lllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllll 93 10408 9473 LIBEABY Michigan Sitate University This is to certify that the dissertation entitled Out—of—School Training for Practical Skills in Rural Paraguay: an Evaluative Study presented by James Edwin Fritz has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph.D. degree in Department Of Administration and Curriculum Major profe)ssor Date January 10, 1983 MSU is an Affirmative Anion/Equal Opportunity Institution 0-12771 MSU LIBRARIES m RETURNING MATERIALS: Place in book drop to remove this checkout from your record. FINES will be charged if book is returned after the date stamped below. leEE, [ u DEC 1 0 2004 @2100!- 2:2. OUT-OF—SCHOOL TRAINING FOR PRACTICAL SKILLS IN RURAL PARAGUAY: AN EVALUATIVE STUDY By James Edwin Fritz A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Administration and Curriculum 1983 ABSTRACT OUT-OF-SCHOOL TRAINING FOR PRACTICAL SKILLS IN RURAL PARAGUAY: AN EVALUATIVE STUDY By James Edwin Fritz From 1976 to 1978, the Government of Paraguay and the U. S. Agency for International DevelOpment implemented a project to estab— lish the capability of Paraguay's National Apprenticeship Service to train rural illiterate and semi-literate adults who had limited access to skills training. A team of foreign advisors, coordinators, instructors, artists, and administrative support personnel developed an instructional system consisting of five tasks: 1. 5. identification of training preferences and other vari— ables affecting the instructional process, development of training objectives, determination and development of training stategies, development of a plan for the implementation of train- ing, and evaluation of the instructional process and results. Twenty-five different training programs that followed the instruc- tional system were created and conducted during five training cam- paigns in a representative rural district. The content of the James Edwin Fritz training programs reflected knowledge and skills in home management, basic agriculture, poultry and livestock management, and management and improvement of the small farm. The activities of each training campaign included (a) writing Instructional Plans, (b) instructors training campesinos in 10 days, (c) instructors training campesinos to be paraprofessionals in five days, (d) paraprofessionals training campesinos in 10 days, (e) revi- sion of the training programs, and (f) on—the—job training of the pro— ject team. The purposes of the research were to evaluate the effectiveness of the instructional system to train semi—literate adults and to evaluate the instructors' ability to use the instructional system effectively. The evaluation methods were examination of documents, reading tests, interviews, planned observations, pretests and posttests of knowledge acquisition, retention tests, and validity tests of the instructional materials. Data consisted of written documentation and oral recall of the results of the descriptive procedures and scores generated by the quasi-experimental procedures. The descriptive procedures identified the receiving population (842 campesinos) as semi-literate adults who had limited access to training opportunities. The campesinos acquired the intended practical skills, and the instructors acquired the intended training skills and knowledge. James Edwin Fritz The quasi—experimental procedures indicated that the campesinos acquired the intended knowledge. Copyright by JAMES EDWIN FRITZ 1983 To my mother and father for their constant love and support, an advanced education at home, the encour- agement to be all that I choose to be and the wisdom to be tolerant of all that I'm not, an understanding of and commitment to social justice, and their genes. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am deeply indebted to the Agency for International Development/ Paraguay for hiring me and ensuring that sound educational principles were not sacrificed for the sake of bureaucratic expediency. Lic. Juan Andres Silva, Director of the General Directorate of Human Resources, Dr. Luis Gonzalez Macchi, Director of the National Apprenticeship Service, and their respective staffs were involved in the project from the beginning. For three years they offered essen— tial encouragement to the project team while instilling a sense of commitment to improving the lives of the rural poor. The campesinos of Ita District, whose living conditions PAE's training programs sought to improve, provided invaluable feedback to refine the instructional system upon which each training program was based. Their intelligence, sincerity, hard work, and sense of humor are profoundly admired. PAE's team worked beyond the call of duty to ensure that the goals of the project were achieved. The frantic pace of project activities did not alter their resolve to create an effective instruc— tional system that could improve the lives of thousandscxfcampesinos. Their unique capacity to support me as an advisor and friend remains unparalleled. Drs. Mary Muller, Juan Braun, Bill Smith, and Patricio Barriga participated in the training of the project team. They performed their jobs effectively under difficult conditions. iv Dr. Max Williams, Jon Gant, and Bud Holz, my supervisors in Paraguay, were responsive to project needs. Max's support of me as the Project Coordinator and as a friend is greatly appreciated. Dr. Ted Ward, the chairperson of my doctoral committee, provided me with essential support as I tackled one obstacle after another. He offered guidance in academic scholarship while individualizing that concept, making it compatible with my situation. To him I owe a more thorough understanding of the inquiry process and my fortified desire to contribute to the development of human resources. I extend a very special thank you to Ted. Dr. Marv Grandstaff helped me understand the complex and perva— sive qualities of schooling. Lessons learned from Marv regarding the interaction among society's educational, political, and economic institutions provoked my commitment to participate as an educationist who is sensitive to the ultimate consequences of the human development process. Dr. Bill Hinds welcomed me back into the fold and helped me adjust to a different MSU. He has consistently supported and con— tributed to my professional interests. Bill taught me to use counsel- ing skills to improve my role as an educationist. During long discussions Dr. Ben Bohnhorst helped me clarify my ideas. His polished intellectual skills evoked within me a desire to go one step beyond the obvious. Ben was interested in me as a col— league and challenged me to make some sense out of the seemingly dis— parate aspects of the knowledge I had acquired during my doctoral program. Dr. Dale Alam helped me clarify my ideological orientation. He provided me with the opportunity to match my academic program and career path to that orientation. Drs. Ken Neff, Cole Brembeck, and Mel Buschman encouraged me to spread my wings professionally. I extend a special thank you to Ken for sharing his ideas about nonformal education and development and offering unyielding support. The "Tasks of Teaching," as conceptualized by Dr. Judy Lanier, helped me identify essential ingredients of an instructional system. Those ingredients were massaged by the project team until an appro— priate instructional system was established. Drs. Chas Bassos, Marc Gurwith, and David Rovner ameliorated the pain of a persistent malady. They helped me capitalize on that which I could do and adjust to the constraints over which I had no control. Eileen Koenigsknect, Virginia Wiseman, Juana de Garay, and Geneva Speas expertly and expeditiously completed administrative and clerical requirements. I received monetary awards from the Sage Foundation and MSU's College of Education at critical points in my program. I would not have been able to continue without their generous assistance. Many friends, family members, and colleagues contributed wisdom, affection, and assistance during my doctoral studies. They demon— strated a confidence in me that was strong, apparent, and energizing. I love and will never forget: Tim Allen, Esther Araginez, Doug Arditti, Isabel Benkelman, Mary Budnick, Linda Chadderdon, Darris Cichock, Clyde Claycomb, Glenn DeBiasi, Marion Douglas, Carman Dykema, Judy Ellickson, Valerie Ellien, Jerry Forthun, Sara Forthun, Bill vi Frey, Amanda Fritz, JEANNE FRITZ, Mike Fritz, Mildred Fritz, Sarah Beth Fritz, Mirta Ghiorzi, Delores Green, Joanne Hamachek, Lola Hill, Phil Hoerlein, RUSS HOGAN, Whit Holden, Curt Hunt, Dorothy Hunt, the information staff at the MSU library, Anne Jacobs, Mark Jacobs, George D. Jacobson, Will Jones and crew, RODGER KOBES, Gene Lester, Phil Mathews, BOB MATSON, Bob McAlpine, SUSAN McGEHEE, Kathy Miller, Jim Millhouse, Catherine Muhlbach, the NFE Center staff, Dave Novicki, JIM O'CONNELL, Misha O'Hanlan, Mary Pigozzi, the reference staff at the MSU library, MICHAEL RIDER, Jack Rowlson, Cliff Ryan, Mary Ryan, Carola Smith, Edgar Smith, CHIQUITA SPINA, LAURIE SPIVACK, Chuck Strieby, Steve Taffee, Mary Jo Tormey, Carol Weinberg, Evelyn West— cott, A1 White, Julie White, Ron Wolthuis, and JON YOUNG. vii TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES . . . . xv LIST OF FIGURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvi CHAPTER I: THE EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT PROBLEM I Project Description . 2 Purposes of the Research 3 Problem Background . . . . . . . 3 The Problem Viewed from Five Perspectives 3 Geographic background . 3 Demographic background 4 Political background . . . . . 5 Economic background . 6 Educational background . . . . . 8 Government Acknowledgement of the Problem and Proposed Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 National Planning Office . . . . . . 9 Ministry of Education and Worship . . . . . . . . . . 9 Ministry of Justice and Labor . . . . . . . . . . . . lO Nonformal education inventory . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Problem summary . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Programa de Adiestramiento Extra- Escolar (RAE) Instructional System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Description of Task One of the Instructional System. Identification of Training Preferences and Other Variables Affecting the Instructional Process (Assessment) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Rationale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Description of Task Two of the Instructional System. Development of Training Objectives (Objectives) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l7 Rationale . . . . . . . . . . 17 Description of Task Three of the Instructional System: Determination and Development of Training Strategies (Strategies) . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 Rationale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 Description of Task Four of the Instructional System: Development of a Plan for the Implementation of Training (Implementation) . . . . . . . 20 Rationale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 viii Description of Task Five of the Instructional System: Evaluation of the Instructional Process and Results (Evaluation) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 Rationale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Description of the Training of PAE' s Instructors . . . . . . 24 Rationale for Training PAE' s Instructors . . . . . . . . 25 The Importance of the Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 Definition of Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 CHAPTER II: THE CONTEXT OF THE PROJECT . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 Project Development . . . . . . . . 32 Descriptions of Contexts in Which the Project Was Implemented . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 Physical Descriptions of Ita District, the Companias, and Small Farms . . . . . . . . . 36 Socioeconomic Description of Ita District: Survey Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 Personal data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 Decision making and work habits . . . . . . . . . . . 39 Ideology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 Economy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4O Needs (open-ended questions) . . . . . . . 41 Description of Ita' 5 Experience with Nonformal Education: Inventory Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 Health Center . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 Colorado Party of Ita . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 Sewing academy . . . . . . . 43 Civic and political education course . . . . . . 43 Youth training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 Private sewing academies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 Private vocational activities . . . . . . 45 Twenty— one elementary schools in Ita District . . . . 45 Soccer schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 Implementation of the Pilot Project: September, 1976— September, 1978 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 Implementing Institution: SNPP . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 Identification and Selection of PAE' 3 Team . . . . . . . 49 Training PAE' 5 Team . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 Training by foreign advisors . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 Project Coordinator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 Instructional technologist . . . . . . 53 Instructional strategy and team building technician . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 Evaluation specialist . . . . . . . . . . 54 Instructional materials specialist . . . . . . . 55 ix The six training campaigns: Summary . Phase One . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. Identification of training content 2. Determination of visual instructional materials . . . . . . . . . . 3. Determination and request of all 0 instructional tools and equipment . 4. Preparation of the Instructional Plan . 5. Creation of rough draft of visual instructional materials . . . 6. Publicity campaign . . Phase Two . . . . . . . . . . . . l. Instructors training campesinos 2. Training paraprofessionals 3. Paraprofessionals training campesinos 4. Closing ceremonies . . . Phase Three . . l. Maintaining equipment . 2. Generating feedback . 3. Revising training programs 4 Report writing . CHAPTER III: RELATED LITERATURE Skills- Train Botswana ing Programs . Brigades, Botswana Vocational Improvement Centres, Nigeria . Servicio Nacional de Formacion de Mano de Obra (FOMO), Village Bolivia . . . . . . . . . Polytechnic, Kenya equivalent practice . Promocion Professional Popular-Rural (PPP— —R), Colombia The Farmer Scholar Program, the Philippines Servicio Nacional de Aprendizagem Industrial (SENAI), Instructiona Summary . Brazil . . . . . . . . 1 Design and Technology . . . . . CHAPTER IV: GUIDELINES AND PROCEDURES FOR THE RESEARCH . Research Contexts . Training Campaigns . Skills— —Training Programs Research Procedures: Purpose One . Procedures to Identify Socioeconomic Conditions and Educational Levels of Receiving Population I. 2 3. 4 Examination of documents Reading test . . . Registration (interview) Planned observations 55 56 56 57 58 58 58 59 6O 6O 6O 61 61 61 61 61 62 62 62 64 64 64 66 68 7O 72 74 76 77 85 87 89 9O 91 91 92 92 93 95 96 Procedures to Measure Effectiveness of PAE's Instructional System . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 l. Pretest-posttest of skill and knowledge acquisition of participants of 25 different training programs conducted by PAE's instructors . . 97 2. Pretest-posttest of skill and knowledge acquisition of participants of 85 training programs conducted by paraprofessionals . . . . . . . 102 3. Retention tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 4. Validity testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 Research Procedures: Purpose Two . . . . . . . . . . . 110 Procedures to Assess Whether or Not the RAE Instruc- tors Were Trained to Use the Five- Task Instructional System to Create and Implement Training Programs Effectively . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 Planned observations of instructors' behaviors and written work by advisors and coordinators during training campaign . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 CHAPTER V: DEVELOPMENT AND STATEMENT OF EVALUATIVE CRITERIA . . 115 Purpose One of the Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 Criterion 1: Adult Participation . . . . . . 117 Criterion 2: Participation by Semi—literate Persons . . 118 Criterion 3: Participation by Persons Who Had Limited Access to Training Opportunities . . . . . . 119 Criterion 4: Validation of the Instructional Plan, Pamphlets, Training Preference Questions, and Simulation Games . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 Criterion 5: Demonstration of Skill and Knowledge Acquisition by Campesinos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 Purpose Two of the Research . . . . . . . . . . . 124 Criterion l: Instructors Trained to Create Training Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 Criterion 2: Instructors Trained to Implement Training Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 Teaching style . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 Use of visuals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 Use of equipment and materials . . . . . . . . . . . 128 Group management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 Fulfillment of instructional plan . . . . . . . . . . 128 Schedule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 Home practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 Paraprofessionals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 Initiative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 Interpersonal communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 Handling of the evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 Observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 xi CHAPTER VI: EVIDENCES OF THE EFFECTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 Evidences Regarding Purpose One . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 Criterion 1: Adult Participation . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 Criterion 2: Participation by Semi-literate Persons . . 132 Criterion 3: Participation of Persons Who Had Limited Access to Training Opportunities . . . . . . . . 134 Criterion 4: Validation of the Instructional Plan, Pamphlets, Training-preference Questions, and Simulation Games . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 Instructional Plans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 Pamphlets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 Training-preference questions . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 Simulation games . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 Criterion 5: Demonstration of Skill and Knowledge Acquisition by Campesinos. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 Programade Adriestramiento Extra-Escolar (PAE) instructors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 Paraprofessionals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 Retention tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 Evidences Regarding Purpose Two . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 Criterion 1: Instructors Trained to Create Training Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 Criterion 2: Instructors Trained to Implement Training Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 CHAPTER VII: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS . . . . . . . . . . 154 Summary of the Research Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 Conclusions and Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . 156 Conclusion One: A systems approach to skills training is an effective means of transmitting functional skills and related knowledge to adult campesinos in Paraguay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 Recommendation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 Future research related to a systems approach to skills training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 Conclusion Two: Content specialists (PAE' s instructors) whose previous preparation in the use of an instructional system is limited can be trained to use effectively an instructional system to create and implement skills-training programs . . . . 159 Recommendation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 Future research related to the training of content specialists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 Conclusion Three: Using a validated Instructional Plan under the supervision of a PAE instructor, paraprofessionals can be trained to train their peers successfully . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 xii Recommendation . . . . . . . . . . . . . Future research related to skills training by paraprofessionals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Conclusion Four: Content selection criteria that considers (a) the training preferences of the receiving population, (b) the receiving population's life—style and living conditions, (c) environmental factors (e. g., topography and climate), and (d) the professional and logistical capacity of the trainers are necessary to acheive successful training outcomes . Recommendation . . . . . . . . . . . . Future research related to using established criteria to determine training content . Conclusion Five: The specifying of behavioral objec— tives is an effective means of establishing a veri- fiable standard of the intended outcomes of a skills-training program . . . . . . . . . Recommendation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Future research related to the use of behavioral objectives in skills- training programs . . . . Conclusion Six: Validation of visual aids contributes to the achievement of intended training objectives Recommendation . . . . . . . . . . . . Future research related to the validation and contribution of instructional materials . . . Conclusion Seven: Pretests, posttests, and observa— tions of the trainees' post-training performance of skills are reliable means of evaluating training outcomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Recommendation . . . . . . . . . Future research related to the evaluation of training outcomes . . . . . . . . . Conclusion Eight: Formative evaluation procedures contribute to the continual improvement of an instruc- tional system and training programs following that system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Recommendation . . . . . Future research related to formative evaluation . Remaining Issues . . . . . Literacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Participation . . . . . . . . . . . . . Suggestions Regarding Improvements in Research Pro- cedures of Replications of This Research . . . . . . . Final Note . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . APPENDICES A. Validated Instructional Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . B. Nonformal Education Inventory Form . . . . . . . . C. Audio/Visual Aid Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii 160 161 161 162 163 163 163 164 164 165 165 165 166 166 167 167 167 168 168 170 172 174 176 184 186 D. Pretest - Posttest for Training of Paraprofessionls E. Instructor Feedback Sheet . . . . . . . . . . . F. Instructor Training Program Report . . . . . . G. Reading Ability Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . H. Registration Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I. Outline for Instructional Plan for Paraprofessionals J. Form for the Analysis of Instructional Materials K. Completed Registration Form for Training Paraprofessionals . . . . . . . . . . . . L. Validated Pamphlet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiv 187 189 192 196 199 200 201 202 203 211 10. 11. 12. LIST OF TABLES Training Data for Instructors, Paraprofessionals, and Campesinos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Age of Participants of Reading Test . . . . . . . . . . . Age of Participants of One Paraprofessional Training Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Reading Level of Participants . . . . . . . . . . . School Attendance of Participants . . . . . . . . . . . . . Questions from PAE's First Household Survey . . . . Percentages of Responses by Topic in Basic Agriculture . Average Scores for Each Question of Pretest, Posttest, and Control Groups for "Soil Conservation" Training Program Taught by PAE Instructor . . . . . . . . Total Number of Campesinos Trained by PAE Instructors and Paraprofessionals . . . . . . . . . . . . . Average Scores for Each Question of Pretest and Posttest for "Soil Conservation" Training Program Taught by Paraprofessionals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Average Scores for Each Question of Pretest, Posttest, and Two Month Retention Test for "Soil Conservation" Training Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . Titles of Validated Instructional Plans in Each Content Area and Campafiia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XV 92 131 132 133 133 141 142 147 148 149 149 151 LIST OF FIGURES A systems model for planning non—formal education Quasi~experimental design of training conducted by PAE instructors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Quasi~experimental design of training conducted by paraprofessionals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Examples of enabling and terminal training objectives Cover page of unvalidated pamphlet for the "Planning Crops by Plots” t aining program . . . . . . Cover page of validated pamphlet for the ”Planning Crops r ' . . by Plots" t alning program . . . . . . . . . . Two matched cards from simulation game ”La Memoria” Two matched cards from simulation game "La Memoria" Two matched cards from simulation game "La Memoria” 83 98 102 136 138 139 144 145 CHAPTER I THE EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT PROBLEM In 1972 at least 70% of all rural Paraguayan adults, 15 years old and above were semi-literate (Paraguay, Direccién General de Estadis— tica, 1972). They used inapprOpriate health and agricultural prac— tices which perpetuated a low standard of living (Clary, 1974). Exist- ing educational programs were not designed to provide agricultural or health related skills to persons unable to read and write (USAID, "Noncapital Project” [Revised], 1975). Therefore, the Government of Paraguay (GOP) resolved to intro— duce an educational process, nonformal education, that might have a positive impact on that group's health and economic situation by pro- viding needed information and skills. In 1974, when that decision was made, a "Paraguayanized" version of appropriate nonformal education did not exist. What the identify- ing characteristics of that process should he were unknown in the con— text of rural Paraguay. PeOple prepared to employ that process and evaluate its effectiveness were not available. A systematic program to determine whether or not the new educational process did what it intended to do was also needed. Based on the wide—spread problem of unsuccessful efforts to identify an existing solution that might be expanded, the Government of Paraguay and the Agency for International Development (AID) decided to collaborate in the deve10pment and implementation of a pilot project whose primary purpose would be "To establish the cap— ability of the National Apprenticeship Service (SNPP) to conduct suc- cessful training programs oriented to rural illiterate and semi- literate adults who presently have limited access to training Oppor— tunities" (USAID, "Project Paper," 1976, p. 1). Project Description The approved project called for local and foreign advisors to train a team of SNPP employees to develop and successfully implement an instructional system that was effective in training rural illiter— ate and semi—literate adults in a representative rural area. The team was to consist of coordinators, instructors, graphic artists, a printer, a photographer, and administrative support personnel. The training skills of these technicians were to be developed through on-the—job training over a two—year period. An important characteristic of the project was that it was meant to be experimental. The advisors and team members were to have the opportunity to evaluate and revise the instructional system and cor— responding instructional materials through formative evaluation pro- cedures. Major outputs expected upon completion of the project were (a) a staff at SNPP trained to prepare, implement, and evaluate nonformal education activities relevant to the needs of the target populations; (b) training programs in six content areas; (c) validated nonformal education methods and materials; and (d) a study of budget and institutional arrangements which SNPP must make to extend the project's validated concepts and activities to other areas in Paraguay. Purposes of the Research Using the project and its training programs as a vehicle for con- ducting the research, two research purposes were established. 1. TO EVALUATE THE EFFECTIVENESS OF AN INSTRUCTIONAL SYSTEM TO TRAIN SEMI-LITERATE ADULTS WHO HAD LIMITED ACCESS TO TRAINING OPPORTUNITIES, and 2. TO EVALUATE THE INSTRUCTORS' ABILITY TO USE EFFECTIVELY THE INSTRUCTIONAL SYSTEM TO CREATE AND IMPLEMENT TRAIN- ING PROGRAMS. Problem Background Details contributing to the problem and the government's acknowl— edgement of the problem are reported below. The Problem Viewed from Five Perspectives The following geographic, demographic, political, economic, and educational facts contributed to the problem and influenced the attempt to resolve it. Geographic background. Located near the geographical center of South America, the Republic of Paraguay shares borders with Brazil, Argentina, and Bolivia. The climate (temperate/sub-tropical; long, hot summers; short, mild winters) and topography (gently rolling hills, vast areas of plains, lowland swamps near its three large rivers) are similar to Florida's. Vegetation ranges from dense tropical forest covering the majority of the uncultivated land in Paraguay's eastern region to thorn-shrubs and pasture grasses common in the desert-like western region. Paraguay's land mass of 157,000 square miles approximates the size of California. Sixty percent of that land comprises the arid western half, the Paraguayan Chaco, which is populated by only four percent of the population. The fertile and lush eastern half is home for the remaining 96% of Paraguay's popula- tion (Weil et al., 1972). The capital city, Asunci6n, is located on the eastern banks of the Paraguay River which also serves as a divid— ing line between western and eastern Paraguay. Demographic background. Approximately 400,000 of an estimated 2,400,000 total inhabitants live in the Department (province) of Asuncion. 