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MlCHtGAPé STATE UNIVERSITY

Wiifiem Adeéph van ECK
1958

 

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1‘)‘ O

SITE AND ROOT STUDIES OF RED rm}:
(PINUS RESINOSA AIT.) PLANTATIONS IN

LOWER MICHIGAN

By

‘Willem Adolph gap Eek

4A THESIS
Submitted to the School of Graduate Studies of Michigan
State College of Agriculture and Applied Science
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of Soil Science

1958

mu

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

At this point, I wish to thank Dr. E. P. Whiteside for his permis-

sion to make this study, and for his guidance and encouragement throughout

its course. He regenerated my interest in pedology and its applications,

and I have gained much from his enthusiasm and sense for critical analysis.

The advice and teachings of Dr. A. E. Erickson and Dr. K.Lawton are

much appreciated. I am especially indebted to Dr. G. L. Johnson for in-

spiring me with an interest in agricultural economics. I am grateful for

the personal and material assistance of Dr. T. D. Stevens and his staff.

t0

to

to

to

to

to

Further thanks are due to the following institutions:

the Graduate School of Michigan State University for granting a
graduate research assistanceship;

the Soil Conservation Service State Office for providing transpor-
tation facilities, and to its district offices for much information
given through personal contacts;

the American Box Board Company at Filer City for a financial con-
tribution;

the staff of the Lake States Forest Experiment Station for the
lending of equipment and for providing data on their permanent
sample plots;

the field personnel of the U. S. FOrest Service for assistance in
locating plantations;

office and field personnel of the Michigan DEpartment of Conservation,
and to personnel of the Agricultural EXtension Service for giving

information on red pine stands;

and to many individuals who helped in one way or another.

To you, Ngaire, go special thanks for much assistance and encour—

agement.

Last, but not least, I am obliged to Dr. C. H. Edelman, the late
Dr. G. Hontzagers and Dr. V.‘Westhoff who first gave me an awareness of

the order in nature, and of the relation of plants and their environment.

Willem.A. van Eck

ABSTRACT

0%
Site. and Root Studies in'Red Pine
(Pinus resinosa Ait.) Plantations in
Lower Michigan

This study was designed to find an expression for the relation
and absolute production capacity of Michigan soil series in terms of
wood production over time. It was also meant to indicate inadequacies
in the present soil classification system in its application to forest
lands. The basis of this study was the information obtained from one
hundred and twenty carefully selected one-tenth acre sample plots in
seventy-five different red pine plantations. The survey covered
twenty-six soil series.

From the stand data collected in plantations over a wide range
of site conditions and in a number of natural stands a set of poly-
morphic site curves was constructed. Maximal rate of growth on the
height growth curve was used as a major criterion to differentiate
between the five site classes recognized. Using these curves, to the
stands on each site could be attached a site index, depending on age
and mean height of dominants and expressed in terms of expected height
at age fifty years. Site index was used as an expression of site pro-
ductivity and was also a measure of soil productivity as sample plots
were selected so that the soil profile was essentially the only variable

site factor.
Site indices for the range of soils studied varied between thirty-

six and seventy-four feet and maximal growth rates varied from 0.8 to

2.1 feet per year.

Willem A. van Eck

Low values were associated with weakly podzolized well-drained
coarse sandy glacial drifts which had not been cultivated previous to
cultivation. 'Within the sands, deviations from this extreme site, in
terms of higher amounts of the fine sand fraction or increasing degree
of podzolization or the presence of groundwater within the rootzone,
produced higher site indices and higher maximal growth rates. Absence
of a plowlayer on the sands was responsible for a longer period of
initial stand establishment. This factor strongly depressed the site
index but did not greatly affect maximal growth rate on sites where
other soil characteristics were favorable for a normal growth rate
after initial establishment.

High site index values were associated with previously cultivated
podzolized sands overlying fine textured materials at depths of more
than eighteen inches.

Intermediate site indices were found for moderately coarse to
moderately fine textured soils. The low values in this range were
correlated with the presence of groundwater, compacted subsoils, very
stony or gravelly horizons and free carbonates within or near the
surface eighteen inches. Subsequent root studies showed that these
characteristics apparently limited the effective depth.to which the
rootsystem could penetrate and branch out. Growth curves on these
sites showed a normal pattern until the effect of the limiting factor
became evident by a sharp decline in growth or by the actual death of
trees.

A generalized conclusion is that forest soil classifications for

Willem A. van Eek

sands should stress the characteristics which affect available soil
water, in the rootzone, and for finer textured soils the characteristics
which inhibit root penetration within the upper eighteen inches of the
profile.

As judged from site index data for soil series on which more than
five plots were sampled, the error of estimate of the site index of
individual stands is between eight and thirteen percent of the actual
value.

When the stands studied were grouped by site class on the basis
of estimated site index it was shown graphically that for any age class
red pine on better sites had a higher mean diameter and higher basal area.

The trends in the assembled stand data on plantations and in yield
data on natural stands from the literature were the basis of proposed
'management plans for planted red pine designed for six different types
of rotation. The economics of each shheme was evaluated on the basis

of current price levels and two different interest rates.

Part II of this thesis contains detailed morphological descriptions
and photographic illustrations of red pine root systems on sixteen
different sites. The relation of roots to the associated soil profiles
is indicated and the possible effect of these relationships on tree

growth is discussed.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAGE

PART I. SITE STUDIES IN RED PINE PLANTATIONS

INTRODUCTION.......................... 1
RWIEWOFLITERATURE 6
NATUREOFTHEPROBLEMMATERIAL.......‘..........16
METHODSANDPROCEDURES.....................31
EVALUATION OF SITE FACTORS THAT AFFECT HEIGHT GROWTH . . . . . . 39
ANALYSISOFDATA........................60
RESULTSANDDISCUSSION.....................95
SITE PRODUCTIVITY AND FOREST LAND VALUE. . . . . . . . . . . . . 128

CONCLUS IONS I C O O O O O O O O I O O O C O C C O O O O O O O I O 14 8

PART II. ROOT STUDIES IN RED PINE PLANTATIONS
INTRODUCTION..........................152
REVIEHOFLITERATIIRE......................153
METEODSANDPROCEwRES.....................157
DESCRIPTIONSOFSOIISANDROOTSYSTEMS.............163
RESULTSANDDISCUSSION.....................221

cmcws IONS O O O O O O C O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 2 35

APPENDIX I C O C O O O O O O C O O O O O O O O O 0 O O O O O C C 237
APPENDIX II. 0 O O O O O C O O O O O O O C O O O O O O O O O O O 279

BIBLIWHY O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O C O O O O O O 297

LISTOFTABLES
TABLE PAGE
I. Michigan Soil Series on which Red Pine Plantations were
Studied . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
II. Effect of Stand Density on Growth of Planted Red Pine on
Grayling Sand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
III. Effect of Stand Density on Growth of Planted Red Pine on
Montcalm and Graycalm Sands (Plots 78 and 79) . . . . . 46
IV. Sample Plot Data Classified by Age Classes, Average Ages
and Heights by Age Class, and for all Plots Combined. . 66
V. Coordinates of Anamorphic Site Curves and Their Tangents
in the Steepest Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
VI. Growth Curve Equations for Red.Pine Plantations and Natural
Stands on Eighteen Different 8011 Series in Michigan. . 74
VII.’ Tangents for Steepest Section of Polymorphic Site Class
.Differentiating Curves, and Their Coordinates at Two
Different Ages. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
VIII. Mean Site Indices for Planted Red Pine on Lower Michigan
Soil Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 94
IX. Effect of Degree of Podzolization in Sandy Soils on the
Growth of Planted Red Pine in Lower Michigan. . . . . . 99
X. Effect of Soil Texture on the Growth of Planted Red Pine
inLowerMichisan................... 102
XI. Mechanical Analyses of Grayling Sand and Rousseau Fine

Sand (as percentages of material <72 mm, ovendry basis). 105

TABLE

XII.

XIII.

XIV.

XVII.

XVIII.

XIX.

PAGE

Correlation of Mechanical Fractions to Each Other and to

the Amount of Available Water for 32 Sandy Horizons

Selected from 15 Different Profiles of 7 Michigan Coarse

Textured Soils . . . . . . . . . . . o . . . . . . . . . 106
Effect of Slope Position on Growth of Planted Red Pine in

Lower Michigan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Effect of Effective Soil Depth on Growth of Planted Red

Pinemlowermchigan................. 113
The Effect of Slope Position and Soil Texture Combined on

the Growth of Planted Red Pine in Lower Michigan . . . . 116
Mean Stand Measurements for Five Site Classes, Grouped by

5-Year Age Classes,.Per Acre Basis . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Management Plan for Red Pine Plantations for Three Different

Site Classes, Based on a Fifty Year Rotation and Per Acre.135
Present Discounted Value of Land to be Planted to Red Pine

for Pulpwood Production on Fifty Year Rotation, Per Acre

Basis. . . . . o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . o . 136
Present Discounted Value of Land to be Planted to Red Pine

for Sawlog Production with Fifty Year Rotation and One

Thinning, Per Acre Basis . . . . . . . . . . . . . o O . 137
Management Plan for Red Pine Plantations for Three Different

Site Classes, Based on One Hundred Year Rotation, Per Acre

B8818. O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O C I 138

TABLE

XXI.

XXII.

XXIII.

XXIV.

PAGE

Present Discounted Value of Land to be Planted to Red Pine

Based on One Hundred Year Rotation and Two or Three

Thinnings, Per Acre Basis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Capitalized Acre Value of Land to be Planted to Red Pine

in a Going Fifty Acre Pulpwood Enterprise with a Fifty

Year Rotation for Three Different Site Classes. . . . . 143
Capitalized Acre Value of Land to be Planted to Red Pine

in a Going Concern for Sawlog.Production of Fifty Acres

with a Fifty Year Rotation for Three Different Site

Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Capitalized Land Value of Land to be Planted to Red Pine

in a Going Concern for Sawlog Production on Hundred Acres

with a Hundred Year Rotation for Three Different Site

Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145

Locations and Soils where Root Studies were Carried Out . 158

LISTOFFIGURES
FIGURE PAGE
1. Geographic Location of Sample Plots in Red Pine Planta-
tions in Lower Michigan . .‘. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
2. ‘Age and Mean DOmdnant Height for Sample Plots in Red Pine
Plantations in Lower Michigan . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
3. Anamorphic Site Curves for Planted Red Pine in Lower
Michigan (sewn-logarithmic scale) . . . . . . . . . . . 69
4. Anamorphic Site Curves for Planted Red Pine in Lower
.Michigan (proportional scale) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
5.-8. Mean Height Growth Curves for Planted and Natural Grown
Red Pine on Different Soil Types in Michigan. . . . . . 79-82
9. Range and Magnitude of Tangents on Maximal Growth Rate
Section of Mean Growth Curves on Planted and Natural
Grown Red Pine on Fifteen Different Soil Types in
M1ch13an........................ 85
10. Polymorphic Site Curves for Planted Red Pine in.Iower
Michigan........................ 88
II. Relation of Mean Dominant Height, Tbtal Cubic-Feat VOlume
and Cordwood Volume, to Age of Stand for unmanaged Red
.Pine Plantations in Lower Michigan, Grouped by Site
Class and Five—Year Age Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
12. Relation of Mean Diameter, Basal Area and Stand Density
to Age of Stand for Unmanaged Red Pine Plantations in
Lower Michigan, Grouped by Site Class and FiveéYear

Age Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133

FIGURE PAGE
12. Relation of Mean Diameter, Basal Area and Stand Density
to Age of Stand for Unmanaged Red Pine Plantations in
Lower Michigan, Grouped by Site Class and Five—Year

AgeClasses..................... 133

PART I

SITE STUDIES IN RED PINE PLANTATIONS
INTRODUCTION

The purpose of soil classification is the organization of our
present knowledge about soils into a scheme by which individual soil
bodies may be remembered in their relation to one another, and to
which new knowledge about soils may be correlated.

The pedologist's interest in soil classification refers mainly
to the soil pg£_§§. He considers soils as three-dimensional natural
bodies which are the result of the combined action of a number of
environmental factors on a certain parent material over a certain
period of time. He observes the differences in characteristics between
soil bodies, and thus his approach to soil classification is one of
relating soils and their properties to the soil-forming factors and
processes.

On the other hand, the soil scientist is concerned with classi-
fication of soils in relation to the use to which land is put. In an
agricultural sense, a classification of at least the smallest recog-
nizable soil units should relate the inherent soil characteristics not
only to soil genesis but to the suitability and productivity for plant
growth as well. Because of this dual purpose, soil classification
presents its fundamental objections to the pedologist but also its
practical justification to the agronomist. As long as soil science

maintains a strong relation to agriculture, observations on the morphology

of soils will have to be interpreted in terms of soil productivity for
agricultural crops.

Once the suitability of a soil for growing a certain crop is
established, the concern for productivity is mainly a matter of agro-
economics, in which yields or returns are related to the inputs or
investments.

Plant yield.wou1d be an ideal criterion of natural or inherent
soil productivity if soil properties were the only factors affecting
growth. However, factors such as tillage, soil amendments, and short~
term climatic differences may well overshadow the effect of inherent
soil characteristics on the final yield of the annual crop, thus making
it difficult to compare the productivity of different soils from field
to field and from year to year.

In evaluating the inherent productive capacity of the soil
without cultural practices, yields in terms of natural vegetation
should be a good indicator. In this respect, forest stands offer the
great advantage of being perennial, so that short-term climatic vari—
ations affect the final yield very little. Wood production is deter-
nuned not only by soil quality but by the sum of effective conditions,
edaphic, biologic, and climatic, under which the plant community lives.
.As this combination of factors constitutes the forest site, foresters
refer to the productive capacity of forest land as site quality. Site
quality may be expressed in terms of the physiological conditions in
the forest stand; in terms of soil conditions or a characteristic ground
vegetation; or, in terms of actual wood volume produced (Heiberg and

It follows that in areas of uniform macroclimate, the wood pro-
duction in forest stand of identical composition and structure is directly
related to the edaphic site factors and indirectly to biologic and micro-
climatic site conditions as they vary with soil variations.

The author attempted to apply this reasoning to conditions in
Lower Michigan. Soils in the area are not yet satisfactorily evaluated
in terms of productive capacity, especially not for soils which are at
present considered marginal for agricultural production. Land appraisal
for these soils often has been based on a subjective, or ill-defined
objective scale. There has been no adequate method to predict wood
production for specific forest types under varying site conditions.

The single effect of the edaphic factors on site quality could
be studied best if other site variables were eliminated. For this pur-
pose, it was necessary to select forest stands of very similar compo-
sition and structure, that grew on a wide range of soil conditions.
Fbrest plantations fulfilled these requirements better than natural
stands. They had the additional advantage of being evenly aged, easier
to measure, and usually not affected by uncontrollable environmental
factors, such as fire, grazing, and cuttings. Red pine was selected as
the site indicator species, because it is native to the region, shows
little genetic variability, and has been planted widely during the past
fifty years; further, it has showed a low mortality rate from pests or
diseases. Also, the species has good timber qualities, and is recommended
for planting over a wide range of soils.

Ever since the early German work on site classification, and the

 

 

4

ensuing discussions by American foresters (Roth 1916, Frothingham 1918,
1921) height of trees in the dominant crown class of a forest stand at
a specified age has been considered one of the best measures of site
quality. This measure is called site index and is usually determined
at ages fifty or one hundred years depending on the forest type con-
cerned. For similarly stocked stands, height is related directly to
volume, and is thus a simple single measurement of site productivity.

This study is concerned with the effect of the entire soil pro-
file on the growth and development of planted red pine in Lower Michigan.
It is believed that the soil profile affects mainly the root growth of
the tree and that above-ground growth is a reflection of the development
of the root system.of the tree. These two parts of the tree have to be
studied simultaneously if the effect of the soil profile and its indi-
vidual horizons on tree growth is to be understood properly.

It was considered unlikely that these relationships could be
studied on all recognized Michigan soil series. But by studying single
soil characteristics and the profiles of certain soil series and their
effect on tree growth, predictions can be made of the site quality of
red pine stands on many genetically and morphologically related soils.

The study,therefore, had the following parts:

1. 4A survey of existing red pine plantations in Lower Michigan,

suitable for site studies.

2. Selecting of sample plots for the measurement of red pine

stands, and description of the associated soil profiles.

3. Analysis of the data using conventional and adapted techniques

4.

5.

for the construction of site curves and the classification
of sites in terms of site quality.

Discussion of the effect of single and combined soil char-
acteristics on site quality.

Classification of soil series or groups of soil series by
actual or predicted site index values.

Proposals for management plans for planted red pine and dis-
cussion of land valuation based on such plans for soils of
different site qualities.

Description and interpretation of studies of red pine root

systems on selected soils.

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Intensive studies of the relationships between the growth of
forest stands and the characteristics of the underlying soil profile
are all of recent date.

Erdmann, who is often quoted as the father of forest ecology,
laid a firm foundation for this type of study in 1924. He reviewed
critically some of the conclusions reached up to that date. Soil
science had not been a guide in forest evaluation, as soil classifica-
tion separated soils by inherent characteristics, with no indication
of how the latter affected forest productivity. He also pointed out
the need for an absolute site classification - i.e., an absolute expres-
sion of timber productivity of a soil, regardless of the species or
mixture of species growing on that soil.

At that early date, it was evident that in forest site evalu-
ation, the mere observation of soil characteristics had little signif—
icance unless one could interpret the effect of these characteristics
on the 3011's forest producing capacity.

Consequently, in the years following, a great number of students
have attempted to evaluate forest soils, with a special concern for
those soil characteristics which dominated soil productivity and which
‘were rather easily observable in the field as well.

Comprehensive reviews of the literature on forest site studies
have been prepared by Gaines (1949) and Coile (1952). In the following
lines, an attempt is made to present a summary of the significant research

reports published before 1952, and a more comprehensive review of more

recent literature, particularly of those referring to studies with
conifers.

Students in forest site work have attempted to untangle the
large number of components of a soil profile which may affect tree
growth. To that purpose, all observable soil characteristics were
recorded. Each single factor, or a combination of several, was placed
in a linear relationship to tree heights, and the correlation co-effi-
cient would indicate the relative effect of each particular factor, or
combination of factors, on growth.

Among the early workers in the NOrtheastern States, Haig (1929)
studied ninety-five plots in red pine plantations on brown forest soils
in Connecticut, and reported that the content of silt and clay in the A
horizon was a good measure of site quality. Soils with a silt-plus-clay
content of about forty-five per cent, or a sandy loam texture, had the
highest site quality at age ten. Plantations studied had an average age
of fourteen years.

In the same area, Hicock et a1. (1931) found that site quality of
Connecticut soils for young red pine plantations at age fifteen years
correlated to a low degree with both soil series and soil type. Soil
physical characteristics showed low correlation, except for the silt-
plus-clay content of the A horizon for values up to twenty-five per cent.
There was no relationship between the acidity of any horizons and tree
growth. The total nitrogen content of the A horizon showed the best
correlation. The soil characteristics associated with poor sites were

coarseness of texture and low nitrogen.values; but good sites could be

 

characterized less definitely, due to the complexity of the soil char-
acteristics involved. The results were based on observations on two
hundred sample plots in plantations between twelve and thirty years of
age.

An earlier worker in the Upper Peninsula of Michigan, westveld (1933)
found the soil type as recognized at the time a convenient guide to dif-
ferentiate between site classes in the mature natural mixed hardwood stands.
As site index, the average height of mature dominants was taken, ranging
in age between 150 and 250 years. The values ranged between seventy and
ninety feet, with stony and shallow profiles ranking low, and deep medium-
textured soils the highest. Eighty-three one-acre plots on twenty-five
soil types were studied.

Several workers were concerned with site studies in the eastern
and central hardwood regions. Auten (1936, 1945a) found the growth of
black locust and black walnut over a wide geographic area to be related
to soil properties that influence internal drainage and aeration. Opti-
mum.growth rates were found on mediumstextured soils. Yellow poplar
grew best in soils with good moisture relationships, i.e. deep medium-
textured, well-drained soils. Annual growth was directly related to
depth of the A1 horizon, but it was indicated that the latter factor
could be influenced by the presence of the trees themselves. In no
instance was natural fertility or soil acidity found related to site
quality.

Later studies by Auten (1937, 1945b) indicated that depth to

a tight subsoil was the best indicator of site quality of yellow poplar,

a deeper B horizon showing a higher site index. Best sites were those
without pronounced B horizon development, having thick A horizons,
medium-texture and good internal drainage.

Extensive conifer stands in the Southern States were a logical
object for study, once interest in woodland valuation became more urgent.
One of the first students was Turner (1936a, 1938) who sampled old field
stands of loblolly and shortleaf pine in Arkansas. In terrain with little
variation in topography, soil series gave a high degree of correlation
with rate of growth. In hilly terrain, degree of slope was a better
measure for site quality, the poorest stands being on the steepest slopes.
Highest site indices were recorded in immature soil on slopes of one—to?
three per cent with adequate water supply, fair drainage and permeable
subsoil.

Modern forest site studies have been strongly influenced by the
procedures developed by Coile. His basic concept in forest site studies
'was the measurement of soil properties which influence the quality and
quantity of growing space for roots. Given a certain minimum fertility
level in the soil, the distribution of roots was determined by soil
temperature, aeration, and moisture conditions. Consequently, in the
work of Coile and his students the soil physical factors were emphasized,
and multiple correlations of these factors with the growth of trees have
been worked out.

Studies along this line were made in the foothills and coastal
plain regions of the Southeastern and Southern States, in areas without

great topographic variations. The site indices of southern pines were

10

related to the soil physical factors in multiple regression equations,
which could be applied over a.wide geographic area.

In his first extensive study on loblolly and shortleaf pines in
the North Carolina - Piedmont area, Coile (1948) related site index to
depth of the A horizon and the imbibitional water value of the B hori-
zon, the latter value being closely related to the texture of the B,
and to be judged in the field in terms of soil consistence. Site
index, according to these studies could be measured with an error of
about t twelve per cent. More extensive sampling in later years (Coile
and Schumacher 1953, 1954) and over a wide geographic area did not
change these conclusions essentially.

Gaiser (1950) found similar relationships for loblolly pine in
the coastal plains of Virginia and the Carolinas, but he designed
separate equations for different drainage positions.

Fbr loblolly and shortleaf pine stands growing in eastern Texas,
Chandler et a1. (1943) found that soil series was the best indicator of
site quality.

Tables for the estimation of site index of loblolly and shortleaf
pines in the Arkansas — Louisiana area were drawn up by Zahner (1957).
He recognized that thickness of the A horizon would only be a site factor
in soils with strong B development. Thus, in zonal soils, the factors
that affected site quality were depth of the A horizon, texture of sur-
face and subsoil and the percentage of slope. In azonal soils, the
determdnation of only the latter two factors would suffice to estimate

the site index.

11

Variations in site index of shortleaf pine in Missouri were due
to differences in thickness and clay content of the.A horizon, as
judged fromra small scale study by Dingle and Burns (1954).

The growth of longleaf pine on poorly-drained soils in four
Southeastern States was most significantly related to moisture equiva-
lent of the subsoil and depth to mottling; whereas on.well-drained soils,
moisture equivalent of the subsoil and latitude were the important fac-
tors aecording to Ralston (1951). The error of estimate reported was
between eight and nine per cent.

vAn extensive study by McClurkin (1953) led to the conclusion
that height growth of longleaf pine could be related best to the depth
of the least permeable horizon and to the amount of rainfall, with an
error of estimate of about eight per cent.

Barnes and Ralston (1955) reported on their site studies in
Florida slash pine plantations. Data from 269 plots, ranging in age
between 9 and 25 years, led them to conclude that depth to mottling
and depth to a fine-textured horizon accounted for 89 per cent of the
total variation in site index. Greatest heights at age 25 occurred
when mottling was found at 40 inch depth or a fine-textured horizon
at 29 inch.

Among the studies in hardwoods is the work of Gaiser (1951) on
Ohio oak stands. He found site quality to be related to soil depth,
position on the slope and aspect of the slope. Highest site indices
occurred on plots with greatest soil depth, on lower slope positions

and on northeast exposures. The regression equation estimated site

 

12

index with an error of nine per cent.

In the work of Einspahr and MCComb (1952) on Iowa oak stands,
site index was correlated with soil depth, aspect, percentage of slope,
and position on slope. Trimble and Weitzman (1956) developed a multiple
regression equation on site index using the same variables for Nest
Virginian oak stands. Then, site index at age of fifty could be esti-
mated with a nine per cent error. In both studies, soil texture appears
to be no significant variable, as textures varied only between sandy
loams and silty clay loams.

Height of dominant trees at age of eighty in Michigan oak stands
is related to the approximate texture of the subsoil, on the presence
or absence of moist substrata and on percentage of slope and position
on slope, according to Gysel and Arend (1953).

The results of these studies in hardwood stands indicate that
site index is closely related with those soil factors that affect the
amount of soil moisture available in the soil. Such as: amount of
silt and clay, fine—textured horizons in subsoil, aspect and topographic
position. In soils with distinctly compact horizons at lower depth or
in rocky soils, soil depth is another important factor that affects site
quality. Soil depth determines the space available for root growth.
Shallow soils, i.e. soils with less than one foot of soil above hard
rock, or a compact subsoil, have a low productivity for forest stands;
a soil depth of more than three or four feet is a satisfactory limit,
deeper soil having no effect on site quality, other conditions being

equal. Given sufficient soil depth, availability of soil moisture is

 

13

the next essential site factor.

A.number of studies in'West Coast coniferous stands led to
similar conclusions. Douglas fir, as concluded by Hill g§_gl. (1948)
from observations on one hundred and forty-eight stands on a variety
of sites in‘Washington, grew best on deep, permeable, mediumptextured
soils.

Tarrant (1949) made physical and chemical analyses of soils
under Douglas fir trees in Oregon and Washington, but found no relation
between soil preperties and tree growth.

Gessel (1950) found an increase in site index for Douglas fir
going from coarse to medium-textured soils. Deeper soils had higher
site indices where there was bedrock or a hardpan in the subsoil. On
deep soils, site index decreased when rainfall was more than forty
inches, whereas on soil with hardpans, site index increased with pre-
cipitation up to sixty inches.

Elsewhere in washington, Carmean (1954) concluded from one
hundred and fifty plots in Douglas fir that a higher site quality is
related to a lower elevation, lower gravel content and less compaction
of the subsoil, higher total annual precipitation and greater depth of
surface soil.

From a number of climatic, topographic and edaphic site factors
Lemmon (1955) selected total effective soil depth as the best single
measure of site quality of Douglas fir in Northwestern Oregon.

Data from two hundred and seventy-eight evenly aged stands of

Douglas fir indicated that total effective soil depth was the only soil

l4
characteristic which was always highly correlated with the height of
dominant trees at age one hundred years (Schlotz et a1. 1956). They
summarized their work by stating that the combination of soil properties
such as expressed in the soil type, was the best indicator of timber
site quality.

. Recent work in the northern coniferous forest region established
the effect of depth and the imbibitional water value of the A.horizon
as significantly affecting site quality of spruce, as judged from four-
teen plots in Maine (Mount 1952).

From three hundred and ninety plots in spruce—fir stands in
eastern Canada, Linteau (1955) concluded that site quality was influ-
enced mostly by a texture and depth index which related silt-plus-clay
content to the depth of the B horizon. The lower the ratio of these
two factors, the lower the site index. Lower site quality'was generally
combined with lower nutrient levels, lower pH, thicker organic layers
and thicker leached horizons.

Aird and Stone (1955) found that best growth of young European
and Japanese larch plantations in New York occurred on the better drained
positions and where there was more growing space above soil horizons
restricting root growth.

In natural stands of white pine in New Hampshire highest site
quality was observed on the most poorly drained sites. Husch and Lyford
(1957) who sampled seventy-three plots on thirty-one soil series also
found higher diameters on those sites so that height could be correlated

with age, basal area and drainage class.

15

Gaiser and Merz (1953) reporting on red and white pine plantations
in Ohio and Indiana, observed a higher site quality on coarse-textured
soil, but thickness of the.A horizon had the greater effect on tree growth.

Several authors have found decreased height growth of red pine on
poorly drained soils as compared.with well drained soils, independent of
texture (Stone et al. 1954, Dreisinger et a1. 1956). .As this condition
led to gradual growth decline and subsequent death, pathogenic causes had

been blamed initially but were not found to have any effect.

NATURE OF THE PROBLEM MATERIAL
Soils of Lower Michigan

As this study is meant to be an evaluation of soil productivity
for woodlands in Lower Michigan, a brief survey of origin and differen-
tiation of the soils in the area is necessary.

The Palaeozoic sediments that underlie Lower Michigan have, in
more recent geologic times, been covered by thick deposits of glacial
drift. The present surface materials date from the Wisconsin glaciation
and originated from the underlying sedimentary rocks and igneous rocks
of the Canadian Shield. It was carried along by ice, or by flowing
water associated with the glaciers. The present topography, though
altered somewhat by more recent erosion, is essentially that of a
glaciated landscape with morainic ridges up to one to two hundred feet
high, lower waterndeposited ridges such as kames and eskers, and exten-
sive level or slightly undulating plains deposited by ice or outwash
'waters. Ice-transported material is poorly sorted, whereas water-carried
materials are well sorted.

Hilly terrain and level coarse sediments are well drained, except
in low places where water gathers or has no natural outlet. 'Where coarse
deposits overlie fine ones in level terrain, drainage may be impaired.
Level, medium and fine-textured deposits are imperfectly drained, except
where drainage is poor, such as in low places and along streams.

Locally along streams or the shores of the Great Lakes glacial

sediments were covered by more recent alluvium or beach deposits, while

17
elsewhere coastal sand was blown up to ridges of dunes.

Ever since sedimentary materials came to rest the environment
affected its further formation to a.weathered soil parent material and
a differentiated soil profile.

Podzolization is the process which is governing soil formation in
northern Lower Michigan (Whiteside et a1. 1957). North of a line running
from Allegan County near Lake Michigan via Kent, Gratiot, Genesee Counties
to St. Clair County to the east, this process tends to form true Podzols.
Climate and vegetation combine to give necessary conditions for the
accumulation of organic residues at the soil surface and for the forma-
tion of light gray bleached A2 horizons overlying dark brown B horizons
in which leached iron and humic colloids have been precipitated.

These Podzol profiles are typical for the larger part of the
coarse and medium-textured glacial outwash plains. Mature soils on
well or imperfectly drained topographic positions formed from sandy
materials with adequate iron and magnesium minerals have an extreme
type of profile with thick pinkdwhite eluvial horizons and strongly
cemented dark red-brown B horizons. This orstein B occurs in maximal
Podzols in upland positions as well as in groundwater Podzols of imper-
fectly to poorly drained positions. Where the coarse glacial sediments
are low in dark minerals and associated with pure native pine stands,
chiefly jack pine, profiles are only faintly differentiated into hori-
zons and are called Brown-Podzolic soils. The more strongly differ-
entiated Podzol profiles are associated with native hardwood and hard-

wood-conifer forests.

18

In all but the coarsest textured soils with minimum or medial
Podzol sequa, a regular phenomenon is the presence of one or more brown
color bands or textural bands in the sub-soil varying in thickness
between one quarter and several inches. They are usually of pedogenic
origin associated with the upper fringe of moist subsoil in the summer,
or else of petrogenic origin associated with boundaries between strata
of different physical make-up. Very fine textured glacial sediments
cause a physical hindrance to rapid leaching and eluviation; the
associated soils have bleached A2 horizons and are called Gray Hooded
soils. Mereover, clay has moved down from the surface horizons so
that the B horizon has the character of a textural horizon rather than
a zone of accumulation of iron oxides and humic colloids.

In the southern third of the Lower Peninsula climate and vegeta-
tion combine in preventing the formation of a heavy organic duff on the
soil surface. weathering processes are more intense, leading to clay
formation in the surface horizons and clay movement to deeper horizons
where it may accumulate in so~called textural B horizons. Color dif-
ferences in the profile point at some movement of sesquioxides and
organic colloids into the B, but they are not so pronounced, as in the
Podzols. These soils are called Gray-Brown Podzolic soils.

Some moderately coarse to silty textured soils have a tendency
to fragipan formations throughout the Lower Peninsula. However, the
origin and distribution of such formations is still unknown.

In a tension zone between the Podzol and Gray-Brown Podzolic

regions, a combination of soil-forming processes may lead to bi-sequa

 

 

19

profiles in medium-textured soils. These profiles show a Podzol A2 -
Bh,ir sequence overlying an A2 - Bt Gray Brown Podzolic sequence; so
that there is a Brown-Yellow Podzolic B separated from a lower lying
red—brown textural B by a pale yellow-to-brown A2 of the Gray Brown
Podzolic sequence. Consequently, the northern part of the Lower Penin-
sula of Michigan is believed to be such a transition zone.

In isolated locations where conditions were favorable for a
natural grass vegetation, soil profiles show dark brown surface horizons
twelve to eighteen inches thick. These soils are to be considered as
enclaves of Brunizemwlike profiles within the region of podzolized soils
and could be called organogenic variants superimposed on climogenic soil
regions.

Poorly-drained mineral soils in the entire Lower Peninsula are
associated with low places in the landscape where water can accumulate.
In these hydrogenic profiles, called Humic Gley soils, normal soil-
forming processes are masked as high groundwater levels prevent inten-
sive leaching and promote gleying beneath the organic matter accumula-
tion and black or dark brown A horizons of variable thickness. In
cases of extreme accumulation of organic residues such as in old lake
bottoms organic soils, pests and mucks, are the result.

Intermediate between.well-drained and poorly-drained soils stand
the imperfectly-drained and moderately well-drained soils. Soil-forming
processes in these soils lead to the same profile formation as in com-
parable well-drained soils, except that the zone of intermittent or

permanent water saturation is marked by mottles of oxidized iron or by

20

a uniform gray, respectively, which reaches upward into the lower B
horizon for moderately well-drained soils, and into the upper B hori-
zon or lower A2 horizon for imperfectly drained soils.

Table I shows the soils on which red pine plots were studied in

this investigation and some of the relationships between them as out-

lined previously.

TABLE I

Michigan Soil Series on.Which Red Pine Plantations Were

21

Studied

 

 

 

Moderately well

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Brown Podzolic

LGraycalm*

Grayling

Soil Textures of to Imperfectly Poorly
the Root Zone Well Drained Drained Drained
gsilty clay loam Merley Blount
rclay loam
{loam Miami Thackeray
Lsilt loam
Sloamy fine sand [Oshtemo
Lsandy loam \Boyer
Gray Brown Podzolic (Fox
lfiKendalville
\Hillsdale
Podzol McBride* Bruce
sand over clay jMelita Arenac
Podzol iMenominee Iosco !__
loamy sand
Brunizem Sparta
Gray Brown Podzolic Coloma
(Karlin*
Podzol {Leelanau*
Montcalm*
\Blue Lake*
Mancelona*
Newaygo*
fine sand
Podzol Rousseau* 'Wainola
sand
Podzol
maximal Wallace
medial 5‘ Kalkaska
1 East Lake
minimal “>Rubicon Croswell Au Gres

 

 

Series with asterisk (*) are podzol profiles which may have textural B

horizons.

22

Red Pine Under Natural,Conditions

General. As red pine was chosen to evaluate the relative pro-
ductive capacities of the different groups of soil profiles discussed
in the previous chapter, it is necessary to review the geographic and
ecological relationships of the species.

The distribution of red pine in North America has been described
by Little (1953). The natural range extends from southeastern Manitoba
to Newfoundland in the north and from central Wisconsin through central
Ontario and northern Pennsylvania to northern Massachusetts along its
southernmost boundary.

The climate in this area has temperatures in January averaging
from 0° to 25° F., and in July from 60° to 70° F.; average maxima range
from 90° to 100° F., and minima from «10° to ~40° F. The length of the
growing season is between eighty and one hundred and sixty days, with a
shorter season in some northern locations, and frosts recorded even dur-
ing summer months. Precipitation during the growing season ranges from
fifteen to twenty-five inches and the annual total is between twenty and
forty inches. (U. S. Dept. of Commerce 1941)

The natural range of red pine mainly coincides with the range of
Podzol soils. 'Within this range, the species is confined mainly to the
well-drained sands and loamy sands. The vegetation on all but the drier
sands in the southern part of the Podzol region leads to a climax forest
of sugar maple (Agggrsaccharum) and Northern red oak (93ercus‘rgbgg).

On clay soils in this region, one may find a balsam fir-basswood climax

forest type (Grant 1934).

23

In such cases, ecologists would consider red pine stands to form

an edaphic climax (Grant 1934, Braun 1950) or a paraclimax, in which the
final stage in the succession of plant communities is determined by

extreme soil textures.

Lake States. Wilde (1933) described the predominant vegetation
types of the Lake States. He found red pine characteristic of the well~
drained sandy terraces, whereas jack pine was most typical for excessively-
drained sands and white pine for morainic or pitted outwash plains.

In Minnesota, coarse sands carrying red and white pine had bands
of iron-cemented sand and occasional gravel layers between two and five
feet in depth. These bands were absent under jack pine stands (Alway
and McMi ller 1933).

An isolated finding of red pine in northern Illinois was on a
north aspect of a rocky sandstone ledge. However, these two trees
showed low vitality because of poor climatic adaptation, according to
Brenneman (1956).

Red pine occurrences in New York were reported from well-drained
strongly podzolized sands or loamy sands by Cook g£_gl, (1952).

Pure red pine stands occur in Minnesota on rolling sandy soils
which are too dry for white pine; but, on sandy flats, such as occur
in southern Minnesota, Wisconsin and Michigan, pine stands may consist
of as much as fifty per cent white pine (Eyre and Zehngraff 1948). A
third vegetation type is that of mixed red and jack pine on very coarse
sandy brown podzolic soils in northern Michigan and Minnesota. Else-

where in the natural range of distribution, red pine occurs in scattered

24
discontinuous stands which indicates that the point of gravity of the
natural range lies in the Lake States region.

Mature virgin stands of almost pure red pine in northeastern
Minnesota have contained between thirty and forty thousand board feet
per acre (Eyre and Zehngraff, 22, £153). Logging eliminated most vir-
gin stands. Remnants of the old forest may measure twenty-five thousand
board feet in isolated cases, but on the average, contain about ten
thousand board feet per acre, with second growth stands averaging six
thousand board feet (Spurr and Allison 1956).

Recent surveys (Cunningham.g£_§l$ 1956) estimate that out of a
total remaining acreage of twelve million acres of potential pine lands
in the Lake States, seven hundred and sixty-four thousand acres are
actually or potentially stocked with red pine, with three hundred and
forty-four thousand acres in Michigan. As for the timber volume on
this acreage, 1950 surveys (Cunningham‘g£_§lé 1950) indicated a volume
of primary growing stock of three hundred and fifty million cubic feet
of red pine, out of a total of twenty billion cubic feet for all species.
This red pine volume was about equally divided between the three Lake
States. .About half of the region's red pine sawtimber (totalling nine
hundred million board feet) was found in Minnesota.

Growth rates based on the figures of this survey for red and
white pine combined, average four per cent of total volume per year,
with Michigan at the top and between five and six per cent (Cunningham
££_§lé, 22, £35.). Exceptionally healthy stands may show a ten per

cent annual increment based on volume (Spurr and Allison, 22, cit.).

25
The latter data were obtained in fully stocked natural predominantly
red pine stands in Minnesota which reached heights of about seventy
feet and diameters between ten and fifteen inches at age of one hundred.
Recent yield tables tabulated a total height of ninety-three feet,
fourteen inches in diameter, and twenty-seven thousand board feet
(Scribner rule) per acre for well stocked unmanaged stands on good
sites.

As fire followed logging operations, seed trees were destroyed,
and fast growing hardwoods occupied the pine lands, making pine repro-
duction an unlikely prospect. {At present, red pine occurs as scattered
old growth stands which survived logging and fire; scattered second
growth stands near remnant seed trees; and, on about one half million

acres, as plantations.

Lower Michigan. The natural range of red pine reaches its
southern limit at a line running roughly from Muskegon County to Bay
County, although isolated occurrences have been reported from the
coastal sands in Huron and St. Clair Counties (Veatch, personal commu-
nication). If the latter records are included in the natural range,
the southern limit of red pine roughly coincides with that of Podzol
soils (Whiteside 25 El. 1956).

Climatologically there is a significant coincidence with the
700 F. isotherm of the average July temperature, and to a lesser degree,
with the 24° F. isotherm of the average January temperature (U.S.D.C.
1941). These same isotherms occur at the limit of the natural range

in.other States. The natural distribution of red pine could well be

 

26
limited to areas with average temperatures below 700 F. in the summer
and below 24° F. in the winter, assuming a growing season of at least
eighty days and at least fifteen inches of annual rainfall.

Judging from the map of soil associations (Whiteside g£_§l,,

22, 215,) natural occurrences of red pine are confined to continuous
areas of well-drained coarse~textured soils. .Although the seed of red
pine is anemochorous, seed dispersal is limited to several hundred feet
at most, and usually less than one hundred feet. This would make it
impossible for red pine to be disseminated across large areas of fine-
textured soils, such as occur south of the MUskegon-Bay City line.
However, in view of the above observation on climate, the occurrence
of the soil texture boundary at the same latitude as the critical iso-
therms should be considered accidental. In other words, the southern
distribution of red pine in Lower Michigan is governed largely by
climate and only locally by edaphic factors.

Old growth stands are virtually absent although in several
locations single trees and clumps of trees date back to the virgin
forest. These trees served as seed trees for natural reproduction.
Rather pure secondary stands of one acre or more have been found in
the following counties: Newaygo, Lake, Manistee, Grand Traverse,
Emmet, Cheboygan, Crawford, Roscommon and Oscoda. Some of these were
visited in the course of this study.

