“F E535; M Date Ill"”Milli"!Milli“!!!"ll”!!!IIHIIIIHHIHHWI ! 3039 This is to certify that the thesis entitled IMPACT OF THE MALAKI DAM ON THE AGRICULTURAL SYSTEM IN THE NADI JIZAN AREA, SAUDI ARABIA presented by Khudhran Khadhir M. Al—Thubaity has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Masters degree in AW , /% ///9-/,V Major professor ’ZJ’AV 0-7639 .-._.nn..!. ." ' ' h f, ._.'__.-4i__..-_.g._.. A_ .. Z—a—qaw @ Copyright by Khudhran Khadhir M. A'l-Thubaity 1978 IMPACT OF THE MALAKI DAM ON THE AGRICULTURAL SYSTEM IN THE WADI JIZAN AREA, SAUDI ARABIA by Khudhran Khadhir M. Al-Thubaity A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS Department of Geography 1978 L” 13—":JTMM In the name of God, the most gracious, the dispenser of grace. ABSTRACT IMPACT OF THE MALAKI DAM ON THE AGRICULTURAL SYSTEM IN THE WADI JIZAN AREA, SAUDI ARABIA By Khudhran Khadhir M. Al-Thubaity Among the numerous wadies that have some agricultural reputation in the South Tihama region of Saudi Arabia is the Wadi Jizan area. This area has been the focus for agricultural develop- ment in the region. Some basic aims of the Saudi Arabian agricul- tural policy in this area are: l) to develop the agricultural potential, 2) to create a perennial irrigation system, 3) to control floods (runoff), and 4) to modernize cultivation methods and tech- niques. The purpose of this study is twofold: first, to investigate the potential and importance of Wadi Jizan as a prime agricultural area; and to illustrate contemporary agricultural development in the Wadi. Based on the available data, the Wadi Jizan area contains about 43,000 hectares of land, of which 18,000 hectares are produc— tive. When traced, the actual lands that were under cultivation during the period from 1951 to 1969 (before the recent development Khudhran Khadhir M. Al—Thubaity started in 1970) they composed, on the average, about 3,672 hectares, or only 20.4% of the total productive lands. As far as production is concerned, sorghum has been the major field crop and production varied from one year to another (between 3,000 tons in some years to less than 100 tons in others). This unsatisfactory situation in area cul- tivated or size of production in the Wadi Jizan area is mainly due to fluctuation in rainfall as well as to outdated cultivation methods. This agricultural situation, the availability of land for cultivation, the hydrological make-up of the Wadi (an average of 90 million cubic meters of runoff per year and about 2,000 million cubic meters of started groundwater), the available manpower (there are about 33,000 inhabitants in the Wadi), and the need for increased agricultural production in Saudi Arabia are all factors that justify the agricultural development in the Wadi Jizan area. A historical review of this agricultural development shows that the most basic component was the construction of Malaki Dam in 1970. Through the use of the available statistical information and by questioning 15l farmers in 27 villages selected randomly from the Wadi Jizan area, the impact of the Malaki Dam on land and water utilization, agricultural production and/or crop diversification has been examined. Consequently, an increase of about 30 to 40% of the irrigable lands from 1972 to 1975 has been found to be irrigated from Khudhran Khadhir M. Al-Thubaity the dam. In terms of the actual cultivated lands, and in respect to the agricultural production and crop diversification there has been no significant increase since the construction of the dam, and sorghum still represents the main field crop. In addition, though the dam has attracted some farmers to return to their villages, they did so because of the available work in companies that have accompanied the dam con- struction. These results support the argument that the agricultural system in the Wadi Jizan area has remained unchanged so far. Some major factors are found to hinder the meeting of successful development in the area. These factors are: l) the insistence of farmers to use their traditional methods in farming, 2) the continued use of tradi- tional water distribution and priority systems, 3) the existing land tenure system, 4) the existing marketing and transportation systems, and 5) above all is the fact that agricultural development in the Wadi Jizan area has been very slowly executed and often not synchronized. The present agricultural system in the Wadi Jizan area hinders the introduction of more sophisticated techniques for expanding cul- tivated areas and crop diversification. Any further development in this regard (with respect to the Wadi Jizan area or any other) must take into consideration the entire system, traditions, and methods UJTHSure rapid improvement of these social aspects. 3 To my father . . . and To the memory of my mother. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I would like to take the opportunity to express my sincere gratitude to the people of the Wadi Jizan area and the interviewed farmers for their participation. Also, the cooperation and assis- tance of the Administrative Staff at the Wadi Jizan Development Project are deeply appreciated. Special thanks are also extended to the personnel of the Ministry of Agriculture and the Ministry of Transportation for their generous help. I would like to make known my deep feelings of gratitude for my academic advisor and the committee chairman, Professor David Stephenson, whose help, encouragement, and guidance are unforgettable. Deeply appreciated is the help of other committee members: my second reader Professor Stanley Brunn and Professor Gary Manson, their guidance, remarks, and suggestions were always helpful. I am also indebted to Professor Dieter Brunnschweiler for his useful sug- gestions and directions since the time I started working on my masteris program. Special thanks are extended to Mr. Ralph DeVitto for his help with the preparation of the thesis illustrations. Also, my thanks are due to Mr. Morris Thomas and Miss E. Smith for their advice and 111 suggestions concerning the structure, grammar, and the writing style of this thesis. Finally, this study would not have been completed without the financial support provided by King Adulaziz University. Last, but not least, my deep thanks are extended to my typist Barbi Mel for her cooperation and understanding. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF TABLES .......................... viii LIST OF FIGURES ......................... xi Chapter I. INTRODUCTION ....................... 1 Purpose of the Study ................. 4 Procedures ...................... 6 The Study Area .................... 10 Agricultural Development in Saudi Arabia ....... 14 II. GENERAL BACKGROUND .................... 24 Physical Features .................. 25 Topography .................... 25 Climate ..................... 28 Hydrology .................... 37 Soils and Land Classification .......... 40 Natural Vegetation ................ 49 Human Geography ................... 53 The People .................... 53 Settlement .................... 55 Population .................... 58 V TABLE OF CONTENTS (Cont'd.) Chapter Page III. AGRICULTURE IN WADI JIZAN ................ 