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V. .‘ c u I .0: . n 9: Ho 3. . ~ . - “Vi-1% . . o . - . . r . . . 1.! o - I‘ll A MMMM v IV .3 “fl LE Em“ F HHIHHIINHIIIHIHINIHHHIIillllllllllfll!UWWIUI Micki? {373381 5““ 310401 8902 L University J Thisistocertifythatthe dissertation entitled A Descriptive Study to Determine the Effect That Training, Experience and Availabiiity Have On Use of Instructional Media in the Classroom by Pre- Service Teachers presented by David M. Sibalwa has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph. D. Elwin Education (£50) a .. . / MS U is an Affirmative Action/Equal (hm hm. «2 /? / Ar: 042771 MSU LIBRARIES RETURNING MATERIALS: Place in book drop to remove this checkout from - yoUr record. FINES wiII be charged if book is returned after the date {stamped beIOW. v .. ‘.. .. {‘9} I\.4 L..- w (kW-<32; m1 .1 Wu / .2-..” A DESCRIPTIVE STUDY TO DETERMINE THE EFFECT THAT TRAINING, EXPERIENCE AND AVAILABILITY HAVE ON USE OF INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA IN THE CLASSROOM BY PRESERVICE TEACHERS BY David M. Sibalwa A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Counseling, Educational Psychology and Special Education (Area Educational Systems Development) 1982 ABSTRACT A DESCRIPTIVE STUDY TO DETERMINE THE EFFECT THAT TRAINING, EXPERIENCE AND AVAILABILITY HAVE ON USE OF INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA IN THE CLASSROOM BY PRESERVICE TEACHERS by David M. Sibalwa This study was designed to determine the effects of training in, experience with, and availability of instruc- tional media as they influence use in classrooms by pre- service teachers. Given the independent variables (a) experience with, (b) training (formal and informal) education in, and (c) availability of instructional media, a questionnaire was constructed to collect data on how they affect (d) use of instructional media in practice teaching. From 605 preservice teachers enrolled at M80 in 1981-82, who had completed practice teaching, 120 Michigan residents en- rolled in the Spring Term were selected to complete the survey. Data derived from 82 subjects supported three of four study hypotheses and generated two conclusions. (1) Preservice teachers' training in instructional media is important in developing skills and understanding. (2) That David M. Sibalwa this education and their experience with media items will be the major factors determining frequency of use of in- structional media in student teaching. Interactions among types of experience and avail- ability did not affect the subjects' use of instructional media, but high experience plus formal or informal training increased media use more than any other experience-education combination. Formal coursework, alone, did not significantly affect use. Availability was a determinant factor in using seven (of 20) media items, if subjects were experienced in their use. In every case, preservice teachers who scored high on experience, also used instructional items more than those with little experience. A related supposition, that sub- jects with formal education in the use of instructional media were also more likely to have had experience with the media was not supported. On the contrary, evidence showed that equivalent instructional media experience can be acquired outside of formal coursework. Precedent literature and this data suggest that un- dergraduate programs should involve preservice teachers in developing media skills, by using specific media items in their coursework. Concerns that remain indicate replication would be useful with a similar or larger sample, with David M. Sibalwa secondary teachers, and with teachers employed in the field. It would also be useful to catalogue instructional media that have positive value in the classroom, so these may be made available to preservice teachers. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Only with help and encouragement can one succeed in an advanced degree program. I wish to express my ap- preciation to individuals whose contributions made this achievement a reality. First, to my parents, the late Mr. and Mrs. Mufwj-Cl'la'l’l‘3|-Sibalwa, for raising up and supporting me in my early primary education. My special primary school teacher, Ammon Shilimi Mweetwa, gave me encouragement in my early education that often kept me going. I'm also grateful to the University of Zambia for sponsoring me to undertake this program. Special appreciation and heartfelt thanks go to my major professor, Dr. James Page, for his patience, kind- ness and good advice throughout my study. Two other mem- bers of my committee also deserve recognition for their helpful advice and comments in the early stages of my pro- gram and with my dissertation. They are Dr. Joe Levine and Dr. Castelle Gentry. My thanks also go to Dr. John Scuehr for his help and comments in the final stages of my dissertation. ii C) Copyright by DAVID MUNKOMBWE SIBALWA 1982 All Rights Reserved There have been other persons who played a vital role in my program. They are Kay Kay, Nancy Maihoff and Martha West, for their assistance and the work they did to help me complete this study. No married person can embark upon a program without the help of his mate. My wife, Naomi, has denied herself much on behalf of my education. She has shouldered the major burden of our family by combining work with house- hold duties to make it possible for me to have time to concentrate. To her, very special tribute and apprecia- tion are due. I hope I can return to Naomi, in all the years left to us, all that she has given up and given to me in the last few. To my children: Dar'ius, Denise and HankOndo: my thanks for their special help in counting and mailing the questionnaires and for their caring and patience with a dad who was too often busy during their best years., Per- haps now, we will be able to spend more time together. Finally, special gratitude is extended to Marcella Dean, Bertha Keinbaum and Mr. and Mrs. Robert Biberstine for their continuous support during my study. To others of my family and friends, I also wish to extend apprecia- tion for help and encouragement over these past few dif- ficult years. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CHAPTER I. II. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM . . . . . . . . Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Problem Statement Purpose of the Study . . . . . . . . . . Hypotheses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Definition of Terms. . . . . . . . . . . Relevance of the Study . . . . . . . . . Assumptions of the Study. . . . . . . . Limitations of the Study . . . . . . . . Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE . . . . . . . . A Brief History of Audiovisual Instruction Traditional Media. . . . . . . . . . . . Preservice Teachers and Teaching Methods The Self-Instructional Approach. . . . . Utilization of Audiovisual Materials in Teaching Situations. . . . . . . . . The Saginaw School Study . . . . . . . . Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . Research Outcomes. . . . . . . . . . The Hagerstown Instructional Television System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tape-Recorded Lectures in the College Classroom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Research Outcome . . . . . . . . . . Simulation Games . . . . . . . . . . . . Data Collection. . . . . . . . . . . The Sample . . . . . . . . . . . . . Methodology. . . . . . . . . . . . . Findings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . iv Page vi 14 l6 l7 19 21 25 26 27 28 32 33 34 36 40 4O 42 42 CHAPTER Effectness of the Overhead Projector Teaching Specific Subjects. Methodology. Results. The Selection of Audiovisual Materials for Use in Education. . Instructional Media Competence O Page Conceptual and/or Operational Processes (Cognitive) Theory (Affective) Instructional Planning . Summary . III. METHODOLOGY. Population and Sample Selection. Population Sample Selection Instrument Variables. Dependent Variable . Independent Variable Research Design. Data Analysis. Summary . IV. Introduction Hypothesis Hypothesis Hypothesis Hypothesis Summary . One Two Three Four. ANALYSIS AND RESULTS V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS Summary . Study Subjects Design Hypotheses Conclusions. Recommendations A Final Note APPENDICES. . . . BIBLIOGRAPHY. . . in . . . . 43 . . . . 43 . . . . 45 . . . . 47 . . . . 48 . . . . 53 . . . . 54 . . . . 55 . . . . S7 . . . . 59 . . . . 60 . . . . 60 . . . . 61 . . . . 62 . . . . 64 . . . . 64 . . . . 64 . . . . 6S . . . . 67 . . . . 7O . . . . 71 . . . . 71 . . . . 71 . . . . 80 . . . . 82 . . . . 89 . . . . 97 .'. . . 99 100 100 101 103 105 107 118 10.' 11. LIST OF TABLES Party System Support, Voting Cue, and Lack of Cynicism Scales. . . . . . . . . . Results of Government Simulation Study . . Number of Subjects Responding to Each Level and Each Independent Variable. . . . . . . Effects Tests for Each Dependent Variable. ANOVA of Use of Portable Television Equip- ment and Video Tapes in Classrooms by Student Teachers . . . . . . . . . . . . . Results of Scheffe Post Hoc Tests on Differences Between Use of Portable TV Equipment and Video Tapes Cell Means. . Analysis of Variance for Use of Slide Projector in the Classroom During Student Teaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . Analysis of Variance for Use of Wall Maps in the Classroom During Student Teaching . Analysis of Variance for Use of Computer Instruction or Games in the Classroom During Student Teaching. . . . . . . . . . Analysis of Variance for Use of Specimens in the Classroom During Student Teaching . Analysis of Variance for Use of Phonograph in the Classroom During Student Teaching . Analysis of Variance of Use of Television Broadcasts in the Classroom by Student TeaChers O O O O O O O I O O O O O O O O 0 Analysis of Variance of Use of Instructional TV in the Classroom by Student Teachers. . vi PAGE 39 41 66 69 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 81 83 TABLE Page 12. Analysis of Variance of Use of 8mm Motion Picture Camera in the Classroom During Student Teaching. . . . . . . . . . 84 13. Analysis of Variance of Use of 16mm Movie Projector in the Classroom During Student Teaching. . . . . . . . . . 85 14. Analysis of Variance of Use of Filmstrips in the Classroom During Student Teaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 15. Analysis of Variance of Overhead Projectors in the Classroom During Student Teaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 16. Analysis of Variance of Use of Opaque Projectors in the Classroom During Student Teaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 17.. Analysis of Variance of Use of Workbooks in the Classroom During Student Teaching . 90 18. Analysis of Variance for Use of Chalkboard in the Classroom While Student Teaching. . 91 19. Analysis of Variance for Use of Dry-Mount Press in the Classroom During Student Teaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 20. Analysis of Variance for Use of Educa- tional Games During Student Teaching . . . 93 21. Analysis of Variance for Use of Simulation Devices in the Classroom While Student Teaching . . . . . . . . . . 94 22. Analysis of Variance for Use of Audio Recorder Playback in the Classroom While Student Teaching . . . . . . . . . . 95 23. Analysis of Variance for Use of Radio Programs in the Classroom While Student Teaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 CHAPTER I STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM Introduction In the world today sound effective education is recognized as an urgent necessity.~ Technology has pro- vided the means for information retr£;al and the diss§m— ination of education beyond the wildest dreams of earlier generations. The key element in the efficient application of these wonders of invention and technology is the human factor. The potential of instructional media for education has been widely discussed as they pertain to a wide range of aspects of learning, teaching and administration. Al-. though some critics feel that education is not achieving its goals, there is evidence to believe that progress is being made. Perhaps more can be realized in providing quality education for all, if teacher candidates on leaving teach- ing institutions are prepared in such a way that they have a greater degree of competency in the use of instructional media in the classroom. As McClusky (1955) put it, the first step in teaching is the communication of ideas from \ teacher to learner. "Among modern basic media for trans- mitting ideas are the printed page, speech, demonstra- tions, pictures, radio and television" (p.2.). Studies have also demonstrated the effectiveness and unique potential of such media as films, slides, tapes, disc recordings and that group of visual media known as graphics. Research has demonstrated the importance of intelligent use and the adherence to proper techniques Of utilization. Most teacher training institutions pro- vide courses and training in the use of these modern in- structional media. However, experience in many of these programs has demonstrated that availability of instruc- tional media and services are not enough to achieve gen- eral use. Problem Statement The purpose of this study is to determine the ef- fect that training, experience, and availability have on the use of instructional media in the classroom by preservice teachers. An important part of this explor— ation is thatphaselof the study which involves (a) train- ing; (b) experience with instructional media; (c) avail- ability of instructional media; and (d) use of instruc— tional media in the classroom during student teaching. 