Of a total land area of twenty-six million acres, Lower Michigan
has about ten million acres of commercial forest land area. The latter

figure includes about one quarter million acres of predominantly red

 

27
pine, most of which is in public ownership (Cunningham.g£.§l,, 92, 315,).
However, a very small percentage of this figure is in well stocked
sawtimber-size stands. A survey of these forest remnants which escaped
logging and survived fire has been made by Collins (1958).

Livingston (1905) described the ecological position of conifers
in the natural vegetation of Roscommon and Crawford Counties in relation
to soils. He found the natural optimum of red pine to be on well-drained
sands and loamy sands. Where these soils wedge out into glacial coarse
sandy outwash plains, as well as on dry sandy ridges, jack pine becomes
the major component of the forest cover. On sandy loam and finerutextured
soils, and on sand with shallow groundwater tables, red pine is almost
or entirely absent, and white pine is the conifer prevailing.

From old land descriptions it is clear that jack pine and red
pine made up the forest vegetation on the dry sands, whereas moist sands
carried a red pine - white pine formation. Harvey (1911) studied the
latter type botanically in a small stand in Lake County, and considered
it an edaphic climax. On the glacial sands this type would be the final
step in the succession of plant communities, rather than proceed to the
climax of mixed hardwoods, such as is present on moist sands and finer
textured soils.

Braun (1950) found evidences that the white—red pine stand in
Hartwick Pines (a State Park near Grayling, Michigan), which consists
of forty per cent red pine in some places, would eventually be replaced

by hemlock and hardwoods.

 

28

Red Pine in Plantations

The first forest plantations in Michigan were established by
Michigan Agricultural College in 1888 near Grayling and Oscoda (Rudolf
1950). Elsewhere in the State there were small planting trials by
private individuals before the turn of the century.

Large scale reforestation became urgent after 1910 when exten-
sive areas of cut-over timberlands became the responsibility of public
agencies through tax delinquency or regular sales for consolidation of
state properties. Private land-owners followed the example on a samll
scale when planting stock became available through State nurseries.
About fifty thousand acres have been planted as farm wood-lots, in
reforestation projects and in conservation projects on blowing sands,
steep land and stream banks.

Based on 1944 estimates, public reforestation (including County
and Municipal agencies) accounted for ninety-one per cent of the total
acreage planted in the entire State, small private owners for six per
cent and industrial companies for three per cent.

The State Forestry Department started reforestation work in 1912
in Crawford County, and ever since tree planting has been an annual
activity, with as much as thirty thousand acres being planted in 1931.
State-organized reforestation up to 1957 covered an area of more than
two hundred and fifty thousand acres, requiring about two hundred and
thirty million trees of different species. Of the total, red pine in
pure plantings accounted for seventy-three per cent (most of the

remainder was planted as pure white pine or jack pine, or as mixtures

29
of these three pine species). Most of the planted acreage is in the
Southern Peninsula.

On National Forest land, the Forest Service has reforested more
than two hundred and ten thousand acres since 1910 and up to 1956. Of
these, one hundred and thirty-six thousand acres, or sixty-four per
cent, are of pure red pine. Plantations in Michigan.were mostly con-
fined to the Huron and Manistee National Forests. The first planting
in the Huron was in 1911, and in the Manistee Forest in 1934.

Of the private agencies, the Consumers' Power Company has been
the most active in.well~p1anned reforestation of its lands along the
Kalamazoo, Muskegon, Manistee and Au Sable Rivers. Most plantings
were pure red pine. The first one was established in 1925 along the
Manistee River.

Red pine seedlings were grown locally in State and Federal
Nurseries. Planting stock produced most commonly was 2-0. Recommended
planting rates varied between nine hundred and twelve hundred trees
per acre, corresponding with spacings of six-by-eight and six-by-six
feet. Plantings mentioned in this study were invariably hand-planted,
following a basic pattern of site preparation by scalping or furrowing
and the use of a planting bar or a mattock for the actual planting.
Initial care for the planting, especially on public lands, was very
limited so that checks on survival rates showed high mortality, mostly
due to light competition by an averstorey of fast-growing hardwoods.
Many plantings which survived partially were seriously suppressed but

showed immediate growth response in recent trial release cuttings.

30

Regular forest management in both public and private plantings has been
absent generally. This last factor, as well as the lack of a suitable
market for thinning products and of an experienced labor force have

made long range planning in reforestation a rather speculative under-

taking.

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

In accordance with the purpose of this study, it was necessary
to sample red pine over as wide a range of sites as was available,
within the boundaries of Lower Michigan. As no previous record had
been.made of plantations in Michigan, letters were sent to County
Agricultural Agents and Soil Conservation Service personnel in each
County and District, in order to secure general information about
plantations and their locations in the respective districts.

Plantings on State and Federal lands were located by visiting
the appropriate offices and extracting essential information from U. 5.
Forest Service and Michigan Conservation Department files. Additional
stands were found on land supervised by two Michigan universities and
by the Consumers' Power Company.

From data thus gathered, plantations which seemed satisfactory
for the purpose of this study were selected and subsequently checked
in the field.

Ultimate selection of a stand as a sampling site depended on
the following conditions:

1. Plantations had to be older than fifteen years from seed

and even-aged.

2. Pure red pine plantings were preferred.

3. Variations of the soil profile over the area of the sample

plot must be within the range of a recognized soil series.

4. Size of plantations must be at least one half acre or so large

that trees in a one-tenth acre plot would not be influenced by

border effects.

32
5. Evidences of growth interferenCe during any stage of growth

of the plantation must be absent.

gé;__. Planting stock set out in planting location does not at
once reflect the new environmental conditions. If one considers the
soil profile to be essentially the only variable, its effect will be
noticeable once the developing root system of the seedling will have
reached widely and deeply enough in the surrounding soil medium.
Adaptation to the new environment will take place over a period of
time, and it is considered unwise to study the effect of site on tree

-. F-t-I.._..“-.-....

growth during this initial stage. After this stage, trees stop being
M...” " H"”'“”“~*““”“‘"~ ..

 

individuals and enter into mutual interference to become a forest
stand. To quote Hawley:1 "From this time on (age ten), competition
between single trees developed fast and the individuals merge their
identity into that of the forest as a whole. The grass sod which
covered the ground at the time of planting has been shaded out, a
carpet of pine needles established in its place, and the branches of
the pines begin to interlace." Preliminary field studies indicated
that a period of fifteen years would adequately cover this initial
stage of establishment.

The requirement of a uniform age of trees within a stand is
more a convenience than a necessity for the purpose of the study. It
aids the assumption that age measurement on any tree is representing

V1—

lHawley, R. c. 1924 ”Early Development of Norway Pine” Journal
2; Forestry 22:275.

33
the whole stand, which saves much.work. Also one can assume that in
stands of even age, all trees have been affected equally by environ-

mental conditions throughout the life of the stand.

‘gg;_g, Pure plantings have the decided advantage that variations
in response of species to site conditions may be excluded. Single tree
interference between species may be quite different from single tree
interference within species. As there was an insufficient number of
stands available to evaluate this possible source of error, mixed stands
were excluded from the study. With the exception of a few stands with
alternating series of rows of two species, the provision was that the
red pine section of the stand showed sufficient uniformity, and side
effect from the associated species was avoided. A few stands with
alternating rows or series of rows of red and white pine were included
in this study only when it was evident that the white pine had had no
above ground effect on the growth of red pine. This also applied to

two mixed stands of red pine and Norway spruce.

2g;_2, In a study of the effect of soil on tree growth, uniform-
ity of soil profile for each sample plot was a primary requirement.
uniformity was judged by appearance, based on those soil characteristics
which were described in the standard soil series descriptions. Minor
variation was allowed where this was unavoidable, such as number and
thickness of textural bands in the subsoils, or thickness of the Bh,ir
in medial Podzols. In this study, however, soil variation within a

plot was, as a rule, smaller than the range of characteristics allowed

within the official soil series description.

lgg;;&. Given uniform soil conditions, the size of each stand
was further limited to those in which the growth of the sapling or pole
size trees was unaffected by border effects. Plots that had border
effects within twenty-five feet from any plot corner were discarded,
older stands being treated with more discrimination than younger ones.
Generally, this minimum distance should be between one half and one
times the average tree height from.the plot edge. Where stand borders
were obviously affected by uncontrolled factors (£33, grazing, garbage,
dust) this distance was made much greater, depending on the local con-

ditionSo

ad. 5. Basic to this study of red pine growth.was the attempt
to exclude the effect of any site variable other than the soil profile.
The occurrence and magnitude of these other variables which affect the

height growth of red pine are evaluated in the following chapter.

If, on superficial observation, plantations were found satis-
factory for further study, a general survey of the area followed, to
determine the range of local site conditions, and to select suitable
locations for sample plots. The owner was contacted for information
on stand history and preceeding land use, and for permission to traverse
the property.

In sections of stands that satisfied the requirements described
above, square plots of one-tenth acre were laid out. To avoid conflicts

with land owners or other experimental markers, plot corners were marked

35
at breast height by white painted marks, or with bands of white gauze
_fabric on the corner trees. In widely spaced stands, short stakes with
gauze flags were placed at the plot corners. This marking procedure
facilitated relocating the plots for repeated observations during a few
years, but would leave no permanent sources of confusion for other people.

Plot boundaries were placed so that two were parallel with the
direction of planting rows. One of these sides would fall between two
rows, the other would be parallel and sixty-six feet away from the first.
One of the remaining two sides would be placed where sighting helped its
layout, and the opposite side would be again at a distance of sixty—six
feet.

Size and shape of plot thus described were adhered to almost
uniformdy. Narrow rectangular plots were a necessity where plantations
themselves were laid out in narrow strips, or where narrow sections of
red pine alternated with other species. In order to avoid any site
variations (even if soil profiles were uniform), plots located on short
slopes were made long and narrow, with the long side parallel to the
contour. In all cases, the total plot size remained one-tenth acre.

The measurement of stands was preceeded by a detailed soil survey
within the plot boundary, following official procedures and nomenclature
(5011 Survey Staff 1951).

Even though the plantations were surveyed as a whole for areas
with uniformity of soil profile, the area within the plot boundary was
checked in detail. Borings were made at the center and four corners,

or at three points of a triangle placed at random within the plot.

36
Depending on soil variability, one or two detailed soil profile descrip-
tions were made from holes bored with a three-inch barrel auger to a
depth of five and one-half feet. From the slight variations between
separate borings within one plot, the soil profile most representative
for the plot area was chosen for description. Soil description would
identify the profile within the frame of the State legend of established
and recognized soil series.

Stands were sampled by starting at the plot corner nearest south-
east, then walking along a boundary planting row, and taking crosswise
caliper readings at breast height on every second tree, starting with
the corner tree. The next row sampled was the third, missing one row,
and again measuring every second tree. This method secured a systematic
sampling of D.B.H. (diameter breast height) of twenty-five per cent of
the stand. When stand density was low, a larger sample was needed to
have an adequate number of readings. Often the sample size ran some-
what smaller; if stand density was high, one of the center rows was
also omitted.

Dead or severely stunted trees were not measured, and recorded
as a blank in the tally. Deuble stems were not measured unless one of
the two trees or both had developed normally and were part of the
dominant canopy.

Total height was recorded on the same trees that were measured
for D.B.H., excluding suppressed and intermediate trees; or any that
showed severe defects, such as absence of a terminal leader. Note was

made of the position of the crown of individual trees as for dominance

37
or co-domdnance. Within the younger stands studied (up to thirty years),
dominance was often poorly or indistinctly expressed, unless stands had
a higher density than one thousand to twelve hundred per acre. Dis-
tinctly intermediate crowns were nonetheless excluded from the sample.

Height measurements were taken using a Haga altimeter without
attached range-finder. The baseline from observer to the foot of the
tree was measured with a metallic tape. As the scale of the altimeter
was calibrated for baseline from fifteen to thirty units of measurement,
in plantations of average total height about forty feet, a thirty foot
baseline was laid out, which allowed direct readings on the thirty-unit
scale. Plantings with a greater average height were measured from a
baseline of forty-five feet, in which readings made on the fifteen-unit
scale were multiplied by three. Plantings of average height less than
thirty feet were measured directly on the twenty-five, twenty, or
fifteen unit scale, using twenty-five, twenty and fifteen foot base-
lines, respectively. Very young plantings with heights less than
fifteen feet were measured with a calibrated fishing rod of sixteen
feet, carefully avoiding parallax with the top reading. Heights were
read with one-fourth foot accuracy, and diameters to tenths of inches.
Stem.numbers per 0.1 acre per plot were multiplied by ten to obtain
stems per acre.

From the distance between rows, and the closest distance between
trees within the rows, the original spacing could be derived. Counting
the present stand density, percentage survival could be determined. The

plot sampling procedure included a general description of the plantation,

38
the terrain and the natural vegetation, both in the area and in the
stand.

Age was determined by ring count on the increment core taken
near the base of the stem. This served as a verification of the plant-
ing records for the plantation concerned. Age of trees was in all

instances age from seed.

EVALUATION OF SITE FACTORS THAT AFFECT HEIGHT GROWTH

In this study, the growth of red pine plantations has been
analyzed under the assumption that, in properly selected plantations
(see the list of conditions on page 31), the soil profile was the
only site factor responsible for growth differences. As height of
the dominant trees in a stand was assumed to be the only variable site
indicator, it was believed essential to this study to investigate
possible sources of error which would invalidate this assumption.
The factors, apart from soil factors, which might affect the
height development of red pine plantations, directly or indirectly,
are the following:
I. Inherent Factors
a. Seed source
b. Origin of planting stock
c. Mycorrhiza

II. Stand Factors
a. Planting stock quality
b. Planting method
c. Planting time
d. Stand density at different ages
e. Insects or diseases
f. Fire
3. Silvicultural practices
h. Light

1. Previous land use

40

III. Environmental Factors
a. Climate
b. Natural range

c. Altitude

ad. I a. In forestry plantings, it has been customary up until
recently, to be little concerned about the seed origin of the planting
stock. In the case of red pine, which is a native species, it was
logical to obtain seed for Michigan nurseries from mature trees in
virgin or second growth stands, such as were found abundantly in
northern Minnesota.

A Minnesota study of racial and individual variations in red
pine involved thirty-seven seed sources in the Lake States and New
England (Rudolf 1947). After sixteen years of growth, trees from
local northeastern Minnesota were often superior in combined desirable
characteristics, followed by lots from northwestern and north-central
Minnesota, northeastern Wisconsin and southern Upper Michigan. How-
ever, no seed source produced consistently superior trees.

Pennsylvania studies on fifty seed sources from seven north-
eastern and Lake States were analyzed at age ten (Hough 1952a, Hough
1952b). The best trees developed from Wisconsin and.lower Michigan
seed, but among the other Lake States lots were some of the poorest
quality trees. Northwestern Minnesota and Maine sources showed to be
poorest. There were no morphologic differences between trees from
different seed sources.

Preliminary observations on New York seed source tests indicated

41

superiority of an Ontario lot from a small area near Massey, Ontario
(Eliason 1950).

variation in seed source did not apparently show up consistent
correlation with variation in tree quality. If height growth were con-
sidered by itself, the northern Minnesota, northern Wisconsin and Lower
Michigan sources performed best in the Minnesota experiment. But again,
there were poor lots from the same seed sources, and satisfactory among
the poorest.

Lower Michigan nurseries as a rule obtained seed from.Minnesota
sources, where seed collection took place from mature trees in virgin
and second growth stands. It was assumed that this caused a great
deal of uniformity of seed source for the planting stock in Lower
Michigan plantations, so that the effect of seed source on height

growth.would be negligible.

ad. I b. Planting stock for Federal plantings originated at the
Federal nurseries in the two National FOrest areas. State Forests were
supplied from the Roscommon Nursery of the Conservation Department.
Private plantations used stock from the State Nursery or from the
Michigan State College Nursery at East Lansing. It was considered
that nursery practices were sufficiently similar between these nurs-
eries as to cancel out any variation due to planting stock quality.
Most trees were sold as 2-0 or 2-1 stock.

Care of the planting stock by the individual landowner might be

a factor affecting the eventual success of the plantations.

42

ad. I c. Mycorrhiza are essential organisms with.which trees
are found to live in symbiosis. In soils, such as those in southern
Lower Michigan, which never carried conifers, the appropriate conifer
mycorrhiza are absent. Sowing of pine seed in this area would doubt-
lessly lead to failure of a plantation. However, when these soils are
planted with seedlings, the plants originate from nursery soils which
contained the fungus so that the infestation of a tree could take place
in the seedling stage. Healthy seedling development indicates the
presence of mycorrhiza and the planting stock will then carry the
organisms into any new planting site automatically.

This study discovered only one instance where poor tree growth
could be due to the absence of symbiotic fungi, i3g. in the area de-
scribed in Plot 45A. The original vegetation of this prairie opening
consisted of grasses with only occasional tree growth over several
square miles. Moreover, erosion carried away several feet of the dark
surface soil leaving a sand barren.which.was then planted with pine.

No mycorrhiza were observed on the fibrous surface roots of the poorly
growing trees, the yellow foliage of which suggested a severe potassium
or magnesium deficiency. It was believed that the plants originally
carried mycorrhiza which became subsequently ineffective or died under
conditions of exposure to the extreme microclimate.

In all other sample plots mycorrhiza were present, presumably in

adequate numbers to have no limiting effect on tree growth.

ad. II a. Planting stock quality has been found to affect the

subsequent growth of plantations. Hough (1952) found that seedlings

43
with greater weight and larger size grew better than small seedlings,
especially if compared at age ten, but the relation to seedling sur-
vival was erratic.

Stock specifications have been very strict in the nurseries from
which Federal, State and private plantings were supplied. Care of
planting stock during shipping and at the planting site may not always
have been favorable. It was felt that this factor would illustrate
itself only in poor survival and not by any effect on tree growth, or
by effect on both. Plantings indicating high mortality rates were

therefore excluded from the analysis.

ad. II b. Planting methods have been variable. This applied
to site preparation as much as to the actual planting. Dense ground
cover of Kalmia angustifolia, such as were present near Plots 112 and
113, would have been a hindrance in early tree develOpment, if not
adequately broken up. After using the center hole method in the first
years, after 1913 Federal plantings were generally made by the slit
method, especially in sandy soils (Rudolf 1939). A study of five
thousand slit-planted jack and red pine between two and thirteen years
old on Grayling sand in Iosco County showed sixty-five per cent of
the trees to have roots cramped in a single plane, with a noticeable
reduction in height growth and less than fifty per cent survival.

More recently, machine planting has come into vogue.

In summarizing, the conclusion is that many different methods
have been employed in red pine planting. The hole method was most

successful, whereas planting bars tended to compact the soil (Rudolf 1950).

44
It was believed that poor planting would express itself in its effects
on height as well as survival. Therefore poorly stocked stands were

discarded in the analysis.

ad. II c. Planting time has been no significant variable.

Early studies showed the advantage of spring plantings and the poor
survival of fall planting, particularly on fine-textured soils which
were subject to frost heaving (Rudolf 1950). Almost all plantings in
Lower Michigan were done in the spring. Extreme drouth or heat follow-
ing spring planting has caused serious injury to seedlings on some
coarse-textured soils (Rudolf 1939). It was felt that this factor
would affect survival as well as height growth. Therefore, poorly

stocked plantings were not analyzed.

.ad. II d. Stand density as a limiting factor in height growth
has received considerable attention. From a physiological standpoint,
it is evident that mechanical and light interference in a very dense
stand would cause a very high mortality, as well as overtopping. This
results in a lower mean stand height as compared with a normally
stocked stand (Stevenson and Bartoo 1939). Hewever, in this study
the criterion for site quality was mean height of dominants and co-
domdnants and not mean height of all trees. From literature on the
subject (Bramble _e_1_:_ 5;. 1949, Schantz ...; Hansen 1945, 1952, and
Mann.g£.gl, 1952, Byrnes 1955, Allison and Cole 1956, and the review
by Ralston 1954) it could be concluded that spacing had no significant

effect on height growth of dominants. These studios were concerned

45
with spacings between from 4 x 4 to 10 x 10 square feet. Shirley and
Zehngraff (1942) observed that young pines in dense stands were taller
than those in very open stands, and this was definitely a case of
border effects, independent of soil conditions. Turner (1943) made
a similar observation in.Arkansas when comparing early thinned open
pine stands with fully stocked stands. He explained the four feet
greater height in the latter by suggesting that a lower carbonxnitrogen
ratio.was responsible. Ralston's studies of red pine was made in
Iosco County, comparing four degrees of stocking between six hundred
and two thousand three hundred trees per acre, and he showed that
density affected dominant heights inversely. He believed that it was
due to the coarse-textured soil with low moisture availability on
which close spacing would cause critical competition for soil moisture.
Previous studies which showed no effect of density on height had been
done on better sites.

Studies on the same area did not confirm Ralston's findings, on
the basis of data from randomized plots on the same soil type. Small
increases in degree of podzolization and in the proportion of fine
and very fine sand produced significant changes in height growth, re-
gardless of stand density and with degree of stocking being held con-
stant. Similar variations in the soil profile may have affected his
sample plots, too.

It was very difficult to evaluate the factor stand density as a
single variable, with all other factors held constant. On the Grayling

sand a number of similarly aged stands on flat topography were selected,

46
and divided into three groups of different stand densities. The data

in Table II are averages of the plots in each group.

Table II

Effect of Stand Density on Growth of
Planted Red Pine on Grayling Sand

 

 

 

No . of Mean Mean Mean Mean

plots in No. per Plot Dom. Plot Basal

Group group Age acre Height Height D.B.H. Area
1 3 42 667 29.7 31.1 6.0 132

2 5 42 896 23.4 28.2 5.2 130

3 l 41 2320 ~--- 29.3 3.8 183

 

 

(Although the average height of the third group was not determined,
the trend of decreasing mean height with higher density was evident
from the first two. The decrease in dominant height in the second
group was due apparently to factors other than density, as the closely
spaced third group showed a height increase, even although the basal
area was very much higher than in the first two groups.

Another less convincing example of the density-dominant height
relation was taken from two plots in Emmet County on nearly comparable
soils and adjacent to one another.

Table III

Effect of Stand Density on Growth of Planted Red Pine
on Montcalm and Graycalm Sands (Plots 78 and 79)

W

 

 

, Mean Mean Mean
Plot Age No. per Plot Dom. Plot Basal
acre Height Height D.B.H. Area
79 29 630 38.4 39.2 6.5 150

78 29 2610 37.8 39.3 3.7 206

 

 

47
Mean plot height in Table III could not be regarded as a reliable
figure, as trees selected for height measurement in Plot 78 were mainly
in the dominant stand. The very high density apparently had no effect
on the dominant height.
From these observations, it was concluded that variations in den—
sity did not affect the criterion that dominant height could be taken

as a measure for site quality of soils for red pine.

ad. II e. In several locations insect injury to red pine planta-
tions has inhibited normal height growth, especially by specieS‘which
affect the terminal leader. Rhyaconia buoliana, the European pine shoot
moth has been particularly effective in the counties alonngake Michigan
and elsewhere in southern Lower Michigan. Rudolf (1950) reported
serious damage by Rhyaconia frustrana near Roscommon. Red pine growing
near Scots pine seems to be affected more readily than elsewhere,
damage being most prominent in young plantations. The white pine
weevil reportedly attacks red pine too, but no evidences of any sig~
nificance were observed. The effect of other insects such as saw flies
and spittle bugs could not be evaluated and was believed to be nil.

Among growth-affecting diseases, the stem canker caused by
Tympanis confusa has crippled several plantations seriously, mostly
on fineutextured and rocky soils in southern Lower Michigan.

In a survey of injury to pine plantations in the Lake States,
hare and rabbit browsing and snow breakage were responsible for almost
sixty per cent of the injuries. weevils and shoot moth were most promi-

nent among plagues (Rudolf 1950).

48
Even though injury by insects and diseases might make a stand
unfit for site analysis because of high mortality, the incidence of
these plagues was often related to site and would certainly not be a

reason to discard a sample plot.

ad. II f. Fire has been no growth-affecting factor in this
study. Initial studies showed fire to be effective in decreasing
diameter growth and presumably height growth in the years following
the fire. Therefore no stands affected by fire were included in this

study.

ad. II 3. Among Silvicultural practices which might have affected
height growth in some individual plantations are the following:

1. Thinning

2. Pruning

3. Mixing with other species

5g;_l. In this study, the sixty plots located in privately owned
plantations had not been thinned. Some of the Federal, State or insti-
tutional plantings had been thinned. 'Hhere possible, unthinned sections
of the same plantation were used for plot work. Where entire plantations
had been thinned, it had to be assumed that this practice had not affected
the domdnant stand, which would be the case if thinnings had been ”from
below".

The findings of most students agree that thinnings did not affect

the height growth rate of dominants in red pine stands, but it usually

did affect average height growth (Schantz-Hansen 1945, 1952, Stiell 1953,

49

Smithers 1954). Cheo (1946) found a slight decrease in average height
growth when extremely low and high densities were thinned. Others
(Engle and Smith 1952) found an increase of twenty-four per cent in
average height growth rate after thinning a natural red pine stand of
age forty-three years from a three by four feet to a six by seven feet
spacing, and an increase of six per cent when a thirty-year old planta-
tion was thinned from five and one-half by five and one-half to eight
by eight feet spacing. Their data came from greatly overstocked
natural stands in which sudden changes in stocking would give improved
ecological conditions for individual trees.

Only dominant trees were selected for height growth measurements
in this study. Also, thinned stands with.very high or very low original

spacing were excluded from.the final analysis.

egg_g. Pruning has been a Silvicultural practice applied to many
plantations. Its purpose has been to improve stem form for quality
timber production. The studies of Ralston (1953) in Michigan red pine
plantations indicated that pruning had no effect on height growth,
except when more than fifty per cent of the stem had been pruned. No

excessively pruned plantings were included in the analysis.

ggg_§é Species used in mixtures with red pine in plantations
are white and Norway Spruce, occasionally jack pine and Scots pine.
None of these species, except jack pine, have been found to interfere
with the growth of red pine (Rudolf 1950). This interference was

observed to be due to the more rapid early growth of jack pine, and

50
not to biological antagonism. From data collected in a twentyufive
year old mdxed red and white pine stand with an eight by eight feet
spacing in.Ka1amazoo County (Rudolph and.Lemmien 1955) and personal
data from an adjacent pure red pine stand, no difference in heights
of red pine could be found.

In.any instance where other species obviously interferred with
the normal growth of red pine, or where red pine made up less than
fifty per cent of the dominant stand, plantations were not considered

for site analysis.

ad. 11 h. Red pine seedlings may become established and survive
under strongly reduced light conditions (Shirley 1941, 1945). From
then on, they need sufficient light for normal height development.

In the Manistee National Forest, two plantations were compared;
one in the Open, the other shaded by an overstorey of fifty feet
high white oak with a fifty per cent crown density. Both plantings
were twenty years old and growing on Rubicon sand. The shaded trees
showed an average height of only four feet with a fifty per cent
survival, whereas in the open field, trees measured sixteen and one-
half feet and survival was eighty per cent. Underneath a gap in the
overstorey red pine had an average height of ten feet. Elsewhere it
has been observed that even individual oaks affect the height growth
of red pines which were shaded by them from only one side. This
factor accounted more than any other for the rejection of initially
selected sample plots. Survival in many of these cases had been

good even over a period of thirty years although height growth had

51
not exceeded five or ten feet. More commonly, early plantations which
were later invaded by, and not freed from, overcrowning hardwood vol-
unteers, disappeared altogether because of low vigour and browsing.

That light is an essential factor to normal tree growth has been shown
clearly by the immediate growth response to release from the overstorey,
as hardwoods were cut or defoliated by girdling and poisoning. Over-
storeys inhibited normal height growth as compared to red pine in the
open or with a hardwood understorey, so that the effect of competition

for moisture and nutrients seems of little significance.

3d. II 1. The effect of previous land use on the growth of planted
red pine was difficult to evaluate. FOr proper analysis of this factor,
one would need to compare plantations on cut-over forest land and on
abandoned fields with the same soil profile. 'Within the series of sam-
ple plots available, no such comparison was possible. However, Plots
117 and 118 on the Rousseau series showed that the growth rate on land
which was never farmed could about equal that on land previously farmed
(see Table VI and Figure 5 for comparison of growth rates). Though
there mdght be differences in the initial growth rate in the years after
planting, apparently the increase in fertility likely to be caused by
farming practices did not affect the height growth rates of red pine,
once the period of slow initial growth was passed.

It was interesting to note that all plantations growing on land
which had not been cultivated previously showed little growth during
the first ten years. This was evident from the growth curves of trees

v
on Grayling and Au Gres sands and on Rousseau fine sand, and from

52
observation on other stands. Considering Rudolf's observations of
young plantations on Grayling sand in the Huron Forest (Rudolf 1954)
it could be assumed that a plow layer offered a better medium for tree
establishment. It increased the moisture retention and lowered the
heat conductivity in the surface soil where the fibrous roots are
located. There may also be a fertility factor involved. The presence
of such a plow layer gave planted trees a head start over those on
uncultivated lands. In terms of site index, this meant that trees on
cultivated lands were higher at age fifty years than those on unculti-
vated lands of the same soil type. This agreed with Chapman (1938) who
observed that longleaf pine had an eight feet higher site index in old
field plantations than in second growth natural stands over the same
range of soils.

As for the effect of the nature and duration of previous land
use, no conclusions could be made. In most instances land had been
abandoned some years before being planted to trees. In no case was
land fertilized directly previous to or after tree planting. Within
the series of plots with previous cultivation, the effect of this
factor was considered uniform for all plantations and of no effect on

growth after the period of establishment in the seedling stage.

2g;_III a. and b. As the natural range of a plant species is
partly determined by climate, these two factors are discussed con-
currently.

The natural range of red pine reaches its southern limit in

central lower Michigan, as has been discussed previously. This limit

53
coincides with the 70° F. isotherm of the average July temperature,
and to some extent with the 240 F. isotherm of the average January
temperature in Lower Michigan. Judging from the distribution pattern
inHWisconsin, New York, Pennsylvania and New England, red pine does
not extend beyond these isotherms. In western Minnesota, the sixteen
inch isohyet for warm.season rainfall forms the western limit, but
rainfall does not seem to affect the distribution of red pine in Lower
Michigan directly.

Cook gghgl. (1952) stated that climate pg£_§g_has little, if any,
direct effect on the distribution of red pine in New York. Their data
indicated the occurrence of the species where summer temperatures were
below 67° F. However, red pine was described as a relic of a warm and
dry post-glacial period, so summer temperature should not be a limiting
factor in itself. Earlier (Cook and Smith 1949), it was stated that
the natural range is limited to sites where the average winter tempera-
ture is 25° F. or below, with minima below 10° F.

Another factor limiting the natural distribution to northern
lower Michigan is the predomdnance of fine-textured soils south of the
Muskegoanay City line, tO'WhiCh red pine is not adapted naturally.

On these soils, oak-hickory stands are a natural climax. Soil and
vegetation constitute a natural barrier to extension southward. In
summary, it can be concluded that the distribution of red pine in
lower Michigan is limited primarily by climate, and Secondarily by
edaphic conditions.

The natural range refers to areas where a species can hold its

54
own in plant competition and complete a full life cycle. The most
critical period of this cycle is seed germination and the establish-
ment of the seedling in the first years after emergence. As this
stage is passed over in plantations where healthy seedlings are
planted on cleared planting sites, this explains why plantations of
red pine have shown good growth far south of the natural range (personal
observation ianest Virginia).

It was not clear whether growth of plantations would be stimulated
south of the natural range because of the longer growing season with
higher temperatures and rainfall, or whether the climate would act
adversely and make the species less adaptable.

It was felt that low adaptability to a site because of climate
conditions would show itself by high mortality on a planting site during
the first fifteen years of growth, and this would exclude stands auto-
matically from this study. Comparing healthy stands in northern and
southern Lower Michigan on very similar sites, growth rates were found
to be about the same, although it was difficult to separate the factor
”latitude” from.the factor ”soil" in this comparison. Similar growth
rates on similar soils at different latitudes could be explained by
observing that the longer growing season does not necessarily lead to
a longer growth period, the latter period being rather specific for
the species.

As to the effect of climate on.growth of the red pine tree, Horn
(1951) studied eight plantations fifteen to twenty-five years old in

Upper Michigan.over an eight year period. Height increment of trees

55
growing on poorly drained sites was positively correlated with the
precipitation over the previous year, whereas well-drained sites
showed a correlation of height increment and the rainfall during the
same year's growing season. Only the excessively-drained plots showed
a significant positive correlation of height increment with average
temperature and percentage of cloud cover during the same year's grow-
ing season.

Dils and Day (1952) found that radial growth of red pine in an
Upper Michigan plantation responded immediately to periods of increased
precipitation especially after dry spells, whereas temperature influenced
growth mainly through its effect on the start of the growing season.

These effects are different from year to year and somewhat from
region to region, but would even out over a large number of years, and
when identical plantations are compared within a limited geographical
area. They indicate the predominating effect of the moisture factor
in determining growth, either terminal or radial. If this statement
is placed in connection.with previous observations on the climatic
factors that limit the natural range of red pine, the suggestion arises
that the apparent effect of temperature is really one of effective rain-
fall on the west, such as may be expressed in Meyer's NSuquotient or

Thornthwaite's evapo-transpiration index.

ad. III e. The altitudinal ranges of plantation sites in Lower
IMichigan were roughly between five hundred and fifteen hundred feet. The
altitude effects the length of growing season, average winter season

‘temperature and annual rainfall. The greatest effect is found in

56
northern Lower Michigan well within the natural range of red pine.

The only factor thought to be of some importance is growing
season, which lasts ninety days in the central ”Northern Highland" in
Roscommon County, as contrasted with one hundred and seventy days in
some sampling locations in the ”Southern Upland”. At the northern edges
of the natural range, the growing season may be less than sixty days
(Rudolf 1957). Cheo (1946) in Minnesota and Cook (1941) in New York
observed that terminal growth of red pine lasted for fifty days between
the end of May and mid-July. Observations of stands in Roscommon
County (Plots 100 and 101) disclaim the importance of length of growing

season as a limiting factor.

57

Ground Vegetation as a Site Indicator

Since the pioneering work of Cajander in the natural conifer
forests of Scandanavia, forest ecologists have attempted to character-
ize forest stands by the composition of their lesser vegetation (M.
Westveld 1954).

Character species are those plants which are to a high degree ex~
clusive to a particular vegetation type and to a certain set of site
conditions. The other species making up the vegetation would be called
indifferents.

(As site conditions change, vegetations change through a series
of succession stages,ifuninterrupted, towards a climax. The climax is
the most balanced vegetation type, usually connected with a stable stage
in soil development, and characteristic for the dominant environmental
factors. Forest vegetations are an advanced stage in the succession,
or else the climax vegetation type.

The red pine community is considered by some as an edaphic climax
with no stage to follow (Grant 1934, Kettredge 1934), by others as a
stage in the succession towards a climax vegetation of mixed hardwoods.
Still others have found the absence of natural reproduction, even on
typical red pine sites, an indication that the type is a remnant of
vegetation of a colder drier climatic era, now on its way out.

In this study, it became clear that red pine plantations did not
have a ground vegetation at all, or one that was not characteristic
for such plantations but more so for the previous or adjacent vegeta-

tive cover type. This was to be expected as red pine was planted on

58
many locations which naturally would never carry red pine. Even on
sites typical for virgin red pine, the original surface soil often had
been disturbed or burned sufficiently to destroy original ground vege~
tation. The thirty or forty year period of establishment of a planta-
tion was too short to give the lesser vegetation a chance to invade, or
else it would not thrive because of insufficient light. 'With sufficient
light, the first species to enter were those of the surrounding fields
and forests.

In southern Michigan and elsewhere on the non-typical red pine
sites these species would be seedlings of hardwoods and shrubs, a variety
of ubiquitous herbs and mosses of the genera Hzpnum and Pleurozium. In
In the characteristic red pine terrain, persistent species such as
Pteridium aguilina and Comptonia peregrina were among the first to invade.

Vacciniunggggstifolium and !, myrtilloides, Gaultheria procumbens,

 

Lonicera dioica and Oryzopsis puggens were rather good character species
for older plantations growing on the ”virgin red pine” lands.

For a more complete picture of the mature ground vegetation under
red pine, natural second growth stands showed constant species which
seemed characteristic for the forest type: 45§22£_macrophyllum,

Clintonia borealis, Maianthemum canadense, Solidag§_rugosa. Constant

 

but not characteristic shrubs were Cornus stolonifera, Rhus typhina and
Hamamelis virginiana.
Special notice was given to variations of ground cover within

stands. Pteridium acquilina was absent on the rather undifferentiated

 

Grayling sand, but appeared as soon as there was evidence of a slight

 

59
B horizon, given sufficient light. Kalmia angustifolia dominated the
vegetation near red pine on the Au Gres sand but it was evident that
the planted red pine had only survived where there were openings in
the intolerant Kalmia ground cover; under the red pine proper Pteridium
and Vaccinium and some Comptonia would dominate.

In summarizing observations on all stands, it was evident that
the adjacent vegetation had a decisive effect on the plant species which
would invade a plantation eventually. However, due to youth and degree
of stocking, the majority of plantings had no ground.cover whatsoever,
except for some Bryophytes with low light requirements. Therefore, no

attempt was made to characterize forest sites by their ground flora.

ANALYSIS OF DATA

In plantations which answered the requirements as outlined in the

preceeding chapter, one hundred and twenty plots were sampled. Their

location in Lower Michigan is outlined on Figure 1. In addition there

were four plots in natural red pine stands.

From data collected in each sample plot the following calculations

were made for each plot (Bruce and Schumacker 1950):

a.

0.

Number of stems per acre N from.10.n in which n was the total number
of trees on a one-tenth acre plot. For different sized plots,
another appropriate factor had to be substituted for 10.

Mean tree height from iii-l when 2h was the sum of the total heights
of all trees in a sample and n the sample size.

Mean height of dominant trees from; éfiZfi ‘when hd was the sum of
total height of all dominants, and ma was the number of dominants.

 

 

Méan diameter fIOHI%L::%;J£E—— in which d represented the diameter
at breast height outside bark of individual trees, and n the sample.
Basal area in square feet per acre from BA - 0.05454 xéd2 x g-
or from EA - 0.05454 DZN in which £612 is the sum of squares of
diameters of all trees in a sample, D the mean stand diameter, n the
number of trees in a sample, N the number of trees per acre.

Total cubic foot volume per acre from the simplified formula
suggested by Eyre and Zehngraff (1955) for the individual tree:

V'- 0.42 Bh in which V - the peeled cubic-foot volume. 0.42

represents the form factor for trees above thirty feet high. An

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

-
’a‘l‘~d;-\

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

   

 

 

 

 

 

 

x I
I 1‘ 0:4!
'8
H
I
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K
it
I34
I T
I
37.” v ""3.
OI’QOJQO~OOiOO an». a... J‘- ..__l— u an-o'JL—u

 

FIGURE 1: Geographic Location of Sample Plots in Red Pine Plant-
ations in Lower Michigan.
Numbers in Each County Correspond with those of Sample
Plots Listed in Appendix 1, Table A. Broken Line is the
Approximate Southaea Boundary of the Natural Range of
Red Pine in Lower Michigan.

62
appropriate correction is made for trees below thirty feet as
they have a higher form factor. Per acre volume was computed
from (0.42 Bh)N.

g. Cordwood volume per acre from the appropriate table in Eyre and
Zehngraff (22, £15,) for a minimum top diameter of three inches.

h. Average growth increment per acre per year in cubic feet or
cords by dividing cubic~foot volume or cord volume by total age

of stand.

The data for all sample plots are listed in the Appendix (Table
A).

The next step in the analysis was to use the field measurements
as a basis for classifying the one hundred and twenty sample plots
according to site productivity of the soil series concerned. As was
stated in the introduction, height of the domdnant stand has been
assumed the only satisfactory measure of site quality. Average total
height of dominants was plotted against age from seed in a scatter
diagram (Figure 2). The separations of site classes in such a dia-
gram involved firstly the construction of site curves.

Site curves for red pine were developed for Minnesota by Brown
and Gevorkiantz (1934), and Eyre and Zehngraff (1948); and by Reed
(1926) and Bull (1931) for Connecticut and the New England area,
respectively. Spurr (1954) summarized data from over the entire
natural range of red pine and proposed a new set of curves.

Techniques have been developed for the construction of site

curves for yield table purposes (Bruce 1926, Reineke 1927, Meyer 1953).

 

 

- o
a
o , ' 0
,.
a
.-
a
o
1
r r
n
I i
.— '
a
F
a
-

 

55

 

be,
50
F ’t ,
1"
"I
II n
I .1
4° IK‘I’ , fl ‘
" r
‘1 ‘l t
I ‘ R“ I
I a
1‘ f. a:' A
~ .3 . ‘
a
... .. a * ‘
t :“u ' x
830, a x , I
V x ‘ I K
i , x
n x ' i
I
5 ‘xx 1' "n
z
d
x
3 a
A I
2.0- i
ll. 1 I
0‘ l
k
I x
g f
U
I
250'
(
II
I
10 20 4a A fa

Aer. mom 52:50 (WEAR-3)

FIGURE 2: Age and mean Dominant Height for Sample Plots in Red Pine
Plantations in Lower Michigan.

Prerequisites for site curve construction may be less exacting than

those for yield table preparation as the latter include a greater

number of measurements. A few essential criteria are listed below:

a.

C.

d.

8.

