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A TAGMEMIC CLA'SE ANALYSIS OF MANDARIN CHINESE

by
Cameron Jay Beatty

A Thesis

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

Master of Arts

Department of Linguistics and Oriental
and African Languages

1970

ABSTRACT

A Tagmemic Clause Analysis of Mandarin Chinese

by .
Cameron Jay Beatty

The study of Mandarin Chinese clause types has been
undertaken from the point of view of Tagmemic theory and
analytical technique. Using the text of a Chinese fairy
tale, "The Cowherd and the Weaver-girl", as a corpus,
this thesis analyzes the number and types of clauses
contained therein, and discusses the relationships which
obtain among them.

Analysis reveals a total of fifteen contrastive clause
types. These are treated in three distinct groups:

1) 'Basic'; 2) Derivative, Group A; and 5) Derivative,
Group B. The relationships among these three groups of
clause types are discussed and illustrated. Also dis—
cussed in non-contrastive clause variation, which is
carried out through the use of peripheral tagmemes and/or
the factor of dependency.

Finally, the results of the analysis are discussed
in terms of their usefulness to both teachers and students
of Chinese. It is concluded that such a systematized
knowledge of the clause types of Mandarin Chinese and
their interrelationships facilitates manipulation of

the grammatical patterns of the language.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to express my gratitude
to my guidance committee, Chairman Ruth M.
Brend, James P. Wang, and David Lockwood,
for patience, corrections and advice
freely given me during the research for
and writing of this paper. Thanks are
also due to Anthony Wang for his patience
in checking the correctness of the ex-
amples used in the paper. Others, in-
cluding my Chinese teachers here and in
Taiwan, my Chinese friends, and especial-
ly my wife, Jean, have led and encouraged
me in my study and interest in the
Chinese language, and to them, also,
my sincere thanks.

ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

I O II‘TTRODUCTION. O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 O O O I O O O O O I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O l
A. The PrOblem. O O O 0 I O O O O O O O O 0 O O O O O O O I O O O O O O I O O O O O O O O O O O 0 .1
B. The Theoretical Framework.............................2

C. The DatAOCOOOOOOOOOOOOO0.......0OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOS

II. THE ANALYSIS...........................................7
A. Basic Clause Types....................................8
B. Derivative Clause Types, Group A.....................l4
C. Non-contrastive Clause Variants......................l7
D. Derivative Clause Types, Group B.....................2l
E. Dependent Variants...................................27

III. FILLERS OF CLAUSE LEVEL TAGMEMES.....................31
A. Fillers of Nuclear Tagmemes..........................51
B. Peripheral Tagmeme Fillers...........................55

Iv. SUPIMARY AAND CONCLUSIC)NSOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO0.00....35

APPENDIX I, ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS......................59
A. Clause Types.........................................59
B. Nuclear Tagmemes.....................................39
C. Peripheral Tagmemes..................................4O
D. Dependent Variants...................................40

A})PENDIX II, THE CORPUS...0.0.0...O.O00.0.0000000000000000041

A. TeXtOOOCOOCOOOOOCOOOOOOO0......00.00.000.00000000000044

BIBLIOGRAPHY...............................................56
A. Method and Theory....................................56
B. Language Texts Surveyed..............................56
C. Previous Analyses....................................56

iii

I. INTRODUCTION

A. The Problem

Most 'grammars' of Mandarin Chinese written prior
to the Second world War were teaching texts, consisting
of phrase drills and English—Chinese comparisons and para-
phrases. So far as I have been able to discover, little for-
mal presentation was made of the structure of the language,

except in reference to existing grammars of other languages.

 

A typical example is The Chinese Language and How to Learn
1:, by Sir Walter Hillier. This was a "self-teaching"
text, with the only discussion of structure being a Latin-
based treatment of the "moods" and "tenses" of the lan-
guage (pp.64-70). This kind of approach is directly ana-
logous to traditional Latin-based treatments of English
grammar, in which the facts of the latter are made to fit
the categories of the former.

With the Second World War, and a heightened national
interest in the Far East, Mandarin Chinese language texts
became more scientifically oriented, at least to the
extent that they no longer discussed such topics as 'tense'
and 'mood'. (See, for example, Chao, 1948, and the series
of elementary Chinese texts published by the Yale Univer—
sity Institute of Far Eastern Languages.) The texts were,
however, still primarily phrase books; structure was
learned by induction (Chao, 1948, p.55), and little or no

attention was given to overt syntactic analysis above the

phrase level.

Since world War II, linguists have begun presenting
formal analyses of various aspects of the structure of
Mandarin Chinese. These analyses have dealt with structure
below the clause level (e.g. Hockett, 1947 and 1950, and
Ho, 1966), but few descriptions have been made of the
clause structure per s3, and none of these have been done
from the point of view of tagmemic theory.** This is the
task to which the following is directed: a tagmemic analysis
and description of the clause types of Mandarin Chinese.

B. The Theoretical Framework

1. The analysis will follow the tagmemic model
originated by Kenneth L. Pike in his Lgnggggg ig Eglgtign

£9 a Unified Theory pf the Structure 9; Human Behavior

 

 

 

(Rev. ed., 1967), and the procedures suggested by that

model, presented by Longacre in his Grammar Discovery

 

Procedures (1964) and by Elson and Pickett in their

Introduction 39 Morphology and Syntax (1962).

 

Tagmemic theory is based on the view that language,
as human behavior, is patterned behavior, and that the
patterns are discoverable. Language is seen to be "struc-

tured in three semiautonomous but interlocking modes,

1

 

** One such non-tagmemic analysis is LChinese Lexotactics:
a Stratificational View , a 1967 dissertation by Richard
Thomas Thompson. In his analysis, Thompson treats three
clause types of Mandarin Chinese, which are discovered "by
doing linguistic analysis"(p.l). The methods and pro—
cedures used for determining these clause types are not
discussed at any length, however, and the reader is left
with the impression that the numbers and kinds of clause
types have been taken as given by the analyst.

 

 

 

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phonology, grammar, and lexicon" (Longacre, 1964, p.7).

Each of these modes is sufficiently distinctive that it

can and should be separated out and analyzed separately

from the others. This is not to say, however, that analysis
of one of the modes will of itself lead to a full under-
standing of all the patterns of a language without reference
to the other two modes, nor that relationships between the
modes are unimportant or should be ignored.

Within each mode there is a hierarchy of levels of
structure. These levels are "quaSi-absolutes", in that
while there are etic criteria for differentiating the
various levels within a mode, "the specific numbers of
levels which are structurally relevant to any one language
are emically determined." Thus, "one language may contain
more structurally-relevant levels than another, and the
levels may have somewhat-~but not completely--distinct
diagnostic characteristics" (Pike, l967,'p.457). The
units of each level are then studied with respect to their
contrastive-identificational characteristics (Pike's
feature mode), their variants (Pike's manifestation mode),
and their distribution in sequence (i.e., in the same or
higher or lower levels), in class, and in field, or matrix
(Pike's distribution mode).

The basic unit in the grammatical system of a language
is the tagmeme. This unit is defined by Elson and Pickett
as "the correlation of a grammatical function or slot
with a class of mutually substitutable items occurring

in that slot. This slot-class correlation has a distri-

bution within the grammatical hierarchy of a language"
(1962, p.57). A morpheme sequence "which is itself analyz-
able in terms of constituent tagmemes, is said to constitute
a construction" (Elson and Pickett, 1962, p.59). Thus,
for example, we may have noun phrase constructions (them-
selves analyzable into constituent tagmemes), being a-
nalyzed as fillers of tagmemes in clause level constructions.
Longacre (1960, p.64) states that "the cataloguing and
description of these structurally contrastive syntagmemes
[constructions] may be considered to be one of the major
goals of grammatical analysis."

2. The clause is defined by Longacre (1964. p.55)
as "a class of syntagmemes of a median hierarchical or-
der ranking above such syntagmemes as the phrase and word
and below such syntagmemes as the sentence and discourse.
It may be non—centered, centered, or relator—axis." In
addition, it must express some such meaning as predication
or equation. The purpose of grammatical analysis at the
clause level, then, is to analyze and describe the clauses
of a language, in terms of their contrastive-identification-
al characteristics (emic types), their variants (etic
variants of emic types), and their distribution, as out-
lined above.

Minimal contrast between clause level constructions
has been established in different ways by different a-
nalysts, although all have agreed on the necessity for a
two-fold distinction. Pike (1967, p.472 and elsewhere)

uses either two internal structural differences, or one

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difference in internal structure and one external, dis-
tributional difference to provide the necessary minimal
contrasts, or one internal difference plus a difference
in transform potential. Longacre (1964, pp.20-25) ob-
jects to the use of external distribution as a criterion,
and only allows the use of either two internal structural
differences or one internal difference and one difference
in transform potential (p.19). Both Pike and Longacre,
however,insist that at least one of the internal struc-
tural differences must involve the nuclei of the con-
structions in question. In my analysis of Mandarin
Chinese clauses, I have followed Longacre and Pike's
practice of using transform potential and internal dif-
ferences as criteria for separating clause types, but have
not included Pike's distributional differences as another.

C. The Data

The data for this analysis is taken from a recording
of a Chinese fairy tale. It is in a narrative style,
and is delivered as if being told to another native Speaker.
The informant is a woman, about thirty years of age, and
an educated native of Peking. Additional data from other
sources (from a taped discussion on the problems of teach-
ing Chinese, and, directly, from an informant) will be used
as necessary for corroborative evidence and as a means
of checking the conclusions of my analysis.

The primary data and all examples will be written in

the Yale System of Romanization. This system is not

necessarily better than any of the several others, but
it adequately reflects the sound system of the language
and is the one used and recognized by most American stu-
dents of the language.

The citation code after the examples used in this paper
refers to the parenthesized page numbers and lines of the

corpus in Appendix II.

7.
II. THE ANALYSIS

In the grammatical hierarchy of Mandarin Chinese, the
clause ranks between the phrase level and the sentence
level. In the course of the following presentation it
will become necessary to make at least passing reference
to these other levels (particularly in discussions of
clause distribution), so it would be well to present
at least a working definition of phrase and sentence
before proceding.

Longacre (1964) defines phrase as ranking above the
word and/or stem and below the clause in the hierarchy,
and expressing such relationships as head-modifier, linkage
of elements, etc. In addition, the phrase does not ne-
cessarily demonstrate a structural meaning of predication,
equation, etc. In discussing the fillers of clause level
tagmemes, when I state that a slot is filled by a phrase
of some kind, 'phrase' is to be understood as meaning
'potential phrase'. For example, Noun Phrase may be
manifested by only a noun, but if so, it must be potentially
expandable into a phrase.

The Chinese sentence is often coterminous with the
clause, but they differ basically in their expanded forms:
the clause is expanded by its particular peripheral tagmemes
(see below), while the sentence expands by the addition of
slots filled by other clauses which have a coordinate,
subordinate, etc. relation to it. Further, while a clause
is considered to express predication of some kind, the

sentence is not required to, and this is why non-clause

.\

,r...

sentences such as single word replies to questions (e.g.
dgéi 'right') are not considered in this study. (See Pike,
1967, pp.441-42.)

Certain other structural elements have been excluded
from this study as irrelevant to clause structure. These
are the sentence level markers of sequence (e.g. hégléi
'then, later', jypg 'then'), reason (e.g. yipyéi 'because',
gwiy: 'therefore'), coordination (e.g. yé 'also', héi
'still'), condition (e.g. yégghg....dg hflé 'if') etc., which
are mechanisms for expanding sentence level constructions,
and are thus outside the scope of this paper.