3 As evident from searching the data bases of the Educational Resources Information Center (ERIC) and Dissertation Abstracts, much research has been done in the use of instructional media. For example, Neeb (1972) did a study of instructional materials and their use by selected elementary student teachers in their student teaching. The study revealed that elementary student teachers do take and use many instructional materials in their student teaching assignments. These items carry positive value when applied to the learning environment, and student teachers secure more of their information regarding instructional materials from the methods courses, the library or resource center and the audio-visual de- partment (p.98). Another study which supports the use of instruc- tional materials in schools was done by Streeter (1967), a study of the relationship among selected factors af- fecting media use by classroom teachers within selected school systems. The results, concisely stated, were that "a teacher's competence in media and the subject he teaches are important variables affecting frequency of media use (p.83). The decade following the end of World War II found some educators and laymen calling attention to the possi- bilities of instructional technology for solving the problems of time, space and numbers, also for improving the learning situation. However, not until 1957, did the improvement of public schools become the focal point of the entire nation (U.S.A.). This was the year that the Soviet Union launched its first satellite. Some of the more significant legislative actions were the ex- pansion of the National Defense Education Act to include almost all areas of the public school curriculum, the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965, and the Higher Education Act (NBA, 1962). In fact of these developments, current evidence indicates a limited use of a wide variety of instructional media by a large segment of the teaching force. In 1961, Godfrey surveyed a sample of public school systems in the United States with respect to availability and use of audio-visual media. Her conclusions were: That teachers reported a high level of technical competence and know- ledge of the field through either college work or in-service training. Most of them were interested enough to suggest that schools rent or buy new materials or equipment. The basic equipment is available for their use in their own building. Yet the majority of them don't use audio- vidual media extensively, nor do they plan to do so in the near future. (Godfrey, 1961). Purpose of the Study The purpose of this study is to determine the ef- fect that training, experience, and availability have on use of instructional media in the classroom by pre- service teachers. The study will address four questions which are thought to be important to this study. The responses to these questions will help to determine the relationships between experience with and use of in- structional media and the relationship between availability and the use of instructional media. 1. Is the interaction among (a) training in; (b) experience with, and (c) availability of instructional media related to the level of instructional media use by pre- service teachers? 2. Is the level of formal coursework in in- structional media related to the level of use of instructional media by preservice teachers? 3. Is the availability of instructional media in a school related to the level of its use by preservice teachers? 4. Is the level of experience with instructional media related to the level of use of in- structional media by preservice teachers? (Experience with instructional media includes informal education, ability to operate equip- ment, or simply being a spectator). Hypotheses The following hypotheses, stated in the null form, were thought to be appropriate for this study because of their relationship to the specific questions of this study, H :1 Level of interaction among formal coursework, types of experience and availability does not significantly affect the use of instructional media during student teaching. H :2 Level of formal coursework and informal education in instructional media does not significantly affect the use of instructional media during student teaching. H :3 Level of availability of instructional media in a school does not significantly affect its use during student teaching. H :4 Level of experience with instructional media does not significantly affect the use of instructional media during student teaching. Definition of Terms To establish some degree of commonality for the study, specific terms are defined before proceeding. Un- less otherwise stated, these definitions are based on the Association for Educational Communications and Technology's (AECT) Glossary of Terms (1979). 7 Instructional Technologyf-beyond any particular medium or device, instructional technology is more than the sum of its parts. It is a systematic way of design- ing, carrying out, and evaluating a total teaching and learning process in terms of specific objectives based upon research in human learning, communication and non— human resources, to bring about more effective instruction (Brown, Lewis and Harcleroad, 1977, p. 2-3). Educational Technology—-is a complex, integrated process involving people, procedures, ideas, devices and organization, for analyzing problems, and devising, implementing, evaluating and managing solutions to those problems, involved in all aspects of human learning. Utilization--an education function which brings learners into contact with learning resources or instruc- tional systems components to facilitate and assess student learning. Audio-Visual Instruction--a subfield of instruc- tional technology concerned with the production and utili- zation of materials used in formal education to promote learning through sight and/or hearing. Instructional Media--key components in the design and use of systematic instruction. A medium, broadly conceived, is any person, material, or knowledge, skills and attitudes. In this sense, teachers, textbooks, and 8 even school buildings are instructional media. Instructional media are, the graphic, photographic, electronic, educa— .tional (games, filmstrips, slides, motion pictures, over- head transparencies, still pictures, programmed instruction, television, computers, etc.) or mechanical means for arrest- ing, processing, and reconstituting visual or verbal in- formation (Gerlach and Ely, 1971, p.282). Definitions for the following are provided by the researcher, specifically for the purposes of this study: Formal Education--the organized transmission of knowledge that occurs in the classroom, during presenta- tions by teachers and students. Informal Education--learning that takes place out- side the classroom, can be self-taught or obtained simply by observing others (this includes accidental learning). Non-formal Education--has been known as an educa- tion which does not use the banking system. What it means here is that it provides education that can be used im- mediately. The banking type of education is one we get from schools which use a ladder system. Level of Experience--this is the extent to which a preservice teacher