68 Introduction ..................... 68 Land Tenure ..................... 72 Traditional Irrigation and Water Rights ....... 78 Farm Operation .................... 83 Field Crops ..................... 88 Labor ...................... 92 Livestock ...................... 94 Markets and Transportation .............. 98 Iv. THE WADI JIZAN DEVELOPMENT PROJECT ............ 104 Development Potentail of Wadi Jizan ......... 104 Historical Perspective and Rationale for the Project .................... 112 Components of the Project .............. 127 Malaki Dam .................... 128 Irrigation Network Scheme and Tube Wells Development ............. 133 The Agricultural Experiment Station ....... 139 V. IMPACT OF THE MALAKI DAM ON THE AGRICULTURAL SYSTEM IN THE WADI JIZAN AREA ............. 145 Land and Water Utilization .............. 146 vi TABLE OF CONTENTS (Cont'd.) Chapter Page Agricultural Production and Crop Diversification. . . 158 SociO-Economic Patterns . .' ............. 165 VI. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ............. 174 Conclusions ..................... 174 Recommendations . .................. 179 APPENDIX A. QUESTIONNAIRES FOR SAMPLE 0F FARMERS IN NADI JIZAN. . . . 184 B. HOUSING AND POPULATION CENSUS .............. 190 BIBLIOGRAPHY ........................... 192 Vii LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1. SAMPLE SIZE AND DISTRIBUTION FOR WADI JIZAN AREA ..... 8 2. LIST OF CONSULTANTS AND AREAS SURVEYED IN SAUDI ARABIA . . l8 3. NUMBER OF INHABITANTS FOR THE SURVEYED VILLAGES IN WADI JIZAN ....................... 63 4. AGE STRUCTURE FOR THE INTERVIEWED FARMERS ......... 64 5. FAMILY SIZE FOR THE INTERVIEWED FARMERS .......... 65 6. LAND UTILIZATION FOR THE WADI JIZAN AREA IN HECTARES . . . 71 7. SIZE OF HOLDINGS IN THE WADI JIZAN AREA, FOR THE INTERVIEWED FARMERS ................... 76 £3. TRADITIONAL PLANTING AND HARVESTING DATES FOR DURRA. . . . 90 9. DISTRIBUTION OF LIVESTOCK FOR RESPONDENTS IN THE WADI JIZAN AREA ..................... 97 10. PERCENTAGES OF RESPONDENTS WHO SELL THEIR SURPLUS ..... 100 11. MONTHLY FLOWS OF WADI JIZAN AT MALAKI--MILLIONS OF CUBIC METERS ...................... 108 12. NET INVESTMENTS FOR THE 1970-1980 AGRICULTURAL PROGRAM EXPRESSED IN 1,000‘S OF US$ AT 1964 MARKET PRICES. . . . 115 13. AREA CULTIVATED, VALUE OF GROSS MARKETABLE PRODUCTION AND NET AGRICULTURAL PRODUCT IN THE DEVELOPMENT AREA, 1970-1980 ..................... 117 viii LIST OF TABLES (Cont'd.) Table 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. AREAS CULTIVATED, QUANTITY AND VALUE OF GROSS MARKETABLE PRODUCTION, NET AGRICULTURAL PRODUCT IN THE DEVELOPMENT ZONE, 1970-1980 . . ........ EVOLUTION OF UNIT YIELDS 1970-1980 . . . ........ TOTAL DIRECT COSTS OF WADI JIZAN PROJECT, IN US$ BROKEN DOWN INTO INVESTMENTS AND ANNUAL COSTS, REDUCED TO WORTH IN THE YEAR WHEN THE SYSTEM STARTS OPERATING, AND FOR THE YEARS OF THE PROJECT‘S USEFUL LIFE . . . . OVERALL COSTS OF PROJECT DEMONSTRATION AND EXTENSION SERVICES, BROKEN DOWN INTO INVESTMENTS AND ANNUAL COSTS, DURING THE LIFE OF THE PROJECT, REDUCED TO WORTH AT YEAR ZERO ....... . ............ NET WORTH OF IRRIGATED AGRICULTURE, INCREMENT IN NET PRODUCT AND YEARLY VALUES REDUCED TO WORTH, DURING THE USEFUL LIFE OF THE PROJECT ............ DIRECT BENEFITS ATTRIBUTABLE TO THE PROJECT ....... BENEFIT-COST RATIOS ACCORDING TO TWO HYPOTHESES OF ASSOCIATED COSTS ..... . .............. DETAILS OF DIVERSION WEIRS AND IRRIGATION HEADWORKS. . . . PROPOSED SCHEDULE FOR DISTRIBUTARIES AND MINOR CANALS. . . ESTIMATED IRRIGATED AREAS AND VOLUMES OF WATER IN THE WADI JIZAN FOR THE PERIOD 1951-1962 .......... DIVISION OF LANDS ACCORDING TO FREQUENCY OF IRRIGATION . . LAND AND WATER UTILIZATION FROM 1964-1968 ........ SIZE OF AREAS IRRIGATED BEFORE AND AFTER OPENING THE DAM IN 1970. . . . . . .............. ix Page 119 120 121 123 124 125 126 137 138 147 149 . 151 153 LIST OF TABLES (Cont'd.) Table 27. AMOUNT OF PRODUCTION FOR DURRA AND AMOUNT OF AREA IRRIGATED IN WADI JIZAN FROM 1965-1975 ......... 28. INCREASE IN CULTIVATED LANDS FOR INTERVIEWED FARMERS IN THE WADI JIZAN AREA ................. 29. INCREASE IN DURRA PRODUCTION FOR THE INTERVIEWED FARMERS . 30. COST OF DURRA PRODUCTION PER HECTARE ........... 31. MOVEMENT 0F FARMERS IN THE WADI JIZAN ........... 32. REASONS FOR MOVEMENT ................... 33. REASONS FOR RETURNING TO WADI JIZAN ............ 34. FARMERS WHO HAVE JOBS BESIDES THEIR FARMS ......... Appendix B. HOUSING AND POPULATION CENSUS ............... Page 159 161 162 166 168 169 170 171 190 Figure 10. 11. 12° 13. 14. 15. 16. LIST OF FIGURES Page RELATIVE SELF-SUFFICIENCY 0F SAUDI ARABIA IN SELECTED AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS ............. 2 THE WADI JIZAN AREA .................... 12 WADI JIZAN STUDY AREA ................... 13 WADI JIZAN--TOPOGRAPHY .................. 27 LAVA OUTCROPS EAST OF ABU ARISH .............. 29 MONTHLY TEMPERATURES ................... 31 ABU ARISH: MEAN MONTHLY RAINFALLS 1953-1963 ....... 35 AVERAGE ANNUAL RAINFALL IN NATURAL REGIONS 0F SAUDI ARABIA ...................... 36 WADI JIZAN AT MALAKI ................... 38 GROUNDWATER LEVELS IN THE WADI JIZAN STUDY AREA ...... 41 WADI JIZAN SOIL TYPES ................... 42 WADI JIZAN-~LAND CAPABILITY ................ 44 LAND CAPABILITY IN THE DEVELOPMENT AREA .......... 47 NATURAL VEGETATION ALONG THE WADI JIZAN BED ........ 51 THE VILLAGE OF HAKIMAH .......... ‘ ........ 59 THE TOWN OF ABU ARISH ................... 60 xi LIST OF FIGURES (Cont‘d.) Figure 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. Page THE TRADITIONAL PLOWING METHOD .............. 85 THE TRADITIONAL SOWING METHOD ............... 87 TRADITIONAL CUTIVATION PATTERNS IN THE STUDY AREA ..... 89 WADI JIZAN AT MALAKI: FREQUENCY OF ANNUAL FLOWS ..... 110 WADI JIZAN CATCHMENT AREA ................. 129 THE MALAKI DAM ...................... 132 PROPOSED IRRIGATION NETWORK SCHEME ............ 134 A SECTION OF THE NEW IRRIGATION SYSTEM .......... 135 THE SIX NEW IRRIGATION DISTRICTS ............. 156 xii Chapter I INTRODUCTION Due to the physical conditions Of the region, the agricultural lands in Saudi Arabia are limited. Moreover, a number of various problems concerning social and financial resources account for the fact that agricultural production comprises no more than 10% of the gross national product. These problems include: lack of agricultural education; use Of a traditional land tenure system; an inadequate marketing system; and difficult economic situation of the farmers, which Often hinders the resolution Of problems. Until recently, agricultural development in Saudi Arabia did not extend throughout the entire country. As a result, the amount Of agricultural production is still very low, and the need for importa- tion Of grains and other foodstuffs remains high (Figure 1). The government Of Saudi Arabia has sensed the problem, and as a result, several fruitful changes and positive steps have been taking place as far as agricultural and water development is concerned. In this respect, several projects have been instigated, such as the Al-Hassa Project for land improvement and agriculture; the Faisal settlement RELATIVE