2,000,000 Paraguayans live in the 16 remaining departments. Each department is divided into several districts (counties) whose governments are seated in the most populated communities. The dis- tricts are divided into compafiias, geographical/political units with officially recognized boundaries. Even though they belong to the same compafiia, member farms may be 20 kilometers apart,or more (Paraguay, Direccion General de Estadistica, 1972). In the last decade, immigration to the capital city has not markedly increased. In 1962 the urban population (including large towns in the interior) was 35.8% of the total. In 1972 it was 37.4% of Paraguay's total population (Adler, 1975). The settlement pattern of rural Paraguay radiates eastward from Asuncion. The most densely populated region, the four departments surrounding Asuncion, comprise the central region and house 40.6% of Paraguay's total rural inhabitants. Economically and socially, this is Paraguay's most important region and is often called the "mini- fundia (small farm) zone,‘ the foundation of the Paraguayan economy (Adler, 1975). Political background. Political factors have inhibited Paraguay% economic and social development. Independence from Spain in 1811 was followed by 26 years of cultural and economic isolation imposed by the first president, José Gaspar Rodriguez de Francia. Foreigners were forbidden to enter Paraguay, life for the resident Spanish aris— tocracy was made intolerable as they were pressured to leave or marry mestizos or indigenous mates, and the Roman Catholic church was stripped of all official political power. The succeeding heads of government, Carlos Antonio Lopez (1844—1862) and his son Francisco Solano Lopez (1862-1870), also discouraged the perpetuation of a Spanish artistocracy, slowly opened Paraguay's borders to foreign influence, and continued a campaign to homogenize the population by promoting mating between people of Spanish descent and the indigenous population (Weil et al., 1972). Francisco Solano L6pez led the Paraguayans into war in 1865 against the combined forces of Argentina, Brazil, and Uruguay. This conflict, the War of the Triple Alliance, resulted in the death of approximately half of Paraguay's population. It also emptied Para- guay's treasury (Weil et al., 1972). In 1870 Paraguay was defeated, political cliques emerged, and a political heritage evolved characterized by instability and turmoil. The Chaco War against Bolivia started in 1932 and lasted three years. According to historian Kubert Kerring, ”a truce of exhaustion” was signed in 1935. Paraguay acquired 20,000 square miles of terri— tory, a patriotically strengthened population, economic depression, and a tradition of military intervention in government (Weil et al., 1972). Thirty-seven chiefs of state governed Paraguay between 1870 and 1954. General Alfredo Stroessner established his presidency in 1954. Twenty—seven years of almost absolute control by Stroessner and the political party he represents (the Colorado Party) permitted exten— sive political indoctrination campaigns directed at rural Paraguayans. These campaigns promote the president and his party as responsible for today's peace, progress, and tranquility. Among the consequences for which that indoctrination may be re— sponsible are overwhelming support by the rural poor of the present government, political inactivity, acceptance by that group that peace and tranquility are to be valued above other political concepts, and acquiescence by that group to demands or even suggestions of persons in positions of authority. Economic background. In the economic domain, there exists an agrarian tradition based on small scale subsistence agriculture, mini— mal exposure to advanced technology which has restricted the land area cultivated by one family to two or three hectares, and transportation and communication problems that necessitated developing economic activities near Asunci6n (Adler, 1975; USAID, "Development Assis— tance," n.d.). The small farm (up to 20 hectares) predominates. In eastern Paraguay 87.4% of all farm units have less than 21 hectares. Ninety percent of all farms in the central region, the most densely populated region, have less than 21 hectares. Crops cultivated on these small farms include monioc, corn, cotton, sugarcane, tobacco, rice, and peanuts. Nest of the crop production is consumed or traded for other needed commodities. Also important is the production of dairy cattle, beef cattle, lumber, tanin extract, and hearts of palm. In livestock the farmer typically sells less than one—half of his or her output (USAID, "Capital Assistance," n.d.). A one—worker family received an annual per capita income of less than $180.00 (Adler, 1975). Output per farmer is about two—thirds of the Latin American average. A farmer with five hectares or less uses less than half of his or her available family labor on his or her own farm. It is estimated that the amount of land that could be used for crops is approximately 10 times larger than the area presently under cultivation. "Programs designed to increase the efficiency of farm labor appear to be more needed than programs to create new jobs” (USAID, "Development Assistance," n.d., p. 55). The perspectives for Paraguayan industrialization are limited to an extremely small domestic market and to the processing of exported goods linked to her agricultural sector. Paraguay's general economic development is dependent upon the development of her agriculture (USAID, "Development Assistance," n.d.). Labor statistics reveal that the content that might be most valued by the rural labor force would deal with agriculture, livestock production, forestry, and hunting. In 1972, 83% of the semi—literate rural labor force was involved in that kind of activity (Paraguay, Direccidn General de Estadistica, 1972). Forty—four percent of Para- guayans who were capable of executing a productive function or occu- pation were not doing so in 1972. The estimated yearly rate of growth of the "not economically active population" was 3.38% between 1962 and 1972, making it the fastest growing group about which statistics were gathered. The participation level of the total population in economic activity had been decreasing steadily since 1950 (Paraguay,Direcci6n General de Recursos, 1976). Data generated by the education sector partially explain the rea— sons for the human development situation in Paraguay while emphasizing the need for change. Educational background. Compulsory schooling continues through age 14. The 1972 census counted 760,470 rural men and women at least 15 years old. 643,628 said that the range of years of schooling they had completed was zero through five years, qualifying them for the Ministry of Education's label of semi—literate" (Braun, ”Informe Técnico Nfimero 10," 1977). 23.5% of these men and women had never completed one year of elementary school, 21.9% completed three years, and 9.3% said they had completed five years of elementary school. Taking into account the fact that rural Paraguayans have few oppor- tunities to use their literacy and numeracy skills, these statistics indicate that a large percentage of that semi—literate population may, in fact, be illiterate. Any training program aimed at that audi— ence could not depend on its literacy and numeracy skills to facili— tate training. An economist observed ”the educational system tends to perpetuate functional illiteracy in rural areas, which greatly complicates the spread of better farming technology . . .” (Adler, 1975, p. 23). A major weakness which contributes to the perpetuation of the existing situation is the fact that there are insufficient numbers of technical personnel qualified to train semi—literate adults (USAID, "Development Assistance," n.d.). Government Acknowledgement of the Problem and Proposed Solutions The GOP and AID had studied the living situations of Paraguay's campesinos. Information from those studies is presented below. National Planning Office. Rodriguez (n.d.) confirmed that gover— ment officials were aware of the human resource development problem in Paraguay. He revealed the orientation of Paraguay's national development plans for 1971—1975. To improve extension and agricultural teaching services to prepare the human resources to absorb modern techniques aimed at increasing yields (p. 6); To increase and improve the degree to which disposable natural resources are taken advan— tage of (p. 6); and To study and progressively perfect programs in order to adjust the orientation of educa- tional policy to the needs of training and rational utilization of human resources (p. 11). Ministry of Education and Worship. Information presented by Leida M. deAcufia (n.d.) about the Ministry of Education's educational development plan for 1969—1980 provided more evidence of official recognition of Paraguay's human resource development dilemma and the need to change. Outlined in the paper is a commitment by the Ministry to include skills—training opportunities in the curriculum of rural elementary and secondary schools. It was envisaged that a major expenditure would be made to establish a "rural school," an elemen— tary school that w0uld emphasize the teaching of agricultural skills 10 apprOpriate for the conditions of each rural community. Additionally, it was proposed to continue, through the public secondary school, more advanced, vocationally—oriented training during the first and second three year periods of that schooling experience. The importance of introducing appropriate agricultural techniques and changing the kind of agriculture in which the small farmer was engaged was recognized. However, the mechanisms for change had not been established when the research began in 1975. With the exception of sporadic attempts to teach gardening techniques, the curriculum in the elementary schools of the rural sector remained traditional. That is, the most apparent efforts were to teach literacy, numeracy, and socialization skills. The prOposed "rural school" did not exist, and there was no agricultural/industrial advanced training in the secondary schools. Ministry of Justice and Labor. Within the governmental frame— work, the institution responsible for identifying problems and dis- seminating recommendations regarding current and projected human re— source needs was the Ministry of Justice and Labor's Directorate of Human Resources. Employment figures confirmed that a rural population and agri- cultural activity predominated in Paraguay's socioeconomic reality. In its role as labor forecaster and policy maker, the Ministry of Jus- tice and Labor concluded that "national training programs should introduce qualitative changes in the content of their curricula to ensure that graduates are equipped to generate their own employment n opportunities . . . (Paraguay, Direcci6n General de Recursos, 1977, p. 30). It also recognized that an objective must be to introduce 11 educational technology that would provide basic knowledge to working- aged, rural populations in an effort to professionalize the agricul- tural occupations while providing training in other rural occupations that Support the national social and economic development strategy (Paraguay, Direccidn General de Recursos, 1977). Nonformal education inventory. Apart from information extracted from the above-mentioned studies and national planning documents, one final piece of evidence confirmed that an educational development problem did exist in Paraguay and that the proposed solution might be successful. The researcher reviewed the reSults of a national inventory of "any organized, systematic, educational activity carried out outside the framework of the formal system to provide selected types of learning to particular subgroups in the population, adults as well as children" (Coombs & Ahmed in "Inventory and Assessment of Nonformal Education in Paraguay,” 1976, p. 3). Using that defini— tion of nonformal education as the primary criterion for selection, 30 organizations or programs were selected to be examined. The nonformal education programs described as providing semi- literate and illiterate adults living in rural areas with domestic and agricultural skills fell into two categories, "improvement of personal living conditions" and "agricultural production." However, examina— tion of the content of the educational experiences revelaed that the skills and knowledge perceived as necessary by the sponsoring insti— tution were not, in most cases, technologically appropriate for the majority of rural Paraguayans. That examination also indicated that the teaching process would not render the intended audience "trained." 12 In fact, there was no evidence that any systematic evaluation existed of any of the teaching/learning experiences with regard to the degree of skill or knowledge acquisition. Howeven the Paraguayan technicians were using nontraditional in- structional methods, albiet ineffectively, that had contributed to successful training experiences directed to a similar pOpulation in other countries (e.g., flip charts, pamphlets, lecture/discussions, puppets, equivalent practice, and short courses) ("Inventory and Assessment," 1976). Another document stated that there had been an increase in campesino memberships in production credit and technical assistance cooperatives and that the farmers did desire economic im— provement (USAID, "Project Paper," 1976). This information provided the researcher with evidence that the rural, poor Paraguayanynmsmotivated to change his or her farming habits and might be receptive to training Opportunities. Problem summary. It was evident upon studying official docu— ments written by the Ministry of Education and Worship, the Ministry of Justice and Labor, the National Planning Office, and the Agency for International Development (AID) that a very large segment of the rural population was illiterate or semi-literate, economically inactive, poor, and beyond school age. Those same organizations indicated that a change in the content and process of existing programs must occur or a new process be created if the above problems were to be resolved. Examination of the nonformal education sector was equally as unproductive in identifying existing programs (in Paraguay) that might be adopted on a larger scale to train rural farmers. However, 13 the same analysis produced evidence that the rural farmers were moti- vated to change the conditions of their lives and that teacher/tech- nicians existed who might be receptive to changing the pedagogical processes they employed. The instructional system developed to contribute to the solution of the above problems is described in the following section. It is this system that was the object of the research. Programa de Adiestramiento Extra-Escolar (PAE) Instructional System The instructional system consisted of five tasks: (a) identifi— cation of training preferences and other variables affecting the instructional process, (b) development of training objectives, (c) determination and development of training strategies, (d) development of a plan for the implementation of training, and (e) evaluation of the instructional process and results. This system evolved after a basic conceptual framework that included assessment, developing ob- jectives, strategy identification, and evaluation was described to the Paraguayan technicians that made up the team. Advisors also introduced detailed explanations of other instructional variables that might affect the training process in Paraguay. All concepts were presented and "Paraguayanized” during lecture/discussion sessions. The final system of five tasks was established by consensus among members of the team. It was a guideline to be used in writing all Instructional Plans and in implementing all training programs. The details of the system were continually improved by the team over the one and one-half year during which it was repeated, evaluated, and revised in five training campaigns comprised of 25 different training 14 programs. Details varied depending on the requirements of each training program. All information related to the task was written on a form, the "Instructional Plan," that listed the five tasks: assessment, objectives, strategies, implementation, and evaluation. The actual content of training was written in detail on accompanying forms, "Enabling Behaviors," during Task Two (Appendix A presents a completed Instructional Plan). Descriptions of the primary activi— ties of PAE's instructional system follow. Description of Task One of the Instructional System: Identification of Training Preferences and Other Variables Affecting the Instructional Process (Assessment) The following procedures were routinely performed during each training campaign. Data collected during a household survey (see pages 56—57) of a representative sample of the entire receiving population were reviewed before each training campaign. Training preferences, living condi— tions, and life—style characteristics were determined. Follow-up meetings in the specific compafiia confirmed the survey's results and provided additional information. When training preferences were un— clear, photographs were used to assist the campesinos specify their preferences. A publicity and information gathering campaign was carried out in eight days. The team used radio spots, posters attached to trees, flyers, comic books, a loud speaker on the project vehicle, newspaper announcements, meetings with the receiving population, a letter of introduction signed by the Minister of Justice and Labor, meetings 15 with local political authorities, and personal visits to every house— hold in the community to accomplish this procedure. Selection of the content of training was accomplished by apply— ing six conditions the content had to satisfy. Those conditions are described in a discussion of the rationale for including Task One. Rationale. The reason for assessing training preferences was based on the belief that people learn and use skills and knowledge they perceive as needed more efficiently than skills and knowledge identified for them. Community meetings and photographs were used to clarify information generated by the survey and stimulate the receiv— ing population to identify specific skills they wanted to learn as opposed to more general needs (e.g., "more money" or "better health”). General questions in each content area (e.g.,"What tools do you have?" "Do you have running water?" "What crops do you grow?” "What time of the day can you attend training?") provided data needed to make decisions that might affect instruction and the development of each training program. Even though the most important condition used to determine the content of training was that it be preferred by the receiving popula— tion, five other conditions had to be met before the content of train— ing was finally determined. To increase the possibility that the skill and knowledge would be retained by the campesinos, skills were chosen that could be immediately used. Therefore, the content of training had to coincide with the agricultural calendar. In order that a successful training program might also contribute to the achievement of national development objectives, content of training had to have 16 the potential of contributing to the health or economic situation of the receiving population. The PAE's team could not effectively con— duct a training program for which it was not equipped; therefore, the technical/logistical capability of the team was a condition that had to be met. The fifth condition attempted to improve the chances that the content of training (the skill) would be adopted by the campesinos: the skill had to be matched to the campesinos' economic capacity. The final condition was established to increase the possibility that the training topic indicated by the above criteria was the most appropriate topic to be selected: the chosen content had to coincide with PAE's instructors' professional experiences and/or advice of other experts. The publicity/information campaign was conducted to motivate the receiving population to register for training, solicit its active par- ticipation, and confirm survey results. It explained the purposes of each training program, what the campesinos could expect from the pro— gram, and what the program expected from them. The campaign identi— fied the dates of all planned activities. It also intended to ameli— orate the campesings' distrust of outsiders. Finally, it was planned that observations made during the publi— city/information campaign w0u1d provide more data about the appro— priateness of the selected content as well as identify the human and environmental elements existing in specific communities that might affect the training/learning process. 17 Description of Task Two of the Instructional System: Development of Training Objectives (Objectives) The second task required translating data gathered in Task One into one general terminal behavior (the skill) and necessary enabling behaviors corresponding to the performance of the skill and essential knowledge. Behavioral objectives were then formulated that included the conditions under which the campesinos would be evaluated, the skill and knowledge expressed in behavioral terms, and evaluation criteria including frequency of the behavior and the degree of perfection of the campesinos' performance of all behaviors. Training messages, instructional activities, tools, scheduling, and observations (i.e., ”The participants will move from the locale to the field.") were then written that corresponded to each enabling behavior. This task was completed by the instructors and approved by the Instructional System Coordinator. Rationale. Studies and documentation of existing training experi- ences revealed that evaluation of training effectiveness had not been attempted in Paraguay and that the details of training messages were not written. The team needed to develop a method to answer the ques— tion, "Is the receiving population trained to perform the skill that the training intends to transmit?” Educational experiences in the United States indicated that an effective means of measuring the out— comes of a training process is to compare the outcome of training to objectives written in behavioral terms and established before the initiation of training. 18 Correctly expressed behavioral objectives were meant to be the key to evaluation. Writing the details of the content of training had been shown to be an important activity in other skills—training programs. The justification for elaborating extensive support—activities/ materials lists evolved from the team's belief that successful train— ing occurs when all variables of instruction interact as planned. The team's past experience had documented that other training had failed because ”reinforcement materials weren't ready on time," "tools were not in place," or "the vehicle was being used by someone else," to mention a few. Description of Task Three of the Instructional System: Determination and Development of Training Strategies (Strategies) As soon as the specific content for training had been determined and the corresponding behavioral objectives written, the instructors selected up to six instructional strategies. The isntructors and the artists jointly planned the format and content of all visual materials that the artists subsequently created. All strategies were validated by field—testing, review by content specialists, planned observations by the coordinators and advisors, and/or requesting feedback from the receiving population. The training strategy alternatives included four-to-eight page pamphlets (four color, two color, or black and white), one—page flyers, the training site (e.g., in each household/ farm, in one, participant's farm where all trainees would meet, in the local schools, in the compafiia or town, at the soccer field), flip charts (four to eight pages), posters, simulation games, demonstrations 19 by the instructors and paraprofessionals, equivalent practice by the receiving population (in small groups or individually with all neces- sary tools and expendable materials provided), analogous practice by the receiving population (e.g., describing to the other members of the training group which expendable materials should be purchased instead of actually purchasing the materials), charlas (i.e., short lectures and group discussions), photographs (alone or in sequenced series), and "directed” questions (i.e., asking the receiving population spe- cific questions corresponding to the training objectives and request— ing them to answer orally). Rationale. A review of past experiences with training processes in other Third World countries as well as Paraguay indicated that the above listed strategies contributed to the acquisition of skills and knowledge by similar receiving populations. This was confirmed by the instructors' prior experiences and trial runs during the project. A joint planning session was established because the artists weren't familiar with graphic details of rural life and the instruc- tors were not skilled artists. The strategies were designed to re- flect the specific messages of training. To ensure that the messages the instructors intended to transmit to the campesinos via the training strategies were the messages that were transmitted, all strategies were validated. 20 Description of Task Four of the Instructional System: Development ofva Plan for the Implementation of Training (Implementation) The instructors designated all activities required to implement training. This was shared with the entire team to ensure logistical coordination. With the exception of "tools and expendable materials" as well as the "training schedule" which varied depending on training requirements of each content area, the standard plan for implementing training adhered to the following sequence of events. Eight days were devoted to gathering data about the community, explaining the purposes of the program, and motivating the members of the receiving population to register for training. Training the receiving population by the PAE's instructors occurred during the next 10 days. Three to six selected participants of that training session were trained during the succeeding five days to be paraprofessionals. The paraprofessionals trained a group of peers during the last 10 days of the training program. Certificates of attendance were dis— tributed immediately following the termination of training. Rationale. The sponsoring agencies required short—term training. The receiving population had indicated a preference for short—term training. The experience of advisors, coordinators, and instructors confirmed that the living patterns of the campesinos would permit only a few hours each day involved in activities not directly contributing to their subsistence. An analysis of potential skills to be trained indicated that, in fact, there was a possibility that specific skills 21 that the receiving population preferred could be trained in 10 days. Another reason supporting the short duration of the implementation of training was that the team believed that the more quickly the EEEBE‘ gipgg could be trained successfully, the more likely it would be that they would be motivated to demand more training. Volunteer paraprofessionals were used to increase the impact of the program and decrease its cost. Description of Task Five of the Instructional System: Evaluation of the Instructional Process and Results (Evaluation) During every training campaign, the instructors' training behav— iors were evaluated by the team's coordinators and advisors. The evaluation consisted of systematic observations. These observations were shared with the instructor immediately following the training program. Feedback regarding the instructor's behavior was less rou— tinely solicited from the receiving population. Additional feedback from the team's other instructors about the performance of instructor behaviors was also provided. The training skills of the paraprofessionals were evaluated by the instructors and coordinators using planned observations during the paraprofessionals' five—day training experience. The paraprofession— als' acquisition of knowledge was evaluated using pretests-posttests administered by the instructors. The degree to which the campesinos acquired the intended skills was evaluated during each training campaign. This was accomplished when the instructor, using specific criteria expressed in behavioral objectives, observed the campesinos perform the skills alone. 22 In addition to using behavioral objectives, the degree to which the campesinos acquired the intended knowledge was evaluated using criterion-referenced pretests and posttests administered by the in— structors before and after training. Evaluation of acquisition of skills and knowledge was based on the behavioral objectives described in Task Two. Original visual instructional materials (e.g., pamphlets and flip charts) were evaluated through systematic observations of the campesinos' responses to the materials during the training programs. Additionally, to clarify those observations, the artists routinely met with the campesinos who had successfully completed training to solicit specific impressions about all graphics and language used in the rein— forcement materials. The visual materials were validated by asking the originating instructor, one of the artists, and the Instructional System Coor— dinator to judge whether or not the graphics and language that the instructors planned to use correctly depicted the intended messages. A standardized field testof the visual materials conducted in a com— munity similar to the receiving population was another routine valida— tion process. During the field test, the campesinos were asked to describe to the evaluator the message transmitted by the graphics and language of each visual. That feedback was used to revise the visual materials before the training campaign began. The implementation plan was objectively and subjectively eva— uated. Some variables (e.g., number of pamphlets, scheduling of training, amount of chicken feed provided during practice sessions) 23 were observed and a yes/no response could be established by comparing it with the implementation plan. Subjective judgments resulted from the combined observations of the instructors and the coordinators. These evaluations were made regarding the amount of time spent prepar— ing and motivating the community and the amount of time spent during each of the three training segments (i.e., [a] campesinos trained by instructors, [b] paraprofessionals trained by instructors, and [c] campesinos trained by paraprofessionals). Another activity that provided objective evidence confirming that the initial training experience had been conducted successfully was the administration of retention tests given two and four months after training was completed. That test reflected the campe— sinos' retention of knowledge only. Rationale. Evaluation was included in the training process to improve the process and to provide a structured approach to collect evidence to make judgments about the effectiveness of training. Formative evaluation techniques (e.g., planned observations of the instructors; "trial runs"; field testing; review of Instructional Plans by the coordinators; feedback sessions with artists, instruc— tors, and campesinos) provided a continual flow of information that was used to revise and improve the instructional variables. Summative evaluation techniques (e.g., planned observations of the campesinos, pretests, posttests, and retention tests) were used to provide the team with information regarding the effectiveness of each training program to train the receiving population. The following section briefly describes the activities involved in training PAE's instructors to use the instructional system. 