is familiar with instructional media. It can range from non-recognition of an object to skill— ful use of it. 9 Level of Availability--this is the extent to which instructional media are accessible to a preservice teacher in a student teaching assignment. Availability is high when instructional media are found in the classroom; moder- ate when instructional media are found elsewhere in the school building; low when they are in another district building. There is no level of availability when instruc- tional media are not available for preservice teachers. Relevance of the Study The College of Education at Michgian State Univer- sity is one of many schools in Michigan that train pre- service teachers and send them out to do student teaching. While in training preservice teachers learn how to use many different kinds of instructional media to help them teach classes in their various major fields of study. The Educational Systems Development Program Area has the responsibility for teaching instructional media. This study is relevant because its findings will help to show which areas in the training of teachers are being emphasized more than others. Education personnel can determine whether the findings indicate tendencies not compatible with terminal objectives established for preservice student teachers; and, adjustments can be made in the undergraduate programs. The Educational Systems 10 Development faculty and others_can be alerted to discrep- ancies between the goals of instructional media coursework and the application of principles of that coursework in practice. Specifically, this study is important for the following reasons: 1. through responses to a questionnaire, this study may identify the level of interaction among formal coursework, informal education, types of experiences and availability of in- structional media during student teaching. through responses to a questionnaire, this study may identify the level of formal course- work, informal education in instructional media and the use of instructional media during stu- dent teaching. through responses to a questionnaire, this study may identify the level of availability of instructional media in schools and its use during student teaching. through responses to a questionnaire, this study may identify level of experience with instructional media and the use of instruc- tional media during student teaching. 11 Assumptions of the Study Instructional media, when used properly, can pro— mote good communications between instructor and learner, also between learner and learner. They are of value in the development of desirable attitudes because they may be used to arouse emotions and feelings. For example, instructional media were used successfully during World War II by the Armed Forces to develop attitudes, build morale and motivate behavior, using effective motion pictures. The findings of a study using an adequate sample of Michigan State University preservice teachers can be generalized to all preservice teachers trained in the Michigan State University College of Education. Limitations of the Study This study will be limited by the following para- meters for ease of management and effectiveness: 1. Subjects will be primary preservice teachers enrolled in the Michigan State University College of Education who did student teaching during the 1981-1982 academic year. 2. The number of subjects will be 120, which will give each cell 10 subjects and is a manageable number, given the limited time and financial support available. 12 3. Selected instructional media used in a classroom teaching will be studied--e.g., non-print media, overhead projectors, and such educational games and computer simulation. The College of Education at Michgian State Univer- sity has been selected for this study for the following reasons: A. It is a teacher-training college interested in research. B. It places approximately 600 preservice teachers in student teaching positions, in one academic year, providing a usable sample for this study. Summary The format for the study is presented in Chapter I, which covers the rationale, purpose, hypotheses, need for and importance of the study, definitions of terms and limitations of the study. In Chapter II the literature concerning the study is reviewed. In Chapter III the design of the study is presented, which includes subjects, sample, instrument, and indepen- dent variables and statistics. In Chapter IV the methodology of the study is presented, which includes population, sample, instruments used, dependent variable, independent variables, research design and data analysis. 13 In Chapter V, the summary, conclusions , recommen- dations and suggested further studies are presented. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE The purpose of this study is to determine the ef- fect that training, experience and availability have on use of instructional media in the classroom by preservice teachers. The review of pertinent literature centers on five basic areas of this research: (1) brief history of audio- visual instruction; (2) preservice teachers and teaching methods; (3) utilization of audiovisual materials in teach- ing situations; (4) instructional media competency; and (5) instructional planning. A summary is included. A Brief History of Audiovisual Instruction Audiovisual instruction may be traced through the educational history of mankind. In primitive times child- ren learned through imitation, observation and participa- tion, aided by necessary language explanations. Man's earliest recordings of himself and his world were picture records. According to McClusky (1955) neolithic man drew pictures to warn and to inform (p.28). Early Egyptian records were almost entirely pictorial. 14 15 In the Western Hemisphere, the Mayans and Aztecs recorded their experiences through a system of picture writing. Early Greek and Roman teachers utilized the school journey, using sand as a blackboard and real ob- jects in their environments as instructional aids. The forerunners of modern educational scholars advocated the use of visual-sensory instruction. Famous education lead- ers such as Comenius, Locke, Rousseau and Petalozzi emphas- ized such instruction. John Amos Comenius (1592-1670) was educated as a protestant minister in German universities. The most widely used and influential book to come from his pen was The Orbis Pictus (world of pictures) published in 1658. Used as a text, it was illustrated with one hundred and fifty pictures printed from copper cuts, each picture serving as the topic of a lesson. In 1728, the eleventh English- Latin edition was published in London and reprinted by C.W. Bordine, Syracuse,N.Y. in 1887. Comenius saw the necessity of visual—sensory instruction in the elementary school. Let it (The Orbis Pictus) be given to children into their hands to delight themselves withal as they please with the sight of the pictures, and making them as familiar to themselves before they be put into school (McClusky, p. 28, 1958). 