher during the months of June, .July and August, 1979 in Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. The data was collected through the administration of question- naire (Appendix G). Instrumentation: The study was descriptive in nature. Therefore, the instrument used was a Questionnaire designed to determine the extent to which instructional media were being utilized by faculty members in Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. The instrument was also designed to determine the major factors influencing the utilization Of instructional media in the university. The instrument was organized into seven sections (A-G) and contained closed-ended questions requiring scaled responses. 77 SeCtion A of the Questionnaire was designed to col- lect personal data of each of the respondents. Respondent's names were not required but details such as Nationality, Sex, Academic and Administrative positions were requested. Section B consisted of questions designed to deter- mine the frequency of instructional media use in the uni- versity. The frequency of use of each of the instructional media items such as slides, radio, filmstrips and videotapes was scaled 0, 1-3, 4-6, 7-9 and above 10 times in a lO-week academic term. Section C contained five negative and five positive perception statements which faculty members generally have about instructional media. The respondents were asked to indicate the degree to which they agreed or disagreed with each of the statements. Section D was designed to determine the types of ‘training and levels of skills which faculty members pre- viously had in instructional media. The skills included operation of instructional media equipment and the production, selection, management and evaluation of instructional ma- terials. The levels at which the skills were acquired in— cluded undergraduate degree and courses, graduate degree and courses, workshops, seminars and inservice training. Section E was designed to determine which of the eight listed support services, faculty members felt the university was providing to encourage the use of instruction- al media. The respondents were asked to indicate on a five- point scale the frequency of such support. 78 Section F contained a list of ten constraints that Often affect faculty members' use of instructional media. The faculty members were asked to indicate on a five-point scale, the degree to which they perceived the constraints. Section G was designed to determine the number of sources from which faculty members usually obtain infor- mation about instructional media. The respondents were also asked to indicate the frequency of such information. The Questionnaire was prepared with the advice of a consultant in the Office of Research Consultation (ORC), College of Education at Michigan State University. It was later approved by the dissertation guidance committee. Pilot Test The Questionnaire as a data collecting instrument was tested for reliability and validity in June 1979 in a pilot test conducted on 30 randomly selected faculty members at Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. In order to ascertain the clarity of the question- items in each section of the Questionnaire, the respondents were asked to rate each Of the questions as "Very Clear" or "Not Clear". Most of the 30 participants rated most of the ques- tions as "Very Clear". The few questions that were rated as "Not Clear" were revised until they were accepted and rated as "Very Clear" by the respondents. The pilot test revealed that it took on the average about 20 minutes to complete one questionnaire. 79 Collection of Data Prior to visiting Nigeria, letters (Appendices H and I) soliciting the co—operation of both the Director and the Coordinator of Campus Services, Center for Educational Tech- nology (CET) at Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria were sent. The researcher's first day at Ahmadu Bello Univer- sity, Zaria, was spent meeting the Director and the Co- ordinator of Campus Services, Center for Educational Tech- nology. They assisted the researcher in mapping out stra— tegies for distributing and collecting the questionnaires from the various academic faculties. The two Officers also made available to the researcher, several documents related to the development of instructional media programs in Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. Administration Of Questionnaire Each copy of the Questionnaire