24 Description of the Training of PAE's Instructors Time constraints and quantified objectives imposed by the project as approved by the sponsoring agencies made blocks of time allocated exclusively to training activities a luxury. However, the researcher knew of these constraints before the implementation stage of the pro— ject began. Therefore, the following training plan was established. The first eight weeks of training (beginning in September, 1976) were devoted to the presentation of the theoretical foundations of various instructional concepts. These concepts were explained by the researcher and contracted specialists during lecture/discussion sessions. The concepts included assessment, behavioral objectives, evaluation, participation, the role of instructional variables work— ing as a unit, validation, design of training strategies and materials negative and positive feedback, appropriate technology, nonformal education, cost effectiveness, and paraprofessional trainers. This period was followed by four weeks of equivalent practice during which the instructors used the concepts they determined as most appropriate. They created an instructional system, selected skills and knowledge they perceived as appropriate, and developed training programs and corresponding instructional materials. The programs were implemented during a trial run. Subsequently, all aspects of the instructional System were re— vised, based on information gathered during the trial run. The instructors also field tested visual instructional materials on a similar population before the trial run. Knowledge gained from the field test was incorporated in creating the materials that were 25 used. After the trial run, feedback from the campesinos was used to revise the instructional materials. Subsequent training, conducted and supervised by advisors over the remaining 21 months, was "on-the-job training." The instructors practiced using the instructional system to create and implement 25 different training programs directed to campesinos. Training of the instructors also occurred when requested or when perceived by the advisors as needed. This happened every day,in the field, and respond— ing to immediate needs resulting from each day's experience. Even though long-term training experiences were not envisaged as a priority by the sponsoring agencies, the project did allow approxi— mately two weeks to develop the training programs and one week to revise them upon completion of the training campaign. A part of that time was used to retrain PAE's instructors. Rationale for Training PAE's Instructors An informal assessment of the entry skills and knowledge of the instructors indicated that none of them could use any of the instruc— tional concepts the researcher and advisors believed to be necessary to create, implement, and evaluate an effective instructional System, even though all instructors had been exposed to similar concepts before. Observing the instructors' performance during early field tests as well as hearing them discuss the concepts confirmed that training was necessary. The project, as originally designed, intended to devote approxi— mately eight months to train the instructors and other team members. However, once final approval was received, that time had been reduced 26 to three months. It was necessary to establish training experiences that would be compatible with the approved project's objectives and chronology. Repeated and supervised equivalent practice (creating, implementing, evaluating, and revising different training programs) was known to be a successful method for transmitting skills in a rela— tively short period of time. It would also permit fulfillment of other objectives of the project (e.g., 25 validated training pack— ages). In some instances the preferred model for training a project team might be the one described above, one three-month period during which concepts are presented and used in a trial run followed by systematic inservice and on—the-job training. However, it is important to estab— lish that this time constraint necessitateda "trade offk that is, suf- ficient time to adequately present the theoretical aspects of the various instructional concepts and the Opportunity to evaluate the degree to which those concepts were understood by PAE's instruc- tors. The concepts listed above were emphasized because of the docu- mented contribution the operationalization of the concepts had made in solving similar problems in similar situations. The Importance of the Research The project took place in a rural district that officials believed was representative of rural Paraguay. It was hoped that the instructional System and training programs created during the project would also be appropriate for other locations. The researcher believed that the probability was high that if an instructional system were 27 successful in the project area it could be successful, with few adap— tations, to all rural areas in eastern Paraguay due to regional simi— larities in climate, topography, demography, socioeconomic conditions, and educational background. Emphasizing the importance of the research is the fact that the problem of a large, economically inactive population that is semi- literate, lives in the rural sector, and wants to learn appropriate agricultural skills exists in the majority of Latin American countries and many other Third World countries. Since the instructional system was characterized by its responsiveness to the receiving pOpulation's training preferences, optional instructional strategies,and a built—in evaluation/revision component, the possibility existed that the same system could be adopted for use in other countries where there were adult farmers who are semi—literate, poor, and need/want training. At the time of the research (1975), there had not been published a description of any training model that could be replicated in this project. There did exist, however, recognition of a worldwide problem similar to the one described above (LaBelle, 1976). There also existed a body of knowledge and some empirical evidence that indicated that pedagogical theory and instructional methods had been demonstrated to be effective in training situations. The researcher believed that there was sufficient background in the field to support the reasonable— ness of organizing those concepts into an instructional system and employing that system to create skills-training programs. 28 Definition of Terms The purpose of this glossary is to facilitate the reader's under- standing of this research report. The words in Spanish have no Eng- lish synonyms. The remaining words are listed because of the unique- ness of their meanings as used in the project or because of their contribution to a clearer understanding of the research. The list is organized alphabetically. Ag21£——A person who was 15 years old or older at the time the research was conducted. Behavioral objective——A written statement describing the behav— ior of the receiving population expected after training. The state- ment includes the conditions under which evalution will take place (context and tools), the terminal behavior expressed in observable terms, and the criteria to be used to evaluate the performance of the behavior (frequency of the behavior and degree of perfection of the performance of the behavior). Campesino——A poor person who resides in the rural sector, usually a farmer. Compafiia——A sparsely populated rural settlement that has offi— cially recognized boundaries and consists of at least 50 farms. Department——A geographic area designated by the government as a political/administrative unit. An English equivalent is "province" or "state." There are 17 departments in Paraguay. District——A political/administrative unit that has government— ally assigned geographic boundaries, many of which comprise a depart— ment. 29 Formative evaluation—-The process of systematically collecting information about the instructional process to improve training. Illiterate—-Describes a person who has no formal schooling or who may have initiated first grade but did not complete it. Literate--Describes a person who has successfully completed the entire elementary school cycle. Nonformal education-~Any intentional learning activity generated and experienced outside the planned activities of the formal school system that does not prepare the participants to continue to the uni— versity or other programs of higher education requiring formerly- received credentials. PAEe-Spanish acronym for "Programa de Adiestramiento Extra— Escolar" ("Out—of-School Training Program"), the program established by the project. Paraprofessionals-—Campesinos who were trained in the first seg— ment of PAE's training program and were selected and trained by PAE's instructors to use PAE's training programs to train other campesinos. Participation--an interpersonal process that involves all human elements of training (receiving population, PAE's team, local authori- ties, advisors, and GOP authorities) in making the decisions that affect the development and implementation of PAE's instructional sys— tem and validated training packages. Semi-literate-—Describes a person who started and did not complete elementary school. Summative evaluation--A process of measuring the outcomes of a training experience to make judgments about training effectiveness. 30 Training-—The process of intentionally teaching a specific skill and related knowledge in such a way that the receiving population will be able to perform the skill without assistance. Training campaign-—All activities involved in the development and implementation of all training programs for each content area in one compania. Training program——All activities and materials pertaining to the implementation of training in one content area. Training strategie ——Instructional techniques, methods, or aids used by PAE's instructors and paraprofessionals to reinforce training messages. Validation——A procedure that confirms that each component of PAE's instructional System does what it is intended to do. Variables of instruction--The human, environmental, and training elements that are manipulated by the trainer in an attempt to produce predictable outcomes. Overview Circumstances describing the problem and supporting the reason— ableness of conducting the research have been presented. Chapter I also presented the purposes of the study, PAE's instructional system, a description of the training provided PAE's instructors, and a state— ment about the worldwide scope of the problem which underlies the importance of its solution. In Chapter II a detailed description of how the project was ini— tiated and how it was ultimately implemented is presented. Precise information describing the environment in which the project unfolded, 31 the process of training the project team, and the sponsoring institu- tion are also reported. Literature that had a bearing on the development of the research or that has a bearing on its relevance today is discussed in Chapter III. Chapter IV is devoted to reviewing how and why the specific re- search procedures incorporated in this project were used. It details the plan for gathering the data. What the criteria were as well as how the criteria were estab- lished, including examples, are reported in Chapter V. Research procedures generated information that permitted the researcher to answer the questions, "Is the instructional system ef— fective?” "Are the instructors trained?" Chapter VI presents the results of applying those evaluative procedures which also serve as evidence that supports the conclusions and recommendations described in Chapter VII. CHAPTER II THE CONTEXT OF THE PROJECT Beginning with a discussion of how the approved project evolved, this chapter presents details of the human and environmental elements of the settings in which the project unfolded and a description of those project activities that contributed to the fulfillment of the purposes of the research. Project Development In the early 19705, the Agency for International Development (AID) began to direct its assistance to poor people in rural areas. Simul- taneously, a knowledge base supporting the creation of apprOpriate educational experiences directed to that population was being written. One term used to refer to those educational experiences is "nonformal education." One of the institutions upon which AID depended to develop that knowledge base was Michigan State University (MSU). MSU also provided on-site consulting to AID's offices overseas. The conceptualization of the rural, nonformal education project in Paraguay was partially initiated by MSU consultants visiting AID/Paraguay and potential counterpart agencies in the fall of 1973 and summer and fall of 1974. AID/Paraguay first submitted, for AID/Washington's approval, a project proposal that focused on nonformal education in January, 1975. The purpose of that proposal was 32 33 to test the effectiveness of educational materi- als and various approaches (demonstrations vs. lectures, teachers as instructors vs. successful farmers) which offer practical low cost training to the rural Paraguayan population which is largely illi- terate and in many communities non—Spanish speaking (USAID, "Noncapital Project," 1975, p. 2). Washington officials decided that, as presented, the project would not be approved. Consequently, the project proposal was revised. The new document listed two purposes: 1. . . . to deve10p the capability of GOP, through the National Apprenticeship Institution (SNPP) to produce low-cost teaching methodology and instruc- tional materials suitable for training of the out-of—school rural Paraguayan population; and 2. . . . the establishment of an experimental out-of- school training program which will be effective in reaching the rural population in the District of Ita (USAID, "Noncapital Project" [Revised], 1975, pp. 2—3). The purposes and accompanying detailed description of the project's implementation plan were tentatively approved with the condition that implementation of the project could not begin until the following pre- paration activities were successfully completed: (a) selection and training of a project team, (b) inventory and analysis of the ongoing nonformal education activities and techniques in Paraguay, (c) survey of the target population applying assessment instrument developed by the project, and (d) planning and development of an experimental design for thezhnplementatitniphase of the project (USAID, "Noncapital Project" [Revised], 1975). AID/Paraguay received this conditional approval in June, 1975. The researcher was contracted in September, 1975, to coordinate all project activities. A consulting firm was contracted to provide technical assistance. A work plan was established that would assist 34 in accomplishing most of the conditions of approval. However, the counterpart agency (SNPP) would not recruit or assign employees to the permanent project team until the preparation activities were com— pleted and implementaiton of the project could begin. Thus, long— term training in nonformal education as envisaged in the revised pro- ject proposal did not occur. Between October, 1975, and May, 1976, the nonformal education inventories, socioeconomic survey of the District, and training of interviewers were completed. A university that had developed and implemented an experimental design in a Third World country provided a preliminary experimental design. Documents that described the out— come of these preparation activities were reviewed in Washington, D. C., in May, 1976. Officials at AID/Washington decided that the benefits generated by a carefully implemented, experimental design did not justify its expense. The nonformal education inventories, socioeconomic survey of Ira District, and other supporting documents were approved. They sufficiently described the educational problem and justified an attempt to solve it. The researcher and other AID officials were directed to elabo— rate a project that would use formative evaluation techniques to create validated training programs directed to illiterate and semi— literate adults. After approximately four weeks, a third revision of the project proposal was approved. Its purpose was ”. . . to estab— lish the capability of the National Apprenticeship Service (SNPP) to conduct successful training programs oriented to rural illiterate and 35 semi-literate adults who presently have limited access to training opportunities (USAID, ”Project Paper," 1976, p. 1). Training programs were to be developed in six content areas: home management, environmental sanitation, basic agriculture, small scale livestock and poultry production, crafts, and management and improvement of the small farm (USAID, "Project Paper," 1976). Conditions that would exist at the end of the project to indi— cate whether or not the project's purpose had been achieved included (a) a nonformal training unit established and functioning at SNPP to carry out training programs for the target population, (b) a minimum of eight staff members assigned to the SNPP nonformal training unit, (c) a budgetary commitment for NFE activities, (d) a nonformal train— ing unit capable of training 80 representatives of GOP ministries and other agencies one year following the end of the pilot project, and (e) a SNPP materials production staff capable of producing validated instructional materials for 24 training programs per year (USAID, Project Design," 1976). Administrative arrangements were completed in July and August and implementation of the Rural Nonformal Education Project commenced in September, 1976. Descrippions of Contexts in Which the Project Was Implemented Ité District was selected as the district in which the pro— ject would be conducted because GOP and AID officials believed that successful project results could be transferred to other rural areas of which Ité District is typical (USAID, "Project Papers,” 1976). Spe- cific details taken from a socioeconomic survey, official documents, 36 an inventory of nonformal education, and personal observations de— scribe that population and its experience with out—of—school training. Physical Descriptions of Ita District, the Compafiias, and Small Farms Ita is the name of the largest town and governmental head of Ité District. Approximately 7,000 persons live in the town of Ita and approximately 18,000 persons live in 3,286 farm units in the districfls 16 compafiias (Paraguay, Direccion General de Estadistica, 1972). The town of Ita is located on a paved road 24 miles southeast of Asuncion. It is surrounded by approximately 40 square miles of gently rolling savanna which comprises Ité District. The savanna is interrupted by areas dense with native coco palms and lush vegetation ("A Profile of Ité," 1975). A compafiia is a sparsely populated rural settlement that has of— ficially recognized boundaries and consists of at least 50 farms (Clary, 1976). Most companias of Ita District begin at the town's limits and radiate out. Following dirt roads leading out of town, the settlement pattern is analagous to a large wooden wagon wheel: the hub of the wheel (the town) and its spokes (the roads leading away from the town along which the companias are forme®(”A Profile of Ita," 1975). Most farms belonging to a particular compania are located on or near these dirt roads which may extend four miles beyond the town's limits,or more. There are also smaller roads branching away from the main artery along which other, usually poorer, farms are located. The roads leading to the compafiias are usually not maintained and fre— quently become impassable when it rains. 37 The most common means of private transportation are walking, horses, horses and carts, oxen and carts, bicycles, and motorcycles. Public transportation is limited to a few old buses that traverse the most populated compafiias sporadically. A more common form of public transportation is the acopiador's (middleman who buys from campesinos and sells to town merchants) truck. Seven compafiias support an elementary school consisting of the first three grades. Nine companias have an elementary school with all six grades ("A Profile of Ita," 1975). The schools range from one- room, adobe-walled, straw-roofed buildings to three—room, brick, tile- roofed buildings. Secondary schools do not exist in the compafiias. There is no formal political organization even though:a"compania official" is appointed by the central government to supervise limited public activities, such as the repair of roads (Clary, 1976). Every compania has a community soccer field and active competi- tion among several soccer teams ("A Profile of Ita," 1975). The soc- cer field may have an open-air brick floor where community dances, meetings, and other social functions are held. A few companias have an oratorio, a very small building that serves as a location for Catholic mass offered periodically by the priest from Ita. There are no markets but products used daily including kerosene, rice, flour, pasta, coffee, and sugar are purchased at one of several almacenes (private houses with space allocated to the storage and sale of popular items) located in each compania. A typical small farm (up to 20 hectares) located in the compafiias of Ité District consists of a two—room, whitewashed house made of 38 brick or adobe, a straw roof, a dirt floor, glassless windows, and doorless doorways ("A Profile of Ita," 1975). If a kitchen exists it frequently resembles a wooden lean-to attached to an outside wall of the house. A fire burns all day, heating a large cooking pot. A rudimentary latrine is located behind the house. A rudimen- tary well is located in front of the house. Light sources include the sun, moon, flashlights, and kerosene lamps. Approximately six persons live on each farm (five members of the nuclear family plus one live—in relative). Clothes are Western—styled, simple, clean, and usually homemade ("A Profile of Ité," 1975). Chickens, pigs, and dairy cattle freely roam the small farms. Their production is used for trade, gift giving, or consumption. It is common for small farmers to own their land and to consume most of the mandioca, corn, beans, and sweet potatoes they cultivate. If the crops are sold, they are usually sold at the town market in Ité ("Resultado de la Encuesta," n.d.). In general, the land immediately surrounding most houses is swept bare of any vegetation with the exception of scattered mango trees that provide shade and colorful plants for decoration. A family garden is close to the house with cultivated plots farther away. Socioeconomic Description of Ita District: Survey Results One of the preparation activities completed before the project's implementation began was a survey of the receiving population. The purpose of the survey was to accurately describe the living situation of persons living in Ité District. Data were collected by trained interviewers who administered a validated questionnaire. 39 Eighty-two families residing in six (of a total of 16) compahias were selected randomly. Five companias were selected to reflect the diversity of the characteristics of Ita District, such as economic activity, terrain, soil quality, access to water, proximity to a paved road, and proximity to the town of Ita. The sixth compahia was in- cluded by local authorities. The respondent was the head of the household, but the entire family unit provided information to most items. The following select statements about the personal data, decision- making and work habits, ideology, economy, education, and needs of campesinos living in Ita District are taken from "Resultado de la Encuesta Socioeconomica Realizada en la Ciudad de Ité con Tabulaciones y Porcentaje" (n.d.). These data influenced decisions made in the development of the instructional system and the implementation of training. Personal data. Forty-five of the 82 primary respondents were women. Fifty-three of the respondents were at least 15 years old but not older than 50 years old. Thirteen of the respondents said they had more than 10 children. From five to eight persons lived on 41 of the farm units. Nineteen of the farms housed more than nine persons. Decision making and work habits. Forty—two respondents indicated that the important decisions are made jointly by the husband and wife. Twelve respondents said that important decisions are made by husbands alone, compared to 10 for women alone. Forty-two respondents believed that the local governmental authorities made most of the important 40 decisions affecting the compania. There was little evidence of experi- ence in participatory activities. Fifty-one of the heads of the house- hold work alone or with their sons. Ideology. Forty-four of the respondents disagreed, at least in part, with the statement, "The future of your own life is very dark." Thirteen respondents completely agreed with that statement. A sig- nificant majority, 69 respondents, agreed that, "Life in the pgmpg is better than life in the city." Sixty—five of the heads of households believedtflmnza young person can better himself or herself as a farmer. Seventy—two of the persons sampled completely agreed with the state— ment, "Nowadays, some special or vocational training is necessary to better oneself." Most peOple, 60 respondents, agreed that that which is new is worth more than that which is traditional. Economy. Thirty-three of the respondents worked as farmers. Twenty—seven respondents worked as seamstresses or housewives. Fifty— seven respondents owned their land. Thirty—seven respondents con- sumed all they produced. If farm products were sold, they were most often sold in the town of Ita (24.1% of the time). Education. Nine of the persons interviewed passed all six primary school grades, 23 passed the first three, and 11 never went to school. The most frequently given reason (30 of the responses) for leaving or never starting school was "no money to pay school expenses." 15.9% of the time the reason was, "I had to work." Sixty—seven of the heads of household stated that if a short course were offered in the compafiias, they would attend. 41 When asked to choose from a list of human qualities necessary in training a local leader, "educated" received the second most frequent I'ESPOIISE . Needs (ppen-ended questions). When asked, "If you had the chance to make a change in your life, what would you change and why?" 32 of the 82 respondents indicated that they would change their jobs or how they make a livelihood because the way they presently worked was physically too demanding. Responding to the question, "With respect to agriculture, what is your principal problem and what information or technique would you like to obtain?” 37 respondents answered that insects and pests or "tired" land were the principal problems andthat information was needed about insecticides and fertilizers. Twenty-four respondents didn't know, had no answer, or stated that there was no problem. The question, "With respect to your health and the health of your family, which is your principal problem and what information would you like to obtain?" provoked 43 respondents to request more information about general health care and how to cure (diseases) caused by para— sites. Description of Ita's Experience with Nonformal Education: Inventory Results Another activity completed in preparation for the project's imple- mentation identified and described all ongoing nonformal education activities in Ité District. 42 This inventory was conducted using the interview schedule that had been used during the national nonformal education inventory (see AppendixIB). Interviewers were trained to identify the nonformal education activities and to conduct interviews that would elicit needed descrip- tive information. All nonformal education activities in Its District were included in the inventory. They were identified by studying existing documents, making observationsijithe field, and soliciting information from mem- bers of the community. Head administrators of each nonformal education activity were interviewed. When possible, the activities were observed by the interviewers. The results, as reported in the "Inventory of On—going NFE Activi— ties in Ita" (Fritz, 1976) follow. Health Center. Since 1937, the Health Center, located in the town of Ita, had been conducting nonformal education activities. In 1976 approximately 25 persons were exposed to these activities each day. The stated objectives of the activities were to create an aware— ness in the people to improve their physical health, to awaken an interest in improving their living environment, and to influence preg- nant women to deliver their babies in the Health Center. Using hand—drawn pictures as instructional aids, the Health Center personnel attempted to achieve the objectives by giving daily charlas (short talks)txrwhomever had come to the Health Center seeking medical 43 attention. The intended audiencevunxarural families that had few economic resources. Examples of tOpics presented during the charlas included "Wearing Shoes to Combat Parasites," "Nutrition," and "Hemorrhage Prevention." There was no evaluation component, but Health Center personnel had observed that persons attending the charlas were cleaner, wore shoes more often, and improved the appearances of their homes. Colorado Party of Ita. Paraguay's governing political party spon— sored three nonformal education activities. Sewing academy. The sewing academy began in 1975. An esti— mated 45 participants were registered in 1976. The objective of the program was to train youth to work as seam- stresses and tailors. Magazine models, patterns, and blackboards were the instructional materials used to present the theory of sewing and to permit the prac- tice of specific skills. All activities took place at the party head— quarters in the town of Ité. The intended audiencewereryouth from low income families that had completed at least third grade. The course lasted three years after which participants were evaluated and certified by the Ministry of Education and Worship. Civic and political education course. The party also spon- sored the Civic and Political Education course of Ita which, since its beginning in 1975, had been offered to approximately 7,000 parti— cipants. 