Sample plots should cover the whole range of age classes for
which the sample curves are designed, and needed to be evenly
distributed over this range. As in this study site index re-
ferred to height at age fifty, and stand identity was assumed
at age fifteen, the range lay principally between fifteen and
fifty years from seed. .
Sample plots should cover the range in site conditions of the
region concerned, and needed to be distributed so that each age
class is represented on a variety of sites.

Other factors were.nnre or less tacit assumptions, such as;
A sufficient number of plots was needed to ensure reliability of
the data. This depended on the range of site conditions, as the
number of age classes was fixed. Data from one hundred and twenty
plots were available for this final analysis.
In order to represent the tree population of each plot, it was
felt that a twenty-five per cent sample per one—tenth acre plot
was adequate.
Sound judgment in the choice of sample plots (as for uniformity,
non-environmental effects, degree of stocking) and sample trees

(crown position) was needed to avoid bias and extraneous variables.

within the age range from fifteen to fortynseven years represented

in the one hundred and eighteen sample plots, seven five-year age classes

 

65
were distinguished. For each age class number of plots, mean age, and
mean height were determined. The data were listed in Table IV and plotted
in Figure 4.1 From these data a guiding curve had to be constructed
which would be the mean site curve and which would serve as a guide for
the position and shape of other site curves.

At this point, the following observations could be made:

1. Sample plots were represented in each age class, but the distribu-
tion over different age classes was not uniform. However, most
plots fell in the center age classes and not towards one side.

2. Plots were sampled over the widest possible range of sites. As
height growth did not seem to decrease much within the fifty year
period, a rough check on uniform distribution of site classes
'within each age class was height-over-age ratio. The high values
of this ratio were in the age classes with the most plots, $35.
in the twenty-five to twenty-nine and thirty to thirty-four age
classes. Older age classes had ratios distinctly lower than might
be expected from the normal decrease in height growth with increas-

ing age 0

In spite of these deficiencies, the means of each age class, as
well as the mean of these means and the overall mean of all individual
plots could serve as points of a guiding curve.

Another point of the guiding curve was found from the average height

 

1Plots 83 and 84 were dropped from these calculations because of
their poor stand conditions.

66
TABLE IV

Sample Plot Data Classified by Age Classes, Average Ages,
Heights by Age Class, and for all Plots Combined

 

 

 

 

 

 

Site Class No. of Plots Mean Age Mean Height Height/Age
W
15 - 19 8 18.1 21.3 1.18
20 - 24 11 21.2 23.5 1.18
25 - 29 35 27.2 35.3 1.30
30 - 34 42 31.8 38.2 1.20
35 - 39 5 38.0 36.2 0.95
40 - 44 13 42.8 32.1 0.75
45 - 49 4 46.5 40.1 0.86
Ages of all plots totalled 3598 Mean age 3598 _ 30.5
118
40269
Heights of all plots totalled 40269 Mean height——IIg-- 34.1
Height/age ratio - 1.11
Combined 6
Mean ages of 7 age classes totalled 225.6 Mean age 22%;..- 32.2

Combined 227.6
Mean heights of 7 age classes totalled 227.6 Mean height 7 ' 32.5

Height/age ratio - 1.01

 

 

67
of stands at age fifteen. This figure was arrived at by considering
a large number of actual height growth curves of young plantations
including personal measurements of trees under a wide range of site
conditions, as well as data from other sources. Height data varied
between eight and eighteen feet, so that thirteen feet was assumed a
reasonable estimate for the height of the guiding curve at age fifteen.

The free hand curve through these points closely resembled a
semi-logarithmic relation, as earlier proposed for red pine in the
Lake States by Brown and Gevorkiantz (1934). On this basis, the
straight guiding curve was drawn from the assumed origin at age
fifteen years (age 15.0, height 13.0) approximately through the combined
mean (age 32.2, height 32.5) as computed above and was made to inter-
sect the fifty year age line at a height of forty-five feet.

The guiding curve thus designed served as a basis for other
site curves. The number of these was determined by a proportional
subdivision of the range in site indices at age fifty into ten feet
classes. Traditional practice has found five site classes adequate
and efficient, so that there would be four site curves to separate
the classes. In the anamorphic method of site curve construction, it
is assumed that the shape of all site curve is identical to that of
the guiding curve. As the guiding curve was assumed as the mean site
curve for all sample plots, it was made the center of the middle site
class (III) with limits between site indices of forty feet and fifty
feet at a stand age of fifty years. On a proportional basis, it

followed that site class IV fell between site indices fifty and sixty,

68
and site class II between site indices thirty and forty. Site classes
V and I would include any growth curves showing site indices above sixty
and below thirty respectively. (See Figure 3 and Figure 4)1

The principle of proportionality was also applied to the assumed
origin of these partial site curves at age fifteen by placing the ori-
gins of each of the four site curves at distances from the guiding
curve proportional to those on the age fifty line. In order to delin-
eate the lowest and highest site class, auxiliary curves were added
below site class I and above site class V, called lower and upper mar-
gin curves. Individual plots in the scatter diagram which fell in
either of these classes could then be given a site index value rela-
tive to the adjoining site curve.

Table V shows the position of the curves in figures.

The logarithmic age scale obviously necessitated cutting off the
site curves at the age fifteen line, as the actual growth curve would
turn towards the zero point near or below this point, rather than con-
tinue downward toward the abscissa as would be the case with the loga-

rithmic curve.

 

1As suggested by Bates (1918), the order of site curves may not
necessarily follow the conventional procedure of calling the best sites
I and the poorest some higher numeral, depending on the number of site
classes distinguished. It was felt that the poorest plots in this study
represented the lowest possible site quality for red pine. .As there
would be no lower site class, the site class of the poorest plots could
be called class I. Plots with higher site qualities would thus fall in
higher classes. But by having the best growing of the available plots
fall in class V, it was recognized that the maximum growth rate of red
pine was as yet unknown. ‘With improved management techniques and silvi-
cultural practices, site classes with higher numerals for higher producing
sites might be added conveniently above site class V.

70

E

3'

ma unorrr or oounuurs (FEET)
6

 

 

:3 in :‘o in to
A6! non suo (YEAH-5)

FIGURE 5: Anamorphic Sit. Curva- for Planted Red Pin. in Lower
liohigan (uni-logarithmic, coal.)

69

70

 

- a p a h a h

n _u m w w u m
Cunt 3.25.23 ...o .23.“: .2“:

 

AGE FROM ssco (yuns)

FIGURE J: Anamorphic Sitc Curvcc for Planted Rod Pin- in chcr

lichigan (Proportional ocala).

71
TABLE V

Coordinates of Anamorphic Site Curves and Their
Tangents in the Steepest Section

 

 

Tangent of site

Height on the curve
curve between age

 

 

 

 

 

 

At agg_15 At age 50 15 and age_22==
Guiding curve III 13.0 45 1.50
Upper margin curve (V-VI) 20.1 70 2.40
Site curve (IV-V) 17.3 60 2.04
Site curve (III-IV) 14.4 50 1.72
Site curve (II-III) 11.6 40 1.34
Site curve (I-II) 8.7 30 1.02
lower margin curve (O-I) 5.8 20 0.66

 

 

The adequacy of this method of site classification could be tested
further by superimposing the site Curves on the height-age scatter dia-
grams for all the sample plots (Figure 2). It appeared that five ten-
foot site classes covered the entire range of plot data, with the plots
with lowest site quality being in site class I and the best plots being
in site class V.

The site index of any plot in the diagram could now be determined
by computing its position in the site class relative to the lower site
curve in that class. This ratio or percentage would also apply to its
position in this site class at age fifty, where it could be expressed
as the site index for that plot in terms of feet.

In order that plots falling in site class I might be marked by a

72
decimal site index with respect to an adjoining differentiating site
curve, it was assumed that site class I was limited by a lower margin
site curve at proportional distance from the lower site curve, crossing
the age fifty line at twenty feet. All plots in site class I could thus
be referred to with reference to this auxiliary site curve. A similar
procedure applied to the upper margin site curve. ‘A summary of the site
index values of the individual plots arrived at in this fashion is shown

in the Appendix (Table B).

The conventional method of anamorphic site curve construction as
outlined above assumed site curves for all site classes to have the same
general shape. The validity of this concept has been questioned by
Bull (1931) and Spurr (1954). These authors discussed the errors in-
volved in the use of the conventional site curves. Carmean (1956) gave
a recent example of their limitations for Douglas fir in southwestern
washington.

Using actual growth data in very young red pine plantations in
New England, Bull showed that conventional site curves estimated site
indices too high for the best stands, and too low for the poor ones.

He showed the inadequacy of anamorphic curves by the observation that
the highest growth rate happened at a lower age in good stands than in
poor ones. He constructed so-called ”polymorphic” growth curves which
indicated more accurately the course of actual height growth in differ-
ent site classes.

Spurr (92, cit.) listed the errors involved in the construction

73
of site curves, which eventually lead to erroneous estimates of site
indices. For red pine, specifically, he observed a great deal of
siudlarity in shape of growth curves from a.wide range of locations
and site conditions.

In order to test the original hypothesis of anamorphosis as
applied in the preceeding pages, height growth curves were determined
from actual measurements on a number of plantations in Lower Michigan.

Plots sampled are listed in Table VI. The plot with rank number
5 was measured apart from any established sample plot. Numbers 18-20
'were sampled by Mr. W. Lemmien, forester in charge of Kellogg Forest,
Augusta, Michigan, in permanent sample plots in that experimental
forest. Numbers 3, 8, and 9 were measured by Mr. M.‘W. Day, forester
in charge of the Dunbar Forest Experiment Station, Saint Sault Marie,
Michigan.

Two natural stands, one in Crawford County and one in Missaukee
County, were included as well, in order to have some reference to growth
of red pine from natural reproduction. The Crawford County plot was
described under Plot numbers 100 and 101. The Missaukee stand was
located in Section 5 (N 1/2, SE 1/4) of T24N RSV, on the southbank of
Grass Lake.

Trees in the dominant crown class in sample plots of the oldest
available plantations on the widest possible range of soil conditions
were selected. The five trees which.were chosen in each plantation had
to be dominants or co-dominants showing no sign of growth interference,

either by surrounding stems or by injury from insects or diseases; on

 

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78
the other hand, they had to be representative for the dimensions of
the average dominant tree in the stand, as for height and diameter.
Although in each case the age of the stand was known from planting
records, borings were made at breast height in each tree to determine
the age at that height from ring counts. Then, on the assumption
that each year of growth had produced one lateral shoot, the number
of whorls of branches was counted on each tree, starting from the
last top whorl and downward to breast height. This was done either
on a standing tree, or by felling the tree and measuring it subse-
quently on the ground. The whorl count served as a check on the age
determined at breast height. Next, for each tree concerned, the tree
height up to the top whorl was measured with the Haga altimeter.
Heights were also determined of every fifth whorl from the top whorl
downward to the whorl nearest above breast height. In this way, the
periodic height growth for every five-year period was determined.

The portion of the tree up to breast height represented growth over
the time period between total tree age (from plantation records) and
age at breast height. From the data thus collected, growth curves
were drawn for each separate tree. For each set of curves, an average
curve was determined which was considered the characteristic growth
curve for that particular sample plot. The individual sets of curves
have not been reproduced but were represented by mean curves for each
set (Figures 5 - 8).

Mean curves for each set of curves from a certain sample plot

‘were constructed as follows: the mean height for all trees in the

nun flEIeuT or 122:: (net)

6c

V

‘05 P

on Mo

K!

20"

IO

 

 

to i. :37 43 to
A6: mm mo (yum)

FIGURE 5: loan Eeight Growth Curves for Planted Red Pine on
Different Soil Types in.Michigan.
Symbols correspond.vith those on Table VI.

79

MEAN HEIGHT or mm (rm)

 

 

 

so L
40'
3o,
20-
IO -
’A
Ml.
It
to 2o i0 40

Act FROM SEED (yams)

FIGURE 6: lean Height Growth Curves for Planted Red Pine on
Different Soil Types in Michigan.
Symbols correspond with those on Table VI.

80

HEAR HEIGHT 0f TREES (FEET)

81

Ger

6'0-

 

 

. L . _4

I; 2e 30 4° to
As: new sun (nus)

FIGURE 7: loan Height Growth Curves for Planted and Natural Grown
Red Pine on Different Boil Types in Michigan.
Symbols correspond with those in Table VI.

an" HE‘GHT or mass (r357)

60

5O

20-

82

 

 

a A a a

 

lb no So 4o 50
Act: mom sszo (ytARs)

FIGURE 8: Keen Height Growth Curves for Planted and Natural Grown
Red Pine on Different Soil Types in Michigan.
Symbols correspond with those on Table VI.

83
year in which all the growth curves had assumed an upward course was
assumed the zero point for the mean curve. This usually took place
at age eight to twelve years but in some cases was at age twenty. The
first steep section of the curves coincided as a rule with the maximum
tangent of the growth curve. The other point of the mean curve was
taken as the mean height in the year in which the growth curve showed
a bend for all individual curves. Another mean curve was then deter-
mined for the next more or less straight portion of the combined growth
curves. If the group of growth curves showed no common curvature at
some point during the age period covered by measurements, only one mean
curve would be designed.

The sections of each mean curve were then expressed by linear
equations in mean height (y) and age (x), (Table VI). These linear
equations of the kind y - b + ax ‘were valid only for the age ranges
between.which they were originally constructed, as indicated behind
the bracket sign. The 'a' designated the tangent of the line, 'b' was
the intercept with the ordinate carrying a negative sign if below the
abcissa.

In analyzing this set of growth curves it was apparent that the
tangents of the curves (or of their steepest portion, if a curvature
occurred at higher age) covered a wide range. The lowest tangent ob-
served was 0.81, and the highest 2.12, which represented a factor of
over two and one-half as to range in growth rates.

As for the shape of the curves, they had in common the section

of slow growth beyond the seedling stage, and a section of linear

growth up to age twenty-five or beyond that. Several curves showed
a slight curvature which was similar in shape, except on the Kendal-
ville site.

From the variability in tangents and the similarity in shape of
the growth curves on hand it was concluded that the position of a
point in the height/age scatter diagram in a certain site class was
mostly determined by the tangent of the steepest section of that curve,
or in other words, by the tree's optimal growth rate.

In order that growth curves for individual plots might be com-
pared on this criterion, they were drawn in Figure 9 with the linear
curve section extended to the abcissa, and with all these intercepts
with the abcissa combined to a common origin.

At this stage the anamorphic site curves could be replaced by
curves based on actual field measurements, and thereby improve the
accuracy of estimate of site quality of individual plantations. The
procedure of construction was as follows:

The curves with the lowest and highest tangents in Figure 9
were believed to be a reasonable approximation of the lowest and
highest growth rates to be expected in Michigan red pine plantations.
These values (0.81 and 2212) were therefore assumed as the center
lines for the lowest and highest site class,respectively. .As again
five classes were separated, the center lines for the other three
site classes were assumed at tangent values proportionally distributed
between the two extreme tangents. The values for the tangents for the

individual site curves thus composed were listed in Table VII.

Ann HBIGflT or TREES User)

85

 

 

6° s
so .
co
co“ .K
M 'Afl
A ’ .V
M 3
49 p K 0.0 e .R"
e .14
on J
.M
30 i '3‘ g“ 0n
.n. a
20 '
10 r
A L L :1 J
to 10 3c 40

WARS PAST Lowuz sun or STEEPEST Twomr an exam" (URVE

FIGURE 9: Range and Magnitude of Tangents on Maximal Growth Rate Section
of Mean Growth Curves ch Planted.and Natural Grown Red Pine
on Fifteen Different Soil Types in Michigan.
Symbols correspond with those on Table VI

86
TABLE VII

Tangents for Steepest Section of Polymorphic Site Class
Differentiating Curves and Their Coordinates at Two Different Ages

 

 

Height of curve

 

 

 

 

Tangent at age 15 at age 50
Upper margin curve (V-VI) 2.29 18.1 80
Site curve IVHV 1.96 15.4 70
Site curve III-IV 1.63 12.7 60
Site curve II-III 1.30 10.0 50
Site curve I-II 0.96 7.3 40
Lower margin curve (B-I) 0.64 4.6 27

 

The shape of the site curves was mostly determined by the age at
which linear height growth began, and the age at which linearity ended
($35, where the second derivative of the growth rate became negative),
as well as by the nature of this curvature.

From Figures 5 ~ 8, it was concluded that as a medium value linear growth
had begun at age fifteen. In order to find the height of each site curve
at this age it was assumed that low heights at age fifteen would corre—
spond with low tangents, and the reverse. .A regression of height at
age fifteen against tangent of the site curve thus produced the follow-
ing equation: Height (at age 15) ' 8.17 (tangent) - 0.62. Using the
tangent values from Table VII the height of each growth curve at age
fifteen could be computed, as listed in Table VII, second column.

The height of the site curves at age fifty was determined by the

87
amount of curvature in each line. From the field data shown in Table V
it appeared that stands with low growth rates showed linear growth until
near the age of fifty. Stands with higher growth rates showed a tend-
ency to curvature at ages between twenty-five and thirty-five years.
This general trend was indicated in the constructed growth curves by
bending the highest site curve at age twenty-five and every lower site
curve a similarly shaped bend, but at increasingly higher ages, moving
up five years for each site curve. The shape of curvature was adapted
from that observed in the curved growth curves as measured in the plan-
tation sample plots.

The site curves thus consisted of a computed linear section and a
free-hand curved section.which crossed the age fifty line at heights
indicated in Table VII.

As a further check on the general shape of the polymorphic curves
thus constructed were used the mean growth curves of trees in two natural
red pine stands in Crawford and Missaukee Counties. These curves and
their linear equations were included in Figures 7 - 8 and Table VI.

The site curves thus constructed were of a polymorphic type (Figure
10), as the shapes of the curves were not identical but changed somewhat
from.one site class to the next.

Site indices for individual plantations were determined by the posi-
tion of a point in the height/age scatter diagram relative to the adja-
cent site curves. This relative position could be expressed as a relative
value, similar to the procedure for anamorphic site curves. This per—

centage value could be interpolated between the same site curves of the

6oL

AEAN Httsfl‘r or Dcnman‘rs (FEET)
'3

 

 

 

{I in 4b
Aer: raoM sup (yams)

FIGURE 10: Polymorphic Site Curves for Planted Red Pine in
Lower Michigan.

88

89
age fifty line, and converted to a numerical value which then expressed
the site index of the sample plots in terms of feet of height at that
age.

Site indices as determined with both anamorphic and polymorphic
site curves are listed by plot in the Appendix (Table B) and by age
class in the Appendix (Table C). This facilitated comparison of the
two methods. As judged from actual site index values, almost all
figures read from polymorphic curves exceeded those from anamorphic
curves, for some plots by as much as seventeen feet. As height values
for the latter site curves at age fifteen.were more than for comparable
polymorphic curves, this deviation was due solely to the higher tangents
of polymorphic curves. This made comparable site curves ten feet higher
at age fifty if site curves were constructed from actual height growth
measurements rather than as arbitrarily shaped curves based on the means
of age-classes.

The accuracy of either set of curves was tested by selecting about
twenty-one plots on an identical soil series (i333 Rubicon sand) and
plotting mean height against age. The curve thus obtained was super-
imposed on the sets of site curves. It follows the boundary between
site class III and IV of the polymorphic curve up to about thirty years
then bends more sharply than that curve. Its shape, however, is more
similar to the polymorphic curves than.the anamorphic curves.

Actually measured growth curves of red pine over a wide geographic
range, such as those plotted by Spurr (1955), would be a decisive test

for the reliability of the constructed polymorphic curves. The range

90
of heights from nine and one-half to fifteen feet at age fifteen from
seed which he recorded was transferred onto the polymorphic graph.

For the extremes the corresponding site indices were determined. The
ranges were from 48.1 to 68.5, whereas the range of Spurr's curves was
from 45.5 to 68.0 feet at age fifty years from seed.

From this discussion it can be concluded that several variables
affected shape and height of a growth curve and that it would be very
unlikely that one set of curves would cover all site conditions, such
as those found in plantations. However, the use of actual growth
curves would seem to be preferable to curves based on means of a large
population of sites from unknown soils.

The errors involved in the use of any one set of site curves for
a tree species, however adapted to regional conditions, for a wide
range in sites may be further demonstrated by Figures 5 — 8. Red pine
showed a longer period of initial slow growth on certain uncultivated
sites than on sites previously cultivated. Consequently, the period
of maximum height growth started also at a later time and tree height
at age fifty would be less than the site index of trees with similar
maximum growth rates on cultivated sites. ‘When the growth curves for
trees on uncultivated sites were superimposed on the polymorphic
curves, it was found that the curve for Grayling sand fitted the
pattern quite well, but that those for the Rousseau and Au Gres soils
cut through several polymorphic site classes. This error was caused
by the assumption that trees with very slow initial growth had slow

maximal growth rates. This happened to be true for Grayling sand,

91
but not for other soils. Only a special set of site curves for uncul-
tivated sites would serve stands on these sites adequately.

A more intangible error in the use of a single set of curves was
the variability in curvature at the upper end of the growth curve. On
many sites red pine growth curves were shaped similarly during the
period of establishment and the subsequent period of maximal growth.
The decrease in height growth in later years, however, started at a
different age and had a different magnitude for different sites.
Especially sharp curvatures were found in the growth curves for the
Kendalville, and Miami series. The growth curve measurements for
stands on these soils were collected in southern Lower Michigan, and
the soils had certain characteristics in common. Site productivity
for these sites could be evaluated adequately only if a special set
of site curves was designed.

Besides the extreme cases mentioned above, in the group of growth
curves with tangents similar between ages fifteen and twenty, there was
variability in the age and rate at which decrease in height growth would
occur higher on the curve. The line equations on Table VI indicated
that this curvature would start before age twenty-five in stands on
Kalkaska, Mancelona and Rubicon soils; but on Fox, Iosco, Rousseau and
wainola soils curvature started at a later date. However, the vari-
ability between the growth curves on all these sites was not great and
curvature occurred generally between fifteen and twenty years after the
period of maximal height growth started.

This discussion exposed a number of sources of variability between

92
the shape of growth curves on different sites. Essentially three
groups of curves could be recognized:

a. Curves with a flat portion during the period of establishment
for eight to twelve years, followed by a steep portion during
the period of maximal height growth up to between fifteen and
twenty years past the upturn; after which there was a period
of height increase at a decreasing rate, similar to that found
in the curvature of growth curves for natural stands.

b. Curves with.a flat portion during the period of establishment
of between fifteen and twenty years, but otherwise similar to
those under 'a'.

c. Curves similar to those under 'a' but with an upper curvature
which is distinctly sharper; 132, height increase decreases at

a faster rate than under 'a' beyond the point of curvature.

Apparently the variability of growth curves lay in the period of
establishment and the period of decreasing height growth. The only
uniform component was the period of maximal height growth. To employ
maximal growth rate as the basic differentiating characteristic between
site curves seems therefore justified. However, maximal growth rate
alone does not determine site quality as expressed by height at a cer-
tain age and this is the best measure of site productivity.

The polymorphic site curves as constructed can thus be used with-
out modification for estimation of site indices in red pine plantations
with growth curves as described above under 'a'. Plantations on non-

cultivated sites with curves as described under 'b' can be evaluated

93
with the same polymorphic curves only if a slow initial growth is
associated with a low maximal growth rate. There is no way to eval-
uate plantings with height growth curves as described under 'c' with
the present polymorphic curves. Sites with growth curves showing
distinct deviation from the normal curve shape at the upper end are
considered more closely in the next chapter. It can be stated now
that growth stagnation in older plantations appeared to be associated
with certain soil characteristics. The ensuing discussion of single-
variable soil-growth relationships will evaluate these characteristics.
They will have to be judged from site to site as to their effect on
tree growth. The number of plots in.which these growth-stagnating
factors occurred was too small, and stand ages too low to develop
adequate sets of site curves for the sites concerned.

On the basis of the field data on hand and for the purpose of
this study, the set of polymorphic curves constructed for site condi-
tions in Lower Michigan was believed to approximate most closely the
actual observations made on particular sites. It was felt that it
could be used as a frame of reference in evaluating soils with widely
varying site qualities and for estimating site quality in terms of
site index with a high degree of reliability. It is evident that
estimates of site index will be more accurate for plantations near
fifty years old than for young stands.

A summary of the mean site index of the various soils studied

herein is given in Table VIII.

94

TABLE VIII

Mean Site Indices for Planted Red Pine on Lower Michigan Soil Series1

 

 

Moderately well Poorly

 

 

 

 

 

 

Soil Textures of
the Root Zone well Drained to Imperfectly Drained
Drained
silty clay loam 58.3 Miami 61.9 Thackeray
clay loam 49.8 Morley
16am
silt loam
loamy fine sand 69.2 Oshtemo
sandy loam 64.9 Hillsdale
61.5 Fox-Boyer 63.7 Bruce
7 52.8 Kendalville
sand over clay 74.1 Menominee 74.1 Arenac
73.6 Melita 68.0 Iosco
loamy sand 60.8 t 5.1 Mancelona
58.9 t 6.6 Montcalm
57.5 Leelanan
55.5 Sparta
54.8 Karlin
fine sand 67.8 Rousseau(cultivated)2 58 1 W inola
46.1 Rousseau(Uncultivated) . a
sand 72.7‘Wa11ace
62.4 t 8.0 Kalkaska 64.8 Croswell(cultivated)
59.7 t 6.7 Rubicon '
56.4 t 7.1 G 1 46.5 Au Gres
35 8 t 4 5 G::§::AT 44.7 Croswell(uncultivated)

 

 

L

 

 

 

 

1
Standard deviations from mean only for soils With five or more plots

Land was farmed previous to forestation

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Single-Variable Soil—Growth Relationships

In this survey of red pine plantations, a wide variety of soil
conditions was encountered. It was the thesis of this study that soil
characteristics are the most important single group of site variables
responsible for differences in the productive capacity of a site for
red pine. Other site factors affecting site quality as expressed by
height growth that varied in this study were evaluated in a previous
chapter.

The variation in site quality from one soil series to another
was listed in Table VIII. The differences in number of plots for
different soil series might make a comparison between series some~
what unreliable. The trend in change from series to series within
the classification system.outlined therefore was considered more
important than the numerical differences between series except where
sample size was large, or identical for different series, or where
plots were directly adjacent in the same plantation. Where on the
basis of these prerequisites a more exact numerical comparison between
sites was feasible, growth differences could often be correlated with
changes in single soil characteristics. In this chapter, these single-
variable soil-growth relationships are discussed.

The following soil characteristics were considered:

a. 5011 texture

b. Presence of plow layer

c. Degree of podzolization and presence of textural bands

96
d. Available soil moisture
e. Drainage and slope
f. Soil depth
g. Gravel content
h. Soil acidity and free carbonates
i. Soil fertility

j. Mycorrhiza

3g;_§, The relationship between soil profile texture and site
index has been roughly outlined in Table VIII. From this, it was
apparent that site indices showed only small variation over a wide
range of moderately coarse to fine soil profile textures, but there
‘was a great deal of variation.between soil series witnathe coarser
texture groups.

A difficulty lay in separation of several factors that could be
responsible for this latter variation. Within the sandy soil series,
there were changes in the distribution of sand fractions, depth to
finer textured materials, degree of podzolization and presence of plow
layer.

The marked difference in site index between the Grayling and
Rubicon series involved the last two variables and possibly the first
one, but as all Grayling plots occurred on.virgin land and all Rubicon
plots on old fields, the variations due to the presence of plow layer
could not be evaluated properly from these studies. The variation in

site quality associated with the degree of podzolization was very marked

97
in the absence of textural bands within five and one-half feet of

the surface.

g§;_§$ As for the effect of plow layer on tree growth, all
that could be said was that red pine on land which.was never culti-
vated, including stands on Grayling, Croswell, Au Gres sands and on
Rousseau fine sand, showed a marked period of slow growth during the
seedling stage. This period varied between twelve and twenty years,
in contrast to only eight to twelve years on cultivated land (Figures
5 - 8). The longer period of slow early growth caused the height at
age fifty of trees on Grayling sand to be six feet lower than when
the upward trend of the growth curve was assumed to start at age
eight or ten years, as with growth curves for trees on cultivated
sites. Fer the Au Gres plot, this would make a difference of about
twelve feet at age fifty, or a difference of more than one whole site
class. This difference between previously cultivated and uncultivated
plots may therefore, on further study, be found to account for this
difference.

Better evidence of the effect of the plow layer was found for a
number of plots on Croswell sand and Rousseau fine sand. Of the two
plantations on Croswell sand, Plot 121 occurred on virgin land and had
a site index of 44.7 feet. Plot 55 was planted on abandoned farmland,
had a plow layer of six inches in depth and measured a site index of
64.8 feet. Ages of these plots were forty-three and thirty years,
respectively. 0f the five plots found on Rousseau fine sand, two were

on virgin land. The mean site index for these judged at age forty-five

98
was 46.1 feet. For the plots on old farmland, the mean site index
was 67.8 feet.

It could be concluded that the growth on old farmland over the
same length of time was much greater than on cut-over timber land; in
both cases a difference of two site classes. As the tangent for the
growth curve was much steeper for these soil series than for Au Gres
and Grayling, the difference in site quality could again be explained
by the long delay in growth at an early age on these virgin sites.

The causal relation of growth and presence of plow layer might
be one of improved physical condition, such as uniform texture,
structure and organic matter content in the surface six or nine inches
of the soil profile. This would ensure a higher and more even mois-
ture distribution and better temperature insulation during the critical
seedling stage.

As has also been stated elsewhere, the presence of a plow layer
did not have a permanent effect on rate of growth beyond the period
of slow early growth. This was suggested by the parallel course of
the growth curves of Rousseau fine sand and Hainola fine sand in
Figures 7 and 8.

The plot on the Rubicon-Montcalm intergrade listed in Figure 8
and Table VI as Graycalm.GC for which a growth curve was determined
showed also a period of slow early growth, even although a plow layer
was found. The growth stagnation could, however, still be associated
with this factor, as cultivation reportedly had only lasted a few years

and it had apparently not had the beneficial effect as on lands which

were farmed for a good many years. The duration or quality of the
tillage and fertilizer practices may therefore also be important.
It was found that the growth curve for this plot eventually showed
the same tangent as those on old farmland elsewhere, so that the

growth rate was not permanently affected.

§g&_gf As was said, degree of podzolization was another possible
factor responsible for the difference in site quality between Grayling
and Rubicon sands. This factor, too, had to be evaluated on other
soils. The sequence RubiconeKalkaskaewallace was taken as the example,
but as only two young plantations were available on'Wallace sand, only

young stands for the three soils were compared (Table IX).

TABLE IX

Effect of Degree of Podzolization in Sandy Soils on the
Growth of Planted Red.Pine in Lower Michigan

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

f: .
Degree of Soil No. of Mean Mean No. of Mean Mean
Podzolization Series Plots Age Site Plots Age Site
Index Index

==aaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaa!aaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaa==r

Minimal Rubicon 5 19 66.9 20 29 59.8
sand

Medial Kalkaska 3 20 67.5 8 26 62.4
sand

Maximal Wallace 2 19 72.7 2 19 72.7
sand

 

 

 

l
i
w

 

The maximal podzolized soil (wallace) had the highest site index
although the site curve probably overestimate this site index somewhat

due to the low stand ages. There was a trend towards an increase in

100
site quality with increased degree of podzolization. This trend was
also apparent when all plots on these three soils were included in the
comparison (see Table IX).

The causal relation of degree of podzolization to site quality
might be one of increase of moisture-holding capacity in the stronger
B horizon near which the lateral tree roots concentrate. Another sug-
gestion was given by Matelski and Turk (1947) who found that differences
in degree of podzolization in Michigan sands were partly related to
their mineralogical make-up. They found that stronger podzolized soils
had higher counts of heavy minerals, Grayling sand being particularly
poor in this respect.

From these observations a large portion of the twenty-two foot
difference in site index between Grayling and Rubicon sites could be
explained by the effect of the plow layer and the degree of podzoliza-
tion, and indirectly by differences in mineralogical composition and
inherent fertility. Chemical analyses of several profiles of Grayling
and Kalkaska sand indicated that the latter had only slightly higher
amounts of available phosphorus and potassium (personal communication
from J. Schickluna).

Even though both the Grayling and the Rubicon series were both
considered sands, the field survey also indicated minute textural changes
from Grayling to Rubicon. Both the Grayling and Rubicon series included
coarse and medium sands, but in almost all Rubicon profiles evidences
were found of more or less distinct but thin iron or textural bands,

one or more feet below the Podzol B horizon. These bands would vary

101
from faint discontinuous bands with the same texture and darker chroma
as the C horizon, to distinct continuous bands with loamy sand texture.
In a recent revision of the soil legend for Ionia County, Michigan,
these soils were described as the Graycalm series. Bands with a still
finer texture were usually associated with greater thickness and number
of individual bands, and would therefore change the character of the
soil so that a profile would be correlated as Montcalm loamy sand. A
problem of correlation lay within the Rubicon and Grayling series when
bands were inconspicuous in the auger hole, yet distinct in profile
cross-sections in those plantations where deep trenches were studied.

To evaluate the effect of variation in the presence and prominence
of textural bands, a forty-nine year old plantation in Crawford County
was surveyed in detail. For a proper comparison of height growth
throughout the stand, the 1956 measurements by the Lake States Forest
Experiment Station were used, and soil profiles were studied in all
permanent plots from which height data originated. The plots with the
lowest site index measured forty feet, whereas the highest site index
was forty—nine feet. The variation amounted to almost one full site
class (I - II to II - III). The poorest plot had a medium to coarse
sand surface soil and a subsoil of coarse sand with some gravel. High
site indices were found in plots with thick loamy sand to sandy loam
textural bands in the sandy matrix of the C horizon, below two or three
feet of depth. Profiles without distinct or only deep (over 42 inch
depth) textural bands and only faint color bands were correlated as

Graycalm sand, whereas those with distinct textural bands within 42 inch

102
of depth were called Montcalm loamy sand. Intermediate plots usually
had any variations from few and faint to many and distinct textural

bands in the subsoil.

TABLE X

Effect of Soil Texture on the Growth of
Planted Red Pine in Lower Michigan

 

 

 

 

. Mean Site
Soil Series No, of Plots - Mean Age Index
Rubicon sand 20 29 59.8
Graycalm.sand 6 ' 30 56.4
Montcalm sand or loamy sand 18 31 58.9

 

 

If from the sample plots on Rubicon sites those were selected
which show no evidences of color bands, and compared with those which
do show color bands and no or indistinct textural bands (Graycalm sand),
no difference in site index was found (see Table X). Nor was there a
difference between these with the mean site index of all plots on Ment-
calm loamy sand. In the light of the conclusions from observation in
Crawford County plantations, this would indicate that indistinct bands
of some nature were present within or beyond auger or trench depth in
all Rubicon sites sampled ($33, profiles subsequently described as Gray-
calm series), and that even these faint horizons had a marked effect
on site quality. The causal relationship between these bands may be
partly explained in the light of studies by wurman (1957) who found

that bands had higher clay content, higher free iron content, and

103
associated changes in physical and chemical properties from the
surrounding matrix. In this site study, bands were found to be
associated with moist soil layers, especially if the bands were com-

pacted.

5g,_g, The observations made thus far on the effect of a plow
layer, of a Podzol B horizon and of illuvial color and textural bands
in the subsoil, led to the belief that site quality of Michigan soils
was closely related to the presence and availability of soil moisture.

The only opportunity to study the effect of soil texture on site
quality of soils for red pine as a single variable, apart from degree
of podzolization or presence of plow layer, presented itself in two
adjacent sample plots located on Grayling sand and Rousseau fine sand.
Both plots occurred in the same forty-four year old plantation. The
trees were planted in cut-over timberland and showed an initial period
of slow growth as discussed previously for soils without plow layer.
Both soils were well-drained and were very weakly podzolized.

The stands measured fifteen feet difference in site index, and
the growth rate on the Rousseau site was about twice that on Grayling
sand. The causal relation of growth rate and soil characteristics
lay either in the texture or the mineral suite of the soil, as expressed
by some derived soil condition: amount of available soil water or amount
of available plant nutrients. The latter was not studied but was assumed
an insignificant factor in this instance where two plots were both on
glacial outwash sands and less than one hundred feet apart.

Therefore, much attention was given to the variation in soil texture.

104

The mechanical analyses of the sands are given in Table XI. The dis-
tinct difference between the profiles is the presence of high amounts
of fine and very fine sand throughout the Rousseau profile.

In order to evaluate the variation in available soil water
associated with this textural change, data were obtained on the mechan-
ical analyses and water retention curves of a large number of repre-
sentative Michigan soil series. These data were assembled by Dr..A. E.
Erickson and staff and were made available by him for analysis by the
author. Mechanical analyses employed the pipette method. Available
soil water was the water retained between a suction of 0.06 atmosphere
on the tension table and six atmospheres in the pressure membrane on
a volume basis ($39, between pF values of 1.7 and 4.2).

From these data, those profile horizons were selected which.were
analyzed texturedwise as being sands, excluding those horizons which
contained, or might contain, appreciable amounts of organic matter.

The horizons selected and their mechanical analyses are listed in the
Appendix Table D, arranged by soil series.

Fur each of the thirty-two horizons selected, percentages of

single and combined separates were plotted against amounts of avail-

able water. The regression equations and correlation coefficients

are listed in Table XII. The amount of available soil water in each
horizon was significantly correlated with the amount of fine sand and

very fine sand, separately or combined, and also with these sand
fractions in combination.with silt and clay. There was no relation
with silt and clay combined, probably because the amounts present were

very small. It was ascertained also that there existed no relation

105
TABLE XI

Mechanical Analyses of Grayling Sand and Rousseau Fine Sand
(as Percentages of Material 2 mm, ovendry basis)

Grayling Sand (Plot 119) S.I. - 29.6 Feet

 

 

 

 

 

_ _ - _ _______ Fragtios __________ _ -
Fine Coarse Medium Fine ~ Very fine silt +

Horizon. Depth gravel sand sand _sand sand clay

inches 2-1 mm 1-.5 mm .5-.25 .25-.10 .10-.05 .05 mm

mm mm mm
Al 0-3 1.3 39.9 38.6 14.3 2.9 2.9
321 3-6 1.7 48.6 36.2 10.9 1.2 1.3
B22 6-18 6.6 33.3 38.1 21.1 .5 .3
C1 18-30 2.6 63.8 26.5 6.7 .3 .1
c2 30—120 .5 34.8 51.8 12.1 .6 .1
Rousseau Fine Sand (Plot 119) S.I. - 46.1 Feet

A1 A2 0-3 .2 6.8 31.3 50.1 10.2 1.4
822 3-10 .2 6.5 29.0 50.9 10.5 2.9
83 10-22 .2 6.3 29.9 52.6 9.6 1.3
CI 22-46 .0 1.3 22.0 67.0 8.8 1.0
c2 46-90 .0 .1 1.9 55.3 37.2 5.5
0 90-150 .0 1.0 2.1 67.5 27.2 2.1

 

 

106

 

 

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107
between amounts of fine or very fine sand and the amounts of silt and
clay. Therefore, it could be concluded that in sands, available water
was most directly related to the fine sand fractions, especially the
very fine sand,

The regression equation with significant correlations between the
coordinates computed above were applied to the data from the mechanical
analyses of Grayling sand and Rousseau fine sand, and the values thus
obtained for available water were averaged. It was found that the
Grayling profiles on this basis would retain only 0.06 inch of'water
per inch of the C horizon, whereas the Rousseau profile would hold
0.18 inch per inch on the average for the entire C horizon to a depth
of ten feet.

This three-fold increase in available moisture was associated
with an increase in site index of ten feet and a two-fold increase in
maximum growth rate of red pine. It was not suggested that any linear
relationship existed between the amounts of any texture class and growth
rate, but it was observed in the field that spots with slight increases
in fineness of sand, as judged by feel, were always reflected in the
better growth of the red pine in those locations. Further field study
could well establish very exact relationships between soil texture and
growth rate.

It was noteworthy that the increase in available moisture increased
the maximum growth rate from 0.81 to 1.57 or nearly to a rate comparable
with that on many other well-drained sites, including podzolized and

medium-textured soils. The values for available moisture for the entire

108
range of Michigan soils, as sampled and analyzed by Erickson and staff,
range from 0.07 to 0.32 inch per inch, all horizons for each profile
averaged. Most soils, even including fine clays, had values below 0.23
inch per inch, or close to the figure to be expected from fine sands as
described above. The wide range in available soil moisture on the sandy
profiles, as compared.with the small range on the finer-textured soils,
may help to explain the small variability in site indices on the moder-
ately coarse to medium textured profiles, and the wide variability on

the sands.

gg;_gé If soil moisture is of importance in determining the site
productivity for red pine then depth of drainage in the soil profile as
well as topographic position of the stand would be associated with vari-
ation in site index.

Another soil variable the effect of which could be evaluated from
the data was depth of drainage and associated with it the topographic
position of a red pine stand. Drainage as related to topographic
position could be studied only on a small number of stands as plots
on sloping terrain generally were rejected in the field sampling be-
cause of associated soil variations. The following observations could
be made:

In the coarse sandy glacial outwash in Iosco County a profile mid-
way on a three hundred foot north slope was correlated as Grayling sand.
.At the foot of this slope was a Croswell sand which.was mottled at the
thirty-six inch depth under the influence of a perched water table at

the forty-eight inch depth. On this soil the site index of the forty-three

109
year old red pine was 44.7 feet, compared with a value of 30.7 on the
slope, a difference of one and one-half site classes.

In order to separate the effect of groundwater from that caused
by topographic position, another toposequence was studied on this same
slope, including one plot halfway up the slope and another at the foot,
also with deep drainage. The site index was 33.1 feet on the slope and
39.6 at the foot.