was accompanied by two letters. The contents of the first letter (Appendix J) included statements of Objectives of the study, a definition of instructional media as used in the study and an appeal for independent and Objective completion of the Question- naire. The second (Appendix K) was a letter introducing and recommending the researcher to the university community. Copies of the lists of the randomly sampled faculty members from each of the academic Departments and Faculties (Appendix L) were made by the researcher. The lists were accompanied by the appropriate number of questionnaires and then given to the Departmental Secretaries. There was the need to make the individual faculty member's responses as 80 Objective and independent as possible. In order to avoid any possible influence by other faculty members, the Question- naires were given to the Departmental Secretaries who drop- ped the Questionnaires in the mail boxes of the faculty members whose names were in the list given to them. How- ever, names were not written on the Questionnaires so as to achieve the desired anonymity of responses. Each questionnaire that was distributed was ac- companied by instructions on how, when and where to return the completed form. In each case, the Departmental Sec— retaries served as collectors. The researcher in turn collected the return Question- naires from the Departmental Secretaries daily after each given deadline for the return of the completed questionnaires. In some cases, the secretaries sent one or two reminders to faculty members who did not meet the set deadline. The practice whereby the researcher collected the completed forms from the Secretaries on a day-to-day basis, contri- buted to the relatively high response rate. Percentage of Responses Of the 370 Questionnaires distributed, 282 were completed and returned to the researcher. Out Of the Questionnaires returned, nine were incomplete. Only the 273 fully completed questionnaires were used in the analysis of the data. 81 The 273 completed questionnaires represented 73.8 percent of the total Questionnaires sent out. The details of the distribution of the returned Questionnaires (responses) have been presented in Tables 3-j3through 3-13. Table 3-3: Distribution of Responses by Sex Sex of Respondents Faculty Member Grade Males Females Total Professors 11 3 14 Readers 10 4 14 Senior Lecturers 69 5 74 Lecturers 118 21 139 Assistant Lecturers 23 9 32 Total 231 42 273 % 84.6 15.4 100 The response rates shown in Table 3-5 through 3-13 were generally high for the Faculty of Education (87.8 per- cent), Engineering (73.8 percent), Medicine (70.5 percent), Pharmaceutical Sciences (74.1 percent), Science (87.5 per- cent) and Veterinary Medicine (92.1 percent). One of the causes Of the high response rates from these academic faculties was the co-Operation and the en- thusiasm shown by the Departmental Secretaries. The other was the interest shown in the study by the faculty members 04 Qu ~38 S on. :38 «.00 N n aheasaoed useun«ee< 0.00 an 0n cascades; °.on n 0 eaousaoea noq=em o.o o n cheese: o.On A N euoeeeuocm e a immuiluiiiim mmwoawox o afumuuum cameo: deuce-coa«>cu he houses: can» Beacons-z .oin canon a.ns an «a goose c.ca s m accesses; acaaeqea< c.~a a~ NA acousaooa «.00 cu an eceusuoe; season 0.90 a N access: 5.00 N n eacaaauoum mmwomwmn accuses: sous: sauna oveccaumuuuu menuoocumcm he Nausea; Iona eeccaeox .cin canny 0.50 as at usaok o.oc~ N N acousaooa assauaaa< a.N© eN 0N abouzaoos a.na cu Nu auoasaooa season o.co— N N assess: ¢.cm a N shoaaoaocm 3: 3 s: sandman uncommon accuses: soasaahaauc aa_:osm :ouaeoseu he sumac-m Iona nonsense: .Nin a.nsh 0.0: NN n: _eaeh n.N0 n a aaeasuooa assauuea< c.oc 0 ON assesses; a.nn N nu naeusuoea nausea 0.00 a N abouaoc 0.50 a. N ehoaaeuoua .3443 I? nausosm cease—om neqoon use e050 he hausoeu Iona nonsense: .0in canny 6.60 nu a» fleece 0.N0 n a shessuoed accuaana< 0.00 Na an aheasaoea 6.60 n as eueusaoea deacon 0.00 N n unease: c.0n a N acoaaeuoaa “W. as a so eecomwun accuses: ceasauaue—a e Nuance“ a a: e o s o a s ecsuuso«u0¢ he Nansen: loam concedes: .nin e—aeb o.co~ nNN Nn aha 0.AN an 6 Nn ...a n an anger Na nachsaoc; acaae‘u00 Nan aaeasaoea on auehsaooa hence” a access: a shone-Noam on 323.63.... .3 monsoon... co 53.5.52: :1 .32. 