44 Stated objectives were to prepare party members in their civic duties, to train party members to supervise voting stations, and to instruct party members to participate in Colorado Party surveys and campaigns. Instructional tools include a blackboard, posters, radio an— nouncements, charlas, lectures, and political theater. The intended audience consisted of Paraguayan citizens who had low incomes. There was no evaluation of the instructional process. Youth training. Another nonformal activity of the Colorado Party of Ira started in 1973 to provide social and cultural training to youths who were affiliated with the Colorado Party. In 1976 there were 150 participants. The methods used to train the youths who lived in the town of Ita were political debates and conferences held at the party headquarters. Evaluation of training was not conducted. Private sewing academies. There were four private sewing acade- mies that trained an estimated 68 students each year to be tailors or seamstresses. All used the "Casatti System" of teaching sewing, a system ap- proved by the Ministry of Education and Worship. These academies were located in the town of Ita and directed their instruction to low and middle income youth. A tuition was charged which caused a high desertion rate as par- ticipants were unable to keep up with monthly tuition installments. One person who was interviewed indicated that 50% of her students abandoned the trade due to excessive start-up costs. 45 Persons completing the training were formally evaluated and cer- tified by the Minsitry of Education and Worship. Private vocational activities. Training opportunities were also provided by two private facilities. Both charged tuition. The objectives were to train participants to be hairdressers, nurses aides, cooks, electricians, or home economists. The theory/practice teaching method was employed by instructional tools including blackboards, posters, mirrors, fashion magazines, sewing machines, and electronic models. With the exception of the haridresser's training, all programs required that elementary school be completed by participants. The intended audience was the youth of Ita's compafiias. Information about evaluation was not available. Twenty—one elementary schools in 1:5 District. In 1976 approxi— mately 1,300 parents of elementary school children attended orientation meetings in the school of the town or compania. The Ministry of Edu- cation and Worship funded the meetings, first held in 1963. The objectives of this nonformal education activity were to as— sist the parents in understanding the schools' projects and to de- scribe the alternatives parents have for improving the physical and sanitary environment of their homes. In all instances, charlas and group discussions were the methods used during periodic meetings offered by teachers and specialists (e.g., Health Center Director). Participants were parents of school children representing a socio— economic cross section of Ita District. 46 One school director indicated there had been a marked improvement in the sanitary conditions of the homes she visited since the meetings began. She attributed this improvement to the meetings. Soccer schools. In 1976 two private soccer clubs located in Ita had 270 participants. The objectives of the clubs were to improve the physical state of youth through physical education and to prepare youth to play soccer. The theory/practice method predominated with all equipment pro— vided by the clubs. Participants, 7—14 years old from all areas of Ité District, pro— vided their own uniforms. Information about evaluation was unavailable. Summary. To be admitted to most nonformal education pro— grams in Ité required some schooling. Seven programs attempted to train participants to perform vocational skills. Agricultural skills were not trained. One of the programs, nurses aide training, pro— vided health related skills. The participants of most programs were young adults. Some programs charged tuition. An examination of nonformal education in Ité indicated that, in 1976, nonformal education activities that intended to transmit agri— cultural or health related skills to semi—literate adults who were poor and lived in the compafiias of Its District did not exist. The project's receiving population had never experienced that kind of training. 47 Implementation of the Pilot Project: September, 1976-September, 1978 The development, approval, and preparation for implementation of this project began in 1973 and terminated in August, 1976. Activi— ties for the approved pilot project and the research began in Septem- ber, 1976. The approved general purpose of the pilot project was "to estab— lish the capability of the National Apprenticeship Service (SNPP) to conduct successful training programs oriented to rural illiterate and’ semi—literate adults who presently have limited access to training opportunities" (USAID, "Project Paper," 1976, p. l). The purposes of the research were (a) evaluate the effectiveness of an instructional system to train semi-literate adults who had lim— ted access to training opportunities and (b) to evaluate the instruc- tors' ability to use effectively the instructional System to create and implement training programs. The purposes of the research coincided with the general purpose of the approved project. However, there were specific conditions expected at the end of the project that were not expected to be pro— ducts of the research. Therefore, this report does not describe all project-related activities that took place between September, 1976, and September, 1978. The following discussion describes the principal aspects of the project that contributed to the fulfillment of the purposes of the project and the research. 48 Implementing Institution: SNPP The Servicio Nacional de Promocion Profesional (SNPP) is Para— guay's equivalent of a national apprenticeship service. It is fi— nanced by a special payroll tax rather than Congressional appropria- tions. SNPP is semi-autonomous, but is directed by the Ministry of Justice and Labor and is repsonsive to its recommendations regarding types of training offered and the selection of receiving populations (USAID, "Project Paper,” 1976). In 1971 SNPP was established to provide free training in_§gmi: skilled and skilled trades to literate adults who passed a battery of admissions tests. The majority of SNPP's trainees were young adults. Courses in welding, automechnaics, electronics, brick laying, carpen— try, and leather working were located in SNPP's headquarters in Asun— cidn and could be completed in approximately nine months. Training in agricultural skills (e.g., "Swine and Milk Producton," "Farm Machinery V Operation and Maintenance,‘ and "Wheat Cultivation”) took place in rural areas. In 1974 SNPP trained 1,950 men and women in 90 courses in the industrial, service, and agricultural sectors (USAID, "Noncapital Project " 1975). The project, ProgramackzAdiestramiento Extra-Escolar (PAE), was assigned two large rooms at SNPP to house the coordinators, in- structors, artists, and administrative-support personnel. PAE had access to SNPP's existing materials reproduction center. A storeroom was converted into PAE's photography laboratory. All equipment and materials, including two four-wheel drive vehicles, were provided by AID and/or SNPP. 49 A private home in the town of 1:5 was rented to serve as an office and storeroom for PAE during implementation of the training campaigns. Identification and Selection of PAE's Team The number of local technicians needed to implement the project and corresponding job descriptions were established by SNPP's direc— tors and the Project Coordinator (the researcher). The Director of SNPP assigned three of SNPP's technicians to fill the positions of PAE's General Coordinator, Instructional System Coordinator, and Materials Production Coordinator. The General Coordinator had completed secondary school, was for— mally trained, and had worked as an agronomist for many years. Subse— quently, SNPP trained him to be an SNPP instructor and supervisor in agriculture. The Instructional System Coordinator had completed secondary school, attended three years at the university majoring in pedagogy, and was trained by SNPP to be an instructor in agriculture. The Materials Production Coordinator, in charge of the existing materials reproduction center at SNPP, had completed secondary school, received on-the—job training in materials reproduction and printing techniques at SNPP from equipment representatives, and was enrolled at the university. Two SNPP employees were transferred from other departments to serve as PAE instructors in the areas of management and improvement of the small farm and poultry and livestock management. The former had completed secondary school and was enrolled at the university. He had limited experience as an instructor. The latter had completed secondary 50 school and had been trained as a livestock technician which he'd prac— ticed in the field many years before coming to SNPP where he was trained as an SNPP instructor before being transferred to PAE. To fillthe positions of Crafts Instructor, Environmental Sanita— tion Instructor, Home Management Instructor, and Photographer, an— nouncements of the positions were published in two newspapers with national circulation. A person qualified to teach crafts was not identified. The team decided to eliminate environmental sanitation as a content area because the Ministry of Health sponsored a program that provided that training. Several applicants were interviewed for the position of Home Management Instructor. A Peace Corps trainer who worked with semi— literate, rural women assisted PAE's coordinators in identifying necessary training skills. PAE's coordinators selected a woman who had completed secondary school, had been trained in extension in the USA, and was trained by the Agriculture and Livestock Extension Ser— vice (SEAG) as an extension agent. Qualified photographers also responded to the ads. They were interviewed by the coordinators and samples of their photographs were examined. PAE's coordinators selected a person who was contracted by the project. He had completed secondary school and received on—the— job training working as a free lance sports photographer. The instructor for basic agriCUlture was recruited by SNPP. He had completed secondary school, was a trained agronomist, and was serving as an extension agent for SEAG at the time he was contracted by the project. 51 Candidates for the art department were identified through personal contacts and responses to an announcement in Paraguay's most widely circulated newspaper. All submitted samples of their work,were given a graphics test administered by a materials production specialist, and were interviewed. The coordinators contracted three of the candi— dates using recommendations made by the specialist. All had completed secondary school and received on—the—job training at advertising agencies or local newspapers. A fourth member of the art department with the same background was later assigned to PAE by SNPP's director. A printer who had completed secondary school and received on—the— job training to operate offset and mimeograph machines was indivi— dually recruited and contracted to work with the PAE team. The coordinators, instructors, and artists were supported by an administrative secretary, a typist, a half—time accountant, and two part—time drivers. All had completed secondary school and had received on—the—job training at SNPP. An office assistant was in the process of completing secondary school. These administrative—support personnel were transferred to PAE from other departments of SNPP. PAE's core team consisted of the above-described 19 persons. In February, 1978, three apprentice instructors were recruited and assigned to PAE as instructors in basic agriculture, management and improvement of the small farm, and home management. The apprentice instructor in basic agriculture had completed secondary school, had worked many years in agricultural programs, and was trained by SEAG as an agricultural extension agent. The apprentice instructor in home management had completed secondary school, was trained by SEAG as an agricultural extension agent, and had completed 52 SNPP's course for instructors. The apprentice instructor in manage— ment and improvement of the small farm had received the equivalent of a Bachelor of Science degree in agronomy. Upon completion of the project in Spetember, 1978, the PAE team consisted of 22 trained personnel. Training PAE's Team In September, 1976, implementation of the pilot project began and with it the training of PAE's team. Training continued through September, 1978. Planned training experiences can be grouped into two categories: (a) training by foreign advisors and (b) equivalent practice (on—the—job training). A description of each follows. Training by foreign advisors. Five educationists were employed by AID to train the project team. Most training was directed to the coordinators, instructors, and artists. Project Coordinator. The Project Coordinaton a Ph.D. candi— date in curriculum and instruction at Michigan State University who had worked as a Peace Corps volunteer in Paraguay for three years, assisted in the development of all training activities. He provided specific training experiences in project administra- tion, budget development and cost control, interpersonal communication, organizing an instructional system, methods of evaluation, behavioral objective development, training preference identification, validation methods, nonformal education, and participation. 53 Most of that training occurred during the five training campaigns when be, other adivsors, PAE's coordinators, or other team members observed that training was needed. Training usually took place during brief meetings with an immediate opportunity to practice that which was trained. Some con— cepts (e.g., behavioral objectives and communication skills) were pre— sented during short (two to three day) meetings using specific group exercises to assist in training related skills. Instructional technologist. Training that focused on the variables of instruction (human, environmental, and training) working as a unit, and testing instructional materials was provided from Sep- tember through early December, 1976, by a person with a Ph.D. in instructional technology who had worked developing educational pro— grams in South America, the Carribbean, and Africa. A theoretical foundation of those educational concepts was established early during lecture/discussion sessions. Participation of the group was elicited as the "Paraguayanization" of the concepts evolved. The entire team practiced using those concepts in a trial run for which they determined topics for each of the four content areas, created four training programs that incorporated most of the variables of instruction, and implemented the programs in the field. Based on information gathered during the trial run, the training programs were revised. Testing instructional materials before they were used was empha— sized when the team, under the supervision of the advisor, compared 54 campesinos' interpretations[afprinted materials that used graphics alone and those that accompanied the graphics with a short written message. Information gleaned from that experience was used to estab— lish a standardized materials test later in the project. Instructional strategy and team building technician. A Ph.D. candidate specialized in nonformal education who was Ecuadorian and i had directed a five—year nonformal education project funded by AID and the Government of Ecuador trained the team to use games as an instruc— tional strategy. He described related theory and provided games used in Ecuador with which the team practiced. During his consultancy (10 days in October, 1976), he also led small group exercises designed to improve the team's decision making skills. Evaluation Epecialist. An Argentine technician, a Ph.D. in higher education and administration, had specialized in communications, conducted research in Colombia, consulted for the World Bank in Mexico, and worked in agricultural extension programs in Argentina. He provided training in evaluation methods (e.g., pretests, post— tests, and retention tests); design and evaluation of instructional materials; skilled—leader identification; participation; and all skills related to the development, use, tabulation (both by hand and computer assisted), and interpretation of PAE's First Household Survey Most of this training took place during the training campaigns immediately before and after a day's activities. He responded to re— quests by team members for additional training or provided it when he or other team members observed the need. L—_.__—___ _.__..4 55 He worked with the team from February, 1977, through early Au— gust, 1978. Instructional materials gpecialist. The fifth technician, holding a Ph.D. in education, brought materials deve10pment experience to PAE. For 10 days in April, 1977, he trained the artists and instruc- tors how to deve10p alternative instructional aids (e.g., simulation games and slide/tape programs). Presentations of theory and discussions based on past experience working with similar receiving populations in Bolivia and Ecuador were accompanied by opportunities for the team to develop and use alterna— tive aids they developed during this training. Specific training provided by each foreign advisor was reinforced by repeated practices of that which was trained during six training campaigns. A description of that process follows. The six training campaigns: eqpivalent practice. Training cam- paigns were established to provide PAE's team with the opportunity to practice using the educational concepts and to create, validate, and evaluate skills—training programs. Training was mostly directed to PAE's instructors. From April, 1977, through December, 1977, the team and advisors experimented with four training campaign formats that organized the time used to perform all instructional activities and the require— ments of those activities differently. 56 The first training campaign was unlike the succeeding three in that it did not include PAE's instructors training campesinos to be paraprofessionals. The second, third, and fourth training campaigns incorporated the same general activities but varied the time allotted to accomplish those tasks (e.g., 20 days to develop the training programs instead of 15 days). The fifth and sixth training campaigns followed the format de- tailed below. The project was intended to be experimental, incorporating new information as it was generated to improve the basic instructional system and corresponding instructional activities. As the project pro— gressed from the first through the sixth training campaigns, fewer changes were made. The training campaign format established as the permanent format consisted of three phases. Phase one. The first phase of the training campaign lasted 23 days. The following activities were routinely accomplished. 1. Identification of training content. One of the con— ditions the content of each training program had to satisfy was that it be desired by the receiving population. The team wrote questions for PAE's First Household Survey questionnaire that would generate information about the campesinos' living situation (e.g., "Which of the following tools do you have?” "How many hours a day could you attend a training course?" and "What problems are you having in increasing your production?") and training preferences (e.g., "What do you want to learn in agriculture?" "In basic agriculture what technical knowledge 57 or practices do you need most urgently?" and "If I were an agronomist, what would you like me to teach you?") specific to the four content areas. The team tested the questionnaire on a similar population and used the results to improve it. They assigned numbers to each farm unit in the six preselected companias in which the training programs would be conducted. These numbers were written on pieces of paper which were placed in a hat. The numbered pieces of paper representing approximately 15% of the total number of farm units in each compania were pulled from the hat. These farms were located on a map of the compania. This process was followed to select the sample for each compania in the survey. The team administered the quastionnaire to 196 residents of the six companias, tabulated the results by hand, and interpreted the re- sults. Once the training desired by the campesinos was identified, it was used in conjunction with five other conditions (i.e., that the content coincide with the agricultural calendar, that it be within the team's technical capability, that it contribute to the campesino's health or economic situation, that it coincide with PAE instructors' professional experience and/or advice of the experts, and that it be within the economic possibility of the receiving population) toselect the skills and related knowledge about which a program would be devel— oped. 2. Determination of visual instructional materials. PAE's instructors identified the visual instructional materials they believed would best contribute to the fulfillment of their training 58 objectives. Once approved by the coordinators, the instructors deter— mined the content of the visual which was detailed on an Audio/Visual Aid Plan (see Appendix C). 3. Determination and request of all instructional tools and equipment. Early in the planning, the instructors specified in writing all expendable and non—expendable materials that were needed to implement each training program. Approved by the coordinators, the process of purchasing or otherwise acquiring those materials began. 4. Ppgparation of the Instructional Plan. The instruc— tors wrote an Instructional Plan (see Appendix A) consisting of the detailed description of the five basic tasks of PAE's instructional system: assessment, objectives, strategies, implementation, and evaluation. The plan was approved by the coordinators. 5. Creation of rough draft of visual instructional materials. One artist was assigned to each of the four content areas. Instructors provided the text and a brief description of the graphics to the artist on a standard Audio/Visual Aid Plan (see Appendix C). Artists consulted with each instructor to clarify the intended visual messages described in the Audio/Visual Aid Plan. If more specificity were needed, the artist requested the project's photographer to pro— vide black and white photographs of the object which the artist then used as a model. Rough drafts of the pamphlets were approved by the coordinators. These sketches were field tested by the artists and instructors on a similar population. 59 Thefield test consisted of photocopies being made of the origi- nal sketches and text of each pamphlet. The team (usually the artists and instructors) asked arbitrarily selected campesinos living in ppm— panias similar to those of Ita District to state the message they saw on each page of the pamphlets. Their observations were written on each page. The artists used the observations to make corrections on the final proofs of the pamphlets before they were printed on an offset machine. The flip charts followed the same visual sequence as the pam— phlets. They, too, were corrected before being reproduced using a silk screen process. 6. Publicity campaign. The last activity conducted dur— ing Phase One was the publicity and information gathering campaign during which the team members met individually and in groups with the receiving population to explain PAE's purposes and method, to describe what the campesinos could expect from PAE and what PAE expected from the campesinos, to clarify training preferences, and to motivate the campesinos to participate in training. Posters, flyers, a loud speaker perched on the project's vehicle, home visits, and a comic book describing PAE were also used to accom- plish this task. It was during this activity that interested ggmpef §Epp§_signed up to participate in the second phase of PAE's training campaign. 60 Phase two. The second phase of the training campaign lasted 26 days. The four activities of the second phase of the training cam— paign comprise the operationalization of a PAE training program. 1. Instructors' training campgginos. The first 10 days were devoted to training approximately 15 campesinos in each of the four content areas by PAE's four instructors (10 days maximum; some- times the skill was trained in fewer days). A pretest was adminis— tered, training was conducted, and a posttest was administered after the training activities terminated. During the training process, PAE's instructors identified at least three campesinos who were respected by their peers, demonstrated literacy skills, correctly performed the skill being trained and acquired the related knowledge, and manifested a desire to be trained to be a paraprofessional. 2. Training paraprofessionals. The succeeding five days of Phase Two were used to train selected campesinos to be paraprofes— sionals. They were trained to perform all administrative/documentation tasks, to administer the pretests and posttests, to use the instruc— tional strategies, and to conduct all activities outlined in the ori— ginal Instructional Plan. The paraprofessionals—to—be were evaluated using a standard pre— test and posttest (see Appendix D) as well as observations made by the instructors and coordinators. 61 3. Paraprofessionals training campesinos. Immediately following the training of campesinos to be paraprofessionals, the para— professionals spent a maximum of 10 days training up to 10 campesinos each to perform the same skills and acquire the same knowledge which the paraprofessionals themselves had learned in the first lO—day period. Their implementation of training was closely supervised by PAE's instructors and coordinators. Pretests, posttests, and observations made by the paraprofes— sionals were used to evaluate this segment of PAE's training program. 4. Closing ceremonies. The 26th day of Phase Two was devoted to presentation of Certificates of Attendance to campesinos who had successfully completed training. Honorable Mention Certifi— cates were awarded to the paraprofessionals. Ceremonies were fol— lowed by local entertainment and a party. Phase three. In six days the activities of Phase Three were completed. 1. Maintaining equipment. All training materials and equipment were gathered, inventoried, repaired, and stored by PAE's office in Ita. 2. Generating feedback. Meetings were held with "gradu- ates" to document their opinions regarding any aspect of the training program. Again, PAE's artists reviewed each page of the visual ma- terials with the participants and instructors whose suggestions were documented. Feedback from the coordinators was written on an 62 Instructor Feedback Sheet and shared with each instructor (see Appen— dix E). 3. Revising training programs. During Phase Three, all observations (recorded or not) made during any portion of training by the advisors, any member of the team, and/or campesinos were reviewed. Corresponding changes were made in the training programs. 4. Report writing. A general evaluation of training was written by each instructor and filed with the training materials and Instructional Plan for each of the training programs (see Appendix F). Equivalent practice was the most frequently used training method to which PAE's team was exposed. Practices started in April, 1977, and terminated in September, 1978. The vehicle for equivalent—practice— training of PAE's team was a training campaign comprised of three phases. During each training campaign, PAE's instructors, assisted by artists and administrative—support personnel, created and implemented four to six different training programs using PAE's instructional sys- tem. Summary Between August, 1973, and September, 1976, the Nonformal Educa— tion Project, funded by the Agency for International Development and the Paraguayan Ministry of Justice and Labor was established. The general purpose of the project was to train Paraguayan technicians how to train semi—literate and illiterate campesino adults. 63 Project activities took place in offices of the Servico Nacional de Promoci6n Profesional (SNPP) in Asuncién, in the project's office in the town of Ita and in the campesino settlements surrounding Ité. Implementation of the pilot project began in September, 1976, and terminated in September, 1978. During this period, the project team was trained by foreign advisors during lecture/discussion sessions and repeated practices of the instructional system during training cam— paigns. :ii. I... E [II CHAPTER III RELATED LITERATURE The purpose of the literature review was to identify and learn from the instructional processes already employed in other Third World countries to solve problems similar to those experienced in Paraguay. It also served to underline recognized educational principles and training practices that supported the reasonableness of developing an instructional system in a certain way. Seven skills—training programs in the Third World are described, and instructional design and technology literature is discussed below. Skills—Training Programs The following descriptions supply information about the programs' receiving populations, objectives, content, and training methods. Botswana Brigades, Botswana One highly visible program in Botswana that provided skills train— ing to elementary school leavers was called the Botswana Brigades. The term ”brigade" was used to emphasize its production/employment orienta— tion (van Rensburg, 1978). Academic subjects were taught, but the primary objective of training was to promote rural development by teaching skills for gainful employment (Botswana, n.d.). The minimum age of most participants was 16; the maximum age was 25 (Wetherell, 1979). 