SELF-SUFFICIENCY OF SAUDI ARABIA IN SELECTED AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS LL I M P O R T s——>|<——- PRODUCTION >Ie—EXPORTS WHEAT and LOUR 99.9 I C E BARLEY CITRUS 99.0 BANANAS 99.0 POTATOES 100.0 ULSES and NUTS 14.5 100.0 SUGAR 100.0 EA and COFFEE 62.8 EGGS POULTRY 4 0.8 100 80 60 4O 20 AS PERCENTAGE 24 MILLET SORGHUM 24.9 99.4 103.0 MELONS 104.0 OTHER VEGETABLES 93.8 SESAME 2.2.5 OTHER MEAT 0 2O 4O 60 80 100 OF TOTAL CONSUMPTION SOURCE: Saudi Arabian Ministry of Planning, Second Development Plan, 1395-1400 A.H.,|975—l980A.D. §_ Figure 1 project; the Al—Qatif irrigation development plan; and the Wadi1 Jizan development project. Water scarcity is by far the most crucial problem which con— fronts agricultural development in Saudi Arabia. Water resources are dependent upon the unpredictable rainfall which, in most cases, forms a violent runoff, causing severe erosion and destruction. Therefore, in a country like Saudi Arabia, ground water is very important. To increase agricultural production, and increase the amount of potential farm land, several practical plans concerning agricultural and water development have been formulated. An efficient flood-control plan is considered the cornerstone in this respect. Thus far, dams have been constructed in almost ten Wadies, and construction is underway on several more dams. The Wadi Jizan Development Project, which includes the Malaki Dam, is one of the largest projects in Saudi Arabia, and the only one, in terms of agriculture and water development in the South Tihama2 Area. The project consists of three main sections-—the Dam, the Irrigation Scheme, and the Agricultural Experiment Station. These three projects are intended to meet the development needs Of 1Wadi is the arabic word for a valley with an intermittent watercourse. Z"Tihama“ is the arabic term which refers to the low and hilly area along the Red Sea coastal plain. The area is characterized as hot and humid during the summer, while warm during the winter. f 'the Wadi by increasing the irrigable lands and utilizing the surface runoff and ground waters, as well as introducing new crops, farming unethods, and mechanization. It is my intention to study the Wadi Jizan Area in terms of its physical and human characteristics as well as the types of agriculture, the traditional methods, and crop patterns. In addition, it is necessary to investigate the various justifications for the project, as well as the several effects upon the area as a result Of the agricultural development projects in Wadi Jizan. Purpose of the Study Wadi Jizan has been receiving increasing attention from government authorities in the last few years. The Wadi is a prom- ising agricultural district in South Tihama region, particularly as far as irrigation on a large scale is considered. The Malaki Dam, completed in 1970, is definite evidence of such development. The purpose of this study is twofold: to investigate the potential and importance of Wadi Jizan as a prime agricultural area; and to illus- trate contemporary agricultural development in the Wadi, as well as its goal and effects. The prime Objectives Of this study are: l--tO study the agricultural system in the Wadi Jizan and the need for development. 2--tO investigate the justification for the choice Of Wadi Jizan as a developmental site. 3--to focus upon the present development--its history and components. 4-—to trace the impact Of the Malaki Dam on the agricultural system in the area. 5--to make a contribution to the geography of Saudi Arabia in general and to provide useful recommendations for further development in the Wadi Jizan area in particular. The focus Of argument in this research will be the assumption that development in such an area will result in an increase in the amount of cultivated land, and a greater variety of crops, made pos- sible because of sufficient and modern methods of cultivation and flood-control. tions: In addition, answers will be sought to the following ques- l--what change or changes have taken place in the area in terms of water availability and distribution? 2--how much increase in the amount Of cultivated land and agricultural production has occurred as a result Of such development? 3--what are the major factors that may have influence on the development Of the agricultural system in the area? Procedures The data presented in this study were collected during two periods of time. The first period (November 15, 1976, through January 15, 1977) was used for surveying literature on the study area. At Michigan State University, research immediately revealed the scar- city Of material on the study area. However, there were some data on geography and agriculture in general which proved helpful in building a basic background in the subject matter. A trip to Saudi Arabia was undertaken on December 15, 1977, for the purpose of collecting the major available references about the study area. Most Of these refer- ences were reports composed by representatives Of various governmental departments or by consulting companies. The only wayto Obtain such reports was to contact the governmental agencies located in Riyadh, the capital Of Saudi Arabia. The departments most frequently con- sulted were: the Ministry Of Agriculture and Water, the Ministry Of Petroleum and Minerals, the Ministry of Planning, the Ministry Of Communication, and the Ministry of Commerce and Industry. Public libraries were also consulted frequently. During the visits with the government representatives, there seemed to be a lack of knowledgee about the reports done by the Food and Agricultural Organization Of the United Nations (FAO) between 1952 and 1955, so a trip to Rome was undertaken and the needed reports were obtained. In addition, personal interviews with experts in the Ministry of Agriculture and Water were held, as well as with the residents of the study area. The second period was more productive, as it involved the field research. During January 15 to March 15, 1977, questionnaires (see Appendix A) were distributed, and conversations with local people were conducted. Much insight was given into the areas Of population, agricultural activity and problems, cultivation methods, water dis- tribution and rights, and the land tenure system. For purposes of research, Wadi Jizan was divided into two sections--the Upper and Lower. Subsequently, 50% of the villages in each part were randomly selected for intensive polling, and a sample of 27 out Of 55 villages (excluding Abu Arish) was utilized. Next, 5% Of the total number Of families in each of the 27 villages was sampled.3 Thus, a total of 151 families was interviewed (Table 1). Since this study concerns agricultural activity, only farmers were interviewed. 1 The questionnaires and interviews were administered with the help Of two Saudian engineers on a part—time basis. ‘Transportation was supplied by King Abdulaziz University for almost thirty-six days of extensive traveling. Transportation for the engineers was supplied 3The statistical information on the population and families was taken after the 1972 survey by Sir William Halcrow and Partners (see Appendix B). 