In the presentation of clause types and variants, I
have found it beneficial to make use of matrices. This
technique, originated by Pike (1962) and incorporated
by Longacre into his Grammar Discovery Procedures, greatly
reduces redundancy in presentation of grammatical struc-
tures, as well as making relationships and gaps in the
analysis more obvious.

A. Basic Clause Types

Analysis of the data yields seven clause types which
may be considered basic in Mandarin Chinese. (The term
'basic' is used here and throughout this paper to indicate
a particular group cf clause types. It is not to be taken
as indicating those clause types which are somehow literally
basic to Chinese clause structure. I have used the term
as a presentational device only, which enables me to make
generalizations about relationships between clause types.

See Section B, below.) These basic clause types are the

Descriptive, the Equative, the Locative, the Existential,
the Non-transitive, the Transitive, and the Directional.
The feature formulas for the clause types in this section,
below, will be given in nuclear form. Longacre (1964,
ftn. p.19, and elsewhere) defines a nuclear tagmeme as .

one which is obligatOry, or Optional but diagnostic of

 

construction types. "Especially on the clause and phrase
levels (where procedures are explicitly set up in terms
of nucleus versus periphery) we often encounter option-
al tagmemes of considerable relevance in defining syn-
tagmemes. Such tagmemes can now be considered to be nuclear
although optional. We thus evolve a trichotomous class-
ification: (1) Nuclear and obligatory, (2) Nuclear and
optional, (3) Peripheral (and optional)" (ftn., p.19).

All basic Chinese clause types contrast in their
predicates. That is, the predicate in each basic clause
type is peculiar to that construction type and may be said
to be diagnostic of it. Longacre (1964, p.54) says that
the contrast between given predicators may be "part of a
broader pattern of contrast" among verbs, and countable
as a structural contrast. In general, however, other
internal structural distinctions are relied upon to
provide sufficient evidence of contrast between clause
types. (For my full definition of contrasts necessary
for the establishing of different clause types, see I.B.,
above.)

Fillers of tagmemes have been left out of the fol-

lowing and similar formulas. This has been done for

lO.
simplicity of presentation only, and the presence of a
functional symbol in a formula for a clause type is to be
understood as implying the entire class of fillers of
that function. Thus,;the functional symbols are tagmeme
labels. Fillers of Tagmemes and Symbols and Abbreviations

are listed in Chapter III and Appendix I, respectively.

1. Desc cl = +Si :Comp +Pd (7I—J)
wh chyung
I (am) poor

The descriptive clause consists of an obligatory subject-
as-item, an Optional comparison tagmeme, and an obligatory
descriptive predicate. The comparison tagmeme, which is

not necessarily unique to this clause type, is manifested

by a comparative marker (e.g. 9: 'compare') and a compared item.

In its expanded form, the clause would be:

+Si iComp +Pd
v V Y /
wo bi ni chyung
I compare you poor
I am poorer than you
2. Eq Cl = +Si +Pe +Eq (2F)
\ V V /
wg shr nide hau pengyou
I be you-de’* godd friend

I an your good friEnd
The equative clause consists of an obligatory subject-
as-item, an obligatory equative predicate, and an obligatory
equation tagmeme. Thompson (1967) states that the equative
predicate is optional, not obligatory. this is not cor-

roborated by the data in my corpus. There were no occurrences

 

“ For convenience in presentation, 1 have not attempted

to translate de and several other untranslatable gram-
matical particles, either in examples or in the corpus. They
are explained in the introduction to Appendix II, the Corpus.

ll.
of predicate-less equative clauses in the corpus. In
discussions with an informant, however, it was learned
that there are some circumstances (ill-defined at best)
in which it is possible to omit the equative predicate.

The circumstances under which this phenomenon may occur
seem to be delimited by something outside the clause level.
I suspect that a detailed study of these so—called pre-
dicate-less equative clauses would show them to be a part
of the sentence or the discourse level, in the same way
that one—word replies to questions relate to these levels
(see p.8, above). Complete certainty on this issue would
probably not come out without a complete analysis of the
discourse level. It is for these reasons that I have

decided to consider the Chinese sentence

Si (-)Pe Eq
ta Shanghai ren
he Shanghai person

He is from Shanghai,
to be a dependent variant of the independent Eq cl which
has a zero manifestation of the predicate tagmeme.
This phenomenon is discussed more fully in my treatment

of dependent clauses (Chapter II, Section E).

3. Loc cl = :Si +Pl +Locl
tamen dzai syangsya
they be-at country

They were in the country.
The locative clause consists of an obligatory subject-
as-item, an obligatory locative predicate, and an ob—

ligatory locationl tagmeme.

l2.

4. Ex c1 : +Loc +Px +Si (l2G—H)
l - 2
r l I ' v V V 9' .
Nyoulangde pangbyar you 1yangge syau syingsying

Nyoulang—dg side there-is two small star
At Nyoulang's side there were two small stars.
This clause consists of an Optional tagmeme of location,
an obligatory existential predicate (usually translated
as 'there is'), and an obligatory subject-as-item tagmeme.
This clause construction type created a number of
problems in the analysis, due to its apparent similarity
to two other clause types. One the one hand, it bears a
close semantic resemblance to the locative clause described
above, and might have been considered a variant of it.
However, the optional location2 tagmeme of the existential
clause contrasts with the obligatory locationl tagmeme in
the locative clause, in both position within the clause and
in manifesting set, as indicated by the subscript numbers
which occur with them in the formulas. Beyond that (but
perhaps equally significant), the nature of the predicate
yfig 'existence' suggests something quite different from
'existence-in—a-place',indicated.by the locative predicate.
The other, more remote, possibility would be to con-

sider this existential clause a kind of transitive clause, so

that instead of iLoc2 +Px +Si (5M)
\ V '7 -' "
nar you yijyan yishang
that place there-is a dress,
we would have +Sa +Ptrans +object
that place have a dress

There was a dress there,
thus giving some kind of life to what is essentially an
inanimate entity. The primary reason for even considering

this possibility is the fact that there are two predicate

I.

J
.1"
O
,_
l

 

15.
morphemes yép in Chinese. One means 'there is' as above,
and the other is the transitive predicate 'have'. Here
again, however, the dual structural contrast, evident in
the above juxtaposition of nuclear formulas, allows their
separation: Loc2 is Optional but Se is obligatory; man—
ifesting sets for Loc2 and Sa are different; and the
transitive predicate is filled by a large, open set Of

predicates, while Px is filled by a closed set.

5. N-tr cl = +Sa +Pn
t3 dzgule
he walk-lg
He went.

The non-transitive clause consists of an Obligatory
subject-as-actor tagmeme and an obligatory non-transitive

predicate.

6. Tr cl1 = +Sa +Pt +0
V \ Y-‘f’ \
wo gausung n1 yige gushr
I tell you a story.

The basic transitive clause consists of an obligatory
subject-as-actor, an obligatory transitive predicate, and

an Optional object tagmeme.

7o Dir C1 =
+Sa +Source +Goal +Pdir +Purp +Pdir
.. -/ ,\ \- \ \ :- 1— / .-
ta tsung Jer dau nar chyu kan tade pengyou
he from here to there go see he-de friend

He went from here to there to see his friend.

The directional clause consists of an obligatory subject-
as-actor, an Optional source tagmeme, an Optional goal
tagmeme, an obligatory directional predicate, an optional
purpose tagmeme, and an Optional reduplication of the

directional predicate.

’-

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.
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r
k .
,
.
I
, ~
. a.
’.. e
' 4
o
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—- n
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J
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O
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Q '
--

14.

B. Derivative Clause Types, Group A

Several of the above basic clause types have derivatives
which are peculiar to them, but which, due to the presence
of a dual structural contrast, are considered contrastive
clause types. They demonstrate the transform potential
which I have used as a contrastive feature in the analysis:
i.e., as derivatives they undergo structural change (ob-
ligatory difference in word order, obligatory presence or
absence of a particular nuclear tagmeme, etc.) which
is quite different from the simple inclusion of per-
ipheral tagmemes in the non-contrastive variants.

1. Ex c12, whose structure is +Si +neg Px,
may be derived from Ex cll, which = _+_Loc2 +Px +Si.
For example, we may have an Ex cll like

+Loc2 +Px +Si
-‘ i V ': \
nar mei you yishang le
there not there-is dress ~13
There was no longer a dress there,
transformed into Ex c12:

+Si +neg Px
.. \ V

(harde) yishang mei youile

(there-d3) dress not there-is -13

The dress was no longer there.
On the clause level, the structural contrasts are seen
in the obligatory difference in the order of the tagmemes
and in the Obligatory absence of the clause level location
tagmeme. (The location tagmeme may occur on the phrase
level as part of a syntagmeme manifesting the subject
tagmeme.) Furthermore, this derivative only occurs as a

negative, and the predicate must contain the change—of-

status marker 13.

15.
2. The Tr 011’ with a structure of +Sa +Pt :0,
has a number of derivatives which are in emic contrast
with their base.

a. In the Object emphasis clause the structure is:

Tr cl = +Sa +Oe +Pte
2 V - I / .. / v
wo yimau chyan dou meiyou
I one-dime money all not—have
I don't even have a dime.

In this clause, which places grammatical emphasis on the
specifier in the object tagmeme, contrast is indicated by
the obligatory change in word order and by the obligatory
presence of the phrase level includer d§g or yE in the
emphatic variant of the transitive predicate. Moreover,
the structure of the object tagmeme is restricted in that

a specifier must occur. Compare

Tr cll +Sa +Pt +0
-— - /, v "v /
ta dou meiyou shemma pengyou
he all not-have what(any) friend
He didn't have any friends.
with
Tr c12 +Sa +Oe +Pte
.. V I — I, v
ta shemma engyou dou meiyou

he what(any friend all not-have
He didn't have a single friend.

b. Another derivative of Tr cll is the passive
clause type. This construction does not occur in the data
and apparently is relatively infrequent in free speech,

but it is attestable in the language.

Tr c1 = +Sg +Agent +Pt
3 V s. .. v
wo bei ta dale
I by he hit—lg

I was hit by him.

This clause is characterised by the occurrence of an ob-

l6.
ligatory agent tagmeme which is manifested by an agentive
phrase, an obligatory difference in word order, and a
subject-as-goal rather than a subject-as-actor tagmeme.
0. Still another derivative transitive clause type

is the so-called bg-construction:

Tr cl4 = +Sa: ++Spec0 +Pt
w‘6 a; 331 ge ma sy‘ésyala’i
I be this speech write-down

I write dBwn what is said.
The bg-construction is characterized by the obligatory
specified object, and by the Obligatory placement Of the
object tagmeme before the transitive predicate.

From Professor James P. Wang, Chairman of the
Michigan State University Linguistics Department, I have
learned that there is a restriction on the occurrence of
the bé-construction: if the direct object of the basic
transitive clause is preceded by an unstressed y: (one),

that clause may not occur as a bg-construction. For example:

Tr cll +Sa +Pt :0
v v V /
wo Vgei ni chyan
I give you money,

the direct object of which receives primary sentence stress,

may occur as a bg-construction:

Tr c14 +Sa +SpecO +Pt +IO
v v I V. ‘3’
wo ba chyan gei hi
I pg money give you

I give you money;
but +Sa +Pt +IO +DO
wo gei ni yikwai chyan
I give you one-piece money
I give you one dollar,

which contains an unstressed y; (one) as part of the direct

object, may not occur as a ba-construction.

