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J. .5. b- .2. .. . . . s .. . .1. L... E. [.1 .4 ms m. ”mullLuwillltxlllllllllllwli ”flimsy “‘33; "r gage UniVersity W This is to certify that the dissertation entitled LEADERSHIP CRITERIA AND THEIR SOURCES AMONG ECWA CHURCHES OF NIGERIA: IMPLICATIONS FOR CURRICULUM IN MINISTERIAL TRAINING presented by‘ Victor Babajide Cole has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph.D. Dept. of Administration degree in and Curriculum WWW“, ,. A . ,1 m" - . .~ ., 0.12771 MSU RETURNING MATERIALS: Place in book drop to LIBRARIES remove this checkout from 4.1-:— your record. FINES will be charged if book is returned after the date stamped below. ‘ £116.26-'86§' .351; 5'1 emf) *‘flc‘rf'bwhl 'fiéfifiw ($510 113120 «8% 6. #73“??? LEADERSHIP CRITERIA AND THEIR SOURCES AMONG ECNA CHURCHES OF NIGERIA: IMPLICATIONS FOR CURRICULUM IN MINISTERIAL TRAINING By Victor Babajide Cole A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Administration and Curriculum 1982 ABSTRACT LEADERSHIP CRITERIA AND THEIR SOURCES AMONG ECWA CHURCHES OF NIGERIA: IMPLICATIONS FOR CURRICULUM IN MINISTERIAL TRAINING By Victor Babajide Cole The study involved needs assessment of what constitute pastoral leadership criteria in ECWA, in an attempt to inform the judgment of curriculum planners for ECNA theological schools. A survey of representative church types along Ethno-Rural, Ethno-Urban and English-Using lines of distinctions was conducted. The independent variables were, age grades, levels of acculturation and lo- cales. The four categories of dependent variables were, personal char- acteristics, leadership styles, ministry skills and civic duties of the pastor-leader. A major assumption in the study was that, the sample will ex- press pastoral leadership concepts that are derived mainly from tradition- al and acculturated values. The extent to which groups of respondents have moved away from traditional values was expected to be reflected in their levels of acculturation as measured by formal educational attain- ment. Findings show that, regardless of the respondents' level of acculturation, preferences for leadership criteria were most frequently based on traditional values. Next to traditional values, the less acculturated tend to base leadership criteria on normative biblical values, followedby acculturated values. In turn, the more acculturated, Victor Babajide Cole next to traditional values, tend to base their criteria for pastoral leadership on acculturated values, followed by normative biblical values. Both Ethno-Rural and Ethno-Urban churches tend to prefer a pastor who is over forty years old and is highly educated. The Ethno—Rural churches still find a pastor who is over forty but with little education quite acceptable. The English-Using churches tend to prefer a pastor who is under forty and highly educated. No single church type expressed any preference for a pastor who is under forty and little educated. The less acculturated prefer the pastor and elders alone to plan all church programs. The more acculturated want members' involvement too, and they want the pastor to adopt participatory style of leadership more often. Most respondents across the three church types saw teaching and preaching as priority skills for the pastor. Schooling was considered the best way to enhance pastoral skills. Most respondents want the pastor's civic duties to include, famil- iarity with local customs and politics, involvement in development pro- jects and social reforms. Copyright by VICTOR BABAJIDE COLE 1982 DEDICATED TO My loving wife Toyin, and My daughters Foluke and AyoOlu whose patience and sacrifice made my pursuit of higher education possible ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS With much gratitude to God I express acknowledgements to all who contributed in one way or another to the successful completion of this research. My special acknowledgement goes to Professor Ted Ward the chair- man of my Guidance Committee, for the long hours of very useful advice and encouragement throughout my period of residency and in this re— search. He has left a lasting impression on me as my professor, brother, and friend. Special thanks go to Professors David Heenan, Larry Sarbaugh, and Sam Corl whose directions, suggestions, and helpful comments as mem- bers of my Guidance Corrmittee proved quite invaluable. My special thanks also go to Professor Frederick Erickson who first got me interested in ethnographic research methods, and whose advice in the handling of the qualitative portions of this research was extremely helpful. To friends and supporting churches (The Irving Bible Church, Irving, Texas; McCall Conservative Baptist Church, McCall, Idaho; The Adult Fellowship Class of North West Bible Church, Dallas, Texas) special ac- knowledgements are reserved,ikn~their partnership in the ministry through prayers and generous giving. These friends were used of God to make my pursuit of higher education possible. Special appreciation goes to ECWA Executive members and the participating churches whose cooperation and moral support made access iv to data collection possible. My special acknowledgement is also reserved for the LIFE Ministry in Kenya, a Ministry of Campus Crusade for Christ International that pro- vided funding in large part for this research. Also to the Great Com— mission Movement in Nigeria, a Ministry of Campus Crusade for Christ International for the warm hospitality accorded me during the period of the research. TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER ' PAGE I. INTRODUCTION ........................ 1 Statement of Problem ................... 1 Purpose of the Research ................. 3 Objectives of the Research ................ 3 Importance of the Research ................ 4 Underlying Assumptions in the Research .......... 5 Delimiting the Concerns of the Research ......... 6 Research Hypotheses ................... 7 Definition of Terms ................... 11 II. SOME RELEVANT PRECEDENTS .................. 17 Substantive Precedents .................. 17 Call for Renewal in Theological Education ...... 17 Suggested Remedies in Theological Education ..... 19 What is Leadership? ................. 23 Leadership, Power, and Authority ........... 25 Notable Theories of Leadership ............ 27 Leader Types ..................... 28 Leader Behavior Descriptors ............. 29 Some Studies on Global Leadership .......... 30 Some Studies on Church Leadership .......... 33 Cultural Dimensions of Leadership .......... 37 Religious Groups as Normative Organizations ..... 39 The Process of Acculturation ............. 45 Methodological Precedents ................ 50 Historical Background of Attitudinal Studies ..... 50 Cognitive Response as an Index of Attitudes ..... 51 Demographic Approach to Determinants of Opinions. . . 52 Techniques of Attitude Measurement .......... 54 Quest for Meaning .................. 55 Curriculum Implication .................. 58 The State of the Art ................. 58 Curricular Orientation ................ 59 III. RESEARCH PROCEDURE ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 61. The Population ...................... 51 The Sample ........................ 51 vi CHAPTER PAGE Development of Instrument ................ 63 Preliminary Interviews and Questionnaire Construction .................... 64 Jury Procedure .................... 66 Entry Process ...................... 67 Research Approach .................... 68 The Variables .................... 68 Methodology ..................... 69 Administering of Instrument ............. 69 Data Analysis .................... 71 IV. PASTORAL LEADERSHIP CONCEPTS IN ECWA ............ 73 Questionnaire Returns .................. 73 Characteristics of the Respondents ............ 74 Preferred Methods for Selecting and Removing the Pastor-leader: Question 1 ............... 8O Findings ....................... 80 Discussion ...................... 86 Preferred Descriptors of the Pastor-leader: Question 2 ....................... 87 Findings ....................... 87 Discussion ...................... 90 Results of the Statistical Test of Hypotheses 1 - 12 ................... 91 Personal Characteristics of the Pastor-leader . . . . 113 Hypothesis 1 ................... 113 Hypothesis 2 ................... 117 Hypothesis 3 ................... 120 Discussion ...................... 124 Leadership Styles of the Pastor-leader ........ 126 Hypothesis 4 ................... 126 Hypothesis 5 ................... 128 Hypothesis 6 ................... 129 Discussion ...................... 131 Ministry Skills of the Pastor-leader ......... .132 Hypothesis 7 ................... 132 Hypothesis 8 ................... 133 Hypothesis 9 ................... 135 Discussion ...................... 137 Civic Duties of the Pastor-leader .......... 138 Hypothesis 10 .................. 139 Hypothesis 11 .................. 140 Hypothesis 12 ................. 142 Discussion ...................... 144 vii CHAPTER PAGE V. SOURCES OF PASTORAL LEADERSHIP CONCEPTS IN ECWA ...... 146 Methodology ....................... 146 Probing by Questionnaire Design ........... 146 Probing by Classifications .............. 149 Criteria for Source Classification ............ 150 Within Groups Classification ............... 151 Personal Characteristics of the Pastor-leader . . . . 151 Leadership Styles of the Pastor—leader ........ 160 Ministry Skills of the Pastor-leader ......... 167 Civic Duties of the Pastor-leader .......... 169 Hypothesis Testing with Between Groups Comparisons. . . . 171 Hypothesis 13 .................... 171 Hypothesis 14 .................... 173 Hypothesis 15 .................... 173 Hypothesis 16 .................... 174 Discussion ........................ 175 The Patterns ..................... 175 The Linkages ..................... 177 VI. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS .......... 178 Statement of Problem ................... 178 Purpose of the Research ................. 179 Objectives of the Research ................ 179 Importance of the Research ................ 180 Research Hypotheses ................... 180 Research Assumptions ................... 184 Design of the Study ................... 184 The Sample ...................... 184 The Instrument .................... 185 Research Approach .................. 186 Major Findings ...................... 187 Concepts of Pastoral Leadership in ECWA ....... 187 Sources of the Concepts of Pastoral Leadership in ECWA ...................... 190 Conclusions ....................... 193 Recommendations ..................... 195 BIBLIOGRAPHY ........................... 200 APPENDICES 1. Correspondence with ECWA Leaders ............. 206 II. The Instrument ...................... 210 viii Table 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. LIST OF TABLES Rate of Questionnaire Returns .............. Summaries of Age Grade Representation by Locale ..... Frequencies of Uncollapsed Acculturation Levels by Locale ....................... Summaries of Age Grade Distribution by Levels of Acculturation .................... Summaries of the Distribution at Acculturation Levels by Locale .................... Contingency Table of the Methods of Selecting a Pastor-leader by Age-Grade ............... Contingency Table of the Methods of Selecting a Pastor-leader by Levels of Acculturation ........ Contingency Table of the Methods of Selecting a Pastor-leader by Locale ................ Contingency Table of the Methods of Removing a Pastor-leader by Age Grade ............... Contingency Table of the Methods of Removing a Pastor-leader by Levels of Acculturation ........ Contingency Table of the Methods of Removing a Pastor-leader by Locale ................ Contingency Table for Preferred Pastor-leader Descriptors by Age Grades ............... Contingency Table for Preferred Pastor-leader Descriptors by Acculturation Levels .......... Contingency Table for Preferred Pastor-leader Descriptors by Locale ................. Summaries of the Overall Raw Value Frequencies of Pastoral Leadership Concepts .............. ix Page 74 76 78 79 81 82 83 83 84 85 86 88 89 90 93 Table 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. Summaries of the Overall Value Frequencies of Pastoral Leadership Concepts in Percentages ........... Chi Square Summaries of Pastoral Leadership Concepts by Age Grade ...................... Chi Square Summaries of Pastoral Leadership Concepts by Acculturation Levels ................ Chi Square Summaries of Pastoral Leadership Concepts by Locale ....................... Percentage Frequencies by Age Grades of the Preferred Pastor-leader's Minimum Age .............. Percentage Frequencies by Age Grades of the Preferences for a Pastor—leader in a city ............. Summaries by Age Grades of Freedom to Seek Counsel from a Young Pastor-leader ............... Percentage Frequencies by Acculturation Levels of the Preferred Pastor-leader Minimum Age .......... Percentage Frequencies by Acculturation Levels of the Preferred City Pastor-leader's Age and Education. . Percentage Frequencies by Acculturation Levels of the Preferred Village Pastor-leader's Age and Education ..................... Percentage Frequencies by Locale of the Preferred Pastor-leader Minimum Age ............... Percentage Frequencies by Locale of the Preferred City Pastor-leader's Age and Education ......... Percentage Frequencies by Locale of the Preferred Village Pastor-leader's Age and Education ....... Percentage Frequencies by Acculturation Levels of the Preferred Method of Planning Church Programs. . . . Percentage Frequencies by Locale of the Preferred Method of Planning Church Programs ........... Percentage Frequencies by Acculturation Levels of the Skill-enhancing Resources for the Pastor- leader ......................... Percentage Frequencies by Locale of the Priority Skills Needed by the Pastor-leader ........... Page 97 101 105 109 114 115 116 117 118 119 121 121 122 128 130 135 136 Table Page 33. Percentage Frequencies by Locale of the Skill-enhancing Resources for the Pastor-leader ............ 137 34. Percentage Frequencies by Age Grade of Importance Placed on the Pastor-leader's Interest in Current Affairs .................... 140 35. Percentage Frequencies by Acculturation Levels of the Extent of Agreement that the Pastor- leader Inform Members of their Rights ......... 141 36. Percentage Frequencies by Locale of Extent to which Members Want Pastors in Rural Settings to be Involved in Development Projects. ........... 144 37. Frequency Counts of the Sources of Pastoral Leadership Concepts in ECWA .............. 172 xi AcV ATR ECWA EthR EthU HiA HiEd IdSyn L1... LoA LoEd NBV TCNN TEE . TraV UsuE ABBREVIATIONS Acculturated Values African Traditional Religion Evangelical Churches of West Africa Ethno-Rural Ethno-Urban High Age Grade High Educational Level Idio-syncratic Levels 1 through 5 Low Age Grade Low Educational Level Normative Biblical Values Theological College of Northern Nigeria Theological Education by Extension Traditional Values English-Using xii CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION The formal leadership of many churches--Protestant and Roman Catholic involves a person who is called by various titles such as, pas- tor, minister, priest, and vicar. Common to all the church groups is the fact that the person who serves (single-handedly or in a participa- tory manner) as leader is often at one time an "outsider" who is either posted to a local church or is appointed by the local church. Theological institutions as the training ground for would-be church leaders is a common phenomenon. It is often the case that ascen- sion to the role of a pastor, a minister, or a priest is often preceded by attendance for some period of years in a theological institution. The length of training could be between four to twelve years depending on the church. -Statement of Problem A recent realization is that most trainees are young and often unmarried. This realization has brought about sharp criticisms from some educators around the world. The conventional approach to ministerial training has been attacked especially as it operates in Third World countries. In most Third World countries leaders of the people are usual- ly matured, older, and married. -Formal education or schooling is not a criterion for appointing leaders in these cultures. But within the churches a role-reversal seems to take place. The pastor or minister often may be young and unmarried, but may have had some years of theological training in a residential institution. So it seems that formal educa- tion has become the major criterion for ascending to Teadership roles in these churches. With this realization theological education in the conventional schooling approach to leadership has been assailed for training and im- posing on Third World peoples the wrong kinds of leaders (Kinsler, 1978). It is charged that theological education alienates its trainees from their cultural milieu and after training them out of the context of the minis— try, it imposes these "non-leaders" on the people (Bessem, 1977; Kinsler, 1978; Mey, 1975). In search of a solution, the Extension Seminary movement started with Theological Education by Extension (TEE) in the early sixties. The attempt was to train in real life settings the "real leaders" of the people. These are the old and experienced people in the churches who are married. Usually these ones cannot afford to leave their families behind to attend a residential school for a period of years. Many such people would not even meet the academic prerequisites fer these insti- tutions. But TEE does not exclude any of these "real leaders" because of deficiencies in academic requirements. Training was promised to all at different levels of competency. 'Many who have been involved in the conventional methods of theological education either spearheaded this new approach in different parts of the world (e.g. Kinsler, 1978, in Guatemala), or toyed with the idea (Hermann, 1979, in Nigeria). Purpose of the Research Since theological institutions traditionally have been associated with the training of "leaders" for the church, and doubts now exist in some quarters as to what kinds of leaders are desirable, especially for churches in the Third World, certain questions come up. Some of the typical questions are these: What kinds of leaders do specific church communities find desirable? Are the present theological institutions preparing their trainees to enter such roles as deemed desirable and ap- propriate by the constituents? In this study an attempt was made to find out what constitutes desirable pastoral leadership within a Third World country. The country involved was Nigeria. Specifically studied was a denomination of an estimated 500,000 members called The Evangelical Churches of West Africa (ECWA). This denomination has been extensively involved in theological education and the training of pastors. An attempt was made to investigate not only the concepts of pas- toral leadership, but also the sources from which those concepts were de- rived. The researcher attempted to find out if there are significant differences in response patterns according to: a bipolar age distribu- tion, a seven—level degree of acculturation (compressed into five for statistical purposes), and locales. Objectives of the Research The objectives were to seek answers to the following research questions. Answers will provide curriculum planners with information on what ECWA constituencies consider appropriate Pastoral Leadership criteria. 1. What methods of selecting and transferring the pastor-leader do ECWA members prefer? 2. What conceptual descriptions of the pastor-leader exist among ECWA members? 3. What concepts of pastoral leadership are to be found in ECWA with respect to the following: a. the desirable personal characteristics of the pastor-leader? b. the desirable leadership styles of the pastor-leader? c. the desirable ministry skills of the pastor-leader? d. and the desirable civic duties of the pastor-leader? 