1 TABL- 1 '7 I SAMPLE SIZE AND DISTRIBUTION FOR THE WADI JIZAN AREA Number of Villages Total Families Series Selected Location Families Interviewed* 1 Malaki Upper Wadi 89 4 2 Al-Mahallah " 116 6 3 A1-quah " 88 4 4 Qamirah ” 96 5 5 Al-Quwayiah “ 87 4 6 Al-Raha “ 30 2 7 Jirbah ” 15 1 8 Al-Bayyid ” 169 8 9 Al-Khadhra(J) “ 308 15 10 Falass ” 168 8 ll Al-Mujassass “ 155 8 12 Abualnurah “ 152 8 l3 Al-Wasit Lower Wadi 57 3 l4 Khabtsaid ” 87 4 15 Al-Rayyan ” 148 7 16 Al-Badi ” 233 12 17 Al-Qarafi " 181 9 18 Al-Salamah ” 78 4 19 Al-Mihsam “ 65 3 20 Al-Ghurayyib “ 107 5 21 Al-Matiri ” 45 2 22 Al—Wasili “ 242 12 23 Al-Ajabiyah ” 61 3 24 Bakhshah “ 4O 2 25 Al-Kharadilah ” 91 5 26 Al-Ushwah " 95 5 27 Al-Kawanillah ” 46 2 TOTAL 151 *TO avoid decimal points, the decision was made that .5 and up would be rounded to one (e.g. 30x5/1OO = 1.5 is rounded to 2 as in the case of Al-Raha Village), less than .5 to be truncated, or forgotten (e.g. 308x5/100 = 15.4 = 15 as in the case of Al-Khadhra (J) village). **See Figure 3 for location Of villages. Source: Data collected during field work Of the author in the Wadi Jizan area, Saudi Arabia, November 15, 1976 to March 15, 1977. by the Experiment Station at Hakimah, where they are employed. The engineers worked half-days for two weeks, along with the author, and the interviewing was completed by March 15, 1977. There were few difficulties encountered in the field work, and the task was completed according to schedule. However, with respect to the data collected, there was a severe lack Of available statistics on agricultural production, farm size and income, and population. Consequently, statistical information given in this study on such topics, whether taken from previously published reports, or personally- collected data, are approximate estimates at best, and not immune to mistakes and errors. Another slight difficulty was encountered with the base maps for the Wadi Jizan area. All the maps gathered had been compiled primarily from uncontrolled mosaic, and thus the scales were given in approximate values only. As accuracy was not considered the paramount concern, the maps are basically thematic in nature. The study is divided into six chapters. Chapter Two is general background covering the physical and human geography of Wadi Jizan. Physical features Of the area, such as topography, climate, hydrology, soils, and natural vegetation, as well as the human aspects, such as population and settlement patterns are covered. Chapter Three is exclusively devoted to agriculture in Wadi Jizan. Sections on land 10 tenure, traditional irrigation and water rights, farm operation, crops, labor, livestock, marketing, and transportation are included. Agricul- tural development in the area is the topic of Chapter Four, and the discussion serves as a background for introducing the actual Wadi Jizan Development Project. Chapter Five broaches the main topic Of the study--Impact Of the Malaki Dam on the Agricultural System in the Wadi Jizan Area. This discussion contains the various subjects Of land and water utilization; agricultural production and crop diversification; and socio—economic patterns. TO illustrate these subjects, durra (sorghum) is used as the sample crop, and its transitions during devel- opment in Wadi Jizan are carefully traced. Chapter Six, the concluding chapter, contains conclusions and recommendations which may contribute tO further development in Wadi Jizan as well as in other wadies with similar conditions. The Study Area Wadi Jizan is a small area in the South Tihama region (Jizan Province). 0f the total land area in Wadi Jizan (43,000 hectares), about half has agricultural potential. The Wadi lies on the Red Sea coast in the southwestern part of Saudi Arabia near the border of A-a' 7' s -L~‘.-_p— .. .. - .. ; x —- 11 Yemen. It is located between 16°15'N and 17°5'N latitude, and 42°30'E and 45°OO'E longitude (Figure 2). The Wadi Jizan area consists Of well-established agricultural lands which utilize the traditional method of flood-irrigation. TO Saudi Arabians, Wadi Jizan is known as an extensively agricultural area, and is Often called the Saudi Arabian "breadbasket." Wadi Jizan is divided into two main parts—-the Upper and Lower sections. The division is based on the system Of water distribution, and is also reflective of water priority. That is, the Upper Wadi Jizan has higher priority in Obtaining water than the lower. Irrigable ' lands from the Wadi Jizan bed are classified into 37 agricultural l plots, and the lands furthest upstream receive first priority. The first 15 plots lie in the Upper Wadi, while plots 16 to 37 constitute ' the Lower Wadi (Figure 3). These agricultural plots make up the area known as the development area. There are sixty villages and towns in the Wadi Jizan area, comprising a total Of about 33,000 inhabitants Of which 90% are engaged in agricultural activities- Abu Arish, with10,853 inhabitants, is the only town in the Wadi. It serves a commercial and government adminis— trative center, as well as a gathering place for the local citizens. About 35km to the west lies Jizan City, located on the Red Sea, a few kilometers south of the Wadi mouth. Jizan City, which has a population > MIL. N 032“. / o \ \ \ N \ \ 0.6. on, .2 m. .3333: 53...; :m ”“330...” m . o . o E o _ . x .3293 cozoolz 336.... 336:2. I u. o. a o .9 . A (rv :qu»<$DIO 1LT Idlz.2<3ozcoE :52 \11 o \ m a o __ . > g \ o 00.: 0.3 13 m 053“. 5.4 ............ 2:5 \1 1 . muoom Ccvcooom mEx m o \a ....... 38¢ :62 \< 4. 3 111 \\ 6N4 ..1 se. a \ \ a 444:3 .. 4 :4zmzx4m 1g 4 Q .4 \ x4>_m4..4...4a II \ l/ / / \\ .Q‘s / 4&4254330 -34 24zm_z..._4 4 44 4 / “Mb Rat b 1 mg \ , I42434m54 14354445. ...41 4mm... \ 144.240 . oz\4_n~ we 4 F $9? 48 .... I\..__M4;.-_4 mm RNA-K Qu m £443.54 ms 9:443:94 .. $18 848432-44 a. :4mpzn4am4 £22.54 Nah: \\.I .00 ON 8:43.2434x- -..4 aw. (Mm \ x 9 \ng ..... \ 24:44 L4 :4;sz54 \ 1949545. wm434a ’ no». ......... 2:28: 5 324 xxx :4334x4z- ... I 19/1 . 34 A . \\ \\\ . . %\ u ., 4.5% . 6.55 22:52 5:32.... 4269:. 03Pm Z:__< Bum-cozy; D : E PW.-- < 1 15.1 I 24222-345 1.x -.-1 I1-1-11111. >IQ> \ . ...x \\ \ \ W. z4~.4o.\ \ \ \\ \ \ \. \ \.. \ . \\ \. \\ k 3 o. 0 & 28 The Wadi Jizan plain is a subdued alluvial plain built by the river and reaching westward almost as far as the Red Sea. This allu- vial plain consists Of sedimentations eroded from the Older rock formations within the drainage area Of Wadi Jizan. Since there are numerous floods in this area, the deposition which formed the plain was a rapid process. The plain is bordered by the edge Of the out- crops Of lava in the east, by the end Of the agricultural lands five kilometers before reaching the sea in the west, the northern branch Of Wadi Jizan, and the area about five kilometers south of the northern branch of the Wadi Jizan. This area represents most of the agricul- tural lands which are irrigable by the run-Off water of Wadi Jizan. Other features include the basalt flow which covers a vast area east and south Of the Wadi Jizan plain as far as the town of Abu Arish (Figure 5). Dunes are scarce in the upper Wadi Jizan, but are seen south of the irrigable plain between Al-Qwayah and Al-Fuqaha villages and the Jizan-Abu Arish highway. Dunes are also clustered south of Bakhsha Yamaniyah and throughout the coastal plain. Climate “From the available information on the weather conditions in the area, it is possible to briefly discuss the climatic elements Of Wadi Jizan. 