The causal relationship between topographic position and site quality
was apparently one of soil moisture: 'excessive' drainage on the slope,
and relative abundance of water at the foot which was accentuated when
groundwater was in reach of the tree roots. The toposequence in this

stand was summarized in Table XIII A.

TABLE XIII A

Effect of Slope Position on Growth of Planted
Red Pine in Lower Michigan

 

 

 

L j -

Mean Stems

 

 

 

 

No.of Site per Mean
Soil Series Slope Position Plots Index Acre D.B.H.
Grayling sand Middle slope, 15% north 2 31.5 950 4.7
Grayling sand Foot of slope, level 1 39.6 680 6.3
Croswell sand Foot of slope, 1% north 1 44.7 850 6.0

 

 

...

 

 

 

TABLE XIII B
Site Stems
Soil Series Slope Position Index per acre D.B.H.
Rubicon sand Upper slope, 10% SW 29.6 780 5.2

Rubicon sand Middle slope, 18% SW 35.1 1010 4.6

t-L— L
t t—

110

 

 

 

 

 

TABLE XIII C
. Mean Stems
No. of Site per Mean
Soil Series ' Slope Position Plots Index Acre D.B.H.
Oshtemo 51 Upper slope, 2 69.2 560 6.2
ZZ‘West
Oshtemo sl Upper middle slope, 2 p 70.9 540 6.4
15-201‘West
Oshtemo 31 Lower muddle slope, 4 72.9 480 7.4
5~10% west
Oshtemo sl Upper slope, 2 68.5 400 7.7
3~4Z west
Oshtemo s1 Upper middle slope, 1 73.2 320 8.6
15-201‘West
Oshtemo 31 Lower middle slope, 1 74.7 310 8.7

ZOZ‘West
===aaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaa==================

Another toposequence occurred on a one hundred foot long southwest
slope in Grand Traverse County in a fifty-two year old plantation.
Although the overall site quality for red pine of this Rubicon sand was
very low, the following trend was observed on two slope positions, both
'excessively' drained, Table XIII B.

It was observed that this better growth trend continued downward
where trees were still higher, possibly reaching site class III. At the
top only two to four inches of A1 horizon.was left, whereas the lower
plot had at least five inches of A1 horizon.

A toposequence in Kellogg Forest, Kalamazoo County, could serve

as an example of the effect of position on the slope on stands on fine

lll
textured soils. The observations were summarized in Table XIII C for
two twenty-seven year old stands on three well-drained slope positions
in each stand (compartments 5 and 6).

On a severely eroded and gravelly site the site index was only
63.6 feet, whereas a moderately well-drained rather compacted silt loam
at the foot of the last sequence showed a drop to 67.6 feet. But the
trend on identical soil profiles was similar to that observed on the
coarse-textured soils. It was true that other variables such as effec-
tive soil depth changed on varying slope positions, and greater soil
erosion on upper slope positions would cause a decrease in site quality
in extreme cases.

A problem commonly encountered with toposequences was that along
with position on the slope other soil characteristics varied as well.
This might exhibit itself in finer textures at lower slope positions
and decreased soil depth on steep sites when there was a compact fine;
textured B horizon. In the few instances where plots were actually
laid out on those sites, the results had to be discussed under multi-

variable site-growth relationships.

ggé_£. Effective soil depth, i,g, depth of the soil profile above
a marked change in bulk density, texture, cementation, gravel content or
ground water level was difficult to evaluate in one-variable conditions.
As a rule, several factors would change simultaneously and the soil
series which recognizes the differences changes also. Individual planta-
tions which illustrated the point were available but could not be des-

cribed in terms of site quality. There would be trees to measure on

112
sites with sufficient soil depth, but none on physiologically shallow
soils and a transition zone was commonly absent. This suggested a
critical soil depth at which trees would not survive. This phenomena
were studied at locations such as: in Plot 21 of Stinchfield Heads
washtenaw County (gravel content); Plot III 8c in Saginaw Forest, Wash-
tenaw County (texture, compaction and groundwater); Compartment 5 of
Kellogg Ferest near Battle Creek (gravel, groundwater). It was found
that an effective depth of between twelve and eighteen inches was the
limiting factor in all cases. If the soil characteristic mostly re-
sponsible for this limiting site condition occurred deeper than eighteen
inches tree growth would be similar to that typical for the series pro-

file, ceteris paribus. An example was the sequence on the Menominee

 

series as described for Block 10 in Ringwood Forest (Plots 41 and 43).
There the sand overlying the massive silty clay loam was less than forty~
two inches thick and gradually wedged out to zero within the original

red pine planting. No trees had survived beyond where the sand surface
storey was less than fifteen to eighteen inches. Up to the edge of

the surviving twenty-five year old stand trees measured about the same
height.

The typical profile of Block III 8c in Saginaw Forest (Plot 35)
was a wellestructured Morley clay loam, except for a narrow swale where
'water drained off across a tight massive silty clay at a fifteen to
eighteen inch depth. 0n shallower spots, the thirty-nine year old
trees had died long before, while at the edges trees were stunted (see

Plate 53 of root studies).

113
It was concluded from observations at many sites that effective
depth was related to a minimum amount of well-aerated profile space
which needed to be available for proper root development. Also, that
with increasing age of the trees, this critical depth of fifteen to

eighteen inches would have to be greater to ensure continued growth.

gg;_g, Gravel content as a soil variable affecting growth.was
often combined with effective soil depth as could be observed in the
above-mentioned red pine stands. Individual stands where gravel was
studied as a single variable included Block IIZ of Saginaw Forest as
described in Plot 34. As regards texture, the profile was rather sim-
ilar to that of Plot 33 (Block V 4b2 of Saginaw Forest) but the soil
was more eroded, had a shallower and more compact B horizon at a six
inch depth and contained a large amount of pebbles and cobbles at a
fifteen inch depth and downwards. The plot measurements are summarized

in Table XIV.

TABLE XIV

Effect of Effective Soil Depth on Growth of
Planted Red Pine in Lower Michigan

 

 

Depth Depth to Depth Stand Site

 

 

of.A gravel to loam Age Index
Soil series (inches) (inches) (inches) (years) (feet)
Kandalville 1 6 ' 15 15 37 46.7
Fox-Boyer s1 8 24 66 41 57.1

-_1

 

Noteworthy was also the distinct decrease in growth rate in the

114
first stand during the last ten years in contrast to normal growth in
the stand on Fox 51 (compare the growth curves on Figure 5 for KE and
F, respectively).

The entire slope in Blocks 5 and 6 of Kellogg Forest to which
the previous discussion on the effect of topographic position applied,
was extremely gravelly. Still, growth.was excellent, and growth rates
higher than for most other locations; and only on steep sites where
gravel occurred near the soil surface was a drop in site quality
observed.

Another aspect of the effect of stoniness was apparent in the
Mancelona soil series in Newaygo County. The soil profiles on these
river terraces had calcareous gravel bands of varying depth and thick-
ness, often associated with a textural B horizon. 0f the twenty-three
permanent sample plots (Lake States Experiment Station) in the planta-
tion represented by Plots 49 and 50, the soil profiles with a distinct
loam B horizon started from eighteen inches downwards showed the highest
site index. These plots with a textural B horizon starting at an eight-
een inch depth had an index between 66.5 and 68.7 feet; plots with the
B horizon at over a thirty inch depth or without Bt approaching the Gray-
calm soil series varied between 63.0 and 63.7 feet.

The Mancelona loamy sand, represented by Plots 47 and 48 had a
mean site index of only 52.1 feet. The profile showed a textural B
horizon at a variable depth between twenty-four and thirty-six inches
but the amount of pebbles and cobbles in the surface soil was much greater

than in the Mancelona profiles of Plots 47 and 48.

115

Apparently the effect of gravel was of a complex nature: partly
one of benefit to trees on coarse-textured soils if it was associated
with a textural B horizon, partly one of harm to growth if occurring
in quantity and larger sizes near the surface not associated with a
finer textured horizon. The causal relationship of high gravel content
and tree growth could be mechanical in causing a barrier to normal
lateral root development, or physical by decreasing the moisture-holding

capacity of the surface horizons.

Multi-Variable Soil-Growth Relationships

As a rule, several soil characteristics change simultaneously
if two different sites are compared. Changes in site quality as ex-
pressed by tree height cannot be correlated easily to the single vari—
ables which make up the complex site factors. However, using the
information obtained from each single variable effect, one could some-
times evaluate the effect of the complex.

As was stated above, slope positions were found combined with
changes in effective soil depth, depth to gravel, depth to mottling and'
soil texture. An example of a multi-variable toposequence was found in
Plots 18, 19, 20 and 21 in a thirty-two year old stand across a sandy
ridge in Kent County. There were three plots in sequence at the foot,
half'way up and at the top of a four to six per cent south slope of
two hundred and fifty feet in length. All sites were well-drained and
non-eroded but there was a change in the soil texture: the lower pro-
file had a loamy sand matrix with very thick sandy loam textural bands

below the thirty-six inch depth; on the slope a medium sand matrix

116
ranging from none to many thin bands below the thirty-six inch depth;
at the crest, medium sand without any bands. Another plot was sampled
from.the middle of a six per cent north slope on a profile with a
loamy sand matrix and thick fine sandy loam bands. The complete summary

is shown in Table XV.

TABLE XV

The Effect of Slope Position and Soil Texture Combined on
the Growth of Planted Red Pine in Lower Michigan

 

 

 

 

Site Stems per Basal

Soil series Slope position Index acre D.B.H. area

Montcalm ls Foot of 1% South 61.5 530 7.4 158
slope

Montcalm ls Middle of 4% South 57.4 530 7.2 150
slope

Montcalm ls Middle of 6% North 57.4 630 7.0 168
slope

Rubicon s Crest of hill, level 50.0 400 6.9 104

 

_—

The variables were slope position, slope aspect, soil texture,
and secondarily, site moisture. Bottom and crest of slope differ more
than one site class, with center slope being closer to the lower slope.
Diameters showed a similar trend. In view of earlier observations on
the Rubicon-Montcalm sequence, it could be concluded that slope position
and consequently site moisture was the major factor in controlling site

quality, likely through a higher rate of evapotranspiration at the crest.

ad. h. As a rule, chemical soil properties would be closely

associated with physical properties and would be difficult to evaluate

117
separately. .Although no specific soil chemical analyses were made, an
idea of the effect of chemical properties could be gained from comparing
individual sites. pH values were determined in the field and ranged
between.4.5 and 6.0 for A1 and AP horizons; between 5.5 and 6.0 for iron
or humus type B horizons; between 5.5 and 6.5 for textural B horizons,
but above 7.0 for gravelly calcareous B horizons in Mancelona-like
profiles; between 6.0 and 6.5 in the parent material on sandy outwash
plains, and between 7.0 and 8.0 on glacial till and lacustrine clays.
Free carbonates were usually encountered in the last category.

As concluded from fourteen field plots, natural old-growth red
pine was found on profiles in.which the acidities ranged usually as
follows: A1 4.5 - 6.0; A2 5.0 - 5.5; 132 5.5 - 6.0; c 6.0 - 6.5.
No free carbonates were found. This meant that either the competitive
power of red pine on high pH sites was low, or that the species was
intolerant to such sites.

The following picture was obtained from comparing different pH
levels in plantations when other soil characteristics were rather simi-
lar: of a thirty-seven year old stand in Saginaw Forest, washtenaw
County, and a thirty-two year old stand in Stinchfield Woods, Washte~
naw County, both on Kendalville sandy loam (Plots 34 and 36), the first
plot had free'carbonates at a fifteen inch depth and the other at a
forty inch depth. Site indices measured 46.7 and 59.0, respectively.
There was also a considerable difference in effective soil depth due
to gravel content, so that the decrease in site quality could be caused

by either factor.

118

In the Morley clay loam site in Saginaw Forest (Plot 35) change
in effective soil depth, as described above, was associated with a de-
crease in depth of carbonates from fifty-six to twenty inch depth.
Again, such a shallow depth of free lime might well have a great effect
on the growth of a plant not naturally occurring on calcareous soils.

In a comparison between two plantings on Mancelona loamy sand
sites in Newaygo County (Plots 47 - 48 and 49 - 50), the lower site
quality of the first site was explained on the basis of gravel content
in the B horizon. Yet, a much more spectacular difference was the
occurrence of free carbonates at a thirty inch depth in the textural
B horizon in contrast to the slightly acid or neutral B in the Mance-

lona series where free lime occurred at about the sixty inch depth.

ad, 1. Soil nutrient levels were not analyzed. However, if a

general relation of soil fertility and colloid content was assumed,

the coarse glacial outwash sands would be considered low on the fer-
tility scale. It was shown above that on these soils, site quality
improved with changes in the fine sand content rather than colloid
content. Apparently once trees had overcome the early years of estab-
lishment, their growth rate on fine sands was similar to that on soils
with high amounts of colloids over a wide geographic area. This indi-
cated the prominence of the moisture factor in determining growth rate.
If nutrient level were at all important, it could be assumed that sands
:release the amounts of nutrients needed by red pine at the same rate as

fine-textured soils.

 

 

17‘s... .. .

3

 

119
figs—i! Like chemical factors, biological factors were complex
and as a rule related to observable soil characteristics. No analyses
of soil flora and fauna were made.

One exceptional situation arose in the Sparta loamy sand series,
Newaygo County (Plots 45 and 46). The area was a semi-prairkaenclave
amidst the woodlands and carried a grass vegetation with sparse groups
of oaks. The conifers planted on the partially blown-out sand generally
showed poor growth. The sample plots studied were in twenty year old
stands on non-eroded terrain. They showed a site index of 55.4 feet.
The soil profiles showed distinct textural bands within reach of tree
roots, making for a description comparable to MOntcalm on the wooded
upland except for the thick dark colored A1 horizon. The mean site index
for stands on Montcalm series was 59.4. The lower value for the Sparta
sites was blamed on very limited presence of healthy mycorrhiza on the
tree roots. The fungus, being associated.with the tree on naturally
wooded sites, and, on this site, brought in on seedling roots, would

have found an unnatural environment in the grassland profile.

In reviewing the field observations, it appeared that differences
in site quality as expressed by growth of planted red pine were largely
from the poorest to the best plot, 3,2. a range in site index from 36.6
to 74.1 feet on the polymorphic site curves. 0n the other hand, site
index values were quite similar for soil series with a wide range in tex-
ture from moderately coarse to moderately fine. Within the range of

coarse-textured soils there were wide differences in site indices. Here

120
it appeared that the series concept was sometimes too wide to account
for those profile variations which affect tree growth. It was realized
that some of these variations were of extremely local character, and
would only exhibit themselves in a detailed study of this nature. None-
theless, soil profiles as described in the field were correlated within
the present soil legend with those series descriptions which closest
approximated them. This was the only way in which a quantitative scale
could be attached to Michigan soils in terms of productive capacity for
red pine, and possibly other tree species. The site quality of soils
on which no plantations were found Could be estimated from interpola-
tions within or extrapolations from the range of soils studied. There
'were variations within the range of the series such as position on the
slope and the amounts of gravel which also affect tree growth.

.A more satisfactory way to determine which characteristics of the
soil profile really accounted for growth differences was the single-
variable approach. In all larger plantations particular attention was
given to the growth differences occurring within their boundaries. In
such cases a minimum of variation from other causes was to be expected.
Another less satisfactory way to study the single-variable effect was
between plantations of similar age in a limited geographic area.

Other workers, especially Coile and his students, have used the
multidvariable correlation method of study, as they disposed of a large
number of sites with many possible combinations of different site factors.
This method was used in this study to suggest the causes for the growth

difference between the poorest soil series (Grayling sand) and the series

121
with which Grayling occurred in topo- or lithosequences. The contrast
of Grayling to any other soil series by its low site index was well
explained by the contrast of available moisture content but the fact
that the Grayling sites were all on uncultivated areas while most other
sites had been previously cultivated may also be an influence here.
Fine sand and silt are doubtlessly the physical soil components mostly
responsible for changes in the available moisture level. If site qual-
ity were directly proportional one would expect a drop in available
moisture, and a drop in site quality accordingly, towards the soils
with higher clay contents as compared to the fine sand. That this was
not the case, pointed at the importance of a minimum level of avail~
able moisture, which was responsible for good growth (other site fac-
tors assumed ideal). How large this minimum level was could not be
verified. The area in which the Grayling-Rousseau lithosequence was
studied offered, however, much Opportunity to cover the entire range
from pure coarse and medium sand to nearly pure fine and very fine
sand, with the accompanying growth differences clearly exhibited in
the red pine plantations. More detailed work in this particular
lithosequence could solve the question with respect to the critical
moisture level for certain amounts of growth, as all other factors
are believed to be identical.

The toposequence Grayling-Croswell, though rare in occurrence
and small in area, could also be studied in the Buck Creek area of the
Huron National Forest in more detail than in this project. Occurrence

of mottling at between forty-eight and sixty inch depth was the critical

122
boundary at which red pine was starting to show response to the in-
crease in soil moisture. But it seemed likely that the relation of
depth of mottling and growth could be placed on a linear scale if
soil and tree sampling were done in greater detail.

The sequence Grayling—Rubicon was essentially a lithosequence,
as the absence of distinct podzolization in the former series was
probably due to the absence of dark minerals as pointed out by Matelski
and Turk (1947). Darker color and analyses of illuvial B horizons have
shown higher amounts of organic matter and greater moisture holding
capacity the more strongly this horizon was developed. In this study,
another characteristic of the Rubicon series was the presence of finer
textural bands between twenty-four and sixty inches of depth. These
'were either composed of fine sand or of very fine sand or of somewhat
loamy sand. Recently, sands with textural bands were correlated as
the Graycalm or Montcalm.series depending on the depth at which these
bands occurred. Their importance is evaluated in Part II of this thesis.

The studies of Schelling (1955) in Scots pine stands in the Nether-
lands indicated a strong and direct relation of growth to organic matter
content of the root zone, if the latter were between 0.4 and 1.6 per
cent. He also found a strong relation between organic matter content
and Munsell Soil Color value and thus he could use the color chart for
site evaluation, especially in the lighter colored soils. Other site
factors being equal, a change of one unit in color value between three

to six (1,35 3/ to 6]) meant an average change in site index of seven feet.

123

As applied to this study, the change in organic matter as ex-
pressed by the color value change from four to five in the upper B
horizon and of five to six in the lower B going from the average'Gray-
ling to Rubicon sand, might account for part of the twenty-three feet
difference in site index observed.

Doubtlessly, there was a combination of several factors responsible
for tha wide difference in site index: amounts and distribution of fine
sand fractions, and the amounts and distributions of organic matter.
Moreover, all Rubicon profiles were once cultivated and the Grayling
sites were not; a site index difference of six feet could be attributed
to this factor. If the effect of difference in organic matter was
assumed at six feet, too, then fine texture variations would account
for eleven feet of the difference between Grayling and Rubicon sites.

.A study of Rubicon profiles with respect to variations in the amounts

and distribution of the sand fractions seems to be of critical impor-
tance in the proper evaluation of forest soils and further work is needed
on this point.

Apparently, once a certain critical level is passed, changes in
texture and organic matter, or changes in depth to mottling do not
affect tree growth much. This was illustrated in the comparison of the
Rubicon and Montcalm sites, and was also evident from comparing plots
of the Rousseau and wainola series.

Variations in soils with higher clay contents were found to be
not affected by textural differences but only by such physical factors

as depth to a gravel band or compacted horizon. Most of this effect

124
should be explained on mechanical grounds, as space of the root systems
became less than an apparent critical limit of eighteen inches. There
were indications, too, that a shallow horizon high in free carbonates
or a shallow perched water table were responsible for decrease in site
quality. All these growth-limiting factors had in common that they
limit the soil space in which red pine can have an unlimited or unin-
hibited root distribution.

From the sites with the loam and clay loam textures it was appar-
ent that growth rates were similar to medium-coarse textured as long
as these profiles were well aerated in the surface two feet, and within
that depth had no bands of gravel or carbonates or mottling, and no
abrupt textural changes.

This depth, called "effective depth" by some writers, was found
the most critical site factor in many site studies. The influence of
depth is different for different tree species, probably because of
their physiological characteristics and the nature of their root sys-
tems. Its effect should also vary with increasing age, a certain depth
being more limiting the older the trees become. The latter condition
could be well observed on Plot 35 in Saginaw Forest, where a perched
*water table on a compacted calcareous subSoil limited effective soil
depth of part of the stand. Trees had first died where soil depth was
less than fifteen inches; but now that the trees had reached forty years
(of age, they were dying where effective soil depth.was less than eighteen
iJ1ChES. The accompanying growth changes were described by Dreisinger

(1954).

125

Similar effects on growth of shallow water table over compacted
glacial tills were observed in New York by Stone E£Uél° (1954). Root
development was inhibited where mottling occurred within eighteen inches
from the surface.

The occurrence of the highest site index (74.1 feet) on profiles
formed in a two-storied parent material that might indicate the positive
effect soil depth could have on growth was illustrated by the Melita-
Menominee-Arenac sequence. The upper layer of medium to slightly loamy
podzolized sand created a growth medium similar to Rubicon sand. In
addition there was the proximity of a temporary or permanent perched
water table above the underlying silty clay materials. The Menominee
series which had mottling at thirty inch depth had a slightly higher
site quality than the Melita series with mottling at the fifty-four
inch depth, and was identical with the Arenac series with groundwater
at the forty-two inch depth. Also, stands on these profiles grew
considerably faster than on the Rubicon series. Another stand in
Saginaw County on about eight feet of sand over silty clay loam had
a site index of 60.4 feet, very similar to Rubicon.

The height growth data supplied by Day (personal communication)
from twenty-year old plantations in Chippewa County growing on the im—
perfectly-drained Iosco fine sandy loam and the poorly-drained Bruce
loamy fine sand showed growth curves with tangent of 1.90 and 1.73,
respectively. The site indices were 68.0 and 63.7 feet. These growth
rates were similar to those of stands on.well-drained soils with the

same texture (see Table IV). This Iosco profile was also formed in

126
two-storied materials with twenty-four inches of sandy loam and loamy
sand overlying lacustrine silty clay loam. The Bruce profile had
mottling between twelve and eighteen inches and groundwater from
eighteen to twenty-four inches downward. Soil descriptions for these
sites were derived from Horn (1955) and these sites were not visited
personally.

This comparison illustrated that for red pine there was an opti-
mum soil depth, above which site quality would decrease to a level only
dependent on such factors as texture and organic matter, and below
which trees would die within the fifty-year rotation periods. As was
obvious from the transect on the Menominee series, the change from
Menominee to Kawkawlin series with less than eighteen inches of coarse
material, and less than fifteen inches to periodic perched groundwater,
‘was sharp and not gradual as on the coarser-textured soils discussed
above.

This study minimized the effect of soil fertility for two reasons.
Firstly, tree growth was related to soil characteristics such as could
be recognized from a soil profile description, in the belief that these
'would be related to the inherent fertility of a soil. Secondly, com-
parison of growth on non-cultivated, weakly podzolized sands and on
'medlum-textured soils on old farmland did not indicate any noticeable
effect of artificial levels of plant nutrients.

The occurrence of potassium or magnesium deficient plantations
on windblown sands in Big Prairie Township, Newaygo County was recorded

as a result of peculiar local conditions. Similar deficiencies have

127
been described by Stone (1953) for red pine and by van Goor (1956)

for Scots pine in other localities.

SITE PRODUCTIVITY AND FOREST LAND VALUE

Height of dominants in stands of a certain age was found to be a
simple direct measure of the relative site quality of different soils.
Height, itself is, however, a useful measure of the total site produc-
tivity only if it can be expreSsed in terms of volume of the timber
stand. This procedure assumes knowledge of stand density and average
tree diameter, or else of the stand's basal area, and of the average
form factor of the trees in a stand.

Volume tables for red pine have been prepared by Reed (1926) and
Olsen _£_gl. (1949) for New England, by Woolsey and Chapman (1914) and
Brown and Gevorkiantz (1934) for the Lake States. Gevorkiantz and Olsen
(1955) compiled composite volume tables for Lake States tree species.

Measurements on individual stands were made by Collins (1958) for
remnant old-growth red pine in Lower Michigan, and for plantations by
Dils and Robbins (1950), Skog (1951), Engle and Smith (1952), Rudolph
and Lernmien (1955), and Rudolph g; 2;. (1956).

The data gathered in this study were not intended as a basis for
a yield table. For this purpose, the measurements were incomplete,
especially with reference to form factor, and the stands were varying
in density. Nevertheless, from all the measurements collected, one
might obtain a general idea of volumes to be expected in plantations
on different sites.

Spurr (1954) developed a regression of volume against diameter
and height for the Lake States tree species, into a "combined-variable"

formula for cubic foot volume inside bark. For red pine, this formula

129
was: V = a + 0.00233 DZH, in which D is diameter breast height, H
is tree height, and a was the intercept which varies with variations
in DZH. Using the appropriate conversion factor, this formula was
used for computations of board foot volume throughout this chapter.

Cubic-foot volume inside-bark, as computed by a simplified for-
mula according to Gevorkiantz and Olsen (1955) was:

V - 0.42 BB, in which B is basal area in square feet and H is
tree height. This formula was used throughout this chapter for volume
computations. The form factor 0.42 applied to stands with mean heights
over thirty feet. For twenty foot trees, this factor was 0.48. Inter-
mediate heights were interpolated between these values.

Cordwood volume was computed following the tables of Gevorkiantz
and Olsen (92, £13,) for merchantable height up to a three-inch top
and excluding stump volume.

For all sample plots the following data were secured or computed
mean height and diameter at breast height of the stand, mean height
and diameter of dominants, total cubic foot volume per acre, annual
cubic foot volume increment per acre, merchantable volume per acre in
cords (Appendix, Table A). Sample plots were grouped by site class,
on the basis of polymorphic curves, and by age class. All stand measure-
ments were then averaged for each class and listed in Table XVI, and
plotted in Figures 11 and 12.

In spite of great variations in number of plots per age class and
per site class, and in number of trees per acre, the segregation of site

classes based on dominant height appeared to coincide with a segregation

130

 

 

 

 

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an. 0.00 0.0n 0000 NHN 0.0 H.H¢ omNH 0o 0 04:00
0n. ~.H0 w.Hn mNHn an N.0 0.00 000 no N 00:04
N0. n.HN 0.50 00mm 00H H.0 0.00 005 mm m @0300
R. Q: «.3 82 o: in . «.8 at an ... «Tom 8-3
0 .0 N.0H «00 no m.~ 0.0H 000H 0N N «atom HH
00. n.m~ H.00 moHn 00m «.0 «.50 omuH 50 H 00:00
E . m .3 0. mm 33 a: a . n new“ we: 3 8 $13 3
«n. 0.0H ¢.n0 H0¢H mHH «.0 n.w~ 0H0 mm H 00300 H
30.80 0.0831358: 33$
Hook mnsH o> How» NmESHo> . mono .m. 0.0 usw How 93¢ ow<
Hon qwnou mamm.Ho> .um.50 Hmmmm Hon HmmmHu mmoHu xoocH +
mohou mwoume< HouoH meum :H.oz ~04 mmoHU
.mouoo swam mmmHo owo How onHo> and: muHm

 

 

mHmmm ouo< pom .mmmmmHo mw< Hmownm

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H>X MHO<H

131

aou nocH omnfiu ou mEdHo> omHoom0

own Houou so omoH>Ho mEBHo> uoom oHono HmDOHn

uLmes x moan Human x «0.0 Eouw poundsouu

muofiumHnomu osu CH poosHonH uoc .mmmHo own :H mcoHuoudem omxHE mo Hones: mumxowuo cH

 

 

 

 

 

 

H
0H.H 0. 5N 0.00H .000N 05H m. n n.n0 000 mu 0 musmu
0n. s. 0H 0.Hh 000H 0NH 0. 0 a.wu 0am Hm 0 0N10N 05
on. m. 0 0.50 5H5 H0 0. 0 n.5H 05h 0H AH+0H oHnnH >
A.um.=oV Awuw.omv Ammooch HummmV .

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Hod 00Hou anon. Hob .um.so Hmmom Hoe mmmHu manu xmocH +
mouou mwohm>< .Houoa wEmum HcH.oz mw< umeu

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omscHucou H>x mum¢H

 

S

j:

q

4

4
H
\N
N

A
U
0

Fuaanutunut Voumit(;negs)

L

3.3

 

h
f

I.
a

Town. Voums (come on?)

I

/ _/ 1

r - G
Donuuua'uuzurgzar).

 

 

 

i. if 35 a
mum M: or Au “A“ (vans)
FIGURE 11: Relation of lean Dominant Height, Total Cubic-Foot Volume
and Cordvood Volume, to Age of Stand for Unmanaged Red Pine
Plantations in Lower Michigan, Grouped by Site Class and

Five-Year Age Classes.

 

 

 

 

 

 

mo.
. {40
low-
u
3‘ l.
(
if
“’7“;
W
t f
u
3..
o
500' no?
48g)
1":
1‘ m
0———'\ 4 S
1““ . t?
z
r 1! I i4 S
Q
a: ' 3
f0 2:. 9+ 5:0 1

40
Arm Aer. or we a»: (new)

FIGURE 12: Relation of Mean Diameter, Basal Area and Stand Density to

Age of Stand for Unmanaged Red Pine Plantations in Lower
Michigan, Grouped by Site Class and Five-Year Age Classes.

134
of diameter, basal area and volume. Since for similarly stocked
stands volume varies mainly with height and diameter, the segrega-
tion of diameter along with height for different site classes was
noteworthy. .Also, in each of the tabulated examples of singleevari-
able sequences in the preceeding chapter where diameter comparison
was feasible, the trend of change in diameter paralleled that of
height (See Pages 109 and 110).

Tabulations excluded data of mixed stands but included data of
stands which had been thinned previously. Only one thinned plot was
excluded because of a very irregular stand structure.

The data in Table XVI gave a rough idea of the productivity of
different sites, and thus for different soils, in terms of volume of
total and merchantable red pine timber produced per acre. This
applied only to essentially unmanaged stands. Sound forest operations
‘would operate under a management plan with a set rotation and periodic
thinnings.

From the data thus collected and from other sources dealing with
natural and planted red pine in Michigan (as quoted above) such a man-
agement scheme for red pine plantations could be prepared. .As only
data on young plantations were available, it is evident that the scheme
as outlined on Table XVII for a fifty-year rotation was more accurate
than that on Table XX for a one-hundred year rotation. To simplify this
discussion, both management plans were drawn up for three sites associated
with site indices 40, 55 and 70 feet. These coincided with the boundary
of site classes I and II, the center of class III, and the boundary between

IV and V.

TABLE XVII

135

Management Plan for Red Pine Plantations for Three Different Site Classes,

Based on a Fifty Year Rotation and Per Acre

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Site Index Board
and Total. Foot Yield $ 1
Site Class Cu.Ft. Vol. (cords)Value
Vol. Int.k!
40 Planting Density2 900/acre
(I-II) Height:Spacing ratio3 4.5
Age 35 Height 27.5 ft., DBH 5.0”
Thinning to 9x9 sq.ft,cuts 360 trees 576 4.3 10.70
Basal area from 122 sq.ft.-- 49 sq.ft.
Age 50 Harvest cut 540 trees 16.2 40.50
Height 40', DBH 6.0" 1782 4455 111.00
Basal Area 106 sq. ft. '
Total Yield (cords) & Value 20.5 51.20
Total Yield (Board Feet) & Value 4455 *4.3 121.70
55 Planting Density 900/acre
(III) Height:Spacing ratio 5.5
Age 30 Height 38.5', DBH 6.0” 3563 89.00
Thinning to 10x10 sq.ft.,cuts 450 trees 1426 12.6 31.50
Basal Area from 176 sq.ft..-— 88 sq.ft.
Age 50 Harvest cut 450 trees 3191 34.6 86.50
Height 55', DBH 7.5" 12445 311.50
Basal Area 138 sq.ft.
Total Yield (Cords) & Value 47.2 118.00
Total Yield (Board Feet) & Value 16010 400.00
70 Planting Density 900/acre
(IV-V) Height:Spacing Ratio 6.0
Age 25 Height 35.0', DBH 6.0” 3890 97.00
Thinning to 11x11 sq.ft.,cuts 540 trees 1556 14.0 35.00
Basal Area from 176 sq.ft.‘~9-7O sq.ft. ,
Age 50 Harvest cut 360 trees 4676 49.3 123.20
Height 70', DBH 9.0“ 21996 550.00
Basal Area 159 sq.ft.
Total Yield (Cords) & Value 63.3 158.20
Total Yield (Board Feet) & Value 25886 647.00

 

I“

1Assumed $2.50 per cord or $25.00 per M board feet stumpage

2Approximates planting system of 6x8 or 7x7 feet

“-

3This ratio expresses a minimum spacing between trees for a particular site
class, and varies between 4.5 (spacing — 22% height)for site I-II and 6.0
(spacing - 17% of height) for site IV-V.

136

TABLE XVIII

Present Discounted Value of Land to be Planted to Red Pine for Pulpwood
Production on Fifty Year Rotation, Per Acre Basis
(For Management Plan see Table XVII)

 

___._7_

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Site Index .7» Income . Costs Nat Land
and Item Valuel Item Value Value
Site Class 5% 31 5% 3% 5% 3%
W1
40 - Thinning 1.90 3.80 Planting2 25.00 25.00
(1'11) Harvest 3.50 9.20 0ther3~ 18.30 25.70
Total 5.40 13.00 43.30 50.70 -37.90 -37.70
55 Thinning 7.20 13.00 .Planting 25.00 25.00
(III) _ ‘
Harvest 7.60 19.70 Other 18.30 25.70
Total 14.80 32.70 43.30 50.70 ~28.50 -18.00
70 Thinning 10.30 16.70 Planting 25.00 25.00
Hwy) . , ,
Harvest 10.70 28.10 Other 18.30 25.70
Total 21.00 44.80 43.30 50.70 -22.30 -5.90

 

 

 

Values rounded off to first decimal

-

2Assuming planting costs $25.00/acre

3Includes administrative costs, fire protection, taxes, etc. to total of
$1.00 per acre per year.

137

TABLE XIX

Present Discounted Value of Land to be Planted to Red Pine for Sawlog
Production with Fifty Year Rotation and One Thinning, Per Acre Basis
(For Management Plan see Table XVII)

 

 

Net Land

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Site Index Income Costs
Bud Item Value1 Item Value Value
Site Class ‘1flf""7§f" 5% 1 3% 5% 3%
40 Thinning 1.902 3.802 P1snting3 25.00 25.00
(1-11) . a .
Harvest Cut 9.70 25.30 other4 18.30 25.70
Total 11.60 29.10 43.30 50.70 -31.70 -21.60
55 Thinning 20.50 36.70 Planting 25.00 25.00'
(III)
Harvest Cut 27.10 70.90 Other 18.30 25.70
Total 71.20 107.60 43.30 50.70 + 4.30 +46.90
70 Thinning 28.60 46.40 Planting 25.00 25.00
(IV-V) A .
Harvest Cut 47.80 125.40 Other 18.30 25.70
Total 76.40 171.80 43.30 50.70 +33.10 +121.10

 

1

Values rounded off to first decimal
2

Income from pulpwood only

3Assuming planting costs $25.00/acre

Includes costs for administration, fire protection, taxes, etc. totalling
$1.00 per acre per year

 

TABLE XX
Management Plan for Red Pine Plantations for Three Different Site Classes,

Based on One Hundred Year Rotation, Per Acre Basis

138

l

 

 

Site Index
and
Site Class

Board

Total Foot, Yield $
Cu.Ft.

Vol.

Vol. (cords)Va1ue

Int 0 t"

W

40
(I-II)

55
(III)

70
(IV-V)

Planting Density 900/acre
Height:Spacing ratio 4.5

Age 40 Height 31.5', DBH 5.5”
Thinning to 11x11 sq.ft.,cuts
Basal area 148 ~u- 59 sq.ft.

Age 70 Height 50', DBH 7.0"

Thinning to 13x13 sq.ft.,cuts
Basal area 96 -- 69 sq.ft.

Age 100 Harvest cuts 260 trees

540 trees

100 trees

Height 60',DBH 9.0",Basal area 115 sq.ft.
Total Yield and Value

Planting Density 900/acre
Height:Spacing ratio 5.5

Age 30 Height 38.5', DBH 6.0”
Thinning to 11x11 sq.ft.,cuts

Basal area 176 -.~- 71 sq.ft.

Age 60 Height 61.0', DBH 8.0”
Thinning to 14x14 sq.ft.,cuts

Basal area 126 want 78 sq.ft.

540 trees

135 trees

Age 100 Harvest cuts 225 trees
Height 75.0',DBH 11.0”,Basa1 area 149 sq.ft.

Total Yield and Value

Planting Density 900/acre
Height:Spacing Ratio 6.0

Age 25 Height 35.0', DBH 6.0”
Thinning to 11x11 sq.ft.,cuts
Basal area 176 .... 71 sq.ft.

Age 50 Height 70', DBH 9.0"
Thinning to 14x14 sq.ft.,cuts
Basal area 159 —-—- 99 sq.ft.

Age 75 Height 83', DBH 12.0"

Thinning to 15x15 sq.ft.,cuts.
Basal area 177 -- 149 sq.ft.

Age 100 Harvest cuts 190 trees

540 trees

135 trees

35 trees

Height 90',DBH 14.0",Basal area 203 sq.ft.
Total Yield and Value

1179

560

2886

1728

1215

4680

9.7 24.00

1960 49.00

13564 339.00

15524 9.7 412.00

4320 108.00

5103 127.00

25272 632.00

 

1556

1755

959

7676

34695 867.00

3890 97.00

8248 206.00

5370 109.00

45288 1132.00

 

1For additional information, see footnotes of Table XVII.

62796 1544.00
Ii—

139

TABLE XXI

Present Discounted Value of Land to be Planted to Red Pine Based on
One Hundred Year Rotation and Two or Three Thinnings, Per Acre Basis
(For Plan of Management see Table XX)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Site Index 7 Income Costs Net Land
Sitznglass Item Value1 Item Value Value
5% 3% 5% 3% 5% 3%

40 Thinning 1 3.40 7.40 Planting2 25.00 25.00
(1-11) . . , . ,

Thinning 11 1.60 6.20 Other3 19.80 31.60

Harvest ‘ 2.60 16.90
4 £621.; ' " ' ' -7:6(3 "35.36" ‘ ' ,,. ' ' ' "42.56" 36.65 3373613636
55 Thinning I 24.90 44.50 Planting 25.00 25.00
(III) Thinning II 6.70 21.60 Other 19.80 56.60

Harvest 4.80

total ' ' ' 5 36.40 33.66" ' ' ' ' ' ' "42.56" 56.60 182612216
70 Thinning I 28.60 46.60 .Planting 25.00 25.00

Thinning 11 17.90 47.00 other 19.80 31.60

Thinning 111 2.80 12.00

Harvest 8.60 58.90

Total 57.90 164.50 44.80 56.60 +13.10+107.90

 

Values rounded off to first decimal
2 .
Assuming planting costs $25.00 per acre

3
Includes costs for administration, fire protection, taxes, etc. to a total
of $1.00 per acre per year.

140

In both rotations, planting was done at a rate of nine hundred
trees per acre which approximates a spacing of 6x8 or 7x7 square feet.
Proper spacing throughout the rotation period was assumed a function of
tree height. Also, it was assumed a function of site quality, indepen-
dent of height.1 A spacing-factor was assumed, as suggested earlier
by Wilson (1946). In this study, spacing was assumed 22% of mean height
on site I-II, 18% on site III, and 17% on sites IV-V. No differentiation
was made for different stand ages, which.would ordinarily be more correct.
The factors were expressed as height:spacing ratios in Tables XVII and
XX.

For each of the three sites, height at different ages was known
or extrapolated from available data, and then the appropriate density
could be computed. Thinnings were regulated so as to remove part of
the stand previous to the moment of overcrowding.

For the fifty-year rotation, one thinning was assumed. It removed
as many trees as was necessary to prevent overcrowding up to age fifty.
On site I-II this method would remove 40% at age thirty-five, but on
site IV-V it took 60% at age twenty-five. More frequent thinnings
would be better silviculturally, but would be less profitable.

The value of bare land intended to be used for such a forest

operation has been estimated in Table XVIII for pulpwood production.

 

1Site studies in red pine plantations indicated a strong effect
of site quality not only on height but also on diameter growth. To
insure sufficient growth of timber of merchantable diameter, relatively
more growing space was allowed for trees on poor sites.

141
The budgetting was conservative, as planting costs were exclusive of
costs of planting stock, and costs for any additional site preparation.
Additional expenses would usually run higher than $1.00 per acre per
year, depending on local conditions. No costs were assumed for addi-
tional Silvicultural practices or other incidental expenditures.

The computed discount values were based on interest rates of
either three or five per cent. Three per cent would seem a rather con-
servative rate and was merely added as a reference against the more
realistic rate of five per cent.

The tabulation disclosed that at a five per cent rate investments
in land which carry red pine stands of site class IV and better would
pay for themselves, assuming that the management plan provides for saw-
1og production. It would seem that a fifty-year rotation were more
profitable, but the higher relative value for this period may be ques-
tionable in view of the higher unit price realized from sawlogs in the
longer rotation.

In a relative sense, the data showed that pulpwood production in
a fifty-year cycle was not profitable on any site, even not at a lower
interest rate. Only by aiming for the highest value per unit of timber
volume would returns justify the investments, but only on the most pro-
ductive sites. In reality, income may well be less if thinnings were
by-passed and diameter increment remained low, or if heavy mortality
occurred. Also, costs may well be higher if there were expenditures
for site preparation, restocking, brush control, and other Silvicultural

practices. It must be emphasized that dominant height is not a

142
representative measure of average stand height, but these values approach
one another in well-spaced stands where no individual tree is suppressed
by others. Therefore, the computaions would be valid only for properly

managed stands.