4. What are the sources of these concepts of pastoral leader- ship found in ECWA with respect to the following: a. the desirable personal characteristics of the pastor- leader? b. the desirable leadership styles of the pastor—leader? c. the desirable ministry skills of the pastor-leader? d. and the desirable civic duties of the pastor-leader? Importance of the Research The attempt in the study was to discover the concepts of pastoral leadership espoused by ECWA members —- concepts which had not been studied yet among this group. An attempt was also node to discover the sources fromiwhich ECWA members are deriving their concepts of pastoral leader- ship. If there are differences in ECWA along age distribution, levels of acculturation and locales, these may suggest to curriculum planners in ECWA the possibility for differentiated emphases in ministerial train- ing. These emphases may then take into account such factors as differen- tiated training for pastors who will be going to rural versus urban areas; 5 those who will be serving the highly educated versus not so highly educated churches. Curriculum planning in ministerial training often assumes a top- down approach to needs assessment out in the constituencies. A study of this type presents the reverse. Needs assessment was done within the constituencies with a view to informing the judgement of curriculum plan— ners who train pastors for these constituencies. These curriculum planners may want to know why ECWA churches are not absorbing most of the young and highly educated trainees. They may also want to know whether or not the different ECWA church types express the same preferences for pastoral leadership criteria. Underlying Assumptions in the Research In this study the researcher assumes the concept of "culture- contact” (Redfield et al., 1936). This concept implies that cultures, sub-cultures and societies impact on one another, so that there is no static culture. With culture contact a certain degree of borrowing of values across cultures and sub-cultures is assumed. With contact and borrowing, one should not expect pure forms. So for example, the most acculturated among the sample studied will still be expected to exhibit traces of traditional values they are expected to have moved away from. Likewise, the most traditional would be expected to exhibit certain degrees or traces of acculturation to the degree that they have made contact with nontraditional values.. It was assumed that the amount in years of schooling would be a measure of the degree or level of acculturation. Questionnaire items were constructed in the form of attitude scales. These underlying assumptions helped set the stage for probing into the sources from which the ECWA community derived its categories of the concepts of pastoral leadership. Churches in the Third World have borrowed certain values and concepts on leadership from the Western churches with which they are linked. A case in point is the schooling approach to leadership mentioned above. In this approach the schools are vested with the power to train certain members of the society for certain designated roles that these trainees will later assume in the so- ciety. In this approach paper credentials and academic qualification be- come important criteria for ascending to designated statuses and roles. With culture-contact one can envisage culture-clash. When for instance a schooling approach to leadership role is in operation in a society that values instead, qualities like age, marital status, and lineage, conflicts could result. It was expected that the ECWA community will combine in varying degrees, Nigerian cultural values with acculturated values through Western form of education, and Biblical values and norms. Delimiting the Concerns of the Research In the study, a blanket endorsement was not given to all the qualities of pastoral leadership that the sample deemed desirable. Also value judgements were not placed on the appropriateness of those qualities that are mentioned or on the choices of items selected in the question- naire. This position was taken because the study is more descriptive than evaluative. However, the author implies in the study that curricu— lum development and revision should include needs assessment. In that case, needs assessment should not ignore the sampling of opinions in the constituencies (Eisner, 1979). The study is limited to the sampling of opinions of ECWA members on their concepts of desirable pastoral leadership qualities. The re- spondents were not asked to describe their pastors' leadership qualities. However, when the researcher asked a respondent who had just completed the questionnaire what went on in his mind as he responded to items on the questionnaire, he received an interesting answer. That respondent said all throughout the exercise he utilized what he knew of his pastor's qualities of leadership to decide what were or were not desirable quali- ties in a pastor. For example, if he thought his pastor had some less than desirable qualities, his reaction on the items in the questionnaire was to avoid choosing responses that depicted such qualities as he dis- liked in his pastor. In effect he was using his pastor as referent. How widespread this practice was among the sample studied was not a con- cern in this study and so it was not pursued. Pastor-leader behaviors were not observed directly in this study as it is done in studies on leadership which involve observing the leader behaviors of those considered effective and ineffective in an attempt to come up with desirable leadership qualities. The Ohio studies (Stogdill and Coons, 1957; Stogdill and Shartle, 1955) are examples. This study is a survey of pastoral leadership criteria in ECWA churches. The approach in the study istherefore, trait-oriented. Other approaches to leadership are recognized in Chapter 2. Research Hypotheses Based on the research questions raised above the following hy- potheses were tested in this study (The hypotheses are stated here in logical form rather than in the null form). With respect to the concepts of pastoral leadership Hypothesis 1 H1: There will be significant differences along the bipolar age_grades among ECWA members in their concepts of what ought to be the desirable personal characteristics of the pastor-leader Hypothesis 2 H1: There will be significant differences along the levels _gf acculturation found among ECWA members in their con- cepts of what ought to be the desirable personal char- acteristics of the pastor—leader Hypothesis 3 H1: There will be significant differences among ECWA members along locales in their concepts of what ought to be the desirable personal characteristics of the pastor-leader Hypotheses 1-3 deal with the personal characteristics of the pas- tor-leader. The attempt is to investigate possible discriminating factors along age grades, levels of acculturation and locales among ECWA respon- dents with regards to what they consider as the desirable personal char- acteristics of the pastor-leader. Hypothesis 4 H1: There will be significant differences along the bipolar age grades among ECWA members in their concepts of what ought to be the desirable leadership styles of the pastor-leader Hypothesis 5 H1: There will be significant differences along the levels ‘gf acculturation found among ECWA members in their con- cepts of what ought to be the desirable leadership styles of the pastor-leader Hypothesis 6 H1: There will be significant differences among ECWA members along locales in their concepts of what ought to be the desirable leadership styles of the pastor-leader. Hypotheses 4-6 deal with the leadership styles of the pastor- leader. The attempt is to investigate possible discriminating factors along age grades, levels of acculturation, and locales among ECWA respon- dents with regards to what they consider as the desirable leadership styles of the pastor-leader. Hypothesis 7 H1: There will be significant differences along the bipolar age grades among ECWA members in their concepts of what ought to be the desirable ministry skills of the pastor- leader Hypothesis 8 H]: There will be significant differences along the levels pf_acculturation found among ECWA members in their con- cepts of what ought to be the desirable ministry skills of the pastor-leader Hypothesis 9 H1: There will be significant differences among ECWA members along locales in their concepts of what ought to be the desirable ministry skills of the pastor-leader Hypotheses 7-9 deal with the ministry skills of the pastor-leader. The attempt is to investigate possible discriminating factors along age grades, levels of acculturation, and locales among ECWA respondents with regards to what they consider as the desirable ministry skills of the pas- tor-leader. 10 Hypothesis 10 H1: There will be significant differences along the bipolar age grades among ECWA members in their concepts of what ought to be the desirable civic duties of the pastor- leader Hypothesis 11 H1: There will be significant differences along the levels pf acculturation found among ECWA members in their con- cepts of what ought to be the desirable civic duties of the pastor-leader Hypothesis 12 H1: There will be significant differences among ECWA members along locales in their concepts of what ought to be the desirable civic duties of the pastor-leader Hypotheses 10-12 deal with the civic duties of the pastor-leader. The attempt is to investigate possible discriminating factors along age grades, levels of acculturation, and locales among ECWA respondents with regards to what they consider as the desirable civic duties of the pastor- leader. With respect to the sources of the concepts of pastoral leader- ship found in ECWA: Hypothesis 13 The less acculturated ECWA members (L1, L2) will derive their concepts of pastoral leadership more often from Traditional values(TraV) Hypothesis 14 The more acculturated ECWA members (L3- L5) will derive 11 their concepts of pastoral leadership more often from acculturated values (AcV) Hypothesis 15 ECWA members (Ll-L5) will exhibit in varying degrees a mixture of TraV and AcV in their concepts of pastoral leadership Hypothesis 16 Although ECWA members profess strong allegiance to Norma- tive Biblical Values (NBV), they will derive their con— cepts of pastoral leadership least often from NBV Hypotheses 13-16 deal with the three sources (TraV, AcV and NBV) that ECWA members are likely to derive their pastoral leadership concepts from. Hypothesis 13 implies that the more traditional ECWA members (L1,L2) will draw more often from TraV. Hypothesis 15 supplements hypothesis 13 iri implying ‘that L1 and L2 ECWA respondents are expected to display some AcV although not as much as they would TraV. Hypothesis 14 implies that the more acculturated ECWA members (L3'L5)W111 draw more often from AcV. Here also hypothesis 15 supple- ments hypothesis 14 by implying that L3-L5 ECWA respondents are expected to display some TraV although not as much as they would AcV. Hypothesis 16 implies that ECWA members Ll-Ls will all alike de- rive their pastoral leadership concepts least often from NBV. Definition of Terms The following are the terms used in this study. The definitions are normally as given in the literature unless otherwise indicated. Some of the terms are used in manners peculiar to this study. 12 Acculturation -— Is a reference to those phenomena which re— sult when people with different cultures (singly or collective- ly) come into first-hand contact, with subsequent changes in the original cultural Patterns of either or both groups. This definition is based on modifications by Herskovits (1938) of the work of the members of the Social Science Research Council team on Acculturation (Redfield, et al., 1936). Various factors are known to cause acculturation to take place. One of them is formal education or schooling. Accultura- tion as used in this study refers to the values transmitted to a people through the medium of schooling. It is measured in this study by the amount of schooling a person has had. This last statement might imply that one who does not attend school is not acculturated. 0n the contrary, one who does not attend school may still be acculturated to some degree due to contact with acquaintances who attend school. African Traditional Religion -- Is the composite name used in theological literature since the sixties for all traditional religious belief systems of Africa. Earlier works by mission- aries and anthropologists labeled these beliefs as 'Paganism.' As Departments of Divinities gave way to Departments of Reli- gious Studies in post-independence Africa, 'Paganism' gave way to 'African Traditional Religion.‘ Acculturated Values -- Are values borrowed by a people from another as a result of acculturation. As used in this study, acculturated values are foreign values borrowed by Nigerians through contact with the Western World. 13 Chi sqgare (x2) -- Is a statistical formula designed to test whether two or more frequency distributions differ significantly. Church -- As used in Biblical and theological sense refers to the people of faith who enjoy a mystical union with Jesus Christ. Contextualization -- As used in theological literature is a reference to the application of theology to a local setting. Contingency Coefficient -- Is a statistical formula that is derived from the Chi square. It is used to determine the cor- relation coefficient that estimates the magnitude of the rela- tionship between the variables in a Chi square table. Culture-Contact -- Is the British anthropologists' reference to the same thing as acculturation. English-Using Churches -- Refer in this study to certain ECWA churches located in urban centers. These churches use the English language exclusively during worship services. They are made up of highly educated and highly mobile migrants. Ethnography -- Literally means the study of the nations. As used in the social science literature, it is a reference to the descriptive study of a particular culture or cultures. Ethnomethodology -- As used in anthropology refers to the sub- ject matter of inquiry: how (the methodology by which) people make sense out of the situations in which they find themselves. An ethnomethodologist is one who examines the ways people apply abstract rules and commonsense understandings in situations 14 in order to make actions appear routine, explicable, and un- ambiguous (Bogdan & Taylor, 1975). Ethno-Rural Churches -- Is a reference in this study to cer- tain ECWA churches located in villages and very small towns. These churches use a major Nigerian language during worship services. They are made up of relatively low educated people who are found in the agrarian sector. Some of the younger ones in these churches tend to have a little more formal education than their older folks. Ethno-Urban Churches -- Is a reference in this study to cer- tain ECWA churches located in urban centers. These ChUPChES use a major Nigerian language during worship services. They combine the highly educated, low educated, and non literates in their midst. Evangelical Churches of West Africa -- Is the indigenous ChUPCh started by the Sudan Interior Mission. This denomination of an estimated 500,000 members operates largely within Nigeria. However, its mission efforts have extended to the planting of churches in other West African countries such as The Republic of Benin. Levels of Acculturation -— As used in this study refers to a seven-point distribution of the amount in years of schooling someone has had. The levels go from zero number of years to university education. The seven points were compressed to five for statistical purposes. 15 Local Churches -- Is a reference to a group of believers (people of faith) who meet in a locale, thereby forming a local representation of The Church. Locales -— As used in this study is a reference to the three sub samples in this study. These are: Ethno-Rural, Ethno- Urban, and EngllSh‘Using churches. Normative Biblical Values —- Is a reference in this study to values whose sources are traceable to the Bible. The values are normative because the adherents see the source of those values as the standard for faith and practice. Normative Organizations -- This is a reference in the literature to organizations in which normative power is the major source of control over most lower participants, whose orientation to the organization is characterized by high commitment (Etzioni, 1975). Normative as used of organizations is a reference to symbolism. Therefore, these types of organizations so labeled utilize symbolic power as a means of controlling their members. Qualitative Sociology -- refers to research procedures in social science which produce descriptive data of people's own written or spoken words and observable behavior (Bogdan & Taylor, 1975). anntitative Sociology -- refers to research procedures in social science which derives from the Positivist school of thought. In this approach numbers are assigned to qualita- tive observations. Data are produced by counting and measur- ing (Schwartz & Jacobs, 1979). 16 Theological Education by Extension —— Is a movement operating around the world attempting to extend theological education to people who are not able to benefit directly for one reason or another from the conventional methods of residential theologi- cal education. At times this same movement is referred to as Extension Movement or Extension Seminary. Traditional Values -- As used in this study refers to local values found within the various cultures of Nigeria in their unadulterated form. Although it is recognized that no culture is static, it is generally accepted that traditional values are often more stable (less fluid) than what is called modern values. Therefore the use of the word, unadulterated is a re— ference to those traditional values in their most stable forms. CHAPTER II SOME RELEVANT PRECEDENTS Much has. been written on the subjects of leadership and minis- terial training both from the substantive and methodological perspectives. Both perspectives will be examined here. Substantive Precedents Theological education's role in ministerial training has had its share of critics and advocates. No clear definitive stance has em- erged as a result of debates on both sides. On the subject of leader- ship there are contradictory voices concerning what leadership involves, how it is studied and measured. The past two decades (1960-1980)havevfitnessed calls for re- newal in theological education as well as experimentations in alterna- tives to the conventional approach to ministerial training. This issue of renewal in theological education as it touches on leadership will now be taken up. Call for Renewal in Theological Education Throughout Africa and Asia critics of the conventional method of ministerial training abound. Tutu (1973) points to the westernized state of theological schools in the Third World and he charges the indigenes with aiding and abetting the process of westernization of Third World theological institutions. Coe (1973) discusses the search for renewal 17 18 in theological education as he recalled his (1962) call for, "A Rethink- ing of Theological Training for the Ministry in the Younger Churches Today." "Younger churches"is;a reference to the Third World. Coe's discussion of a renewal embraces the concept of Theological Education by Extension (TEE) while promising continuing high standards academically. The promise by some TEE advocates not to lower academic stan- dards has reduced some of the criticisms brought against TEE by its critics. Kinsler (1978) takes pains to correct such a notion of low- ering of standards. Kinsler pointed out that what is proposed in TEE is not much different from the British Open University system. It is not the case that two separate camps of pro-TEE and anti- TEE exist along residential versus non residential groups of adherents. The fact is, many who are involved in the main stream of the conventional theological education system are either sympathetic with this call for renewal or are themselves beginning to advocate it. As it happens at times, some of these sympathizers go some distance and then seem not so sure they want to do away with the status quo. For example, Hermann (May, 1979) presents TEE as "New Patterns of Theological Education in Africa.” In this article Hermann seemed to be embracing TEE and was presenting it as a model for ministerial training in Africa. But when he went be- fore the West African Association of Theological Institutions later that year (Hermann, August, 1979) he presented the result of a research he had conducted among graduates of his school, the Theological College of Northern Nigeria (TCNN) that suggests something different. The study 19 concludes that the conventional approach as practiced in TCNN was quite satisfactory. Many of the criticisms levelled against the conventional approach concern the nature of the program. For instance, Solanky (1978) focused on the issue of learning in theological education. He assailed what he called the content-oriented learning approach practiced in theological education. He pointed out that such a view of knowledge is Greek in origin (source). He suggested a more desirable approach to learning. This approach has its source in the Hebrew concept of knowledge. The Hebrew concept is experiential, emphasizing ability to use acquired skills and knowledge. Bessem (1977) sums up with what he calls fivefaiTUrescfi’theo- logical education in the Third World. These failures are: 1. Theological education in the Third World is expensive and ineffective. 