16 Pestalozzi, 1746-1827, founded experimental schools in Switzerland that were, for 25 years, a Mecca for Europ— ean and American educational leaders. He was greatly in- fluenced by Rousseau and his first educational experiments were conducted in the training of his own children on a farm. From the above, one cannot help but wonder what these men would do and say if they were to see modern schools equipped with audio-visual materials such as models, maps, motion pictures, lantern slides and stereographs, computers and programmed instruction, the likes of which they never dreamed. Traditional Media .The earliest medium of instruction, even before picture records, was the spoken word. In homes, churches and armies, on farms and in business and industry, as well as in the schools, the older people have always told the younger what was expected of them. Telling was formalized educationally in the lecture. Even today, with unlimited textual material, pro- fessors still lecture and teachers spend most of their class time talking. Trow (1958) stated that some of this talk is informative, some no doubt therapeutic for the ‘teacher, serving to relieve his feelings. No one knows how 17 much of this talk goes unheeded or how much is understood (p.58). Whether such talk is negative, positive or re- warding, or, as Skinner has suggested, a mere reinforcing mechanism, the teacher is out of date. Beyond talking and writing, technology has provided teachers the means for information retrieval and dissemination beyond the wildest stretches of the imagination. However, the key element in the efficient application of these wonders of invention and technology is still the human factor (p.58). Preservice Teachers and Teaching Methods Many peOple have the misconception that to become a teacher one doesn't need to learn how to teach. Trial and error practice, however, on live children is generally not acceptable in public elementary and secondary education. Willis (1969) said about teaching, "A teacher cannot con- -sider for himself/herself what it means for children to learn under the guiding influence of a teacher" (p.39). This implies that the student of learning and teaching can be guided by others who have learned what it means for a child to learn and for a teacher to guide (p.39). According to Willis, the idea that a teacher can learn to teach by trial and error is widely accepted in all branches of higher education, except professional edu- cation. In this view, new teachers are ready to teach as 18 soon as they have developed special competence in their respective subject matters. What he/she may need to know about his/her students and how they learn, about the pro- cess of teaching and its purposes, can be learned on the job. Professional educators, however, have learned other- wise (1969, p.39-40). In the Journal of Teacher Education, Fulton pointed out that the preparation of more and better qualified teachers includes: preparing teachers not only to teach concepts, but to teach them more ef- fectively. Teachers must be prepared to manage classroom instruction in an environment that is beset with many ex- ternal influences, some of which might be made useful to education. One of the most important of these influences is the wide use of communication media by most educational agencies. The ef—. fectiveness of such media in communica- ting ideas is indicated by their con- tinued and expanded use by industry and agencies outside of education. The pre- paration of teachers to teach more con- cepts effectively within a complex cul- ture includes those concepts relating to communicative media, more commonly called audio-visual materials (1960, p.492). More recently, attempts have been made to stimulate teacher preparation in the use of instructional materials through legislation, revision of college curricula and a variety of inservice techniques. In 1934, the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania enacted legislation requiring all applicants 19 for a permanent teaching certificate to have had an approved course in visual and sensory techniques. California has had a similar requirement since 1946. At about this time, the American Council on Education further stimulated at— tention to audiovisual education by publishing a statement that spelled out teacher competencies in this area (ACE, p. 1-3). Subsequently, other institutions have required an audiovisual course, for graduation. The Self-Instructional Approach This approach, although it might occur in a labor- atory, differs from the two just described in that it in- volves self-instructional programs on the substantive con- tent of the media field. It was one of four methods in— vestigated by Torkelson (1965) in an effort to establish empirical evidence of the superiority of one method of media competency development over others. Torkelson's study covered a four-year period and ccmpared the following methods: separate course, inte- gration, student teaching, and self-study. During the first two years approximately 1,000 prospective teachers were instructued by one of the four methods and then tested; during the last two years, two hundred of them were visited in their own classrooms. Classroom visits were analyzed by means of the following instruments: school description, 20 classroom description, class visitation check list, open- end interview, course opinionnaire, course effectiveness inventory, and frequency of use inventory. Although all patterns resulted in significant mean gains from pre- to post-tests, Torkelson found none to be superior to all others on all measures. There were, however, some interesting findings with regard to self-instruction. Following Phase One of the stated: study, Torkelson concluded: In terms of the teaching of equipment operation, the self-study pattern proved that this kind of perceptual motor skill can be learned through the avenue of specially prepared materials without the presence of an instructor (p.149). If information acquisition includes a conceptualization of the interrelation- ships of audiovisual type materials with the teaching-learning process, self-instructional materials may have limited application (p.71). Following phase two of the study, Torkelson further It appears significant that the teachers who had been prepared in the self-study pattern had the highest opinionnaire, classroom description, and class visitation scores. These scores reflected greater use and a more positive attitude than for the teachers who had been prepared through the other patterns (p.152). 