17.

C. Non-contrastive Clause Variants

Chinese clause construction types may vary by ex-
pansion through optional inclusion of peripheral tagmemes
(e.g. time, modification, etc.), and/or by Optional differ-
ences in word order. In this section of the paper, I will
first present and discuss a chart which indicates the po-
tential occurrence of peripheral tagmemes common to most
of the Chinese clause types. Following the chart and il-
lustrative examples, I will discuss those variants which
occur as results of differences in word order.

Chart I is a citation matrix showing the peripheral
tagmemes and their inclusion in the contrastive clause
types discussed thus far. The vertical axis contains
the clause types, and the horizontal axis contains the
peripheral tagmemes. The cells of the matrix are filled
by X (actual occurrence), 0 (non-occurrence), or - (expected
but not in the data).

The formulas given for the examples in the following
discussion will not indicate the Obligatory or optional
nature of the tagmemes involved. This measure has been
adopted in an attempt to further reduce redundancy in
presentation; since the nuclear tagmemes for a given clause
type are already known (from A, above), and since periph-
eral tagmemes and restrictions on their occurrence are
indicated in Chart I, it becomes superfluous, if not con-
fusing, to restate this information.

The time tagmeme (T) occurs before or after the sub-

ject tagmeme, but not both before and after the subject

Occurrence of Peripheral Tagmemes

CHART I

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

T . ModI Mod2 , Ben
Ex cl1 X X 0 0
Ex cl2 X - O 0
Eq cl X — O O
Tr cl1 X X - X
T l - - - -
r c 2
Tr cl4 X - - -
N-tr cl - - X 0
Desc cl X - - X
Loc cl X X — -
Dir cl X - - —

 

18.

The order in which I first presented the contrastive clause

types has been altered in the chart, so as to group both

related clause types and empty cells.

c-..

-“‘H

, ,
--
.
-._A
.
-'~
I“
.
—.—
...s,
.
.

l9.
simultaneously. The class of fillers of this tagmeme
varies according to its position within the clause. If
it occurs after the subject, it may only be filled by a
time word (e.g. gyégggéi 'now') or time phrase (e.g. gfiigg
ghéhig 'that time); if it occurs before the subject, it

may be filled by either of these or by a relator-axis clause.

Examples: +Si +T +Pe +Eq (2G-H)
V-l /. ‘7' ~— -r .
wo ywanlai sh} yige tyanshangde syingsying
I before be a heaven-de star

I was originally a heavenly star.

+T +Sa +Pt +0 -(2B—C)
'f '0 'K \. j —
d; yi_tszwne1 e nyou
gen t phwo hw __ J _ j \
de shrhou ta you yidyar pa

the one time that cow

to he say speech

de time he have some fear

The first time that cow spoke to him, he was a little afraid.
The benefactive tagmeme is manifested by a phrasal unit

which occurs between the subject and the predicate of a clause,

usually immediately preceding the predicate. Example:

+Si iBen +Pd (lD-E)
tade gEge sgudz dwEi t3 - hgn buhau
he-ge brother sister-in-law to he very not-good
His Brother and sister-in-law were very unkind to him.

Modl and Mod2 are movable and may occur in various
places within a clause, thus creating a number of non-
contrastive clause variants. These two tagmemes are suf-
ficiently similar in function that they might be considered
members of one class, Adverb. Also, they are mutually
exclusive in post-Pn position: +Sa +Pn iMod

2

t3' dzgude tai kwaile
he walk-g3 too fast-lg
He walked too fast.

20.

and +Sa +Pn :Modl
ta laile San tsz
he came three times

However both may occur in various places within a clause,
and it is for this reason that they are considered separate
tagmemes. When both occur contiguously in a clause, their

positions are not interchangable; their order must be Modl,Mod2:

+Sa iFreq :Mod2 +Pt :0
t3 Changchang hen gausyingde Chang gEr
he often very happy-d5 sing song

He often very happily sings songs.

In addition, Mod2 may occur in pre-S position, while Mod1

may not: iMod2 +Sa +Pt :0 (BA-B)
j § iyéng , manmEnd e‘ _ v .. V ,
yityan, yityan, yityande, timen you yidyar chyanle

this manner, slow-slow-gg,

one day, one day, one day-d3, they have some money -13

In this way, very slowly,

day by day by day, they came to have a little money.

The peripheral tagmemes which comprise the horizontal

axis of Chart I include thdse tagmemes already discussed,
which are clearly clause level tagmemes. Negative and
emphasis, which are marginally relevant to clause structure,
are not considered to function as separate tagmemes on the
clause level, but rather function as components of the
negative and emphatic variants of the tagmemes of predica-
tion, time, modification, etc. Thus, each of the tagmemes
noted may be emphaSized and/or negated (with the restric-
tions stated below), and these manifestations would be
considered allo-tagmas.

Emphasis may occur immediately before the head of the

noun or verb phrase filling subject, predicate, and any

21.

peripheral tagmeme. It emphasizes that tagmeme in which it

occurs.
Example: waiT +Si +Pl +Loc1
\ /- .- \. V...
shr dzwotyan ta dzai wo jya
emph yesterday he be-at I house
It was yesterday that he was at my house.
or :T +Si +Pl +Locl

dzw6ty§n shr ta dzai a; ij
yesterday emph he be-at I house
Yesterday it was he who was at my house.
Negative, on the other hand, may occur within the
subject and time tagmemes, only when an emphasis is also
included therein. Whether or not there is co-occurring
emphasis, negative may occur as part of the predicate,

Modl, Moda, and benefactive tagmemes.

Examples: +Sa :Modl +Pt :0

t5 bu Chang sth hwa
he not often say speech
He doesn't speak very often.

+Sa :Mod1 +Pt :0

sh} t3 bu Chang sth hwa
emph he not often say speech
It is he who doesn't speak very often.

+Sa :NOdl +Pt +0

bi shr ta hi chang sth aw;
not emph he not often say speech
It is not he who doesn't speak very often.
D. Derivative Clause Types, Group B
Each of the clauses discussed thus far may also occur
as a relator-axis clause or a question, and some may occur
as imperative clauses. The clauses in this grouping con-
trast with each other, with the basic clause types, and

with the derivative clause types discussed in B, above.

As a group, they form a sub-class of derivative clauses,

22.
functionally separate from those in Section B. For pur—
poses of discussion, this class of clause types will be

referred to as Derivative Clause Types, Group B.

l. Rel-ax cl = +Axis:any clause +Relator:time
e.g. +Axis:Dir cl +Re1ator:time
ta la: de shrhOu
he come d3 time

When he came,...
The relator—axis clause consists of an axis tagmeme, which
may be manifested by any of the clause types discussed
thus far, and a relator of time. The relator may consist
of a time phrase (e.g. yihfin 'after', néitygg y§ 1:333

marker ~13 affixed to the predicate of the axis.

Example: +Axis +Relator
Sa Pt: 0 Relator
— I \. _ . ( \
ta nale neige dungsyi yihou
he take-1e that thing after

After he tOOk that thing,...
Multiple occurrence of the relators is restricted in that
if one of the first two listed above (time phrase or 33
§h§h§g) occurs, the other may not. Either may Optionally
occur with the ~13 in the predicate of the axis, and the ~13
alone may function as the time relator.

This clause type only occurs as a filler of a clause
level time tagmeme, a distributional feature which is
relevant, but not acceptable as diagnostic of contrast
within my analysis.

2. Questions. There are two ways of forming yes-no

questions in Mandarin Chinese. One of these involves the

.‘J

23.
use of an interrogative variant of the predicate tagmeme,
and the other requires the placing of the question marker
~ma in clause-final position. Both question forms appear

to be in relatively free variation with each other.

Ql = +Si +Pd :Question
t5 131 ma
he tired ma

Is he tired?

or

Ql = +Sa Z +Pt :0 :Question
hi yau neige ma
you want that 33
Do you want that (one)?

Q2 a +Sa +InterrogPd
t3 lEibulEi
he tired-not-tired
Is he tired?

or

Q2 = +Sa +InterrogPt :0
V \ \ \.
ni yaubuyau neige
you want-not-want that

Do you want that (one)?
A variant of Q2 questions occurs with three-tagmeme clauses
(subject, predicate, and object or equation, etc.), and
involves the occurrence of the interrogative predicate

tagmeme a3*a discontinuous tagmeme.

Example: Q2 = +Sa +InterrogPt :0 +InterrogPt
V
ni yau nSige bfiyau
you want that not-want

Do you want that (one)?
Q2 does not occur in aanegative form. Only Q1 may occur

as a negative question.

24.

Examples: +Si +Pd :Question
t5 bulei ma
he not-tired ma

Isn't he tired?

or
+Sa +Pt :0 :Question

Y \ \.

ni buyau neige ma
you not-want that ma

Don't you want that (one)?
Content questions (who, what, when, etc.) are formed
in the lexicon, rather than syntactically, as are the
yes~no questions. That is, question words rather than
contrastive grammatical patterns indicate their inter-
rogative nature. Structurally, they are identical with
the indicative clause forms.

Example: +Sa +Pt :O'

Y \ v
ni yau shemma
you want what

What do you want?

3. The imperative is a command form, and is indicated
by the filler of the subject slot, which can only be
filled by the second person pronoun 'you'.

Imper = +Sa +Pt .10

v o .\.

n1 chr jeige

you eat this

Eat this.
Imperatives frequently occur as subject-less clauses. It
is possible to consider this phenomenon as either an Op-
tional non-occurrence of the subject tagmeme, or as a
dependent clause variant. I have chosen the latter a1~

ternative because, in the first place, the subject-less

imperativesis structurally identical with the class of

25.
dependent clause variants, and secondly, the imperative
has been grouped with the question forms (to which it is
functionally similar) and with relator—axis clauses, all
of which may occur as subject—less dependent clauses.

This greatly simplifies presentation, since it allows all
subject-less clauses to be discussed at the same time
without distorting the analysis.

Chart II is a citation matrix indicating which of the
eleven contrastive clause types in Chart I may have Rel—ax,
Q1, Q2, or Imper as derivatives. It is convenient to
View Chart II as representing a potential for multipli-
cation, by the factors which form its horizontal axis, of
the (potentially expanded) clauses in Chart I. Thus it is
possible to begin with a clause type such as

Tr cll : +Sa +Pt :0
ta sth hwa
he say Speech,

add any of the peripheral tagmemes in Chart I (e.g. T,

Mod Ben):

21
Tr cl : +T +Sa +Mod +Ben +Pt +0
1 - I .— .. V - c 2 -\ V I \
dzwotyan ta hen gausyingde dwei ni shwo hwa
yesterday he very happy-d3 to you say speech,
and then multiply this by Rel-ax, Q1, Q2, or Imper:

Tr cll'Ql: T +Sa :Mod2 :Ben +Pt :0 :Questio:

dzwgtyan ta hEn gausyingde dwEi hi sth hwa 1e ma
yesterday he very happy-de to you say speech-l3 ma
Did he speak to you happin yesterday?

....

no-

26.
'CHART II

Derivative Clause Types, Group B

Rel-ax Q1 Q2 Imper

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Ex c11 X X X 0
Ex 012 X X 0 0
Eq cl X X X 0
Tr cl1 X X X X
Tr c12 X ' X X 0
Tr cl3 X X 0 O
Tr clu X X 0 . X
N-tr cl X X X X
Desc cl X X X X-neg"
Loc cl x ' x x o
Dir cl X X X X

 

(Subscript l'or nothing a basic clause type
subscript 2 or more a Derivative Clause Type, Group A

‘* When derived into imperative form, the Desc cl may only
be derived into a negative imperative and not a positive
imperative.