2. It benefits only a minority. 3. It alienates its recipients from their milieu. 4. It is a means of selection for producing an elite. 5. And it reinforces Western domination of the Third World (Bessem, 1977, p. 34). Bessem then calls for, among other things, the integration into the curriculum, field education experience which allows trainees to apply their theoretical knowledge to concrete life situations. Suggested Remedies in Theological Education A basic assumption in the stated objectives of many theological institutions is that they are training out leaders for the church. The underlying assumption as to whether the training makes the trainees 20 into leaders or that the trainees will go on to become leaders is often not clear. The issue of leadership becomes crucial in view of the cul- ture clash mentioned in the first chapter. Who are the real leaders? Is theological education producing the kinds of leaders needed in the church in Third World countries? Two representative views will be men- tioned below. The TEE Route. Kinsler (1978) lists six bases for change in theological education. These are: 1. Theological bases -- asking what the nature of Christian ministry is. 2. Historical bases -— touching on whether or not members of a church body can participate fully in theological study and ministry, or whether these are reserved only for a few elite. This historical issue is reminiscent of the Re- formers' assertion (If the priesthood of all believers. 3. Sociological bases —- calling into question who the real leaders of the people are from a contextual standpoint. 4. Educational bases -- touching on what the best ways for training the leaders are. 5. Economic bases -- touching on the financial viability of the residential theological schools in the Third World. 6. Missiological bases —- reference to the goals of minis- terial training (Kinsler, 1978, pp. 4-24). It is in his discussion of the sociological bases for ministerial training that Kinsler touches on the issue of leadership. He insists on Biblical, theological and historical grounds that church ministry should be directed by leaders of the people and not by a professional class of clergy. This view raises the questions regarding the definition of 21 church leadership, how church leaders should be formed, how they should be selected and vested with authority, and how they should be sustained in leadership position within the church. Kinsler points out that relevant skills and knowledge, though important, do not necessarily make a leader in the church. Kinsler does not offer a definition for church leadership but lists things that a church leader needs. These include: a sense of calling and dedica- tion, gifts (traditional and charismatic), ability to participate in the group, identification with the group, and acceptability to the group. The charge he levels against the conventional approach he him- self had been involved with is that it excludes the ”real leaders" of the people while at the same time it alienates its trainees from their cultural milieu (so also, Bessem, 1977; Mey, 1975). Kinsler sums up his charges this way: Schools can contribute to the intellectual and personal growth of their pupils, but leadership development takes place in society, in the group, in the life of the Church. In recent years schools and seminaries have tried to provide more of an environment for integral development, with simula- tions and field experiences, but these are by and large spor- adic and pale immitations of real life. And the socializa- tion process of these institutions can be completely irrele- vant or discontinuous or even negative (Kinsler, 1978, P.13). Kinsler then goes on to set up a more stringent requirement for candidates for church leadership as his solution. He says The problem of traditional theological education is not only the fact that the seminaries and Bible institutes are incap- able of forming leaders but that they withdraw their students (physically and socially) from the very context and processes where leadership can best be formed. Ideally every pastor should first gain experience in the secular world and serve in a number of lesser leadership roles in the church, just as an ordinary member. Only after demonstrating his personal qualities, gifts, and leadership as a Sunday-school teacher, deacon, elder, etc. should he be considered as a possible candidate for "the ministry" (Kinsler, 1978, p. 13). 22 The Conventional Route. Others such as Hermann who are no strangers to TEE ideas suggest that the issue at stake is the need to differen— tiate between the kinds of needs in the church at large and the program of study in theological institutions. This suggestion aims at getting away from the shotgun approach to theological education. That approach gives one basic type of training to all candidates with the assumption that the trainees will all be suited for their respective tasks whatever these are. Hermann (1980) suggests a distinction between theological edu- cation and pastoral training. The former he calls an attempt at excel— lency in all theological and academic subjects which would equip candi- dates to become theologians. The latter he calls an attempt at focusing on training in pastoral skills needed to lead the church. He goes on to suggest three distinct programs of study. These are: 1. Christian theology -- to train academic theologians 2. Christian Education -- to train religious knowledge teachers in secular schools 3. Pastoral ministry -- to train pastors and church workers (p, 22), What operates now is a non differentiation in the type of train- ing in light of what the trainees go on to do. Indeed there are fields of major in some theological institutions such as, New Testament, Old Testa- ment, Doctrine, Church History, Pastoral Ministry, Christian education and Counseling. But the trainees,tu/and large,get the same basic pro- gram with the exception of a few more hours in major areas to differen- tiate who majors in what. So then, Hermann's suggestions call for a more focused view of theological education but he does not address the issue of leadership. 23 As for Kinsler, although he presented by his own admission an idealistic view of the process of becoming a leader in the church, he does not ex- amine what constitutes leadership. What is Leadership? Leadership has been variously defined and conceptualized. Fiedler (1964) defines the leader as the one in the group who directs and co- ordinates task-relevant group activities, or who, in the absence of a desig- nated leader, automatically performs these functions in the group. Social scientists often want to know more about the issue of leadership than what is contained in this definition. For example, what factors deter- mine whether an individual will become a leader? And what personality traits or attributes determine whether a leader will become effective? The Trait Approach. Traditionally the leader role has been con- ceptualized in the form of traits possessed by the leader. The leader in this view is endowed with personal superior qualities that differ- entiate him from his followers(BernaFd. 1926). Some of the traits that have been identified include intelligence, general ability, task ability, and level of formal education (Stout and Briner, 1969). Stout and Briner designate this trait approach with the phrase, "What leaders have that others do not." In studies that look at the traits of the leader, com- petence in the performance of group tasks has been emphasized. Signifi- cant traits that correlate with good leadership include, self confidence, alertness, job motivation and aggressiveness. Researchers have noted that in groups having designated leaders, members often demand or have certain conceptions of what leaders ought to be like. Stout and Briner suggest that the perception of a leader's competence may be a function of the needs of group members 24 which are not necessarily related to group tasks. Stout and Briner, therefore suggest that what leaders have that others do not appear to be a combination of innate and achieved attributes. One of the problems often cited against this approach is the cum- bersomeness of the list of traits that have been identified from one situ- ation to another. The Situationist Approach. In reaction to the trait approach, the Situationist approach was advanced amidst the rising trend in re- search on leadership. In this approach leadership is conceived as a func- tion of needs existing within a given situation, and it consists of a re- lationship between the individual leader and the group. Leadership is therefore,seen as an interpersonal process (Merton, 1969). Compliance within a group in the Situationist view comes about be- cause followers want to, and not because they have to. In their study, Stogdill and Coons (1957) described leadership as the behavior of an individual when that individual is directing the activities of a group toward a shared goal. Leadership is seen as a function of an individual's behavior within a specified context, and among a group of people all work- ing towards a desired goal. The Situationist approach thus focuses on leader behavior which is subject to change from one situation to the other. Stout and Briner (1969) have designated this approach with the phrase, "What leaders do that others do not." In the trait approach by comparison, the emphasis is on the innate qualities that the leader has or possesses. Halpin and Winer (in Stogdill and Coons, 1957) conducted a fac- tor analysis of item intercorrelations which produced two identified factors. The factors are, consideration and initiation of structure in the context of interaction. These two subscales have since been utilized 25 extensively in other studies. Bowers and Seashore (1969) have proposed a four-factor categorization. These are: supportiveness, interaction, goal emphasis and work facilitation. A certain degree of dissatisfaction has developed also with the Situationist approach, and researchers have turned attention to person- ality attributes of the leader that contribute to group effectiveness. Task Performance Approach. The quest for personality attributes of the leader that contribute to group effectiveness is what this author calls Task Performance approach. In the post-Situationist era the focus has shifted from just the designated leader of a group. Leadership is not viewed apart from the group's task performance. In this regard ”ef- fective" and "ineffective" leaders are compared based on the correlation of leadership styles with group productivity. After considering the above positions the issue of leadership is by no means clear cut. Halpin (1967) warns that the concept, leadership should not be loaded with descriptive and evaluative components. By des- criptive he means behaviors of the leader that are appropriate to that role. By evaluative he means the evaluation of an individual's perfor— mance in this role. The problem is that the research literature on lead- ership knows no other forms of discussing the issue of leadership apart from the descriptive and evaluative. This is especially so because of the need to measure and quantify. What seems most helpful is for one to define one's parameters with regards to this issue ahead of time. Having defined the parameters as given one may then operate within the given in- asmuch as no grand theory of leadership is yet available. 26 Leadership, Power and Authority From what is known of social units, they do organize, and they have some forms of leadership. Leadership is exercised through power, authority and influence (Peil, 1977). Power is defined as the ability to effect one's own will against resistance from others (Weber, 1947). Authority is made possible be- cause of a shared belief among members of a social unit. The beliefs lead to group norms for accepting commands within the social unit. Obe- dience to the commands are enforced by the group. The acceptance of group- legitimized commands is then due to a recognition of authority. Influ- ence however involves one's judgment. It involves persuasion and reason— ing in order to get someone's compliance. In many organizations,authority is the means of control. Weber (1953) put forth his classic three types of ideal authority. These are: traditional, charismatic and bureaucratic. Traditional authority is legitimized by the sanctity of tradition. However, colonization brought about social changes in many parts of the world through culture con- tact. These social changes undermined traditional authority because they involved breaking from tradition. Charismatic authority is based on individual personality of the leader who embodies the movement and is obeyed for ideological reasons. Since the smooth running of the movement is tied up with the person of the leader, chaos soon ensues at the turnover of leadership, for example when the charismatic leader dies, unless the movement develops into an organization. Bureaucratic authority operates in large scale social units. This type of social units is designed to accomplish large—scale adminis— trative tasks through the systematic coordination of the work of many 27 people. Hence bureaucratic authority is well represented in modern business and the civil service. Bureaucracy involves the rationalization of administration to achieve organizational goals. A bureaucracy is characterized by specialization, hierarchical authority, systematized rules, impersonality, and meritocracy. A fourth type of authority has been advanced of late (Peil, 1977). This type is called Professional authority. It involves the acceptance of the competence of the person giving the orders. Competency is in re- ference to the professional's qualifications. Some people will rather still call this type a subdivision of the bureaucratic. In many religious groups of the type focused on in this study, any one of these four types of authority might be found singly or simul- taneously although one form might be most dominant. However, religious groups are characterized by another descriptor other than these four, and attention will be devoted to that descriptor later on. Notable Theories of Leadership Stogdill (1974) gives asummary of theories of leadership. No definitive grand theory has emerged or is likely to emerge in the very near future. Among those frequently employed theories in research on leadership are the following: Path-goal theory advanced by Evans (1970), and Contingency theory (Fiedler, 1964). Evans notes that the degree to which the leader exhibits considera- tion tends to determine the followers' perception of the abundance of re- wards available to him. The degree to which the leader initiates struc- ture determines in turn, the followers' perception of the paths or be- haviors through which rewards may be initiated. 28 Fiedler's studies resulted in three specific findings that re— present his contingency model. They are these: 1. The effectiveness of a group is contingent upon the appropriateness of the leader's style to the specific situation 2. The most effective leadership style depends upon the de- gree to which the group situation enables the leader to exert influence 3. and, that it is therefore possible to either make the leader fit a specific group situation through training, or in the alternative engineer the group situation to fit the leader's style (PP- 184-185). The socially distant (work-oriented) leader tends to be more ef- fective in very easy and very difficult situations. The highly sociable (interaction-oriented) leader tends to be more effective in situations that impose moderate leadership demands. Leaderglypes Over a period of thirty six years from 1915-1951, those who dealt with the subject of leadership recognized the following leadership types that have since been widely used in the literature. The types are: authoritative (dominator), persuasive (arouser), democratic (developer), intellectual, executive (administrator) and representative (spdkesperson). In recent times the authoritative leader has been redesignated task- oriented or structured. The democratic leader has been called person- oriented or considerate. These leader types are still utilized in leadership studies even when the focus has been shifted to the leader behaviors in relation to 29 group performance. A look at the commonly reported leader behaviors is now in order. Leader Behavior Descriptors Stogdill (1974) gives a summary of the results of both theoretical formulations and experimentation that identify thirteen factors which describe leader behavior: 1. 10. Representation (the leader speaks and acts as the group's representative), Demand reconciliation (leader reconciles conflicting or- ganizational demands and reduces disorder), Tolerance of uncertainty (able to tolerate uncertainty and postponement without anxiety or upset), Persuasiveness (uses persuasion and argument effectively while exhibiting convictions), Initiation of structure (clearly defines own role, and lets followers know what is expected), Tolerance of freedom (allows followers scope for initia- tive, decision, and action), Role retention (actively exercises leadership role rather than surrendering leadership to others), Consideration (has regards for the comfort, well—being, status, and contributions of followers), Production emphasis (applies pressure for productive out- put). Predictive accuracy (exhibits foresight and ability to predict outcomes accurateTY), 30 11. Integration (maintains a closely knit organization and resolves conflicts among members). 12. Influence with superiors (maintains cordial relations with superiors, has influence with them, and is striving for higher status, and 13. Responsibility deference (Stogdill, 1974, p.143), These factors were found to be differentially related to dif- ferent dimensions of member satisfaction and group performance in studies among U.S. senators, corporation presidents, presidents of international labor unions and presidents of colleges and universities. Subscale scores were intercorrelated and factor analyzed. Results suggest that each factor is strongly dominated by a single subscale such as produc- tion emphasis or tolerance of uncertainty. However, some factors con- tained substantial loadings from more than one subscale. Some Studies on Global Leadership There are many studies that examine leader effectiveness, or otherwise, in light of group performance on assigned tasks. A notable example is the study conducted by Fiedler (1964). In this fifteen-year study Fiedler restricted the criteria of leadership to: 1) the individual appointed by a representative of the larger organization of which the group is a part; 2) the individual elected by the group; 3) or if there is neither an elected nor an appoint- ed leader, the individual who can be identified as most influential on task-relevant questions of a sociometric preference questionnaire. Fiedler utilized interpersonal perception measures of assumed similarity between opposites, and esteem for the least preferred co- worker as predictor variables of leadership effectiveness. Fiedler 31 suggests in his findings that these predictors were contingent upon an adequate classification of the group situation. He also suggests speci- fic conditions under which certain leadership attitudes result in effec- tive performance. This was how Fiedler developed what he calls, a con- tingency model to offer strategies for directing group tasks depending on the situation and the leader's ability to modify group interpersonal attitudes accordingly. Another study which deals with leader behavior and member reac- tion is that by White and Lippitt (1968). The study was conducted among youths. The purpose was to examine the effects upon individual and group behavior three variations in social atmosphere labelled demo- cratic, authoritarian, and laissez-faire. The study was in two parts. In the first part, the same leader met with two youth clubs. One club was led in a democratic manner, the other in an autocratic style. The behaviors of the leader and the mem- bers were recorded by observers. In the second part, four groups engaged in hobby activities under four trained adult leaders. These adults were trained to proficiency in the three leadership treatments. The leaders were shifted from club to club every six weeks, each one chang- ing his leadership style at each shift so that each club experienced each of the leadership styles under different leaders. The behaviors of the leaders and member reactions were monitored by observers. The result of the first part revealed three things: 1. That laissez-faire was not the same as democracy. There was less work done in it, and poorer work at that. 2. That democracy can be efficient. Work motivation was stronger, and originality was greater. 