21 The evidence from this experiment seems to suggest that the process of self-discovery and personal in- volvement in determining the merits of audiovisual materials in teaching and learning may develop the attitudes which will result in greater utiliza- tion on the teaching job (p.152). Whenreviewing the advantages and limitations of self-instructional materials in his StUdY. Torkelson concluded: "Perhaps more self direction and more depth in the actual utilization of audiovisual materials in all of the courses in teacher preparation may be the answer" (pp. 151—152). Utilization of Audio-Visual Materials in Teaching Situations ' The main reason for using audio-visual materials in teaching is to improve the communication of ideas. When communication is improved, it makes learning more effective. Dickey points out that, teaching and learning would be measureably improved if each teacher would take only a moment or two each day to determine whether or not he was really communicating effectively with his students (1956, p.180). The root of the word "communication" means "to make common" and this is the basis for using audio-visual mater- ials. Many times teachers fail to communicate their ideas 22 effectiVely through the spoken word or by means of textbook material. Dickey supports his earlier statement by adding that, "When pictures or other media are employed the meanings and ideas become more understandable to pupils" (1956, p. 181). Communication may be precisely perceived when con- crete and specific objectives are involved, but may break down when the words or symbols are not on the level of con- crete or specific experience. At this point, audiovisual materials become a real tool to learning, illustrating con- cepts and supplementing other materials when concreteness is not possible in textual material. In a study by Dickey (1956) a test given to high school seniors included two very similar items. In the first question, the students were asked to find the cost of seven theater tickets if one ticket cost sixty-seven cents (tax included). The second question was more general and asked, "how much é tickets would cost if one ticket cost 1 cents." Although every one of the seniors solved the first problem, they experienced difficulty with the second question,largely because they could not conceptualize something which was not concrete. It was at this point that visual aids were employed to show the students, through blackboard illustra- tions, what g and Z meant (p. 181). Dickey added that, 23 . . . sound ideas for the use of audiovisual materials would rule out the indiscriminate showing of films or listening to the radio. Only when audiovisual materials are related to the materials under consideration and only when the materials can add something to the learning experience should they be used. Learn- ing theories stress the importance of need- centered learning activities which will assist the learner to deal more effectively with the problem (p. 182). The quote above makes the point that the avail- ability of audiovisual materials should never be the deter- minant aspect of the learning activity. Their selection is an important responsibility of the teacher. One of the major points to be remembered by the preservice teacher is that films, recordings, or other prepared audiovisual mater- ials should be previewed before presentation. Only through such procedure can the teacher relate the materials to the _1essons under consideration and be certain that the materials are appropriate in every respect. Appropriateness, however, need not rule out homemade or extemporaneous materials. . . . too often it appears that the teacher feels that films are the only audiovisual mater- ials which are available for use. In reality there are hundreds of different materials and media. The effective teacher considers all possible devices and then selects the one which seems most useful and effective.‘ For example, a geometry teacher in explaining a point regard- ing the volume of a circular object may find that the blackboard with its flat surface is not satisfactory for making his point clear. One resourceful teacher merely reached down and lifted the wastebasket to his desk and used this object 24 for his explanation. This common object proved to be just as useful and effective in his teach- ing situation as any visual aid could possibly have been (Dickey 1956, p. 182). Whatever medium is employed, whether it be films, re- cordings, radio, television, mock-ups, drawings, or some- thing else, the student teacher needs to relate it carefully to the regular teaching presentation. A preview, prepara- tion of the class for the audiovisual materials, actual pre- sentation and the follomgaare all essential steps if optimum benefit is to be gained from audiovisual teaching techniques. DiCkeY'S Viewwxfthe knowledge and skills which are necessary if teachers are to utilize audiovisual materials most effectivelyq includes: 1. An understanding of the psychology of learning and its relationship to audiovisual materials; 2. An understanding of the fact that audiovisual materials and techniques are applicable in all areas of the curriculum and at all levels; 3. A recognition that audiovisual materials cannot replace the teacher but will only aid in making communications more effective; 4. A knowledge of the types of audiovisual mater- ials in the teacher's particular area of in- terest; 5. A knowledge of sources of free and inexpensive materials; 6. Skills in the operation and care of the most common pieces of audiovisual equipment: and 25 7. Skills in the use of the materials themselves (1956, p. 183). Audiovisual materials courses are means of helping preservice teachers learn valuable ways of communicating in teaching. Preservice teachers should take any opportun- ities available to familiarize themselves with the latest and best instructional aids. Audiovisual materials help to improve communication in teaching learners, improve communication between learners and improve communication with teachers. As Dale (1956) pointed9 .om ma mH Hm e m- an 0H momma OOCH> a Dams uanuO .>a OHnmuuom .mH ma OH as a ma pm A >9 HEEOHDOSHDmcH .mH em mm mm s «H mm ON moans HmcoHu nonhumcw Houomeou .hH mm m as n ma SH SH Humane OHSDOHE GOflUOE 55m .mH 4H Ho om mH 5 mm om uouomfloua OH>OE 5:50 .mH HS HH mm mm H as H- maHuumsHHm .SH mm OH mm mm a pm on uouoofloun DnHHm .mH me an mm mm m mm as bosomfloum camsum>o .NH as mm as «H HH pm He Houomfloua msvmmo .HH Hm om o~ Ho m as HH nnmumoconm .oH H4 m an m cm em - comma no m>HH .mEmHooum ofiomm .m AH om mm me 4 mm mm HomnsmHs .mumouoomu oflos< .m om mm m- NH mm om mH cmsHomnm .s mm me mm mm s cm om mans HHmz .s o~ m- o- SH mH mm Hm moans coHumHssHm .m cm on em Hm s cm ow moans HchHumosom .4 mm 5 mm m hm mH m mmmum unsoz sun .m s on N as H as «H Monmoanmno .