An alternative method of computong forest land values is by considering
a larger woodland enterprise consisting of one-acre compartments of
identical site quality. If the lengths of rotdion were set at 50 or 100
years there would be one-acre stands of all ages between 0 and 50, or
between 0 and 100 years. Each year there would be one acre being cut and
reforested. Management plans were outlined in Tables XVII and XX.

Land values are computed in Tables XXII, XXIII and XXIV. The annual
income is derived from those acres which are thinned or harvested each
year. Annual costs include those of the planting of one acre, the cost
of administration and protection, and the interst charge against the
growing stock on those acres not harvested. Capitalized net returns
produce positive land values against the more reasonable five-percent
rate only on land of high site quality in a fifty-year sawlog rotation.
The acre~values listed in brackets are those for land as part of a going
concern, 13$, after the first acre has been harvested. By discounting
these values over the rotation period one obtains the acre-value of land
before the first acre is planted. The higher acre-values for land in a
going concern represent the rewards for paying investments and interests
and for foregoing an income during the first forty-nine or ninety-nine

years of the rotation period.

TABLE XXII

Acre Value of Land to be Planted to Red Pine in a Going Fifty Acre
Enterprise with a Fifty Year Pulpwood Rotation for Three
Different Site Classes (For Management Plan see Table XVII)1

143

 

Site Index

 

 

 

 

 

and 2 Land Value2
Site Class Annual Income Annual Costs2 5% 31
40 Thinning3 10.70 Planting 25.00
(I-II) 3 _ .
Harvest 40.50 Other4 50.00
Interest (5%) 44.10
(3%) _ZiriQ.
(5%) 119.10
_l (3%) 99.50 Negative
55 Thinning 31.50 Planting 25.00
(111)
Harvest 86.50 Other 50.00
118.00 Interest (5%) 98.00
(3%) 58.80
(51) 173.00 N i
(3%) 133.80 egat V9
70 Thinning 35.00 Planting 25.00
(IV-V) V
Harvest 123.20 Other 50.00
158°2° Interest (5%) 127.40
(3%)_Z.§-_4_Q_
(5%) 202.40 (3°30)
(3%) 153 40 Negative 0.70

 

1 J

Ar

I

 

 

 

1Assuming one acre harvested and reforested each year

2Values rounded off to first decimal
3Assuming stumpage values as before

4Assuming annual expenses as before

 

5Interest against the growing stock of 49 one-acre stands younger than
rotation age, evaluated at an average per acre value of one-third of the

annual income

Acre Value of Land to be Planted to Red Pine in a Going Concern

TABLE XXIII

for Sawlog Production on Fifty Acres with a Fifty Year
Rotation for Three Different Site Classes1
(For Management Plan see Table XVII)

144

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Site Index
and Land Value
Site Class .Annugl Income i_ _Annugl Costs 5% 3%
40 Thinning 10.70 Planting 25.00
(I-II)
Harvest 111:92' Other 50.00
121.70
Interest (5%) 98.00
(37.) 58.80
(51) 173.00 N i
(37:) 133.80 egat W’—
53‘ Thinning 89.00 Planting 25.00
(III) 1
Harvest 311.00 Other 50.00
400'00 Interest (51) 328.30
(31) 196.00
(57.) 403.30 N 9 (832,3)
(3%) 271.00 80‘ °
70 Thinning 97.00 Planting 25.00
(IV-V) . .
Harvest 550.00 Other 50.00
647.00 .
Interest (51) 529.20
(32) 318.50
1 . 68.80
(57.) 604.20 (171253))(13850)
(3%) 393.50 ' °

 

 

 

1See explanatory footnotes in Table XXII

TABLE XXIV

145

Acre Value of Land to be Planted to Red Pine in a Going Concern
for Sawlog Production on Hundred Acres with a Hundred Year
Rotation for Three Different Site Classes1
(For Management Plan see Table XX)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Site Index
and Land Value
Site Class Annual Income Annual Costs 5% 31
40 “ Thinning 73.00 Planting 25.00
(1-11) , 4
Harvest 339.00 Other 100.00
412'00 Interest2(51) 683.00
(31) 406.00
(5%) 808.00 ,
(3%) 531.00 Negative
55 Thinning 235.00 Planting 25.00
(111)
Harvest 632.00 Other 100.00
Interest (5%)1426.00
(3%) 861.30
(5%) 1551.00 N
(32) 986.30 agative
70 Thinning 412.00 Planting 25.00
(IV-V) .
Harvest 1132.00 Other 100.00
1544.00 .
Interest(5%) 2544.30
(3%) 1524.60
(5%) 2669.30 ,
(32) 1649.60 Negative

 

 

1See explanatory footnotes in Table XXII

2Interest against the growing stock of 99 one-acre stands younger than

rotation age, evaluated at an average per acre value Of one—third of

the annual income.

146

The conclusion is that forest land planted to red pine under
Michigan conditions, even when operated under a rather optimistic
management plan ,cannot or can hardly produce returns which pay for
the land itself, even on the best sites. Admittedly, a number of
biasses entered into these computations, most of which however, if
accounted for, would lead to still lower land values. Items favoring
higher net returns include the observation that over time there is a
tendency that timber prices increase faster than costs of production.
Also, the unit-price of timber on better sites may well be far higher
than stated, especially if managemnt aims at quality production. Stands
on good sites necessitate a shorter rotation period than those on poor
sites, lest the interest charge on the financially over-mature timber
exceeds the rate of value increment of the timber. Some may argue that
the charge against the growing stock is grossly over-estimated, the
average stand being valued at one-third of the annual gross income from
thinnings and harvest. The five percent returns on investments might
still be considered low in a society where the woodland enterprise is
competing with other industries, and where the risk factor involved has
often been greatly over-estimated. But with proper knowledge of the risk
factor in forestry the five percent rate should be considered too high.

These computations have shown the effect of site quality on the
management and economics of red pine plantations. They can serve as a
guide for evaluating plantations of other conifers with similar ecological
and economical characteristics. It has become evident that choice of the
proper site conditions is one of the most important measures to ensure

a profitable woodland enterprise.

CONCLUSIONS

A study of one hundred and twenty sample plots in seventy-five

Michigan red pine plantations and the associated soil profiles led to

the following conclusions.

1.

2.

3.

Initial classification of sites by site quality, as expressed by

mean height of dominants at age fifty, was based on site curves con-
structed by conventional anamorphic techniques. Subsequent measure-
ments of actual height growth curves of planted red pine on twenty-four
different sites and of trees in natural stands on two sites led to the
construction of polymorphic site curves. These appeared more reliable
than anamorphic curves in the estimation of site quality of soils for

planted red pine.

It was shown that no one set of site curves would cover all site con-
ditions as expressed in the shape of height growth curves. Major
deviations from the average shape were a period of slow growth at the
lower end, a characteristic associated with soils which were not culti-
vated previous to reforestation; and a period of sharper-than-normal
growth decline above age twenty-five associated with the presence of
certain interfering soil characteristics. The only characteristic
common to all growth curves was a section of maximal growth beyond

an early period of slow growth, and its tangent was therefore taken

as a basis for the differentiation between polymorphic siteccurves.

As judged from these curves, the lowest site index for any soil series
was 35.8 feet on Grayling sand associated with a maximal growth rate

of about 0.90 feet per year. The highest mean site index was 74.1 feet,

148
found on Menominee and.Arenac loamy sands, corresponding with a

maximum growth rate of about 2.10 feet per year.

If soil series studied were placed on a textural scale, based on the
average soil texture of the surface soil, the greatest difference in
mean site index between any two adjacent series occurred in the transi-
tion from Grayling sand to Rousseau fine sand, from 35.8 to 46.1 feet.
Adjacent plots on these two series differed as much as from 29.6 to
46.1 feet, with maximal growth rates of 0.81 to 1.57 foot per year,
respectively. The only observable soil variation between these two
profiles was an increase in the content of fine and very fine sand
from fifteen to sixty per cent within the upper five feet of the soil
profile. Site indices for other sands were far higher than those for
Grayling but these increases were associated.with factors other than
soil texture. Site indices for soils with finer textures than sand
were at the same general level as these sands or somewhat higher, and
variations between these finer textured soils were apparently due to

factors other than soil texture.

If sandy soil series were placed on a scale with degree of podzoliza-
tion as a differentiating characteristic, the greatest difference in
site index for any two adjacent series occurred in the transition
from the Brown Podzolic Grayling sand to the weakly podzolized Rubi-
con sand, the increase in site index was from 35.8 to 59.7 feet.
However, this transition also included one from plantations on cut-
over forest land to sites previously cultivated which was reflected

in a slower height growth at early age on non-cultivated sites. If

149
a correction were made for this factor, the site index increase
associated with increased degree of podzolization.wou1d be about
fifteen feet.
There was a general tendency of increasing site index with increas-
ing degree of podzolization.
Studies of soil series in toposequence, all other site factors being
equal, showed that the greatest change in site index occurred in the
transition from Grayling to Croswell sand, from.35.8 to 44.8 feet.
The change was associated with the occurrence of groundwater within
the upper forty-eight inches of the soil profile. ‘Although the
transition to Au Gres sand coincided with an increased degree of pod-
zolization, a shallower groundwater level apparently did not increase
the site quality significantly. No relationships of site index and
toposequences on finer textured soils were established.
The effect of previous cultivation on the site quality of a soil
series for planted red pine could be evaluated from sites on Croswell
sand and Rousseau fine sand, indicating an increase of twenty feet
for cultivated sites, apparently due entirely to a more rapid start
of the period of maximal height growth on these sites. However, these
site differences did not noticeably affect the maximal growth rates
for the sites concerned. The increase due to previous cultivation
would be greater on sites with greater maximal growth rates because
of the nature of the growth curve.
Highest site indices and maximal growth rates observed were associated

with soils developed from two-storeyed parent materials, 1,2, sand

150
overlying lacustrine clays at depths of eighteen inches or deeper.
A similar profile with groundwater at thirty inch depth had no effect
on the site quality but increased the maximum growth rate 0.2 feet
per year.
Similarly high maximal growth rates were found on moderately coarse
textured soils but only on lower slope positions.
Observations on red pine growth on profiles of the two-storeyed type
with shallow coarse surface layers and in connection with data from
soils with compacted or stoney layers strongly suggested that an
effective soil depth of at least eighteen inches was essential to
the proper growth and survival of red pine in a fifty-year rotation.
Variations in site indices between series with loamy sands and finer
textures were found to be associated with the presence in the upper
two to four feet of the soil profile of compacted horizons, gravel
layers, free carbonates or an intermittent water table, occurring
each as a single factor or simultaneously. The complexity of these
factors hampered study of the single-variable effect on site quality
the more so, as at sites where these factors became limiting to growth,
stands were eliminated at an early age. Shallower occurrence of each
of the factors caused a lower site quality not due to a lower maximum
growth rate but to an earlier or sharper decline in height growth at
higher age than on sites without these interfering factors. In
younger stands their presence in the upper feet of the profile was
indicated by incidence of infection by shootmoth or Tympanis canker

at younger ages.

10.

ll.

12.

151

If all observations on site-growth relationships were combined,

the two soil factors most pronounced in their effect on red pine
growth were soil available moisture and effective soil depth

above apparently obstructive horizons.

Both dominant height and mean diameter were affected by change in
site quality. The increase in total per-acre volume of site V

over site I represented a factor 3 or 4, and in terms of merchantable
volume a factor of 5 or possibly more.

Site studies of this nature could be used to indicate the relative
productivity of different sites in terms of merchantable timber,
and in terms of the relative value of land to be planted to red
pine under certain reasonable management plans and under prevailing
economic conditions. woodland enterprises with pure red pine
operate profitably against competitive interest rates only on land
with the highest site quality, and with a management scheme geared
at the production of timber of high unit-value. The length of
rotation should end before or at the time at which timber value

increment falls below the selected interest rate.

PART II

ROOT STUDIES IN RED PINE PLANTATIONS
INTRODUCTION

In the first section of this work, soils were studied in rela-
tion to the growth of red pine stands planted in these soils. Causal
relationships were established between individual observable soil
characteristics and other possible site factors on the one hand, and
the establishment and growth of red pine on the other hand. It was
suggested that tree growth was merely an expression of the suitability
of the soil profile as an environment for the tree's root system.

In this part of the work, it is attempted to evaluate the indi-
vidual horizons and their effect on morphology and distribution of
tree roots. The soils were selected over the widest possible range
of available conditions with respect to horizontal and vertical
textural sequence, effective soil depth, drainage, and other soil
characteristics. Naturally, this range of site conditions covered
a considerable range in site index values. In conclusion, an attempt
is made to assess the effect of the factor root development on the
variation in site indices. Literature on previous studies is reviewed
first, then the results of these root studies are presented, and re-

lated to the findings in the previous site studies.

‘_ thong—g ...... ..—

 

 

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Early research into the morphology and distribution of plant
roots in soils was done by Weaver and his students in the Nebraska
prairie (1919, 1925). Tree roots were studied by European ecologists
in the twenties.

A.review of literature on tree root studies made by Aldrich
Blake (1929) conclude that coarse-textured soils favored root length
over root branching. Fine textures caused copious branching. Hard-
pans and water tables frequently inhibited taproot growth, either by
causing it to die at the critical barrier, or to turn sideways. He
stated that roots and crowns of trees are affected independently by
their own environments.

Laitakari (1927) made a comprehensive study of roots of a number
of Finnish tree Species, including pines. The spread of lateral roots
'was widest in coarse-textured soils, narrowest in stony or gravelly
soils, and intermediate in fine-textured soils. Depth of root systems
followed an identical order. Root volume per tree was smaller for
better sites and with greater stand density.

Among early intensive studies of tree roots were several horti-
cultural studies, such as those of Partridge and Veatch (1931). They
found that Michigan fruit trees had most of their roots in the upper
one and a half to two feet, with the densest growth from.six to eight
inches below the soil surface, just below the AP horizon, but some
roots descended to twenty feet. Shallow fibrous roots were thought

to be the place where nutrients and water are taken up, whereas deep

154
roots were solely for water supply. They suggested that deep sand,
shallow water tables and compact horizons prevented normal root growth.
Older trees grew better once the roots reached moist horizons at greater
depth.

A jack pine tree forty-five feet tall growing on mostly medium
or coarse sand strata had most lateral roots in the upper six inches
of the profile according to Cheyney (1932). Some roots were traced
over twenty-five feet in horizontal direction, while others curved
widely and ended near the mother tree. vertical sinker roots branched
abruptly downward from lateral roots and penetrated to varying depths,
utilizing old root channels for downward passage. Their ends had a
fibrous appearance. Instead of the taproot, there were a number of
vertical roots reaching down to between two and five feet, ending in
finger-like branched root tips.

In describing roots of longleaf pines of varying sizes on Florida
sands, Heyward (1933) found ninety per cent of the lateral roots within
the upper foot of the soil. Mature pines had taproots extending down
to fourteen feet depth, and laterals up to seventy-five feet horizon-
tally. Seedlings, thirty inches tall, had taproots up to nine feet
deep in.well-drained sites, whereas the depth was limited on poorly-
drained sites, because of the presence of a water table.

Turner (1936b) made an extensive study of shortleaf pine roots,
in trenches around the trees on different drainage phases in loamy
soils. There were more and larger roots in the poorly-drained soils,

as compared with the well-drained soils under these fifty year old

155
stands. Thus, soils carrying the best pine stands had more and larger

roots, a finding contrary to those of some workers elsewhere.

From descriptions of seventeen trenches under New England white
pine stands of about forty years of age, Lutz g£_§1, (1937) concluded
that the greatest number of roots occur in the A and B horizons of
these podzolic soils. The H horizon contained the greatest amount of
roots, followed by the A1 horizon, other horizons having far lower
numbers. The B1 contained twice as many roots as did the B2 horizon.
Root development was poor if the sand analysis ran higher than ninety
per cent and best in loamy sands and loams; roots concentrated in the
finer-textured strata in coarser subsoils. No roots were found in com-
pact or poorly-drained soil horizons.

Observations on five red pine saplings between twelve and four-
teen years old (Day, 1941) showed an extensive system of roots with
descending branch roots that often assumed major importance, while an
actual taproot was found in one case only. Soil conditions were re-
ported to be more determining for the size of the root system than the
size of the tree.

Garin (1942) gathered data on root systems of eight samples of
each of seventeen tree species, all seven years old, on two different
Connecticut soils. In the coarser-textured soils, roots penetrated
deeper and spread farther while the number of large roots was greater.
Small feeder roots were near the base of the trees. Red pine was
considered a deep rooting species, with a strong tendency towards tap-

root formation. Chemical soil analysis did not show distinct relationships

156

'with zones of root concentration, except that in profiles where roots
concentrated in the B1 horizon, contents of calcium and potassium were
higher in those horizons than in the B of other profiles. There was
strong branching under the root collar, with laterals showing more a
tendency to level spreading out in the finer-textured soil.

Detailed root descriptions were made by Gaiser and Campbell (1951)
of white oaks in twenty-six Ohio locations. They found that concentra-
tions of roots in the surface soil were related to the wilting point of
the A2 horizon, not to site quality or stand density, If concentrations
of roots were high in the A2 horizon, then there were relatively more
roots in deeper horizons too. Amounts of lateral roots less than one-
fourth inch in size reached a mdnimum beneath the edge of the tree
collar, and total amounts of roots reached a constant in well stocked

stands at age fifty.

METHODS AND PROCEDURES

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effect of individ-
ual horizons of the soil profile on the extent and distribution of the
roots of red pine, as an aid to interpret differences in site quality.

A.number of widely varying site conditions were selected from
the sample plots discussed in Part I of this thesis. In each of these
sample plots (see Table 25), preliminary studies were made of the lat-
eral root system of a tree which had a diameter equal to the average
plot diameter and with its crown in the dominant crown class. .Also,
the tree selected had to be entirely surrounded by other trees at the
original spacings. A shallow pit was dug alongside a tree for about
eight feet in length and three feet in width, so that the tree was at
the center of one of the long sides, thus exposing tree roots in two
quadrants of a square of which the tree was the center. .After the
first trials, it was common practice to dig around the tree so that
roots could be observed in three quadrants, leaving one quadrant
untouched to prevent the tree from falling over. Due to the usually
extensive lateral root system, it was not possible to dig deeper
than a maximal two or three feet, without having to cut the laterals.
Therefore, the lateral root system was described from these shallow
pits, and a new exposure was made for detailed descriptions of the
root systems at greater depth, such as those developed from taproots
and sinker roots.

For this purpose, in each plot another two representative trees

were selected, adjacent to one another, but in different rows. Between

TABLE XXV

locations and Soils Where Root Studies Were Carried Out

158

 

 

 

 

R 1 Sample Age
Number C unt Plot From Site
0 y Number Soil Type Seed Index
1 Iosco 116 a 119 Grayling sand 43 a 44 33.1 '
29.6
2 Iosco 117 Rousseau fine sand 45 47.1
3 Iosco 121 Croswell sand 43 44.7
4 Iosco 117 Au Gres sand 31 45.6
5 Crawford 103 Graycalm.sand 47 40.7
6 Kent 25 Rubicon sand 32 64.6
7 Newaygo 45 & 46 Sparta loamy sand 20 55.3
55.6
8 Newaygo 45 A Sparta loamy sand, 20
eroded phase
9 Newaygo 49 Mancelona loamy sand 29 63.0
10 Newaygo 48 Mancelona loamy sand 32 52.6
11 Saginaw 42 Melita sand(over silty 25 73.4
clay loam)
12 Saginaw 43 & 41 Menominee loamy sand and sand 25 75.2
(over silty clay loam) and 25 73.1
13 Saginaw 40 Arenac sand (over silty 25 74.1
clay loam)
14 Washtenaw 33 & 34 Fox(Boyer) sandy loam and 41 & 37 57.1
Kendalville sandy loam_ 46.7
15 'Washtenaw 35 Morley clay loam 39 49.8

 

159
these, a trench was dug, so that each tree was at a corner of the
trench, the length of which depended on the spacing between rows but
extending at least a little beyond the tree. Trenches had a length
of from seven to ten feet, and a width of three feet. The depth
would depend on the lengths of the longest taproots or sinker roots,
or on the ease of digging in the subsoil; but never deeper than eight
feet. Trenches had vertical walls, along which fresh roots were ex-
posed; but, as a rule, in the trench itself no roots were preserved
unless they were part of the root system in the trench walls. Great
care was taken to expose taproots without damaging any of the more
brittle and smaller rootlets, by cutting away behind each root sepa-
rately.

Lateral and taproot systems were described morphologically and
semi-quantitatively. Nomenclature of these descriptions was according
to the following definitions:

Root system: referred to the combined roots of one tree.

Root collar: the lower continuation of the tree trunk underground,
fromxwhich lateral roots and taproots originated.

Lateral root: any root originating at the root collar and following
a course more or less parallel to the soil surface.

Taproot: any root originating at the root collar and following
a course more or less vertically downwards.

Secondary root: any root branching off from a primary root (taproot
or lateral) regardless of the location or direction;

usually thinner than a primary root.

.5

8'1.

 

w—ch—a

—pu— .»—. _, ‘

 

Tertiary root:

Fibrous roots:

Fibrous root mat:

Riser:

Sinker root:

Root graft:

160
any root branching off a secondary root and its sub—
sequently finer branches, except for: -
fine brittle roots which had root tips and/or mycorr~
hiza, and broke on touch when dry. They branched in
an antler-like manner. The very thinnest roots in
the soil, less than one millimeter thick. Plentiful
in A0 and A1 horizon, and at the extremities of tert-
iary roots. Sometimes called hair roots or feeder
roots. That part of the root system through which
water and nutrients enter.
fibrous roots having become thoroughly intertwined
into a dense mat of fine rootlets in the A0 and A1
surface soil horizons. This was the place where
mycorrhiza were surrounding the root tips.
any secondary root which originated on the upper side
of a lateral root, and branched out in the surface
horizons into tertiary and fibrous roots.
any secondary root originating on the underside of a
lateral, usually going straight downward for several
feet into the subsoil. In rare cases, a lateral
itself mdght turn downwards very abruptly and become
a sinker root. Significant sinker roots were more
common on thick lateral roots, but they were certainly
not exclusively on those.
the case where two roots had grown into one another

‘where they had crossed, either between two laterals

161

of the same tree, or between laterals of different
trees.

Major laterals: the thickest lateral roots which dominated the root
distribution in a certain direction and over the
farthest distance.

Major taproot: the root among a number of taproots which was thick—
est and grew deeper than other taproots. The other
taproots were called secondary taproots.

Root tip: an extremity of the root system of the tree, through
which water and/or nutrients are taken up, be it the
end of the fibrous roots in the surface soil, at the
end of the sinker roots in the subsoil, or the dull
finger-like ends of the taproot and its secondaries.

Centre point: the location from which the roots seemed to originate,
or the point where a line through the centre of the

stem entered the soil surface.

Horizontal and vertical cross~sectional drawings of the root sys-
teme exposed in the deep trenches were made in the field, but have not
been reproduced here. Photographs were made using a thirty-five mm.
camera with either Plus X.or Kodachrome film with the appropriate
flash-bulbs. Pits and trenches which, in isolated instances, received
abundant natural light, were photographed without artificial lighting.

To facilitate interpretation, a six inch length of drinking straw was
used in each photograph. In most cases, photographs in the deep trenches

were taken horizontally; and, where space in the trench allowed, at right

162

angles to the wall in which the face of the object appeared. In pre-
liminary root studies where shallow pits were dug showing lateral root
systems, photographs were taken at oblique angles from above (233}

Plates 1,4,5 etc.).

DESCRIPTIONS OF SOILS AND ROOT SYSTEMS

As was stated previously, the purpose of detailed root studies
was to discover if the differencesin site quality as expressed by
above-ground tree growth were related to differences in morphology
of the root system. That such a relation might exist was suggested
by the findings in Part I. Soils characteristics which.were found
correlated to tree growth.were soil texture, soil moisture, soil depth,
degree of podzolization, groundwater level and gravel content, while
others were indicated as possibly affecting growth, such as structure
and free carbonates. .As the root system is the connecting link,
mechanically and physiologically, between the tree and the soil, the
soil conditions would first affect the roots and subsequently the
tree above the ground.

Another factor to be considered in the purpose of root studies
was that tree height was used as a site indicator. Height is a function
of the ability of the tree to supply water (and therefore nutrients) to
its uppermost parts. This water supply in its turn is determined by
the availability of moisture in the plant environment, especially the
soil, and by the area of root surface through which.water can pass by
osmotic pressure.

During preliminary surveys, it was observed that in older planta-
tions with a stocking between six hundred and twelve hundred stems per
acre, the superficial roots of any one tree reached out into and past
the root systems of adjacent trees. Root systems under such conditions

would appear to become increasingly competitive for space with increasing

164

age of the trees, as compared with a young stand which still had space
to spare. Therefore to study roots at the stage of full profile utili-
zation, the oldest available plantations were selected.

In order to study the effect of soil characteristics on root
development and distribution, the widest range in soil conditions was
selected from the plantations available. The root studies were limited,
therefore, to profiles varying widely in texture, horizon sequence,
drainage, degree of podzolization, gravel content and accompanying
characteristics. Special attention.was given to those onedvariable
soil sequences discussed in Part I. For genetic and catenary relation-
ships between soil series, see Table I in Part I.

The Grayling sand stood in lithosequence with Rousseau fine sand,
and in toposequence with Croswell sand. The Au Gres sand was the most
poorly-drained member of the latter sequence on which red pines have
been planted and have survived, but it was also podzolized.

Soils studied in sequence of degree of podzolization were Gray-
ling sand and Rubicon sand. A minimal Podzol with evidences of thin
textural bands in the C horizon was the Graycalm series.

The Sparta loamy sand was included as a peculiarity: a pseudo-
brunizem which had not carried a natural forest vegetation. The area
‘was cultivated at one time, and became severely eroded by wind.
Hummocks of the remnant prairie proved that between five and ten feet
of soil had blown away in places. Part of the plantation studied was
in such an eroded section, and the root description.was compared with

those from some uneroded plots.

165

The Mancelona loamy sand belonged in the category of stratified
coarse-textured profiles, showing a strong gravel layer, possibly
calcareous, combined with or separate from a textural B horizon and
at variable depth.

The next group of soils were from two-storeyed parent materials
consisting of coarse-textured material of varying thickness overlying
lacustrine clay. In this sequence the effect of depth of the sandy
material and the natural drainage of the profiles could be studied.

In the Gray-Brown Podzolic soil region, the Fox and Kendalville
series represented stratified soils with.moderately fine-textured sub-
soils and gravelly substrate. The Kendalville has a compact till
beneath the gravelly subsoil at a depth of 24 to 42 inches.

At the fine-textured end of the textural range, Morley silt loam
'was studied in a well-drained,Blount silty clay loam in an imperfectly
drained position. These were texturally uniform soil which showed

characteristic Gray-Brown Podzolic profile development.

In the following section, root systems of red pine growing on
the soil types listed are described in detail. The detailed soil pro-
file descriptions which accompany the root description for each site
are found in the Appendix. Information on locations and stand measure-

ments of individual plantations can be found in Table A of the Appendix.

166
l. Grayling_Sand (Plots 116 and 112)_

A shallow pit around a tree in Plot 116 showed (Plate 1) that
laterals branched off the trunk in the upper five to twelve inch
horizon. These had a maximum diameter of one and a half inches near
the trunk, rapidly decreasing to one-half inch.within two feet of the
trunk; and, further, four major laterals ran in four opposing directions.
At an average distance of ten feet from the tree they were running at
depths of four, seven, nine and eighteen inches. They could be followed
at this depth to about fifteen feet (Plate 2) where they inconspicuously
divided into finer roots in the upper six inches of the profile. Neigh-
boring trees were not avoided, but their root systems did not affect
the general direction of each lateral. No root grafting was observed.

Tertiary and fibrous roots branched off the laterals upward
throughout the upper twelve inches of the profile, including the A1,

AB, B22 horizons; but rarely reached down to a depth of thirty inches,
ending just above thin bands of fine gravel.

This tree showed a distinct taproot which started at the root
crown at a ten inch depth and went down to thirty inches. .A secondary
taproot emerged from the root crown, descending to the same depth.

Both roots were divided into multiple finger-like root-tips between the
twenty-six and thirty inch depths.

One tree in the corner of a five foot deep trench had no distinct
taproot, but rather a tapered root crown three to four inches thick which
reached down to a depth of twenty-five to twenty-seven inches. From

twenty-seven inches down, the crown divided up into several major branches

 

, .fi.. \ Plate I

 

i
Oblique view of central portion of root system of a ' W
44 year old red pine on Grayling sand (Plot 116). _
' ’; .4 f I ' ‘ I
~ I I . ‘ | :3
g . , I
1; g ‘ . ‘
' Plate 2

{Oblique view‘ f lateral

root system i a 44 year.

fold red pine plantation
,No. 116 on Grayling sand.

.

.
f
‘ .
I' .
.
\
5. r 7
..
PI
.
. J
' \
-| ~ .1
A
, .
r
.J . ..
. r
.‘ 1
s‘ -
. v
u; . P
1 .1. .
' I..'. U
. , I ‘

168
mostly reaching to between thirty and thirty-six inches of depth, and
continually branched into finer tertiary roots and fine fibrous roots,
mainly between the thirty-six and forty inch depths. Tertiary and
fibrous roots reached to deeper than fifty-four inches, where the,
slightly cemented sandy bands occurred.

Plate 3 shows the concentration of tertiary roots and accompany-
ing fibrous roots in the upper twelve inches, holding the sand together,
in contrast to the lower horizons where root concentration was very small,
and where the sand had caved in.

The tree in another trench corner had a taproot which was distinct
from the root crown at twenty-six inches and downward to about sixty-six
inches where it broke up into secondary roots. The latter diverged
diagonally downward to all sides and had somewhat abrupt fibrous endings
(Plate 4). .All of these ended at a depth of seventy-two inches, except
one which proceeded down to eighty-four inches. This main taproot had
some short secondary roots split off between twenty-six and thirty-six
inches, which ran diagonally downward for twelve to eighteen inches and
broke up into fine fibrous roots above the gravel bands. A secondary
taproot, which came from the side of the root crown, showed major branch-
ing off at a depth of thirty inches, while it itself continued down to a
forty-five inch depth in the zone of thin gravel bands.

The seven main laterals could be traced in five general directions,
the thickest not exceeding two inches in diameter at a distance of one
foot from the trunk, and all decreasing to one-half inch within a four

foot distance of the trunk. Each ran laterally between four and ten

I o
I . | ’4 ... I i I
v . m»; V I . ' I
.
‘ '1 ~ :: 'J ; r" ~
I' ‘I I t t | ’
1 I‘ f .

 

Plate 3
Oblique view of lateral
root concentration in ,
the upper foot 18 inches
(A + B22) of Grayling
sand (Plot 116). -
q
i f
‘1‘
n '7 . 1 _..
A l .
: i -
- c
’.. I
[Plate 4
Taproot of.a 44 year old
red pine in1Grayling
sand (Plot,l16).
.’ A
\. a .‘ I”
l ' ' ‘
I ' A- :‘.‘§‘- ‘ ‘ n

170
inches deep, and was the source of all secondary, tertiary and fibrous
roots in the surface soil horizons.

.A check on the root system of a representative tree on a north
slope in Plot 119 showed an indistinct taproot to an eighteen inch
depth. There were between twelve and fifteen distinct lateral roots

about one inch thick near the root crown and radiating in all directions.

;, Rousseau-Fine Sand (Plot 117)

A.preliminary shallow pit around one representative tree showed the
following.

A double taproot came off the root crown at a fourteen inch depth
and reached down to forty inches, the average thickness of the root
being one and one-half inches, measured at twenty inch depth. Both were
strongly forked into coarse finger-like root-tips of about one-eighth
inch thickness, from twenty-eight inches downwards (Plate 5).

Seventeen laterals branched off the root crown within fourteen
inches of depth and radiated in four major directions. The thickest
lateral was two point three inches thick at a one foot distance from
the tree, but the average thickness was between eight tenths and one
inch. .At a distance of about three feet from the tree, the depth of
these laterals varied from five to ten inches below the soil surface,
with an average of seven inches. The side of the root crown fromrwhich
laterals started always determined the direction in which the root grew
out in more or less a straight line, except where forking made two roots

diverge in slightly different directions.

 

2‘ l. ‘ , . ,-
t
'_ Plate 5 fl ‘1
Oblique View of root :
system of 45 year‘dld‘
red pines in Rousseau;
fine sand in Plot ll?.
1 IV, ‘-
i 3 p
f "
x .
'1" ,‘r ,
3
v I .'
} Plate 6 ,
; Oblique view of_deep'b
trench in Rousseau fihe
‘ sand showing lateral?
,1 root concentration im
the surface soil under‘ ‘I
a 45 year old red pine
plantation. 4
. j_ “
. . a" ~‘- . '. :“"‘--t ‘1‘ "" ""“ "9". _ V. -
I .1. v . . .

172

Several lateral roots from adjacent trees entered the pit and
proceeded on a straight course, if the pit ran alongside the root
crown. Two such laterals running directly towards the tree bent off
sharply downward at about two feet from the root crown and proceeded
into the subsoil for five or six feet into the very fine sandy C2.

A detailed root study in a trench between two trees produced the
following data:

The sections of the root system of one tree exposed by the trench
showed two laterals, one and four tenths and two and eight tenths inches
thick, at a twenty and twenty-four inch depth respectively, measured one
foot away from the tree. Three laterals of six tenths inches thickness,
and all originating in other trees, ran through the trench at depths of
eight, eight and thirteen inches. One sinker root branched off a lateral
fifteen inches away from the tree and proceeded vertically downward for
twenty-four inches. From this and other laterals there was extensive
branching into secondary roots in the upper sixteen inches of the pro-
file, 132, in the top horizons including the B2 horizon (Plates 6 and 7).
From these secondary roots, the A0 and A1 horizons were supplied with
a matted network of fine fibrous roots. This concentration of secondary
and fibrous roots in the upper horizon could be found anywhere along
the trench walls.

There was a taproot, two and seven tenths inches thick at a two
foot depth, and running down to ninety inches in depth, branching in
.finger-like forked root-tips at that level in a coarse sandy horizon.

TFhere was a marked amount of branching off the taproot in the C horizon

 

Plate 7

Oblique closeuup of
lateral root eoncen-
tration in upper 16
inches of Rousseau fine
sand of Plot_1l7 undEI
45 year old red'pine.

Plate 8

Oblique close-up of
tertiary and fibrous
roots in stratified
very fine sand where a
sinker root.dascended
(Rousseau fine sand in
Plot 117). '

174
at a forty-six inch depth in textural bands, just above which they
tended to accumulate with numerous fine fibrous roots (see bottom of
Figure 7).

The visible lateral roots of the tree in the other corner of the
plot had a thickness of one, one and six tenths, and one and eight tenths
inches at one foot from the root crown and were at depths of eight, four-
teen and eight inches respectively. One lateral had a descending sinker
root branching off and going downwards for twenty-one inches. The main
taproot was one and seven tenths inches thick at two feet depth and
descended to a ninety inch depth, with branching in the zone with tex-
tural bands between forty—six and fifty-four inches. Other thin secondary
roots ran alongside the taproot down into the zone above the textural
bands, with branching starting at a thirty inch depth.

The trench walls showed a very distinct concentration of lateral
and secondary roots in the A and B horizons, with an abrupt decrease
in the lower B3 horizon at about twenty inches. There were virtually
no roots in the C1 horizon. The C2 was characterized by a very fine
sandy texture and three or four half to one inch wide textural bands
which ran continuously and horizontally, and in which fibrous roots
were concentrated, however only where sinker roots descended from
laterals (Plate 8), or at the place where the taproot branched out. No
roots were observed below this horizon of very fine sand, in what was

the medium sandy C3 from a ninety inch depth downwards.

3. Croswell Sand (Plot 121)

A pit in three quadrangles around a representative tree showed a

175

single slightly curved taproot under the root crown, with a thickness
of three inches at a two foot depth. This taproot scarcely tapered as
it reached down to a depth of forty-two inches into the zone of mottling,
where it had coarse fingerulike root-tips on the abruptly ending major
taproot (Plate 9). A root of one-eighth inch thickness branched off the
taproot at a fifteen inch depth and assumed the function of an ordinary
lateral.
. There were three laterals visible ranging between one and three
inches in thickness, the thickest having a sinker root branching down-
wards at twenty inches from the trunk, and continuing down to the zone
of mottling.'

Laterals and their derivatives were concentrated in the upper fif-
teen inches of the profile, with the major concentration in the 82 horizon

and matted fibrous roots in the A1 horizon. A good example of a sinker

root branching off can be observed on the left of Plate 10.

4. Au Gres Sand (Plot 112)

 

A preliminary survey in a shallow pit showed a concentration of
thick laterals within one quadrant (Plate 11). These eight laterals
were between one and three and six tenths inches thick, one foot away
from the IOOt crown, and were at depths of four to twelve inches measured
thirty inches from the tree. The concentration of roots towards one
quadrant would indicate preference in the direction of slightly wider
spacing, and lower root concentration.

A double taproot branched off the root crown at a four inch depth.

Both branches were about two and one half inches thick and had major

 

 

Plate 9

Oblique view of a shallow
pit around the centrab
part of the root system-
of a 43 year old red pine
in Croswell sand (Plot
121) showing root crown
with lateral roots and
taproots. 1

Plate 10 , 2

Same tree as in_Plate.9'
showing lateral roots,g
one with a sinker root.‘

 

Plate 11

Oblique view of lateral
root system ofdau3l year
old red pine in Au Gres
sand (Plot 112).

x ;’. ’l ‘
Plate 12 "_ 7‘

Oblique view of a pro-fl
file wall of a deep
trench in Au Gres?sand
(Plot 112) showing conm
centration of lateral
roots in the Podzpl B
horizon and the gnay Az'
horizon under a 31 year‘
old red pine plantation,

178
branching at a sixteen inch depth, gradually forking out in finger-like
root-tips down to a thirty-four inch level, The major branching occurred
in the Podzol B horizon, and roots ended just above the permanent (or
perched)'water~table.

Another tree with five major laterals ranging from seven tenths to
two and one tenth inches in thickness, had roots reaching out as far as
fifteen feet, Ten feet from the tree, they had become one-eighth inch
thick and very hard to follow further, A root would continue its origi-
nal direction, unless it branched, in which case one root would proceed
straight on and the other would turn sideways, One lateral grew out
directly underneaifli the root crown of an adjacent tree, but could not
be followed after that. A lateral from a neighboring tree grew straight
toward the tree studied but by-passed it one inch away, and going over
its laterals, continuing in a more or less straight line. The thickest
lateral not only branched laterally at two feet from the trunk, but had
a sinker root going straight downward until just above the groundwater
level.

A trench between two trees showed secondary roots concentrated in

the upper sixteen inches, mostly in the lower B21 and upper 322 horizons,

and hardly any in the.A2 horizon (Plate 12). Laterals from which these
secondary roots originated were found between depths of six and ten
inches, with thicknesses ranging from one and two tenths to two and two
tenths inches at one foot away from the tree. Secondary roots sent

fibrous roots into the A0 and the.Al horizons but the majority of roots

found there originated from Vaccinium and Kalmia which had filled the

179
surface layers with a very tough mat of superficial root systems.

The one tree had two taproots'with an average thickness of two
and six tenths inches at a twenty inch depth (Plate 13). One root
branched at a twenty inch depth, the other at twenty-seven inches,
with the latter sending off laterals at a fourteen inch depth, going
laterally into the trench;wall. From the branched taproots, tertiary
and thick fibrous roots differentiated mainly at a twentyufour to

twenty-eight inch depth in the C1 horizon (where mottling was evident)

and grew downward to the grounddwater level. The thickest taproot
ended rather abruptly at a twenty-seven inch depth with minor and short
secondaries reaching to just above the water level at forty—two inches
(cut off in Plate 13).

The other tree had one major taproot, with a few secondary roots
originating from laterals, going downward alongside. Secondary roots
branched off the taproot at twenty-eight inches in depth, and all roots
reached downward through the C1 to form coarse finger-like tertiary roots
and coarse fibrous roots at a thirty-three inch depth (Plate 14). Several
of the latter actually continued below the ground-water at forty-two
inches, and turned black in contrast to the brown root-tips in the aerated
horizon.

In the trench wall, occasional bundles of thin one-fourth inch
sinker roots were seen coming from laterals and reaching down to a thirty
to thirty-six inch depth, or just above grounddwater level, and into

lenses of cemented sand (Plate 12).

 

 

Plate 13

Taproots of a tree in

a 31 year old red pine
plantation in Au Gres
sand on Plot 112 showing
abrupt ending at the
zone of mottling.

l
Plate 14

Taproot of anotherfltree
in 31 year old red ine
plantation in Au Gres
sand in Plot 112.;

181

5. Graycalm Sand (Near Plot 1041

A.preliminary study of the lateral root system on one tree in a
shallow pit showed a single thick taproot; four inches thick at a
fifteen inch depth, 132} four inches below the root crown. There were
three major laterals of about three inches in diameter emerging on
three sides of the root crown. One lateral branched at one foot from
the tree, sending a sinker root vertically down to deeper horizons.
Other laterals forked also at several places, the separate roots going
in the same lateral direction in the upper twelve inches of the profile.
.A lateral growing off the taproot just below the root crown went later-
ally for eighteen inches, then straight downward to lower horizons.
There were about ten thin laterals of less than one inch in diameter.
Lateral roots were all less than eighteen inches deep.