64 65 Specific skills taught such as thatching, intensive horticulture, carpentry, and farming depended on the demand for the goods or ser— vices produced by those skills in the 12 communities in which brigade centers were located (van Rensburg, 1978; van Rensburg, 1976; Botswana, n.d.). The training process of the skills—training portion of the bri— gades has been labeled "vocational training" (Botswana, 1981), "on— the—job training," ”learning by doing," and an adaptation of the traditional ”apprenticeship system" (van Rensburg, 1978). Patrick van Rensburg (1978) reported that at one of the brigade centers, four different levels of training were offered in some skills. The first level or "bridging course" was offered to elemen- tary school leavers between 12 and 16 years old. Training included a less rigorous production function than other levels. It was geared to the abilities of the participants. Academic subjects and theoretical lessons related to the skills were emphasized. The program lasted three years. The second level or "brigade course” was offered to persons who were at least 17 years old. Training through production activities occupied four days a week. Academic subjects and theory were provided one day each week. This program lasted three years. The third level or "advanced brigade course” was offered to those who had completed the "brigade" training and wanted to upgrade their skills. The training may have taken three years and was character— ized by its stronger theoretical and academic component. The fourth level or "sandwich course” was offered to older adults, some of whom had not completed primary education. Training was short term (one to three months) and consisted of the training of one specific skill 66 while providing adequate opportunities for practicing the skill in a production situation. In all programs the skills training took place on the job site, for example, a factory, a farm, a building site, or a print shop. The managers and supervisors were also instructors and teachers. "Skills are thus built up sequentially involving the three elements of demon— stration, non-productive exercises, and then thorough and continuous performance production" (pp. 29—30). Evaluations were made by per— forming on official trade tests, by determining whether brigade graduates competed favorably with people trained elsewhere, or by determining whether products of the brigades' production units were marketable. Vocational Improvement Centres, Nigeria In Nigeria, practitioners of low levels skills who had minimal schooling did not have access to trade schools. Trade skills were often obtained through the traditional apprenticeship system. That training process did not provide the apprentice with the theoretical foundation of the trade which was necessary to be certified by the government (Rimlinger & Stremlau, 1972). Vocational Improvement Centres were established by the government in existing schools, workshops, and training centers to upgrade the skills of self-employed artisans (Gilpin & Grabe in Ahmed & Coombs, 1975). Most trainees were 16 to 40 years old (Rimlinger & Stremlau, 1972) and were members of farm families that lived near the center. They were required to have worked in the trade for which their skills were to be upgraded for tw0 years (Coombs & Ahmed, 1974). That 67 training may have occurred in small enterprises in the indigenous sector, government service, or private industry. Literacy was not required (Rimlinger & Stremlau, 1972). Criteria used for selecting which skills were taught in the Voca— tional Improvement Centres follow: (a) that there be a demand for it in the community and (b) that instructors be available to teach the skill. Trades included auto—repair, carpentry, masonry, plumbing, leatherworks, and signwriting. English and trade—related mathematics were also taught (Rimlinger & Stremlau, 1972). Training courses were announced by word of mouth and official publicity campaigns within the community. Local instructors were recruited who were familiar with the community's problems and needs. They were also able to translate training messages into the indige- nous language when necessary (Rimlinger & Stremlau, 1972). Even though training was not intended to develop vocational skills among the unemployed, the skills upgrading that occurred was accomplished using traditional vocational training methods. Each course used a syllabus outlining essential training messages based on that which was required to pass the Ministry of Labour Trade Tests. Courses were offered four or five days each week, after work, for 10 months and a total of 400 hours of instruction. Approximately 300 hours of that time were devoted to skills training (Coombs & Ahmed, 1974). The borrowed facilities were adapted to the requirements of training (i.e., work benches and blackboards installed),and equipment (e.g., training tools) was provided each trainer. Trainees were grouped according to years of schooling (i.e., no formal schooling, 68 some primary schooling, and primary school completed) (Rimlinger & Stremlau, 1972). Rimlinger and Stremlau (1972) described the Vocational Improve- ment Centres as successful and attributed that success to the follow- ing facts. The training problem and its relationship to other aSpects of technical training were defined. The training content was tailored to local needs. The training schedule was geared to the lives of the trainees. The local instructors knew the area and local language. The training was of short duration (part—time over 10 months) and offered visible pay—offs (certificates and prizes to best students). There were low operating costs. And the government's demands were flexible. Another report indicated that most of the trainees were not the self—employed artisans for whom the program was intended (Gilpin & Grabe in Ahmed & Coombs, 1975). Servicio Nacional de Formaci6n de Mano de Obra (FOMO), Bolivia The Bolivians to whom training was directed were adult workers in small and medium sized enterprises who had not completed school and were underemployed or unemployed. Trainees worked in agriculture, mining, industry, and the service sectors. Between 1973 and 1975 approximately 1800 participants were trained (Bolivia, Servicio Na— cional, 1976). FOMO intended to certify human resources, to regulate the supply and demand of the labor market, to elevate the productivity of enter- prises by certifying human resources, to provide adult workers with educational opportunities and vocational training, and to reduce the 69 levels of structural unemployment and underemployment in the country (Bolivia, Servicio Nacional, 1976). The economic sectors from which trainees were recruited were mining, agriculture, industry, and service. In 1977 one of FOMO's regional centers offered training in watering techniques, fruit and vegetable gardening, conservation of crops and foods, fertilizers, and nutrition (Bolivia, Servicio Nacional, 1977). In general FOMO provided practical training for specific jobs. Theory was minimized to information essential to skill acquisition, but technical knowledge about the skills was presented. Training was scheduled during the trainees' free time. Training took place in FOMO's permanent centers, facilities belonging to other institutions, and FOMO's own mobile units. FOMO produced its own instructional materials including programmed texts and audio—visual aids corresponding to its programmed instruction units. The training process followed the International Labor Office's (ILO) vocational training model which consisted of the following operations: 1. A study of the desired terminal behavior 2. Determination of required knowledge and skills 3. The selection of appropriate methods of instruction 4. Training of student 5. Change of behavior and acquisition of knowledge and terminal skills of trainees 6. Certification of students (validation of results of training) 7. Feedback from the results of training about the instructional method In 1976 the Ministry of Work and Labor Development recommended that FOMO provide trainees literacy and numeracy upgrading to make their entry level uniform, a basic training program be offered (presumably to improve skills needed to better perform life-supporting tasks), a modular training system be adopted to teach skills and related technical knowledge by steps within a more broadly defined occupational level, and a system be established to certify skill acquisition at various levels of expertise (Bolivia, Servicio Na— cional, 1976). Village Polytechnic, Kenya Kenya's primary schools graduated thousands of youths from rural areas who didn't have access to secondary school and haven't found jobs. The National Christian Council of Kenya (NCCK), the government of Kenya, and management committees in local communities attempted to resolve the dilemmas of rural youth who were unemployed by providing skills training in training centers called "Village Polytechnics." The purpose of the Village Polytechnics was to train primary school graduates in rural areas for work in their own communities. The emphasis was on skill acquisition that was to be used locally. The Village Polytechnics did not prepare trainees for entry into another employment or educational institution (Wanjala, 1976). The content of training varied and depended on the opportunities and needs of each rural area. The local committees conducted surveys of income generating activities in the area to assist in making deci- sions about the skills that were to be taught (Wanjala, 1976). Addi- tional information affecting that decision was provided by the 71 trainees during on-the—job training. Some observers saw the original agricultural orientation of training giving way to non-agricultural skills (Kipkorir in Ahmed & Coombs, 1975). More recent documents indicated that there was still an emphasis on agricultural skills (Wanjala, 1976). Examples of the content of training courses follow: cooking, handicrafts, childcare, carpentry, masonry, leatherwork, animal hus— bandry, and horticulture ("Village Polytechnics——Kenya," n.d.). A ”work programme" was written for each content area. It included the ideas and skills to be taught, the training methods, and the materials needed for instruction (Kenya, Department of Social Services, ngdf pppk, 1972). The method of training was similar to an apprenticeship scheme (Wanjala, 1976). To achieve clearly stated terminal objectives, a three—step instructional process was followed. (a) The rationale and importance of learning each skill was explained. (b) The instructor demonstrated how to perform the skill. (c) The trainees practiced performing the skill. Training messages were displayed using pic- tures, diagrams, models, and blackboard drawings. These visuals were drawn with ink and paint made from the natural dyes and stains in flowers, roots, soil, stone, and the bark of trees (Kenya, Department of Social Services, Handbook, 1972). Simulation games were also used as self instruction exercises (Kenya, Department of Social Services, "What Happens," n.d.). Oral training messages at the Village Poly— technics were presented in the vernacular and Swahili. The language of formal schools was English (Kipkorir in Ahmed & Coombs, 1975). Technology that was appropriate in the villages was developed and used 72 for the training of each skill. Even though the training could last as long as was necessary to master the skills (Kipkorir in Ahmed & Coombs, 1975), most courses lasted approximately two years ("Village Polytechnics-Kenya," n.d.). An evaluative study conducted by the Norwegian Agency for Inter— national Development recommended more emphasis on agricultural train- ing, greater involvement of trainers and instructors in program management, increased community involvement, better administrative support, and the establishmentof evaluation criteria ("Village Poly- technics-Kenya," n.d.). Promocién Profesional Popular— Rural (PPP—R), Colombia In Ahmed and Coombs (1975), Stephan Brumberg reported that Colom— bia's National Apprenticeship Service (SENA) provided a variety of vocational training programs designed to meet the training needs of different groups of people. Programs served clients ranging from un— skilled adolescents to professional trainers. One of the programs was called Promocidn Profesional Popular—Rural (PPP—R). There were two primary objectives of the program: 1. To provide underemployed and unemployed persons with the skills required for improving their productive capacity, whatever their educational level; and 2. To train semi—skilled workers in order to facili— tate access to employment and consequently their integration into the process of production and construction (Brumberg in Ahmed & Coombs, 1975, p. 409). The receiving population lived in rural areas and consisted of men and women, adults and adolescents, and literates and illiterates. 73 SENA's intention was to plan the content of training based on a thorough analysis of data about the contexts in which training would take place and on rural manpower needs. In practice, the number of trainees and the content of courses were established at the national level without the benefit of field based research data. Each region in which PPP—R operated was assigned a quota of persons to be trained each year to perform predetermined skills. PPP—R's supervisors in each region distributed the courses within a region based on his or her perception of each community's training needs. Those needs were identified based on information collected during interviews of local leaders, parish priests, and local representatives of development agencies. Individual instructors were expected to alter course con- tent to the specific needs of the community. Most courses transferred knowledge and skills in crop production, livestock, poultry, rabbits, bees, tractor operation and maintenance, agricultural machinery, re— pairs, rural mechanics, rural construction, cooperatives, rural admin- istration, handicrafts, first aid and practical nursing, breadmaking, or human relations. One theory underlying SENA's instructional process was that a person who has previous experience in a specific occupational skill will improve his or her skills and productivity when provided a rela— tively short training course to upgrade those skills. This theory was operationalized by using mobile training units to take skills training to rural communities. A "mobile training unit” consisted of just one instructor or an instructor, a vehicle equipped for instructional activities, and a prefabricated classroom—living unit combined. Dur— ing training, the focus was on transmitting practical information. 74 There was minimal classroom work. Instructors demonstrated the skills and trainees practiced the skills until they duplicated the instructor's demonstration. Instruction followed detailed course descriptions developed by SENA's headquarters. To increase the possi— bility that the skills would be practiced after the course and adopted by the campesino, tools and equipment available to the trainees were used by the instructors during demonstrations. Scheduling of courses depended on the time of year and hours of the day most convenient to the campesinos. The average course lasted a total of 63 hours and was offered two to six hours every day. Courses have become shorter with subject matter also being divided into smaller units. For example, one course whose topic was "chicken raising” was divided into three separate units: ”hatching," "rear— ing,” and "laying." It was believed that each unit had value, inde- pendently of the others, to justify offering it separately. While appraising PPP—R, Brumberg recommended that training go beyond technical knowledge of farm production and include principles of farm business management, how to use available technical services, how to obtain credit, how to obtain physical inputs, and how to market products successfully. Printed material that relies heavily on illustration should be used, and a measure of training effectiveness (the educational results) should be established. The Farmer Scholar Prpgram, the Philippines R. W. Roskelley (n.d.) stated that the training objective of the Farmer Scholar Program, an experimental program, was to develop an economical, practical, and replicable system for transferring 75 simplified agricultural technology. The training was directed to small-scale farmers from Cavite Province who had little formal educa— tion. These men and women were selected by village committees to be "Farmer Scholars." The Farmer Scholars were full—time farmers who permanently lived in the villages from which they were chosen. They were literate in Tagalog, an indigenous dialect, and understood English. They were perceived by peers as honest and industrious, made major family decisions, desired short-term training, and already pro- duced agricultural products for which they would receive Specialized training. These participants demonstrated the skills learned during trainingenxlwere willing to share those skills with others. After training, the Farmer Scholars selected and trained "Demonstration Farmers” from their villages. Program planners checked out their own ideas regarding the con— tent of training with sources from the villages. Decisions regarding what would be trained were made combining these two inputs. In agriculture, training was provided in the cultivation of rice, vege— tables, fruits, or feed grains as well as the raising of swine, cattle, or poultry. The general goal was to increase production. The Farmer Scholar attended a 30 hour/4 day training session away from his or her farm. The content of training was organized in lesson plans that listed behavioral objectives, training materials, ideas regarding how to motivate people, teaching methods to be used, and the scheduling and sequence of topics to be presented. Instruc- tion followed these plans and used a step—by-step technique accom- panied by visual aids. The Farmer Scholars practiced the skills under supervision. The teaching materials were brief, in the language of 76 the learner, and related to his or her daily experience. They were presented in the form of sequential, easy-to-follow instructions. Upon returning to their farms, the visual aids and corresponding handouts were subsequently used by the Farmer Scholars to train the Demonstration Farmers. The Demonstration Farmers then selected and trained "Extension Farmers" in their village. When the training of 343 Farmer Scholars, 1,224 Demonstration Farmers, and 1,843 Extension Farmers was completed, an evaluation was conducted. Results showed that the incomes of participating farmers substantially increased over their pretraining level. Servicio Nacional de Aprendizagem Industrial (SENAI), Brazil da Silva and Tolle (n.d.) described the operation of Brazil's National Apprenticeship Service for Industry (SENAI). SENAI sought to provide vocational education to 14—18 year old apprentices employed by industry; assistance to industry—Sponsored training programs; training, retraining, and Specialization programs for adult workers; grants-in—aid for further education; and coopera— tion in technological research aimed at industrial development. The receiving population consisted of men and women workers, at least 14 years old, who had completed four years of elementary school. By 1972 in the State of Sao Paulo, SENAI had trained 409,606 workers. Most were adult workers above 18 years of age. A smaller percentage of workers were 14-18 year old apprentices. The content of training depended on Brazil's manpower needs which was determined by conducting surveys and interviews of sample popula- tions within the industrial sector. Those needs were translated into 77 specific jobs which were analyzed to determine what a worker does, how he or she does it, and the skills involved in doing it. Examples of the vocations taught include welder, electrician, repairman, radio service repairman, bricklayer, carpenter, and typesetter. The development of SENAI'S instruction generally followed a stan— dard plan. Once the above jobs were identified, they were broken down into increasingly less complex job behaviors: "tasks," "Operations," and, finally, "skills." Then, the general information (e.g., math and language) and technical information required to perform the job were written. This was followed by the elaboration of an instructional unit for each task. All of the above was incorporated into a course plan (instruc- tional plan) which consisted of specific objectives expressed in observable terms and stating evaluation criteria, the trainee selec- tion criteria, teaching methods to be used (e.g., debate, AV presen- tation, group discussions, demonstrations, practice of the skill in the shop), the instructional units, the course schedule, and the evaluation process. Equipment needed to perform each task was also listed. SENAI offered seven different training programs, ranging from two to four years in length, that were planned according to the above description. Routine evaluations of the trainees and instructors took place during and after the performance of each task. Instructional Design and Technology Educational principles that have guided classroom teaching as well as the development of training programs in formal settings were 78 potentially relevant in the out-of—school contexts in which skills training was to take place in Paraguay. In 1919, Charles Allen outlined the process of instruction for training skills as follows: 1. preparation (i.e., identifying the skills and knowledge the trainee already possesses that are also related to what is to be taught, forming a foundation upon which to build new skills); 2. presentation (i.e., providing the trainee with new skills and knowledge); 3. application (i.e., determining through observation whether and to what extent the trainee has acquired the skill trained, fol— lowed by reinstruction if needed); and 4. testing (i.e., final evaluation during which the trainee must successfully perform the skill without assistance from the instructorl Labeled as the first attempt to make the foundation of modern educational technology available to the vocational educator, the work of Robert Mager and Kenneth Beach, Jr. (1967) described the steps in preparing vocational instruction courses. Fifteen instructional steps were organized into three phases in the process of develOping a voca- tional course. During the "Preparation Phase," (a) the job was described; (b) the specific tasks involved in performing the job were detailed; (c) the receiving population was described; (d) trainee selection criteria were established; (e) specific course objectives were developed, based on tasks of the job and considering administrative constraints; and 79 (f) the entering skills test and the final evaluation instrument were written. During the second phase, the course's"Development Phase," (a) instructional units were written describing what each trainee would be able to do at the end of each unit, (b) instructional units were sequenced and scheduled to provide trainees opportunities to re- peatedly practice all of the job's skills, (c) content associated with each task was identified, (d) instructional procedures and materials were listed, (e) a lesson plan was written, and (f) a course tryout was conducted. The third phase of the development of the course was called the "Improvement Phase." During this phase (a) the trainee's performance was compared to course objectives, (b) course objectives were re- evaluated vis-a-vis job requirements, and (c) the course was evaluated and revised during a trial run. The authors stated, "Regardless of the intent of instruction, the procedure for developing the course is basically the same” (p. 6). In discussing the systems approach to adult learning, Robert Gagné (1968) identified the instructional gpgl as the starting point of the design of an instructional system. To accomplish that goal, broad functions the system must perform should be identified. Those functions are broken down into more specialized activities which together form a sub-system. The sugges- tion was made that four sub-systems should be developed: the adminis— tration sub—system, the instruction sub-system, the guidance sub- system (student orientation), and the evaluation sub-system. Together 80 they comprise a system for adult learning. The interrelatedness of the sub-system was also emphasized. "A system is organized, after all, by planning and bringing about some sort of compatibility, or 'match' be- tween the output of one component and the input of the next in a se- quence of operations" (p. 1). An approach to teaching ( in the classroom) described a four—step process to achieve desired change in a learner's behavior (Henderson et al., 1972). The first step was called "assessment." It involved systemati— cally collecting information about a student's learning needs and all factors affecting the instructional process. These data were used to identify the possible causes and consequences of past and future be— havior and to make decisions about the knowledge and skills to be taught. Input from the learners was routinely solicited, and 3 dia— logue between teacher and learner was established. The second step, "goal setting," was the process of specifying the learning objectives of the instructional process. Those objec- tives stated the Specific behavioral outcomes, the set of conditions under which the learner's behavior would be evaluated, and a criterion measure. The specification of each objective was negotiated by the teacher and the learner. ”Strategies" was the label assigned the third step. It entailed the preparation of a plan for the selection, development, and imple— mentation of instructional techniques designed to produce the desired behavioral changes. It also included the notion that planned 81 techniques should be changed if deemed necessary during the ongoing instruction itself. The fourth step "evaluation” consisted of systematically gathering information to make judgments about the effectiveness of the three steps already described. The activities of ”evaluation" included de— signing, preparing, and implementing evaluation instruments and proce— dures. Irwin Goldstein (1974) contended that one of the important characteristics of "training" that makes it different from "education” is the greater specificity of the objectives of the instructional pro— cess. When the desired goal of training is the relatively uniform training behavior of trainees, then uniform and behaviorally specific training objectives must be established. He called the systematic development of training programs "instructional technology." He wrote: The systems approach to instruction emphasizes the specification of objectives (through the assessment of instructional needs), precisely controlled learn- ing experiences to achieve these objectives, criteria for performance, and evaluative information (p. 17). Feedback generated during the instructional process was perceived as necessary to continually improve it. Pretests and posttests were said to be measures of the effectiveness of the instructional process. Ted Ward et a1. (1974) indicated that it was appropriate to use an instructional system when there is significant interrelatedness among the human, environmental, and curricular variables of instruc- tion. The authors stated: 82 Non-formal education exists in order to make it pos- sible for people to be changed in certain Specific ways, adding or improving given skills or competen- cies . . . non-formal education constitutes a much more appropriate framework in which to make use of a systems approach to planning (p. 70). To assist the non—formal educator in deve10ping his or her own instructional learning system, the authors graphically presented 10 tasks that should be highlighted in an instructional system. Figure 1 presents the tasks and depicts the necessary interactive nature of these tasks (e.g., characteristics of the receiving population in- fluenced the design of the instructional tasks). It also emphasizes another important characteristic of a systems approach, its self- correcting nature (i.e., evaluation results are used to correct or improve earlier tasks). The objective of skills—training programs is to transmit skills and related knowledge to learners. Generally, there is no intention to compare the achievement of different trainees. However, a minimum performance level indicating the degree of skill acquisition was advised by Ward et a1. (1974). James H. Block referred to that per— formance level as "mastery." In 1971 he said: To completely operationally define mastery, there- fore, it is necessary to establish an absolute per— formance standard against which the sufficiency of each pupil's learning can be judged and graded. This standard should indicate the specific propor- tion of skills tested a student must exhibit before he can be judged to have mastered the subject (p. 68). Block also stated: Theoretically . . . by breaking a complex behavior down into a chain of component behaviors and evaluat- ing student mastery of each link in the chain, it 83 .GOHumozwo Hmawowlooc wafioomfim how Hopes mamumxm < .H ouowwm V. 33.33: V..- l - mxmmu co_u ucoeommcme 1 -m_:a0a ll. oc_cumo_ Eoum>m moou30mou new ucoa uomumu ecu men amen; imam meg oz“ mum:_m>m .x oumcmqo .x. c_mc» .__> >e_uoam .>_ on_comoo .__ 4 s _ pneumo— on on mxmmu vo>o_£om m_mmcoume oucmELOe .mco_u on 0» 353003 .95: Log e0 noncumf hp @5522 r1 o>_um:_m>o nuscumc_ _o>m_ ecu ocu oru em_mmo ._._> armamra ._> >c_umam .> >e_umam .__. >1_umam ._ 84 would be possible for any student to master even the most complex of skills (p. 4). The following also characterize mastery learning: instruction of a subject is organized into well-defined learning units, each learning unit incorporates specifically designed instructional materials, mas— tery of each learning unit is required before students proceed to the next unit, student performance is evaluated or diagnosed at the end of each learning unit, additional instruction is provided of those con- cepts not mastered, and each learning unit must be mastered before proceeding to the next unit (Block, 1971). The concept of "learning correctives" (supplementary instruc- tional procedures) is important to the successful utilization of the mastery learning approach. Examples of ”learning correctives" poten— tially useful in a functional skills-training program in the Third World follow: students teaching students in small groups, individual tutoring, and alternative learning materials (e.g., games, audio- visual methods, reteaching, and alternative textbooks) (Block, 1971). Finally, two other concepts employed in mastery learning models that had the potential for contributing to a skills training system in the Third World are formative and summative evaluation. According to Peter W. Airasian (Block, 1971), formative evaluation provides infor- mation throughout the instructional process to identify learning prob- lems and solve those problems before instruction ends. Summative evaluation occurs at the end of the total course and is meant to assess the degree to which course objectives have been achieved. 