3. That auto- cracy can create much hostility and aggression. The autocratic group showed more dominating ascendance, more demand for attention, more 32 destruction of own property, and more scapegoat behavior. The result of the second part also revealed three things: 1. That autocracy can create discontent that does not appear on the sur- face. 2. That there was more dependence and less individuality in auto- cracy. 3. And that there was more group-mindedness and more friendli- ness in democracy. The study shows that the same group of people behave in differ- ent ways when operating under leaders who believe differently. The work of Kahn and Katz (1960) seems to support the findings of White and Lippitt. Kahn and Katz summarized findings from several studies on the performance of various work groups and the characteristic behaviors of each group's supervisor. They conclude: 1. Supervisors of more effective groups were better able to play a differentiated role than supervisors of less effective groups, and they spent more time plan- ning the task, providing materials, and initiating next steps; 2. the better supervisors delegated authority to others more than the poorer supervisors; 3. the more effective supervisors checked up on the sub- ordinates less often and were more supportive in their manner than the less effective ones; and 4. the supervisors of groups with better per— formance developed cohesiveness among their associates more than did the supervisors of poorer groups. There are also series of studies dealing with leadership effects on follower satisfaction and performance. Generally such studies re- veal that employee satisfaction was positively related to favorable atti- tudes toward supervisors. In a study of community hospitals, Mann (1965) found that the satisfaction of nurses was related to human relations skills of their supervisors. The satisfaction of technicians was related to their 33 supervisors' technical and human relations skills. In a study of power plants, employee satisfaction was also more highly related to the human relations skills than to the technical or administrative skills of the supervisors. Supervisors that were rated by employees as higher in tech- nical than in human relations skills reported that they were dissatis- fied with promotion and wages, worried about advancement, felt caught in- between workers and management, and tended to take risks. Supervisors rated higher in human relations than in technical skills reported that they felt satisfied with training, not worried about losing their job did not feel caught in the middle, and they ranked low in risk taking. In a study of leader ability and decisiveness, Rohde (1954) studied experimental groups in which members differed in ability to per- form tasks. He found that if the leader is qualified to do the task, the group performs more effectively than if the leader is not qualified regardless of followers' ability. The qualified more often than the un- qualified leader played the role of initiating ideas and coordinating group activities whether followers were similar or dissimilar in ability. The studies cited above dealt mostly with business type groups or groups that presuppose a modern day technological set up. The fact is that most studies on leadership have been conducted either in the busi- ness sectors utilizing executives and managers; or in factories using workers on the assembly line; or in the military set up. Some Studies on Church Leadership A few studies on leadership have been conducted in the church. They are mostly done in the West, such as the famous Association of Theological Schools' (ATS) Study (Schuller, et al., 1975). Once in a while one finds such studies conducted in the Third World. Two notable examples are the studies by Hermann (1979) and Plueddemann (1977). 34 In the academic year 1977-78 the faculty of the Theological College of Northern Nigeria (TCNN) decided to evaluate the school's curri- culum that had been in operation for twenty years. The attempt was to raise the school's curriculum for future pastors and teachers. At that time Hermann, a member of the teaching staff of TCNN decided to conduct a study of the effectiveness of the school's curriculum based on what graduates of the school were doing on the field. Evaluation was carried out through interviews and mailedquestionnaires. The graduates were asked to assess their theological education at TCNN in light of their present jobs. A total of sixty nine graduates or a third of the total graduates at the time of the study took part. Results of the study show that 89% of the respondents were be- tween the ages of 29 and 42. The range was 27 and 50. There were only four respondents who were forty-one years old, 3 were forty-two years old, 2 were forty-four years old, and 1 respondent each for ages forty five, forty six, forty seven and fifty (Hermann, 1977, p. 4). When asked what should be the minimum entrance qualification for TCNN, over 90% of the respondents indicated preference for secondary school level and/or university entrance requirements. When asked what should be the ideal character and personal gifts of the pastor, the top five answers were: patience, love, friendliness, faithfulness, and good preaching (in that order). Counseling comes in eighth position. At the bottom of the list were: leadership-related qualities like, no dictation, makes quick decisions, and approachable. When asked to choose between apprenticeship type of training where- by the ministerial candidate is trained by an experienced pastor, or the usual residential training, an overwhelming majority (87%) chose residen- tial training. The remaining 13% preferred both methods. 35 When asked what courses the graduates felt need of the most (then in retrospect), administration and education courses were the top two answers given. Hermann had hypothesized that a purely academic, Western-type theological education such as TCNN offers, does not really develop those qualities most needed by the Nigerian pastor. But the hypothesis was not sustained because the graduates overwhelmingly endorsed the status quo. In view of the controversies already discussed about whether the right kinds of leaders were being trained in Third World countries, this Hermann study is of interest. One who would support the status quo could amass arguments to favor his position, so could the opponent. Only a direct study could sustain either position. Hermann, having toyed with the idea of TEE, conducted a direct study of the graduates, and to his surprise the contention that the conventional system of training pastors was irrelevant was not sustained. However, a rival hypothesis to this finding exists. That is that, Hermann studied subjects who are "insiders" of the system. One would expect insiders of a system to support the status quo especially if they stand to lose their competitive edge. Graduates of residential institutions are apt to reason this way: that if they have spent a certain amount of years getting their diplomas through thick and thin, they were not about to allow just anyone to have access to what is considered rewards of the system, namely the diplomas. That if anyone would reach for those diplomas, such a one must scale over the stringent academic prerequiSites. Hermann's findings would be better corroborated through a study of a third but equally relevant party. That third partyis represented 36 by the church members or parishioners. Asking parishioners to evaluate the performances of graduates of the conventional methods of ministerial training will therefore give another and equally vital perspective. The Plueddemann (1977) study was conducted among ECWA leaders (nationals and expatriate missionaires). In this study Plueddemann com- pared leadership style preferences among expatriate missionaires and na- tional church leaders using Path-goal leadership theory. The sample comprised of missionary leaders, top administrators from ECWA headquarters, pastors studying in an ECWA Bible school (these are experienced pastors with mean years of pastoral experience of 10.4), and students from ECWA Theological Seminary -- the most advanced ECWA institution that trains pastors. The seminary students were young and highly educated as compared with the sample from the Bible school. Plueddemann was interested in finding out whether when faced with a leadership task ECWA leaders will put emphasis on the task at hand or on the people involved in the task, or on a combination of the two. Findings from the study show the following: 1. The older and more experienced missionaries tend to have more concern for the task than did their younger and less experienced counterparts. 2. The older ECWA leaders were more concerned for the task than the younger ones. 3. A comparison between missionaires and nationals shows that ECWA national leaders were more concerned with the task than did the expatriate leaders, although this result was not statistically significant. 37 Cultural Dimensions of Leadership Stogdill (1974) notes that conceptions of the characteristics of leadership are culturally determined. He cites cross-cultural stud- ies of Egyptian and Greek cultures of conceptualizing leadership in other than Western forms. What obtains among different ethnic groups in Nigeria in a pure unacculturated setting should be markedly different from those already cited in Western contexts. For example, Brenner (1974) reports the value placed on heredity in the Hausa-speaking emirate of Borno in Nigeria. Such a finding would be supported across ethnic lines throughout Nigeria. Fadipe (1970) lists some highly prized qualities of leadership found among the Yoruba of Nigeria. These qualities cover descriptions of what the leader is and what the leader does. Highly prized qualities include tact, patience, impartiality, persuasiveness, good judgement, sociability, and "open-handedness” (that is, generosity). Fadipe also notes the author- ity on which leadership rests among the Yoruba. Authority is usually derived from seniority (age factor) and what Fadipe calls decorum. A- mong the Ibo-speaking people of Nigeria, a form of egalitarianism has been reported in the pure unacculturatedstate where acephalous societies existed (Basden, 1921; Meek, 1950). As discussed in the first chapter, pure forms of these cultural expressions of leadership concepts are not expected due to the effects of culture contact. That is because acculturation effects touch differ— ent groups in different degrees. In contradistinction to the non-Western qualities of leadership mentioned above Punit (1973) gives some qualities that are often men- tioned in connection with the West. The main distinction being deference 38 to the office as opposed to the person. Punit however is careful to note that what he cites as Western qualities are more in the ideal-type than what obtains in the so-called rational-legal authority system. Punit writes, The person who enjoys legal authority does so by virtue of the fact that he occupies a particular office. In this type of authority, a supra-individual power--state, church, school or military organization-—endows a person with a dignity and power of ultimate decision which would never flow from his indi- viduality.... Therefore, the obedience of his followers (sub- ordinates) is rather to the office he holds or the chair he oc- cupies than to his personal self (Punit, 1973, p. 26). With rising interest in contextualization on the continent of Africa among theologians and educators interdisciplinary borrowings are taking place. The most fertile soil for borrowings has been African Traditional Religion (ATR). An example that is pertinent to the issue of leadership and ministerial training is the Hermann (1980) study. In this study Hermann compares assumed similarities and differences between the priestly training methods in African Traditional Religion and minis- terial training in theological institutions. Hermann's aim was to borrow from ATR ways to indigenize ministerial training in Africa. Hermann, as a result of studying the system of priest— hood in northeastern part of Nigeria calls forifluause of some traditional African elements in the selection and training procedures of the pastor. For example, based on ATR's priestly requirements, Hermann suggests the following: that the pastor not be too young; that he should be married; that future training shouldtmaless formal for would-be pastors via appren— ticeship system (of course Hermann's 1979 study shows that pastors of TCNN-related churches overwhelmingly rejected this); that the pastoral candidate be approved by the church community since only they could as- sess his leadership qualities; that emphasis should be placed on character, 39 attitude towards people, reliability, trustworthiness, friendliness, and patience. The focus of this study is a religious group rather than a busi- ness group or a traditional society as such. Members of the church in any social setting constitute a unit group within the larger society. Interpersonal relationships as touching the subject of leadership and followership within the church may not be too much unlike what obtains in the larger society. This type of suggestion leads one to ask a number of questions such as, what type of social unit is a religious organiza- tion? Business-oriented organizations markedly differ in many respects to religious organizations, although the latter have been known to have the tendency today to borrow from the business world techniques of manage- ment leadership and control. Religious organizations have been des- cribed as normative organizations. This fact alone shows certain pecu- liarities of religious groups in terms of the exercise of leadership and the means of control and compliance. Attention will now be turned to the topic of religious groups as normative organizations. Religious Groups as Normative Organizations Normative organizations are those in which normative, or symbolic power is the major source of control over most lower participants whose orientation to the organization is characterized by high commitment. Compliance in such an organization rests principally on internalization of directives accepted as legitimate. Techniques of control in such organizations, as cited in the literature include, leadership, rituals, manipulation of social and pres- tige symbol, and resocialization (Etzioni, 1975). The issue of control 40 and normative organizations is so important that attention will be given to it again very shortly. Types of Normative Organizations. Etzioni (1975) notes nine types of frequently found normative organizations. They include reli- gious organizations (churches, orders, and monasterieslsgeneral hospi- tals; universities; and voluntary associations. Etzioni notes that nor- mative pattern is most pronounced in the four groups cited above. Normative Patterns in Religious Groups. In discussing religious organizations in democratic societies, Etzioni notes that they rely pre- dominantly on normative powers to attain both acceptance of their direc- tives and the means required for their operation. He notes that remuner- ative powers do not serve as the basis of religious compliance. Hence, heavy reliance is placed on normative means of control, and moral com- mitments are often mandatory. To illustrate his point Etzioni notes, No coercion is applied to a Mormon who does not pay his tithe; he is punished by denial of access to religious services in the Temple.‘ Similarly, police will not arrest, or will a court fine a Catholic who is divorced or a nun who breaks her vows and leaves her order. These and other breaches of discipline are major transgressions in the eyes of the various religions, but the impact of such a view depends on the ability of the church to influence the normative orientation of the parishion— ers. If the typical normative means of socialization in reli- gious schools -- participation in religious rituals, sermons, and manipulation of various symbols -- fail, there is little else the Church can do (Etzioni, 1975, pp. 41-42). In many Protestant groups the symbols of rewards and punishments abound. They include who gets to partake of the Communion, who gets to read the Scriptures, who gets to head a committee, and who is or is not a full fledged member. Since all social units have means of controlling members, the issue of leadership cannot be divorced from that of the means of control. How this works in normative organizations is now the subject of concern. 41 Normative Organizations and Means of Control. In an earlier work, Etzioni (1964) writes, Nowhere is the strain between the organization's needs and the participant's needs -- between effectiveness, efficiency, and satisfaction more evident than in the area of organiza- tional control. In part, the two sets of needs support each other (Etzioni, 1964, p. 58). Etzioni further notes that an organization's success depends on its ability to control its participants. He notes that a characteristic of organizations as social units is their artificiality as social units. Organizations are artificial social units because unlike ethnic groups, community or the family, they are planned, deliberately structured, and they constantly and self-consciously review their performances and struc- ture themselves accordingly. It is this artificiality that makes infor— mal control inadequate. Most organizations, according to Etzioni, most of the time cannot rely on most of their participants to internalize their obligations to carry out their assignments voluntarily without additional incentives. Hence,¢yrganizations require formally structured distribution of rewards and sanctions to support compliance with their norms and regulations. Control is achieved through the distribution of rewards and sanctions according to performance in line with (or otherwise) organization- al norms. But dispensation of rewards, according to Etzioni, without regard for performances is more common in the less modern parts of the West and the less developed countries. He notes that it is for this rea- son that organizational control is less effective in developing countries. Three categories of the means of control are mentioned by Etzioni. They are: 1. Physical (which affects the body) such as the use of gun, a whip, or a lock. 42 2. Material (involving goods and services). 