83 Table 3-10: Responses from Faculty of Human Medicine Number of Questionnaires Faculty Distributed Returned Response Member Grade Rate (%) Professors 3 2 66.7 Readers 2 2 100.0 Senior Lecturers 14 10 71.4 Lecturers 21 15 71.4 Assistant Lecturers 4 2 50.0 Total 40 31 70.5 Table 3—11: Response from Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences Number Of_Questionnaires Faculty Distributed Returned Response Member Grade Rate (%) Professors 2 1 50.0 Readers 2 1 50.0 Senior Lecturers 8 6 75.0 Lecturers 12 10 83.3 Assistant Lecturers 3 2 66.7 Total 27 20 74.1 Table 3-12: Responses from Faculty of Science Number of Questionnaires Faculty Distributed Returned Response Member Grade Rate (%) Professors 4 3 75-0 Readers 2 2 100.0 Senior Lecturers 15 13 86.7 Lecturers 31 27 87.1 Assistant Lecturers 4 4 100.0 Total 56 49 87.5 84 Table 3—13: Responses from Faculty of Veterinary Medicine Number of Questionnaires Faculty Distributed Returned Response Member Grade Rate (%) Professors 3 2 66.7 Readers 2 2 100.0 Senior Lecturers 12 10 83.3 Lecturers 18 18 100.0 Assistant Lecturers 3 3 100.0 Total 38 35 92.1 in these academic units. It was evident from the inter- action which the researcher had with some of the faculty members that there was a desire among many of them for effective instructional media services in the university. The high response rates in the Faculties of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Veterinary Medicine and Human Medicine cor- related with the views Of most of the faculty members in the university. The view is that those were the academic faculties where instructional media appeared to have been accepted. On the other hand, the response rates were relatively low for the Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences (48.8 per- cent), Environmental Design (60.7 percent) and Agriculture (60.9 percent). 85 Excuses were given for the low responses from the Faculty of Agriculture and the Faculty of Environmental Design. The departmental secretaries in these academic units were apparently enthusiastic in helping the researcher to administer the Questionnaires but most of the faculty members did not complete the Questionnaires given to them despite several reminders. Two excuses were given for the low responses in the Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences. First, some of the Departmental Secretaries said that they had no time to administer the Questionnaires because of heavy work load. Second, some of the faculty members refused to col— lect the Questionnaires deposited in their mail boxes. Those who collected the questionnaires did not return them to the Departmental Secretaries despite some reminders. These faculty members said that they were unable to complete the Questionnaires at that time because they were pre-occupied with the grading of final examinations. Data Analysis During the development of the Questionnaire, care was taken to categorize various related items in the same section. The data collected in Nigeria by the researcher were hand coded and analyzed via the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) at the Michigan State University Computer Center. 86 The responses to the items in each section of the Questionnaire were compiled and analyzed to test the cor— responding hypotheses. Since the study was descriptive in nature, contingency tables showing percentages and fre- quencies were used. Cross-tabulations (Chi-Square) were developed to show the relationships between the instructional media use and the other variables. The hypotheses were tested at the .05 level of signi- ficance. Summary: The procedures and methodology used in this study have been designed to determine the individual and institutional factors which influence the use Of instructional media by faculty members at Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. To this end, six null hypotheses were generated. The hypotheses dealt with instructional media use as a function of faculty member grade levels, perceptions, previous skills, university support, perceived constraints and sources of information. The population for this study comprised faculty mem- bers currently engaged in teaching 111 nine academic faculties. The sample that was studied comprised 273 faculty members from the Samaru main campus of the university. The sample was drawn from the five faculty member grades. The instrument used in this study was an eight-page questionnaire organized into seven sections. The instrument 87 contained mostly closed—ended questions which required one of the five-point scaled responses. Prior to