29 Lava outcrops east of Abu Aris h. Photograph taken by author. FIGURE 5 30 Temperature The monthly mean temperature at Abu Arish (69M above sea level) ranges from 22.5°C in January to 34.3°C in July. This is only slightly different from the monthly mean at Malaki Village (178M above sea level), which ranges from 22.3°C to 32.2°C, and at Ardah Village (228M above sea level), where mean temperatures range from 18.2°C to 24°C. The highest temperatures were recorded in June at 38.7°, 34.4°, and 28.0°C; while the lowest readings were in January at 20.4°, 19.9°, and 15.8°C at Abu Arish, Malaki, and Ardah respectively. The hot season is from May to October, while temperatures are relatively lower the remainder Of the year (Figure 6). In evaluating this data it should be kept in mind that differences in elevation between the three Observation points, as well as their various distances from the sea level could have an appreciable effect on these findings, although the influence Of the sea diminishes rapidly as distance from the coast increases. Humidity Readings taken at the three weather stations indicate that the relative humidity in Wadi Jizan has been consistently high. The greatest average annual percentages were found to be 97%, 91%, and 73% at Abu Arish, Malaki, and Ardah villages respectively. The mean 31 MONTHLY TEMPERATURES 44 - MEAN MONTHLY - MEAN MINIMUM -——-~ MONTHLY 42 ‘ MEAN MAXIMUM . ..... 4 ----------- MONTHLY 4O -‘ ...: ....e 3 8 - 7 yearly mean ‘. """""""" “a 36 d ................. o . ---------------------------------------- .... nnnnnnnnnnnn O 34 -‘ .0". ...e. 32 - “J I yearly mean (I 3 so - I- -i < a: 28 — LIJ a. - [I \ I E - ________ I_EELEEL____>\ _____ (I \ / \ -i l/ \ 2 2 .- / \\ / - ‘i ’/ 20 ~ J F M A M J J A s o N O SOURCE: 1101consuli,1965. MONTH Figure 6 32 monthly relative humidity varies from 30% to 42% at Abu Arish and is more than 50% at both Malaki and Ardah. The monthly average shows a peak of 80-90% between June and August, while this measure is less than 60% for the remainder Of the year. Wind and Air Pressure The most prevalent winds in Wadi Jizan are the southwesterly winds which occur during the monsoon season, and the northeasterly winds which occur during the winter months. They are basically mild and records show means from 250 KM per day in January to approximately 325 KM per day in July 1968-1970.4 The high pressure occurs between December and January when the anti-cyclone of northeast African and the Arabian Peninsula are most dominant. Low pressure occurs in July and August when the depression of south and central Africa moves north- ward tO include the Red Sea, and when the monsoon formations act over southern Saudi Arabia and Yemen. Rainfall Wadi Jizan lies on the southern side Of Saudi Arabia known as the southwestern Asir region. Although the agricultural lands in the 4Sir W. Halcrow and partners, "Irrigation Development in the Wadi-Jizan--Saudi Arabia," Annex 4, p. 5, London, 1972. 33 Wadi are found in the lower part Of the region (South Tihama), the most important and valuable section Of the Wadi is the catchment area above the dam, because Of its comparatively high altitude and suitable location with respect to "the Inter Tropical Front, which brings [it] for part Of the year under the monsoonal effect Of the Indian Ocean."5 It is Obvious that the climate of Wadi Jizan is governed by the move- ment of the Inter Tropical Front and the geographical features Of the area. Thus, the most abundant rainfall occurs in the Asir mountains when the edge of the monsoon extends northward into Saudi Arabia. Actually, rainfall is very irregular and concentrated in relatively short but heavy storms. The rainfall distribution pattern may be seen as classified into those areas above the dam, and those below. In the catchment area records show that the mean annual rainfall at Jebel—Sala (Elev. 900M) is 534.8MM and at Ardah (Elev. 223M) it is 593.5MM. The highest monthly rainfall at both stations in August of 1974 was re- corded tO be 340.5MM-at Jebel-Sala, and 283.4MM at Ardah.6 However, the minimum monthly rainfall for the remainder of the year is zero.7 5W. B. Fisher, "The Middle East,“ Sixth Ed., printed in Gr. Britain by Butler and Tanner Ltd., Frame and London, 1971, p. 447. 6Hydrologic Division, Ministry of Agriculture and Water, Saudi Arabia, Hydrological publications of 1974, Riyadh, S.A. 7Sir W. Halcrow and partners, "Irrigation Development in the Wadi Jizan, Saudi Arabia," Annex 4, London, 1972, p. 6. 34 The area below the dam, which is the area Of the project it- self, represented by Abu Arish, experiences a mean rainfall of 247.5MM. This amount decreases to less than lOOMM in the area from Abu Arish to the Red Sea. The rainy season is from July to September (Figures 7 and 8) when 90% Of the runoff occurs, with negligible amounts from December to May.8 From the previous discussion, one may conclude that the most prevalent climatic elements in the area are temperature and rainfall. Temperature is consistently high year-around, but is highest during the summer. Variations in temperature are limited and accounted for by distance from the sea as well as level of elevation. The coastal plain is dry and warm in the winter, and hot and humid in the summer. As the area rises toward the dissected highlands, the temperature regularly drops, resulting in increased precipitation. The Wadi Jizan area has a typical desert to semi—tropical climate consisting of high winds and dust storms, which occur par- ticularly in the coastal plain and foothills. 8N. Simansky, "Report to the Government of Saudi Arabia on the Preliminary Project for Land and Water Use Development in Wadi Jizan," FAO, Report NO. 410, Rome, September, 1955, p. 13. 35 ABU ARISHI MEAN MONTHLY RAINFALLS 1953—1963 200- 180 — 160— 1 140-1 —— 120‘ IOO-I BO- MILLIMETERS MONTH 12.6 RAINY DAYS IN AN AVERAGE YEAR 0.6 0.1 1.0 0.4 0.4 O 8 3.9 2.5 0.9 0.7 1.0 0.3 SOURCEilialconsu|1,|965. Figure 7 36 AVERAGE ANNUAL RAINFALL IN NATURAL REGIONS OF SAUDI ARABIA V j Millimeters of / Rainfall g0 _/ ! I as , ... O-SO o‘zp .’ I1 I1 I ‘ X3 ] JAUE - 50-150 F I I I 1 °_ ISO-250 r T- X j' zso-soo HEDJAZ ;\ AlCNUM/734/ALS' ‘ L fii 500-1000 D L X t. E 0 CENTRAL . ca . PLATE-Au Cg: '. Madinah ‘N , L1 t— I -. HA 5.4 LI T -' D - "“"““ 1 2715/79 4 nan-- :1? 459 tfflWfihMOAIV£7 I .!!, C} ‘b 7; Q) It ~L E // .Abho .k ”'37 g L .P’ [EA/F’TJ/ (7604/77757?5? Jizan/ {P I 77:57:51 Ca ‘4. \ ‘* V6 as 1— ———————— \ fi’ 04 Q/ P d ' \C ~. _ '1 'k ab“ ‘ ,d‘ \. “00 F .