85 Summary Characteristics existed that were common to most of the Third World programs. The primary objective of the program was to train its receiving population to perform specific skills that would improve its standard of living or generate income. Technical information was transmitted that was related to the successful performance of the skill. In some cases literacy and numeracy skills were taught. The receiving populations were generally semi—literate. That is, most trainees had started primary school at one point in their lives but had not completed it. It can be assumed that they retained few numeracy and literacy Skills. In those cases in which all six grades were completed, subsequent educational opportunities were not available to reinforce the learning that had occurred. The ages of the trainees ranged from 14 years old to the elderly, with most quali- H fying for the label adult workers." Excepting Brazil's SENAI, which provided training for industry, the programs trained persons living in rural areas. The content of training was determined by assessing trainees' personal needs (i.e., improving life—supporting skills) or the training needs of the community (i.e., the nation's manpower needs). Many dif- ferent skills were trained. They were as dissimilar as bee keeping and auto mechanics. Training was conducted in settings similar to those in which the skills would eventually be performed and utilized equipment to which the trainees had access. Instructors taught in the language of the trainee. Training was scheduled for the convenience of the trainee 86 and lasted from four days to four years, depending on the skill's complexity. Usually training followed a detailed plan that defined each skill, as well as the training process. Instructors demonstrated the skill to trainees who repeated it until mastery was achieved. Instructional technicians in more developed countries also con- tributed to the planning of a training process to transmit skills. Even though some training systems may employ more steps, invari- ably, the authors suggested that the training process should include at least four functions: (a) training needs and all factors affect- ing the instructional process should be identified, (b) skill—specific behavioral objectives should be written, (c) instructional methods and materials should be listed, and (d) an evaluation plan of the training process and the trainees' performance should be established. Another important characteristic of a training system is the interrelatedness of its parts. That is, information generated by one step is used to make decisions about other steps in the system. CHAPTER IV GUIDELINES AND PROCEDURES FOR THE RESEARCH The basic purposes of the research were to evaluate (a) the effectiveness of the instructional system and (b) the abilities of four Paraguayan instructors to use that system to train semi—literate campesinos. Both purposes required selecting a research method that permitted making evaluations, appraisals of value (Suchman, 1967L about the consequences of specific training processes. Another re— quirement of the research method was imposed by the contexts in which the research was conducted. The method had to be malleable enough to permit its adaptation to an action/field setting (as opposed to a laboratory), while approximating standards of objectivity as closely as possible. The evaluation research method satisfied those two requirements. Edward Suchman (19671 defines it as "the specific use of the scien- tific method for the purpose of making an evaluation" (p. 31). Francis Hoole (1978) acknowledged the appropriateness of this method in the unpredictable context of a development setting. Hoole said it "emphasizes flexibility in obtaining knowledge and urges the re- searcher to use the scientific method and to examine cause and effect statements about the impact of social action programs" (p. 19). That a research method was known and seemed appropriate to achieve the purposes of this study did not ameliorate the limitations 87 88 that the vehicle for conducting the research, the project, generated. Limitations included a fixed budget, an established time period in which to achieve specific end—of—project goals, and the fact that the research had to fit into the approved activities of the project. These limitations affected the degree to which strict guide- lines for following standard research procedures could be followed. Objectivity and preciseness were not always present; for example, a few of the planned observations were made using informally agreed upon criteria. In addition, that which was observed was not always re— corded. In some cases, the researcher depended on his recall of the events (which he coordinated) to reconstruct the results. His bi- monthly reports and the technical reports written by another advisor assisted in the recall process. Whether or not the results were re— corded is stated in the description of each procedure. Notwithstanding the compromises in design that were made, the re— searcher believed that the method chosen to conduct the research was the best method, under the circumstances, to assist in making defen- sible judgments about the effectiveness of the instructional system and the training of the instructors. Two categories of research procedures were used: descriptive and modified quasi—experimental. The role of the descriptive procedures was to produce informa— tion about the environmental conditions and human behaviors that contributed to the fulfillment of the purposes of the research. Descriptive procedures also permitted decisions to be made about the ongoing process of improving the instructional system and the ac— tivities employed to train Programa de Adiestramiento Extra-Escolar 89 (PAE) instructors. They were the techniques of formative evaluation including surveys, interviews, planned observations, field tests, and examination of documents. The role of the modified quasi—experimental procedures was to produce information about the relationship between PAE's instructional system and the campesinos' performance of specific skills and acquisi- tion of knowledge. This was done in an attempt to determine if that system had an effect on training those skills. It was intended to assist the researcher in determining the outcomes of the instructional system and to make a judgment about its effectiveness, the process of summative evaluation. Details regarding the application of the descriptive and modified quasi-experimental procedures to fulfill the purposes of this study, as well as an explanation of why they were used in a particular way, are presented following a brief description of the project's educa— tional experiences which provided the contexts in which the procedures were applied. Research Contexts Two educational experiences, established to contribute to the training of PAE's instructors, provided the researcher with the Oppor— tunity to apply the descriptive and modified quasi—experimental re— search procedures. They were intended to yield information regarding the instructors' training abilities and the effectiveness of the instructional system. 90 TraininggCampaigns The project conducted six training campaigns, the first of which did not provide for the training of paraprofessionals or the training of campesinos by paraprofessionals. Data for the study were collected during the five training cam- paigns that included (a) PAE's instructors training campesinos, (b) PAE's instructors training paraprofessionals, and (c) paraprofessionals training campesinos. The first campaign during which data were col- lected for this study was actually the second training campaign of the project. The final format of the training campaigns comprised three phases which took place over a 55 day period. The last two training campaigns followed this format. The first three training campaigns included the completion of the same basic activtities but allocated time differently. The same five-task instructional System was common to all five training campaigns. The first phase of the final training campaign format lasted 23 days during which the content of each training program was identified, the visual instructional materials were determined, training equipment was determined and purchased, the Instructional Plan was written, the visual materials were created and validated, and the publicity cam- paigns were completed. During this phase, observations were made about the instructors' abilities to create training programs. The second phaSe lasted 26 days during which the EEEBEEEEQE were trained by PAE's instructors, selected campesinos were trained to be paraprofessionals, campesinos were trained by the paraprofessionals, and closing ceremonies were held. During this phase, observations 91 were made about the instructors' abilities to implement training pro- grams. The third phase lasted six days during which all training materi- als were collected and stored, feedback was solicited and documented, and the skills—training programs were revised using the evaluative data collected. Skills—Training Programs The modified quasi-experimental research procedures were applied during the individual training programs which took place during the second phase of each training campaign. Data were collected regarding the campesinos' acquisition of skills and knowledge. The permanent format of a PAE training program was followed. The format alloted a maximum of 10 days for PAE's instructors to train campesinos, five days for PAE's instructors to train selected campesinos to be paraprofessionals, 10 days for paraprofessionals to train campesinos, and one day for closing ceremonies. A synopsis of the facts relevant to the training of the instruc- tors, paraprofessionals, and campesinos is provided in Table 1. Research Procedures: Pugpose One Purpose One incorporated two questions: Was the receiving popu- lation adult, semi-literate, and with limited access to training opportunities? Was the instructional system effective? 92 Table 1 Training Data for Instructors, Paraprofessionals, and Campesinos Training Data Instructors Paraprofessionals Campesinos Trainer Advisors Instructors Instructors andparapro- fessionals Content Instructional Instructional Functional system plan skills Duration Two years Ten-day training Ten-day program, five- training day paraprofes- program sional training Educational High school Advanced, semi- Semi- 19V€1 plus voca- literate literate tional training Source: Bi-monthly reports. Procedures to Identify Socioeconomic Conditions and Educational Levels of Receiving Population Presented below is a description of the four procedures as they were used in the field, a statement of why they were used, and a de- scription of any instruments used to apply the procedure. 1. Examination of documents. The documents were read before and during the implementation of the project. Information describ- ing the socioeconomic conditions and educational levels of the receiv- ing population was identified. Published documents were used if they appeared to present accu- rate information about the socioeconomic conditions and the educa- tional background of persons living in the Ita District. 93 Three of the documents were developed during the preparation stage of the project (10/75 - 9/76) before the training campaigns began. Interviews were used to collect representative information. The researcher consulted with the authors of the remaining docu— ments about the data collection process. He was satisfied that the data collected were reasonably reflective of the socioeconomic and educational conditions of campesinos living in Ita District. 2. Reading test. During the third training campaign, campesinos who successfully completed training conducted by PAE's instructors were the subjects of a reading test (see Appendix G). During the test, which was orally administered by PAE's instructors and administrative personnel, the campesinos were asked identifying questions including name, age, number of children, house number, and name of PAE training program in which they participated. An attempt to assess their reading abilities was made by provid— ing each campesino with a piece of paper on which two sentences con- taining 36 words, approximately PA inches high, were printed in cur— sive script. The message had been copied from a document to which the campesino had not had access. The vocabulary dealt with agricultural matters but incorporated both one-syllable and multi—syllable words. The interviewer was instructed to hand the paper to the campesino and ask, "Please, would yOu read this paragraph or piece?" The inter— viewer then wrote down the number of words that were not read or were read incorrectly. He or she was also instructed to rate the campesino according to one of three criteria: (a) ”doesn't read," (b) "stam— mers," and (c) "reads correctly." This was followed by asking for 94 information related to schooling and reading habits including the num— ber of years the person had gone to elementary school, the type of material he or she usually read, and the frequency with which the per- son read it. Until the reading test, the literacy skills of the receiving population were estimated by comparing educational data about Ita Dis— trict recorded in the documents mentioned above to the official defi— nition of "semi-literate.” "A semi—illiterate (semi—literate) is he who has not completed primary school" (Braum "Informe Técnico Numero 10,” 1977, p. 2). According to PAE's instructors, the content specialists, the con— tent of training preferred by the campesinos of Ita District required minimal math skills. Therefore, an assessment of reading ability alone was attempted. The test also attempted to confirm that the reading requirements of the instructional materials matched the ability of the receiving population. The question on age was intended to confirm that PAE's partici— pants were adults. A validated reading test whose purpose was to determine the read- ing ability of Paraguayan campesinos could not be found at the time of the research. Therefore, an instrument had to be created. The pro— ject's advisors and coordinators consulted with Specialists in the Ministry of Education and Worship regarding an appropriate strategy. Consensus was reached that a short paragraph about a topic relevant to the lives of the campesinos could provide data that would contribute, 95 in conjunction with grade level, to confirming that the receiving population was semi—literate. The instrument consisted of 16 items, one of which was the se— lected two-sentence paragraph. The instrument was constructed in the form of a survey. The questions about educational experiences and reading habits were placed after the reading test to minimize the gem: pesino's fears that something besides his or her reading ability was being evaluated (e.g., had the campesino learned that which was in- tended by the government in elementary school?). It was also recog- nized that placing those questions after the reading ability item cOuld, depending on how well the campesino perceived his or her reading performance, influence his or her responses. However, the primary pur- pose of the test was to assess reading ability; therefore, it was believed to be more important to protect against other influences on that variable than those related to educational experience and reading habits. The interviewers were trained to administer the instrument without inadvertently assisting the campesino through verbal or nonverbal cues. Criteria were established and results recorded during this pro— cedure. They are presented in Chapters V and VI, respectively. 3. Registration (interview). During the first day of the train— ing program, PAE instructors and paraprofessionals recorded all parti— cipants' personal information. They asked questions listed on a stan— dardized form (see Appendix H) which identified each participant's first and last name, age, sex, house number, compania in which each participant resided, occupation, content area, training topic, date, 96 PAE instructor, compania in which the training program took place, and general observations. The purposes of the registration process were,(a) to confirm that the receiving population was adult and lived in the rural sector and (b) to identify the location of the participants' homes for future use (i.e., in order to locate PAE "graduates" for follow-up studies and retention tests). Interviews had been previously used by PAE to col— lect such information successfully (e.g.,PAE'sfirst household survey). The instrument was a one page mimeographed sheet listing the 12 pieces of information required of each participant. The information was written on the form by PAE's instructor or paraprofessional. The form was not standardized until the fourth training campaign. A similar registration process existed for the preceding training cam- paign, differing only in degree of formality of the form on which the information was collected. An example of the recorded data collected during the registration interview is presented in Chapter VI. Related criteria are presented in Chapter V. 4. Planned observations. Observations were informal (no sched— ules, printed forms, or check lists) and intentional (systematically planned and carried out). Observations were made by all members of PAE's team who participated in the publicity campaign preceding the initiation of each training campaign. Observers looked for unobtru— sive measures which might confirm the socioeconomic and educational status of potential participants. They did this as they distributed materials describing PAE, held meetings to clarify training 97 preferences, described the purposes of PAE, and described what PAE expected from the participants. These observations were intended to provide more evidence that the receiving population of each training program could be character- ized as semi—literate and with limited access to training opportuni— ties. No instruments were used because there was consensus among the coordinators, instructors, and advisors that the receiving population might become "over—surveyed" which could negatively affect their de- sire to participate in training or actively participate in providing the feedback requested of them to improve the instructional system (e.g., visual materials, instructor behaviors, and time commitments). The criteria for ”semi—literate" and "limited access to training" are reported in Chapter V. Observations were not recorded. Results are presented in Chapter VI. Procedures to Measure Effectiveness of PAE's Instructional System This section describes the four procedures used to collect infor— mation about the effectiveness of the instructional System to train semi—literate adults who lived in rural areas and had limited access to other training opportunities. Reasons intended to support the use of these procedures in a particular way and a description of the instruments used are also provided. 1. Pretest-posttest of skill and knowledge acqpisitionofgparti— cipants of 25 different training programs conducted by PAE's 98 instructors. This modified quasi—experimental procedure consisted of the following components: a pretest administered to a nonrandomized "experimental" group before exposure to training, application of a skills—training program which was created and implemented using the instructional system (the treatment), a posttest administered after the group was exposed to the training program, and a posttest of a nonrandomized "control" group of campesinos from the same campania. These campesinos had been selected to receive the same training pro— gram administered by paraprofessional instructors later in the train- ing campaign. A diagram of the modified quasi-experimental proce- dured follows (Figure 2). Figure 2. Quasi—experimental design of training conducted by PAE instructors. In the diagram, 01 symbolizes the pretest of the first campesino group to receive training, the "experimental group"; X symbolizes the training program, the "treatment"; 02 symbolizes the posttest of the experimental group; ————————— symbolizes nonrandomization; and O3 sym— bolizes the posttest of the group that served as the ”control" group. The location of the symbols in the diagram reflects the sequence of the events they represent. This procedure was used in five training campaigns during which a total of 25 different skills—training programs were implemented ac- cording to the basic guidelines of PAE's five-task instructional Sys— tem. The five tasks did not change throughout the research period. 99 An assessment of training preferences and living conditions was always conducted. Behavioral objectives (terminal and enabling) were always written. Instructional strategies were always determined and devel- oped. A delivery or implementation plan was always established. All components of each training program were always evaluated. However, using formative evaluation, specific variables of instruction of individual training programs were evaluated and revised after each training program. For example, as campesinos' feedback was gathered indicating that the word used to describe an enabling behavior was not the word commonly used by the campesinos, it was changed in the Instructional Plan. A pretest (see Appendix A) was developed by the PAE instructor who administered it to campesinos on the first day of the training program in each of the four content areas. Five to 10 questions were asked. The number of questions varied, depending on the requirements of the content area. Each item listed the correct responses as well as a "doesn't know" alternative. The instructor administered the pre- test orally and marked the campesinos' responses on the pretest form. Some questions attempted to measure general knowledge related to the importance, effect, or safe use of the skill (e.g., "What are the advantages of fumigating your house?"). Other questions were designed to measure performance—related knowledge (e.g., ”How do you use a rustic leveling device?"). Results of the pretests were scored for each campesino on a pretest-posttest form. Identifying data including participants' names, house numbers, general content area, and train- ing program topics were also recorded. 100 The "treatment" was the skills—training program itself which fol- lowed the five tasks of the instructional System. It was administered by PAE's instructors. Training lasted a maximum of 10 days. The posttests consisted of two parts. The first part was a re- peat of the pretest administered by the same instructor the last day of the training program. The second part required the participants to perform each enabling behavior without the assistance of the instruc- tor sometime after the training had been conducted. That may have occurred immediately after the segment of the training program devoted to training a specific enabling behavior or upon completion of the entire training program. The intended receiving population of a particular training pro— gram were adult, semi—literate residents of one of the five prese— lected compafiias. Subjects included all adult men and women who re- gistered for training. Those who registered first were assigned to be trained by PAE's instructors. The remaining registrants were assigned to be trained by PAE's paraprofessionals. Campesinos were selected from the first group and trained by the instructors to be paraprofes- sional in order to train all campesinos who registered for training in each of the four content areas. The campesinos assigned to be trained by the paraprofessionals approximated a "no—treatment" or "control" group for this modified quasi-experiment. The same posttest administered to the "experimen- tal" group was administered to this "control" group by the parapro- fessionals at least six days following the posttest of the "experi- mental" group. This latter posttest of the ”control" group also served as its pretest before receiving the "treatment" administered by 101 the paraprofessional instructors, a procedure described in the next section. The tabulations of results were completed by hand and verified by the advisor or InstructionalSystem Coordinator. A modified quasi-experimental procedure was used to assess the effectiveness of the instructional system. Logistical constraints (e.g., limited time to achieve project goals), political factors (e.g., a fear of jeopardizing the reputation of the Servicio Na— cional de Promaci6n Profesional), and strong personal/moral objec- tions manifested by the majority of PAE's team prevented the random selection and assignment of campesinos to "treatment" and conventional "control" groups. Nevertheless, it was believed that this modified quasi-experimental procedure was strong enough to minimize the sig- nificance of rival explanations. If the knowledge and behaviors of "treatment" groups consistently changed in the desired direction over a 17 month period during 25 replications of the same system, the argu— ment that it was an effective system would be improved. Because of the easy access to official information (e.g., whereabouts of other government programs that might "compete" with PAE's impact) and knowledge of all past and present events occurring in each of the five compafiias, it was believed that other explanations (e.g., history and maturation) that might compete with the impact of PAE's system in explaining the observed changes could be weakened. Literature describing quasi-experimental designs contributed to the reasonableness of using the above described procedure (Weiss, 1972; Hoole, 1978). 102 The standard format of the pretest—posttest instrument evolved during the research. During the fifth training campaign, the instru— ments consisted of the following components. Regardless of the Skill being trained, the instruments for all training programs could have a maximum of 10 items in addition to asking for personal data. The items were written to determine knowledge acquisition. The pretest and posttest were administered using the same form. The instructors and paraprofessionals administered the tests orally. Criteria regarding the level of correctness of the responses were established for each item. Examples of criteria used in the pretests-posttests are presented in Chapter V. All results were recorded. The results of one training program are presented in Chapter VI. 2. Pretest—posttest of skill and knowledge acquisition of parti— cipants of 85 training programs conducted by paraprofessionals. Another procedure similar to the one just described consisted of the implementation of the same training program by up to nine campesinos in one content area. These campesinos had "graduated" from the ini— tial training program and were trained to be paraprofessionals by the instructors. The number of paraprofessionals was determined by the demand for a particular training program in each compania. Figure 3 presents a diagram of the modified quasi—experimental procedure. 01 X 02 Figure 3. Quasi—experimental design of training conducted by paraprofessionals. 103 01 symbolizes the pretest, X symbolizes the training program or "treatment," and 02 symbolizes the posttest. The participants were not randomly selected or randomly assigned to different groups to be trained by the two-nine paraprofessionals in each content area. An approximation of a control group was not at- tempted during this procedure. The paraprofessionals had mastered the skills of the training program during the segment of training conducted by PAE's instructors. In addition, they were trained to complete an "outline" (see Appendix I) which followed the original Instructional Plan and listed the topics or enabling behaviors to be trained each day and correspond- ing expendable and nonexpendable materials (e.g., corn and shovels); to complete the registration forms; to administer the pretest and post- test; and to use the flip charts, simulation games, pamphlets, and demonstrations as instructional strategies. The paraprofessionals were regularly supervised by PAE's inStructors and/or coordinators. The instructors or coordinators did not intervene unless (a) training was being conducted by the paraprofessional incorrectly or (b) the paraprofessionals requested the intervention. The pretests, treat— ments, and posttests were administered to all participants by the paraprofessionals. PAE's instructors tabulated the scores on both tests . This procedure was applied 85 times in similar receiving popula— tions during the five training campaigns. The training programs, which followed the same five-task instruc— tional system, were replicated by trainers with no professional back— ground (i.e., the paraprofessionals). It was believed that if the 104 results on the pretests and posttests were similar to those produced when the same training programs were conducted by PAE's instructors, the measured change would be an indicator of the effectiveness of the PAE's instructional system. The same instruments described in the presentation of the pre— vious procedure were used in this procedure. Examples of the criteria used in the pretests-posttests are pre— sented in Chapter V. An example of the effects on campesinos in one compania are presented in Chapter VI. 3. Retention tests. Short-term and long-term retention tests were administered to graduates of PAE's training programs on two oc- casions. The short-term retention tests were administered to graduates of the training programs of the first training campaign between six and nine weeks after the last posttest had been administered. The reten- tion tests were administered at the same time. The six or nine week difference depended on whether the participant had attended the train— ing program conducted by a PAE instructor, in which case the reten- tion test data was collected at least nine weeks after the posttest, or whether the participant had attended the same training program conducted by a paraprofessional, in which case the retention test data were collected at least six weeks after the posttest data had been gathered. The sample was established by selecting each second name from the lists of participants (excluding participants who had been trained to be paraprofessionals) for all five training programs (i.e., four con- 105 tent areas: one training program in three areas, two training pro— grams in one area) yielding a sample of 64 campesinos or approximately 50% of the total population that had participated in the first train— ing campaign (Braun, "Informe Técnico Nfimero 6," 1977). The interviewers were PAE instructors and administrative/support personnel who had been trained to use the instrument. The interview- ers were provided a map on which the selected participants' houses were located. They were instructed to interview only the person whose name had been selected. Replacements were not permitted (Braun, "In— forme Técnico Nfimero 6," 1977). The instrument used for the short—term retention test consisted of questions selected by PAE's instructors from those originally in* cluded in the pretest—posttest. These questions were intended to re— flect knowledge perceived by the instructor as ”most essential." The long—term retention tests were administered to graduates of four of the five training programs conducted during the third training campaign approximately fourmonths after the last posttest. They were administered by interviewers who were contracted and trained to ad— minister the retention tests (Braun, ”Informe Técnico Nfimero 14,” 1978). The sample was selected in the same manner described for the short—term retention test, attempting to test 50% of the graduates of four training programs (i.e., three content areas, one training pro— gram in two areas, two training programs in one area). As before, replacements for selected campesino—graduates were not permitted. The instrument used for the retention test was "Similar to that of the pretest—posttest" (Braun, "Informe Técnico Nfimero 14," 1978, 106 p. 1). Examination of the