Desc cl-Imper ni bye p3
you not afraid
Don't be afraid

 

 

 

-, . .
e- ,
,., , .. A - _._ , _ - — _ , -. -. < - o . ..,
I
1
'
, » _. u . . - V- - . ~-¢r .. »-.. - —.. ‘ A-.- g--.
I
n
A
_ - . - a.._ - Fr - - . , . v - .~.—¢
< _ ‘ l
. ‘,
_ l - , ,
‘- v , I IV _ ~— _* 7 -. VA “ I ~" -u .—
‘ - ,
l i 4‘
, ..x - , H ...7 . - , .. 7 - 4 - . . x _. , . ,
V‘ -c
,
--.._. .—. ,7 W - - . . fl. . "‘- —.- -.... . - . . - ... 7‘
- - .
. .
- .. a ._ _ .. _ - - .. _ -_..,, . A -_ . .
‘ C
u 1 . ' .
.
fl ,
. -...-».~,4 - .7 . - .A. A; 7 , -i._ .. .— ~ i.- .fl.. ._
q w
4 .. I
‘ , ,
,- , . .i , - .. -_ . ..—‘ --‘... .- -. . -
A
I _
_ , _ . - A --_ .. -.._.‘.~ -. i .u _

. . . , .. . r - . .. .
- ' ' ' 1 v , . '
c ' '- I n
I 4 > . . l ‘- I
. > « t . . ' .
. - . .

. l .‘ . ‘.‘ -. . .‘ I. l .- y - ." .

, .

 

27.

E. Dependent Variants. Dependent clauses are not
structurally contrastive with independent clauses, i.e.,
adherence to my previously stated criterion of a dual
structural contrast does not permit calling them emic
clause types. However, they do form a class of functional
variants.

Dependent clauses are variants of independent clauses
and may fill any of several clause level slots. (See
Fillers of Clause Level Tagmemes.) They are manifested
as subject-less or predicate-less clauses. Predicate—less
clauses are apparently confined in their distribution to
levels above the clause level, while the subject-less
variants occur on the clause and higher levels. (Those
independent clauses which occur on the clause level as
dependent variants are indicated in Chart III.)

Example: Dir cl°Imper =+Ss +Pdir :Purp_ ’ ’

ni chyu na yijyan yifu
you go take a dress
Go take a dress.
In the example, the purpose tagmeme is manifested by a
Dep Tr cll.

Although sentence and discourse level phenomena are
properly.outside the scope of this paper, there is an
interesting aspect of the dependent clause and its dis-
tribution in those higher-level structures, which merits
some discussion here. The phenomenon in question is that

of clause clustering.

Pike, in his Tagmemic and Matrix Linguistics Applied

.1

28.
to Selected African Languages (1966), discusses the fact

 

that "clauses occurred in a series, or cluster, such that
several could share the subject of the first (omitted

from the remaining clauses of the series), the object of

the first (or each have its own object), and some other
tagmeme or tagmemes (e.g. Location)."(pp.5-6) A similar
situation obtains in Mandarin Chinese, where dependent
clauses appear to occur in clusters with independent clauses,

sharing at least one tagmeme with the independent clause.

E 8.t§ daije jéige nyou/chfichyu he shwéi/dzai tyan limyan
he take—fig this cow/out-go drink water/be-at field-in/
dsz ggrching/
do affair
He would take this cow out to drink water and work in the fields.
In the example, the / indicates the boundaries between
clauses. The independent clause occurs initially as (l).
(2) is a Dep Dir cl, (5) is a Dep Loc cl, and (4) is a
Dep Tr ell.

According to Pike (p.36) this phenomenon may be looked
at from a number of viewpoints: (1) Those clauses which
form the cluster ((2), (3), and (4), above) may each be
seen as constituting entire serial clauses, as variants
of independent clauses conditioned by coming in emic
clusters; (2) The clustering clauses may be said to share
a 'portmanteau' tagmeme; or (5) The entire cluster may be
considered a single complex unit. However, I have decided

to treat this phenomenon as sentence level clustering,

i.e., a string of sentence level tagmemes manifested byv

(

29.
dependent clauses which are etic variants of independent
clauses.

The major reason for handling the problem in this way
is based on presentational and pedagogical expediency.
It is much simpler to discuss a clause variant which may
function on the clause level (as, for example, the filler
of the purpose slot in a Dir cl) as well as on the sen-
tence level as part of a cluster of clauses, than it is
to bring in considerations of 'portmanteau' tagmemes or
more complex units on the clause level. This decision
is also justified by the fact that independent clauses
are distributed in similar ways, i.e., they may fill
clause level slots (as marked or unmarked relator-axis
clauses) and also are distributed on the sentence level.
Another treatment of this phenomenon may be seen in
Roberts (1968). He calls this phenomenon "zero substitutes"
(p.i., and elsewhere), and consider. it to be a part of
a system of anaphora (i.e., the ways succeeding references
to the same person, thing or concept, etc., are made within
discourse) of Mandarin Chinese. Roberts’ work is a dis—
course analysis of Mandarin Chinese, written within the
framework of stratificational theory. His main thesis is
that "there is sufficient evidence to warrant giving
zero substitutes...a formal function in the grammar"(p.4).
It is not my intention to here argue the validity
of his concept of a system of zero substitutes in Chinese

grammar. It is apparent, however, that the phenomenon of

50.

'subject-less clauses' is probably part of some kind of a
system which functions on the sentence level and is
conditioned by it. In a tagmemic clause analysis, I have
considered this phenomenon to be 'dependent variants of
independent clauses', which may function on either the clause
level or on a higher level. These dependent clauses, when
they function on the discourse level, are conditioned by
what occurs elsewhere within that level.

A more detailed study of the entire discourse level
would undoubtedly do much to clarify the question of zero

substitutes and dependency.

CHART III

Clause Types which have Dependent Variants

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Dep cl
Ex cl1 0
Ex cl2 0
Eq cl X
Tr cll X
Tr cl2 X
Tr clfi X
Tr cl4 X
N-tr cl X
Desc cl X
Loc cl X

 

Dir cl X

 

 

ya

 

 

 

31.
III. FILLERS CF CLAUSE LEVEL DAGMEMES
A. Fillers of Nuclear Tagmemes. I will begin with
a list of the nuclear formulas of the fifteen contrastive
clause types of Mandarin Chinese. Following that list,
I will list (and discuss, as necessary) the fillers of
each of the nuclear tagmemes in the formulas.

Basic clauses:

Desc cl = +Si iComp +Pd

Eq Cl = +Si +Pe +Eq

Loc cl = +Si +Pl +Locl

Ex 011 = 11.002 +Px +Si

N-tr c1 = +Sa +Pn

Tr cll = +Sa +Pt +0

Dir cl = +Sa :Source :Goal +Pdir :Purp :Pdir

Derivative clauses, Group A:

Ex C12 3 iLbC +Si +Px +5) + at} Pg 3.". r" -’
Tr 012 = +83 +Oe +Pte
Tr cl3 = +Si +Agent +Pt
Tr cl4 = +Sa +SpecO +Pt

Derivative clauses, Group B

Rel-ax = +Axiszany cl +Relator
Q1 2 +S +P +Question
Q2 = +8 +Interrogative verb

Imper = +Szgi +P

l. The classification of Se and Si is dependent
on the nature of the predicate; if the predicate is a
verb of action the subject functions as actor, and if
the predicate indicates some kind of a state of being
S functions as item. Both are filled by the same pro-
nouns and noun phrases, with the exception of the Si of

Ex cll, which may also by filled by an independent

32.

clause. (When I describe the fillers of certain slots

as phrases, they are to be understood as 'potential' phrases:
e.g., a noun phrase may be manifested as either a single
noun or a noun phrase.)

2. Predicate tagmemes of each of the basic clause
types are filled by verb phrases which are peculiar to
them. They all have distinctly different manifesting
sets. In addition, Pe, Pl, Px, and Pdir are manifested
by relatively closed sets of predicates, while Pd, Pu,
and Pt are Open sets.

3. The equation tagmeme is filled by a noun phrase.

4. The obligatory location1 tagmeme of Loc cl may
only by filled by a locative phrase (e.g. 2&3 'there',

‘ - ‘ \ _ I / Y \ .
syangsya 'country', neige nyoupeng limyan 'in that cow

 

pen').
5. The Optional location2 tagmeme of Ex cll may be
filled by either a locative phrase (as above) or a Dep Loc cl.

Example: Ex cll _ Loc2zdep loc cl Px Si
dzai tade pangbyar you yige ren

be-at he-gg side there—is a person
There was someone at his side.
6. The object tagmeme of Tr cl2 and Tr cl“ may only

be filled by a noun phrase, but that of Tr cll may be

filled by a noun phrase or any independent clause. In-

cluded in the category of clausal fillers of object slots

are direct and indirect quotations. Indirect discourse

is structurally identical to direct discourse. That is,

there is no grammatical relator to indicate which is which,

the difference between them being made evident solely by

53.
the larger verbal context. Both of these ‘quotation'
clauses are in the form of independent clauses.

Example: Tr cll = +Sa +Pt :0

t5 sth wb ting nide hwa

he say I hear you-d5 speech
This clause may be read as 'He said: "I hear what you say"t,
or as 'He said that I hear what you say', depending on the
context.

7. Source and goal tagmemes are filled by relator-
axis phrases of place: Source = +t§§§g(from) +locative
phrase; Goal 2 +d§g(to) +locative phrase.

8. The purpose slot of Dir cl is filled by
Dep Tr cll, or by Dep N-tr cl.

9. Comp of Desc cl is filled by a comparative phrase.

10. Item slot is filled by a noun phrase.

11. Agent is filled by a relator-axis phrase, the re-
lator of which is a passive marker (e.g. pg; ‘by'). The
axix may be any noun phrase.

B. Peripheral Tagmeme Fillers. The peripheral tag—
memes which function at the clause level in Mandarin
Chinese are the following: T, Modl, Mod2, and Ben.

I. The time tagmeme may be filled by a time phrase
(e.g. Exagggai 'now‘, ggigg §g§g§g 'that time', etc.) or
a relator-axis clause.

2. Modl is filled by adverbs of frequency (e.g.

I v ,_ .\
Changchang 'often'), or manner (e.g. hen gausyingde

 

 

 

'very happily').

5. Mod2 is filled by an adverb of manner (e.g. 2E2

54.
kggigg 'very quickly'), or an adverb of number.

7. Ben is filled by a relator-axis phrase, the re-
lator of which consists of a benefactive marker (e.g. iii;
'to', géi 'to', ti 'for', etc.). The axis is a noun phrase.
There are restrictions on the occurrence of the relators
with certain verbs, but that problem is more pertinent to

the phrase level and cannot be considered here.

IV. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Analysis has revealed a total inventory of fifteen
contrastive clause types in Mandarin Chinese. Seven of
these clause types may be considered 'basic' in the lan-
guage, with the remaining eight types being derived, via
transform, from members of the basic set. The clause types
were established according to the criterion of either
two internal structural differences or one internal contrast
and a difference in transform potential. External dis—
tribution was not considered as a countable contrastive
feature.