the collection of data, a pilot test was conducted to ensure the reliability and validity of the in- strument. The researcher personally collected the data for this study during the months of June, July and August 1979 at Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria in Nigeria. Out of the 370 Questionnaires administered, 273 were fully completed and used in the final analysis. That rep- resented a response rate of 73.8 percent. The data collected in Nigeria by the researcher were hand coded and analyzed via the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) at the Michigan State University Computer Center. The hypotheses were tested at the .05 level of significance. CHAPTER IV ANALYSIS OF RESULTS INTRODUCTION: This chapter contains the analysis of the data Ob- tained for this study whose primary purpose was to determine the individual and institutional factors which influence faculty members in the use of instructional media. The basic objectives were: 1. To determine the extent to which faculty members utilize instructional media in Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. To determine the extent to which individual faculty members' perception about instructional media, their job status, previous skills in the use of instructional media and the sources of information about available instructional media, influence their use of instructional media in the university. To identify the ways in which institutional factors such as budgetary provisions, personnel reward mechanism and university organizational policies, influence the extent to which faculty members use instructional media in the university. 88 89 Descriptive statistics were used to describe the frequency of responses to the various variables covered in the questionnaires. Contingency tables were used to deter- mine if there were relationships between the variables. The hypotheses were tested at alpha = .05 level. Findings of the Study: Findings from the study have been presented in form of answers to questions and results of the tested hypotheses. Research Qpestion 1: To what extent are the instructional media in Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, being used by faculty members? Answers to Research Question 1: In Chapter Two reference was made to the avail— ability of several items of instructional media in the university. The extent of usage of instructional media by faculty members have been presented in Figure 4.1. The extent of usage has been defined as a combination of fre- quency of use and the number of faculty members using each item of instructional media in a lO-week academic term. The most frequently used instructional media in a 10—week academic term were slides (5.5 percent) followed by overhead transparencies (2.9 percent) and audio tapes (1.5 percent). The most frequent usage here is represented by a combined frequency of "above 10" and "7—9" times (Figure 4.1). 9O mun—(.— 93¢ (5w: 4(29hgcbb2. 025: 930sz >h430 mam» $4.044 (5m: 4(209—0352. mm.02w¢(&m2(3h mucahoa 049.335 203.0: x. ...w. in. a _ m05<¢ 11.1.. mmzthzaz Ow w>Ou( mm: 50 Quay-u mew; Op 2. Gum: mugs... no .02 “>3. 91 It has been shown in Figure 4.1 that on the average 61.2 percent of faculty members did not use each of the in- structional media items in a ten—week academic term. This conclusion is supported by the frequencies of usage of each of the items which concentrated heavily on zero times. The low usage was further dramatized by a mean of 1.4 out of 5 points when the mean of means was calculated for all the instructional media items. Therefore, the responses to the Research Question 1 justified the conclusion that there had been very low usage of instructional media. Research Question 2: Which grades of faculty members in Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, make the most use of instructional media? Answers to Research Question 2: Five grades of faculty members were involved in this study: Professors, Readers (Associate Professors), Senior Lecturers, Lecturers and Assistant Lecturers. Figure 4.2 shows the number of faculty members in each grade level who used each of the instructional media items. Figure 4.2 through 4.6 show that Lecturers made the most frequent use of instructional media. This was followed by Senior Lecturers, Professors, Assistant Lecturers and Readers (Associate Professors) in that order. The question of which grade of faculty members was making the most frequent use of instructional media was further tested statistically in Hypotheses 1. 