questions asked during the retention test and the pretest—posttest of one of the training programs ("Elaboracién de Plan de Trabajo") indicated that there was a difference in word choice. The purpose for administering long— and short-term retention tests was to collect information to indicate how long skill-related knowledge, transmitted during the training program, was retained. The assumption was that the longer information transmitted during training was retained by ex-participants, the greater the impact of PAE's instructional system. Every second person listed as a graduate participant comprised the samples in order to approximate representativeness. Interviewers were contracted and trained to administer the long term test (Braun, "Informe Técnico Nfimero 14," 1978) because the entire PAE team and other SNPP personnel were not available. Criteria were the same as those established for the pretests- posttests. All results were recorded. An example of the results of one short—term retention test is presented in Chapter VI. 4. Validipy testing. "Validity refers to the degree to which any measure or procedure succeeds in doing what it purports to do" (Suchman, 1967, p. 120). The research routinely attempted to assess the validity of the content of each Instructional Plan (e.g., if the skill to be trained was "fumigation," did the Instructional Plan pro- vide information and behaviors contributing to the acquisition of that skill or some other skill? Did the evaluations measure "fumiga- tion" skills and knowledge?), all pamphlets (e.g., did the text and 107 graphics of each pamphlet generate the same message for the campesino as it did for the instructor and artist who jointly created it?), training preference questions on PAE's first household survey (e.g., did the questions ask training preference questions or questions re- lated to some other preference?), and simulation games (e.g., did the graphics on the cards of the "memory" game represent the words to which they were supposed to be matched [the message] during the execution of the game?). The content of the Instructional Plan for each training program was examined by at least two and up to three different persons: the originating instructor, the Instructional System Coordinator, and occasionally a third content specialist. First the PAE instructor wrote the plan following PAE's five-task instructional system and determined whether or not the content would obviously lead to the acquisition of the identified skill, a test of validity (Suchman, 1967). This Instructional Plan was reviewed by PAE's Instructional System Coordinator, an approximation of a consensual validity test (Suchman, 1967). Occasionally, the Instructional System Coordinator was unfamiliar with the content in which case a third content spe— cialist (usually another Servicio Nacional de Promoci6n Profesional instructor) reviewed the Instructional Plan. A record of the valida— tors' responses was not documented. The validated Instructional Plans are the recorded results of this procedure. A validated Instructional Plan is presented as Appendix A. The pamphlets were exposed to the approximation of a consensual validity test by the originating instructor, one of the artists, and the Instructional System Coordinator who jointly reviewed the rough 108 draft of the pamphlet, making changes until consensus was reached that the text and graphics reflected the intended messages. In addition, all pamphlets were field tested. Upon completion of the above procedure, a compania was identified whose residents and corresponding living conditions resembled those of the Ita District. A small sample of campesinos was arbitrarily selected. Photocopies of the pamphlets were given to each campesino who was asked to interpret the graphic message and corresponding text on each page. The interpre— tations were written on the pamphlet itself and later on a standard form (see Appendix J) which the artists used to make corrections (Braun, "Informe Técnico Numero 13," 1978). Flip charts were copies, on a larger scale, of the pamphlets. Therefore, it was believed that validating the pamphlets would be a validation of the flip charts. Examples of the criteria and results are presented in Chapters V and VI, respectively. The responses of the artists and coordinators were not documented during the measure's validation. Validation of the training—preference questions of the PAE's First Household Survey was attempted through discussions among the instructors, the coordinators, and the researcher until agreement was reached that each question asked the question it was intended to ask. Also, a rough draft of the questionnaire was field—tested and indi— cated revisions were incorporated. The degree to which the instrument asked for training preferenceswas assessed by asking what were be— lieved to be three training—preference questions in each content area. The discussions during which the questions were validated were not recorded. Examples of the three training—preference questions for each content area are presented in Chapter VI. 109 Finally, face validity of the simulation games was evaluated through examination of the games by the originating instructor. Con- sensual validity of the games was approximated when the Instructional System Coordinator and the advisors agreed that the games' texts and graphics were valid. Examples of the cards used in one of the simu- lation games, "La Memoria," are presented in Chapter VI. The analyses of the originating instructor, the Instructional System Coordinator, and the advisors were not documented. The above variables of instruction were exposed to the validation process because the purpose of the research was to make an effective- ineffective statement about the five—task instructional system which incorporated these variables. The researcher perceived them as essen— tial activities within the larger system. If those variables did not do what they were intended to do, it was assumed that, even if the be- haviors of the campesinos changed following their participation in a PAE training program, they might be performing a skill PAE's instruc- tors did not intend to transmit. Validation checks of the Instruc- tional Plan, training strategies (pamphlets, flip charts, and simula— tions), and training—preference questions were made to increase the possibility that what each training program purported to train was reflected by selected instructional variables. It was also recognized that the educational levels and socio- economic backgrounds of the PAE instructors and artists responsible for the creation of the materials were vastly different than those of the receiving population. It was considered highly probable that percep— tual differences would exist between the two groups. This was thought to be especially true in the interpretation of the graphics of the llO instructional materials (e.g., would the graphic representation of rain drops falling be perceived by the campesinos as rain drops, tear drops, stones, etc.?). The validation process intended to decrease those perceptual differences. Research Procedures: Purppse Two Purpose Two consisted of one research question: were the PAE in- structors trained to use the instructional system to create and imple- ment the training programs effectively? Procedures to Assess Whether or Not the PAE Instructors Were Trained to Use the Five—Task Instructional System to Create and Implement Training Programs Effectively A description of the research procedures used in the field, a discussion of why they were used, and a description of any instruments used to operationalize the procedure are presented below. Planned observations of instructors' behaviors and written work by advisors and coordinators during training campaign. The instruc— tors' written work was regularly examined by at least two of the fol— lowing persons: the General Coordinator, the Instructional System Coordinator, and/or advisors. (The researcher was one of the advi— sors.) They examined the skill—specific Instructional Plans written by each PAE instructor. The observations were made during and after the development of each Instructional Plan, the primary activity of the first phase of each of the five training campaigns. Additional observations were made during the third phase of the training campaign when all data (i.e., test results and feedback) had been collected and 111 the Instructional Plan was subjected to corresponding revisions. It was necessary, at times, to complete the revisions of the Instruc- tional Plans outside the time margin allotted for each training cam— paign in order to begin developing new training programs on schedule. Nevertheless, at least two of the observers read each of the 25 In— structional Plans during the period of their development or during their final revision. The coordinators met each week to discuss all project activities. If a problem were consistently being observed in the Instructional Plans, specific training would be planned (directed at the instruc— tors) to attempt to correct the problem. For example, after the third training campaign, it was observed that the language used to describe enabling behviors was not always observable and that the criteria of the behavioral objective did not always include the ”degree of per- fection” the campesino would have to demonstrate when performing the behavior during evaluation. Consequently, in the coordinators' meet— ing it was decided to take two or three days to provide specific training to the instructors to improve their writing of behavioral objectives. Corrections or improvements were shared immediately with the originating instructor, the Instructional Plans were returned to the instructor, and corresponding changes were made. The observers made their judgments about the written Instruc— tional Plan and corresponding materials based on criteria previously established. Those criteria are presented in Chapter V. However, the observations made by individual observers were not officially re— corded. The researcher's recall presented in Chapter VI is supported by an example of an approved Instructional Plan (see Appendix:A). 112 The instructors' behaviors were observed by at least two obser— vers during the first segment (i.e., ten days PAE instructors train- ing campesinos) of phase two of the first two training campaigns. The Instructional Plans served as the evaluation instruments. During the third training campaign, a standard form (see Appen— dix E) was developed that required a coordinator or advisor to provide the instructor with feedback corresponding to the following categor- ies: "teaching style"; ”use of visuals"; ”use of equipment and materials"; "group management";"fulfillment of objectives and methods of the Instructional Plan"; "adherence to planned schedule"; "home practices"; "handling of paraprofessionals"; "initiative"; "integra- tion with campesinos, other instructors, PAE's coordinators, and com- munity"; ”interpersonal communication”; "handling of the evaluation"; and "observations." Behaviors presented in the "enabling behaviors" section of the Instructional Plan served as the criteria for the category "fulfillment of objectives and methods of the Instructional Plan" (see Appendix A). Criteria used to evaluate the isntructors' performance in the other categories were not officially established but informally agreed upon by the instructors, coordinators, and ad- visors. Sample criteria are presented in Chapter V. The observer knew how the category had been conceptualized but was free to write his or her comments about any observed behavior relevant to a given category on the standardized form. The instructor and observer discussed the observations immedi- ately following the training program and signed the feedback sheet. This was done to increase the possibility that the instructor would perceive the evaluation as a constructive process attempting to 113 minimize the perception that the observation could be a threat to his or her employment. The observers' notes about the behavior were recorded on the standardized form. The results were not tabulated. They were dis- cussed on a regular basis during the weekly coordinators' meeting and informally on the job. The criteria and results are presented in Chapters V and VI, respectively. The planned observations of the instructors' training behaviors were conducted as described above because it was the closest approxi— mation of an accepted research procedure (participant observations) that the chronology of the pilot project would permit. The main focus of the project's approved chronology was to pro- vide the opportunity to train the PAE team to conduct successful training programs. The approved method of training the instructors was to provide them with as many opportunities to practice developing and conducting training programs as possible. Also,resources and time were committed by the approved project to perfecting the content (instructional plans, pamphlets, photographs, etc.) of the training programs to a greater extent than measuring the training abilities of the instructors. It was assumed (for purposes of the pilot project) that by repeatedly improving the content of the training programs, the instructors' training skills and related knowledge would improve also. Consequently, the research procedures which were not contemplated in the project's design and approval had to be adapted to the contexts in which the research would occur. Ideally, the same kind of strict 114 adherence to the standards of the PAE instructional System with its emphasis on preciseness and objectivity would have been followed by the observers who were evaluating the training of the instructors. However, in a situation where time and financial constraints existed, the decision was made to ensure repeated practices of the instructors using the instructional system to create and implement training pro— grams. This was done at the expense of permitting the coordinators and advisors to more objectively and systematically collect data about the instructors' training behaviors and knowledge (e.g., videotapes, content analysis of tape recordings of training programs, standard— ized rating sheets completed by independent observers, and a quasi— experimental design). The following chapter describes the criteria used to make judg- ments about the effectiveness of the instructional system and the training abilities of PAE's instructors. CHAPTER V DEVELOPMENT AND STATEMENT OF EVALUATIVE CRITERIA Documents describing the approved project presented a hierarchy of three intentions. The goal was ”to improve the standard of living of the rural inhabitants of Paraguay” (USAID, "Project Design," 1976, p. l). The measures of goal achievement were (a) an increase in durable goods owned by the receiving population, (b) an increase in the receiving population's per capita income, (c) an increase of the agricultural production of the receiving population, and (d) a decrease in unemployment of the receiving population. The project's sub-goal was "to provide the information and bring about the changes in attitudes and practices of the rural popu— lation which will contribute to improvement in their standard of living" (p. l). The measures of sub—goal achievement were the receiv— ing population's improved skills in home management, environmental sanitation, basic agriculture, small scale livestock production, crafts, and small farm improvement and management. The purpose of the project was to establish the capability of the National Apprenticeship Service (SNPP) to conduct successful training programs oriented to rural illiterate and semi—literate adults who presently have limited access to training opportunities (p. 2). The conditions that were to exist at the end of the project that would indicate the ro'ect's ur ose had been achieved were (a) a nonformal P J E .E___ 115 116 training unit established and functioning at SNPP, (b) a minimum of eight staff members assigned to the SNPP nonformal training unit, (c) a nonformal training unit capable of training 80 GOP trainers one year following the end of the project, (d) validated instruc- tional materials for 24 training programs per year produced by SNPP's materials production staff, and (e) a budgetary commitment (by SNPP) for nonformal education activities. The research addressed itself to the project's stated purpose and accompanying indicators of achievement. Implicit in both were the assumptions that an effective instructional process and instructors trained to effectively use that process would also exist at the end of the project. Therefore, two purposes of the research were estab— lished: (a) to evaluate the effectiveness of the instructional system to train semi-literate adults who had limited access to training op— portunities and (b) to evaluate the instructors' ability to effec- tively use that system to create and implement training programs. To perform these two broad evaluations, in an attempt to fulfill the pur- poses of the research, data about the nature of those campesinos who actually participated in PAE's training programs, the validity of the training programs that followed the five-task instructional system, the campesinos'acquisition of knowledge and skills before and after training, and the instructors' acquisition of training skills were collected and compared to evaluative criteria. These criteria, their development, and the type of data collected for each are specified below. 117 Purpose One of the Research Purpose One was to evaluate the effectiveness of an instructional system to train semi—literate adults who had limited access to train— ing opportunities. To make this assessment, five general criteria and corresponding criterion statements were developed. Criterion 1: Adult Participation Attendance in public school was compulsory in Paraguay until age 14. In the companias most persons 15 years old and above were not participating in any kind of planned educational experience. PAE's team members discussed personal observations and professional experi- ence which indicated that, at least vocationally, residents of the compafiias, 15 years old and above, performed the duties of adults even though Paraguayan law did not recognize their "adult" status. These adults were selected as the subjects of the research be- cause approximately 45% of that group (primarily women) in all of rural Paraguay was not in school and was economically inactive (Para- guay, Direccién General de Estadistica, 1972). Another reason was 78% of that group which was economically active (including subsistence farmers) worked in small scale agriculture or with livestock (Paraguay, Direccién GeneralckaEstadistica, 1972; USAID, "Capital Assistance," n.d.), the project's intended receiving population. The accompanying assumptions were that training that lS-year—old—and—above group would permit it to improve its agricultural practices, become economically'ac— tive, and, consequently improve the standard of living of its members. The criterion statement follows: Are the participants of PAE's training programs at least 15 years old? 118 The age of the participants of PAE's training programs was con— firmed by examining documents, administering a reading test, and con— ducting registration interviews described on pages 92-—96 of Chap- ter IV. Criterion 2: Participation by Semi-literate Persons Evidence did not exist that permitted categorizing the campesinos of Ité District according to their literacy and numeracy skills. Therefore, to identify the receiving population for which the proposed training was intended, the decision was made by the coordinators and "illiterate" advisors to select definitions of "semi-literate" and acceptable to Paraguayan educators. Definitions adopted for the pro— ject were established by the Literacy Department of the Ministry of Education and Worship. According to that organization, a person who is semi-literate is one who has not completed elementary school. A person who is illiterate is one who never attended school (Braun, ”In— forme Técnico Nfimero 10," 1977). The research was designed to make a judgment about an instruc— tional system aimed at semi-literate adults. Even though the project was aimed at an illiterate and semi—literate population, the researcher's previous experience in Paraguay suggested that the largest group that would actively seek the kind of training proposed by the project would be composed of semi-literate people. During three years (1968—71) working with Paraguayan campesinos, it was ob— served that most of the campesinos who regularly participated in self— help activities (as they had in programs in which the researcher was involved) already possessed some numeracy and literacy skills. 119 However, those skills were not sufficient to satisfy minimal admission requirements to existing government or private training programs. This observation justified the evaluation of the instructional system vis-a-vis the performance of what might be the largest segment of the total rural population to register for training, semi—literate adults. The criterion statements follow: 1. Have the participants of PAE's training programs started but not completed elementary school? 2. Do the participants of PAE's training programs correctly read all, some, or none of the words on a reading test? Descriptions of the would-be literacy level of PAE's trainees were collected using a reading test, examining documents, and planned observations of unobtrusive indicators of past educational experiences (e.g., attendance certificates on the walls of campesinos' homes). Criterion 3: Participation by Persons Who Had Limited Access to Training Opportunities The term "limited" was used instead of "no” because it was known that training-like experiences were being conducted in communities to which the campesinos of Ité District had access, technically Speaking. However, an underlying assumption was that financial constraints (e.g., no bus fare) and life-supporting responsibilities would make participation in those training experiences by Ité District's campe— sinos impractical. In addition to satisfying the project's goal of serving a popu— lation that was disadvantaged with regards to accessibility to train— ing experiences, this criterion also improved the possibility that the receiving population was not already "contaminated" by previous 120 exposure to similar skills training. It minimized the strength of rival explanations regarding the effectiveness of the instructional system. The criterion statements follow: 1. Are there any skills—training programs being offered to semi-literate adults in Ita District? 2. Are there any indicators of past training programs offered to semi-literate adults in Ité District? Descriptive data about this criterion were collected by conduct- ing an inventory of all nonformal education activities in Ité District Planned observations provided additional evidence of past training opportunities. Criterion 4: Validation of the Instructional Plan, Pamphlets, Training Preference Questions, and Simulation Games Validity tests were conducted to determine whether or not the subject matter of the training programs communicated that which was intended. Valid subject matter would strengthen the argument that training outcomes were attributable to the system used to present and organize that subject matter. Four components of each training pro— gram were validated. The content of each of the five tasks of the Instructional Plans for each training program were validated. For illustrative purposes, the subject matter of the second task (formulation of training objec— tives) of one of the Instructional Plans is provided. An example comes from the Instructional Plan entitled "Terrace Building." 121 Twenty-five different Instructional Plans were validated. The criter— ion statement for validating the training objectives follows: Do the objectives reflect the knowledge and behaviors required to build terraces? (Similarly, all other skills had comparable statements.) The Instructional Plans were written on standardized forms by PAE's instructors (the content specialists) who used the above criterion to evaluate the content of each task. An additional evaluation was pro- vided by the Instructional System Coordinator before each training campaign began. All pamphlets to be used in the training programs were validated. The example is the cover page of one of the pamphlets. The criterion statement follows: Do these words and graphics represent a campesino thinking about planting his crops in plots? First, pamphlets for each training program were reviewed by the in- structor, artist, and coordinator until agreement was reached that the rough draft of the pamphlet accurately represented the intended mes- sage. The pamphlets were then field tested on a similar receiving population. During the field test, the interviewer wrote the campe— sinos' comments on the rough draft of each pamphlet. Finally, the corrected pamphlets were used in the training programs after which more feedback was solicited from the campesinos and incorporated in the final revision of each pamphlet. The criterion statement for validating the training preference questions follows: Do the three questions of each questionnaire asked to identify the campesinos' training preference in each of the four content areas, in fact, ask the campesinos for responses indicating training preferences? 122 During discussions among the researcher, instructors, and coordinators, the questions were initially validated. Then the questionnaire was field tested on a similar population to determine if the campesinos responded with training preferences when asked what were believed to be training—preference questions. The responses were written on the questionnaire. This procedure was conducted once. An example of a criterion statement for validating the simulation game follows: Do the graphics and vocabulary drawn on the cards represent the messages theyare intended to repre— sent? This testing was completed during informal discussions as each new game was being developed. Revisions were made until the originating instructor, Instructional System Coordinator, and advisors agreed that the intended message was represented by the graphics and vocabulary. Criterion 5: Demonstration of Skill and Knowledge Acquisition by Campesinos Behavioral objectives were used as the criterion statements to measure skill acquisition. Each behavioral objective consisted of three components: a statement of the conditions (setting, tools available,time, etc.) under which evaluation would take place; a statement, written in observable terms, of the behavior to be per- formed; and a statement describing the degree of perfection and the frequency with which the behavior was to be performed. These criter- ion statements became part of the Instructional Plans for the four content areas. One example of a criterion statement corresponding to skill acquisition for each of the content areas follows: 123 l. Home management. "Given a sprayer, all the participants will correctly operate it, one time." 2. Basic agriculture. "Having the leveling equipment, all the participants will posi— tion the equipment correctly, four times." 3. Poultry and livestock management. "Having all the instruments, the participants will correctly boil them 15 minutes, one time." 4. Management and improvement of the small farm. "Given a notebook and pencil, all the partici- cipants will make their own forms according to the model presented by the instructor, one time." Behavioral objectives were used as criterion statements because the behavioral objective is a recognized method for assessing the out- come of an instructional system whose purpose is to train functional skills. Data were gathered by observing the campesinos' performing the skills during the training programs. Data were gathered using pretests and posttests to evaluate knowledge acquisition. The following criterion statement corresponds to all tests of knowledge acquisition for all content areas: The participants will respond to all of the ques- tions on the pretest—posttest according to the criteria established by the instructor for each question (e.g., "The participant will have to know three [of the four] answers."). These data were collected during 25 different training programs conducted by PAE's instructors, 85 training programs conducted by campesinos trained to be paraprofessionals, and two retention tests of knowledge acquisition. 124 Purpose Two of the Research Purpose Two was to evaluate the instructors' ability to use effectively the Instructional System to create and implement training programs. To make this assessment, two general criteria and corre— sponding criterion statements were developed. Criterion l: Instructors Trained to Create Training Programs Written Instructional Plans that followed the five—task instruc— tional system provided evidence of the instructors' ability to create training programs that effectively employed the system and its educa— tional concepts. Throughout the two years during which the project was implemenUai, the instructional system was exposed to formative evaluation. Speci- fic activities involved in completing each task changed as the in— structional system evolved. The changes included writing behavioral objectives for each enabling behavior, establishing "degree of per- fection" in addition to "frequency" as a performance criterion, speci— fying the exact quantity of tools and visual aids needed for training, and listing all evaluation activities in addition to the pretests and posttests. However, the five fundamental tasks of the system remained the same throughout the research. The instructors' ability to use the system was assessed according to the most updated version of the instructional System. The version of that system that existed at the conclusion of the research is detailed on pages 13—23 in Chapter I. The criterion statement follows: Does each Instructional Plan follow the guidelines of PAE's five—task instructional system? 125 Written Instructional Plans completed by every PAE instructor for each training program were gathered as evidence. Up to two pages of the Instructional Plan (the first one or two pages) were used to write a description of an assessment of the existing situation and training preferences of the receiving population, the general training objective, a list of instructional strategies to be used, a descrip— tion of the implementation plan, and a statement of which evaluation procedures would be used. Additional pages of the Instructional Plan (up to 10 pages) detailed a behavioral objective for each enabling behavior followed by its instructional messages and related steps to performing the behavior, instructional strategies, visual aids to be used in instruction, list of tools and equipment needed during in— struction, estimate of the time required to complete the instruction, date of instruction, and miscellaneous observations that would assist in the training process (e.g., make sure campesinos practice on healthy animals). The completed Instructional Plans, written by the instructors, were examined by at least two reviewers (coordinators and advisors) during their development and during their final revision. Using the established guidelines of the instructional system and corresponding activities, judgments were made about each instructor's ability to create skill-specific training programs. This evaluation was made of five Instructional Plans prepared by the Home Management Instructor, seven Instructional Plans prepared by the Basic Agriculture Instruc- tor, four Instructional Plans prepared by the Management and Improve— ment of the Small Farm Instructor, and nine Instructional Plans pre— pared by the Poultry and Livestock Management Instructor. 