~ m on m on N am mm axoonxuos .H 304 cmwm 30H cows 0:02 HmeuowcH Hmeuom . mEOuH mocmwummxm zuwawnmawm>¢- cowumooom oHnmfium> usuocoaoocw comm ocm HD>0H snow as masocommou muomnnsm mo umnEdz .H mqm pom unmsawdgm cowma>oama odomuuom .mH I x x x x x x Houommoun OOHHm .mH I x x x x x x mmEmm pom coauosuumcH HousmEoo .hH I I I I x x x mumoomoum cowmfl>mame .mH I I I I x x x cowmw>mawa cowuoouumcH .mH I I I I x x x DH>OE EE m .eH I I I I x x x HOHOOnoum OH>OE ES CH .mH I I I I x x x QHHumEHHm .NH I I I I x x x Houomnoum ommnum>o .HH I I I I x x x Houomfloum mogmmo .OH I I I I x x x 6.....an no 3H: msmumoum ofiomm .m I I I I x x x Amuummmoo on Hmouv I I I I HomommHQ .Hmouooom Cause .m I I I I x x x cmeommm .h I I I I x x x mam: Ham: .w I I I I x x x mmow>mo nosumaosflm .m I I I I x x x mmEmo HOGOfluoosom .v I I I I x x x mmonm undo: who .m I I I I x x x ouoonxamno .N I I I I x x x mxoonxuoz .H 5.me «CHE unocomma uneauomumucH mnouomm can: maomflum> usuocommo zoom uOm momma muommmm .m mange 70 The possible tests for each instructional media item are shown in Table 2. Summary The study design was developed to collect data from a sample of 120 preservice teachers regarding their exper- ience with (E) and training in (T) instructional media, its availability (A), and their use of such instructional media in classrooms during student teaching assignments. The data were collected by a mailed questionnaire, de- signed and pilot-tested by the researcher for this pur- pose. Eighty-two responses were used in this study. In the following chapter, the responses and analyses of the data will be detailed in presenting the study findings. CHAPTER IV ANALYSIS AND RESULTS Introduction The purpose of this study is to determine the effect that training, experience and availability have on use of instructional media in the classroom by preservice teachers. Analyses of responses from the returned questionnaires are presented in this chapter.~ Each dependent variable was analyzed by ANOVA, using its respective independent vari- ables. The three independent variables appear in the fol- lowing sequence: experience with instructional media (E), education (training) in instructional media (T), and avail- ability of instructional media (A) to preservice teachers during student teaching. The findings are presented in the order of the hypotheses tested and tables have been constructed show- ing each analysis. A brief summary of results concludes the chapter. Hypothesis One The first hypothesis tested for each of the 20 items was stated in the null form. 71 72 H01: Level of interaction among formal course- work, types of experience and availability does not significantly affect the use of instructional media during student teaching. Because of unequal frequencies in the factorial design, not all cells had sufficient numbers to test the effects of the independent variables. Of the 20 instructional media items, only six could be tested for interaction affects: portable television as shown in Table 3 and 4; slide projectorssas shown in Table 5; wall maps as shown in Table 6; computer instruction as shown in Table 7; specimens as shown in Table 8, and phonograph as shown in Table 9. Of these, only portable television showed significant interaction. The ANOVA results and the n, Y, and standard deviation (SD) are presented in Tables 3 and 4. The interaction of education (training) with exper- ience (T x E) was significant for the use of portable television equipment and-video tapes. To identify the interaction between education (training) and experience more specifically, Scheffe Post Hoc tests were performed on the means of all the T x E cells. The results of these tests are shown in Table 4. The subjects who reported having high experience 322 formal or informal education (training) used the portable television equip- ment and video tapes significantly more than subjects having any other combination of education (training) and experience. Since this 2-way interaction was found to be 73 TABLE 3. Anova of use of portable television equipment in classrooms by student teach- and video tapes ers Source df MS F p Education (T) 2 1.769 5.199 .009** Availability (A) 1 .245 .719 .401 Experience (E) 1 14.326 42.094 .001*** TXA 2 .425 1.250 .269 TXE 2 1.195 3.510 .038* Residual 47 .340 Portable Television _g i SD Experience--low none 22 .091 .294 informal 16 .4375 .629 formal ,4 .250 .500 Experience--high none 3 .667 .577 informal 6 2.000 1.095 formal 4 2.000 .817 74 .mo. v QM ooo.o HmEHom :mHm «mmm.H ammm.H mcoz an: *Nmm.H «mom.H mmm. HmEHoon 30H Homh.H «omb.H th. mmH. Hmeuom 30a cmom.a «aom.H mum. hum. mmH. mcoz 304 ooo.~ ooo.m new. mmw. omH. Hmo. com: Hm8u0mca HoEHom mooz HDEHOMGH Hmfiuom ocoz coaumosom swam omwm saw: 304 30a 30A mocoaummxm momma Hamo momma omoab pom undemwogm >9 manmuuom no on: :mm3umn moocmummmwo no mumoa 00m umom mwmonom mo muaommm .v mange 75 TABLE 5. Analysis of variance for use of slide projector in the classroom during student teaching Source df MS f P Education (T) 2 1.577 2.775 «.071 Availability (A) l .000 .001 .981 Experience (E) 1 8.626 15.061 .001 * TxA 2 .848 1.481 .235 TxE 2 .632 1.103 .338 AXE 1 .225 .392 .533 Residual 64 .573 Experience n i SD Low Experience 36 .139 .425 High Experience 38 1.500 1.033 *p< .05 76 TABLE 6. Analysis of variance for use of wall maps in the classroom during student teaching Source df MS f P Education (T) 2 .268 .418 .660 Availability (A) l .005 .007 .932 Experience (E) 1 9.452 14.743 .001 TxA 2 .113 .176 .839 TxE 2 .109 .171 .844 AxE 1 .038 .060 .808 Residual 68 .641 Wall Maps Use n i SD Experience Low Experience 35 .457 .505 High Experience 43 1.954 .925 *p<:.05 77 TABLE 7. Analysis of variance for use of computer instruc- tion or games in the classroom during student teaching Source df MS f P Education (T) 2 .001 .002 .998 Availability (A) l .294 .508 .478 Experience (E) 1 9.110 15.729 .001*' TxA 2 .189 .327 .723 TxE 2 .886 1.530 .226 AxE l .085 .147 .703 Residual 50 .579 Experience n i SD Low Experience 37 .378 .681 High Experience 23 2.217 .902 *p< -05 78 TABLE 8. Analysis of variance for use of specimens in the classroom during student teaching Source ‘df' MS I P Education (T) 2 .190 .351 .706 Availability (A) 1 .239 .442 .510 Experience (E) 1 10.733 19.160 .001'* TxA 2 .087 .160 .852 TRE 2 .610 1.130 .332 AXE 1 .351 .650 .424 Residual 45 .540 Experience n i SD Low Experience 52 .365 .658 High Experience 27 .801 1.889 *p <.05 79 TABLE 9. Analysis of variance for use of phonograph in the classroom during student teaching Source df MS f P Education (T) 2 .278 .352 .704 Availability (A) 1 1.390 1.762 .189 Experience (E) 1 19.940 25.278 .001 TxA 2 .222 .281 .756 TxE 2 .636 .806 .451 AxE 1 1.165 1.477 -- TxAxE 2 .354 .449 -- Residual 69 .789 Experience n i SD Low Experience 21 .381 .746 High Experience 60 2.100 .915 *p <.05 80 significant for portable television equipment and video tapes, Hypothesis 1 is rejected for that instructional media item and supported for all others. Hypothesis Two The second null hypothesis states that: H 2: Level of education (training) in instruc- tional media does not significantly affect the use of instructional media during student teaching. All of the 20 instructional media items were tested for the mean effect of training. Of all the ANOVAs calculated for the dependent variables, only two showed significance at the level of formal course- work: Use of portable television equipment and video tapes, and use of television broadcasts. The significance of the level of education for portable television equipment and video tapes was of an interactive nature with experience and has been presented in Tables 3 and 4 and discussed under Hypothesis 1. The ANOVA results and the n, i, and SD for use of Television Broadcasts are presented in Table 10. A signifi- cant F for the three levels of education (training) indi- cates only that at least two of the education (training) groups differ from the others. Again, Scheffe Post Hoc tests were used to find out which groups were different. The Scheffe Post Hoc tests showed that the sub- jects who indicated that they had no education (training) 81 TABLE 10. Analysis of variance of use of television broad- casts in the classroom by student teachers Source df MS f P Education (T) 2 1.233 4.146 .024* Availability (A) 1 1.598 5.373 .26 Experience (E) 1 19.876 66.839 .001** Residual 38 .297 n i SD Education None 18 .167 .515a Informal 23 .869 1.099a Formal ' 2 .500 .707 Availability Low ~ ' . 