3. And symbolic (involving normative symbols of prestige and esteem; and social symbols of love and acceptance). It is the use of symbols for control purposes that Etzioni terms normative power. Other types of powers include normative-social, and social powers. Normative power is exercised in a voluntary organization by those in higher ranks to control those in lower ranks either directly or indi- rectly. Normative power is exercised directly as when the leader gives a pep talk to the group. Normative-social power is used indirectly, as when the leader appeals to the peer group of a subordinate to control him. For example, a teacher who calls on a class to ignore the distractions of a disrup- tive child. Social power is the power which peers exercise over one another. On the issue of leadership and organizational control, Etzioni notes that personal power is always normatiVe power because it is based on the manipulation of symbols and because it serves to generate commit- ment to the person who commands it. But there is what is called posi- tional power -- that which is chiefly derived from organizational posi- tion or office. This type could be normative, coercive or utilitarian. When a leader controls members by personal power, such a leader is referred to as an informal leader. But if he commands both position- al and personal power, he is referred to as a formal leader. Organizations which rely on normative controls tend to have few officials and few informal leaders, according to Etzioni. Rather, formal leaders tend to effectively control most of the organizational participants. 43 To the degree that informal leaders arise, within a parish, for instance, the tendency is to recruit them and gain their loyalty and cooperation by giving them part—time organizational positions, let us say as members of a church board. Or, the informal leaders might break away to form their own religious organizations (Etzioni, 1964, p. 65). But the tendency is for informal leaders to lose their status within the organization, and for control to remain squarely with the for- mal leaders. In large Protestant churches an increasing professionali- zation of leadership has been reported (Harrison, 1960). Activities that were formerly run by members are being taken over by paid workers as Christian religious educators, counselors and music directors. However, all these added staff serve under the supervision of one who is designated as senior pastor or vicar. Control in normative organizations is therefore much more depen- dent on personal qualities. Etzioni writes, Through various selection and socialization process, normative organizations endeavor to staff the organizational positions from which control is exercised with individuals who command personal influence and thus combine positional normative power (e g the status of priest) with personal power (e. g. , persua- sive personality), that is, with formal leaders. Individuals lacking in personal power are often transferred to organization- al positions in which no control is exercised, such as cleri- cal or intellectual work. Such systematic efforts of normative organizations to provide leadership in formal positions, and the fairly high degree of success of such efforts, makes the evalu- ation of informal leaders less likely (Etzioni, 1964, p. 64). The types of control could be instrumental or expressive. For- nol leadersiwithin normative organizations utilize both, whereas at times the two types are shared between the formal leaders and the mem- bers. In some religious institutions, expressive matters are the func- tions of priests and bishops while instrumental activities are the main functions of secondary positions like deacons. Some religious institu- tions leave the control of instrumental activities to the members while the leadership monopolizes expressive matters like the kind of prayers 44 to be said. But both instrumental and expressive activities are known to intermingle in reality. For instance, instrumental matters like financ- ing affect expressive matters like the quality of Sunday School materials. Since expressive materials are more related to the religious goals, Etzioni notes that religious organizations stress their superiority over instrumental matters. Hence religious organizations tend to insist on the superiority of the expressive leaders over the instrumental ones. So far attention has been on what leadership is and how power, authority and control interplay in leadership. It has been shown from the literature that concepts of leadership are culturally determined. It was intimated that leadership as practiced within the church may not be too different from what obtains in the larger society because of bor- rowings, and because members of the church have imprints of their parti- cular culture. In the last section a closer look was given at the char- acteristic functions of religious groups. It was noted that religious groups operate as normative organizations using symbolic forms of re- wards and sanctions to achieve control. A basic assumption in this research is the expectation of dif- ferentiation along levels of acculturation. What was used as an index of acculturation was the amount of exposure in years to Western values via schooling. This does not imply that someone who never attended school will not be acculturated to some degree. The fact is, values ex- pressed in the four walls of a school do diffuse into the larger society, if only through contact between say the nonschooled farmer and his child who has been to school. Besides the impact of the media, various forms of technology and developments are not overlooked in acculturation. Attention in the next section is devoted to the issue of acculturation. 45 The Process of Acculturation The need to clarify the use of terminology with regards to accul- turation is crucial as some confusion exists in usage. The terminology received wide acceptance among American anthropologists in the 1930's. The British anthropologists prefer to use the terminology, culture-con- tact to mean the same thing implied by acculturation. Definitions. Three views of acculturation will first be present- ed followed by a minor modification of the third. First is the view expressed by Lesser (1933). He sees accultura- tion as the ways in which some cultural aspect is taken into a culture and adjusted and fitted to it. In this view acculturation implies some relative cultural equality between the giving and the receiving cultures. Implied in this view of acculturation are: deliberation of what to ac- cept or reject; and reciprocity. Assimilation is then seen as the pro- cess of transforming aspects of a conquered or engulfed culture into a status of relative adjustment to the form of the ruling culture. The problems with Lesser's definition are these: 1. The view does not show when it is that such formal deliberation as implied in the definition occurs. 2. It also does not address the issue of when it is that a people is free or not free to choose what to accept or reject, particularly where a dominant group influences another group. Second is the view expressed by Parsons (1936). In direct con- tradiction to Lesser, Parsons sees assimilation as reciprocal process while acculturation is a one way process. In acculturation a weaker group takes from a dominant group aspects of the latter's culture. Third is the position taken by Redfield and associates (1935) in the report of a study sponsored by the Social Science Research Council 46 in an attempt to bring some form of order to the inquiry on accultura- tion. Redfield and associates see acculturation as encompassing those phenomena which result when groups of individuals having different cul- tures come into continuous first-hand contact, with subsequent changes in the original cultural patterns of either or both groups. Culture- change, assimilation, and diffusion were seen as different aspects of acculturation. This third position excludes four things: 1. The process by which a society passes on its traditions to succeeding generations (that is, education) or what is also termed enculturation. 2. The cultures in contact in a dominant/subordinate relationship. 3. Situations in which only one aspect of a culture is transmitted. 4. And any neces— sity for an exchange to take place in order for the process to be termed acculturation. This fourth point makes either a one-way or a two-way process possible in acculturation process. Herskovits, himself a member of the Social Science Research Councilteanrwhich produced the third definition has offered some minor modification in the position. Herskovits (1938) raises two points about the use of the phrases, "groups of individuals", and "continuous contacts" in the third definition. First, it is quite possible to have cultural transmission made through just one individual. Second, is the fact that contact need not be continuous for acculturation to take place. Never- theless, Redfield and associates' definition has become the standard definition in the study of acculturation. In analyzing what is involved in acculturation, Redfield, et al. (1935) note the following: types of contacts, situations in which accUl- turation may occur, and the process of acculturation. Only aspects of 47 these three points that are relevant to the present study will be dis- cussed. Type of Contact. The first type of contact mentioned by Red— field et al is most relevant to this study. It involves contacts between an entire population and selected groups from another population such as "missionaries, traders, administrators..." (page 146). Situation for Acculturation. As to the situation in which ac- culturation may occur,Redfield, et al's third category is most perti- nent. This involves situations "where inequality exists between groups, in which case (any of) the following may result...political and social dominance by one group..." (p. 146). Process of Acculturation. Three pertinent issues in the process of acculturation were mentioned. First, is the selection of traits, which is a reference to what is acquired from another culture, such as artifacts, technology, and values. Under the process of selection is the techniques employed by the donor group for imposing traits. This is where schooling, or formal ed- ucation comes in. There is little doubt as to what schooling was meant to do for the Nigerian population. Among the end results sought by the expatriate educators was ”the civilization of the pagan cultures,” especially people in the southern parts of the country. The British administrators had en- joined the missionaries not to disturb the ”high culture" of the Muslim north but were to concentrate efforts to "civilize” the south (Uchendu, 1964). This use to which schooling was put is not unique to the re- gions of the world that were colonized. In the United States of America, 48 Apple (1979, Chapter 4) reports that schooling was used among the immi- grants from Eastern and Southern Europe as a means of Americanizing the children of the immigrants. The idea of Americanization via schooling agrees with the colonial policies mentioned above. The French policy of Assimilation in their former African colonies is another case in point. In French-speaking African countries, not only did school children learn to recite, "Our ancestor the Gauls" (l), but even long after political independence French-speaking Africa is still replete with Assimilados (Onwauchi, 1972). Second, is the determination of traits to be presented by the donor for a number of reasons including, practical advantages like econo- mic profit or political dominance, desirability ofbringing about confor- mity to values of the donor group, such as humanitarian ideals, and modesty. Third, is the process of integration of the acquired traits into the patterns of the accepting culture. With integration come things like time factors; conflict produced within a culture by the acceptance of new traits that are at variance with pre-existing ones; and adjust- ments that include nodification land reinterpretation of traits that are taken over, modification of pre-existing patterns and displacement of older traits in a pattern by the new traits. Nigerian writers have spoken to the issue of the effects mentioned above in the various Nigerian cultures. Examples from the sociological context include the literary work of Achebe (1958) in Things Fall Apart, and from the religious context in the work of Idowu (1952) in his Olodumare; 49 Psychological Effects. Redfield, et al. also speak to the psycho- logical mechanisms of selection and integration of traits in the process of acculturation. One of the possible psychological effects mentioned is psychic conflict resulting from attempt to reconcile differing tradi- tions of social behavior and different sets of social sanctions. Nigerian scholars like Onwauchi (1972) have suggested that the average educated Nigerian is often caught up in a value bind, in which he neither belongs to the Western culture nor to the traditional culture. The result is what Onwauchi describes as a ”schizophrenic personality.” Results of Acculturation. As to results, Redfield, et al. men- tion three possibilities. They are, acceptance, adaptation, or reaction. All three are a present reality in the Nigerian context. To be certain acceptance of foreign values did take place. However, adaptations are also numerous to the extent that the donor cultures might today find it a bit difficult to recognize aspects of what Nigerians had borrowed from these foreignculturesand had given a new outlook. It is also the case that reactions to some aspects of the donor culture did take place. A notable example was the upsurge of "revival of culture” that swept Nigeria and Africa in the early to mid seventies, culminating in the multi—mil- lion dollar World Black Festival of Arts and Culture (FESTAC) which Nigeria hosted in the mid seventies. Taking the above as given, one might expect differences in con- ceptualization among Nigerians depending on their degree of accultura- tion via the medium of formal education. As was said earlier, the impli- cation is not that the various Nigerian cultures will not have a part in concept formation among the most acculturated. Rather, the expectation one might have is that, to the extent that one is acculturated (meaning the number in years of exposure and contact with foreign values), by 50 that much would one have moved away from traditional concepts. Methodological Precedents The problems of conducting social science research in developing societies of Africa is well documented by O'Barr, et al (1973). Problems encountered include, low level of education, nullification of assumptions concerning the equivalence of opinions, inaccessibility of regions, and difficulty in assuming normal distributions. Nonetheless researchers make do with what is feasible. In this section, attention is devoted to attitudes and their measurement. Historical Background of Attitudinal Studies Major historical trends in the study of attitudes are traceable to two groups: 1. American Psychologists. The psychologist has been inter- ested in individual differences, and has observed consistency in individual behavior across a variety of situations. These factors have led to the use of the concept of "attitude" to explain these phenomena. 2. The Sociologists. It is, however, the sociologists who gave the concept of attitude a boost in social psychology. Early works such as that of Thomas and Znaniecki's (1927) note that social psychology is the scientific study of attitudes. The authors note that an attitude is not just a psychical state in abstraction but that "the psychological process re- mains always fundamentally a state of somebody; the attitude toward something" (Thomas &Znanieckt VOl-l. P- 23)- The primary theoretical function of this concept is the explana- tion of individual differences in reaction to socially 51 significant objects. One could go as far back as to the work of Murphy, Murphy & Newcomb (1937). The last chapter of their work was devoted to, "Social Attitudes and their Measurements." Murphy, et al. defined attitudes as verbalized or verbalizable tendencies, dispositions, or adjustments to- wards certain acts" (p. 889). They note a distinction between sociologi- cal and psychological variables. For instance, attitudes in the former may be related to such things like the size of a community, while in the latter it is related to such things like personality traits. Their citations of attitude measurement might be categorized as heavily demo- graphic in dimension. Cpgnitive Response as an Index of Attitudes Attitudes are "predispositions to respond in a particular way toward a specified class of objects” (Rosenberg, et al.,1960, p. 1). The types of response commonly used as indices of attitudes are: cognitive, affective, and behavioral indices. These response classes are seen as abstractions or constructs that are typically inferred from specific types of measurable response indicated by things like, verbal statements of affect, perceptual responses, overt actions, and verbal statements con- cerning behavior. The present study is concerned with response patterns in the cognitive realm. Rosenberg, et al.note that cognitive response patterns include perceptions, concepts and beliefs about an attitude object. These response patterns are usually elicited by verbal questions in printed or oral form. Rosenberg, et al., (1960) dealt with how or under what conditions responses in any or all of these three classes undergo relatively persisting alteration. The study focuses on factors 52 influencing the correlation between different types of response compo- nents, whereby attitude change is related to the internal organization of attitudes. Studies of cognitive aspect of attitude like that of Katz and Braly (1933) show for instance, that prejudiced respondents were markedly similar in the "traits" they attributed to members of disliked groups. Hartley (1946) and Kramer (1949) show that groups perceived with varying degrees of clarity may elicit equally hostile attitudes. Rosenberg (1956) and other similar studies have shown dimensions upon which the cognitive components of attitudes are likely to vary. The point of contact between the present study and those cited above lies in the theoretical frame, namely that attitudes could be call- ed predispositions to a specified object in a particular way in the cog- nitive realm. In the same cognitive realm, attitudes are expressed as perceptions and concepts. Development of attitudes and the formation of concepts are very complex phenomena. Demographic Approach to Determinants of Qpinions What is studied under attitudes and concepts often fall under the descriptor, opinions. Brewster,et.al., (1956) note three ways of study— ing public opinion. The first and most ancient seeks to understand the broad relations between public opinion and political institutions. The second is concerned with the distribution of opinions in a population and the subgroupings of that population. This approach is called an ecological study. An ecological study is concerned with questions pertaining to the division of opinion on an issue within the various segments of a popu- lation, and what accounts for this distribution (or the probing for source). 