92 I'V an or VIII! we I. n nuns r net-no emu er a4 . M. d]! I 2 I .J‘a , 01m, “Am. I "' A r“ ‘0'. 'Ime ”W “HAO Um "tCVCOOC‘ 3M IAD|$ N'WS Mao" 1‘0 MRI mm m 0‘3 m. or ”I“ M ”IW M“ .n, A ‘IOCS ”gust-0| norm "MAD cannot flLlVlIiOfll M0 MOI! mm RIM! KI" coconut UM 4‘! I“. or “m (“mlfi'l MM” UM I'M“ can “0-0 “I 0 film new! m “Yum .00. '0‘ F“ 3" in 4 m kl f: l “a. l *‘l 3'- " ' L I. I! :§ '.§ Ii ; i; ;i u L .4 ._ '. i; ii I". I: U“ i! i': I; I: i T i ’I "cut 6 O “Ia «cm-m M mullet new A at g. u i . .‘l P. i ' 2 , I 1 . 1 an" harm nono- WIOU‘AO m mlmm m “”0 "C'WI 'CMfl. WON”. m'm ‘0" "W C O “I a AONIMI' IIC'm M alumna-u I” 93 Hypothesis 1 Null Hypothesis (H0); There will be no significant relationship between the frequency of instructional media use and faculty members' grade levels. In testing this hypothesis, five grades of faculty members were considered: Professors, Readers, Senior Lec- turers, Lecturers and Assistant Lecturers. There were five levels of frequencies of use of each of the instructional media items: slides, filmstrips, motion pictures, overhead transparencies, radios, television and videotapes, and audiotapes. The five levels of usage were weighted on a five-point scale as follows: Zero times (1 point), 1-3 times (2 points), 4-6 times (3 points), 7-9 times (4 points) and above 10 times (5 points) for the purposes of computation. Analysis of Results Contingency (cross-tabulations) analysis were made and the results were used to test the null hypothesis. In testing the null hypothesis, the researcher decided to test the level of significance of the frequency of instructional media use of only slides and overhead transparencies because these were the two most frequently used items. The validity of testing for significance for the other items with very low usage could be questionable because low usage was already an indication of negative re- lationship between those variables. 94 The test results shown in Table 4.1 indicate that the calculated significance level is .3715 at 16 degrees of freedom for slides. Therefore, the Null hypothesis is ac- cepted because it is greater than the .05 level of signi- ficance. Similarly, the results in Table 4.2 show that the calculated significance level is .4408 at 16 degrees of freedom for overhead transparencies. Therefore, the Null hypothesis is accepted because it is greater than the .05 level of significance. Although Figures 4.2 through 4.6 show that Lecturers made the most frequent use of instructional media than all other faculty members, it can be still inferred that the frequency of instructional media use was not related to faculty members' grade levels. This conclusion is based on the data in Table 4.1 and 4.2 which show that the Null Hypothesis 1 is accepted. Research Question 3 (a): What are the constraints on the use of instructional media by faculty members in Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. Answers to ResearchpQuestion 3p(a): The results summarized in Table 4.3 show the details of the identified constraints on instructional media use. The constraints included: non-availability of required instructional media, heavy teaching loads, lack of time to preview materials, lack of information about available in- structional media and irregular electrical power supply. “ADYY’ TAB E 4.1: CROSS- v Ar ~m 95 IONS 0F FREQUENCIES OF USE OF SLIDES BY FACULTY 353833 F- .- GRAD Lnuubn'. .0). , FACULTY MEMBER GRADES Number of Times _ . Slides Are Used Senior Asszstant Row in 10 Weeks. Professors Read-rs Lecturers Lecturers Lecturers Total 0 P 8 9 42 87 24 170 % 2.9 3.3 15.4 31.9 8.8 62.3 1-3 I" 3 3 18 26 a 5:. i 1.1 1.1 6.6 9.5 1.5 19.8 4-6 F 3 0 3 13 2 21 % 1.1 0 1.1 4.8 0.7 7.7 7-9 F 0 1 3 7 2 l3 % 0 0.4 1.1 2.6 0.7 4.8 Above F o 1 8 6 o 15 10 % O 0.4 2.9 2.2 0 5.5 Column F 14 14 74 139 32 273 Total 5 5.1 5.1 27.1 50.9 11.7 100.0 N = 273 F = Frequency (Number of Faculty Chi-Square = 17.2192 Members) Degrees of Freedom = 16 Significance Level = .371 TABLE 4.2: CRCSS-TABLLATICNS OP FREQUENCIES OF USE OF OVERHEAD TRASSPAREHCIES BY FACULTY MEMBER GRADES. 'T WEVBTR GRUB“ Number of Times FACU“TY J”““““ A LS Used in Senior Assistant 12 iceks Professors Readers Lecturers Lecturer: Lecturers Total 0 F 7 7 46 83 24 16? 