126 Criterion 2: Instructors Trained to Implement Training Programs Observing the instructors practice that which they were being trained to do provided evidence with which a judgment could be made about the instructors' implementation of the training programs. It was assumed that if the instructor performed the activities and proce— dures of the Instructional Plan previously approved by the Instruc— tional System Coordinator, he or she would effectively implement the training program. The criterion statement follows: Does each instructor perform the instructional tasks detailed on his or her Instructional Plan? During the first and second training campaigns, the content of the Instructional Plans served as the instrument the coordinators and advisors used to evaluate the instructors' implementation of their training programs. Sometimes, observations made by the observers describing the instructor's actual performance of an intended activity includedixlthe Instructional Plan were written on the plan and shared with the in— structor immediately following the observation. In other instances those observations were not written on the plan but consisted of the observer's informally sharing his or her recollection of the instruc- tional incident during individual meetings following training. If the frequency of observations of ineffective (i.e., that which did not follow the Instructional Plan) implementation was high, the incident was shared with the entire team of instructors and the instructors received additional training. Beginning in the third training campaign, a form entitled "In- structor Feedback Sheet" (see Appendix E) was developed by the 127 instructors, coordinators, and advisors to accompany the Instructional Plans in an effort to be more specific when evaluating the instruc— tors' implementation of the training programs. The form outlined 13 categories of instructor behaviors. During meetings of the team, the definition and broad standards of performance for 12 categories were informally established. How— ever, these standards were not intended to limit the observer, rather to guide him or her to write evaluative comments (positive and nega- tive) about observed behaviors corresponding to each of the instructor- behavior categories. The criterion statement follows: Does each instructor demonstrate the instructor behavior according to the standards of perfor— mance informally established for each category? The criterion statement for the thirteenth category, "Fulfillment of objectives and methods of the Instructional Plan," follows: Does each instructor perform the instructional activities written in the "Enabling Behaviors" section of the Instructional Plan? The observer's comments were shared with each instructor, and, once the instructor and observer agreed that the feedback was valid, the form was signed by both. Examples of appropriate instructor be- haviors for each category presented below. Teaching style. Use information in short lectures essential to the performance of the skill or related knowledge acquisition; ask campesinos if they understand the lecture; in preparation for the practice session, demonstrate the skill precisely as it is to be re- peated by the campesino; provide sufficient time for campesinos to practice the skill. 128 Use of visuals. Distribute one Visual to each campesino; turn pages of the flip charts after campesinos have indicated they are ready; use quantity of simulation games to permit all campesinos equal opportunity to play the game; position instructional photographs so they are easily seen by all campesinos. Use of equipment and materials. Provide five buckets for each group of 15 campesinos; deliver equipment to training site before training begins. Group management. When using "directed questions,‘ ask the cam— pesinos if they heard the questions; ask campesinos to state their reasons for learning to prepare nutritious cattle feed; ask campe— sinos to criticize flip charts. Fulfillment of instructional plan. Provide instruction corre- sponding to all enabling behaviors; use instructional strategies according to approved method. Schedule. Initiate and terminate training during allotted time or change established schedule to conform to new conditions. Home practices. Request every campesino to practice each skill alone; request campesinos who have mastered the skill to assist others; report changes in location of home practices to instructional coor— dinator before training begins. Paraprofessionals. Select campesinos to be paraprofessionals ac— cording to established selection criteria: train campesinos to be 129 paraprofessionals using standardized training format; ask paraprofes— sionals to assist in retrieving equipment used in training. Initiative. When campesinos are reluctant to register for train- ing, visit them to discuss the reasons. Integration. Interact at a personal and professional level with the campesinos, other instructors, coordinators, and members of the community. Interpersonal communication. Indicate active listening by clari— fying the campesinos' questions. Handling of the evaluation. Use same vocabulary each time post- test interview is conducted. Observations. (Included in this category was any instructor be— havior that did not fit one of the above categories but was perceived by the observer as contributing to or detracting from the instruc- tional process.) Evidence about the instructors' implementation of the training programs was collected using the Instructional Plan and/or the Instruc— tional Feedback Sheet during each complete training program directed to campesinos. The next chapter presents samples of the evidence collected to make judgments, using the above criteria, about PAE's instructional system and the training of PAE's instructors. CHAPTER VI EVIDENCES OF THE EFFECTS Research procedures described in Chapter IV were used to collect evidence that was needed to evaluate the effectiveness of the instruc— tional system as well as the instructors' training ability. Those data are reported in this chapter. Evidences Reggrding Purpose One The first purpose of the research was to evaluate the effective— ness of the instructional system to train semi—literate adults who had limited access to training opportunities. The criteria established to make that judgment are followed here by the results of the inquiries themselves. Criterion 1: Adult Participation "Adult" referred to persons who were at least 15 years old at the time the research was conducted. Information about the adult status of the receiving population was collected by examining documents, administering a reading test, and conducting registration interviews. Before the research began, as one of the project's prepara— tion activities, statistics reporting the ages of persons living in Its District showed a sizeable adult population in Ita's compafiias. This information was originally collected during the 1972 population 130 ._ _ *__._._._ ———_——- _ __ _.... __ _- .__.__ ._ _— _.... .__.__ 131 and housing census. In 1972 approximately 14,000 persons (approxi— mately 55%) lived in Ita District (including the urban center) who were at least 15 years old. For all of Paraguay, approximately 52% of the persons who were 15 years old or above lived in the compafiias (Paraguay, Direccién General de Estadistica, 1972). Census statistics were not available that identified persons who were 15 years old and above and lived in the compafiias of Ité District. A reading test was administered to 59 of the 66 campesinos who participated in the third training campaign. The primary objective of the test was to determine the reading ability of the campesinos who participated in PAE's training programs. The questionnaire also re— quested the respondent to state his or her age. All of the partici— pants were at least 15 years old (see Table 2). Table 2 Age of Participants of Reading Test Age in Years Percent 15 — 18 33% 19 - 29 26% 30 - 39 16% 40 - 49 9% 50 — 59 10% (The remaining 6% were not accounted for in the report.) Source: Braun, "Informe Técnico Nfimero 10." A standardized form (see Appendix H) was developed to collect personal data about each campesino participant before each training 132 program began. Included in the data was the participant's age. A completed registration form of one course offered to paraprofessionals is presented as an example in Appendix K. The youngest participant was 18 years old. The oldest was 50 years old (see Table 3). Similar results were recorded for all training programs. Age of Participants of One 5::igrd2essional Training Program Name Age Justo C. Colman 32 Plutarco Lopez 24 Bonifacio Colman 38 Teodora Benegas 18 Wilfredo Arzamendia 18 E. Ramirez 24 Cesar Paredes 50 SOUfCE: ”Registro de Participantes de Auxiliares." Criterion 2: Participation by Semi—literate Persons ”Semi—literate” referred to persons who had started but had not completed elementary school. On a reading test, it referred to persons who did not read all the words correctly but did read at least one word correctly. Data describing the would—be literacy level of the trainees were written on the reading tests and collected during a socioeconomic survey of Ité District. Additional information was identified 133 informally by making planned observations of unobtrusive indicators of past training experiences. A reading test administered to trainees in one compafiia docu— mented that 65% of the sample was semi-literate (see Table 4). Table 4 Reading Level of Participants Literacy Level % Illiterate (doesn't read) 11 Semi-literate (reads at least one word correctly) 65 Literate (reads all words correctly) 16 Source: Braun, "Informe Técnico Nfimero 10." Personal information collected on that same reading test indi- cated that 49% of the trainees had started butluuinot completed pri— mary school (see Table 5). Table 5 School Attendance of Participants School Attendance % Illiterate (no schooling) 1 Semi—literate (started but didn't completeelementary school) 49 Literate (completedelementary school) 47 Source: Braun, "Informe Técnico Nfimero 10." 134 The report of a socioeconomic survey of six compafiias in Ita District indicated that approximately 72% of the heads of households were semi—literate ("Resultado de la Encuesta," n.d.). With the exception of the few primary school diplomas that were seen, observations made during the publicity campaign preceding the training programs confirmed that the receiving population was semi— literate. Criterion 3: Participation of Persons Who Had Limited Access to Training Opportunities "Limited access to training opportunities" meant that before or during the research there were no skills-training experiences offered to the receiving population. Data were collected by examining documents and during planned ob— servations. Early in the research, an inventory of all nonformal education activities in Ita District identified six skills—training programs. They were all sewing academies (located in the village of Its) that trained participants to be tailors and seamstresses. One of the academies also taught hairdressing skills. Another taught trainees to be electricians, cooks, and nurses aides. In all cases trainees were older youths and adults from the companias and the village of Ité. In 1976 approximately 450 persons enrolled for training. However, due to the high costs of training over a long period of time (nine months to three years in the case of the sewing academies), desertion was high. Exact numbers of "graduates" and the locations of their homes were not available. There were indicators that many of the participants were 135 from the neighborhoods located on the outskirts of Ita. Transporta- tion difficulties hampered attempts by compafiia residents to attend training. All academies were at least two years old. One had been in existence for 16 years (Fritz, 1976). Observations made in the compafiias during the eight—day publicity campaign did not uncover indicators that the receiving population had been exposed to skills—training programs in the recent past. Undocu— mented rumors suggested thatan agent from the Agricultural and Live— Stock Extension Service had visited one of the campaifias, Las Piedras. Some campesinos remembered being visited by representatives of the Banco de Fomento (Growth Bank) who provided an unspecified orientation in agriculture. Criterion 4: Validation of the Instructional Plan, Pamphlets, Training—preference Ques— tions, and Simulation Games Instructional Plans. The content of each of the five tasks of the 25 Instructional Plans was validated. For illustrative purposes, the content of the second task (formulation of training objectives) of one of the Instructional Plans entitled "Terrace Building" (Aponte, 1978) is reported below. Validation of the training objectives referred to whether or not the training objectives reflected the knowledge and behaviors required to build terraces. The Basic Agriculture Instructor (3 content spe- cialist) who wrote the Instructional Plan and the Instructional System Coordinator made those judgments. Sample training objectives are pre— sented in Figure 4. Terminal Enabling l. 10. ll. 12. 13. Figure 4. 136 Behavior Objective: During the training session, 100% of the participants will correctly build terraces, using rustic equipment, three times. Behaviors Ojbectives: Given a short lecture about the advantages of terraces, all participants will correctly state three answers (advantages). Given a short lecture about disadvantages, all participants will correctly state three answers (disadvantages). Having land (given a field to work on), all participants will correctly locate the highest place, one time. Having the leveling equipment, all participants will correct- ly locate the highest place, one time. Having the equipment in place, all participants will activate the leveling device until the half way point (correct posi— tion) is reached, four times. Having the equipment leveled, all participants, with a helper, will place the marker 25 meters from the leveling device, four times. Having the marker in place, all participants will correctly observe the placement of the marker using the viewing device, two times. Having the leveling equipment, all participants will (con- firm the correct position), two times. Having a stake, the participants will place it (where it is level), four times. Having the leveling equipment, all participants will cor- rectly repeat the previous Operations, four times. During practice, all participants will (confirm that five stakes are positioned correctly). Having the stakes in line, the participants will correct the broken lines, one time. Having a plow and oxen, the participants will make a con- tour (terrace) by plowing three furrows on each side (of the line), three times. Examples of enabling and terminal training objectives. 137 As exemplified above, terminal and enabling training objectives were written on the Instructional Plans for each of the 25 different training programs. In all cases the originating instructor and In— structional System Coordinator agreed that the training objectives reflected the knowledge and behaviors required to perform the terminal behavior. The originating instructor and the Instructional System Coordina— tor also validated the content of the four remaining tasks for all 25 training programs. A complete, validated Instructional Plan is presented as Appen— dix A. Pamphlets. All pages of the rough drafts of the pamphlets were first validated by the originating instructor, the artist, and the Instructional System Coordinator. The example, Figure 5, is the cover page of one of the pamphlets. For the sample illustrated here, the criterion was, "Do these words and graphics represent a campesino thinking about planting his crops in plots?" Similar criterion state— ments were established for each page of all pamphlets. Then, the pamphlet was field tested in a compafiia similar to those in which PAE's participants lived. Campesinos indicated that "the drawing on the cover seems to suggest that the campesino has a toothache" (Braun,”Informe Técnico Nfimero 13," 1978, p. 2). Once revisions were made, consensus was reached by the originat— ing instructor, the artist, and the Instructional System Coordinator that the cover page was valid. Figures 5 and 6 present the unvali— dated and validated versions of that cover page. - Plan/igicqodn dz «culture or pdr'cseli 111:1 K g, f_ ,. Q4: {ENPP PAE? Figure 5. Cover page of unvalidated pamphlet for the "Planning Crops by Plots" training program. 139 \\\\\1\|\\ \ \\\\\ \\\\\ \\.\\ \ Cover page of validated pamphlet for the "Planning Crops by Plots" training program. Figure 6. 140 Other observations, as reported by Braun, made by the campesinos about other pages in the pamphlet included, "In the first picture the farmer is confused for (looks like) a soldier" (p. 2). "The drawing showing the organization of a crop is not understood" (p. 2). "In the third picture instead of putting (writing) 'obtains greater economic and health benefits,”'the campesinos participating in the field test suggested that it be replaced with ”he has extra money and enjoys better health" (p. 2). "Picture 7 is confusing and not understood" (p. 2). All of the observations were incorporated in the revision of the pamphlet. The instructors, artists, Instructional System Coordinator, and neighboring campesinos validated each page of the 25 different pam— phlets corresponding to all 25 training programs. A validated pamphlet is presented as Appendix L. Training-preference questions. Each question that was written to identify the campesinos' training preferences was validated. The intention of validating each question was to ensure that it asked a question that would yield an answer indicating the respondent's train— ing preferences in each of the four content areas. First, the questions were validated as soon as the researcher, instructors, and coordinators agreed that the questions asked for training preferences. Then the questionnaire was field-tested on a similar population to determine if the responses to the training- preferences questions were, in fact, training preferences. In both cases, the 12 questions (three in each of the four content areas) were considered valid (see Table 6), 141 Table 6 Questions from PAE's First Household Survey Question Number Basic Agriculture 16 "What do you want to learn in agriculture?" 25 "In basic agriculture, what technical knowledge or practices do you need most urgently?" were an a ronom st, w at wou ou 1 e me to teac 28 "If I g 1 h 1d y l'k h you?" Poultry and Livestock Management 30 "With regards to the production of livestock and poultry, what do you want to learn? 33 "If I were a technician in livestock and poultry, what would you like me to teach you?” 37: "In livestock and poultry, what technical knowledge or prac- tice do you need most urgently?" Home Management 42 "What do you want to learn in the area of home management?" 50 "If I were a specialist in home management, what would you like me to teach you?" 58 ”What technical knowledge or practice od you need most urgently?" Management and Improvement of the Small Farm 65 "What do you want to learn about the administrative manage- ment of this farm?" 72 "If I were a farm administrator, what would you like me to teach you?" 74 "In the area of administrative management of the farm, what technical knowledge or practice do you need most urgently?" Source: "Primera Encuesta Domiciliaria del PAE.” 142 Answers received during the administration of the questionnaire in one of the companias implied training preferences (see Table 7). Table 7 Percentages of Responses by Topic in Basic Agriculture Sani— Planting Questions Soils tation Techniques What do you want to learn in agriculture? 42% 27% 8% In basic agriculture, what technical knowledge or practice do you need most urgently? 26% 22% 19% If I were an agronomist, what would you like me to teach you? 29% 8% 21% Source: Braun, "Informe Técnico Nfimero l." The advisor in charge translated the exact answers into a general in— formation topic. The numbers in the boxes represent the percentage of responses per topic. Simulation games. All simulation games were validated when the originating instructor, Instructional System Coordinator, and advisor agreed that the graphics and vocabulary drawn on the cards (or what— ever "prop" the different games required) represented the intended message. Copies of cards used in the game ”La Memoria" are presented in Figures 7, 8, and 9. All simulation games passed the validation tests . ———— www- w—r .. .. _. _. __.,.~_1_A ._ -1 .irfil_.__ «— .._..-- .. , A Equi‘po y ‘ Matter-laws . ' (Equipment and materials.) Figure 7. Two matched cards from simulation game "La Memoria." (Actual cards were colored by hand with magic markers.) ’ equlpo (Placing the equipment.) Figure 8. Two matched cards from simulation game ”La Mem— oria." (Actual cards were colored by hand with magic markers.) 145 *f cetocacien , ate. (Placement of Stakes) Figure 9. Two matched cards from simulation game "La Mem— oria." (Actual cards were colored by hand with magic markers.) 146 Criterion 5: Demonstration of Skill and Knowledge Acquisition by Campesinos The criteria used to judge skill acquisition were expressed in behavioral objectives corresponding to each terminal and enabling be— havior. Knowledge acquisition was evaluated using criteria for each question established by the instructor. Programa de Adiestramiento Extra—Escolar (PAE) instructors. Par— ticipants reported the knowledge and skills with which they were en- tering a training program on pretests. A posttest measurement was made of the same group immediately after the training program. The same measurement of a "control” group was made approximately six days after the "treatment" group had been given the posttest. The results of the pretests and posttests for the treatment group and the control group for one of the training programs in the campafiia of Peguajho indicated that there was substantial knowledge gain by 13 participants in the treatment group (see Table 8). The participants of this pro— gram were trained by PAE's instructor. During the training programs, participants performed the terminal or enabling behaviors (skills) in accordance with criteria established in corresponding behavioral objectives. These kinds of measurements were made for 25 different training programs conducted by PAE instructors in five campafiias. During the research, 325 participants were trained by PAE instructors and "passed” the posttest and demonstrations of skill acquisition (see Table 9). Paraprofessionals. Pretest-posttest results of the program taught by the paraprofessionals in the same campafiia documented that knowledge 147 gain occurred (see Table 10). Paraprofessionals also observed the par— ticipants perform each skill according to the criteria of its cor— responding behavioral objective. These kinds of measurements were made for 85 training programs conducted by paraprofessionals in five compafiias. During the research, 517 participants were trained by paraprofessionals and "passed" the posttest and demonstrations of skill acquisition (see Table 9). Table 8 Average Scores for Each Question of Pretest, Posttest, and Control Groups for "Soil Conservation" Training Program Taught by PAE Instructor Question Number/ Maximum Score Pretest (N) Posttest (N) Control (N) 1/4 .6 (14) 3.5 (13) 0.0 (9) 2/3 .6 (l4) .5 (13) 0.0 (9) 3/3 0.0 (14) 2.6 (13) 0.0 (9) 4/3 0.0 (14) 2.7 (13) 0.0 (9) 5/3 0.0 (14) 2.5 (13) 0.0 (9) 6/3 1.9 (14) 2.9 (13) 1.7 (9) 7/3 0.0 (14) 2.4 (13) 0.2 (9) 3 1 19.6 1.9 Score Maximum: 22 I Source: Braun, "Informe Tecnico Nfimero 5." Retention tests. The results of responses to a test of knowledge acquisition indicated that retention was over 50% (see Table ll)- The retention test was administered to a sample drawn from the original training group in Peguajho. The test took place approximately two months after the posttests were administered. A second retention test 148 mHmCOHmmmmoummumm on On muouosuumcfl m¢m %n voafiwuu mocflwmmEmo mo nomads mwumowwcfi :H\m: .umHA wocmwcwuu< mo mmumofiwwunmo “wousom mHmGONmmwmoumwuwa kn cmawmuu mocfimmmamo mo Honesc moumoflpafi :m\o:o n mucuosuumnfi mHA was kuuasom on w mo NH m NH 0H H MN m N «a a N NH o O CH Eumm HHmEm mzu mo ucmEm>ouaEH paw quEmwmcmz mm OH HN ma N ma ma N ma m N ma m N MN m N NH manuasofiuws oflmmm mHN mm om mm a ma ms a as as a as mm m ma mm m as “swamwmcmz mace m\o H\m H\o m\o H\m H\u m\o H\m H\U m\u H\m H\U m\u H\m H\U om\o pH\m wH\o mou¢ usmusoo Hmafimue\wmafimu members Of the receiving population not selected for the sample. 2. Reading, writing, and numeracy tests Should be conducted on a representative sample Of the receiving population before the train- ing begins. 3. The same instructional system should be used to train the content specialists (instructors). Time should be provided for each instructor to master the Skills and knowledge presented. 4. Detailed written descriptions of the mastery level perfor- mance Of the terminal and enabling behaviors should be established (for instructors and campesinos). 5. Pretests and posttests should be administered by persons trained to administer tests other than instructors responsible for training. These persons Should be introduced to the selected sample and their purpose described before the research begins. 6. Every planned observation Should be documented on standard- ized forms (e.g., check lists, rating Sheets) by team members trained to make the observation. Unplanned observations Should also be docu- mented. A method should be established for regularly collecting and interpreting the data. 174 7. The degree to which the Skills trained are permanently adopted by the receiving pOpulationS Should be determined. This de- termination Should be made at a time when it is logical that the Skills be practiced (e.g., the adoption test for "control of cotton pests" should be performed during the cotton pest season). Final Note It is evident that the Instructional System is an effective means Of transmitting knowledge and Skills to educationally and economically disadvantaged adults in rural Paraguay. It is reasonable to think that wherever receiving populations and instructionally relevant conditions are Similar,IVUTSinstructional system would also be effective. It is hoped that persons trained by this system would also experi- ence an increase in self-esteem, self confidence, and motivation lead— ing them to seek and request continued training and/or education. (There were strong indicators that this happened to PAE's trainees. The vast majority implored the instructors to provide more and more training.) It is also hOped that other kinds of training would be desired by the trainees (and provided by their government or private sector) that would deve10p their problem solving Skills, literacy and numeracy Skills, analytical skills, and increase their knowledge. The possibility exists, however, that the kind Of instructional System evaluated in this report may be used to perpetuate the present status of small scale, semi-literate, poor farmers in the Third World by providing a little training to appease a dissatisfied pOpulation. 175 PAE's Instructional System Should be used in Situations in which the receiving pOpulation has access to literacy training and all other public educational institutions that provide credentials. 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NONFORMAL EDUCATION INVENTORY FORM CUESTIONARIO DE ENTIDADES DE ADIESTRAMIENTO EXTRA-ESCOLAR Nombre de la Institucion o Programa Auspiciador (gobierno, organismo internacional, otros) Ubicacion Geogréfica Ciudad Departamento Nombre del (de la) Director(a) Direccion de la Institucién Teléfono Casilla de Correos Cuéndo inicié sus labores Fecha #Estudiantes cuando se iniciaron las labores #Estudiantes actuales Personal docente inicial Personal docente actual Como y por qué el programa fue iniciado: (filosoffa, metas, razon de iniciar) Metas actuales del programa Tipo de entrenamiento (pre-empleo, adiestramiento en servicio, no—laboral). Describir: Descripcién de la poblacion receptors Preparacion anterior de la poblacion receptora Duracion del entranamiento (horario, distribucion semanal, semanas, etc.) Técnicas de comunicacién (metodologia, estrategias, técnicas) 184 185 16. Historia de la Institucion/Programa l7. Como se administra el programa (estilo de trabajo) l8. Descripcién del entrenamiento (incluye temas, técticas, técnicas efectivas, técnicas no efectivas, matricula, materiales audio- visuales) l9. Presupuesto (fecha) Costo del programa global Administracion Costo por estudiante Capital (edificio, equipo, etc.) 20. Apoyo financiero (duracion) (Gobierno, nacional, extranjero, donaciones, préstamos, en especie, etc.) 21. Evaluacion del entrevistado respecto al impacto de su programa. (Lecciones significativas, éxitos, fracasos, experiencias comparativas). 22. LCuél es la contribucién o lecciones que puede aportar su programa para el desarrollo del pals? (Positiva y negativa, recursos humanos, papel en el desarrollo.) Fecha: Lugar: Firma: Nota: ZTiene Ud. algunos documentos o ejemplos de su trabajo? APPENDIX C AUDIO/VISUAL AID PLAN 0255 do ZOCaEume OwXu... Ocodbv \OHQD< 186 APPENDIX D PRETEST - POSTTEST FOR TRAINING OF PARAPROFESSIONALS PRETEST - POSTTEST FOR TRAINING OF PARAPROF‘ESSIONALS TLIT DP EHTKALR Y SALIDA DEL AUXILIAM “"~.‘ .:6 IAEIl’I-I‘III-N' [1“IU\: OIOOIOIOOQOIOOIUOI 00...!OOIODOOOODIIII'IOOI. "V .T-“~;:-I-'l~: 000......UIICOUOOI'OCOIOI OI O I O IODOOOOIUOC IIO 1)E VYJ‘lchEI‘IJ'Ith1:COOOCOIOIII Tl;‘rI-‘ ‘ET: .CIOUIIICIOOIICCOI. Iur'L‘iywnty d-KOJtruré el uso J: In; sifuicnte: cstrat-giag y formulurios: .- .IT E9ITfl In -------------- Ho sate. 3 -------------- rcgnxlulu ------------ Pic“. V!T*VLIFC Ur rai~: Huririv.?a qnw no POHHV‘ v1 USO. . Jr: .: liL*:a a cer e] vanfienido da cann lamina del rotnrolio. 11.;- J) Hw3: gu Charla. ) T.~3Tra la lu.hu;. \ i. uIcu IIwgfllnta . .- EITW' l 3. -------------- Hc :auc. . -------------- Legu1a1. . -------------- Jicn. Lo “2 -: Tinni1'jI.I:; qlu: no cwnnch: c; 11:0. “;y;v: gmwc ja'xr a LOGO; 3 Auju qu: cl jucjo 5c vuelvw couIOLiLivo y no na-c 'LLI lix' rvgjl.unc!.to. 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