.A trench between two trees showed thick laterals up to two and
one half inches in diameter. One lateral came diagonally off the root
collar for one foot then went abruptly downward to a gravel layer at an
eight and one half foot depth, gradually becoming thinner from the two
inch to four foot depth, becoming one inch at the seven foot depth. It
had branching at four feet in a layer of slight textural bands, the sec-
ondary roots scattering about and often reaching down to five and one-half
feet. A one-fourth inch sinker root from another lateral used the same
passway downward.

Laterals concentrated in the upper two feet of the profile and the
root crown itself extended down equally as deep. Secondary, tertiary

and fibrous roots especially accumulated in the B2 and B3'horizons with

182

few or none deeper than twenty-seven inches, except for occasional
thin half-inch sinker roots branching off laterals (as shown in Plate
15), and which might descend as deep as sixty inches.

One tree had a very distinct taproot of two inches in thickness
at a one and a half foot depth, branching abruptly at twenty-seven inches
into multiple finger-like secondary and tertiary roots, which lay more
or less in one plane on both sides of the tap. The deepest rootlets
reached to a thirty-seven inch depth (Plate 16).

The taproot on the other tree was not as clearly defined. A major
taproot was similar to the one shown in Figure 6, a second taproot was
quite the same except for a secondary root branching from it diagonally

to a forty-two inch depth.

6. Rubicon Sand (Plot 25)

 

This plot was selected as this was a stand on Rubicon sand with
a site index higher than average for this soil type; and also for a
comparison.with the Graycalm plot discussed under the previous section
(1.5. location 5) .

The lateral part of the root system'was very strongly developed.
Most of it was concentrated in the upper twelve inches (Plate 17), but
one root two inches thick was observed to grow down to twenty-four inches
and then laterally at that depth. Secondary roots branched from the
taproot in the B horizon but none below the B. Thin sinker roots from
the lateral descended to the bands of finer sand between thirty-six and
forty-eight inch depth.

Taproots were not described in detail but it was observed that both

 

Plate 15

A lateral root and itg
sinker roots of a 41.,
year old red pine in

Graycalm sand in Plot
103. ‘

V

Plate 16

Taproot (center) and a
cut-off sinker root ‘
(right) of a 47 year

old red pine in Graycalm
sand of Plot 103 (actual
height shown is 30 inches?..

 

Plate 17

Oblique view of a trench in Rubicon sand
of Plot 25, showing concentration of
lateral roots in A and B horizons and
sinker roots ending in bands of fine
sand at forty-two inch depth under a

32 year old red pine plantation.

185
trees had deep root crowns down to thirty inches, and that the taproots
were extensively branched. They reached no deeper than the lower part
of the banded zone or to about sixty inches depth where they branched

extensively somewhat similar to the sinker root, shown in Plate 16.

7. Sparta Loamy Sand (Plots 45, 45A and 46)

.A preliminary study of the lateral root system in Plot 45 showed
a multitude of roots, without clear distinction betweeh lateral and
taproots (Plate 18).

A.trench revealed a major concentration of distinct lateral roots
in the upper six to eight inches, and up to two inches in thickness;
but there was secondary root concentration throughout the A1, 1,2} the
upper fifteen inches. Fibrous roots were not limited to a superficial
soil surface horizon, but were interwoven throughout the upperA1 hori-
zon. From the half-inch major taproot of one tree, two laterals of
one-fourth inch thickness split off at a depth of twenty inches. One
of them proceeded almost parallel to the surface or slightly downward,
for more than three feet, sending down very thin sinker roots along
the way, which, in turn, grew vertically down into the lower C1 horizon.
Here, they branched into little clusters of fibrous roots in, between,
and just above three or four textural bands (0.1 and 0.3 inches thick)
and the adjacent zones of moisture (Plates 19, 20 and 21).

The taproot itself curved below the root crown and went downward
about six inches off the centre point, growing down to the thirty-six

inch level without any distinct branching at the end. Adjoining sec-

ondaries and their fibrous roots filled spaces in and between the

 

Platerl8‘

Oblique View of lateral
roots and taproot of a
20 year old red-pine in
Sparta loamy sand of
Plot 45. ”

Plate 19

View from the side of
fibrous roots and texu'
tural bands in Sparta I
loamy sand of Plot 45
under a 20 year old

red pine. ‘ .

 

I 35......

 

 

 

Plate 20

Taproot and laterals
with sinker roots of a
20 year old red pine
in Sparta loamy sand
of Plot 45.

Plate 21

Lower end of taproot
and sinker roots of a
20 year old red pine
with thin sinker roots
ending in textural
band zone on left.

188
texture bands at a forty-two inch depth. Some fibrous roots of about
one-twentieth inch in thickness penetrated the,textural bands and went
down into the moist C2 horizon. Three of four one-fourth inch secondary
taproots ended in the forty-two inch zone, and one of these was unbranched
as far as the C2 horizon, where it broke up into many fine fibrous roots.-

The other tree had a similar lateral root system, and a major tap-
root one-half inch thick, also six inches from centre point (Plate 21).
The latter had no branching down until in the moist C2 horizon, with
thin (one-eighth inch) secondary and tertiary roots descending to about
seventy inches in depth to a zone with texture bands. Secondary roots
branching off the taproot at twenty-four inches (top of Plate 21) showed
fine subdivision in the banded zone at forty-two inches. The taproot
itself was slightly zig-zagged on passage through the banded horizon,
without any secondary roots branching off. One or two secondary tap-
roots showed similar slender vine-like roots with prolific branching
from forty~two inches on downwards (at the right of Plate 21).

Another trench in this soil series was made in Plot 46. Lateral
roots were similar in that there were many up to one and one-half inches
othick supplying the A1 horizon extensively with a mass of woody and
fibrous roots. Trees had no distinct taproots, but rather a number of
secondary taproots of one-eighth to one-fourthfinch thick, enveloped
in fibrous roots, and which reached down from thirty-six to forty-four
inches in depth to a moist zone. Sinker roots from laterals appeared
mostly as fibrous roots and descended down to the top of the moisture

zOne in the C horizon.

 

 

 

 

189
8. k§parta Loamy,Sand,_Eroded Phase

The surface horizons of the Sparta series, being coarse textured
and high in organic matter, eroded severely once the wind lifted the
tilled soil after the grass cover was broken. Parts of the plantation
sampled in Plots 45 and 46 were on this eroded phase. Plate 22 shows
the eroded phase in the foreground with poor survival and growth of the
twenty~year old red pine (fifty per cent survival, average height seven
feet). In the background.was the uneroded phase with the soil surface
six feet higher and trees showing high survival and good growth (one
hundred per cent survival, nineteen feet height average). Even though
it was clear that poor survival was likely to be due to the extreme
micro-climate above, and in, the bare sand surface, the poor growth
might be explained from root studies.

A.tree of below-average height had several laterals spreading out
within a few inches from the surface for five or a maximum of ten feet.
(Plates 23 and 24). There were many secondary laterals spreading later-
ally or diagonally downward for one or two feet and a definite taproot
of eighteen incheS’in length. The entire root system was conspicuous
for its absence of any significant fibrous roots.

In the same blown-out planting, a trench between two trees of more
than average height showed considerable root accumulation (in the upper
eighteen inches) of secondary, tertiary and fibrous roots, associated
with laterals up to one inch in thickness. Tertiary and fibrous roots,
acting as vertical sinker roots, descended to thin moist color bands

in the C horizon at an average depth of twenty-eight inches, or down

 

‘ ' Plate 23
Root system of a 20 year old red pine in
of Sparta loamy sand. -‘

 

Plate 22

XView of a 20 year old
red pine plantation
”on Sparta loamy sand
and the eroded phase
(Plots 45 and 45A)-
Trees in foreground
average seven feet in_
height, in background'
nineteen feet. '

‘4

 

 

Plate 24

Close-up of the root
crown shown in Plate
23. '

Plate 25

Oblique view of pro-,
file and root systan5
of a 20 year old tree
in Sparta loamy sand,
* eroded phase. a

192
to the moist sand below thirty inches (Plate 25). A characteristic
example of this type of rooting was a one-fifth inch thick secondary
root separating from a lateral at a ten inch depth, and descending
undivided to the top of the moist zone, where it branched into fibrous
and tertiary woody roots which spread in all directions, mostly hori-
zontally, and following faint color bands down about thirty inches.
Other sinker roots were found reaching forty-eight and sixty inches
in depth, with distinct fibrous root subdivision at the end. Taproots
were indistinct; instead, there were, below one tree, one or two roots
one-fourth inch thick sparsely surrounded by short fibrous roots which
just reached the moist horizon. The function of the taproot was taken
over by a number of diagonally descending semi-laterals of one-fourth
to one-half inch thickness. One was found to end at a twenty-eight
inch depth, another at fifty inches, where they divided into thin

fibrous roots which followed the faint color bands laterally.

9. Mancelona Loamy Sand (Near Plot 49)

Preliminary studies indicated the presence of a strong lateral
root system (Plate 26) in this physiologically shallow soil in.which
the strongly gravelly textural B horizon came as close as thirty inches
to the surface in places. A major lateral was dug out and could be
followed laterally for fifteen feet, at which stage the root dissolved
into the secondary and tertiary roots of the AP horizon (Plate 27).

From a trench study, it was evident that laterals spread in the

AP horizon and several went down diagonally into the B22 (Plate 28).

Plate 26

Oblique view of part
of the lateral root
system of a 29 year
old red pine in
Mancelona loamy sand
w.";.“lfifiifln ,- ,'-/ in Plot 49.

1.- .
_ a‘yf ‘ /,
.f a ..‘
.' l

 

Plate ’27
Oblique view of the
thick lateral reot-
shown in Plate 26.’

x

 

 

Plate 28

Profile and root sys~
tem of a 29 year old
red pine in Mancelona
loamy sand (Plot 49] 7
showing the position
above the textural B
horizon at thirty—six
inch depth. ’

Plate 29

Same tree as Plate_28,
here showing the pro~
file and roots below
thirty inch depth down
to sixty-six inch depth.

 

 

,ug-

195
The B22 horizon was filled with secondary, tertiary and fibrous roots,
many or all of these originating from numerous sinker roots. Some of
these passed into the C1 and terminated just above and in the upper
inches of the Bt horizon, where they branched out profusely into fine
brittle fibrous roots (Plate 29).

The other tree with diameter less than stand average (four and
seven tenths inches) had a much less extensive lateral root system; and
sinkers, wherever present, were short and terminated in the 822 or C1
horizons without significant branching (Plate 30).

Taproots were ill-defined in both cases. The first tree had a
major taproot among several secondary taproots which went down to a
seventy inch depth, where it terminated in a moist zone above the gravel
band. Tertiary and multiple fibrous roots split off in the Bt horizon,
and the moist zones above the lower gravel bands. For the remainder, this
taproot itself was a single vineulike root one-fourth inch thick, which-
twisted its way vertically downward along planes of least resistance,
but two or three of its secondaries accompanied it for portions of its
general course (Plate 29). Secondary taproots spread out diagonally
downward from the root crown at a twelve inch depth, occupying a maximum
lateral distance of three feet away from the centre point. Where the
diagonal roots hit the Bt horizon, they grew vertically downward. There
was a good deal of branching into secondaries, which terminated downward
just above or in the upper inches of the Bt horizon. Taproots passing
through the textural B were wrapped in clusters of tertiary and fibrous

roots which also penetrated sideways in this horizon for six to twelve

‘ "...-u ,

“v‘ .

 

Plate 30 W

Upper part of roOt
system of a 32 year

old red pine in ’ . ‘
Mancelona loamy sand,
shown downward to
thirty inch depth.

Plate 31 _
Lower part of taproot
system of same tree aS‘
shown in Plate 30, show-
ing branching in the
gravelly B horizon and
root-tips in a zone of
thin textural bandsb

197
inches at most. 'Where the roots (Plate 29) traversed the C horizon
there was little or no branching until they ended in a moist, some-
what loamy coarse sand zone at fifty-six inch depth just above the
gravel layer, where there was profuse branching like that in the Bt'
There was no distinct major taproot under the smaller tree, but rather
four of like shape and size which.were similar to the secondary tap-
roots of the other tree. There was some branching into short secondaries
throughout the B22 and C1 but subdivision into fibrous roots happened
only in the upper inches of the textural B horizon where all roots
terminated.

The trench exposed a secondary root of still another tree at a

four foot distance, and it was found to grow vertically down into the

Bt horizon.

10, Mancelona Loamy Sand (Near Plot 48)

Profile cross-sections along the trench walls showed an extensive
lateral root system with an average of two or three roots of two inches
in thickness per quadrant, all within the upper eighteen inches. ‘All
laterals had thin sinker roots which reached down to just above or into
the Bt horizon (Plate 30 right top corner). The fibrous roots of these
sinkers could be found everywhere throughout the Bt horizon but never
below it in the C1 horizon, $32, below a forty-two inch depth. The
lateral broken off in Plate 31 continued across the trench, into the
opposite wall, but it sent a sinker root down at three feet from the
central point. It was a single vine-like root, knotty and twisted while

passing through the Bt, branching into several "vines” at a depth of

198
sixty inches in the C1, which vines were strung and turned around one
another, and sometimes were grafted. This string of roots did not send
off any tertiary or fibrous roots, and continued down to a moist sand
layer at ten feet depth.

This same tree had two major taproots one and a half to two inches
thick, going parallel and downwards without branching (Plate 31). Plates
30 and 31 showed that there was profuse branching in the upper Bt with
secondaries going in all directions and dissolving into tertiaries and
fibrous roots throughout the gravelly and calcareous loamy sand of the

3t“ The one-fourth inch thick roots which emerged from the Bt into the

C1 showed branching into tertiary and fibrous roots at numerous places
between fifty and sixty~six inches depth. Plate 39 shows the presence
of many irregular one-eighth inch thick vein-like textural bands in and
above which fibrous roots terminated. Moreover, the sand below the
sixty~two inch depth was moist from there on downward.

The lateral root system of the other tree was essentially similar
to that described. There was one taproot which divided at a depth of
two feet into a thin secondary of half~inch thick, and the major tap-
root (Plate 32). The secondary root continued straight down for one
foot into the Bt where it ended without significant branching. The two
inch thick taproot curved sideways diagonally (Plate 33) and was twisted
and knotty throughout the Bt, finding places of least resistance. No
significant branching in this horizon was observed, and it continued
into the C where this vine-like root turned downward at a place two

feet away from the centre point in the C1 horizon. There it broke up

 

 

a.

' Plate 32

Root collar with cfit-.
off lateral root and
taproot system of a
32 year old red pine
in Mancelona loamy
sand (Plot 48) show-j
ing sinker roots endv
ing in textural B .
horizon and the curved
taproot at the right;

Plate 33

Lower portion of root"
system shown in Plate.
32 showing strong our-
ving and branching.of:[
secondary taproot in
gravelly B horizon and“
secondary roots ending
in zone of textural
bands at sixty-six inch
depth with the major _
taproot pressing down
on the right.

200
into four "vines" and continued downward as was described for a simi-
lar root of the other tree to a depth of eight or ten feet.

Both root crowns had a few secondary taproots which grew down-
ward, ending in the Bt horizon (Plate 32).

From the description it follows that no roots were observed below
the textural B horizon, except those that were connected with taproots
and their derivatives. Root-tips of roots which continued in the C
horizon ended in a zone of thin quarter-inch thick loamy sand textural

bands at sixty-six inch depth (Plate 33).

11. Melita Sand (P10: 42)

A pit was dug around a tree where the coarse textured surface soil
layer was forty-eight inches thick. The profile description was of a
still deeper phase of this soil series. There was a strongly developed
lateral root system. Ten major roots could be counted in three quadrants,
ranging in thickness between one and four tenths and two and a half inches
(Plate 34). Lateral roots were concentrated in the lower AP and upper B22
(332, between depths of six and sixteen inches) with the majority just
above the B22 horizon. Two laterals had significant sinker roots visible
within three feet of the root crown. One sinker root coming off a lat-
eral at twelve inches was grafted to a second lateral six inches lower,
and continued straight down to the clay subsoil at fortyéeight inches
(Center of Plate 34).

The root crown was elongated below the trunk into a thick taproot

of four and one-half inches in thickness, which divided into separate

 

   

I
o. . l ' ‘ ‘
5 ' l
.\
. t, _
‘ \
n‘ 1
. _ ~. I k
b ‘ |
2‘.
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't
I "-
. ‘3‘ ’\. - . p 1‘” b L. I" ,1 v
q ‘5 ' l“ Plate 34 "51):! ".3845“ ‘l x
‘ . . " ' . , " ' ‘-
Oblique view of root system of a 25 year old red pine in — ' ‘
Melita series (sand over silty clay loam) in Plot 42. fl 3
. _. ‘fi
9 ‘ ’. ‘ <‘
L‘ -
l ‘I
‘ " {a

 

‘5

Plate 35 5‘. =1;

.

YTaproot system of, 8225'
‘year old red pine in

“ Menominee sand showing

_ extensive branching Jain;

the zone of intermittent ‘
‘moisture and twisting ' ‘ .
. of abruptly ending.roqt-_ ‘ \

i

\

tips just above the ,‘
silty clay loam. " "

u

 

 

 

 

ii

O

202
roots at a twenty-inch depth. Two went straight down towards the clay
subsoil and dissolved into secondary root-tips in the mottled horizon,
while one went diagonally downward. A second thinner taproot and all
sinker roots went vertically down branching profusely in the mottled

zone, at forty-two inch depth.

lg. Menominee Loamy Sand (Plot 43)

A trench.was dug between two trees in a Menominee-like profile
with a thirty-six inch layer of sand over the silty clay loam substrate.
Root systems of the two trees showed a massive accumulation of secondary,
tertiary and fibrous roots in the B22 horizon between nine and twenty-
one inches in depth (Plate 36). Numerous thin sinker roots of one-eighth
inch or less went down from lateral roots, towards the nine inch horizon
of mottled sand just above the silty clay loam; there they branched into
antlerélike white root-tips. Some of these rigid tertiary roots were
found growing into the compact clay loam for three or four inches, where
they would end rather abruptly without further branching. No fine
fibrous roots were found at this depth (Plate 37).

Taproots were illudefined and rather insignificant in size on both
trees. They were about one-quarter inch thick, growing straight down
to a thirty-six inch depth, thence proceeding in a zig-zag manner into
the lacustrine clay, where they did some dichotomous branching into
thin secondaries for another six inches, without forming any fine fibrous
roots (Plate 35). The smallest roots at this depth were some tertiary

roots of one-sixteenth inch thickness.

 

 

Plate 36

View of trench wall show-
ing concentration of lat~
eral roots in B horizon
of Menominee profile
(Plot 43) under a 25

year old red pine plantay
tion. . '

Plate 37

Trench wall showing
sandy surface storey

of Menominee snpd from
surface to thirty-six
inch depth. Lateral
roots accumulate in
lower B horizon and
occasional sinkers end
just above the substratum
of silty clay loam (Plot
43).

,‘ .
Q “ I
, .
V
I C _. -.
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s 9

0
odd. sO'r

 

 

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.
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0
“3K ‘ (93* fi

204

As shown in Plate 37, there was an accumulation of short black
fibrous roots at about the level of intermittent water saturation
above the clay loam.

Red pine roots in a more heterogeneous stratified profile of the
Menominee series in Plot 41, as judged from a four by seven foot pit
on one side of a tree, showed several thick laterals extending in several
directions. Of the four visible in the two quadrants, the thickness was
between two and four and a half inches at one foot from.the tree, and
athe depth at three feet from the tree was between eight and twelve inches.
The thickest lateral showed two sinker roots of one inch thickness,
branching downwards one foot away from the tree. The taproot had not
branched into noticeable secondary roots. Small sinker roots were also
'found on other laterals. Both sinker and taproots grew down to the
fine textured subsoil at a twenty-six inch depth, and slightly into it,
as described similarly in the previous profile. Thin bands of silt
material in the sandy surface showed no effect on root branching.

Towards the edge of Plot 43, the sandcover wedged out to become
eighteen inches thick, and beyond the point where coarse material over
clay subsoil became less than eighteen inches, no trees had survived.

An edge tree had a strongly developed lateral root system with
six major roots going towards all sides, in the three quadrants observed
(Plate 38). The laterals had a thickness between one and one tenth and
one and eight tenths inches, and one thick one of two and eight tenths
inches forked into two equal halves. Only one large sinker root of about

one-half inch diameter was found to go diagonally downward. The taproot

Plate 38

Oblique view of root
system of a 25 year old
pine in shallow phase.
of Manominee sand over;
silty clay loam (Plot_
43) .

   
 

 
   

1

A. :2‘1‘, " 7 an
' CL!" ,7)“ firifl' 5\ fl"-
-. -AT'L'./‘£'L(‘l.)l l" ‘ A.

‘7."

Plate 39

Oblique view of root
system of a 25 year old
red pine in Arenac sand
over silty clay loam‘in
Plot 40. ‘

 

 

206
was a system of multiple roots of half inch thickness coming off the
root crown, and mostly ending just above the clay. Four or five centre
ones, however, actually went into the clay for several inches, and ended

in dichotomously forked coarse finger-like secondary root~tips.

13. Arenac Sand (Plot 40)

The Arenac profile studied had about forty-two inches of sand
overlying the calcareous silty clay loam. The ground water level stood
at thirty inches, with evidence of gleying as shallow as twenty-six
inches. On one tree in this imperfectly drained soil, there were four
lateral roots, each about three inches thick going to two opposite
sides. Of two laterals emerging one directly above the other, the
upper bend abruptly at the root crown, as if to fill a soil space not
occupied by other roots (see Plates 39 and 40). A.detailed study in
a trench on this soil revealed the concentration of these thick lat-
eral roots in the upper ten inches (1,23 the A1) horizon) but many small
half inch lateral roots were found in the ten to twenty inch horizon
(1,3, the B22 horizon) similar to the better drained Menominee profile.
Beneath the B22 there were no roots, except those connected with one-
fourth inch sinker roots originating from the laterals. These sinker
roots were tough secondary roots of which only four or five were found
on a trench wall of nine feet, and there were several underneath each
root crown. Most of these ended abruptly just above the gley zone at
a twenty-six inch depth, in dull black finger-like root-tips. Some of

these sinker roots showed profuse branching in and below the gley zone,

:w;-. A

 

 

“ Plate 40
Oblique view of the-same root’system as shown in Plate 39.

a"

Plate 41

Oblique view of a profile
wall in Arenac sand show-
ing the appearance of a
sinker root of a 25 year
old red pine passing
through the zone of
intermittent water to
below groundwater level.

208
so that the secondaries were covered by a sheath of short tertiary
rootlets (Plate 41). One such a one-eighth inch thick sinker con-
tinued into the gley zone and below the water level to about the
thirty-six inch depth. The short rootlets were colored blue-black
wherever they ran below the permanent or temporary ground water level,
as if they were covered with reduced iron compounds, and they appeared
brittle and dead. .Elsewhere in the reduced horizon there was evidence
of ”ghost" root channels which were not now connected with the root
system, and which were filled with black organic residues and iron
sulphide.

Taproots on the two trees were similar to those in the shallow
phase Menominee profile, in having a number of roots emerging from
the root crown and growing out on all sides diagonally downward, with
one or two being more prominent than others. Plates 42 and 43 show
the end of these central taproots. The thickest of one inch, was un-
branched down to the twenty-six inch level where there was profuse
short branching into blue-black rootlets (Plate 43). These were as
long as the thickness of the oxidized gley zone, and none was found
growing into the reduced G horizon below thirty inches. The thinner

diagonal taproots ended in an identical manner.

14. Fox-Boyer-Kendalville Sandy Loams

Two stands were studied in this category. The soil of Plot 34
‘was characterized by a stratified profile of sandy loam and loam,

‘with a high percentage of gravel over calcareous sandy loam parent

M

{a

Plate 42

Oblique view of taproot ‘
system of a 25 year 01‘
red pine in relation to
groundwater level in
Arenac sand over silty
clay (Plot 40);. .

Plate 43

Taproot of a 25 year
old tree in Arenac
sand over silty clay,
showing the abrupt '
ending at the ground-
water level. Above
are two lateral routs
cut off. '

 

210

material, and with a fifteen to eighteen inch thick textural B horizon.
Its vertical profile sequence was characteristic of the Kendalville
series but its gravel contents and the lateral variation in the coarse
textured horizons would rank it as Fox sandy loam.

.A shallow pit revealed stratification of soil layers as well as
gravel, and some pebbles were themselves flattened and parallel to the
surface. Due to erosion, the finer textured B horizon.was only one
half foot down. These textures caused a very shallow lateral root
system, made up of numerous (fifteen per two quadrants) roots between
one half and two inches in thickness, radiating in all directions.
They emerged from the root crown at a depth of four inches and did
not descend below eight inches (Plate 44). Very noticeable was the
twisting and zig-zag growth of the laterals due to obstruction by
stones. Unlike any previously described lateral roots, these did not
necessarily proceed in the direction whence they had started, but
some turned ninety degrees to follow another course. No sinkers of
significance were observed, but there were many short risers which
supplied the surface soil sparsely with a fibrous root system. Due

to stoniness, the taproot could not be reached.

Because of the thickness of the textural B horizon, the soil
under Plot 33 was correlated as Fox sandy loam, but its coarse texture
and lesser stoniness might make it a Boyer sandy loam. .A shallow pit
exposed in two quadrants three major laterals between one and four
inches thick. The thickest lateral split up into four laterals each

one inch thick at one foot from the centre point. There were also many

P_late 45
Oblique view of lateral- root system of forty-one year
old red pine in Fox (Boyer) sandy loam (Plot 33).

I ~' I.
I I.
. 9 -
l
'L

 

 

O I
..
.
- - . 2".
\
\ - .
.
. - _
o .
. 1 ~
' . FL
- - v o , 1'

Plate 44 I

Oblique view of lateral
root system of thirty--~
eight year old red pine
in Kendalville sandy ;
loam (Plot 34). . “

.z
' I.
.
l
O
n':
‘v
‘.
1
.c‘
x
.
.
1
.
. S
~ .
. ‘ «r
' I
' ‘ t. I
t
' I.
n
:5
_ a
4 .
”—
n~x
b' .
‘.
u
1
A‘.
-. _
l
i' w
l
. D
‘l
‘.
.w' .
. .
“u .
. o 2-
\
, .
s
.
..
r
u
I

212
thin secondary laterals (Plate 45).

Secondary roots of the laterals occupied the entire B horizon
with fine woody tertiary and fibrous roots. The latter were brittle
and followed the structural planes of the clay loam. Small fibrous
roots emerged from the textural B horizon, and terminated in the
upper inches of the underlying sand. A few tertiary roots were found
penetrating the Bt and the sandy B3 and upper C1 finally breaking into
multiple fine fibrous roots on top of and in half inch thick calcareous
bands, above and through.which they spread extensively in lateral direc~
tions. No roots were found below the zone of the lime band.

The descendants of lateral roots were twisted by the blocky
structure, likewise the downward growth of the taproots was inhibited
by the Bt horizon. Under one tree it appeared at a twenty~four inch
depth in a curved position on the face of the trench wall fifteen
inches away from center point (Plate 46). At this point, it entered
the gravelly Bt and a secondary separated off sideways. The appearance
of the major taproot in this horizon.was that of slow and stunted
growth. After emerging from the Bt growth is straight downwards with~
out branching, until reaching the hardened lime bands at sixty inch
depth, where the root bent sharply. Root-tips could be found in most
textural bands in the medium sandy subsoil.

The other tree had two taproots intermittently grafted but sep-
arated just below the gravelly sand clay loam (Plate 47). Each pro-
ceeded laterally at the boundary line between loam Bt and C1, and

gradually descended to the lime band zone and divided up into small

 

Plate 46

Taproot of a forty-one
year old red pine in'j
Fox (Boyer) sandy loam
showing inhibited growth
in the B horizon (Plot
33) and root-tips in
calcareous bands in the

Plate 47

Taproot system of fortyn
one year old red pine in
Fox (Boyer) sandy..10am
showing the effect‘of
the textural B horiyon
on'growth and branphing
of taproots (Plot 33).

214
roots in that horizon without noticeable branching between Bt and lime
bands. Five secondary roots originating at the taproots in the textural
B horizon.went straight downward below the Bt and spread laterally as

fibrous roots into the lime band zone.

15. Morlgy Clay Loam (Plot 35)

The shallow lateral root system was found to be somewhat similar
in morphology to that described in Plot 34 on Kendalville sandy loam.
There were, however, a smaller number of lateral roots, and all branched
profusely (Plate 48). A.trench cross-section showed one and one half
to two inch thick lateral roots at between six and twelve inch depth
in the profile, with root crowns going down to ten to twelve inches
in depth. The laterals would run parallel to the surface in a zig-
zag manner and with conspicuous branching to all sides. Riser roots
were particularly pronounced, being the source of fibrous root accumu-
lation in the A1 and the upper AP' Sinker roots would often take an
irregular course along a continuous cleavage face between columnar
structural units through which they would move downward, twisting with
the structural faces (Plate 49). A major sinker of one and one half
inches thick seemed to assume the role of a taproot of one tree (Plate
50), it was actually a converted lateral which turned vertically at
a depth of ten inches; it descended vertically to the lower B horizon
where it turned sideways and diagonally downward to disappear into
the trench wall at a depth of twenty-four inches. Another similar

root emerged from the trench wall at a thirty-six inch depth, zig-zagged

 

 

I‘ll )lllll Illusil

 

Plate 48

Oblique view of lateral“
root system of thirty- w
eight year old red pine
in Morley clay loam

Plate 49
Sinker root branching off
a lateral root, showing
the relation of its growth
to the structural planes ‘
in the B horizon in.Mbrley
clay loam (Plot 35).,

 

Plate 50

Taproot system in Morley
clay loam with a taproot
shown converted to a
lateral grown sideways
downward (Plot 35).

Plate 51

Taproot of a red pine in
Morley clay loam showing,
its lack of branching
and twisting at the tips
where it followed struc-
tural planes of the B
horizon (Plot 35).

217
diagonally downward to forty-two inches, divided into two thinner
secondaries at forty-eight inches where both ended just above the
finer textured C2 after subdividing into smaller rootlets. Con—
spicuous were the many worm holes in the A and upper B horizons through
which secondary roots were often found to pass. These one-eighth to
one-fourth inch thick sinker roots were found as deep as forty-eight
inches and the accompanying fibrous roots would branch from these in
between the smallest blocky structural units throughout the B2 with
occasional ones in the C1 down to above the C2 horizon, Fibrous roots

in the B2 were found on the planes of natural fracture where they

were embedded in clay skins on the subangular blocks, together with
minute mycelia-like threads of unknown origin. The relative absence
of roots except for those connected with persistent sinker roots in

the calcareous poorly structured C1 horizon, was very conspicuous.

Two small secondary laterals were seen coming off the root crown
at a ten inch depth. One continued for two feet laterally at a fif-
teen inch depth; the other descended to a twenty inch depth.where it

broke up into tertiary roots towards the lower B2 horizon. Both roots

were following the angular structural planes.

The major taproot of one tree extended from below the root crown
where it was three-fourths inch thick (Plate 51), down through the B2
remarkably straight,with short secondary roots branching off on all
sides. The taproot went down into the upper inches of the calcareous

C1 horizon where it terminated. The massive structure was an obvious

218
obstruction. Secondary and tertiary rootlets of several inches in
length formed the root-tips of the major taproot. There were two or
three one-eighth to one-fourth inch secondary taproots behaving very
similarly to the major one. No distinct taproot was observed under
the other tree (Plate 50), as a lateral seemed to have assumed this
role. There were two half-inch thick roots as the natural downward
extension of the root crown, showing some minor branching throughout
the B horizon, and major branching just above the C1 with short stubby
secondaries of six to twelve inches in length going diagonally down-
ward. Root-tips were in the Cl at forty inches, with secondary roots
of a few inches long going in all directions without any fibrous roots

in evidence.

A section of the plantation in which Plot 35 was located showed
a high rate of mortality (Plate 53). The soil profile in the affected
area differed from the soil on Plot 35 in being finer in texture and
more compact in structure, especially below twenty inches, in the C1.
The terrain was slightly pocket-shaped at this location and seepage
water entered the upper profile horizon probably originating higher
up the ridge.. The soil profile was therefore more characteristic of
the Blount clay loam, the imperfectly drained member of the Morley
catena. Consequently, the clay loam.in the lower B2 was found water
saturated in July. Root zone conditions were affected by this water-
bearing layer (Plate 52). On the tree studied, there were several
laterals of one to two inches in thickness which showed no branching

and which did not continue over more than.two or three feet laterally.

Plate 52

Oblique view of dead
lateral roots of a
- thirty-eight year old-
' red pine he» ‘
* Blount ‘
clay loam (Near Plot_35).

Plate 53 '

Diseased condition.1n
crowns of red pine 9n
Blount clay loam,"
shallow phase (Near
Plot 35) o

 

220
The soil immediately surrounding the occasional sinker roots, as well
as secondary laterals near the root crown, was mottled with orange-
brown and blue-green spots, indicating the effect of intermittent
water-logging. These roots were undivided and ended abruptly in stubby
short ends without evidence of fibrous roots. Another associated harm-

ful factor might be high pH and free lime which characterized the C1

horizon. It was observed that no trees had survived in the actual path
of the drainway and that trees within several yards in distance had
died at a later age, when their sinker roots were affected by apparent
lack of aeration and calcareous subsoil. A number of adjacent trees
showed signs of becoming affected at the edges of the depression (Plate

53) .

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

It was rather difficult at the start to decide what would repre-
sent a typical root system, and what were the variations due to
inherent morphological variability within the species rather than to
the soil environment. Once observations had been made at a number of
sites, a sort of central concept was established and variations from
this were then related to and explained by variations in soil profile
characteristics. Knowledge of the ecology of red pine in its natural
range, and the results from the site studies helped in establishing
an idea of the Optimum conditions under which the species would grow.
Therefore, the Rubicon and Graycalm soil series were considered as
sites with a "normal“ type of root system.

The characteristic root system of a fifty year old red pine con-
sisted of a slightly tapered root crown, the below-ground continuation
of the stem. The root crown extended downward from twelve to twenty-
four inches and was the origin of the taproot and all lateral roots.
Lateral roots numbered between ten and fifteen, and grew in all direc-
tions radiating from the root crown and quite distinctly proceeding in
a once-assumed direction. They were of varying thickness, a few of
the thickest being two to three inches and the majority being about
one inch, measured one foot from the root crown. The laterals grew
at varying depths, not less than four inches and not more than eighteen
inches. They grew laterally for fifteen or at the most twenty feet,

staying at about the same depth. Near the root crown, thick laterals

222
showed a rapid taper, so that all roots were about one-half inch thick
within four feet of the stem. They became gradually thinner towards
the end and they subdivided into secondaries. Branching of laterals
was pronounced within four feet of the root crown: laterally in a
fork-like manner when a lateral divided into two separate roots; ver-
tically by sinker roots. There was much branching further away from
the tree into short riser roots upwards, and secondary lateral roots
sideways which supplied the A0 and A1 horizons with a network of fine
fibrous roots. Plate 54 shows a characteristic pattern of this type
of fibrous root system. Lateral subdivision of laterals was uncommon.
Sinker roots were very common. One or two of the thickest laterals
per tree would have a sinker of one to two inches thickness branching
downwards at a distance of one or two feet from the tree, often reach-
ing deep into the subsoil, without showing any significant branching.
Smaller lateral roots had thin sinker roots reaching from one to sev-
eral feet, which were branched into tertiary and fibrous roots on the
'way down. The length of these sinkers seemed to depend on soil pro?
file characteristics.

Taproots were well defined. Sometimes a double tap was observed.
They were the strongly tapered downward extensions of the root crown,
measuring one to three feet in length. Near the lower end they had
branched into short stubby finger-like rootlets (as shown in Plate
56). In cases where two taproots occurred, one usually showed the
pattern as described, while the other would be small and branched.

The longest horizontal roots of such a system were the major

“—7 ”1...--. ..q. ,7 , . . _ - 7a., 1‘

Plate 54

Fibrous roots in A0
and A1 of Rubicon
sand (Location 6,
Plot 25) in 32 year
old red pine.

 

‘ Plate 55

Fibrous roots in

and A1 of Morley loam-I
(Location 15, Plot 35) ,
in 39 year old red pine. .

3 l

 

Plate 56

End of taproot in Gray~
calm sand (Location 5,
Plot 103) in 47 year
old red pine.

 

 

 

w . .. .77 ”...—...... ',, W, ...--- ,_,_,,..,~_.,,l_,-_.‘

? ,-~ Plate 57

End of taproots in
Menominee sand showing.
root tip morphology in'
the mottled zone above
the silty clay loam '
(Location 12, Plot 43)
in 25 year old red pine.

 

225
laterals, the longest vertical roots were the sinker roots of the
major laterals.

As for the relation of this root system to the soil profile,
there was a distinct concentration of lateral roots and their deriva-
tives in the A.and upper B horizons. On non-cultivated sites, these
roots would concentrate in the A0, A1 and B2 horizons, and would be
sparse in the A2. The taproot extended through the entire B horizon
into the C, often to near the zone of permanently moist sand or near
bands of finer sand or faint brown color and textural bands at three
to four feet in depth. Short sinker roots extended to the same depth,
but deep sinkers reached soil layers beyond a six-foot profile deep
into the subsoil.

The deviations from this modal root system were related to devi-
ations of the soil profile from the Rubicon series profile and were
described as follows:

In the weakly podzolized coarse sandy Grayling series, all of
the root systems studied showed the same basic pattern as the modal
concept, except for the absence of any distinct sinker roots. The
deepest roots were the taproots, which reached down to a maximal
four feet and were rather finely branched near a zone of slightly
cemented sand bands. Occasional thin sinker roots descended to this
same zone.

The weakly podzolized Rousseau fine sand differed from the Gray-
ling sand in number and thickness of laterals and in the presence of

several sinkers of varying lengths and thicknesses. Taproots and

226

sinkers terminated with extensive branching in the upper zone of
very fine sand at a forty-six inch depth, except for a taproot down
to ninety inches.

The description on the Croswell series was very similar to that
for Rousseau, except that the mottled zone at the forty-two inch depth
was the terminal for most of the tap and sinker roots.

The pattern of the root branching in the soil horizons with more

available moisture was found to be similar to that in the Ao‘Al horizon

(compare Plate 59 with Plates 54 and 55). The fibrous roots could be
considered as efficient passage ways for water uptake because of the
large surface area per unit volume. Ifi,thg droughty Grayling sand,
their function lay solely near the organic horizon soil surface as

no continuous moisture supply was available deeper down. This was

in contrast to the Rousseau and Croswell series which tapped these
subsoil supplies with sinker roots. It was not clear what caused a
superficial root system to respond to moisture supplies at deeper
levels.

The difference in site quality between these soil series should
be explained on this basis. It also meant that the trees on Grayling
sand.were largely dependent on freshly fallen.water present in the
surface horizons tapped by lateral root systems. However, as these
laterals were ruy longer in the Grayling than in the other soils, for
stands of the same age, adequate growth on Grayling sand could be ex-
pected only if stocking were kept at a low level and root competition

between trees were kept at a minimum. This was recognized in the

J#.x.,_1;._.m ..

.--.—- ~1-r Tax_-- -

......‘_.-.u .-.m' - '

 

”'W‘JVM ., . ’4.....-7 m

 

Plate 58

Sinker roots with branch-
ing into clumps of fibrous
roots in textural bands
of Sparta loamy sand(Ioca~
tion 7, Plot 45) under 20
year old red pine. '

Plate 59

Clumps of fibrous roots
from the very fine Band_
bands in Rousseau fine
sand (Location 2, Plot »
117) under 45 year old.
red pine.

228
management plan for sites I and II as discussed in the chapter on
forest land valuation.

The water table in the Croswell and Au Gres series affected the
tree roots by limiting effective soil depth. No roots extended below
the groundwater level, but taproots and sinkers ended and branched
always in the zone of mottling. There was a very distinct concentra-
tion of lateral roots and derivatives in the illuvial B22 of the Au
Gres sand and a virtual absence in the A2. Lateral roots ran sideways
for the same fifteen foot distance as in the droughty Grayling sand.
However, the thickness of the lateral near the stem was much higher
than for similarly aged trees on the Grayling. The lower site quality
of the Au Gres compared with the Rousseau and Croswell series was partly
due to strong competition.with a ground cover of Kalmia angustifolia.

In the light of the sensitivity to available moisture, the site
quality on Sparta loamy sand seemed low. The dark surface soil and
the presence of distinct moist layers above textural bands would rate
this as anlexcellent soil for red pine. The observations of White (1940)
that conifers grew poorly on prairie soils even after the proper mycorr-
hiza were introduced might also apply here. The effect of textural
bands on root branching could clearly be judged from thin sinker roots
as shown in Plates 58 and 59. In the non-eroded soil, laterals spread
out diagonally downwards, as opposed to the lateral direction in the
podzolized soils. Roots on the eroded Soil showed a horizontal growth,
too. This proved in a different way, the positive response of the tree

to horizons with high.moisture-holding capacity.

229

The description from the eroded phase of the Sparta series showed
that even poor growth could be associated with an extensive root system,
especially by laterals and sinkers. The absence of normal vigour in
spite of a moist subsoil pointed in the direction of a nutrient defi-
ciency.

That gravel bands could be a mechanical obstruction.was shown in
photographs from the Mancelona (Plot 48) and Fox (Plot 33) series. The
only soil differences between the two profiles, possibly responsible
for the much lower site quality of the Mancelona loamy sand, were the
coarser texture and the presence of free carbonates in the textural B.
Below the gravel layers in the Fox series, there were calcareous bands,
too, but only occasional roots reached so far down.