5 2.6 2.6 16.8 30.4 8.8 61.2 1-3 F 4 4 13 25 8 54 5 1.5 1.5 4.8 9.2 2.9 19.3 4-6 F 3 2 7 l6 0 28 f 1.1 0.7 2.6 5.9 0 10.3 7-9 F 0 0 5 ll 0 16 S o o 1.8 4.8 o 5.; Above P O 1' 3 4 0 8 10 f 0 0.4 1.1 1.5 0 2.9 Column P l4 14 74 139 32 273 Total 5 5.1 5.1 27.1 50.9 11.7 100.3 N - 273 Chi-Square I 16.1758 Degrees of Freedom I 16 Significance Level - .4408 96 In addition to identifying the constraints, the respondents also rated each constraint either as major, moderate or minor. What was a major, moderate or minor constraint was left to the discretion of individual faculty members responding to the question. It was assumed that the degree to which each constraint was rated could influence the frequency of instructional media use. Table 4.3 cone tainsa summary of the frequencies and percentage ratings of the ten constraints on instructional media use. Out of the ten constraints, six were rated as major by the faculty members. The relationship between the perceived constraints and instructional media use was tested statistically in Hypothesis 2. Hypothesis 2 Null Hypothesis (HO): There will be no significant relationship between the perceived constraints and the frequency Of instructional media use by faculty members. In testing this hypothesis, the ten constraints were considered against the frequencies of instructional media use. Analysis of Results: Crosstabulations were made and the results were used to test the Null Hypothesis. Results displayed in Table 4.4 indicate that the Null hypothesis is accepted 5 out of 10 times (50.0 percent). 97 TABLE 4.3: NUMBER AND PERCENTAGE OF FACULTY MEMBERS RATING CONSTRAINTS 0N INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA USE. Number of Perceived Perceived Faculty Degree of No. Constraints Members Percentage Constraints 1. Irregular electrical power supply 167 61.2 Major 2. Instructional media are not Often avail- able when needed 161 59-0 Major 3. Lack of information about instructional media 128 46.9 Major 4. Lack of instructional media in my subject area 102 37.4 Major 5. ’Teaching load does not allow enough time to plan for instructional media use 96 35.2 Major 6. TOO much red-tape in- volved in obtaining instructional materials or equipment 90 33.0 Moderate 7. Lack of departmental support for instruc- tional media use. 88 32.2 Moderate 8. It takes too much time to select and preview instructional media 87 31.9 Minor 9. Lack of technical assistance when using instructional media 86 31.5 Moderate 10. Lack of training in instructional media 78 28.6 Major 98 Therefore, it is difficult to accept the Null Hypothesis absolutely in respect of slides. In Table 4.5, the results indicate that the Null hypothesis is rejected 6 out of 10 times (60.0 percent). Therefore, the Null hypothesis is rejected in respect of overhead transparencies. However, the average results of testing the hypo— thesis for both slides and overhead transparencies show that Null Hypothesis 2 is rejected 11 out of 20 times (55.0 per- ‘cent). In conclusion, the Null hypothesis is rejected. Research Question 3 (b): What individual factors hinder or facilitate the use of instructional media by faculty members? Answers to Research Question 3 (b): It has been assumed that several individual factors could limit individual faculty members' use of instructional media. Three categories of such individual factors were considered. Table 4.6 contains results of responses by faculty members to positive perception statements about instructional media. 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Pad 3.. 1838.39: N 38- «8308.32.— .N 05.8 o . a nnfléu as :5... hole. use; . . . 3 a 8. o -92. has... a. .8.— .u .88.... 88 2 28 8 2h .ufiafi“ and“... .2 Jadnflflllllafiqlliqjjfiaa: :3. 3.5235: 88.08 «flu-dud gs Isl—(£950 3g reacts w- flag. .93.: naive to g 8 flag: 8 ggghgs to g 5.0 a £~<¢h§ .ng “.535 h. and. E In 8 Egg 8 ggghnaco 8 pg 3.: man...— 100 The high number of faculty members who strongly agreed with the positive perceptions could be attributed to the directionality of the Questionnaire statements. Table hq7’containsthe results of the responses to negative perception statements. These negative perceptions _belonged to the category of factors which could hinder in- dividual faculty members' use of instructional media. The data show that on the average, 47.3 percent of the respondents disagreed with all the five negative perceptions. Again, as was the case with the positive perceptions, the high num- ber of faculty members who disagreed with most of the neg- ative perceptions could be attributed to the directionality of