\o-o". T Pep?" 9906 We 5 e a ADEN b i a n Gulf of Aden A ’ a o 240 480 120 360 600 Kilometers @RCE: W. A. Rogner Figure 8 37 Hydrology Two main water resources, surface and ground water, can be considered in studying the hydrologic situation in Wadi Jizan. Floods occur during the rainfall season, but their distribution through the year does not follow a uniform pattern.' The annual flows vary from year to year, and floods number from "15-33 per year with a volume of 0.5-10 MCM per flood."9 From the available records on the hydrologic information for the 19 years from 1953-1971 at Malaki station, monthly and annual flow volumes are extremely varied. The highest amount Of annual runoff was 192.0 MCM in 1964 while the lowest volume was 21.0 MCM in 1971 with a mean of 79.5 MCM for all Of the l9—year volumes. The highest monthly average volume of floods occurs from July to Sep- tember with a few other rather small ones in January and February (see Figure 9). Two periods--the wet and the dry seasons--occur mainly in February to September and October to January, respectively. The typical floods rise to their peak in a few hours and then subside almost as quickly.10 In addition to the surface water floods, the ground water is of great significance for irrigation in the area. Based on 9Abdel Basset El Khatib, "Seven Green Spikes,“ Dar al-Qalam Press CO., Beirut, Lebanon, 1974, p. 134. 10Sir W. Halcrow and partners, "Irrigation Development in the Wadi Jizan, Saudi Arabia,“ Annex 4, London, 1972, pp. 4-5. a 05m: 38 .32 ...3:83: “momaom .mSIEbeQQ \XQ wk zm3 s . m 4 ~\ .6 3 mm 5N Vn hm n R g ~13. 1 mm x I a 9 a I [\mm4. .rDDHm .39 .3223. 52...; Em “84:8 .444 ............ mEoo \ I \\ It . . mecca foucooow \ ....... mvoom 502 ‘X CONE ck _Q<3 MIR 2_ mwh::e-coc 2323.3 2:: .25» .onoszX mLo.mEo._x .15” .0336 octoEISZ >4 fl 114 .325 632.0... 5 333.4104 0. W O .3333 $2. .26» 633.414 m m a > .r J _ O m , m x \ ImE< Dm<. \ Q/ I 1 / E I I I \ v. / / . \..\. . I . -.-. . A 1342:2054 I .1 - I I - , o . 2 .- ac I \ - . - - .- \H x . . 4 z 4 N _ 40 ididqdmi .q I t . ,-- 41.- / . e 0 3543-4 1\\.. e .- . - \ I<2_X>e IZOm z) 43 Finally, soils of class VI cover an area of 1,440 hectares which are capable of yielding shallow—rooted crops.13 Italconsult made use of this study in l962-63 and supplemented it by examining a number of additional samples collected at various points throughout the Wadi Jizan plain. Their results were basically in agreement with those of Finielz| survey. Carrying his research one step further, Finielz made use of his soils classification to produce land capability classifications. The classification according to land capability made by Finielz (Figure l2) indicates that about 24,750 hectares of the lands in Wadi Jizan are suitable for irrigation. Italconsult found that areas potentially irrigable from the Wadi Jizan, or those which are agri- culturally or economically linked to it, amounted to 22,500 hectares.14 Indeed, the soils analysis made by Italconsult showed that on the whole, the fertility of the soils is not high, and furthermore, may be affected by changes in conditions. A more detailed study on soils and land classifications was undertaken by Sir W. Halcrow et al. in l972. This study was 13c. a. Finielz, "A Soils Study, Classification and Utiliza- tion with Respect to Irrigation in the Wadi Jizan Area," FAO, Report No. 13, Rome, Oct. 1955, pp. 4-ll. 14FAo, "Land and Water Surveys in the Wadi Jizan, Saudi Arabia," Vol. l, General Report, Rome, l966, p. 22. 44 a. o.=m.. .30. .22.... ..o ”3:25 ...o..00_... .0. 00:3. .9. 0:0..lm 00:00.... .0. 2...... 0205mm. 5.; 9.0th 930.0 0200. 30:05 .0. 0.02.3. 9.04.... .30.“. 0200. 0000 .2 0.02.3 5:000 3:8... .0 0:0.._lm 33080.3. «0.2.0.830 .1 all Ill.— 1‘ o :23 2.4 WV 0 m 522330-... \ n v o \ 7524.46-44 O O Idiid: I41 -44 7.4.3414: -440 20.53.2330 >H..._mwx >h_.._m> 45 essentially initiated to meet the need for more accurate and well defined information on the soil types and irrigable areas of Wadi Jizan. It was principally based on the soil's overall textured pro— file and on the presence or absence of older, redder, and more com- pact sediments in the top 75 CMS of the soil. The conclusion of this study identified seven depositional soil series, of which sev- eral were further subdivided into phases. Soil texture ranges from coarser, silty clay loams to light loams in the upper Wadi Jizan north and east of Hakimah. In the areas north and south of the Wadi, in the center of Al-quah, Al-Khadra Al-Shamiyah and Al-Qarafi, soils become loams and sandy loams. Further west, beyond the preceding villages, substantial areas of fine- and medium—texture soil continue. Soil colors vary from dark brown to dark yellow-brown and in some cases, red is observable. With respect to soil structure, the most distinct depositional features are the platy structure of medium and fine textured flood sediments. Generally, soils in the Wadi Jizan exhibit moderate to weak structure.15 The land classification made by Sir W. Halcrow et al. was based on that of the United States Department of the Interior.16 15Sir W. Halcrow and Partners, “Irrigation Development in the Wadi Jizan, Saudi Arabia,“ Annex l (Soils and Land Classification), London, 1972, pp. l7—57. 16As laid down in their Bureau of Reclamation Manual, Vol. V, Part 2 (l953). 46 Although they followed this classification, some differences were introduced in view of the circumstances prevalent in Wadi Jizan. That is, since the classification of the soils of Wadi Jizan was based on the nature of the texture profile, as well as overall moisture capa— city and suitability for irrigation agriculture, the land classifica- tion boundaries frequently followed those of the depositional soil series mentioned before (Figure 13). In addition, factors influenc- ing land capability, such as soil texture, nutrient status, salinity, and alkalinity, available moisture capacity, drainage, and landform were taken into consideration. As a result, four classes of land were developed. Classes one, two, and three are considered arable lands, while the fourth type is considered unarable land, which is designated class six by the U.S.D.I.R. The four land categories as prepared by Sir W. Halcrow and partners are summarized in the following data: Categories Characteristics Class One --highly suitable for irrigation agriculture --capable of producing high yields Land --have level or very gently sloping (l00 hectares) --soils deep and of medium to fairly fine texture --free drainage and good available moisture capacity —-land development can be accomplished at relatively low cost 2 0.39“. ...................... ZO;>Omui_m_o MT; 2. >.r_.._mk .moz<4 u_ m>>OIm In_ MI... 60 mp o.=m.u 0244 1.4m: HJDoEud O. . . . . kazufikxh txb§°§ - ....... fikfixgkxm §\Q 26R ohm. 43k ENQxhht a V0 \QCA k 024.. 4oz .mwnmc< wvzmm .mwem cm~wn wumz mcp cw Legpzm esp to xeoz u_mwm mcwgzc nmpumPFou mung “mogsom .e; mm. u we comm u ee.ez ego .cm_mz mm czocx .pcmsmezmmms CMNeo eve: c? umpcmmmgg we mmcmuFo; to mem* oo.oo_ mm oo.oo~ mm o.oo_ _m_ 4emmno . mcoepm>cmmno . mcowpm>gmmno s we Lanszz e mo eweszz e mo Lenszz mm:_uFox mmcwnpo: to mN_m to mnxp zmmHzH mzp mom .QD._.m MIHZ_ ZO:.<>_PJD o wzmMFhoz .mwnme< wusem .mee :van Tum: use cw Lozpzm wzu mo xgoz Umee ucwcsu empum_~ou memo ”woesom oo.oo_ _m~ oo.oo_ we oo.oo_ MN 4o :mew Tum: cmzoA :men Tue: Lena: went: to Langsz to max» H4 no onHDmHmHmHo m m4m be applicable to the other wadies and communities of South Tihama. Another advantage which Wadi Jizan possessed was the availability of surface and ground water. The rainy season, which occurs from July to September provides 90% of the rainfall.7 The hydrological make—up of Wadi Jizan as reported by Italconsult is summarized herein.8 The fol— lowing table reports the monthly flows at Malaki Village for the ten years between 1953 and 1963: 5Thomas O. Smallwood, I“Notes on the Wadi Jizan Project Water Supply,“ FAO Publication, Rome, 1952, as quoted by deVajda, p. 9. 