. Etic variations of these clause types are achieved

by expansion of the emic types through the inclusion of
peripheral tagmemes (time, modification, etc.) and by the
optional differing order of occurrence of these elements,
and/or by multiplication by the factor of dependency.

Clauses were found to be distributed in the clause
level and in the sentence and discourse level. This state-
ment applies to independent as well as to dependent clauses,
as may be seen in my treatments of individual clause types
and variants.

Certain aspects of the analysis have implications
for the teaching of Mandarin Chinese. Foremost among these
is the recognition and use of transforms and transform
potential, which is of great benefit as an identificational—
contrastive feature in tagmemic analysis. This same
transformational capability is relevant to a teaching

situation, where two constructions which are known to

r-

36.
contrast structurally (e.g. Tr cll and Tr cl2) may be
shown to be directly related via a generally stated trans-
form.

Knowledge of the clause structure and of the relation-
ships which obtain between certain types makes it pos-
sible to go beyond the mere 'cataloguing' of construction
types, and approach the language from a process point of
view. This also has a direct bearing on the teaching of
the language: from this view-point it thus becomes pos-
sible for the teacher of Chinese (with the information
supplied by the tagmemic clause analysis) to begin with
the seven 'basic' clause construction types, transform
some of these to related but contrastive derivative types,
add peripheral tagmemes as needed, and, finally, multiply
the result by the factor of dependency (see Chart III).

Schematically, the process would resemble the following:

(1) Basic Clause Types

1

(2) Derivative Clause Types, Group A

l

‘(5) Variants by means of

 

 
  
  

Addition of Peripheral Tagmemes

 

(4) Derivative Clause Types, Group

 

v
(5) Dependent Variants

In the diagram, the lines indicate the paths along which

57.
a particular clause construction might be developed. In
the manipulative process, it is possible to move directly
from a step to a final step (e.g. Step 1 to Step 5), to
bypass an intermediate step (e.g. Step 1 to Step 3), or

to stop at any point in the process.

Example:
1. Basic type Tr cll : +Sa +Pt :0
2. Derivative type A Tr 014 : +Sa +SpecO +Pt

5. Peripheral Variant Trrcl4 : +Sa :T :Mod1 +SpecO +Pt
4. Derivative type B

+Sa iT :Modl +SpecO +Pt +Quest
tE/chyunyan /shr di san tsz /b§ nide dfingsyi/nadzoule/ma

he last year emph the three time b3 you-g3 thing take-lg mg
Did he take your things for the third time last year?

or

5. Dependent Variant

+Sa :T _+_Mod1 +SpecO +Pt irelator
ta/ chyfinyan/ di san th / ba hide dungsyi/ nadzdule/ yihou
be last year the three time 23 you-d3 thing take-lg after
After he took your things for the third time last year,...

Of course, a statement of the clause level structure
of a language is not of itself sufficient for a full un-
derstanding of that language. There are other structural
levels (e.g. the phrase, word, and sentence) and mecha—
nisms (e.g. co-occurrence restrictions) which must also be .;
carefully analyzed. However, a tagmemic analysis of
the type presented here does provide a powerful tool for
both the language teacher and the student. It makes it

easier to go beyond rote memorization of patterns to the

manipulation of those patterns, and to the production of

novel utterances.

language learning.

And that, after all, is the goal of

58.

A.

l.

B.

ABBREVIATIONS

Clause Types

APPENDIX I
AND SYMBOLS

Descriptive clause
Equative clause

Locative clause

Basic existential clause
Non-transitive clause
Basic transitive clause

Directional clause

Derivative, Group A

Subject-emphasis existential clause

Object-emphasis transitive clause

Passive transitive clause

Bg-construction

Derivative, Group B

Basic

a. Desc cl
b. Eq cl

c. Loc cl
d. Ex cll
f. Tr cll
g. Dir cl
a. Ex cl2 a
be TI‘ 012 =
C. TI“ 015 3
do TI? C14 3
a. Rel-ax cl
b. Ql
c. Q2
d. Imper

= Relator—axis clause

Marked question

Interrogative predicate question

Imperative

Nuclear Tagmemes

Si
Sa
SS
Pd
Pe

Subject-as-item

Subject—as-actor

Subject—as-goal

Descriptive predicate

Equative predicate

6. P1
7. Px
8. Pn
9. Pdir
10. Pt
ll. Pte

l2. Interrog

15. Eq
14. O

15. 0e
16. SpecO
l7. Locl
l8. Loc2
19. Source
20. Goal
21. Purp
22. Comp
25. Item
24. Agent
25. Inc

26. Question

Locative predicate 40.
Existential predicate

Non-transitive predicate

Directional predicate

Transitive predicate

Emphatic variant of a transitive predicate
Interrogative predicate

Equation

Object

Object-emphasis

Specified object

Locative (of Loc cl)

Locative (of Ex c12)

Source

Goal

Purpose

Comparison

Item

Agentive phrase

Phrase level includer

Question

C. Peripheral Tagmemes

10 T '-'-
’20 MOdl :
50 P1Od2 3
4. Ben =

Time

Pre-predicate modification
Post-predicate modification

Benefactive

D. Dependent Variants

lo Dep C1 =

Dependent clause

APPENDIX II 41.

THE CORPUS

The Chinese text which follows is, as explained in
the introduction, written in the Yale System of Roman-
ization. The translation of the text is a compromise,
in that while it attempts to be literal, the attempt is
abandoned when the meaning would be obscured without a
free translation. Chinese word order is maintained, how—
ever, so that the structure is not affected.

All content words have been translated, but certain
morphemes have been incorporated, untranslated, into the
English version. These include pause words, time and as-
pect markers, and various other grammatical particles.

What I have called pause words occur in various
places within the Chinese sentence. In an initial po—
sition, they are probably more properly considered sentence
(or paragraph) introducers, since they usually sugnal a
change in contextual direction. These include 253mg and
fig, which mean something like 'so' or 'well' or 'then';
and (the seemingly universal) 3h. fig also occurs medially,
and finally (usually in questions). Another morpheme pg
occurs finally as part of a discontinuous sentence level
phrase meaning something like ‘not yet'.

Examples: nEmma, timen you dzou (50)
nemma, they again go
THEE-they moved off again.
dau wanshangde shrhou ne, gEn naige nyou... (1M)

arrive evening-d3 time ne, with that cow...
In the evening, (he) and that cow...

t5
he

42.

-judzai nar ne (1 H)
live—at where pg

Where did he live?

t5

I, I. 1.
hai mei lai ne

he still not come ge
He hasn't arrived yet.

The time and aSpect markers include —13, which indicates

a completed action or a change of status; ~gwg, an ex-

periential suffix; and -jg, an indicator of continuance,

usually translated as '-ing'.

Examples:

tade fuchin mfibhin dBu s§1e. (1 c)
he-gg father mother all dead-lg
His parents were both dead.

ta tsfinglai meiyou kangwo nemma haukande...(7E-F)
he before not see- wo so pretty-fig...
He had never before seen such a pretty...

tyantyan dzaushang t5 daije jéige nyou chfichyu (l K)
day—day morning he take-'e this cow out-go
Every morning he would take hat cow out.

Another particle which was not translated is pg, a

clause-final indicator of probability. In this corpus, it

only occurs with Egg: ham.ba

o k pg
I guess so (reluctant assent)

A pg also occurs as a grammatical particle in certain

transitive clauses. It occurs in Tr cl“, where the object

precedes the transitive predicate, and is handled in my

discussion of transitive clauses.

-gg, another untranslated particle, is a subordinating

particle which indicates that what precedes it modifies

what follows. This is true of words (tade taitai

he-gg wife
his wife),

phrases, and clauses (ta laide shrhou
he come—de time
when he comes).
This phenomenon is further discussed in my treatment of

relator-axis clauses.

43.

THE COWHERD AND THE WEAVER—GIRL (l)

'." - v .. 7 .. I / 4' \, v ,v
Jintyan wo shwo yige Junggwode chwanshwo. Dzai hen jyou
today I say one Chinese-pp folk-tale. be—at very old

v v Y I V / v r -’ x I v
hen jyou yichyan gu shrhdu, you yige syangsya ren. Women
very old before ancient time, there-is one country person. we

jyau s5 Nyoulang. Tade ffichin muchin dou sfle. Ta gén

name he Nyoulang. he—gg father mother all dead-lg. he with
tade gége gén saudz judzai yikwar. Keshr tade gége saudz
he-pp brother with sister-in-law live-at together. but he-dg

dwéi ta hen buhau. Changchang rang ta dzwo hen dwo ban
brother sister-in-law to he very not good. often let he do

dede shrching. wayi ta tyantyan dou hén mang, hen
very much very much-d3 affair. therefore he daily all very

131.

busy, very tired.

Ta judzai an ne? T5 jfidzai - bushr judzai yige haukande

he live-at where pp? he live—at - not-pppp live-at one pretty
fangdz litou. Judzai yige nyoupeng litou. Ta ye meiyou

house in. live-at one cow-pen in. he also not—have

shemma pengyou. T5 dszi haude yige pengyou iju shr.
what(any) friend. he most good-pp one friend only be

? I ‘ ‘ v \ - \. .\. I ’ \
yige nyou. Tyantyan dzaushang ta daije jeige nyou chuchyu.
one cow. daily morning he take-je this cow out-go.

Chfichyu he shwEi, chr tsau, dzai tyan limyan dzwo shrching.

out-go drink water, eat grass, be-at field in do affair.

Dau wanshangde shfhou ne, gEn naige nyou yikwar ju, yikwar

arrive evening-pp time pg, with that cow together live, together
\ - _. a \ __

shwdijyau. Ta gen neige nydu dzai yikwar hEn dwo hen

sleep. he with that cow be—at together very many very

.— / \ \ /, -— —-- I \ \ V I
dwo nyan. Dauhoulai ta gen nyou jyou shr hau pengyoule.
many year. finally he with cow just be good friend-lg

T5 ybude shrhou Changchang syangchilai tade fuchin muchin.
he sometimes often bring-to-mind he-dp father mother.
Ta hen nangwo. Ygude shrhou t5 jydu k5. Kesh} nEige

he very sad. sometimes he then cry. but that

-vs

A.

45.
(2)

nyou ne, jyou gen ta shw6 hwa le. Sth shamma hwa? Shw6
cow p3, then with he say speech lg. say what speech? say

rén shw6de hwa. Di yi tsz neige nyou gén ta sth hwa de
person say-pp speech. the first time that cow with he say
shfhau ta you yIdygr pa. Yinwei ta bh jfdau sh} shéi
speech-pg time he have some fear. because he not know be who
dzai shWB hwa. Dauhdulai ta tsai jrdau shr nEige nydu gén‘ta
be-at say speech. finally he then know be that cow with he

shwo hwa. Naige nydu gEn t5 shwo, ta shwo: "Ni buyau
say speech. that cow to he say, he say: "you not-impgp

/ \ V \ . — Y V \ V V I
nangwo. Wo hwei bang nide. W0 shr nide hau pengyou.
sad. I able help you-pg (problem). I be you—pg good friend.
W3 bush} yige jende nydu. W3 ywanléi shr yige tyanshangde
I not-be a true cow. I formerly be a heaven-pg

7' \ x I. v -: \. \ .\ v
syingsying. Nemma houlai ne, wo yinwei dzwo tswole shemma
star. nemma later ne, I because do wrong-lg what(some)

shrching, swoyi Yu Hwang a5d1;r5 we dau jaige shrjye shang
affair, therefore Yu Hwang -god punish me to this earth—on

lai dzwb nyou. Bugwo, yihou we hai yau hwei dau tyanshang
come do cow. but, later I still want return to heaven

‘ 1' \. -.-‘ - V :- / .. v
chyu." Yinwei ta jrdau ta you yige pengyou, tade hau
go." because he know he have a friend, he-gp good

pengyou shr yige syanren, swdyi jeige Nyoulang, ta jydu
friend be a immortal, therefore this Nyoulang, he then
butai nangwo.

not-too sad.