the Questionnaire statements. Table 4.8 containsthe result of the responses to the question dealing with training and skills in instruc- tional media use. Training and skills in the use of in- structional media belonged to a category of factors which could facilitate individual faculty members' use of in- structional media. The data indicated that on the average, 81.Q per- cent of the respondents had no training and skills in the use of instructional media. In particular, 7#.4 percent of the respondents had no skills in the Operation of in- structional media equipment. As many as 81.0 percent had no skills in the production of instructional packages. Also, 82.5 percent had no skills in the selection of in- structional media. As many as 83.5 percent had no training 101 TABLE “.5: 332823 AND PEflCENTAGE OF FACULTY flfifllERS RESPONDINS TO POSITXV! iEHCEPTIOflS STATEKERT ABOUT IXSTRUCTXONAL IEDIA. w Stronelv Stro 1 t v e c t n A d n; y InstructiOnal media can be used by the teacher: 1. To motivate students in the F 112 1““ 10 5 2 learning process and bring f “1.0 52.7 3.7 1.8 0.7 additional details into his teaching. 2. To reach a greater nusber of P 89 1““ 27 10 3 students equally at the ease 5 32.6 52.7 9.9 3.? 1.1 t se. 3. To provide {or individual I 53 106 61 “5 8 student's learning needs f 19.“ 38.8 22.3 16.5 2.9 a. To roe professionally by P 68 150 35 16 “ hav n5 access to quality 5 2:..9 54m; 12.8 5.9 1.5 instructional materials prepared by other experi- enced teachers and subject specialists. 5. To reduce his tine in lectur- P “2 102 “6 68 15 in; and note-giving. 5 15.“ 37.“ 16.8 2“.9 5.5 TABLE “.7: NUMBER AID PERCENTAGE OF FACULTY IEIBERS RESPONDING TO NEGATIVE PERCEPTXONS STATEIZNTS ABOUT INSTRUCTIONAL IEDIA. 2:52.: 2‘ A‘zgglgnt rong Y 5;?00811 1 et'v D The cost of east instructional P 22 38 65 118 30 media is out of proportion to f 8.1 13.9 23.8 “3.2 11.0 to their educational value. The personal relationship be- 2 16 “7 2“ 1““ “2 teeen the teacher and the 5 5.9 17.2 8.8 52.7 15.“ student is lost when instruc- tional sedia are used. The increased use o! in- T 1 19 28 l“? 78 structional media will doen i 0.“ 7.0 10.3 53.8 28.6 grade the teacher's role in instruction and t his out or work event y. instructional media is not P 9 “1 51 119 53 conductive to learni f 3.3 15.0 18 7 “3.6 1°.“ teaching in most subjects. The Center for Educational P 9 21 39 119 85 Technology has little or 5 3.3 7.7 l~.3 “3.6 31.1 nothing to contribute to instructional isprovesent in this University. TABLE “.8: “UR!!! AID PIECIRTAGE OP FACULTY IEIIERS HIT" VARIOUS INSTRUCTIOflAL IIDIA SKILLS ‘os ‘ost .er- - Graduate Graduate Graduate Graduate No 32. 1131! 9‘ Skill: 0 C l. 0 ration of instruc- V 10 23 6 31 203 t onal media equip-ant. I 3.7 8.“ 2.2 11.“ 7“.“ 2. Production of instruo- P 10 10 7 2“ 221 tional packa¢es. S 3.7 3.7 2.6 8.8 81.0 . S 1 ti of instruc- ? 7 18 3 20 225 J 2:0:51 2241.. S 2.6 6.6 1.1 7.3 82.5 8 «. K-n recent or instruc- F 7 l“ 3 21 22 tro:a1 media. 5 2.6 5.1 1.1 7.7 33.5 2 “ 5. Evaluation of instruc- F 6 13 “ 16 tional pachages. i 2.2 “.8 1.5 5.9 5.7 lOZ in instructional media management while 85.7 percent had no skills in the evaluation of instructional packages. The relationship between the frequency of instruc- tional media use and faculty members' perception about in- structional media was tested statistically in Hypothesis 3. flypothesis 3: Null Hypothesis (H01; There will be no significant relationship between the frequency of use and faculty members' perceptions about instructional media. In testing this hypothesis, five positive perceptions and five negative perceptions by faculty members about in- structional media were considered. Analysis of Results: Crosstabulations were made and the results were used to test the null hypothesis. The null hypothesis was tested for both slides and overhead transparencies. This involved an extensive testing for each of the five positive and five negative perceptions about instructional media. The results displayed in Table “.9 show that the Null hypothesis is rejected 6 out of 10 times (60 percent). In that situation, the Null hypothesis 3 is rejected in respect of slides. Similarly, the summary of the results in Table “.10 show that the Null Hypothesis is rejected 5 out of 10 times (50 percent). In that case, the Null hypothesis is rejected T-"L‘LE “e 0: 103 SVXIARY CF CPCSSYABULATIOKS 0F FREQFESCIES OF USE CF JKIUEJ RY P0317175 ARM HEJATXVE PERCEPTlffls ABOUT IRSTHTCTICKAL EELXA. Category of Positive Instructional media can be used by the teacher: 1. To motivate stu- dents in the learning process and bring ad- ditional details into his teaching. 