6Request from the Government of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia to the Special Fund of the United Nations for Cooperation in the Executing of a Proposed Project, the Wadi Jizan Irrigation Project, Saudi Arabia, submitted through the Office of the Director of Special Fund Projects in Saudi Arabia, Riyadh, November 10, 1965. 7Chapter II, page 34 in this thesis. 8Italconsult, "Land and Water Surveys on the Wadi Jizan," Vol. II, Rome, 1965, pp. 20—33 and 88-99. 108 .mw .e .Neme .eeeCOA .0 xmcc< =.mwnms< 003mm .cmew wvmz esp cw pcmsaofim>m0 cowpmmesLHz .3ogu_m: EMVF~ez Lem ”muszom .mcowumswxogaam mm :mxmp ma Ame pan .mpm_anuce Lo :0mpewucz wee .Aum.mmv we scam .mpmxomxn c? 0mmo_ucm mmgzmwm i A0m.0v 00.0 m0.0 00.0 00.0 i i u i i m0.0 00.? 000— 00.00 00.0 00.0 no.0 00.0 00.00 00._ 00.0 00.0 A00.mv Nn._ 00.0 00.0 N00~ mm.00~ 00.0 0N.N 00.0 00.0 00.0w 00.00 0N.N ”0.0 00.0 00.P— 00.0 00.0 _00_ mm.00 0m.p 00._ 00.0 00.0 00.0? Pm.0p 00.0 00.N_ 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 000? 00.05 Pm.0 mm.0 00.0 00.0 05.0 N0.P0 00.0 05.0” 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.N_ 000_ p- . 00.0 i i i - i i i a 00.0 00.0 Akm.mmv 000~ . i i i i i i i i i 00.0 00.0 00.? 000E 00.00? 00.0 00.0 00._ 00.0? 00.00 00.x? FN.— 00.0 _0.0 00.0 00.0 N_.0 000~ . 00., 00.0 _0.0 00.0 “0.00 A00.000 . i i i i i 000? me> .omo .>oz .puo .pamm .030 >_:0 0:50 km: .000 .Lmz .nmm .cmw me> mmmhmz 00000 00 020H000211H¥<0JIH202 F— 000 =.:o~_0 ecu: ago :0 m>w>s=m Leno: ooo usage .u_:m:ou_ouH qum< Umuczom .m; 00.00.0 u 0cm: A00 .mzowuop:u_ou ELow mg“ Low uwuaouo vocums as» wxwwcz uuovoca «w: m;» cw uwvsFocr coma mo; Amzw qoso wzu mo xo~v poon A00 .mowco umuooooc soc» :owuuavoco mzu we w=~o> as» aceuapucH ANV .mowco uwuowowo we umz flow _._ o.__F N.o~ o.mom.m o.mmo.m o.oo o.oom.m e.oeo.m - emote» ooo-- o.o ~.oNN o.ee o.eoo.o_ e.~oN.FF N.om N.mmo.e o.ooe.e - oeoeoete_-- _.o o._o_ o.ooF N.oo~.o_ o.oom.m_ o.oo_ o.moo.e o.ooF.o - eoeooeooeo _eooe m.m o.oe_ ~.o o.o_m._ o.oem.~ - o.o o.me~ o.ooo - Foooe m.e «.mm_ o.o o.,oo o._No._ - ~._em N.oeo - moeooOLe Fee_e< Looeo e.“ o.oo~ o.o o.mee o.mNm - o._mo o.oo~ - cowooowee_ oo wroouoowouuo muuauoeo Foeec< e.m o.meF o.oo e.oeo.o_ o.omo.e_ _oo.om _.oo o.Noo.e ANV o.oo~.e fl_v oeo.mo Feooe o.o o.~o_ N.o_ m.Nee.N o.N_o.N o.om N.ooo.N N.ooe.N A_o oeo.o_ nooeo oestee seo N.o o.omo o._e o.ooo.o_ o.em~.__ N.om m.mwe.e o.ooe.e h_o oe_.e_ mooeo ooooowteo e - ooo“ Aoo_-oeo_o . . Aeo xeoeo 0 Amee ooo._o Aw_z ooo _0 Aoeeeo . Am_x ooo _o Aoeeeo _e=oe< N Am_x ooo _o eZo oeoe>.o_=o ozo oooesee_oo eoooooooee owt< owc< oeoooee oez Aoo oeeooee oez 000p Okay ommpiome .00m< H2020040>00 mxh 2H Honoomm 0<¢0H400H00< H02 02< onP000cmm 04m .00H<>HH400 <0m< 0F 00m

o_o .30.:00 395m 93:31.1 .1 Toccaom .coE;o.oo\\ c235 9:960 32m 4 C > _ .on one _ .3083: 50.2.2, :m “wumnom .oo°~_11 .Omo~_ .omON¢_11111111111111111HU 130 January-February were considered. A total of 71 cu. hm. was essential in terms of volume necessary to be stored. Hydrological data such as this was essential to the decision to construct the dam. A geological survey was also conducted in the area, focusing on the formation of the reservoir basin as well as the dam site. It was found that the rock outcropping in the reservoir area consists of olvine basalts, diabaseg quartzites, and crystalline metamorphics. from a water-tightness perspective, conditions of the reservoir area Were satisfactory, for the most part. Choosing the type of dam to be consturcted was based on geological, morphological, and hydrological set—up of the Malaki dam is summarized as follows:15 catchment area at the Dam site 1,100 sq. km. river bed elevation 130 m.a.s.l. maximum discharge 3,100 m3/sec. minimum discharge 23 m /sec. average annual flow with 80% frequency 83 m3/sec. 200 year frequency 2,850 m3/sec. After the detailed studies and surveys had been completed, dam construction began in February of 1967, and was completed in August of 1970. The dam is made of solid concrete with the following physical characteristics: total length 316 m total height 41.6 m top width 3.6 m 15 Italconsult, “Wadi Jizan Development Project, Malaki Dam,” General Report, Rome, 1966, pp. 8-14. 131 height of spillway 5.44 m diameter of outlets (two) 1.7 m each maximum storage capacity 71 mcm water available for irrigation 51 mcm See figure 22. The Malaki Dam is a multi—purpose type. Its functions are: 1) to regulate the flow of Wadi Jizan and to protect the lands downstream from damage during the mon- soon months. 2) to enable further expansion of the agricultural areas through release of the stored water for controlled irrigation in accordance with need, and at an opportune time. As stated above, the maximum volume of water that can be re- tained is 71 x 106 cu. meters, giving a maximum water surface area of 1409 hectares and a maximum depth of 25 meters. For the majority of the year, the lake is at much lower levels with a maximum capacity of about 23.5 x 106 cu. meters. The design of the dam is such that maximum volume of the water remains at 5 x 106 cu. meters with a maximum depth of 5 meters. Water is discharged from the reservoir through two outlet pipes of 1.7 meters diameter at an average rate of 25 cu. m/sec. for each pipe. Two periods for irrigation are con- sidered: at the end of August as a major irrigation period; and at the end of February as a minor one. The reservoir life has been 16Abdel Basset El-Khatib, ”Seven Green Spikes," Dar al—Qulam Press CO., Beirut, Lebanon, 1974, p. 167. UPPER PHOTOGRAPH SHOWS THE MALAKI DAM. LOWER PHOTOGRAPH SHOWS THE DAM'S RESERVOIR. Figure 22 133 calculated as the average volume of sedimentation annually deposited in the reservoir was estimated at 500,000 cubic meters. Thus, the average life of the reservoir will be 91 years.17 Irrigation Network Scheme and Tube Wells Development A new project for better utilization of irrigation water is presently under construction. The new project coincides with the policy for more agricultural lands and a greater variety of crops by maximizing utilization of available surface and ground waters. Floods are now controlled and stored behind the Malaki Dam. A network of diversion weirs and canals was proposed. The new irri- gation network is not a complex system, but is based on a slightly modified version of the traditional method. The physical feature of the new system consists of six diversion weirs and head regulators which will be distributed along the Wadi Jizan bed (see Figures 23 and 24). In addition, there are ten main canals and several minor ones. These proposed diversion weirs and canals are designed to regulate the necessary volume of water for irrigation to be dis~ tributed among the agricultural fields. For example, diversion 17Italconsult, ”Land and Water Surveys on the Wadi Jizan," Vol. II, Rome, 1965, p. 15. ¢_-__ 134 mm o.:a_m Qh7 14233.2 _ Em; coats—1.3.: .....Eo..x coins“. \euEteQuw \oeataulu‘ ..oo:_>% 0:4 .eoan.o>oo :olonahm no.1 26.32.3511). :33... foxlll ozwuml. z<>_.