40 .525 .933 High 3 1.000 1.000 Experience Low 36 .250 .500 High 7 2.143 1.069 aScheffe Post Hoc Tests showed those means to be significantly different from each other. *p <.05 82 in instructional media reported significantly lower use (i = .167) of television broadcasts than subjects who indicated informal education (i = .969). Based on the significance of level of education on the use of Television Broadcasts, Hypothesis 2 is rejected for that instructional media item. Hypothesis Three The third null hypothesis stated that: H03: Level of availability of instructional media in a school does not Significantly affect its use during student teaching. When the results of the ANOVAs on all of the dependent variables were examined, six were found to show significance: instructional television, 8 mm movie picture camera, 16 mm movie projector, filmstrips, over- head projector, and opaque projector. The effects of availability on the above six instructional media items are shown in Tables 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, and 16. respectively. In each case, those who indicated high availability reported significantly higher use of the instructional media item than those who indi- cated low availability. Based on the effects of availability on the six instructional media items, Hypothesis 3 was rejected for each item. 83 TABLE 11. Analysis of variance of use of instructional TV in the classroom by student teachers Sources df MS f P Education (T) 2 .251 .619 .542 Availability (A) 1 3.991 9.865 .003* Experience (E) 1 15.695 38.795 .001* Residual 48 .405 Availability n i SD Low Availability 50 .320 .844 High Availability 4 2.00 .817 Experience Low Experience 72 .097 .342 High Experience- 10 1.800 1.398 *p <.05 84 TABLE 12. Analysis of variance of use of 8mm motion picture camera in the classroom during student teaching Source df MS f P Education (T) 2 .150 ~ .416 .663* Availability (A) 1 3.687 10.211 .003* EXperience (E) 1 6.412 17.757 .001** Residual 36 Availabilipy n i SD Low Availability 40 .225 .619 High Availability 3 2.00 1.732 Experience 1 Low Experience 72 .069 .256 High Experience 8 1.500 1.414 *p<::.05 85 TABLE 13. Analysis of variance of use of 16mm movie pro- jector in the classroom during student teach- ing Source df MS f P Education (T) 2 .362 .578 .564 Availability (A) 1 3.446 5.507 .022* Experience (E) 1 31.475 50.298 .001** Residual 70 .626 Availability n i SD Low Availability 61 1.902 1.106 High Availability 15 2.667 .617 Experience Low Experience 20 .400 .681 High Experience 21 2.377 .891 *p< .05 86 TABLE 14. Analysis of variance of use of filmstrips in the classroom during student teaching Source df MS f P Education (T) 2 .425 .648 .526 Availability (A) 1 2.755 4.197 .044* Experience (E) 1 20.405 31.091 .001** Residual 77 .656 Availability n i SD Low Availability 60 1.917 .979 High Availability 23 2.304 .876 Experience Low Experience 11 .727 .786 High Experience 71 2.211 .827 *p<:.05 87 TABLE 15. Analysis of variance of overhead projectors in the classroom during student teaching Source df MS f P Education (T) 2 1.387 2.122 .127 Availability (A) 1 2.997 4.584 .035* Experience (E) 1 41.736 63.853 .001** Residual 76 .654 Experience n i SD Low Experience 43 .186 .500 High EXperience 39 1.769 1.087 Availabilipy Low Availability 56 .714 1.057 High Availability , 26 1.462 1.174 *p<:;05 88 TABLE 16. Analysis of variance of use of Opaque projec- tors in the classroom during student teaching Source df MS f p Education (T) 2 .083 .203 .817 Availability (A) 1 1.618 3.938 .050* Experience (E) 1 22.105 53.812 .001** Residual 69 .411 n i SD Experience Low Experience 56 .125 .384 High Experience 25 1.480 .963 Availability Low Availability 61 . .443 .786 High Availability 14 1.214 1.122 *p<:305 89 Hypothesis Four The fourth and last null hypothesis stated that: H 4: Level of experience with instructional media does not significantly affect the use of instructional media during student teaching. The ANOVA for each instructional media item showed level of experience to be related to the use of the item. Tables 3 through 23 show the ANOVA results and the n, §, and SD for each media item. It must be noted that in use of portable tele- vision (see Tables 3 and.44), experience interacted with education in its relationship to use. Those subjects who indicated high experience and informal education (training) or high eXperience and formal education (train- ing) reported significantly more use than any of the other experience-education combinations. Except for Portable Television, in every case those who indicated high experience reported signifi- cantly higher use of the respective instructional media items than those who indicated low experience. Of the 20 media items that showed a significant relationship between level of use and level of expe- rience (low, high) there were twelve that were significant only for experience: slide projector (Table 5), wall maps (Table 6); computer instruction and games (Table 7), specimens (Table 8), phonograph (Table 9), workbooks 90 TABLE 17. Analysis of variance of use of workbooks in the classroom during student teaching Source df MS f p Education (T) 2 .662 1.990 .144 Availability (A) 1 .025 .068 .794 Experience (E) 1 16.518 49.678 .001 * Residual 76 .333 WOrkbook Use Experience n § SD Low Experience 5 .800 2.842 High Experience 16 .837 .567 *p<:.05 91 TABLE 18. Analysis of variance for use of chalkboard in the classroom while student teaching Source df MS f p Education (T) 2 .014 .089 .915 Availability (A) l .327 2.093 .152 Experience (E) 1 5.446 34.890 .001* Residual 77 .156 Experience n i SD Low Experience 6 1.833 .983 High Experience 76 2.921 .371 *p<:.05 92 TABLE 19. Analysis of variance for us of dry-mount press in the classroom during student teaching Source df MS f p Education (T) 2 .417 1.638 .215 Availability (A) l .276 1.085 .0308 Experience (E) 1 6.936 27.214 .001 * Residual 24 .255 Dry Mount Use Experience n x SD Low Experience 22 .091 .294 High Experience . 7 1.571 .976 *p<