53 The third is concerned with a psychological approach which in— volves questions pertaining to the various routes by which one comes to favor a given point of view or oppose it. Approaches to opinion study from a social psychological perspec- tive is concerned with things like trait-attitude correlation. For ex- ample, correlations between attitude scores and intelligence. A demographic approach to determinants of opinions is the most pertinent in thepresent study where attitude scales are examined along socio-geographic lines. A demographic approach accounts for variance in results by means of the various demographic subdivisions of a sample. A correlation is looked for between opinions expressed and social character— istics. The present study utilizes such demographic approach and more, by probing for meaning from an emic perspective. The research literature often links opinions to personality, hence Brewster,et al.,(1956) see opinions as inseparable from the rest of personality. Opinions, they say, constitute part of the data from which personality is inferred and are in turn a function of personality. That is why Brewster andassociates' definition of an attitude adds a slightly new dimension (reflecting personality) to that of the Yale study. For Brewster and associates, an attitude is a predisposition to experience, to be motivated by, and to act toward, a class of objects ina predictable manner. All these point to the complexity involved in attitude formation. Therefore, the demographic approach to determinants of opinions utilizing a cognitive response pattern utilized in this study does not attempt to offer a simplistic explanation to attitudes on pastoral leadership con- cepts among ECWA. Rather, while realizing the complexity of attitude 54 formation as indicated in the literature, attempt is aimed restrictively at the demographic determinants of those concepts expressed. Techniques of Attitude Measurement Saadi and Farnsworth (1934) ”experimentally“ paired some state— ments with a liked, disliked, or neutral author (this study may not pro- perly be characterized as a true experiment). Since then the literature on techniques of attitude measurement have ranged from self-report of as- pects of attitude to the most common paper and pencil test. The latter is a noticeable shift in that it does not utilize direct overt behavior in the measurement of attitude. It will be recalled in Chapter One that this study is delimited to opinions and concepts and not a direct obser- vation of pastoral leader behaviors. Kiesler, et al.,(1969) listfive general categories of attitude measurement. They are: 1. Measures in which inferences are drawn from self-reports of beliefs, and behaviors, 2. Measures in which inferences are drawn from the observation of ongoing behavior in a natural setting, 3. Measures in which inferences are drawn from the individual's reaction to or interpretation of partially structured stimuli, 4. Measures in which inferences are drawn from performance of "objective" tasks, and 5. Measures in which inferences are drawn from physiological reactions to the attitudinal object or representations of it (Kiesler, et al., 1969, pp. 9-10). By far the most popular category is the first one listed above. Allport and Hartman (1925) had moved away from the traditional technique 55 that measured attitudes from self reports based on a ”yes” or ”no” re- sponse to a question. They had asked a group of students to write their personal views on several topics. These opinions were then carefully compiled into distinct and relevant subgroups based on differing views expressed. The differing views were kept separate and given to six judges to rate them on their logical position in a scale ranging from one ex- treme on an issue to the other extreme. Another sample of students was then asked to check the statement which most nearly coincided with their own views on this much broader scale. The broadness of the categories offered to this second group of students marked an important develop— ment in the history of the technique of attitude measurement. People tend to readily place themselves in a broad rather than a finely distinct category of response. The next major milestone in the development of techniques of attitude measurement resulted from the work of Thurstone (1928). Thur- stone had noted in 1928 that opinion statements are only indicants or methods of diagnosing the underlying attitude and that they are not the attitude itself. This was why Edwards (1957) said, One of the major assumptions involved in the construction of attitude scales is that there will be differences in the belief and disbelief systems of those with favorable attitudes towards some psychological object, and those with unfavorable attitudes (Edwards, 1957, pp. 10-12). Thurstone's technique (also called the psychophysical model ) con- sists of the scaling of attitude statements along an attitude continuum. This he did not so much as to scale statements but to scale people. Judges were then asked to evaluate the opinion statements along some con- tinuum. In their joint effort, Thurstone and Chave utilized the techni- que known as Equal Appearing Intervals. The judges were asked to sort 56 the statements into, let us say, eleven piles from the most unfavorable to most favorable statements. An important difference between Thurstone's technique and that of Allport and Hartman is the fact that in Thurstone's case, the judgeswere asked to make the intervals between the piles equal, hence the “Equal Appearing Intervals." Thurstone proposed criteria for eliminating ambiguous or irrele- vant items. This is achieved when for example, judges are unable to a— gree reliably on their placement along the continuum. Thurstone also pro— posed another criterion to ascertain whether or not the scaled items dif- fer in other respects than that which the judges were told to focus on. This is the criterion of irrelevancy. While other self report techniques such as Guttman's Scalogram Analysis and Coombs unfolding techniques are recognized, it is the Sum- mated Ratings method of Likert that has won wide acceptance among psycho- logists. Whereas a respondent to Thurstone's attitude scale is asked to check all of the opinion statements with which he agrees, the Likert scale respondent is asked to indicate the degree of agreement or appro- val to all items on a five—point scale. Hence the familiar: Strongly Approve, Approve, Undecided, Disapprove, and Strongly Disapprove. Usually then, one end of the scale is assigned an arbitrary value, say the numeral one, the next category then becomes a two, and so on. Each respondent then has a score for every item he or sheresponds to that ranges from one to five. The Likert Scale method was used in this study. Quest for Meaning In Qualitative sociology the Ethnomethodologist is concerned with how people make sense of the situation Hiwhich they find themselves (Bogdan & Taylor, 1975; Schwartz & Jacobs, 1979). What constitutes 57 reality is debatable among the different schools of thought. For the Positivist numbers are employed in an attempt to sharpen what is consider- ed the fuzzy picture of what is really going on. Usually the fuzziness is attributed to the lay person's ways of describing reality. But Schatz— man and Strauss (1973) warn that, contextual controls cannot simply ”go without saying"; they re- quire attention if only to dispel the notion that impersonal, instrumental controls embeded in the research are the only ones available to prevent the researcher's being victimized by his own biases, forgetfulness, error, and other threats to his ob- jectivity and accuracy (Schatzman & Strauss, 1973, p. 9). Numbers and figures are useful tools for presenting data but by no means constitute "brute facts” —— that are so evident they need no in- terpretation. Interpretation is what the quest for meaning is about. The marriage between Quantitative and Qualitative science has been recognized by some researchers (see McCall & Simmons, 1969, especi- ally the article by Morris Zelditch, Jr. in the first chapter). Such a marriage allows for the possibility of deriving meaning not only from numbers and figures, but from the actor's point of view (the actors being the subjects in a study). The social scientist who recognizes this marriage will, therefore, check numbers and figures against the "subjective” explanations of real- ity from the primary actors' point of view. To do this requires what Weber called Verstehen or empathic understanding -- ability to reproduce in one's own mind the feelings, motives, and thoughts behind the actions of others. In this study attempt was made to get at meanings behind the con- cepts expressed by the respondents. This attempt was made by asking the respondents to give the reasons behind their choosing the kinds of responses they chose. This is as close as one can get at Verstehen in 58 a survey research short of becoming a participant observer. It will be realized that the Qualitative quest for meaning has been discussed in the context of real life ethnography. This study on the other hand is not an ethnography. Rather it attempts to achieve marriage between Quantitative and Qualitative Sociology. Curriculum Implication A great deal of the literature on curriculum have curriculum planning as focus. This study too has implications for curriculum plan- ning. The State of the Art Bobbitt (1924) was a pioneer in the field of curriculum planning with his introduction of a ”Science of Curriculum Making.” Since then notable works like those of Tyler (1949); Herrick and Tyler (1950); Beauchamp (1961) have built on the pioneering efforts of Franklin Bobbitt. One thing common to the approach of those mentioned above is its pres— criptive nature. These authors discuss what ought to be the case. Later on an interest developed in theory building in an attempt to move away from the prescriptive and value—laden approach of earlier writers. Taba (1962), MacDonald (1963), and Bruner (1963) are noteworthy. But then these works on curriculum theory are better classified as meta- theoretical. They discuss what a curriculum theory would be like rather than formulate one. Theorists' efforts such as those of Hughes (1962) and Ginther (1965) are based on borrowings from other fields of study such as mathe- matics in an attempt to build models. A powerful model will need to deal with both instruction and what is taught. Foshay and Beilin (1969) note, 59 When a comprehensive curriculum theory is built, it will have to take into account not only the learning methods and teach- ing methods ("Strategies of instruction" and the like) but also the nature of the knowledge to be learned, the nature of the student who would learn it, and the nature of the societal responsibility shared by teacher and student. For if educa- tion is a moral affair before it is a technical affair, then the ground for moral behavior have to be incorporated in one's theory of educational action (p. 276). Until the time of writing no grand theory has appeared in the field of curriculum. Instead diehard theorists continue to hope for a brighter day to dawn when a grand theory will emerge. For example, Elliot andFoshay (1963) propose that education be considered as still in the natural-history stage. Beauchamp (1961) suggests that for now we should be content withsub-theorieswhich will later develop into a grand theory. Schwab (1969) for now calls for an ecclectic approach to theory building due to the nature of what curriculum specialists deal with -- social science. Schwab doubts whether a grand theory will emerge in the foreseeable future. The doubt still continues in other quarters among curriculum specialists. In the meantime, practitioners continue to take advice from cur- riculum specialists of the prescriptive school of thought. This is un- derstandable when one realizes that practitioners are often faced with the need for 'how-to's'. Also, an important point to bring to mind is the nature of what educators deal with. Education and the task of curri- culum planning is value-laden. This may be the blind spot of many a theorist who would want a value-free theory. Curricular Orientation There are different types of orientation to the task of curri- culum planning. Eisner (1979) presents a useful way of viewing the task 60 of curriculum planning and development. He gives five basic orientations to curriculum planning as found in the field. They are: 1. Development of cognitive processes, 2. Academic rationalism, 3. Personal relevance, 4. Social adaptation and social reconstruction, 5. and Curriculum as technology. Of these five orientations, the one that best describes the under- lying approach to this study is social adaptation. Eisner says of the social adaptation orientation to curriculum that it derives its aims and content from an analysis of the society the school is designed to serve. In this orientation it is argued that schools are essentially institutions created to serve the interests of the society. As such their mission is to locate social needs, or at least to be sensitive to those needs, and to provide the kinds of programs that are relevant for meeting the needs that have been identified (Eisner, 1979, p. 62). The polling of ECWA members on their concepts of the pastor-leader with regards to his personal characteristics, leadership styles, minis- try skills, and civic duties could be seen as a form of needs assess- ment. Needs assessment is often preparatory to curriculum development and revision. Those in educational research have recognized the justification not only for outcomes of research with theoretical implications, but also those with policy implications. It is this latter approach that the author is concerned with 'hi this study. So when the sample of study was asked to describe what ought to be in the pastor-leader, both the pre- scriptive and the value-laden tendencies inherent in this study are recog- nized. These tendencies are in keeping with the emphasis on outcomes re- lating to policy issues. CHAPTER III RESEARCH PROCEDURE The purpose of this study was two-fold. First was the attempt to find out what constitute desirable pastoral leadership among ECWA mem— bers. Second was the attempt to investigate the sources from which those concepts were derived. In achieving this two—fold purpose three groups of ECWA members were studied in an attempt to see if there are significant differences among them along age distribution and levels of acculturation. The Population The population of study is made up of members of ECWA who are to be found in different parts of Nigeria. The population is homogeneous with regards to organizational structure, church polity and doctrine. However, diversities exist across the geographic boundaries of the nine— teen states of Nigeria. The diversities include cultural differences and levels of educational attainment. Nonetheless, ECWA has a good dis- tribution along both rural and urban sectors of Nigeria. The Sample Intact local churches were used as the unit of analysis, although the churches were not randomly selected. The problems of conducting scientific research in Africa have been highlighted by O'Barr et aL, 61 62 (1973). So statistical generalizability was replaced in this study by a form of stratified representativeness. By this is meant the drawing c//“ of representative church types along three distinctions made at face value. The three distinctions are these: 1. Churches in rural sectors across Nigeria. Usually these church types use either a major Nigerian language or a local dialect for worship. Their characteristics include the ten- dency of members to be older and less acculturated. These churches are called Ethno-Rural (EthR). 2. Churches in urban sectors which use a major Nigerian langu- age for worship. Their characteristics include the fact that they are Inigrants, the tendency to have a fairly balanced representation of old and young; highly acculturated and less acculturated members. These churches are called Ethno-Urban (EthU). 3. Churches in urban sectors which use English language for worship. Their characteristics include the tendency of mem- bers to be young and highly acculturated. Such churches are also made up of migrants, but with a high rate of mi- gration as the members tend to be highly mobile. These churches are called English-Using (UsuE). In all,rrhualocal churches participated in this study. The nine were selected along ethno-geographic and lignuistic lines that represent- ed the three church types described above. By this is meant that the churches were drawn from the north, central and southern parts of the country with the EthU and EthR representing the three major languages of Nigeria. The UsuE churches are normally made up of representatives of the various ethnic groups. 63 Selection of a church was influenced by its length of history. Churches with long histories in ECWA tend to be widely perceived as em- bodying what ECWA stands for. Three such EthU and four EthR churches were selected. Selection of the two UsuE churches was not based on their length of history since these types of churches developed later in ECWA's history. Rather their selection was based on their generally wide acceptance in ECWA. Selection of the individual participants within each local church was based on who was considered a full member. Only those registered with the church are considered full members. The researcher was careful to follow this ECWA policy in the study, since there are always more people in attendance during worship services in ECWA than are register- ed members. Development of Instrument The main instrument used for data gathering is a fifty-two item questionnaire developed in the field by the researcher. The steps taken to develop the instrument will be explained shortly. This questionnaire contains scaled and nonscaled items, and some fifteen open-ended items for probing for source. Three factors were used to discriminate among the sample. These are: 1. A bipolar age grade distinction of Low Age (LoA) and High Age (HiA). Low age refers to respondents under forty years of age, while high age refers to respondents over forty. 2. A seven-point noncontinuous interval scale (compressed to five for statistical purposes) that was used to measure the level of acculturation of the respondents. 64 Although the acculturation scale is progressive, its intervals are unequal. Point one on the scale is zero number of years in school up to primary school completed (the compression of levels 1-3 on the seven—point scale). Point two is secondary school drop out. Point three is secondary school completed. Point four is post-secondary school but nondegree. Point five is degree. 