—_m_._.m>m ZO_._.>mz MIH mo .n~m_ .1053: 50....3 :m ..uUCDom m. ... 2 00¢ CON 0 x. 23.3 3...“. lllll .330 35.2 .ocon. 30.32220 .... QZMGNJ 20:.omm < 136 weir No. 1, at Al-Waynah, would be designed with canal head regulators and would pass floods of 2000 cu. m/sec.; while weir No. 2 would pass a flood of 200 cu. m/sec. The discharge progressively decreases for subsequent weirs, as shown in Table 21. It is estimated that the ten main canals have a total length of about 60.1 kilometers with a total of about 139 offtakes, while minor canals and distributaries total about 117.3 kilometers with about 862 field outlets, all of which serve approximately 6,000 hec- tares (see Table 22). Each field outlet is in turn supplied by one tube well with a diesel-driven pump of 100 cum/hr capacity. Subse- quently, a total of 43 tube wells was proposed which would cover an area of about 1075 hectares (see Figure 24). The plans for the tube wells propose dividing each land unit (25 ha) into nine to twelve plots of two to three hectares each. Every plot would be supplied from an outlet in the main supply pipe. The development of the proposed tube wells has not started yet, and the construction of the diversion weirs and the main canals as well as minor and distributary canals just beginning. Thus far, only those parts of the Upper Wadi Jizan, at Al-Mujassass and Al—Jarah have been instigated. Subsequently, since the construction has pro- ceeded slowly and behind scheduleu the proposed 1980 date for greatly increased agricultural development will undoubtedly have to be post- poned. 137 ... .8 .N58. .couco. .H xmcc< =.mmnme< wozmm .cm~.n .cmz mgp cw pcwanPm>mo cowpmmeLH= .BOLUFm: sawFFWZ me "mocsom 1 1 1 1 com oom_ mmeo1F< xwzp_wam :.m: m. m. 0. o_ as com Ewcxgx341—< .o om mm 1 1 oo com :mme1~< .m m_ m. 1 1 mm oom gmzcxmn .v o. o. m. m. m. CON ges.bentme1.< .m m_ m_ om mm om oom mmwo1p< .N om mm o. o. omN ooom £8cs831.< .. A2. “momsauv sz “momssov mcwcwao mmmcmcomvo mcwcmao mmmgm:gmwo sz Amumssuv mama :mwmwo mgmm cmwmmo .22.... M...“ “New... .cmm pea. .cwm 855.. spasm. cm2mma a a z . 3 mcopmyzmmm tam: chmo cwmz :owmcm>wo m¥m03nHo mo m4H@ flung” 2.25141.) 30.2095 wooed 0.0; an: motoccaom v_o_1._\/l\1 m0__0fic_aom 3.2301!) ozwow1. .323“. 23E Eek-W \3332§ V _¢_w3 Zmszwo_ mmmmEDz mHo_m._.m_o ZO_._.>mz x_m mIH m ..--w-n-w . - 157 The main element which continues to plague the development project is the dissatisfaction among Wadi farmers. When surveyed, 90% of the interviewed farmers in the Lower Wadi said that their oroblems with water scarcity and distribution were still unresolved. undoubtedly, this largely was due to the minimal and slow work being done on the canals. While fewer Upper Wadi farmers were as concerned with such problems, they also expressed dissatisfaction with the slow progress on the canal system. Judging by this mass concern, it can be concluded that most farmers feel the dam to be an important and potentially helpful construct. However, until the farmers have con- crete proof of such improvement, the stumbling block of public skep- ticism will hinder agricultural development and progress. Finally, to complete the progress in land and water utiliza— tion, a system of precise measurement must be set up to determine the volume of water needed for each hectare, how much water should be released, which lands are irrigable, and which kinds of crops can be most successfully planted and irrigated. Thus it could be concluded that since the construction of the Malaki Dam there has been no sig- nificant change in the areas of lands cultivated and water utilized due to the fact that there has been no policy set up to change the present traditional use of water and land tenure system prevailing in the area. 158 Agricultural Production and Crop Diversification The completion of the dam has increased the amount of water available for irrigation. Accordingly, it can be assumed that large plots of land will be made irrigable. The question immediately raisel is one of the effect this increase will have on the amount of agricul- tural production and on crop diversification. The following table shows the amount of durra production from 1965 to 1975, or the five years prior to the dam, and the five years after the dam was constructed. From the table it can be observed that while there is great diversity in Sa'a produced before 1970, the figures are more clus- tered after 1970. This is probably due to the fact that the amount of water utilized became more stable because of the decrease in the amount of water loss which occurred with the construction of the dam. One important factor which limits the impact of the figures in determining agricultural production is the fact that although the table shows irrigated areas, it does not show actual cultivated areas. It is hard to determine the amount of production per hectare, since often lands were irrigated, but no crops were actually cultivated upon them. For example, in 1965, the total irrigated lands were 1,889 hectares, and the total production was 283,560 Sa'a or 3,260 tons; 159 TABLE 27 AMOUNT OF PRODUCTION FROM DURRA AND AMOUNT OF AREA IRRIGATED IN WADI JIZAN FROM 1965-1975 Water Flow Water Utilized Areas Irrigated - Year (MCM) (MCM) (Ha.) SA'AJ 19651 53.0 16.0 1,889 28,350 1966 55.0 16.0 1,828 37,560 1967 136.7 53.0 6,238 142,280 1968 56.6 28.0 3,272 2,600 1969 — - —4 2,080 19702 - 34.5 3,962 60,910 1971 - 21.0 2,200 50,160 1972 - 30.4 2,442 37,606 1973 - 21.0 2,257 34,757 1974 - 28.5 3.000 68,400 1975 — 32.2 3,400 52,360 W 1Statistical information on water flow, areas irrigated and production size from 1965-1968 was obtained from the Sir William Halcrow and Partners report, "Irrigation Development in the Wadi Jizan, Saudi Arabia," Annex 4, p. 50. 2Information for the period 1970-1975 was obtained from the Agricul- tural Experiment Station at Hakimah. 3One Sa'a = 11.5 Kg. 4 . No statistics available for 1969. 160 while in 1968, the land irrigated was 3,272 hectares, and total produc- tion was only 2,680 Sa'a or 30.82 tons, a comparison which would seem highly unlikely if the total irrigated area was also the total culti- vated area. It can be obviously assumed that larger production is due to increased water availability (water flow). Water flow is, of course, an independent factor, as it relies upon the abundance or scarcity of rainfall. With regard to the size of cultivated lands, it can be ob- served that there are great differences between the Upper and Lower Wadi (Table 28). The Upper Wadi had always been either one-half cul- tivated (64.4% of the interviewed farmers), or three-fourths culti- vated (35.6% of the interviewed farmers) before the dam was con- structed. After the dam, however, 9.6% of the interviewed farmers increasediflmfir‘lands under cultivation from one-half to three—fourths of their total lands, while 2.7% of the respondents cultivated all of their land (mostly of small size) for the first time. The picture in the Lower Wadi is drastically different. 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