2. To reach a great- 273 er number of stu- dents equally at the same time. 3. To provide {or 273 individual stu- dent's learning needs. a. To grow profes- 273 sionally by hav- ing access to quality instruc- tional materials prepared by other experienced teachers and sub- Ject specialists. 5.To reduce his tine in lectur- ing and note- giving. 273 273 smusrxc.xz_._a_ssuu-§ ‘egrees Significance of Perception ngcgption §tatgggntg N Chi-Square Frgedon Level 12.“?39 16 30.7518 16 33.9936 16 17.380? 16 25.8529 16 .7108 .01“5 .Jélu .0561 Renarks: Null Hypothesis Accepted Rejected Rejected Accepted Rejected Negative l.The cost of seat 273 instructional sedia is out of proportion to their educational value. 2.The personal re- lationship between the teacher and the student is lost when instruc- tional sedia are used. 3.The increased use 273 of instructional sedia I111 down- grade the teacher‘s role in instruction and put his out of sort event- ually. b.1nstructional sedia is not con- ductive to learn- ing/teaching in seat subjects. 5.The Center for 273 Educational Tech- nology has little or nothing to contribute to instructional improvement in this univer- sity. 273 25.“5“O 16 28.8130 16 23.“689 16 29.7303 16 30.2306 16 .0622 .1018 .0195 .0168 Accepted Rejected Accepted Rejected Rejected 108 TABLE “.10: SEFMAPY OF CRCSSTABULATIOHS OF FFEQUEHCIES OF USE OF OVEPHEAD TrHHQPARESCIES BY POSITIVE AflD RESATIVE PERCEPTICHS ABCUT 1337533- TIOHAL MEDIA. §TAT§ST§CAL R§SULTS Remarks: Category agrees Significance Null of of Perception Perception §tatement§ N Chi-Sguare Freedom Level Hypothesis Instructional media can be used by the teacher: 1. To motive students 273 61.2560 16 .0000 Rejected in the learning pro» cess and bri ad- ditional deta 1s into his teaching. 2. To reach a greater 273 9.““2“ l6 .89“l Accepted . number of students Peeitive equally at the same time. 3. To provide to indi- 273 28.911“ 16 .02“5 Rejected vidual student's learning needs. a. To grow profession- 273 17.6779 16 .3“31 Accepted ally by having ac- cess to quality in- structional ma- terials prepared by other experienced teachers and sub- ject specialists. 5. To reduce his time 273 23.1918 16 .1087 Accepted in lecturing and note-givirg . l. The cost of most 273 21.7085 16 .1529 Accepted instructional media is out of proport- ion to their edu- cational value. 2. The personal re- 273 38.18“8 16 .001“ Rejected lationship be- tween the teacher and the student is lost when instruc- tional media are used. Negative 3. The increased use 273 15.6720 16 .“761 Accepted of instructional media will down- grade the teacher's role in instruction and put him out of work eventually. “. Instructional media 273 “3.0293 16 .0003 Rejected is not conductive to learning/teaching in most subjects. 5. The Center for Eda-273 36.2““6 16 .002? Rejected cational Technology has little or noth- ing to contribute to instructional improvement in this University. 105 in respect of overhead transparencies. The data in the two tables indicate that the Null hypothesis is rejected in respect of both slides and overhead transparencies. In conclusion, the Null hypothesis is rejected. Research Question “: What specific support is provided by the University to encourage faculty members to use instructional media. Answers to Research Question “: Eight different types of support which the univer- sity authority is giving to encourage instructional media use in Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, have been listed in Table “.11. On the average, 51.6 percent of the responses said that the university was not providing much support. For example, 61.5 percent said that the university was not providing the necessary support to encourage faculty members to use instructional media. For example, 51.6 percent of the respondents said that instructional media- related workshops and seminars were not organized for faculty members. 'Also, 50.9 percent of the respondents said that they had never been given grants to finance instructional development projects. The data also showed that “7.3 per- cent of the respondents had never been given any financial assistance to participate in instructional media-related conventions. 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