3. The locale of the respondents. Locales refer to respondents in rural, urban and English-Using churches. Two steps were taken in the development of the instrument. These were: a series of preliminary interviews, and a jury procedure. The preliminary interviews enabled the researcher to identify local concerns along the four areas of concern (personal characteristics of the pastor- leader, leadership styles, ministry skills, and civic duties). The jury procedure was used to refine the items generated from the preliminary interviews. A closer look at each step now follows. Preliminary Interviews and Questionnaire Construction. The pur- pose here was to find out what the pertinent issues are on pastoral lead— ership in ECWA along the four areas of concern. Eight people were select— ed for these interviews. Six of these were ECWA members from different walks of life including an executive, a teacher, a student, and an arti- san. The remaining two were pastors. Pastors were included in order to get their input on the kinds of problems members bring to their pastors most often. The method used in these preliminary interviews is described below. The researcher went in with global questions to guide in the interviews. The questions included things such as, what kinds of personal qualities make for a good pastor? What pastoral skills should ECWA pastors have in 65 order to do a good job? What types of leadership qualities should ECWA pastor display? These global questions generated some relevant concerns on pastoral leadership among the interviewees. New questions were gener- ated in the course of the interviews. When this was the case the re- searcher tried as much as possible to pose the same questions to subse- quent interviewees. The responses generated from the interviewees were put into ques- tion and answer forms, with the aim of eliciting from the interviewees their concepts of pastoral leadership. Multiple choice questions were developed from the responses generated from the interviewees during those preliminary interviews. Possible ranges of responses one might likely get to these questions were generated from the interviewees as well. The questions cover the four areas of concern. Next the researcher developed a questionnaire from the result of the preliminary interviews. The questionnaire was constructed in a way that it might elicit from respondents their concepts of pastoral leadership and thesourcescfi those concepts. The range of responses generated during the preliminary interviews fell into three categories. The responses were either attributable to traditional values, effects of acculturation, or normative Biblical values. These findings matched the expectation with which the researcher went into the study. There are at least two possibleways one could probe for source. One was to find out if a respondent exhibited any tendencies towards answers that are identifiable with a particular source from what is known in the literature. For example, a respondent who tends to prefer responses on high age and marital status may likely be deriving such preferences based on traditional values. Onthe other hand, a respondent who tends 66 to prefer high skills and formal education in a pastor may likely be exhibiting the effects of acculturation. The other way one might probe for source is to ask follow-up questions like, Why did you choose such and such an answer? This type of open-ended question allows the respondents to express the rationale behind their answers thereby revealing the sources from which their con- cepts are derived. These open-ended items generate qualitative data which from a socio-anthropological perspective are useful in probing for emic meanings. To check how widespread within the sample the issues generated from the preliminary interviews were, the final form of the questionnaire contained at the beginning an open-ended question that asked the respon— dents to give their concepts of pastoral leadership and reasons for-those concepts. This question was asked before the respondents got into the survey proper so as to reduce bias, and to see the extent to which what they express there agreed with their responses in the structured part of the survey. During the actual study a few of the respondents told the researcherthat they were having to repeat in the survey proper the an— swers they had given at the beginning. What appeared to these respondents as unnecessary repetition tendsto validate the generalizability of the items generated in the preliminary interview stage. Jury Procedure. The second step in the building of the instru- ment was the setting up of a jury of five to deal with the issue of validity and reliability. The jury checked the multiple choice questions developed from preliminary interviews for clarity. The jury was made up of highly competent and knowledgeable per- sons. One of them holds a doctorate degree in higher education 67 administration and serves as registrar for one of ECWA's theological seminaries. A second juror lectures in science education at one of Nigeria's universities. A third is a highly trained pastor who was com— pleting a doctoral study in Scotland during the 1981-82 school year. A fourth is a top executive of the Nigerian Steel Development research lab- oratory. The fifth juror is a top executive of a Christian stationery enterprise. All but one of these are ECWA members. The only female juror lectures at Jos University, and is the only non-ECWA member. In the jurors' evaluation of each item on the questionnaire a validity coefficient of .80 was used for passing an item. This trans- lates into a four out of five agreement among the jurors on the extent to which an item clearly expresses what is intended (that is, validity). In the same fashion a reliability coefficient of .80 was used for passing an item when the jurors re-evaluated the corrected items three days after their initial evaluation. The issue of reliability is an attempt to assess consistency of clarity of the items over time. In their evaluation, the jurors refined some of the questions through suggestions for clarification of items. These suggestions were incorporated into the questionnaire both after their initial evaluation and their subsequent one. EntrysProcess In August 1981,the'researcher sent letters of request for per- mission to conduct this study to the ECWA President, General Secretary and Theological Education Secretary. The ECWA President responded with a letter ofintroduction to all ECWA leaders (pastors and nonpastors). Copies of this letter were made and the researcher took these along to the nine local churches that participated in the study. Copies of the 68 two letters mentioned here are found in Appendix I. Also found in Appen- dix I are copies of the author's thank you letters to the ECWA Presi- dent and General Secretary. Entry was achieved in the local churches mostly through the pas- tors. In two cases the pastors were away to a conference. In those two cases entry was made through church elders. What the author did in each local church was to present the letter of introduction from the ECWA President and explain what the study was about. This procedure was e- nough to gain acceptance in all the churches. Research Approach In this study three independent and four categories of depen- dent variables were employed. The Variables. The independent variables are: 1. Respondents' age -- HiA and LoA 2. Respondents' levels of acculturation (L; - L5) 3. And respondents' locale (EthR, EthU, and UsuE). The four categories of dependent variables are the respondents' concepts of pastoral leadership with respect to: 1. the desirable personal characteristics of the pastor-leader 2. the desirable leadership styles of the pastor-leader 3. the desirable ministry skills of the pastor-leader 4. and the desirable civic duties of the pastor-leader. Both dependent and independent variables were selected by the re— searcher as parameters of interest before going out to the field to col- lect the data. These parameters were chosen based on review of rele- vant literature in cultural anthropology, cross-cultural differences, and the research literature on leadership. 69 Methodology. The researcher used a demographic approach to the determinants of opinion utilizing a cognitive response pattern to the study of attitudes (following Brewster et al., 1956; Rosenberg et al., 1960). In a demographic approach attitude scales are examined along var- ious demographic subdivisions. The subdivisions used in the study are the three independent variables. In a cognitive response pattern, responses are elicited by ver- bal questions in printed or oral form in EH1 attempt to get at concepts and perceptions about an attitude object. The questionnaire was developed in a way to make its items elicit respondents' concepts of the Attitude Object, namely, the ECWA pastor-leader. Attempt in this study was made to look for patterns that emerge among the three locales in their concepts of pastoral leadership. The study was not focused on global leadership per se. However, the concepts ECWA members expressed were of interest only inasmuch as the meanings behind thoseconceptslare elicited. This was why an emphasis was equally placed on the sources of the concepts of pastoral leadership. To get at source the concepts were first examined. This is why in the report of findings a substantial amount of space is devoted at first to the patterns of concepts found. These patterns are then probed for meaning in order to get at source. Administering of Instrument. The diversity of respondent charact- eristics from the highly educated to the nonliterate, from rural to ur- ban setting makes it necessary to prepare a terse questionnaire which could be self-administered or used by interviewers with minimum instruc- tions. 70 The questionnaire was translated into Hausa, Igbo and Yoruba for the benefit of those who were more comfortable with the vernacular. Competent translators were employed to do the translations. Priority in translation was given to intent and meaning rather than literal trans- lation. Translators were selected based on their reputation and profes- sional skills in the languages. TheIgbo and Hausa versions were trans- lated by these professional translators. The researcher translated the Yoruba version, drawing on his formal training in the language and some past experience in Yoruba translation. An added factor is the fact that Yoruba is the researcher's first language. The questionnaire was distributed in each local church by either the pastor or an elder in cases where the pastor was away. Only regis- tered members were invited to participate. All participants were volun- teers. These volunteers constitute informed sources of opinion in ECWA. Respondents who are able to read either the English or verna- cular version of the questionnaire self-administered it. However in the EthR churches and in two instances in one Eiiul church administering of the instrument was by interview. Interviewers needed only few instruc- tions to carry out their job as the questionnaire was prepared tersely to minimize the need for probing. In most cases all the interviewers had to do was to read the questions and the multiple-choice answers to the respondents making sure respondents understood what is read. The interviewers were instructed to repeat the multiple responses as many times as necessary because of the tendency of respondents to forget - parts of the answer. In many of the cases the interviewers read one answer at a time, gave therespondents time to decide on an answer be- fore moving on to read the next answer. When a respondent chooses an 71 answer before the interviewer had finished reading all the alternatives, the interviewers were instructed to go on anyway to read the remaining answers. Six interviewers plus the researcher took part in administering the instrument. Interviewers were selected on the basis of their educa- tional level and ability to use the vernacular. The researcher conducted eight personal interviews in Yoruba. Most questionnaire that were self-administered were returned either through the pastors or the elders who distributed them. Some of these also came back through the mail after the researcher had left Nigeria forthe U.S.A. Most of the EthR ones were administered in groups after worship services. Most of these were administered by interviewers. They were collected on the spot. The questionnaire administered through interviews had a 100% rate of returns as opposed to a 70% rate in the self-administered ones. Data Analysis Two types of analyses were conducted. The first, reported in Chapter Four, is statistical. The second, reported in Chapter Five, is qualitative. Since the data collected in this study were in the form of fre- quency counts the Chi square was used in the statistical analysis (See Siegel, 1956). Typically, the Chi square answers the question whether observed frequencies deviate significantly from some theoretical or ex— pected population frequencies. Hence, Chi square is used to test whether two or more frequency distributions differ significantly. Since the in— dependent and dependent variables used in this study yielded more than a two by two four-fold table, the type of Chi square used is based on 72 the formula: x2 = 2(O-E)2 E Also used in the statistical analysis is the Contingency Coeffi- cient (C), which is easily derived from the Chi square. What C does is to determine the correlation coefficient that estimates the magnitude of the relationship between the variables in the Chi square table. However, C yields correlations that are closely comparable to the Product-moment (r) only if each variable is split into more than five categories, and if the sample is large (Borg & Gall, 1979). The formula for computing C is: 2 1 (a?) Data processing for the statistical parts of the analysis was done at the Michigan State University's computer laboratory using the Cyber 750 computer hardware. Qualitative data analysis procedure was used for the open-ended responses that probed for source. Analysis for such data involved the pooling of the universe of the range of responses both within and between groups, classifying of responses into sources, and comparing between groups sources to test the relevant hypotheses. The vernacular open-ended responses were back-translated into English with the aid of two Michigan State University graduate students whose first languages were each Hausa and Igbo respectively. CHAPTER IV PASTORAL LEADERSHIP CONCEPTS IN ECWA Findings are reported in two parts. The first part deals with the rate of returns of the questionnaire, the characteristics of the re— spondents, and findings on the research questions 1—3. The research question 3 deals with the concepts of pastoral leadership in ECWA, and it covers the research hypotheses 1—12. The second part which is re- ported in Chapter V deals with the research question 4. This research question covers the sources of the concepts of pastoral leadership in ECWA and the research hypotheses 13—16. Questionnaire Returns Table 1 shows the rate of returns on the questionnaire distri- buted. Overall a 78.2% response was obtained. The highest rate came from the Ethno-Rural respondents (85.7%). These were followed by the Ethno-Urban (76.7%). The English—Using churches had 71.4% rate. The lowest returns were from the two Kaduna churches. There is no apparent reason for supposing that the nonrespondents in these two churches were significantly different from those who responded. Rather the reason for the low rate of returns (48.1% and 58.3%) is that these were the two churches whose pastors were away to a national conference at the time of the study. As a result the tasks of questionnaire dis- tribution and collection were left in the hands of church elders. 73 74 A copy of the English language version of the questionnaire is found in Appendix II. TABLE 1 RATE OF QUESTIONNAIRE RETURNS Distributed Returns % Returns EthR Miango (Hausa)a 22 18 (75.0 Igbaja (Yoruba) 17 13 76.4 Mbaise (Igbo) 17 17 100.0 Group Total 56 48 85.7 EthU Kano (Hausa) 25 24 96.0 Zaria (Yoruba) 18 16 88.8 Owerri (Igbo) 16 13 81.2 Kaduna (Yoruba) 27 13 48.1 Group Total 86 66 76.7 UsuE Plateau Chapel (English) 18 16 88.8 Kaduna (English) 24 14 58.3 Group Total 42 30 71.4 Totals 184 144 78.2 aLanguage of worship indicated in parenthesis Characteristics of the Respondents In this section an analysis of the respondents' characteristics based on the demographic data collected in the study is presented. The data show the breakdowns into age groups along the three locales, the frequency distribution of the uncollapsed levels of acculturation by locale, the summaries of distribution by age grades of the five-level degree of acculturation, and the distribution by locale of the five-level 75 degree of acculturation. Three locales were involved. These are: Ethno-Rural (EthR), Ethno-Urban (EthU), and English-Using (UsuE) churches. The age grades are bipolar: The under-forty, or Low Age (LoA), and the over-forty, or High Age (HiA). The collapsed acculturation levels are represented as Levels 1 through 5 (L1...5) in ascending order of magnitude. Distribution of Age Grades by Locale The data in Table 2 show that ECWA tends to have a slightly higher representation of LoA than HiA if one controls for the predominantly LoA, UsuE churches. This finding compares with the Kore (1980) find- ing among top ECWA pastor-administrators. In that study 41% of the sam- ple was in the 30—39 age range, and another 39% was in the 40-49 age range. Only 2% was under 30, while 16% was in the 50-59 age range. The over 60's accounted for a mere 2%. The data in Table 2 show a slightly positive relationship be— tween age grade and locale. LoA representation seems to increase slight- ly from EthR to EthU. Among the UsuE there is a clear 6:1 ratio of LoA to HiA. The strength of the relationship between age and locale is slight as indicated by the Contingency Coefficient. 76 TABLE 2 SUMMARIES OF AGE GRADE REPRESENTATION BY LOCALE COUNT ROW PCT COL PCT Locale ROW TOT PCT EthR EthU UsuE TOTAL 26 39 26 91 28.6 42.9 28.6 63.2 LoA 54.2 59.1 86.7 Age 18.1 27.1 18.1 Grade 22 27 4 53 41.5 50.9 7.5 36.8 HiA 45.8 40.9 13.3 COLUMN 15.3 18.8 2.8 TOTAL 48 66 30 144 33.3 45.8 20.8 x2 = 9.26 df = 2 C = .245 Significance Level = .009 77 Frequency Distributions at Acculturation Levels by Locale In Table 3 the uncollapsed frequency counts of the respondents' levels of acculturation as represented in each locale are presented. Individual local churches are also represented by locale. One notice- able pattern is the frequencies at the two extremes of the seven levels of acculturation (L1...7). The UsuE and several EthU churches have no levels 1 and 2 representation, but they tend to be mostly highly accul- turated. At the other end, the EthR and several EthU churches have very meager representations at the highest levels of acculturation. These seven levels of acculturation were collapsed into five for statistical purposes since some cells at the extreme ends of the table have less than five observed frequencies. A restriction to the use of Chi square is that no theoretical frequency should be less than five. The theoretical frequency for any cell is the product of the two marginal totals common to that cell divided by the total number of cases. In practice, 20% of the cells could have expected frequencies that are less than five. 78 ¢¢H mH Hm mm HH om 0H 0H 3H 0H mH mH oH «N NH mH NH N. a e N H m o o H H a; o m m m a H m H N m4 N w o H H m m H o :4 o H H o N H H H e .4 N H H m m HH 0 H N NH o o o H o o H N o HH o o o o H N v o m H H.mcmv A.mcmv Amnzco>v Hoanv Hmaaeo>w Ammzmzv HoamHM. Hopsco>v amw:mzw eczemx zmmpmHa eczemx Hccmzo wHLMN ocwx wmwmnz mwman omcsz Nam: :gpm mzpm mHmUOH m4m m4m>m4 onkmH :oHchszsou< Distribution at Acculturation Levels by Age Grades 79 The result of the collapsed seven levels Of acculturation is reported by the five-level distribution in Table 4. The result shows that there is a moderate relationship between the distribution of age grades and levels Of acculturation. acculturated than the HiA. is 64 as against 30% of HiA at the same levels. tically significant at the .0006 level. TABLE 4 SUMMARIES OF AGE GRADE DISTRIBUTION BY LEVELS OF ACCULTURATION COUNT ROW PCT ACCULTURATION LEVEL COL PCT TOT PCT L1 L2 L3 L4 L5 24 8 23 26 IO 26.4 8.8 25.3 28.6 11.0 LOA 41.4 72.7 88.5 83.9 55.6 Age 16.7 5.6 16.0 18.1 6.9 Grade 34 3 3 5 8 . 64.2 5.7 5.7 9.4 15.1 H'A 58.6 27.3 11.5 16.1 44.4 23.6 2.1 2.1 3.5 5.6 COLUMN TOTAL 58 11 26 31 18 40.3 7.6 18.1 21.5 12.5 x2 = 25.58 df C = .388 Significance Level .0006 Distribution at Acculturation Levels by Locale The LOA respondents tend to be more The percentage of LOA represented at La - L5 The finding is statis- ROW TOTAL 91 63.2 53 36.8 144 A look at the distribution Of acculturation levels by locale shows a significant relationship between levels Of acculturation and locale. Table 5 shows that relatively the most acculturated are mostly found in the UsuE group with 26.7% at L5. Also relatively, the least 80 acculturated are found mostly in the EthR group with 52.1% at L1. The EthU have an almost even representation of both the less and the more acculturated. Among the EthU 51.6% are found at L1 and L2, with 48.5% at L, - L5. The degree Of relationship between levels of acculturation and locale is moderate. This finding is significant at the .001 level. Respondents below L3 are classified as less acculturated, while L3 - L5 are classified as more acculturated. Preferred Methods for Selecting and Removing (the Pastor-leader The related research question is question 1. Question 1 What methods of selecting and transferring the pastor- leader do ECWA members prefer? Items 9 and 10 on the questionnaire deal with this question. Findings The following are the results Obtained along age grades, accul- turation levels, and locale when ECWA members were asked to choose be- tween the following methods Of selecting the pastor-leader: a) Posting from a central office, b) A church selects one of its most capable members, c) A church invites any outsider Of its choice, d) A founda- tion member becomes pastor-leader, e) Other Opinion. Selection Methods by Age Grades. The result in Table 6 shows that both age grades preferred selection from a central Office. A total of 69% of the LOA and 59% of the HiA respondents selected this response. NO statistically significant difference wasfound between the two age grades. 