V \ \, V x, /, .. —- \ x Y
Hau. Syandzai women dzailai shwo tyanshangde shrching.
ok. now we again-come say heaven-pg affair.

Neige tyanshang yau hgh dw6 hén haukan hén haukande nyfihaidz.
that heaven there—is very many very pretty very pretty-pg

.. .. x V V .Y V /.
Tamen dou shr syanren. You hau jige nyuhaidz.
girls. they all be immortals. there—is good some girls.

-’ ". " ‘ - . \ .- 4 \ ... \
Tamen dzai tyanshang. Tamen jyou jr — bu shr jr bu -
they be-at heaven. they only weave - not-gppp weave cloth -
x -’ ‘..\’ V V \ V v \ \ :- \.
shr jr neijung hen haukan hen haukande bu. Yinwei
emph weave that-kind very pretty very pretty-pg cloth. because

A.

46.
(5)

tamen dzai tyanshang tyantyan jyoushr jf bu, dzai
they be-at heaven daily only weave cloth, be-at

.- \ —- -— . \ \ x \. .V / /. V
tyanshang tyantyan jyoushr kan nei jige ren, meiyou
heaven daily only see that some person, not-have

V V \. \ V U ‘7 .— .- , \ \/
shemma chigwaide shrching. You yi tyan tamen jyou syang:
what(any) strange-pp affair. there—is one day they then think:

"Yaushr women néhggou dau dishang chyh war, dwo hXh ne."
"if we able to earth go play, much good pg."

Tamen tsung yuntsai shangtou kankan syatdu. Hausyang
they from clouds on look below. seem-like

v .. ..- -- \ -—- ‘.’ \ V\{ v 1' "
shemma dou gen tyanshang bu yiyang. Swoyi you yi tyan
what all with heaven not same. therefore there-is one day
V V \, "' I V .Y 0-— V .— . \ :- \
you jige neige syanren, you jige jrnyu, tamen jyou yikwar
there-is some that immortal,there-is some weaver-girl, they

tsung tyan shangtdu r61, r51, fEi, r51 dau dishang
then together from sky on fly, fly, fly, fly to earth

laile. Bush} féi dau cheng litou. Shr fEi dau syangsya
come-lg. not-pmph fly to city in. gppp fly to country

\ a.» c.- \ d \ - ._
chyu. Tamen dzai syangsya. Tamen jyou toutoude kan.
go. they be-at country. they then secret—de look.

Kankan. 15h shulin, you tyan, haiyou hen dw6de fangdz.
look. there-is forest, there-is field, also-there-is very

— \ --- \ V
Tamen jydushr toutou kankan fangdz litoude ren. "Out
many-g9 house. they only secret look house in-pg person. "Oh:

\I ,. —— .. c \
Fangdz litoude réh, tamen chwande yifu gen tyanshangde
house in—gg person, they wear-g3 clothing with heaven-d2

\ s. "' —- ‘ ’ ‘- \
bu yiyahg. Chrde dungsyi bu yiyang. Tamen dzwode shrching
not same. eat-g3 thing not same. they do-dg affair

V/\,o,\ \ .- \ \f u \ -,-
ye bu tai yiyang." Nemma, tamen you dzou. Dzou dau yige
also not too same.” pgppp, they again go. go to a

he. Daule neige hede pangbyar, tamen iju kan. Neige
river. arrive—lg that river—d3 side, they then look. that

I v. / \, -- \, / v, ~/ v .. _,\
hede shwei bu tai shen. Neige hede shwei ye hen ganjing.
river-de water not too deep. that river-pg water also very

— \ V \ \. .\ v V' \ \. v v
Tamen jyou syang: "Yaushr dzai jer syidzau, dagai hen hau."
clean. they then think: "if be—at here bathe, probably very

”I

A.

B.

D.

E.

R.

47.
(4)

'7’ \. / I —- V 7' v \ I .\ v’ . v
Yinwei hede pangbyar you yige syau shulin, jer ye meiyou
good. because river-pg side have a small forest, here also

I I \ \ - .I. V - . I 5
bye ren nénggou kan tamen. haiyou, tamen ijede dishang
not-have other person able see them. besides, they feel

V - __ __ , .
bijyau re. Tyanshang bu hwEi tai re. Tyanshang ye bu hwei
earth rather hot. heaven not able too hot. heaven also not

‘0 v V V - Y - V - IV 0‘ v
tai leng. Swoyi tamen jige syannyu, tamen jige jrnyu
able too cold. therefore they some immortal, they some

V’ -
jybu dzai he limyan syIdzau. Tamen 53 neige haukande
weaver-girl then be—at river in bathe. they pp that pretty

yifu jybu fangdzai - ydude fangdzai naige shfi shang, ygude jybu
clothing then put-at - some put-at that tree on, some then

fangdzai naige tsau shang. Tamen dzai he litou yibyar
put—at that grass on. they be-at river in while

war, yibyar syau, yibyar war shwei.
play, while laugh, while play water.

\. / \ .S. I / — x. ’ — . \
Jeige shrhou jeige Nyoulang gen neige nyou, tamen jyou
this time this Nyoulang with that cow, they then

\ \ ’ \. I - v S \ \ \ — .
dzai shulin waitou yige tsaudi shang. Dzai nar syousyi.
be-at forest outside a ground on. be-at there rest.

Neige nydp shwo hwa 1e gEn Ny6ulang shwo, shwo: "Hei. W5
that cow say speech 13 with Nyoulang say, say: "hey. I

\ y' Y v x. V‘ 2 . x v' V’ v ~/ A
gausung n1. N1 youmeiyou tingjyan you hau jige nyuhaidz?

tell you. you oueppppp hear there-is good some girl?
Tamen dzai syau." Naige Nyoulang tingyiting. ShwE: "Hei.

they be-at laugh." that Nyoulang listen. say: "hey.

V' 7’ . \ V’ .Y *V I ‘— r v‘ \ r . \
Wo tingjyan hau jige nyurende shengyin. Hausyang tingjyan
I hear good some girl—pp sound. seem-like hear

"' \. \ u- \. .. \ —. V - ,\
tamen dzai syau, tamen dzai shwo hwa, tamen hen gausyingde
they be-at laugh, they be-at say speech, they very happy-pg

\ . I .— V Y . . .o
yangdz." Naige nyou shwo: "Wo gausung ni. Dzai jeisye
manner." that cow say: "I tell you. bepat this-several

v I: Y / v’ T \ Y’ \. . / /
nyuhaidz litou you yige shr nide taitai." Nyoulang
girl in there—is one be you-pg wife." Nyoulang

- - V' /
shwo: "Hushwoi W0 dzemma chyungi W5 dzemma hwEi ydu

say: "nonsensei I how poor: I how able have

I
.
'.
a
\I
.1, .
I
/
O
I,
I I '—
i
i h‘ ‘
a s
o
. - I
O

A.

48.
(5)

taitai?" Naige LXu Nyéu shag: "SHE jEnde." T5 shwo: "WB’
wife?" that Lau Nyou say: "be true." he say: "I

v -
gausung ni. Ni jyou dzou. Daule neige he pangbyan de
tell you. you just go. arrive-lg that river side pg
shrhdu, hi jydu kanjyan dzai naige shfi shang ydu nge
time, you then see be-at that tree on there-is a
.. V \ ..

hen haukande yifu. Ni jyou bg’nEige shushang nZh hapkan
very pretty—d2 clothing. you just pp that tree-on very pretty

.. v / x .. a
de yifu jyou nadai. Ni jyou pauhweilai." Nyoulang shwo: "Ou
d3 clothing then take. you then run—back—come." Nyoulang

\ \l
wX bu ksz dsz jEijyan shrching. ngmma kéyi chit né
say: "oh, I not able do this affair. how be able go take

/ — ..
nyurende yifu ne?" Lau Nyou shwo: "We ht hwEi jyau ni
girl-g3 clothing pp?" Lau Nyou say: "I not able cause you

\ \. \ Y \, \, v / / /. V
dzwo hwaide shrching. Dweibudwei? W0 tsunglai meiyou
do bad-pp affair. right (question)? I before not

.— V ~—
jyau n! dzwo yige hwaide shrchIng. Swoyi ni ting wode hwa.
cause you do a bad-pp affair. therefore you listen me-dg
\ V «— I \ /
Nemma, ni chyu na neige yifu, buhwei tswo." Hdulai nEige
speech. pemma, you go take that clothing, not-able wrong."

l’ - v -.\\\\\\\
Nyoulang shwo: "Hau ba." Ta jyou man man man man man man
then than Nyoulang say: "ok pp." he then slow slow slow slow

V’ v \ \. \ v“ /' ‘— .. , \
de dzou. Dzou dau neige shulinde pangbyar, ta jyou
slow slow pg go. go to that forest-d3 side, he then

\ \ \ T 7 - . \ / \.
kanjyan nar th yige yishang. Ta jyou nale neige
see there there-is a dress. he then take-lg that
yishang iju hwéilai. Ta ye bu an kan ren dzai nar.
dress then return-come. he also not dare look person bematwhere.

TE shamma dou bh gap kan. Ta nale naige yifu iju dzdp dau
he what all not dare look. he take-lg that clothing then

\ Y“ V V \ - v \. \. v Y’ ~ \
shulin 1i. Keshr ta dzoude tai kwaile. Swoyi ta pengle
go to forest in. but he walk-pg too fast-lg. therefore he
neisye shfil NEisyE shfi jybu ygu shEngyin. Dzai he
hit-lg that-several tree. that-several tree then have sound.

V\ \ V‘V.\ 1‘.\ \. ~1-
limyande neisye syannyu jyou tingjyanle neige shengyinle.
be-at river in-gg that-several immortal then hear—lg thatsound-lg

49.
(6)

-\ ~T\ \ \l 1‘ / V ‘7' / ‘/ VE/
Dajya yikan. Ou, you yige ren ba yifu nadzoulet Swoyi
everyone look. oh, there—is a person pp clothing take-go-lgt

_ _ _. v’ g
byéde syannyumen dou héh kwaide nale tamen dzjide yifu,
therefore other immortals all very fast-d3 take-lg they own—pg

chwan shang, jyou dou paule. Keshr you yige syannyu
clothing, wear on, then all run-lg. but there-is one immortal

- - . . Y -— _
t5 meiydu yifu. Swgyi ta jydu dzai he limyan shwo, ta
she not-have clothing. therefore she then be-at river in say,

- \ \. \. . . - V \{v./
shwo: "Ei, ei, e11 Ndiwei syansheng. Ching n1 ba wode
she say: "hey, hey, hey: that man. please you pp me-dg

yifu gel wd, haubuhau ne?" Jeige Nydulang ne, ta tingjyan
clothing give me, ok(question) pg?" this Nyoulang pp, he

neige syannyfiyshwb hwale. Ta bu jrdau dzemma ban. TE
hear that immortal say Speech-lg. he not know how move. he

\ \ \ \. \/ / _ .. v / v
jyou chyu wen neige Lau Nyou. Ta shwo: "Lau Nyou, Lau
then go ask that Lau Nyou. he say: "Lau Nyou, Lau

/ Y.\V'/‘:’ V\ -\.V/‘:‘
Nyou, ni jyau wo na yifu. Ni kan syandzai wo nale yifu.
Nyou, you cause me take clothing. you see now I take-1e

v \ v v - \\,Y V/\
Dzemma ban ne?" Lau Nyou shwo: "Bu yaujin. Ni buyau
clothing. how move pg?" Lau Nyou say: "not important.

v‘ V \
gwan. Ni jydu dzwbdzai jar; Wo chyu gwan." Houlai neige
you not-lpper handle. you just sit-at here. I go handle."