In an extreme condition on the Kendalville series, the response
to large gravel near the surface was a concentration of short stubby
lateral roots in the surface horizon. However, the soil was also
highly alkaline at the twenty-one inch depth and had a compacted loam
B horizon. The site quality of this soil was low compared with soils
of similar texture. In Part I it was shown that this lower site qual-
ity was due to growth stagnation of recent date as apparent from the
height growth curve. Evidently, certain soil conditions may ensure
normal tree growth until a certain shed root system is developed after
which they inhibit further growth.

Another site with a gravel layer was Mancelona loamy sand (Plot
49) but the site quality was comparable to the Fox series. In both

cases, mechanical obstruction by gravel was obvious from the photographs,

230
yet site quality was well within site class IV. Apparently, the high
amount of free lime near the surface was the limiting factor in the
growth of red pine on Kendalville sandy loam and Mancelona loamy sand
(Plot 48). This factor could well create a situation of physiological
drought in the horizons where fibrous roots of sinkers concentrated.

In other plantations it was observed that stoniness by itself
was not necessarily limiting tree growth (good examples were observed
in Kellogg Forest, compartments 5, 6, and 7), unless it was associated
with poor drainage or a compacted subsoil within an eighteen inch depth
on eroded sites.

In addition to groundwater and gravel, effective soil depth could
be affected by texture, as was demonstrated in the Melita-Menominee
sequence from two-store'yed parent materials. The compact clay in the
substratum was beneficial rather than detrimental to growth due to
the periodic accumulation of soil moisture in the lower part of the
sandy surface layers of soil. The response of the roots to this zone
was evident and this probably caused the high site quality for red
pine associated with these profiles. The root systems of these pro-
files were especially well developed laterally, and taproots had the
appearance of sinker roots, with root-tips ending in the mottled zone
(Plate 57). Soil depth became a limiting factor where the coarse-
textured storey was less than fifteen to eighteen inches thick as no
trees of the original plantation had survived beyond this point.

In the Arenac series a profile in a two-storeyed material was

combined with shallow groundwater at the forty-two inch depth, but

231
the quality of the site was again very high. Roots below groundwater
level did not seem alive but apparently those above were very efficient
in utilizing the abundant moisture supply.

The investigations on MOrley clay loams showed that root systems
on fine-textured soils did not essentially differ from those on coarse
sands. Taproots, laterals and secondary roots penetrated the well-
structured soil along the structural faces. Fibrous roots in the surface
Al'were patterned similarly to those on Rubicon sand (Plate 55). Lateral
spread was somewhat less than on coarse profiles, but fibrous roots asso-
ciated with sinker roots were found as deep as four feet.

Soil depth on this series was determined by the compacted and
calcareous C horizons above which drainage water could also accumulate.
Root growth was limited very much to non- or weakly-branched lateral
roots, on sites with thin sandy surface layers or where compaction‘was

less than eighteen inches below the surface.

In review, it could be concluded that although the Rubicon series
and its genetic associates could be called the ecological optimum for
red pine, the highest site index was not found on those soils. The soils
with the best site quality were similar to Rubicon sand in the surface
storey but they had a compact fine-textured subsoil on which.water could
accumulate and to which the roots responded positively. On the other
hand, root systems in the soil with the lowest site quality, Grayling
sand, lacked deep-rooting taproots or sinker roots and apparently were

very dependent on periodic moisture supply in the surface horizons.

232

In all root systems studied, the lateral root system was well
developed in the upper eighteen inches of the soil profiles. Any
obstruction to root development within this lateral root system,
whether by groundwater, gravel, compaction or free carbonates, led
necessarily to stunted tree growth or death.

It was found in preliminary field studies, that red pine formed
a pattern of its root system during the first fifteen or twenty years
after being planted. From then on growth reflected the character of
the soil profile and no major changes in the root system took place.
Existing roots would thicken and some vertical and lateral elongation
would continue, but this would represent only a quantitative, not a
qualitative growth. The only exceptions to this rule were sites where
vertical soil depth was near the minimum limit for red pine. Any
further growth of the lateral root system beyond the period of initial
establishment would be obstructed and would lead to decreased vigor
or high degrees of mortality of the trees.

Borderline conditions for root systems were created in sites where
root growth was obstructed only partially, yet spread extensively enough
to supply the tree with its needs. Such Conditions were reflected by
irregular growth or disease effects in planted red pine of pole size.
Profiles associated with such stands were described under Kendalville,
Miami, Fox, Mancelona (Plots 48 and 49) and Arenac series though the
effects were usually limited to one or two years of shootmoth incidence.
Peculiarly, all these profiles were alkaline somewhere in the zone of

rooting, as well as physiologically shallow due to gravel, groundwater,

233
or compacted subsoils. It was shown in Part I that these sites may
be characterized by height growth curves which show a sharper-than-
normal curvature between ages twenty-five and thirty-five.

Day's observations (1941) on five red pine saplings were very
similar to the one above. The fourteen year old trees had lateral
roots up to eighteen feet in length with some sinker roots assuming
major importance. Some of these descended six feet, whereas the tap-
roots went down only three feet. Drier sites had longer sinker roots.
The laterals grew in the upper foot of the profile. He concluded that
soil moisture and soil type were more closely related to size of root
systems than age of the tree.

The findings agreed with those of Laitakari (1927) for Scots
pine. He found the deepest root systems on sand, the shallowest on
stony soils, with clays intermediate. The Michigan study showed,
however, that on non- or very weakly-podzolized soils, root systems
may be as shallow as on clays. .Laitakari found that root systems
became smaller with increasing stand density, but no confirmation
could be given for the Michigan stands. However, there was a slight
tendency in coarse-textured soils, that lateral roots grew towards
stand openings which seemed a natural response to the critical factor
soil moisture. In the cases where lateral roots were dug up it was
observed that roots grew towards and through root systems of adjacent
trees without mutual interference. Only in the Rousseau series was
root grafting observed, between laterals of adjacent trees, though

grafting between roots of the same tree was very common.

234

No conclusion could be reached with respect to the specific
function of each part of the root system. The response to moisture
by the deeper roots made it seem feasible that they were concerned
mainly with water uptake. The superficial roots of the lateral root
system could then be concerned with uptake of plant nutrients as well
as water. The rapid response of tree growth to surface application
of potassium fertilizers as reported by Heiberg and White (1950)
pointed in this direction. Only a subsoil application of these ferti-

lizers could prove this suggested separation of functions.

CONCLUSIONS

From a study of root systems of planted red pine between twenty

and fifty years in age, growing on fifteen different soil series in

nineteen different plantations, the following conclusions could be

made.

1. Root systems of red pine over the range in sites studied showed a

basic pattern composed of the following parts:

a.

a root crown, the one or two foot downward extension of the
stem

an extensive lateral root system in the upper eighteen inches

a more or less distinct taproot extending one or two feet below
the root crown

secondary roots from the laterals toward the surface horizons
concentrating in the upper eighteen inches, with mats of thin
fibrous roots in the H and A1 horizons.

secondary roots from the laterals downward, so-called sinker

roots, often assuming major importance in terms of size

2. The differentiating characteristic of soils with the lowest site

quality (Grayling sand) was the absence of any sinker roots. Sinker

roots were a common component of root systems of trees on better

sites. On sandy soils there was a tendency that a higher number

or larger size of sinker roots was related to sites with higher

site indices for red pine.

236
These sandy soils with higher site qualities were associated.with
root systems in.which the sinker roots subdivided into woody or
fibrous roots in horizons of fine sand, or above and in color and
textural bands, or in mottled zones above the level of groundwater,
or else directly above the lower finer textured layer in two-storeyed
profiles. This seemed to reflect a response to soil layers where
soil moisture was available during a larger part of the year. How-
ever, on some minimal podzolized sandy soils high site qualities

could not be clearly correlated to such a root pattern.

Detailed root descriptions on other soils indicated that compacted,
gravelly and water-saturated soil layers constituted a mechanical
obstruction to growth to laterals and taproots. If these inter-
fering layers were nearer the surface than about eighteen inches,
inhibited root growth was reflected in diminished vigor or high
mortality of the red pine as discussed in connection with the site
studies. This response suggested that lateral roots and their
derivatives are the essential part of the root system of red pine,
as they were well developed on all sites regardless of the presence

or absence of taproots.

APPENDIX I

237

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m.oc o.mm m.o m.mn m x o o.o -¢\mmuofl >uu» «a o¢-- um ,
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0 0005000 8505555 50
Avoud>
Iauaaocsv
0.55 055 000 050 50>050 00000000
_ . 0.0 -0500005 00=a+0 00-05 0
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5.50005 0 0 0500005 0 05-55 550 050.30.00
000 5.0 0.50 05 0.0 5500005 0 55-0 0+5< 0050.0055
00 00000000 050000 55
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500055 0 0 050000.5 50050000
5.50 5.00 5.5 0.50 500+0000 0 0 5.0 00000000 0 05-55 550
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0005 5.5 0.50 05 5500005 00 0-0 50 0050.0050
05 00000000 050000 05
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~.o ¢\¢m»m.h ccua+u m¢-m~ Ho
my m.HN «NH ode ovuuuuo
7~ ¢\nm»m.~ a m~-o~ um ~onoHHom
q.Ho «.oc q.“ ~.o¢ x w m.m ~\¢aum.s a od-qfi Hum
«\omam.h a «a-m Hm mam.zz.mm
cooN n.“ m.oq Hm ~.q ~\¢auod a m-o a< .=~¢.znna
a <um<xa<x xfio>o~uano ch
in
H.o -¢\cm»o~ . co-o¢ o
o\mm»oH ”anus
“.0 -o\nmum.~ auag+a o«-w~ an Aug auucm
m.m~ oqfi ome oououuo «cod. .zv
~.n «\dmymjh +u m~-¢~ «an flonofifion
H.oo «.Nh ¢.~ ~.an x m «\naucfl
~.m -¢\n¢»n.~ a «H-¢ HNQ nfim.:z.um
mmnu «.5 «.mn Hm ~.¢ «\qmuoH a «-o a4 a~m.znna
a <xm¢xg<x xflo>ofiuunu mm
~.n~ and can
nowfiwomm
QJHo o.Hm m.“ H.0n x cg
Ann an «away mum.um.3m
monN o.w m.om aw anam.zn~a
«A nx<q am<u - ¢zoquoz¢z cannon «N
no."
m.mH odd can agfio>uuu
A>ovo.m n\nx»oH muo>‘ oo-mn o ~o-momm
o.Ho H.Ho m.w «.on x a ¢\«muofi ~o>nuu nn-m~ o
m.n c\¢m»m.~ «H m~-n a mum.mm.zm
nhsd m.m 5.0m m~ o.n «\nmyod nu +auH s-o a4. andm.z-a
nod ¢zoqmuz¢z equaom ms
m N o n e ‘le N

 

256

«umofia 3m Nn-~v
Ho>uuw

 

 

 

onu.n ¢\em~m.~ + m# oo-o¢ um
n.<~ omfi one . «\nmum.~ a o¢-om on
o\n Hommmomm
o.me ¢.mw 0.0 q.wm n x s 0.0 -e\¢m»m.~ m on-od m
«\m ~mm.:m.3m
mfiqu 0.0 «.mm am m.m -n\¢a»oH m oH-c q< 3ea.z¢ma
a xu<uu<xu goaau as
Aumoau m “mu .ocfifi .z.
mus-n 3950
has» A .vuou
flown.“ «\mzym.~ + ma oo-cn um~< Hu>apu
m.- eon OHQN «\qmum.~ on-m~ on uaoflm.mv
:Houuuuo ~oa~monn
H.mo N.NHH m.n m.~n . e x mN m.n «\mmum.uucuouuo . m~-m~ «a
. ¢\¢mum.~ . nH-o~ m ~nm.3m.3m
osam n.q n.an om m.m «\eauod a o~-c 4 sez.z¢ne
m mx¢g moan - =u¢oazgz “seam as
manage a saw
in
n.o -m\em~aH m og-¢m o
«3
o.o~ qu cum -o\nuum.~ m «n-n~ on
¢\¢§n . h vflkvuuo
o.o~ n.m~ o.m ¢.m~ m u o o.o -n\nm»m + a mH-oH Na
«Sim; a Sé 5 3.32.5
aqua m.n ~.m~ Nu m.n «\em»o~ a m-o a< som.z~na
a <um¢gu<x xd0>oauano sh
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257'

 

xdwouuuou oxua Wanda» mo uoowv

~.o¢ mam o¢¢~ «\o Ha>uuu
ona.h -e\nmuo~ + a oo-c« o NoommOmm
0.0m a.wwfi ~.n “.mn mm x me «\Q
~.m -~\¢amoa a o¢-~H -m Nam.mz.mz
~n~¢ m.o m.~¢ mm H.n «\qmwoa a o~-o m¢ 3mm.zfima

u mM<A Hm<u Bwuucd

 

Amonuuuu oxmfi «mmwfim mo uoowv

 

¢\em~oH
-¢\¢mwm.s «vamp
o.o cumwuuuw uH+u oo-w¢ Nu
«\m
-m\mmyoH a .>muu mq-um flo
a.wq mNN o~o~ ¢\¢muoH
Amv~.~ -¢\¢mum.~ Hou.>uuu hm-- um Hofinwomm
m.oo m.~o~ o.n m.n¢ ¢ I q vauaoawu
«\mmucH a --m m< Nmm.mz.mz
damn n.m m.m¢ mm n.m ~\¢m~oH «H .m-o m4 3mm.zfina
3 45485: 3.35
«253 3 sq
do>uuu
Amuvm.~ «\mawm.~ +.u eo-om o

n\¢m»oH «can;
-c\¢m~m.~ «H +.a on-e~ cum

~.- «ed on“ ovuouuo
H.o «\muum.~ a o~-nH m floonmonm
«.mn H.~m m.o w.mn m x o ~\om»oH a mH-m n<
«\m ~nm.mz.mz
mohu «.9 m.o¢ mm ~.m -~\mm»cd u m-o a4. 3mm.zfina

a MMdA and” u «zoanuzsz Ewuund

 

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«\ouuod
-o\mmum.N oo-om o
«\qaym.N
N.m NNN ooNN ouuouuo HONNNomn
oaoo on-oN Nm
«.mo N.co «.c N.NH c x o N\emsm.N oNuHN m4 Nam.um.um
N\m son.2mNa
«NNN n.e m.mN NH -N\omNoN Nd-o N+N¢‘ oauo>aua
.N «um¢xq<u - zooumau unauo
o\o
-¢\omNoN oo-mm o
N.NN Nm oon «\nmuoN HooNNonm
-onaNm.N mn-n~ mm
m.No m.m¢ N.N o.on NH x oN o\nmum.N mH-m m mm.az.um
N\n 3NH¢.zNNa
NNNN N.N «.on mN -n\nmNoN m-o a< oauo>uua
a zconmam venue
Aomwdu 3m NmN-an
m.¢H NAN oNoN «\ouuoN mo-on o qofiodflcm
o\nm~cH a om-mN mm
H.mm N.Nn e.q o.¢m m x m o\nmwm.N «N-m m on.=zu=z
n\¢ am¢.zoNe
ooNH m.e «.mm Nm -N\¢m~oN n-o g4 omuo>aua
a zooumam vague
N.NN mHN oNN AomoNu 3m NNH-owM noNoHHom
e o «\omwofl oouNN o
o.¢N N.mN N.n N.mN w x m N o w\nm»m.N NN-e m on.:z.:z
e\¢ 2mm.zoNa
mo¢N ¢.m m.on Nm m e -n\¢myoN ¢-o a< oauo>aue
a zoonam vague
m N- o n q N

 

 

m3

259

 

 

 

 

ma ooxNa «Nm mucus
an Ammvooe o.N+¢.o -¢\¢m»m.N NmNmH+a oo-on o NoqNNOmn
Agave: 033.8
N.Nm o.eN o.N N.Nq o x o 0.0 «\qmwm.N «eon +u om-¢ m
NNQ NNm.uz.mz
mHmN N.N N.NN mm N.e -N\n¢»oN a m-o a< :nm.zmna
«N mx¢q Nana - =¢z¢qumq caNNonoao om
ma: m we gag
n.o «\nxyod Na oo-we No
Ho>uuu
o.m~ NmN oNN “.9 «\naNm.N + Na m¢-nN Ho
ouuouuo NoeNmonm
w.mm m.Ne o.m H.0m o x o «.0 eN¢m»m.N oao¢+uH «N-NN m
NN¢ HNm.mz.uz
NOON m.n m.on Nm o.c -N\nmNoN «H oH-o a4 anm.zmma
3 8:: man - aging 82225 mm
Nomadm panda mumdfiu 3 Namv
m.o onaNoN . eo-om o
infirm;
N.NN NNN ono -NNoNNoH HomNNomm
n.N :uaNuuum «0N om-mN cum
o.oN ¢.oe o.m c.mN N x N n.c ONmmwn.N a mN-cH Ho em.zz.zz
N.o «\wmum.N a «N-aN a sofim.ana
mNNH ¢.n N.NN NN ¢.m NNnmNoN a aa-o < oauo>uua
a 28ng - 55.202 398 mm
Aura: z "3%
3n
o.e -NNmmNoN a om-Nn o
m.m Hm oNN oNnuNm.N a Nn-NH NNm moNNNomm
OVHOUHO
m.mN N.NN ¢.¢ N.NN .N x N o.o «\quwm.N oaan_+u Nd-md ANN mnm.mz.um
NNoaNoN a m~-¢ , m<. afiNa.zNNa
NNN o.¢ N.NN ma n.o NNmmNod o m-o a< ouuo>aua
a zoonmam - «xm¢xa¢x unauo Nm
m N o m N :1. m N N

 

26C)

 

 

 

 

 

m3 «\mNNoH
an .Nm noxHa m.m -NNomwn.N a oo-Nn o
:Houauuo nomHmomm
N.NO m.¢N m.q H.NN Hms+mmHon w.¢ NNNNNm.N -a Nn-mN Nm
AmmvoH¢ N.¢ NNemNoH a mN-oH N4. mNm.3z.um
Hon N.m N.NN oH x n NNmmmoH a oH-o m4 =NH~.zona
2 a 83.3: 32303 g
:1. o.am oHN 11‘ oNN «No
n.o -eNmNNcH a oo-oN o NomNmomn
- N.NN N.oH o.oc HH x HH o.m «NNNNm.N » ON-N Nm
oaaum uuHsuuuuH m.¢ NNQNNOH a N-o N< HHm.mm.mm
Hauauaz mean n.oH H.No we HNnmNoH m N-o H< 3Nm.zmna
a aquamam cauNopunu mm
.N as
usug 7“;
Hudson» .3560 no
¢.Hm mmH o¢N o.o «Nemon a oo-Nn o 2 .Ha NH
oNnNNoH a Nn-mH m Homeonm
a.wm N.o¢ o.N N.Nm m x w ouuuuuo
ucmum uuHauuuuH m.o ¢N¢aum.N «soa.+ a mH-N N ONm.sz.um
Huuauaz «mac n.m N.No mm e.m NNomon a N-o < 3Nm.znna
a ¢xm<xu<x - zoonmam cumNoHono Na
m: “
.NN coxHa «Ne Ho>uuu
wnH AmmHnNN o.e -NquNm.N + a oo-mn o
Nm3+mmvomm «Ne Ho>uuu noeNmomn
N.Nm o.HN m.N N.NN o x o m.o -eNnmNoH + a mn-oH Nm
NNN Hopauu HNm.mz.mz
NNNN H.N m.an Nn H.N -NNNNNDH +_u N-o m< anm.zmna
uH zu¢uazoz - =¢z¢HuuH auaNonoso Hm
m N o m N n N

 

26].

 

 

 

 

 

 

Axamn mum: cow. avoua>
N.NN oNH owq -HuHauasv
HoHomomm
N.Nm N.NN N.N N.Nq N x N H.o «\mNNoH .Hm + m oe-oN o
0.0 «quwmuN a oN-m a NHm.3z.zm
omHm m.m N.NQ on o.m NNnNNoH a m-o N+H<_ 3Nm.2Nma
a zoonam ouoauo mo
NumaHu mo mmwxdmuwau a New :
Nuovn.N «NomNoH a om-mH o
N.N mm on NNN
Ho>auu NcmHmomm
o.¢o H.Ne o.¢ o.mH m x o n.N ¢quwm.N + muH mH-NH HNN
Hu>auu NHm.3m.mz
com N.N «.mH NH N.N NNnmNoH + «NH NH-o m< _aNHm.zonN
«NH 83.5% 33203 Nm
dome: 3 NoNH H
«NomNoH oo-oq u
Hu>uuu
08¢
o.o «\Hmwm.N + mN+u oe-¢m HNN<
N.NN oHN on «Na
-oNNNNm.N a «N-NH mm nonHwonn
o.am n.NHH o.o N.on a x n o.o «\cmwm.N a NH-o a
«\n ‘ Hm.mm.mz
qum N.o o.mn Hm m.e -NNnmNoH a o-o a< 3NHm.zoNa
a ¢zOHmuz4= :acaHuoH ea
:11 n:
ma coxHa
oHH Nm3+mmvomoH N.m «NomuoH m oo-om o
mevoqm «NH :Huuuuuo Nomeomm
N.eN N.oo H.o o.mN w x n N.N -N\nm»m.N - a om-qN mm
N.< NNcmNoH a cN-N < mNm.sz.mm
NoNH n.o o.oN NH NNmmNoH a N-o N<_ 3NHN.zcna
. uu¢gg<x :aauHooH nN
m N o n c n N

 

262

 

 

 

 

 

N.NN moN omNH «No Ho>mmuu
o.o -¢NnmNoH oauu+a oo-nH u HoHoonn
o.mm H.eo «.m H.0m n x m Ho>muu
o.n «\mmon o50m+a nH-n m on.Nz.zz
onm o.m N.NN Nc m.q nanNoH » m-o m¢. =¢u.sze
a zooumam uuouauuu NoH
H.NN oeH ammmmHamH.
oHN asap NomHoHom
N.Hw «.HH o.Ho «H x «H o.o «NomNoH aHae+aH oo-¢H o
cacao uaHauuuuH m.n eNnuuoH am-uNH «H-N m+Nm «mm.sm.=m
Hauauaz nmmn ¢.HH o.Ho no m.n NNemNoH aH-aNH w-o a< st.szs
«NH 5598: 38.3.5 HoH
AmwccHauw‘ «\mmum.N vaup _
o.Hm mmH oHN o.o -eNoxNoH Haw+aH oe-om mo
. «Nmawm.N «H cm-NH o HomHoHom
w.om H.NN w.HH o.mo «H x «H HNm
wagon uuHsuouuH o.n -NNnmwcH mmH NH-N m «mm.2m.sm
Huuauuz qu¢ m.HH a.wo no m.m NN¢¢uoH «NH N-o m< st.sza
«NH 5598: 38339 SH
uvcdn
HOfiOU
.3023»
H.o «NoayoH oaou +m oc-oN o
Ammvomm NNmmuoH Acuua>
a.ON mmH Nm3+mmvoNn -mxnmam.N m oN-mH on -HuHsucav
NmNHHH x o o\e NoHomonm
w.om H.oo w.e H.nm . Am: o.» -NNHNNn.N a nH-n m
+mmvm x o «Nomon mNm.mz.mz
NHON N.N m.om Hm o.n -NNoNNm.N m n-o N+H< znm.zone
a =u¢uazo= - zoonnm ououuo mm
m N o m H n N

 

263

 

 

Avoum>

 

 

 

o No OuwH uwuasocsv
nemowomm
H.¢¢ H.HN o.m N.¢H N x q m.o «\cmNoH m mo-mq o
m.m «\mNNcH m n¢-N m+Nm «Nm.mm.mz
mq¢ H.N o.mH HN n.¢ NNNNNOH m N-o N+H< mHN.sze
a uanwaxu «cacao ooH
wauw>
o mm oqm cams -HuHauanv
N.o «NomuoH :ng +a oo-m¢ umN< «omowomm
N.NN m.HH N.N N.NH N x N «\mNNoH a m¢-mN N<
N.N «\mmNoH a wN-N + m omm.mz.mm
oNN N.N N.¢H ON N.m NNNNNoH a N-o N H< mHm.szN
m zH¢oN¢mo «cacao moH
mvcmn u N
HmvN.o «NoaNoH Hmp+mH ce-on m <
n.0m mNN ommH Ho>auu
«\mmNoH + a on-¢N N< HoNoonm
m.mq ¢.Hm ¢.m m.Nm m x w «No
o.o -NNnmuoH m «N-N m on.mz.3z
NNwm w.m m.Hq NH q.m mNnmNoH «H w-o u¢ zqm.sza
3 5598: 33.5.6 2:
.Illlll!-asl .uo>u=o
:uaouo
.nfi
¢.oN omH onH «van; .aou Hoom
N.o «\oNNoH HSNuH+m oo-on No NoHoonm
N.o¢ N.No N.N N.NN n x m «NomNoH . on-nH Ho
n.n «NmmNoH a mH-m N on.mz.=z
NNNN o.m «.mn N¢ m.m «\mNNoH aH n-o a< :wm.szy
a 5696: 38.8.6 2:

 

m m o m ¢ m N H

 

264'

 

 

 

 

 

Auouu>
o.mH omH omw -HuHsuasv
Noononm

H.NN ¢.Nc w.m H.HN no a no N o «NomNoH oo-on o
m m «\mNNoH om-n m+Nn HNm.mm.mm
NNON 0.0 m.Hn «q N q «\mmNoH n-o N+H< uNm.zNNa
a quHNauu come“
:15! Amouu>
o.NH oHH owe -HuHaoasv
«NomNoH oo-mH u HomHmonn

m.Hm N.on o.m m.mN m x N 0N“ m+N

uaHauuuuH -NNnmNoH NH-N m HNm.um.Nm
HNNH m.m m.mN n¢ HNnmNoH n-o N+H< uNm.zNNN
n uZHHNamo canon
\Nvuuu>
N.N mm coo -HuHsoasV
HonHmonn

o.Ne N.NN H.m n.nN NH x no N o . «NomNoH oo-NH o
uaHawouuH o o ONmmNoH NH-N NNm Nm.uz.um
mom a.“ «.QN mm m e NNmmNoH n-o N+H< NNm.sza
a ozHHNamu ounoH
wfivouu>
o.mH «NH on -HuHsoaav
HoNHaomm

H.NN N.NN n.m H.0N oH x o H o «NomNoH oo-nH o
uaHsuuuuH N m oNnmNoH nH-n NNm mm.32uzm
oan ¢.m o.oN Nq w n NNNNNDH N-o N+H< mNm.zNNa
m uZHHNamc ooaoH

m N o n iMn .1. N

 

265

 

1

pveum>

 

 

 

 

m.NH qu ace -HuHsucsv
HooHoomm
H.Hq N.o¢ N.o m.Hm N x N
HNoH mu oaamv mm.:z.mz
NNNH m.o o.Nn an uNx.zNNa
a ozHHNazu oomOH «HH
. n0>u90
figOHU
.«N
. mow HOOM
noun? Avouu>
N.NH HHH onN venous ao oo-o¢ o -HuHauaav
m.m no oe-om o NoNHNomm
o.m¢ N.NH N.n c.0N m x o m.“ eoHuuoa a om-NH NNN
unannouuw awoumuuo w NHumH Hum n~m.3m.mz
aNnH N.N H.NN Hm m.¢ m HNH+¢HoH-o N+H< mom.zNNs
a mama =< oomoH nHH
nxo
-NNmmon
H99”?
vasouu a oozmm no .mo>u=o
m\ommcd nuzouo
H.o uoHuHoa m Nn-¢n No Nuoua>
o.¢H mnH omm «NmmNoH . em-¢H Ho -HUHsoasv
QNHNNm.N HoNHaomm
N.NH m.Hm H.n H.NN o x o a.m uuuouuo a «H.« m+Nm
NNN + «Hm.3m.mz
oHoH N.m N.NN Hm o.m -HNNNNOH a ¢.o N H< mom.zNNa
a ammo =< ouooH NHH
Avoum>
«.mH NHH on -HuHsoaav
H.o «NomuoH m oo-NN o Noononm
q.Nn H.NN N.n N.NN N x N m.m «\mmNoH a NN-N m+Nm .
uaHauouuH HNN HHm.mz.2m
HoeH m.n N.NN on N.¢ -H\nmNoH a N-o N+H< NNN.zNNe
u quHN<Nu ooaoH HHH
m N o m e n N

 

 

266

o MON/H30

 

 

 

auaouo
.N .oz
.mov uoom
Avoum>
w.on mHN omm uuuaaocav
moHNmomn
N.m¢ N.NN m.m o.mm N x o
Am xuuaoaa< oomv HHm.3z.zm
NHen N.o N.o¢ «e NNN.zNNa
um =¢umm=oa oumoH NHH
«VoNNoH m -om «o
N.o wanna; mu> oa-o¢ No Nuuuu>
N.NN moN omm NNo -HuHauasv
-HNoNNoH mu o¢-mH Ho HoHoaoom
H.Nq H.Hw N.o N.NH m x mm NNe
o.o -NNHNNoH um wH-m a HHm.3z.sm
NNQN m.o n.n¢ me H.n HNNMNoH mm m-o N+H< uNm.sza
my =¢umm=om oumoH NHH
aumon :2 NmHH quum>
n.¢H mnH o¢m -HuHaoasv
N.o «NomNoH m oo-NH o Noonmoom
N.NN o.om H.“ N.oN no a N QNm
n.n -NNmmNcH a NH-n m mm.zm.mm
«NmH m.m N.NN mc N.N HNeNNoH - n-o N+H<_ NNm.sza
a ozHHName oomoH oHH
AvOuup
c.ow qu owe Ammon mo uoowv nwuaaucav
Hoommoen
o.mm n.o¢ m.o «.Nm N x N
NNoH an aaamv nm.3m.mm
oooN N.o N.NN n¢ NNm.zNNa

a 623.35 033 mHH

 

267’

.g
.muv uoom
Avouu>
n.mN NoH onm -HHHaucsv
noNHmomm
N.¢¢ m.oo o.o N.NN N x N
Am anaona< oomv mm.zm.mm
oHoN 9.0 N.NN NN mNm.zNNe
a HHuzmomo ooaoH HNH

 

Awouu>
m.NH mmH o¢oH o.o NmeNcH a mo-NN o -HHHsuasv
QNm NoHNaonn
H.NN N.NN N.N N.NN o x o N.m -QNmmNoH . NN-N m
moHsaouuH ‘ HNN N+H HHm.3zxzm
mme «.n N.NN ¢¢ m.¢ -HNNNNoH a m-o < uNm.ana
a uzNHuauu oouoH oNH

 

. ”ONE—30
£u3OHU
. 1N
. now “—00”—
Acouu>
«.HH NHH ONN -HuHaocsv
«oHNoonm
o.mN N.NN N.N . m.¢N o x 0
Am xHeaoam< nomv HHm.zz.:m
NHNH m.¢ «.mN NH NNz.sza
a czHHNauu ooaoH NHH

 

m n o n c m N H

2683“

 

 

 

AVvuu>
H.mH NNH oNNN -HHHsuaav
noonon
«.0n m.¢m N.N - a x e H.o «\mNNoH a oo-oH o
n.m «\nmyoH » oH-m a HHm.3z.uz
NnNN H.¢ N.NN H¢ N.N HNNNNoH a n-o N+H< NNm.zNNa
a ozuquamo oouoH «NH
Acou¢>
n.¢H «NH oNoH -HuHsuaav
N.o «\oNNoH a oo-NH u HoHNmomm
N.NN «.Nn N.N N.NN N x o m.m «\nmNoH a NH-N m
HNN N+H HHm.3z.3m
oHoH N.n o.wN n¢ N.N -HNNNNoH a N-o < uNm.sza
m quHNzuo oomoH NNH
Noaon z Nnmu‘ Acoua>
o.m ooH ona -Hanuaav
H.o «NomuoH m co-NH o eoNHmomn
N.om «.mN ¢.q N.NN N x o NNNNNm.N
¢.m -NNNNNOH a NH-n m mm.zm.mm
nmoH o.¢ N.nN «q m.¢ HN¢m~oH a «-0 < mNm.szs
a quHNamu oomoH NNH

w n o m ¢ n N H

 

268b

.muuux ow own «0 unwwmz.cmuwsaumo ma .mo>u:o ousauoahaom scum ..H.m

.A¢mmH .uusmwv umuoauwv no» soafiun a On 085H0> voozvuoo .oum vamum mo voflpmm
wSU um>o ucmamuucu 059Ho> Huaaaa can AnmmH .aomflo can nucuwxuo>ouv masfio> uOOm ownsu Huuoe

.uawxuoum ucomuuq vac nouoauwv vcwuu duos no woman mg «and Human
.usmNoc now vunmaomwv «a uoawauouuu nouoauwv duos can madmaasovoo van uuamcwadv mo nouoaauw can:

.quaua oAu ca muouu unmawaovou flaw nuawaueov nuovwmcou haco unuum: uauawaov cum:

.muoHa ouom H.o
scum vowunn mu oawu maaamaam an wauxuoum ma ovum nun mocha .5Ho>wuouqmou .mzou cupzuon vac 30p «nu
cu .oaNu wawuaoaa um unwoumu amcwuauo ou muommu «aquamm .couu aouw emu NauOu aw ocuuu mo ou<

.muumno
uo~oo Hwom Nauwcpz cu unwvuouon «Honahm uofioo .AHmmHv Hanan: >o>uam Hwom ou ucfivuooou Am Haunuxou
uum uaooxov «confine: Nae» vac «HNH ovum now adapahm .vonuua vNon uoauanouNHHa: ou unannouuo ma

.vouuoHHou any: uuwv vauuu nuwga um ouwv any muuaoNvaN van Honazm

one can“ amass: xamu a and a nudes u you» you acoNuuuoc mouwnaoo Hones: uan «:9 A.ucuauuumon

wagon .=.m.z onu aN vauwmomov .msmuuu0uoaa Hmwuuu do vwnmda own nuoam Manama mo macauaoofi uuuxo
usav .umuww ao>Nu cum nonafin :oNuuoa vza soNuoom mo coNuoaum .ouaou .mwnugaou .oaua huasou «£9

< anuH you wanna; tau aoNumamHaxm

HN

cEDHoo

GBSHOU

aasfioo

casfiou

EH00

assfloo

cabaoo

269
Table B

Relative and Absolute Site Index Values for
Michigan Red Pine Stands. EV age classes.

Average Site Indices
Age Height Anamorphic Polymcn'phic
Age Plot from Don. + Relative Absolute Relative Absolute

: ~ - I... '. _ ;A'_‘e 0‘. e s; p re a t- 16‘ _- ; L Mercent :e—j 9.1-3
15-19 87 15 17.7 V In 61.1» V 85 78.5
86 17 18.8 IV 22 52.2 IV 8h 68.1;
97 18 19.“ III 93 I+9.3 IV 1&6 61¢.6
53 19 21.8 IV 11+ 51.1% IV 62 66.2
5h 19 22.0 IV 19 51.9 IV 67 66.7
68 19 21.9 IV 16 51.6 IV 65 66.5
94 19 22.7 IV 35 53 .5 IV 35 68.5
95 19 26.0 V 22 62.2 V 69 76.9
20-21), 1&5 20 18.9 III 15 l+1.5 III 53 55.3
#6 20 19.0 III 17 I+1.7 III 56 55.6
67 20 25.1» IV 58 55.8 v 05 70.5
105 20 18.2 II 11 31.1 II 47 #4.?
60 21 25.6 IV 24 52.4 IV 65 66.5
88 21 27.2 IV 57 55.7 v 00 70.0
106 21 15.0 II 06 30.6 II 41 1114.1

12 22 21.1 III 41 134.1 III 39 53.
77 22 29.1 IV 67 56.7 V 00 70.0
31 23 30.1; IV 66 56.6 IV 85 68.5
32 23 32.8 V 11 61.1 I 31 73.1
25—29 6 25 28.? III 88 #8.8 III 95 59.5
7 25 28.9 III 91 1&9.1 III 98 59.8

26 25 36.6 V 22 62.2 V 26 72.
b0 25 37.5 V 37 63.7 v #1 74.1
1&1 25 36.9 V 27 62.7 V 31 73.1
1&2 25 37.1 V 31 63.1 V 3’4 73.1!
“3 25 38.1 V 47 64.7 V 52 75.2
‘44 25 37.3 V 3“ 63.4 V 38 73.8
85 25 30.4 IV 17 51.? IV 23 62.3
23 26 35.4 IV 80 58.0 IV 75 67.5
24 26 34.2 IV 77 57.7 IV 56 65.6
1 27 33.6 IV 148 58.8 IV 19 61.9
27 27 37.3 IV 90 59.0 IV 75 67.5
28 27 37.” IV 92 59.2 IV 76 67.6
29 27 36.6 IV 79 57.9 IV ’49 65.9
30 27 34.6 IV 47 514.7 IV 19 61.9
52 27 32.8 IV 18 51.8 IV 07 60.7
63 27 33.0 IV 21 52.1 IV 10 61.0
3 28 32.1} III 92 149.2 III 79 57.9
16 28 38.6 IV 86 58.6 IV 66 66.6

270
Table B (cantinuéd)

Relative and Absolute Site Index Values for
Michigan Red Pine Stands, by age classes.

Average Site Indices
Age Height Anamorphic Polymorphic
Age Plot from Don. + Relative Absolute Relative Absolute
fl,-\ ‘0 ;;;e 0,301 e;_ .39 -:;- ’3 01;- 21.:13- -4-
17 28 35.0 IV 32 53.2 IV 15 61.5
64 28 35.7 IV 42 54.2 IV 25 62.5
69 28 32.3 III 91 49.1 III 77 57.7
70 28 32.3 III 91 49.1 III 77 57.7
71 28 31.4 III 77 47.7 III 64 56.4
2 29 32.3 III 76 47.6 III 69 56.9
49 29 37.? IV 56 55.6 IV 30 63.0
51 29 36.2 IV 34 53.4 IV 09 60.9
61 29 37.6 IV 54 55.4 IV 15 61.5
25-29 62 29 36.2 IV 34 53.4 IV 09 60.9
72 29 39.3 IV 79 57.9 IV 51 65.1
73 29 36.7 IV 41 54.1 IV 16 61.6
74 29 36.8 IV 43 54.3 IV 18 61.8
79 _ 29 39.2 IV 78 57.8 IV 50 65.0
30-34 4 30 39.9 IV 72 57.2 IV 36 63.6
50 30 42.1 v 01 60.1 'IV 65 66.5
55 3° 1“3-8 IV 86 58.6 IV 48 64.8
59 30 32.1 III 60 46.0 III 33 53.3
10 31 41.3 IV 75 57.5 IV 31 63.1
11 31 44.9 V 25 62.5 IV 76 67.6
13 31 34.7 III 83 48.3 III 48 54.8
14 31 34.7 III 83 48.3 III 48 54.8
15 31 35.4 III 93 49.3 III 57 55.7
75 31 39.4 IV 49 54.9 IV 07 60.7
76 31 40.9 IV 69 56. IV 14 61.4
96 31 38.0 IV 29 52.9 III 90 59.0
99 31 36.3 IV 06 50.6 III 68 56.8
112 31 28.9 III 03 40.3 II 75 47.5
113 31 27.4 II 73 37.3 II 56 45.6
5 32 38.1 IV 18 51.8 III 72 57 .2
8 32 39.5 IV 37 53.7 III 89 58.9
9 32 38.2 IV 19 51.9 III 73 57.3
18 32 41.6 IV 66 56.6 IV 15 61.5
19 32 38.3 IV 21 52.1 III 75 57.5
20 32 32.2 III 38 43. III 01 50.1
21 32 38.3 IV 21 52.1 III 75 57 .5
22 32 39.2 IV 33 53.3 III 86 58.6
25 32 44.1 V 03 60.3 IV 46 46.6

271
Table B (continued)

Relative and Absolute Site Index'Values for
Michigan Red Pine Stands. by age classes.

Average Site Indices
Age Height Anamorphic Polymorphic
Age Plot from Dom. + Relative Absolute Relative Absolute
o -e:. Cod-m ..r a ta-e feet oerchte e

36 32 39.6 IV 38 53.8 III 90 59.0

37 32 39.0 IV 30 53.0 III 83 58.3

38 32 45.2 V 15 61.5 IV 59 65.9

47 32 34.3 III 66 46.6 III 26 52.6

48 32 33.5 III 55 45.5 III 17 51.7

58 32 36.3 III 93 49.3 III 51 55.1

65 32 39.0 IV 30 53.0 III 83 58.3

66 32 38.5 IV 23 52.3 111 77 57.7

89 32 36.9 IV 01 50.1 111 58 55.8

91 32 39.5 IV 37 53.7 III 89 58.9

39 33 42.5 IV 64 56.4 IV 04 60.4

56 33 36.9 III 89 48.9 III 39 53.9

57 33 37.7 IV 00 50.0 III 48 54.8

80 33 40.9 IV ’43 54.3 III 85 58.5

82 33. 41.3 IV 48 54.8 III 90 59.0

108 33 26.4 II 37 33.7 II 20 42.0

81 34 48.8 V 33 63.3 IV 63 66.3

90 34 41.7 IV 41 54.1 III 77 57.7
35-39 98 36 43.9 IV 48 54.8 III 73 57.3
34 37 35.4 III 33 43.3 II 67 46.7

35 39 41.0 III 81 48.1 II 98 49.8

111 39 28.3 II 33 33.3 I 80 37.4

114 39 32.6 II 84 38.4 II 11 41.1
40-44 33 41 49.4 IV 60 56.0 III 71 57.1
124 41 29.3 II 32 33.2 I 73 36.4

107 42 26.6 I 97 29.7 I 41 32.4

109 43 26.9 I 97 29.7 I 37 31.9

110 ’43 31.9 II 52 35.2 I 80 37.4

115 43 33.8 II 73 37.3 I 97 39.6

116 43 27.2 I 99 29.9 I 40 32.3

112 ‘43 39.3 III 33 43.3 II 47 44.7

122 "'3 25.7 I 83 28.3 I 27 30.7

123 43 28.6 II 15 31.5 I 52 33.9

118 44 40.7 III 41 44.1 II 52 45.2

119 44 25.5 I 76 27.6 I 19 29.6

120. 44 29.7 II 22 32.2 I 46 33.1
45-49 117 45 43.5 III 64 46.4 II 71 47.1
102 47 37.2 II 87 38.7 I 97 39.6

272
Table B (continued) '

Relative and Absolute Site Index values for
Michigan Red Pine Stands. by age classes.