81 TABLE 5 SUMMARIES OF THE DISTRIBUTION AT ACCULTURATION LEVELS BY LOCALE COUNT ROW PCT COL PCT Locale TOT PCT EthR EthU UsuE 25 30 3 L 43.1 51.7 5.2 1 52.1 45.5 10.0 17.4 20.8 2.1 6 4 1 L 54.5 36.4 9.1 2 12.5 6.1 3.3 4.2 2.8 .7 Acculturation Level 9 11 6 34.6 42.3 23.1 L3 18.8 16.7 20.0 6.3 7.6 4.2 6 13 12 L 19.4 41.9 38.7 L, 12.5 19.7 40.0 4.2 9.0 8.3 2 8 8 11.1 44.4 44.4 L5 4.2 12.1 26.7 1.4 5.6 5.6 COLUMN TOTAL 48 66 30 33.3 45.8 20.8 x2 = 25.66 df = 8 C = .388 Significance Level = .001 ROW TOT 58 40.3 11 7.6 26 18.1 31 21.5 18 12.5 144 82 TABLE 6 CONTINGENCYa TABLE OF THE METHODS OF SELECTING A PASTOR-LEADER BY AGE GRADE Method Row Total a b c d e Age LOA 63 12 5 1 10 91 Grade HiA 31 11 6 O 4 52 Column Total 94 23 11 1 14 143 x2 = 4.281 df = 4 Significance Level = .369 aThe Contingency Tables in this report feature in each cell the Observed frequencies. Selection Methods bnyevels of Acculturation. Table 7 shows that respondents along the five levels of acculturation preferred selec— tion from a central Office. The within group responses from L1 to L5 comes out tO 54%, 72%, 88%, 67%, and 61% respectively. NO statistically significant difference was found along the levels Of acculturation. Selection Methods by Locale. Table 8 shows 65% Of respondents across locale preferred selection from a central Office. However, a breakdown Of the responses gives an added dimension. A breakdown shows 61% of EthR, 75% of EthU, and 50% of UsuE Showing preference for this response. As many as 26% of UsuE preferred other methods such as, a prayerful selection by the church, church selects from a list of candi— dates recommended by the central Office, and selection by the Holy Spirit. A statistically significant difference alonglocale was therefore found, with EthU being the ones preferring central selection most Often, followed by EthR. 83 TABLE 7. CONTINGENCY TABLE OF THE METHODS OF SELECTING A PASTOR-LEADER BY LEVELS OF ACCULTURATION Method Row Total a b c d e L1 31 15 6 O 5 57 L2 8 2 0 0 1 11 Acculturation Level L3 23 1 0 1 1 26 L1 21 4 2 O 4 31 L5 11 1 3 O 3 18 Column Total 94 23 11 1 14 143 x2 = 22.98 df = 16 Significance Level = .114 TABLE 8. CONTINGENCY TABLE OF THE METHODS OF SELECTING A PASTOR—LEADER BY LOCALE Method Row Total a b c d e EthR 29 11 4 1 2 47 Locale EthU 50 9 3 0 4 66 UsuE 15 3 4 O 8 3O Column Total 94 23 11 1 14 143 X2 = 20.66 df = 8 Significance Level = .010 84 The following are the results Obtained along age grades, accul- turation levels and locale when ECWA members were asked to choose be- tween the following methods Of removing or transferring the pastor-leader: a) Transfer by central Office, b) A church tells the pastor to leave, c) The pastor alone decides, d) A joint decision between the church and an in-coming pastor, e) Other opinion. Methods of Removal by_Age Grades. Table 9 shows that removal by a central Office was again most preferred by both age grades with 64% and 60% responses by LOA and HiA respectively. This result shows no statistically significant difference between the age grades. TABLE 9 CONTINGENCY TABLE OF THE METHODS OF REMOVING A PASTOR-LEADER BY AGE GRADE Method Row a b C d e Total Age LOA 59 15 4 4 9 91 Grade HiA 32 13 3 5 O 53 Column Total 91 28 7 9 9 144 X2 = 7.932 df = 4 Significance Level = .094 Methods Of Removal by Acculturation Level. The result in Table 10 shows that removal by a central office is most preferred across all levels. The L1 - L5 percentage distribution Of preference for this re- sponse is 55%, 72%, 65%, 70% and 66% respectively. There is no statis- tically significant difference along the levels Of acculturation. 85 TABLE 10 CONTINGENCY TABLE OF THE METHODS OF REMOVING A PASTOR-LEADER BY LEVELS OF ACCULTURATION Method Row Total 6 b c d e L1 32 14 3 5 4 58 L2 8 1 0 1 1 11 Acculturation Level L3 17 7 1 O 1 26 L, 22 4 3 O 2 31 L5 12 2 O 3 1 18 Column Total 91 28 7 9 9 144 x2 = 15 179 df = 16 Significance Level = .511 Methods Of Removal by Locale. Table 11 shows that removal by a central Office is the most preferred across locale. The breakdown shows 54% of the EthR, 75% Of the EthU and 50% Of the UsuE respondents showed preference for this response. This result unlike that Obtained for se- lection method by locale was not statistically significant. The similar- ity between the two results concerns who prefers what. In both cases the EthU respondents tend to prefer selection and removal by a central office. In the selection method, whereas EthR followed EthU more closely in showing preference for a central selection than the UsuE, in the re- moval method the difference between the two was not that much. Next to the choice of removal by a central Office all three locales preferred that the church tell the pastor to leave. 86 TABLE 11 CONTINGENCY TABLE OF THE METHODS OF REMOVING A PASTOR-LEADER BY LOCALE Method Row Total 6 b c d e EthR 26 13 4 3 2 48 Locale EthU 50 8 1 3 4 66 UsuE 15 7 2 3 3 3O Column Total 91 28 7 9 9 144 x2 = 11,493 df = 8 Significance Level = .175 Discussion It appears that ECWA members by and large favor central control in the matter of appointing and transferring of pastor-leaders. One would have thought that the more acculturated and the younger ones will tend to reject a centrally controlled method in this very important mat- ter of ascension to leadership position in the local church, and the turn over of leadership within the church. These issues of appointment and removal was included in the sur— vey as a result of findings from the preliminary interviews. As the re- searcher went around the churches the local pastors repeatedly singled out the issues of appointing and removing of pastors as the current issues in ECWA. Since the researcher had not anticipated these concerns before going into the field hypotheses were not developed around these issues. Con- sequently no probing for source was attempted with regards to these issuesl. 1The lack of probing for source leaves the reader with only the researcher's opinion as to why ECWA respondents of all ages, levels of acculturation, and from different locales tend to prefer central control on these two issues more than any other methods. In the opinion of the researcher, the respondents opted for central control probably because that is what they are already used to. 87 Next to the choice of a centralized control is the preference by age grade, level of acculturation and locale for control of these deci— sions by the local church. However a higher proportion of Older respon- dents over the younger (24% versus 16%) tend to prefer control of the de- cisions by the local church. The younger however tend to prefer more of- ten than the older other opinions like: a combination of the methods, or transfer necessitated by vacancies in other churches, or statements like, "as the Holy Spirit directs." Also it is noted that L1 and L3 re- spondents more than others Preferred the decisions to be made by the local church next to the choice of a centralized control on the issue of removal from office. What is common to respondents L1 (primary school completed or less) and L3 (secondary schoolcompleted) is not known. Preferred Descriptors of the Pastor-leader The related research question is question 2. Question 2 What conceptual descriptions of the pastor-leader exist among ECWA members? Item 17 on the questionnaire deals with this issue. Findings The following results were obtained along the distinctions of age grades, acculturation levels and locale when ECWA members were asked to choose between the following descriptors of the pastor-leader: a) Authority figure, b) Resource person, c) Boss, d) Opinion leader, e) NO opinion. Preferred Descriptors by Age Grades. Table 12 shows that 'Re- source Person' was the most preferred response amongtxniiage grade distinctions. A total of 64% of all the respondents selected this 88 response. Bytfifis.descriptor is meant one to turn to for guidance, infor- mation and instruction. There is no statistically significant difference between the age grades in their preferences. Both groups had 64% of each showing preference for 'Resource Person.’ Only 20% of the HiA describe the pastor-leader as Authority Figure while 19% of the LOA see the pastor as such. TABLE 12 CONTINGENCY TABLE FOR PREFERRED PASTOR-LEADER DESCRIPTORS BY AGE GRADES Descriptor Row , Total Authority Resource Opinion NO Figure Person Boss Leader Opinion Age LOA 17 57 8 4 3 89 Grade . HiA 10 32 1 4 3 50 Column Total 27 89 9 8 6 139 x2 = 3.624 df = 4 Significance Level = .459 Preferred Descriptors by Acculturation Levels. The results in Table 13 tend to show that the more acculturated respondents (L3 - L5) had more preference for the descriptor, 'Resource Person' (76%, 67% and 83% of them respectively). The less acculturated respondents (LI and L2) chose this value slightly less frequently (50% and 54% of them respective- ly). Next to the descriptor, 'Resource Person,‘ 'Authority Figure' was most frequently preferred by all the respondents at all levels of accul- turation. But the less acculturated respondents preferred this descrip— tor more often than the more acculturated ones. The former had 24% and 89 45% of them choosing 'Authority Figure' while the latter had 7%, 16% and 11% of them choosing it. These findings were not statistically sig- nificant. TABLE 13 CONTINGENCY TABLE FOR PREFERRED PASTOR-LEADER DESCRIPTORS BY ACCULTURATION LEVELS Descriptor Row Total Authority Resource Opinion No Figure Person Boss Leader Opinion L1 13 27 4 5 4 53 L2 5 6 O O 0 11 Acculturation L3 2 20 2 0 26 Level L1 5 21 3 2 O 31 L5 2 15 O 1 O 18 Column Total 27 89 9 8 6 139 X2 = 21.04 df = 16 Significance Level = .176 Preferred Descriptors by Locale. Table 14 throws a better light on which group tends to prefer the descriptor, 'Resource Person' most fre- quently. The table showsthat.86% of the UsuE preferred this descrip— tor, followed by the EthU with 66% of them preferring this descriptor. Only 45% of the EthR chose this descriptor. However the EthR tend to pre- fer the descriptor, 'Authority Figure' most frequently (32% of them). EthU follows EthR with 15% of them choosing 'Authority Figure.‘ Only 6% of the UsuE chose this descriptor. These results are statistically significant. 90 TABLE 14 CONTINGENCY TABLE FOR PREFERRED PASTOR-LEADER DESCRIPTORS BY LOCALE Descriptor Row 'otal Authority Resource Opinion NO Figure Person BOSS Leader Opinion EthR 15 21 6 1 3 46 Locale EthU 10 42 3 6 2 63 UsuE 2 26 O 1 1 3O Column . Total 27 89 9 8 6 139 x2 = 20.88 df 8 Significance Level = .007 Discussion Question 2 was designed to elicit from the respondents their general concept of the pastor-leader in an almost global sense. Each descriptor provided could have different meanings, but the preferred meanings in this study were specified in the questionnaire. In general ECWA members tend to see the pastor-leader as a resource person. The pas— tor is conceived of as a source of information, a source for guidance and a source of instruction. Obviously all these relate to things spir- itual. Next to being a Resource Person ECWA perceives the pastor as an Authority Figure. The implication being pastoral authoritativeness in things moral, ethical and religious as evidenced in the pastor's teach- ing and preaching ministry. It is in line with the research expectations that the more accul— turated respondents (largely represented in UsuE) saw the pastor-leader as Resource Person. The more acculturated person tends to look for facts and information to guide in daily conduct, and so within the church 91 the pastor—leader is just that person. The more acculturated person tends to be more questioning. Such a person tends to look for informa- tion on which to base judgements on life decisions. On the contrary the less acculturated person tends to be less questioning and is more in- clined to accept the words of a credible person. This may be the rea— son why both the more acculturated and the less acculturated tend to polarize in their choices. The more acculturated showed 74% preference for a Resource Person while the less acculturated showed only 51% pre— ference. But the less acculturated showed 28% preference for an Author- ity Figure whereas the more acculturated showed only12% preference for the same. Results of the Statistical Tests of Hypotheses 1—12 In this section findings and discussions of the first twelve hypotheses mentioned in the first chapter are presented. The findings are first presented in summary table forms (Tables 15-19) and then in text forms with short tables. In Chapter One all the hypotheses were presented in logical or alternate forms. In this chapter and in the next they are presented in null forms for statistical test purposes. Tables 15 and 16 show respec- tively, summaries of the overall raw value and percentage frequencies of the pastoral leadership concepts found in ECWA. Tables 17 through 19 Show summary results of the first twelve hypotheses tested in null forms. These hypotheses were tested using crosstabulations and Chi square statistics. The level of probability at which a hypothesis was or was not rejected was set at .05 level of significance. 92 In reporting findings in tables some of the value responses on the Likert scales are reworded to suit the standard Likert wording. In the actual study however, wordings such as: strongly agree, agree, no opinion, disagree, and strongly disagree were changed to: really agree, agree a little, no opinion, disagree a little, and really disagree. 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NeN. e mm.m eeH ooeHHH> no nzop HHeEm e n. poz nooeoHunopmen e noo oononoeonn .mH oopoowom me. mmo. m mm.m NoH Nppo onp np nooeoHinopmeo e now oononooonn .NH oopoowom poz NNN. ooH. o me.N HoH nooeoHinopmen onp no ome Eoepnpe oHnenpmoo onp .HH mHmonpooN: o Ho>on no Nx Hz mpooonou HHoz ooneopmpnmpm mnm<2mm mNnommN nnuHNmHHm whamozoo QHImmmonoonon no pnopxm .Hm oopoowom omH. moH. m mm.m HoH .mEenmono nonono mnnn poz -neHn non oHNpm oHnennmoo on» .om oopoowom NmH. woN. o oo.m HoH nonpenpnnnunmep non nooeoH poz -nopmeo onp no oHon nonpepoonxm .wN oopoowom mmH. ooH. m H¢.m mmH nooeoHunopmen onp non annnee poz -nonmnooo no oHNpm oHnennmoo onN .oN oHNpm apnmnooeon oopoowom NmH. eoN. o HN.m emH nooeoHinopmen onp no Npnonnnpo poz onp no oooenn oonepnonEH .mN oopoowon mmH. mNN. e No.m NmH nooeoH poz -nopmen oHo ne Eonn Homnooo noom op Eoooonn no pnopxm .mN oopoowom oNN. mNo. e mN.oH NmH nooeoH -nopmen mnoox e Eonn Pomnooo noom op Eoooonn no pnopxm .HN mnmonpooN: o Ho>on no «x z mpnoonoo HHoz ooneonnnnmnm mgm<2mm mnnommm nnanmHnnnm .n.o.pnoen NH oHnen 103 oopoonnoue oopooeon emH. eme. o mm.N omH nooooH-nopooo one non pHnnm poz annonnn oonoonmnoo on pen: .mo oopoopon NNN. mNo. o NH.HH omH ooooooon nonHono onp om: op anHnne m.nooeoH -nopmen onp no oooeHo oonepnonEH .Ho oopoohom nooeoHunopmen onp non poz moo. ooHe. H omN.o HoH Noonopnn no ooooHo oonopnooen .om oopoowom ONH. oHN. o HH.N moH nooeoHinopmen onp non mHanm poz pnoEomeneE no oooeHn oonepnonEH .Nm oopoowom wmo. on. o mn.o NoH mHHnnm omooHZonn m.nooeoH poz -nopmen onp no oooeHn oonepnonEH .om onnnnm nnomnonn oopoowom moo. Now. o mm.H ooH nnnmnooeon no Enon Nnopen poz unonpnen no nonpoooe m.nooeoH -nopmen onp no oooenn oonepnonEH .mm oopoowom NNH. NNo. o Hm.N omH nooeoHunopmeo onp no poz oHon oHNpm nnnmnooeon no nonpep -oonxo one annmnooeoH no moHNpm pnosomenee Henonpen noozpon anneHnEnm oo>noonon no pnopxm .mm mnmonponN: u Ho>on no «X z mpnoonoo Hpoz oonoonnnnonm m¥m<2mm manmmN no pmnneme pmoponn op nooeoHunopmen onp no oooenn oneEoo .Nm oopoomon NmN. wHo. m No.oH ooH enooE ozon onp en> mnnenne pnonnoo nn pmonopnn m.nooeoH -nopmen onp no oooeHn oonepnonEH .om oopoomom NNH. NNH. m mN.o ooH menonon poz Henoom nn opeononpnen op nooeoH -nopmen ano onp no oooeHn onesoo .mo oopoowom NNH. NON. m mm.o ooH .mpoowonn pnoEooHo>oo nenon poz nn mnnpennonpnen m.nooeoH-nopmen omeHHn> onp no oooeHn oonepnonEH .mo oopoonon meH. ooN. n ee.o HnH pnonnno>oo one .opnonn Hn>no poz .mpnmnn mnnpo> ”no mnoneos Enonnn op annnnnmnonmon m.nooeoH -nopmen onp no oooeHn oonepnonEH .No oopoonom oHH. mwm. m Hm.H mmH monpnnon one mEop poz -moo HeooH no moononeze m.nooeoH -nopmen onp no oooeHn oonepnonEH .oo monpoo on>no oopoowom moo. mom. o em.o HoH nooeoHunopmen onp non moonoomon poz onnononno-HHnno onp one pong .oo mnmonponxz o Ho>on no Nx z mpnoonoo Hnnz ooneonnnnmnm mgm<2mm mnnommm nnomno Hepop mopeononn zH oopoooom HNN. ooo. NH oH.N omH nooeoHinopmen onp no mopepm poz Hepnnee onp no oooeHo oonepnonEH .oH oopoooom one. moo. oH No.mm NoH onoononoen onpmnoonnH m.nooeoH poz anopmeo onp no oooeHo oonepnonEH .NH oopoooom mHm. moo. oH Ho.mH ooH oononnooxo one ooe .nonpeoooo Hesnon poz m.nooeoH1nopmeo onp noozpon oonono .mH oopoooom omm. oHN. oH oH.oN ooH oononnooxo one nonpeoooo HeEnon poz m.nooeoH-nopmeo onp noozpon oonono .oH oopoooom ooo. ooo. oH om.mm moH ooeHHn> no nzop HHeEm e nn nooeoHnnopmeo e non oononononn .mH oopoooom NNm. mNo. NH Nm.mN NoH ano onp nn nooeoHinopmeo e non oonononono .NH oopoooom Noe. ooo. oH no.mo HoH nooeoHinopmeo onp no ooe soennns oHnennmoo onn .HH monpmnnopoeneno Henomnon mnmonpooN: o Ho>on no ox Hz mpnoonoo HHoz ooneonnnnonm m¥mmn onHm mNnmozou oHImmmonoonoo no pnopxm .Hm oopoonon Nem. ooo. NH eN.HN HoH moonoono nonono onnn ineHn non oHNpm oHnennmoo onn .om oopoooom Hom. ooo. oH HH.oH HoH nonpenpnnnunmep non nooeoH poz -nopmeo onp no oHon nonpepoonxm .mN oopoooom NHm. ooN. NH mo.mH omH nooeoHinopmeo onp non onnnee poz -nonmnooo no oHNpm oHnennmoo onn .oN oHNpm onnmnooeon oopoooom moo. ooo. oH oN.mo omH nooeoHInopmeo onp no apnonnnpo onp no oooeHn oonepnooEH .oN oopoooom on. moo. oH NN.oH NmH nooeoHInopmeo oHo ne Eonn poz Homnooo noom op Eoooonn no pnopxm .mN oopoooom omm. ooo. oH No.oH NmH nooeoninopmeo onooN e n_onn poz Homnooo noom op Eoooonn no pnopxm .HN mnmonpooN: o Ho>on no «X z mpooonoo HHoz oonoonnnnonm m¥mnoonoo no pnopxm .mm mnmonpooN: o Ho>on no ex 2 mpooonoo HHoz ooneonnnnonm mnm<2mm mnnommm no pmnneoe poopono op nooeoHInopmeo onp no oooeHo oneEoo .Nm oopoooom ooN. Noe. NH oo.NH ooH enoos ozon onp en> poz mnnenne pnonnoo nn pmonopnn m.nooeoH Inopmen onp no oooeHn oonepnooEH .om oopoooom ooo. ooH. NH om.oH ooH mEnonon poz Henoom nn opeononpnen op nooeoH -nopmeo ano onp no oooeHn onesoo .oo oopoooom on. HoH. NH oN.oH ooH mpoooono pnosooHo>oo Henon poz nn onnpennonpneo m.nooeoH-nopmen ooeHHn> onp no oooeHo oonepnooEH .wo oopoooom Noe. Hoo. oH NN.Nm HoH pnoEnno>oo one .mpnonn Hn>no .mpnonn onnpo> ”no mnonEoE snonnn op anHnnnmnonmon m.nooeoH unopmen onp no oooeHn oonepnonEH .No oopoooon ooN. ooo. NH No.HH omH monanon one msop poz -moo HeooH no moononeze m.nooeoH -nopmen onp no oooeHn oonepnooEH .oo monpoo on>no oopoooom ooo. NNo. oH no.oN HoH nooeoninopmeo onp non moonoomon onnononno-_pnno onp one pong .oo mnmonpooNz o Ho>on no ex 2 mpooonoo Hpoz oonoonnnnonm mnm<2mm mnnommm nnomno Hepop mopeononn zH oopoooom mom. NNo. o HN.oH omH nooeonunopmeo onp no mopepm Hepnnee onp no oooeHo oonepnooEH .oH oopoooom Noe. ooo. w mo.oo NoH onoononoen onpmnoonnH m_nooeoH -nopmen onp no oooeHn oonepnonEH .NH oopoooom oNN. HmH. o om.HH ooH oononnooxo one ooe .nonpeoooo Heenon poz m.nooeoH-nopmeo onp noo3pon oonono .mH oopoooom ooN. oNN. o No.oH ooH oononnonxo one nonpeoooo HeEnon poz m_nooeoH-nopmeo onp noozpon oonono .oH oopoonon emm. NHo. e om.eH moH oooHHn> no nnoo HHono o nn nooeoHunopmeo e non oonononono .mH oopoooom oNN. Hoo. o mm.NH NoH ano onp poz nn nooeoH-nopmeo e non oononononn .NH oopoooom oNN. ooH. w mH.HH HoH nooeoHinopmen poz onp no ooe sosnnne oHnennmoo onn .HH monpmnnopoeneno Henomnoo mnmonpooN: o Ho>op no ox Hz mpooonoo Hnoz oonoonnnnonm mxmo mnemozoo oHImmmonoonoo no pnopxm .Hm oopoonon meN. ooo. e mm.NH HoH mnonoono nonnno onnn poz -neHn non oHNpm oHnennmoo onn .om oopoooon HNN. moH. o NH.NH HoH nonpenpnnnunmep non nooeoH poz -nopmeo onp no oHon nonpepoooxm .NN oopoooom NoN. HoH. o oN.o omH nooeoHInopmen onp non onnnen poz -nonmnooo no oHNpm oHnennmoo onn .oN ooxpm annmnooeon oopooooo NNo. ooo. N mo.oo omH nooeoHunopmeo onp no anonnnpo onp no oooeHo oonepnonsH .mN oopoonon mom. meo. e me.mH NmH nooooH-nopmoo oHo no nonn poz Homnooo noom op Eoooonn no pnopxu .mN oopoooom NHm. Noo. o mm.mH NmH nooeoHinopmeo onooN e Eonn poz Homnooo noom op Eoooonn no pnopxm .HN mnmonpooxz o Ho>on no Nx z mpooonoo Hnoz oonoonnnnonm mxm<2mm mnnommm nnoonon no pnopxm .mm mnmonponxz o Ho>on no «X z mpnoonoo Hnoz ooneonnnnonm m¥mo pmnneoe pmopono op nooeoH -nopmeo onp no oooeHo oneeoo .Nm oopoooom oNH. ooo. o oN.o ooH enoos ozon onp en> mnnenne poz pnonnoo nn pmonopnn m_nooeoH unopmeo onp no oooeHn oonepnooEH .oo oopoooom omN. NmH. o HN.o ooH mEnonon poz Henoom nn opeononpnen op nooeoH -nopmeo ano onp no oooeHn oneEoo .oo oopoooom NNN. ooo. o oo.oH ooH mpoooonn pnosnoHo>oo Henon nn onnpeononpneo m.nooeoH-nopmeo ooeHHn> onp no oooeHo oonepnonEH .oo oopoooom oom. Hoo. o oo.oH HoH pnoEnno>oo one .mpnonn poz Hn>no .mpnonn onnpo> ”no mnonEoE Enonnn op anHnnnmnoomon m.nooeoH -nopmen onp no oooeHn oonepnonEH .No oopoooom HNN. Noo. o mo.HH omH monanoo one meop poz -moo HeooH no moononeze m_nooeoH -nopmeo onp no oooeHo oonepnooEH .oo monpoo on>no oopoooon ooo. ooo. m mm.oN HoH nooeoHnnopmeo onp non moonoomon onnonennouHHnnm onp one pen: .oo mnmonpooxz o Ho>on no «x z mpooonoo Han oonoonnnnonm m¥N