V I l \, g— ,\ \ \, \{
Lau Nyou nale neige yifu, jyou dau neige shulin
then that Lau Nyou then take-lg that clothing, then to that

\ \ \. / / .- \ \ \. .\.
waimyan chyu. Jeige Nyoulang ne, ta jyou dzwodzai jeige
forest outside go. this Nyoulang pg, he then sit-at this

V\ \ --":’7.‘ —~ \ -- \
tsaudi shangmyan. Ta keyi tingjyan tamen dzai shwo hwa.
grass on. he able hear they be-at say speech.

u ., - .
Keshr tamen shwo shemma hwa? Neige Lau Nydu gen neige
but they say what speech? that Lau Nyou with that

thyt, tamen shwo shemma hwa ne? Ta'tIng bu chingchu.
weaver-girl, they say what speech pp? he hear not clear.

Ta‘ijEde héh bu th. Dzemma key! chyu na yige nyurende
he feel very not good. how able go take a woman-pp

-- v \.V \ \ \, \ v \ \ \V
yifu ne? Ta dzji jyou dzwodzai nar hausyang ma dzji.
clothing pg? he self just sit-at there seem-like scold self.

w. .m“

B.

C.

F.

G.

O.

P.

so.
(7)

Jywéde dzji héh bu hau. Jywede ham nangwo. Gwole
feel self very not good. feel very sad. pass-lg

yihwar, neige Lau Nydu jyou laile. Dzai Lau Nyou de
some time, that Lau Nyou then come-lg. be-at Lau Nyou g3

\ / /, V 1- / ,\, / \ /,
houtou ne, hai you yige ren. Neige ren shr shei ne?
back pp, still there-is a person. that person is who n2?

/ -—.\ ,/,-.-\ \ v \ \ --
Nyoulang, ta janchilai yikan. Out, hau pyaulyang. Yige
Nyoulang, he stand up look. ohi, good beautiful. a

hen haukan hEn haukan de yige nyuren. Ta tsunglai
very pretty very pretty pp one woman. he before

/. V \ \ \ V \ V 7 \ /. \, V
meiyou kangwo nemma haukande nyuren. Houlai neige Lau
not see-ggp so pretty-pp woman. then that Lau

Nyou jydu sth, shwo: "Ei Nydulang, Nyoulang....
Nyou then say, say: "hey Nyoulang, Nyoulang....(1ong pause)

\. u I. v \ . \ Y \. \. - -—
Jeige nyuhaidz hen ywanyi dzwo nide taitai. Ta shwo
this girl very want do(be) you-pg wife. she say

t5 hwEi bang nide." Nydulang sth: "shr jéhde ma? W5

she able help you-pg (affairs)." Nyoulang say: "is true pp? I
hen chyung. Wg'shgmma chyan ass meiyou. wt yimau

very poor. I what(any) money all not-have. I one-dime

chyan dou meiydu." Neige nyfihaidz jyou dyan tou. Shgmma
money all not-have." that girl just bow head. what(any)
hwa'ye'méiydp shwo. Hdulai ta hen gausying. Ta iju daile
speech also not say. then he very happy. he then take-lg

naige nydhaidz hwei jya'chyh kan tade gage, kan tade
that girl return home go see he-dg brother, see he-pp

V \ _. \ \. .\ . \. \.
saudz. Nemma, tamen syandzai ne, jyou judzai neige
sister-in-law. pgmma, they now pg, just live-at that
I / V \ /. .\ \. \. I / V \
nyoupeng limyan. Hai judzai neige nyoupeng limyan.
cow pen ‘ in. still live-at that cow pen in.
\. / / x, \, . x \ ~\ ._ v _
Neige Nyoulangde taitai ne, jyoushr neige jrnyu. Ta
that Nyoulang-pg wife pp, just be that weaver-girl. she
- ._ ._ - .. v
tyantyan wanshang jr bu. Jr héh dwo hen haukande bu.
daily evening weave cloth. weave very much very pretty-pp

\ \ "" '— \ V V \ \ . ’ \
Di er tyan tamen Jyou keyi chyu mai chyan. Jyou malle
cloth. the second day they then able go sell money. tinnisell-lg

B.

C.

D.

E.

F.

G.

K.

L.

M.

510
(8)

hen dwb ugh dwode chyan. Jeiyang, man mande, yityan
very much very much-pp money. this-way, slow slow-pg, one-

“T-—"."‘- - \VTV / V
yityan yityande, tamen jyou you yidyar chyanle. Swoyi
day one—day one-day—dg, they then have some money-lg. therefore

tamen jybu keyi'dau byede difang chyu maile yige syausyaude
they then able to other place go buy-lg a small-small-pp

/ —- .- v —- —~
fangdz. Nyoulang gen Jrnyu gen neige Lau Nyou, tamen
house. Nyoulang with Jrnyu with that Lau Nyou, they

judzai nEIge syau fangdz 1!: 36 judzai tade gEge 3y;
live-at that small house in. not live-at he-gg brother house

litou.
in.

wale ha’u ji nyan, tamen iju yd’ule lya/ngge sya/uhaidz.
pass-lg good some year, they then have-lg two child.

\ - /' - - x v- x \ v 5 I
Ne, dangran tamende shenghwo hen kwai le, hen syingfu.
ne, of course they-de life very happy, very prosperous.

iKgshr th yI tyan, JEnyfi'hgh nangwbde gen naige Nyoulang
but there-is one day, Jrnyu very sad-d3 to that Nyoulang

- .. ~ V x Y x / \ \ ~ V' \
shwo, ta shwo: "Wo gausung n1. Yu Hwang dadi shwo wo bu
say, she say: "I tell you. Yu Hwang égod say I not
_. _ v* .. .. ..
yinggai dzai dzwb nide taitai. W3 yinggai dau tyanshang
should be—at do(be) you-d3 wife. I should to heaven
chyD. Yihwei tyanshang haiydu hen de hen dwEde sthhing
go. because heaven still have very much very much-pp affair

v - ‘ —. \ V V \ l V \ :—
wo dou yinggai chyu dzwo, wo bu nenggou lau dzwo yige
I all should go do, I not able always do(be) a

rende taitai." Ta shwo: "Syandzai ni yIjing ydu lyangge
person-g3 wife." she say: "now you already have two

V ’. \ V V/, V\ V\
syauhaidzle. Jei lyangge syauhaidz ne, ye bu syuyau
child-lg. this two child pp, also not need

/ Y V'V' \ \. - v ’ v a v
chyanle. Ni keyi dai dai tamen lyangge ren, ba tamen lyangge
money-lg. you able carry they two person, pp they two

\ \ —’ V / a- V l ( .... /
dai da. Tamen lyangge ren ne, dou hen tsungming. Jyanglai a
raise. they two person pg, all very smart. future 2

\ _. Y / \ V \ '\ -- x \
hwei bang nide mang. Nemma wo yau dau tyanshang chyule."
able help you-pp busy-mess. pgppp I want to heaven go."

A.

D.

E.

R.

52.
(9)

Lygngge syguhaidz dou k5. Lygngge syauhaidz shwo:
two child all cry. two child say:

- Y"/ \ V — Y I x v v v .— V
"Mama n1 bu yau dzou. Mama n1 bu yau dzou." Keshr Jrnyu
"mama you not-impgg go. mama you not-imper go." but Jrnyu

.. /. V ,.. 1-} \ \I' “f V
shwo: "Meiyou fgdz. Mama yiding yau dzou. Nimen lyangge
say: "not-have way. mama indeed must go. you two

\/ /. \. x. ‘- \ \. 7 \ .N ‘7 >
syauhaidz gwaigwaide gen Baba dzai yikwar Ju. Yiding
child good-d3 with papa be-at together live. indeed
._ \ a \
yau ting Babade hwa, hauhgu nyan shu, hauhau dzwo sh}.
must listen papa-g2 speech, good study book, good do affair.
. ~ / v
Mama jyanglai hwEilai kan nimen."
mama future return-come see you."
Haulai you yi tyan dzgushang néige an K iju meiyoule.
then there-is one day morning that Jrnyu just not—there—is—lg.
u— \’ .—
Bu jrdau nar chyule. bagai shr dau tyanshang chyule.
not know where go-lg. probably emph to heaven go-lg.
NB, Nyoulang, tade taieai dzoule. ma hen £1 tade taitai.
ne, Nyoulang, he-dg wife go-lg. he very love he-Qe wife.
N3, taa. taitai deule thBu, £5 hXh néngwb. Swéyi
n3, he-gg wife go-le after, he very sad. therefore
V .— b' -— \
syauhaidz yg ku. Ta ye bu chr fan, ye bu dzwo shr.
child also cry. he also not eat food, also not do affair.
—- .... \\, \ / V \ _.
Tyantyan dzwodzai neige ywandz litou kanje tyanshang,
daily sit—at that yard in look—jg heaven,
tade taitai. YB Hwang dad} kahle. YG'Hwéng dadi y;
he—dg wife. Yu Hwang -god see—lg. Yu Hwang -god also
V’ \ v -— t. \ \
ijede hen nangwo. Swoyi you yi tyan YB Hwang dadi
feel very sad. therefore there-is one day Yu Hwang -god

.\V- V f---,\ \ \?
ayou ba tamen lyangge ren dou Jyaule. Jyau dau yige
then be they two person all call-1e. call to a

.\ / \ —- \ \ \ :- \ / 1-
difang. Bu shr tyanshang. Jyau dau yige tebyede difang.
place. not be heaven. call to a special place.