Average Site Indices
Age Height Anamorphic Polymorphic
Age Plot from Dom. + Relative Absolute Relative Absolute
- NO 3861 00.0111 0' :19 4:1" ‘ fe- Oercentcie‘ .3;
103 47 38.4 III 00 40.0 II 07 40.7
104 47 41.3 III 30 43.0 II 35 43.5
50-54 83 52 30.8 II 02 30.2 I 19 29.6
84 52 36.4 II 56 35.6 I 62 35.1
55-59 92 55 62.3 IV 90 59.0
60—64 100 63 68.6 ‘V 08 60.8
101 63 61.6 IV 42 54.2

65-70 93 68 62.1 IV 26 52.6

273
Table C

Relative and Absolute Site Index Values for
Michigan Red Pine Stands. in numerical order.

 

Average Site Indices
Age Height Anamorphic Polymorphic
Plot from Don. + Relative Absolute Relative Absolute
No. geeg Codom. ( ercent e feet ercenta es f0 1:
1 27 33.6 IV 48 54.8 IV 19 61.9
2 29 32.3 III 76 47.6 III 69 56.9
3 28 32.4 III 92 49.2 III 79 57.9
4 30 39.9 IV 72 57.2 IV 36 63.6
5 32 38.1 IV 18 51.8 III 72 57.2
6 25 28.7 III 88 48.8 III 95 59.5
7 25 28.9 III 91 49.1 III 98 59.8
8 32 39.5 7 IV 37 53.7 III 89 58.9
9 32 38.2 IV 19 51.9 ‘ III 73 57.3
10 31 41.3 IV 75 57.5 IV 31 63.1
11 31 44.9 V 25 62.5 IV 76 67.6
12 22 21.1 III 41 44.1 III 39 53.9
13 31 34.7 III 83 48.3 III 48 54.8
14 31 34.? III 83 48.3 III 48 54.8
15 31 35.4 III 93 49.3 In 57 55.7
16 28 38.6 IV 86 58.6 IV 66 66.6
17 28 35.0 IV 32 53.2 IV 15 61.5
18 32 41.6 IV 66 56.6 IV 15 61.5
19 32 41.6 IV 21 52.1 III 75 57.5
20 32 32.2 III 38 43.8 III 01 50.1
21 32 38.3 IV 21 52.1 III 75 57.5
22 32 39.2 _ IV 33 53.3 III 86 58.6
23 26 35.4 IV 80 58.0 IV 75 67.5
24 26 34.2 IV 77 57.7 IV 56 65.6
25 32 44.1 V 03 60.3 IV 46 64.6
26 25 36.6 V 22 62.2 v 26 72.6
27 27 37.3 IV 90 59.0 IV 75 67.5
28 27 37.4 IV 92 59.2 IV 76 67.6
29 27 36.6 IV 79 57.9 IV 49 64.9
30 27 34.6 IV 47 54.7 IV 19 61.9
31 23 30.4 IV 66 56.6 IV 85 68.5
32 23 32.8 v 11 61.1 V 31 73.1
33 41 49.4 IV 60 56.0 III 71 57.1
34 37 35.4 III 33 43.3 11 67 46.7
35 39 41.0 III 81 48.1 II 98 49.8
36 32 39.6 IV 38 53.8 III 90 59.0
37 32 39.0 IV 30 53.0 III 83 58.3
38 32 45.2 V 15 61.5 IV 59 65.9
39 33 42.5 IV 64 56.4 {not 60.4
’40 25 37.5 V 37 63.7 V 41 74.1

O

41
42
43
m.

45
46
47
48
1.9
50

51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60

61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
7o

71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78

79
80

Age

6

25
25
25
25
20
20

32
29
30

29
27
19
19
3O
33
33
32
30

Average
Height
Plot from Don. +

m

36.9
37.1
38.1
37.3
18.9
19.0
34.3
33.5
37.7
42.1

mu
0
\oc-mowlomm Ofl-‘UflwmommN

O O O O O O

fiNUUwaU NUUUW

Table 0 (continued)

Relative and Absolute Site Index Values for
Michigan Red Pine Stands. in numerical order.

274

Site Indices
Anamorphic Polymorphic
Relative Absolute Relative Absolute
cent 8 cent e fee

V 27 62.7 V 31 73.1
V 31 63.1 V 34 73.4
V 47 64.7 V 52 75.2
V 34 63.4 V 38 73.8
III 15 41.5 III 53 55.3
III 17 41.7 III 56 55.6
III 66 46.6 III 26 52.6
111 55 45.5 III 17 51.7
IV 56 55.6 IV 30 63.0
V 01 60.1 IV 65 66.5
IV 34 53.4 IV 09 60.9
IV 18 51.8 ~ IV 07 60.7
IV 14 51.4 IV 62 66.2
IV 19 51.9 IV 67 66.7
IV 86 58.6 IV 48 64.8
III 89 48.9 III 39 53.9
IV 00 50.0 III 48 54.8
III 93 49.3 III 51 55.1
III 60 46.0 III 33 53.3
IV 24 52.4 IV 65 66.5
IV 54 55.4 IV 15 61.5
IV 34 53.4 IV 09 60.9
IV 21 52.1 IV 10 61.0
IV 42 54.2 IV 25 62.5
IV 30 53.0 III 83 58.3
IV 23 52.3 111 77 57 .7
IV 58 55.8 V 05 70.5
IV 16 51.6 IV 65 66.5
III 91 49.1 III 77 57 .7
III 91 49.1 III 77 57.7
III 77 47.7 III 64 56.4
.137 79 57 .9 IV 51 65.1
IV 41 54.1 IV 16 61.6
IV 43 54.3 IV 18 61.8
IV 49 54.9 IV 07 60.7
IV 69 56.9 IV 14 61.4
IV 67 56.7 V 00 70.0
IV 79 57 .9 IV 51 65.1
IV 78 57.8 IV 50 65.0
N 43 54.3 III 85 53.5

275
Table C (continued)

Relative and Absolute Site Index Values for
Michigan Red.Pine Stands. in.numerica1 order.

Average Site Indices
Age Height Anamorphic Polymorphic
Plot from Dem. + . Relative Absolute Relative Absdlute
e t rcent eet
81 34 48.8 V 33 63.3 IV 63 66.3
82 33 41.3 IV 48 54.8 III 90 59.0
83 52 30.8 II 02 30.2 I 19 29.6
84 52 36.4 II 56 35.6 I 62 35.1
85 25 30.41 II 17 51.7 IV 23 62.3
86 17 18.8 II 22 52.2 IV 84 68.4
87 15 17.7 V'l4 61.4 V’85 78.5
88 21 27.2 IV 57 55.7 'V 00 70.0
89 32 36.9 IV 01 50.1 III 58 55.8
90 34 41.? IV 41 54.1 III 77 57.7
91 32 39.5 IV 37 53.7 III 89 58.9
92 55 62.3 IV 90 59.0
93 68 62.1 IV 26 52.6
94 19 22.7 IV 35 53.5 IV 85 68.5
95 19 26.0 ‘V 22 62.2 V'69 76.9
96 31 38.0 IV 29 52.9 III 90 59.0
97 18 19.4 III 93 49.3 IV 46 64.6
98 36 43.9 IV 48 54.8 III 73 57.3
99 31 36.3 IV 06 50.6 III 68 56.8
100 63 68.6 'V 08 60.8
101 63 61.6 IV 42 54.2
102 47 37.2 II 87 38.7 I 97 39.6
103 47 38.4 III 00 40.0 II 07 40.7
104 47 41.3 III 30 43.0 11 35 43.5
105 20 14.2 II 11 31.1 II 47 44.7
106 21 15.0 II 06 30.6 II 41 44.1
107 42 26.6 I 97 29.7 I 41 32.4
108 33 26.4 11 37 33.7 II 20 42.0
109 43 26.9 I 86 29.6 I 37 31.9
110 43 31.9 II 52 35.2 I 80 37.4
111 39 28.3 II 33 33.3 I 80 37.4
112 31 28.9 III 03 40.3 II 75 47.5
113 31 27.4 II 73 37.3 II 56 45.6
114 39 32.6 II 84 38.4 II 11 41.1
115 43 33.8 II 73 37.3 I 97' 39.6
116 43 27.2 I 99 29.9 I 40 32.3
117 45 43.5 III 64 46.4 II 71 47.1
118 44 40.7 III 41 44.1 II 52 45.2
119 44 25.5 I 76 27.6 I 19 29.6
120 44 29.7 II 22 32.2 I 46 33.1

276

Table C (cmtinued)

Relative and Absolute Site Index Values for
Michigan Red Pine Stands. in numerical order.

Average Site Indices
Age Height Anamorphic Polymorphic

Plot from Dom. + Relative Absolute Relative Absolute
No eed Cod er t e 8 re

121 43 39.3 III 33 43.3 II 47 44.7
122 43 25.7 I 83 28.3 I 2? 30.7
123 43 28.6 II 15 31.5 I 52 33.9
124 41 29.3 II 32 33.2 I 73 35.4

 
 

 
 

 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 
 

 

 

 
 

 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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2.4 3.8 .15
1.8 1.9 .11
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1.5 2.3 .14
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APPENDIX II

279

Sampling date 55092104. 56090801 Plot No. 119

 

PIVsiograplw- Slightly undulating glacial outVash plains
Natural vegetation- Jack pine with occasional red pine
Present vegetation- Jack pine and red oak predominant

Land use history- Cut-over forest land burned repeatedly
Reforested to pine since 1908

 

Soil type erling sand

 

 

Parent material stratified sands mainage position
well-drained. groundwater deep
Slaps Soil moisture
aspect - moist in lower 0 horizon
percent - Soil depth factors
length .. no interfering factors
positim -.
c e c
Aoo.
Ao thin Mar type of organic horizm. very strongly acid.
A 0-3 Dark grayish yenwish brown (10 m 3/2) medium sand;

fine granular; loose; medium to strongly acid; 1 to
3 inches thick. ~

1321 3-6 Moderate yellowish brawn (lOYR 5/4) medium sand; weakly
granular loose; medium to strongly acid; 0-3 inches
thiCke

1322 6.18 light yellowish brown (10 IR 6/6) medium sand; fine granular
to single grain; loose; medium acid; 6-12 inches thick.

Cl 1830 Light yellowish brown (10 IR 5/4 - 6/4) sand; single

grain; loose; slightly acid; 10.12 inches thick.

02 30-120 Light yellowish brown (10 IR 6/4 - 6/3) sand; single
grain; loose; slightly acid to neutral. Thin slightly
cemented bands of somewhat gravelly medium to coarse

sand. 1/4 to 1 inch thick. were found between 36 and
54 inches.

280
Sampling date 55092103. 56090101 Plot no. 117

 

lesiograpiw- Slightly undulating glacial outHash plains
Natural vegetation- Jack pine with occasimal red pine
Present vegetation- Volunteer jack pine and red oak

Land use history- Cut-over forest land

 

Soil type Rousseau fine sand

 

 

Parent material stratified sands Drainage positicn -
well-drained. groundwater deep

Slope Soil moisture -

aspect - moist throughout B and C horisms
percent -

length - Soil depth factors -

position - slightly cmcave no interfering factors
Wm :1
Aoo.

Ao 1-0 Mor type organic horizon with 1/2 inch of litter and

1/2 inch of r and H combined; very strmgly acid.

Al

.42 0-2 1/2 Dark grayish yellowish brown (10 YR 3/2 - 412) fine
sand coarse granular; loose; very strongly acid; 2.3
inches thick.

822 2 1/2-10 Strong yellowish brown (10 m 5/6) fine sand; weakly
- granular; loose; strongly acid; 6.10 inches thick.

B3 10-22 Moderate yellowish brown (10 YR 5/4) fine sand. weakly
granular; loose; strongly acid; 9-12 inches thick.

c1 22.46 Light yellowish brown (10 m 6/4) fine sand; medium acid
, 24—30 inches thick.

c2 46.90 Light grayish yellowish brown (10 n: 6/3) very fine sand.
weakly fine granular; loose to very friable; medium acid;
40-50 inches thick. Between 46 and 50 inches in depth.
slightly cemented very fine sandy to loamy sandy textural
bands. 1/2 - 1 inch thick. ellowish to strong brown
(10 YR 5/6 .. 5/8. 7.5 IR 5 6 - 5/8). medium acid.
horismtally and continuous.

03 90.150 Grayish yellowish brown (10 IR 5/3); medium sand; loose;
to weakly coarse granular; slightly acid.

281
Sampling date 55091703 Plot no. 121

 

Pm'siographv- Foot of hill and edge of lake in undulating glacial anti-lash
plains

Natural vegetation- Jack pine with some red pine
Present vegetatim- Volunteer jack pine and red oak
u t — t—over fore 1 d

Soil type Croswell sand

Parent material stratified sands Drainage positial - moderately well.
groundwater at 48'
Slope
aspect - North Soil moisture -
percent - 1-2‘76 foot of 15% slope moist throughout B and C horizons

length - 250 feet
positim - foot of 50 ft. high hill Soil depth factors -
water level at 48 inch depth

Range in factors - water level from
45" t9 60" depth

 

 

 

WW
Aoo
A0 1.0 Mor type organic layer. L 1/2 inch. F+H 1/2". extremely acid.

A1 0-1 1/2 Brownish gray (10 YR 3/1) medium sand; loose; weakly granular
extremely acid; 1-2 inches thick.

A2 1 1/2..5 Grayish yellowish brown (10 m 4/2) sand; loose; structure.
less; very strongly acid; 2-4 inches thick.

822 5-15 Moderate to strong yellowish brown (10 m 5/4.5/6). sand;
loose; structureless; medium acid; 6-12 inches thick.

01 15-30 Light yellowish brown (10 YR 6/4) sand; loose; structure-
less; medium acid; 15-18 inches thick.

c2 30-48 Light yellowish bror-m (10 YR 6/4 - 7/6) sand; loose;
structureless; with brownish yellow (10 YR 6/6) 1/4 inch
size mottles below 36 inch depth; medium acid.

03g 48-66 Light grayish yellowish brown (10 IR 6/3 6 6/4) sand;
loose; structureless; with occasional brown mottling spots
above 54 inch depth; Groundwater at 48 inch depth.

S

232

t ‘0 0 PIM—

Physiograptw .- flat glacial outwash plains

Natural vegetation - jack pine with occasional red pine

Present vegetation — volunteer groups of jack pins 8: red oak

 

 

 

 

u e t - cut-over ore d

Soil type Au Gr'es sand

Parent material - stratified sands Drainage position - imperfectly

drained

SIOpe — Soil moisture - moist throughout

aspect - profile

percent - Soil depth factors - cemented

length - podzol B horizon groundwater

position - slightly concave at 42 inches
pegition

Hor ckne s c ' t on

Aoo.

Ac 2 1/2—0 Matted nor with strong accumulation of roots of low shrubs.
dark grayish yellowish brown (10 YR 2/1) extremely acid.

A1 0-1 1/2 Dark grwish yellowish brown - brownish gray (10 YR 2/1 -
3/1) medium sand. weakly fine crumb structure; very
friable extremely acid; sharp boundary to next layer.

A2 1 1/2—8 Light grayish brown (7.5 In 6/2) sand. weakly medium
granular; structureless; very strmgly acid; 2 to 10 inches
thick. Sharp boundary to next layer but AB horism m
be present (7.5 YR 3/2) loose sand. 1/2 to 1 inch thick.

32h 8-9 Grayish brown (7. 5 IR 3/2) sand; partially cemented to lease;
locally hard cemented. very friable; strongly acid; 1-4
inches thick.

B211. 9-18 Moderate brown (7. 5 YR 4/4) sand. slightly cemented to loose;
very friable; weakly acid; 3-18 inches thick.

B3 18-24 Light yellowish brown (10 IR 6/6) sand. structureless; in-
coherent; medium acid; 6 to 16 inches thick.

Cl 24-26 Dark orange yellow to strong yellowish brown (10 IR 6/8 -
7.5 IR 5/8) slightly mottled sand; weakly cemented to brittle
fragipan; weakly acid.

02 26.40 Light moderate yellowish brown (10 IR 5/4 - 6/4) slightly
mottled sand. structureless; medium acid.

03 40.42 As cz but with 5:8 dark orange yellow mottles.

Chg 42.-66 Grayish to‘moderate yellowish brown (10 YR 5/3 - 5/4)

coarse sand with fine gravel and 1 inch clayey lenses. very
dark grey brown and yellowish brown (10 IR 3/2 -5; IR 4/6);
friable to very friable; medium acid.

233

We: a 00201 NW
Plursiograply- Flat glacial outwash just north of moraine

 

Natural vegetation- Mixed red and white pine. with groups of jack pine on
blow-sand spots.

Present vegetation- Jack pine and occasional red pine. mixed with red oak
and aspey.

Land use history- Cut-over forest land. few years cultivated then abandoned

Soil type Graycalm sand

 

 

 

 

Parent material medium sand Drainage position — well drained.
groundwater deep
Slape
aspect - Soil moisture - moist in lower
percent - B and C
length -
positim - Soil depth factors - no interfering
{actgs
Hor. Iggmesg fiscal gtigg
Aoo.

Ac 1 1/2.o Moderate to strongly matted nor-type organic layer black
(10 IR 2/1) and extremely acid. H often dark grayish

yellowish brown (10 IR 3/2 - 2.51; 3/2) as a thin leached
horizon under overlying duff.

Al

AP 0-8 Dark grayish yellowish brown (10 IR 2/2 - 3/2) sand.
weakly granular; loose; very strmgly acid; with some
small gravel.

1322 8.15 Moderate yellowish brown (10 IR n/u - 5/4) sand. with

some small gravel; structureless; loose; strongly acid.

133 15-2!» Moderate to strong yellowish brown (10 IR 5/u -5/6) sand,
with some small gravel; structureless; loose; medium to
strongly acid.

cl 2L»-9o Light yellowish brown (10 IR 6/6) sand with occasional
texture bands between 36 and 60 inches depth. brown
(7.5 YR 5/4) friable to very friable loany sand. l/h
to 1 inch thick; weakly acid to medium acid. moderately
gravelly fruit ’42 inch downward.

284

WOWOI 0t 0
Prysiograpl'y- Glacial outtwrash sands almg Rogue River flood plain

Natural vegetation- Mixed hardwoods and white pine

Present vegetatim- Mixed hardwoods

00000

Wt:
Soil type Rubicon sand

 

 

Parent material - medium sand Drainage position - well drained
Slope Soil moisture - moist in lower B
aspect - and C horizons

percent -

length - Soil depth factors. - no interfering
positim - layers

Her ckne De cri t on

1106 1 1/2 - 1 Fresh needles

A0 1.0 I" very mouldy partially decomposed needles. H incorporated
decomposed needles.

A1 0-1/2 . erish yellowish brown (10 YR zt/Z) sand; granular; very
friable; strmgly acid.

hp 1/2-10 Dark grayish yellowish brown (10 IR 3/2) sand; weakly
granular; incbherent to very friable; mediu- acid.

322 10-32 Light bran: to strong yellowish brown (7.5 IR 5/6-10 IR
5/6) sand; weakly granular to structureless; incoherent;
medium acid. Some fine gravel bettceen 2n and 32 inch
depth.

01 32-60 Light yellowish brown (10 IR 6/u) sand with some fine gravel
and irregular bands of slightly cemented bands of fine sand
with somewhat platy structure between 36 and “8 inch depth;
structureless and incoherent matrix; slightly acid.

02 60-90 Light yellowish brown (10 IR 6/u) medium and fine sand with

some small gravel; strucmreless and loose; slightly acid.
Evidence of faint color bands of several inches thick with
more fine sand. between 60 and 72 inch depth.

285
HOLES-.35...—

.......

‘ d te ‘ 6080 01
Plvsiography- Slightly undulating glacial outwash

Natural vegetation- "Prairie Opening” with natural grass vegetation and
sparse red and white oak. white pine groups

Present vegetation- Grasses where original soil was not eroded
Land use history- Was farmed 10-20 years since early settlement later

b on er
Soil type Sparta loamy sand

 

 

 

 

Parent material - stratified sands Drainage position - well-drained.
groundwater deep
Slaps
aspect - Soil moisture - moist below 50 inch
percent - depth
length -
position - Soil depth factors - compact textural
bang; at 30-50 EQL
HE. Thicknegs Degcri pgg
Aoo. '
A0 1.0 Loose mar-type organic layer. black (10 YR 2/1); extremely
acid.
All
hp 0-9 Dark grayish yellowish brown (10 IR 2/2) loamy sand; weak
crumb structure; very friable; showing faint horizmtal
colorbandin above a 1 inch thick plowsole at 9 inch depth
(dry 2.51; a 2. moist 10 IR 2/2); strongly acid.
A12 9-15 Dark grayish yellowish brown to moderate yellowish brown

(10 IR 2/3 - 10 IR #/3) loamy sand; weak crumb structure
very friable; strmgly acid.

AB 15-22 Dark yellowish brown (10 IR 3/4) loamy sand; weakly granular;
very friable; strongly acid.

B21 22.30 Moderate yellowish brown (10 YR 4/4) loamy fine sand to

loamy sands and some small gravel; weakly granular to
structureless; strongly acid.

cl 30-50 Light yellowish brown (10 IR 6/6) structureless sand with
many 0.1-0.5 inch thick more or less horizontal and cm-
tinuous light brown (7. 5 IR 5/6) textural bands of very
friable loamy sand and medium acidity (between #2 and 50

inches depth four to five bands are very pronounced and cemented
with a brittle consistence. ‘

02 50-102 Moderate-strong yellowish brown (10 IR 5/6-5/8) sand to coarse
sand with fine gravel. structureless; incoherent.

03 102.120 Light yellowish brown (10 IR 6/14) structureless fine sand
with many 0.1-0.2 inch thick bands of light brown to strong

yellowish brown (7.5 m 5/6) very friable and slightly acid
loany sand.

286
Sarnpling date 56080301 Plot no. 146

 

Prysiograpty
Natural vegetation

Identical to previous description
Present vegetaticn

Land use history

 

Soil type Sparta loamy sand

Parent material - stratified sands Drainage position — well drained
Slaps Soil moisture - moist from Mt"
aspect - down

percent -

length - Soil depth factors - no interfering
positim - ,, horizons

 

Hora Thickness gscfipfim

Description identical to that of Plot 1&5 except for
the following items.

0-12 A11 and A12
12-18 AB
18-24 1321

zit-M4 Cl sand to fine sand

M-66 02 moist horizon. sand
No or practically no evidence of textural bands.

287

Sampling date 56080101 Plot no. 1+5 A

 

Physiography - Blown-out section in flat to slightly undulating glacial
outwash

Natural vegetation - Mixed hardwoods and white pine around this "prairie-
Opening"'with.natural grass vegetation

Present vegetation — Barren With Cladonia ind Polytrichum mosses in spots

Land use history - Wind—eroded after short period of cultivation

 

Soil type Sparta (loamy sand. eroded phase

Parent material - stratified sands

 

 

Slepe Drainage position - well drained
aspect -

percent - Soil moisture - moist from 28' down
length -
position - Soil depth factors - no interfering

factors

gar. Thickness Description

A00.

A0 Absent. but a 1/4 inch mosslayer with occasional pine needles.
A1 0.1 Dark grayish yellowish brown (10 IR 3/2) sand. weakly

granular. loose. strongly acid.
c1 1-28 ‘Moderate yellowish brown (10 IR u/3 - u/n) sand.

structureless. incoherent. slightly acid. with thin
yellowish brown (10 IR 5/1») sandy colorbands at 26" depth
and occasional thin bands of fine gravel.‘weakly acid.

02 28.84 Mederate.yellowish brown (10 YR 5/u) sand. structure-
less, incoherent.

03 ShellO Light.yellOWish brown (10 YR 6/3 - 6/h) sand, structure-
less. incoherent. weakly acid.

04 110-120 Light yellowish brown (10 YR.6/3 a 6/h) coarse sand
structureless. incoherent. weakly acid.

d t 0 2503 Plot_g9,_{-_P9___
Physiography - Flat terrace along Muskegon River
Natural vegetation - Mixed hardwoods and occasional white pine
Present vegetation - Mixed hardwoods (white oak. aspen)
-: 0 -“~ .‘LO ' — 31‘ _' oi- tVJte 01‘:u,°.,‘ 0 refer-t-t --
Soil type Mancelona loamy sand

 

 

 

Parent material - stratified sands Drainage position - well-drained.
and gravels groundwater deep
Slape Soil moisture - moist below 62”
aspect -
percent - Soil depth factors - throughout
length - profile gravel layers free carbonates
positi - at 50 ingh depth
Hor cknes De cri t
A00.
A0 2 1/2 - 0 Heavy matted mar-type of organic layer. very dark gray
(10 YR 3/1) and very strongly acid in A0.
A
AP. 0-9 Dark grayish yellowish brown (10 IR 2/2) loamy sand with
gravel; weakly medium granular; very friable slightly acid.
B22 9-18 Light brown to strong;yellowish brown (7.5 IR 5/6) loamy

sand with some gravel; weakly'granular to structureless;
very friable; slightly acid.

A2 18-35 Strongjyellowish brown (10 YR 5/6) gravelly sand; structure-
less. incoherent; slightly acid.

at 35-42 Moderate to strong yellowish brown (10 IR 5/n .. 5/6) very
gravelly. loamy coarse sand. weakly coarse granular to
structureless; very friable; weakly cemented with clay
coatings between sand grains; slightly acid. Boundaries
vary from above 30-36" to u0_h8" below and thickness from
6 to 15 inches.

cl b2-56 Strong yellowish brown (10 YR 5/6) fine gravelly sand.
incoherent. slightly acid.

02 56-62 Light yellowish brown (10 IR 6/n) very gravelly coarse sand.
incoherent. moderately alkaline. with a.neutral moist loamy
coarse sand band at 56 to 60 inches.

03 62.70 Light yellowish brown (10 IR 6/4) very gravelly sand.
moderately alkaline.

Cu, 70-80 Light.yellOWish brown gravelly coarse sand.

05 80-120 Light;yellowish brown coarse sand; incoherent; moderately
alkaline.

289

ngpling gate 55022501 ' Plat no, as
Pmsiography - Slightly undulating terrace on right bank of Muskegan River

Natural vegetation - Mixed oak-maple hardwoods + occasional white pine

Present vegetation - same

 

t - ted on b done f and

Soil type Mancelona loany sand

Parent material - stratified sands Drainage position - well drained.

groundwater deep

Slape

aspect - south Soil moisture .. moist in A and B.
percent - l/Z dry in C. moist below 62"

length -

position - lower terrace . Sail depth factors - gravel layers

from surface to 1&2" depth. free

cggbongtes at :30 inch depth

 

HarI maulegg Degcription

A00.
Ac 1 1/2-0 Loose mar type of organic layer. Ao l/Lt inch thick.

A1, AP 0.9 Dark grayish yellowish brown - dark yellowish brown;
loany sand with pebbles and some cobbles; moderately
granular; very friable; medium acid.

Bp "9-2a Light brown to yellowish brown (7.5 IR 5/6 .. 10 IR 5/6);
loamy sand with pebbles and cobbles; weakly granular;
very friable; weakly acid.

A2 214-30 Strong yellowish brown (10 YR 5/6); loansr sand with some

pebbles and cobbles; weakly granular to structureless;
very friable to loose; slightly acid.

Bl 30-314- Usually absent horizm of moderate yellowish brown (10 IR
5/# sand; incoherent; slightly acid.

B1; 30-112 Moderate brown to moderate yellowish brown (7. 5 YR Liv/LP ..

10 YR ’4/4); very gravelly sandy loam; weak coarse granular.
loose to very friable; moderately alkaline with much free
carbonates. Thickness from 5 to 20 inches.

C1 h2-62 Light yellowish brown (10 YR 6M); incoherent; neutral.
C2 62.120 Grayish yellowish brown (10 IR 5/3) sand; incoherent; with

1/2 inch thick slightly cemented bands between 60 to 80
inch depth.

290

Sampling date 56082701 Plat no. #2

 

Physiography - Narrow sandy ridge along flood plain of Bad River. Saginaw
County

Natural vegetation - elm-ash-saft maple in flood plain. white and red oak.
hard maple a1 upland position

Present vegetation - same

Land use history - Lagged. cultivated, abandoned and reforested

 

Soil type Melita sand

Parent material - stratified riverlaid Drainage positim - well to moderately

sands. silts. and clays well drained. groundwater shallow
Slape Soil moisture - moist throughout
aspect -

percent - Soil depth factors - silty clay loam
length - subsoil

position - slightly convex

 

Har, Thicknesg Description

 

Aoo. ,

Aa 1-0 Moderately matted mar-type of organic layer with 1/2 inch
of H - horizon.

Ap 0—9 Dark grayish yellowish brown (10 IR 3/ 2) sand; weak fine
crumb; very friable; slightly acid.

821 9-13 Dark to moderate yellowish brown (10 YR 3/14 - h/h) sand;

weak granular; loose consistence; slightly acid.

322 13-32 Strong yellowish brown (10 YR 5/8 - lit/Lt) sand; weak
granular; loose consistence; neutral.

BC 32-38 Strong yellowish brown (10 IR 5/6 - 5/8) sand to fine
sand; incoherent; neutral.

Cl 38-52 Light yellowish brown (10 YR 6/4) sand to fine sand;
incoherent; medium acid.

C2 52.62 Light yellowish brown to dark orange yellow (10 IR 6/6 ..

6/8) fine to somewhat loamy sand; structureless; loose
to very friable; medium acid.

c3 62- Strong yellowish brown (10 IR 5/6) silty clay loam;
massive; sticky and plastic; slightly mottled; neutral.

vvvvvv

Sampling.th 5.6 0_8_7__22 0 Mil...
Ptysiagraphy

Natural vegetatial

Present vegetation Identical to description of Plot no. 1&2
W - ~

Soil type Menominee loamy sand

 

Parent material - stratified Ih‘ainage pasition - well-drained
waterlaid sands. silts and clays
Soil moisture - moist throughout

 

 

51 e
agect - Sail depth factors - silky clay loam
percent - subsoil from 37" downward, fragipan-
length - like sand from 27 to 37 inch down
pagitim frgg cabanates at 50 igch dgpth
or ckne De r t
Aoo.
A0 3-0 Matted mar-type of organic layer with 1/2 - 3/u inch of A0.

A1 0-1/2 Dark garyish yellowish brown (10 IR 2/2) loamy sand; weak
crumb; very friable; medium acid.

hp 1/2-8 Dark yellowish brawn ( 10 IR 3/3). loamy sand with some
medium-size gravel; weak crumb; very friable; medium acid.

B22 8-12 Moderate brown (7. 5 YR till!) sand; weak granular; loose
consistence; medium acid.

323 12.18 Strong yellowish brown (10 IR 5/6) sand with some medium
size gravel; weak granular; loose ccnsistence; medium acid.

01 18-27 Moderate yellowish brown (10 IR Wit) sand; weak-granular to
structureless; incoherent; slightly acid.

02 27-37 Strong yellowish brown (7. 5 IR 5/8-lo IR 5/8) sand; strongly
mottled; weak platyi moderately to strmgly deve10ped
fragipan; slightly acid.

03 37-50 Light olive brown to grayish yellowish brawn (2.5 I 5/2 -

10 IR 5/2); silky clay loam; massive; firm to very firm;
neutral.

CL; 50-52; Moderate yellowish brown to light olive brown (10 IR 5/4—

2.5 Y 5/h) loamy sand; very friable; slightly alkaline.
some free carbonates.

05 511.58 Moderate yellowish brown (10 IR 4/3 - 5/3) loany sand;
very friable; much free carbonates.

05 58- Moderate to grayish yellowish brown (10 IR n/3 - h/Z)
silky clay loam; massive; firm; much free carbonates.
At 66 inch depth was a thin layer of gravel.

292
Sampling date 56082101 Plot no. 1+1

 

Prysiagraply - Upland just above floodplain of Bad River

Natural vegetation
Present vegetation identical to description for plots 1&2 and ”«3
Land use history

 

Soil type Menominee loany sand

Parent material - stratified waterlaid Drainage positim - well drained
sands and Clays

Soil moisture - moist throughout.

 

 

 

Slape groundwater shallow
aspect .-

percent - Soil depth factors - silty clay loam

length ‘- substration at 1&2 inch, sandy loam

position - bands in B and upper C mottled
acne above clay, free carbalates
b aw no t

Har cknes De cri t

Aoo.

Ao 3/4—0 Loose mar to duff-null of organic layer without distinct A.

A1 0.1/2 Dark grayish yellowish brown (10 IR 2/2) sand; weak crumb;
loose to very friable; medium acid.

Ap 1/2-9 Dark gr ish yellowish brown - dark yellowish brown (10 IR
3/2 - 3753’) sand: weak granular: slightly acid.

322 9-15 Strong brown (7.5 IR u/6); sand with thin 1/2 inch sandy
clay loam lenses. moderately cemented; weakly granular;
very friable. slightly acid.

Cl 15-26 Strong yellowish brown (10 ER 5/6) sand with some clayey
lenses; slightly acid.

02 2M2 Light alive brown to moderate yellowish brown (2.5 I 5/2 -
10 YR 5/4) clay loam. slightly mottled 10 YR 5/8 massive;
stratified; sticky and very plastic; some free carbonates.

c3 112-66 Light olive brown to moderate yellowish brown (2.5 IR 5/2 ..
10 IR 5/u) with much l/n inch size mottling (10 IR 5/u ..
5/8); silty clay loam; massive; very sticky and very
plastic; much free carbonates.

293

Flat no, #0
Physiagraply - Level bank of Bad River floodplain

Natural vegetatim
Prasent vegetation Same as descriptions for plots 1&1. #2. 1+3

Lgpd use history
Soil type Arenac sand

Parent material - stratified Drainage positial - imperfectly drained
waterlaid sands and clays
Soil moisture - moist throughout

 

 

Slaps
aspect - Sail depth factors — groundwater at
percent - 30 inch depth. silty clay at 45 inch
length - depth. "fragipan" at 26 inch depth
pagition - free carbonates_gt 30 igch depth
Har cknes De or t
Aoo.

Ac 1 3/n-o Duff 1 l/2 inch thick. Ao 1/4 inch thick.

A1 0-1/2 Dark grayish yellowish brown (10 IR 2/1-3/1); sand moderately
strong medium granular; very friable; slightly acid.

AP 1/2-10 Dark grayish yellowish brown (10 IR 2/2) sand. moderate to
weak granular; very friable; slightly acid.

C3 20-26 Strong yellowish brown (10 YR 5/6) with irregular small

mottles of 10 IR 5/8 to 7. 5 IR 5/8 in lower inch of horizon;
sand; weakly granular; slightly acid.

C]_ 26-26 1/2 Moderate olive brown (2.5 Y h/LL) sand or loany sand;

structureless; slightly cemented to brittle pan; slightly
acid.

02 26 1/2-30 Moderate yellowish brown (10 YR lt/lt) loamy sand. weak crumb.
friable to strongly cemented to brittle pan; slightly acid.

The color is a mixture of rusty orange oxidized irm and
dark organic residues as in 01'.

c3g 30-15 Light olive brown to moderate yellowish brown (2.5 I 5/2 ..
10 YR 5/3) 10amy sand; structureless; very friable; neutral.
The sand with reduced iron color under the level of ground-
water cmtains free carbonates. Mottles and spots around
roots 2.5 I 3/0.

egg £5-66 Brownish gray (10 IR u/l - 2. 5h u/l) silty clay; massive.

sticky and.very plastic. moderately alkaline. much free
carbonates.

294

Sampling date 56071101 Plot no. 34

 

Physiography - Undulaiing glacial tapography. plot on a kame-like ridge
Natural vegetation — Mixed hardwoods; oak-hickory'type
Present.vegetation — same

Land use history - Planted an abandoned farmland

 

Soil type Kendalville sandy loam

 

 

 

Parent material - gravelly loam Drainage position - well-drained
groundwater deep
Slaps
aspect - North Soil moisture - moist throughout B and C
percent l-2
length - 500 feet Soil depth factors - pebbles and
position - upper slape cobbles throughout profile. compacted
erosion - 2.3 loam at 6 inch depth free carbonates
below 21 inch depth
Hor ckne or on
Aoo.
Ao l-O Mor to duff-mull type of organic layer.
A; 0-3 10 YR 4/2; sandy loaM'with many pebbles and cobbles; fine
crumb; friable; medium acid.
AZ 3-6 10 IR 5/3 - 5/u; sandy loam with many pebbles and cobbles;
weak platy to crumby; friable; medium acid.
AB 6-15 10 YR 4/4; loam with many pebbles and cobbles; coarse sub-

angular blocky; friable neutral.

Bz 15-21, 10 YR #lh; loam with pebbles and cobbles. medium subangular
blocky; friable; mildly alkaline.

Cl 21-33 10 YR 5/3 - 5/4; loam With much gravel; moderate subangular
blocky; alkaline; much free carbonates.

CZ 33.112 10 IR S/h; very gravelly sandy loam. weak subangular bloclqy;
friable; alkaline; much free carbonates.

C3 42-66 10 IR 5/3; very gravelly and cobbly loam; weak medium to fine
subangular blocky; friable; alkaline and much free carbonates.

295

W 560mm AMI—L
Physiography - Top of -like ridge

Natural vegetation

 

 

 

Present vegetation identical to description of plot 3h

Lgnd u§e history

Soil type Fox (approaching quer5_ sandy loam

Parent material - stratified sands Drainage position - well drained.
and loans groundwater deep

Slaps Soil moisture - moist throughout
aspect - North '

percent - 1 Soil depth factors - Compacted
length - 500 feet gravelly B horizon at 24 inch
pagition - unpgr slope ' {reg cggbongteg gt 4; iggh depth

Bar 0 e 3 De 0 t on

Aoo.

Ao 1/2..o Duff mull type of organic layer with very thin A0.

A1 0-1 10 YR 3/2; sandy loam; moderate medium crumb; friable;
medium acid.

AP 1—8 10 YR 3/3; sandy loam. moderately gravelly; medium crumb;
very friable; slightly acid.

A2 8-15 10 IR h/B - 4/2; sandy loam. moderately gravelly; mediwn
crumb; very friable; slightly acid.

31 15-24 7.5 YR h/h; sandy clay loam. moderately gravelly; moderate
subangular blocky; friable; slightly acid.

B2 2h-35 7.5 YR 4/4; coarse sandy clay loam. very gravelly with
some cobbles; moderately blocky; friable to firm; medium
acid.

B3 35-h2 10 YR u/n; loamy fine sand; weakly granular; very friable;
neutral.

cl 1&2-58 10 IR 5/u - 2.5 I 5/4; sand; fine platey to granular to
incoherent; with thin whitish. very alkaline bands. brittle
cemented.

02 58-62 10 IR ’4/‘4; fine sandy loam; cemented hard to friable;
strongly calcareous.

C3 62-96 ' 10 YR 6/3 - 5/3; sand; incoherent; strongly calcareous.

296

Sampling date 56092901 Plot no. 35

 

Physiograplv
Natural vegetation

identical to description of Plots 33 and 3“
Present vegetation

Land use history

 

Soil type Morley loam

 

 

Parent material - stratified loams Drainage position - well-drained
Slaps Soil moisture - moist at 66 inch
aspect -

percent - Soil depth factors - clay loam B
length - horizon at 1’4 inch. free carbonates
position — below 24 inch

or ' e t (n
Aoo.
Ao Duff mull type of organic lger.
A1 0.1; 10 IR u/2; loam; moderate crumb; friable slightly acid.
Ap tall 10 IR n/z; loam and some small pebbles; moderate sub-

angular blocky; friable; medium acid.

B1 11.-la 10 IR 5/u; clay loam; moderately blocky to subangular
blocky; friable; medium acid.

132 lh-Z? 10 YR “/4; clay loam with moderate amount of pubbles;
medium angular bloclq; firm to very firm; slightly
calcareous; some clay coatings a: structural faces.

cl 27-58 10 IR 5/u; clay loam; coarse angular blocky; firm;
moderately alkaline.

CZ 58-72 10 YR h/h; loam with some pebbles. weak coarse bloclqy;
firm; slightly calcareous.

C3 72— 10 YR 5/4; sandy loam with some pebbles. massive to
weak subangular blocky; firm; neutral.

B IBLIOGRAPHY

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VITA
Name . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Willem Adolph van Eck
Birthplace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Wageningen, Netherlands
Date of Birth. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . July 27, 1928
Experience

1945-1951 Student and Graduate.Assistant, University College of
Wageningen, Netherlands

1952 Member, Gold Coast Government Survey Team

1952-1956 Graduate Research Assistant, Michigan State University

1956 Assistant Professor, west Virginia University
Degrees
1951 B.Sc. in Tropical Ferestry

University College of Wageningen, Netherlands

1954 M.Sc. in Soil Science
Michigan State University

Memberships
Royal Netherlands Botanical Society
Agronomy Society of America
International Society of Soil Science
Netherlands Society of Foresters
Ecological Society of America
Society of Sigma Xi

west Virginia Academy of Science

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