Houlai Yu Hwang dadi Jyou shwo, ta shwo: "WK kan nimen
then Yu Hwang —god then say, he say: "I see you

V / V V / \ V V / :-
lyangge ren hen kelyan. Yaushr nimen lyangge ren, yige
two person very pitiful. if you two person, one

53.
(10)

V \. ~ \ ‘7' V \. 5 v \ /

lau dzai tyanshang, yige lau dzai dishang, lau bu nenggou
always be-at heaven, one always be-at earth, always not able
jyanmyan, 331 thde shr héh kglyan." Ta'sthE "wd'
meet, this true emph very pitiful." he say: "I

X v. V .‘ x“ \. \ ~V UV
sy ng gei nimen yige Jihwei. Nemma, Jrnyu ne, keyi
plan give you a chance. nemma, Jrnyu g3, able

__ v- v
Changchang kankan tade syauhaidz. Syauhaidz ye keyi
often see her-g3 child. child also able

/ / \ \ .— V _ V \ / \ \,
changchang kankan tade muchin. Haubuhau ne?" Yu Hwang dadi
often see he-dg mother. ok(question) g5?" Yu Hwang

.—...- \
jyou shwo, ta shwo: "Ah, nimen sh} ywanyi meige
-god then say, he say: 'ah, you or want each
I -'\,\"."\ Y ’.\\.
ywede chi hau Jyan yi tsz myan ne, nimen haishr ywanyi
month-d3 seventh day meet one time face 229 you or want

/ 4' \ V .— _. __
mgi nyande chi ywe limyande di chi tyan jyah yi ts;
each year-d3 seventh month in—gg the seventh day meet one

x. r. \/ vr \ \ r \ >
myan ne, haishr shemma shemma?" Neige Yu Hwand dadi a
time face mg, or what what?" that Yu Hwang -god a

a.- V .Y V .\. I I Y I'- \ “ \
shwo hau Jige. Kesh} Jeige Nyoulang ne, (n1 erau ta shr
say good some. but this Nyoulang me, (you know he be

an / __. \. f \ \ .\ 1" I \ \. d
yige ren) ta d1 yi tsz kangyan yige shen. Nemma, neige shen
a person) he the first time see a spirit. nemma, that spirit
.- \ \, v’ _. I.
yifiing houmyan you th dwo chwande hen haukande
already behind there—is good many wear-g3 very pretty

I" I __..-/V\ V\(\/ \,\
yifu de ren. Ta dangran hen pa. Swoyi Yu Hwang dadi
clothing-d5 person. he naturally very fear. therefore

shwode neisye hwa, ta dou meiyou ting chingchu. Ta ye
Yu Hwang ~god say-d3 that-several speech, he all not hear

V’ \ \ I \ $ -‘V ‘- V —- Y Y'
bu gan wen Yu Hwang dadi. Ta ye bu gan shwo: "Ching n1
clear. he also not dare ask Yu Hwang -god. he also not dare

'- “ 7- \/ V V’ \. '- r \ ~ -
shwo man yidyar. Ching ni dzai shwo yi tsz." Ta dou
say: ”please you say slow a little. please you again say one
.. .. \ ¢" - -— \/
bu th shwo. Ta jyou tingjyan yige, shwo "Mei nyande chi
time." he all not dare say. he only hear one, say "each;year-de

\ V’ F ‘7 ‘- Y ./ ~— V /
ywe limyande d1 chi tyan nimen hwopwo lyangge ren
seventh month in-dg the seventh day you alive two person

w-l

D.

E.

F.

G.

L.

M.

N.

R.

54-

(11)
\ \ V - \ 1" \ .\.

jyanmyan. Haubuth ne?" Ta jyou tingjyan Jeige.
meet. ok(question) 23?" he only hear this.
Swfiyi ta iju shwo, ta'sth: "Hau ba. M31 nyande chi
therefore he then say, he say: "ok be. each year-93 seventh
ywe chi hau wo yaushr nénggou kanjyan wode taitai de hwa,
month seventh day I if able see me-de wife d3 hwa,
ne, wx ye hgn gausying." YB Hwang dadi shwo: "Hau. Namma
ne, I also very happy." Yu Hwang -god say: "ok. nemma

yaushr h! ywanyi m¥1 myan chi wa chi hau an A! tai€51
if you want each year seventh month seventh day see you

de n.3, nemma, mei nyan dau he: tyan de shrhou, wo rang
wife 93 hwa, pemma, each year arrive that day d5 time, I let

V . \ \ K. I \ - / . \ V / V
nimen Jyanmyan." Jeige shrhou dangran Jyou you ren ba
you meet." this time naturally then there—is person 22

Jeige hwa syesyalaile. Dauhoulai, jeige Nyoulang tsai
this speech write-down-lg. finally, this Nyoulang then

— x \ / /. v v .Y - x’ r

3rdau. Ou, ywanlai you hau Jige. Ta keyi sngndze yige.

know. oh, originally there-is good some. he able choose one.
TE bu yidihg shr chi ywe chi hau tsai nénggou kankan ta
he not necessarily be seventh month seventh day then >: able see
‘ V Q
taitaide. Ygsyu yi myan keyi kan 1thg ts}, yi nyan kéyf
he wife-g3. perhaps one year able see two time, one year able

_ -— \
kan san tsi. Kgshr syandzai jihwEi jyou meiydule.
see three time. but now chance then not-there-is—lg.

. V \ .—
Sway! meiyou fadz. Nemma, dau syandsai, dzai Junggwode
therefore not-there—is way. nemma, to now, be-at China-d5

yinlide chi ywe — dangran dau chyoutyah de shrhou - (dou you
calendar-g3 seventh month - of course to fall d3 time - (all

chyEutthde shrhou), A! tai t6u kan tyanshangde shrhou,
have fall-d3 time), you raise head look heaven d3 time,

- ‘ V %- v \ v \ T' " /
tyanshang you yige hen lyang hen lyang de yige yinghe.
heaven have a very bright very bright g3 one silver river.

V\ .\ /\ ._ /

Keshr dau chi ywe de shrhou, jeige ying he tEbye lyang.
but arrive seventh month d3 time, this river special bright.

‘_ - .— -— \
Dzai yinghede yibyar ySt yige hZh lyang ugh lyang de
be-at silver river-d3 one side there-is a very bright very

.\

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A.

E.

F.

G.

55.
(12)

‘3' . 3'" \. V \ \, \ ._ \ ..
syingsying. Yinwei women syandzaide hwa shwo shr "tyan
bright-g5 star. because we now-g3 speech say be

ching sying dzwo", n3 jyou shr women dzai gushr litoude
Heavenly Weaver Girl", that just be we be-at story in-dg

jeige anyfi sying. Dzai hede lingwai yibyar a i:
this Jrnyu star. be-at river—93 other side 3 also

V '7 V \ V \ “T \ /. v’ \.
you yige hen lyang hen lyangde sying. Shr meiyou neige
there-is a very bright very bright-d5 star. emph not that

.- V =— \ \. -' \ \ V \/ / \
Jrnyu sying lyang. Jeige sying jyou shr women gu shrhou
Jrnyu star bright. this star only be we old time

, \ I / - \ \ \ .\. \ \/ \
jyaude chyan nyou sying. Ne, syandzai jei shr women gushr
call-d5 Celestial Cowherd star. ne, now this be we story

V / .\. / / .r / / .. \/
litoude jeige Nyoulang. Nyoulangde pangbyar you
in-gg this Nyoulang. Nyoulang-d3 side there-is

V 7 . r - '\ \ " /
lyangge stu syingsying. Tingshwo jyou shr Nyoulang
two small star. hear-say just be Nyoulang

gan Jrnyude lyangge ardz. Tingshwo dzai mei nyande
and Jrnyu-g3 two child. hear-say be-at each year-d3

chi ywe chu chi de jéi tyan ye litou, you hau jige nyaur
seventh month seventh day d3 this day night in, there-is good

._ _ ‘v /
feilai, feilai. ng jibai, th jihhyghde nyat fEilai.
some bird fly-come, fly—come. good some-hundred, good

_ - - x. .
Feilaile yihou, tamen jyou byanle yige chyau. Nemma
some-thousand bird fly—come. fly-come after, they then become-lg

jeige an H (wg bu jrdau shr thyfi kgyi'degu gwblai,
a bridge. nemma this Jrnyu (I not know be Jrnyu able walk

—. V .. /
dagai shr Jrnyu) ta jyou kng tsung jeige chyau
across come, probably be Jrnyu) she then able from this

azst gwolai. Lai kan....

bridge go across-come. come see....(interrupted)
Ah, yhu ugh dwo hau dwo naige. women jyaudzwo chywe.
ah, there-is good many good many that. we call magpie.

_. - ._ \/
Dagai shr syibhywe. Bu jrdau jichyan haishr jiwande.
probably be magpie. not know some-thousand or some-ten-thousand-df
- \ \ I 7 /’ \ x / \
Tamen jyou dzwocheng yige chyau. Ne houlai ne, jeige
they then create a bridge. me later 229 this

r. : t... 4
..
1 I
H l J .
\ .
, \
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x ..
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56.
(15)

“v.\\/\/ / \. / / \.— X
Jrnyu ta jyou keyi tsung neige chyau, tsung neisye ny urde
Jrnyu she then able from that bridge, from that-several bird-d3

sHEnshang'jyou dzou gwolai. Daule hede jeibyar 151 kan
body-on then walk across—come. arrive-lg river-g3 this—side

/ / x. \ .. v x, \ 3 \
Nyoulang, lai kan tade lyangge syguhaidz. Dau d1 er
come see Nyoulang, come see she-g3 two Child. to the second

_. .. v x / .\. -— v ._ v \
tyan Jrnyu you tsung Jeisye nyaurde shenshang dzou dau
day Jrnyu again from this-several bird-d3 body-on go to
.. .. __. \ ..
he nEibyar chyu. NSmma, dagai mingnyande chi ywe chi
river that-side go. ggggg, probably next-year—dg seventh month
\ / \ x, I. \ _ /. \. . \ \
hau de shrhou, dzai lai kan tade haldz. Jeige ayou shr
seventh day-g3 time, again come see she-d3 child. this just

- I / -— 1/ -—-—-V
Junggwode chwanshwo "Nyoulang gen Jrnyu".
be China-d3 folk-tale "The Cowherd and the Weaver Girl".

BIBLIOGRAPHY

A. Method and Theory

Elson, Benjamin and Pickett, Velma
1962. An Introduction tn Morphologyand Syntax
Santa Ana, Summer Institute of Linguistics

 

 

Longacre, Robert
1960. "String Constituent Analysis", Lnngnngg, 56.65—88

1964. Grammar Discovery Procedures, The Hague,
Mouton and Co.

Pike, Kenneth L.
‘ 1962. "Dimensions of Grammatical Structure", Language,

58.221-44

1966. Tngmemic and Matrix Linguistics Applied to
Selected African Languages, U.S. Department of
Health, Education and Welfare

1967. Language in Pelation to a Unified Theory of
the StrfictUrE—BZ-Hfimafi-Bshavior (Revised):-
The Hague, Mouton and Co.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

B. Language Texts Surveyed

Brandt,rfl.J. f.'.
1944. Introduction tn Spoken Chinese, London, Oxford
University Press

 

 

Chao, Y.R.
1948. Mandarin Primer, Cambridge, Harvard University
Press

 

DeFrancis, John
1965. Enginning gning§g(Revised), New Haven, Yale
University Press

Fenn, Henry C.
1961. "Introduction to Chinese Sentence Structure",
in Read Chinese, Bonk I, by F.Y. Wang, New Haven,
Yale University oT’Far Eastern Languages

 

Hillier, Sir Walter
1942. The Chinese Language and How to Learn It, London,
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Hockett, C.F. and Fang, C.Y.
1945. Spoken gninesg, Madison, U.S. Armed Forces
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0. Previous Analyses

Cheng, Robert
1966. Snme 55 ects n; Mandarin Chinese, Dissertation,
Indiana niVersity

 

Ho, Ching-hsien
1966. The ba-Construction in Mandarin Chinese, Taipei,
Taipei Language Institute

Hockett, C.F.
1947. "Peipmng‘Phonology", Jggs, 67.253—67
1950. "Peiping Morphophonemics", Lnnguagg, 26.65-85

 

 

58.

Peng, Frederick
1964. A Grammatical Analysis of Standard. Chinese,
Dissertation, University of New York—at Buffalo

 

 

Roberts, Thomas H.
1968. Noun Phrase Substitutes and Zero Anaphora in
Mandarin Chinese, Dissertation, University of

Hawaii

Thompson, Richard Thomas
1967. Chinese Lexotactics: A Stratificational View,
Dissertation, Georgetown University

Yen, Isabella
1960. n Grammatical Analysis nf Syau Jing

Dissertation, Bloomington,-Ifidi§fi§-

 

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