ABSTRACT

AN INVESTIGATION OF THE COMPOSITION,
ESTABLISHMENT, TRANSACTIONS, AND
OUTCOMES OF A COMPETENCY
DEVELOPMENT TEAM

BY

Joyce Hemmingsen Putnam

The problem focus of this investigation is related to the lack
of information on recommended developmental procedures for competency
performance-based teacher education. Competency performance-based
program developers, aware that there are neither specified teacher
behaviors nor measures available, find that there is a lack of related
information on recommended developmental procedures. There is a
general absence of information about such issues as (1) how decisions
or valid performances are made, (2) how the identified teacher
behaviors can be incorporated into practical and accurate measures,
and (3) approximately how much time it takes to identify behaviors
and deve10p related measurement instruments.

In order for competency—based teacher education programs to

move beyond the "good—in-theory" stage, program developers obviously

need valid and reliable measures Of teacher behavior; but before such

measures can be constructed, they need to know more about the Organ-

izational procedures and decision processes of development that must

Joyce H. Putnam

naturally precede construction of such instruments. It is to this
lzuck of information problem and the concomitant need for direction
on deve10pmental procedures that this investigation is directed.

It must be noted, however, that the investigation reported is
but one part of a comprehensive research and developmental effort
presently underway in the School of Teacher Education at Michigan
State University.

In an effort to lend assistance to the development and
advancement of competency-based teacher education prOgrams, the
specific objectives of this investigation are to describe:

1. the composition of a developmental team charged with the task
of identifying and defining "competency" for the mathematics
teaching area;

2. the procedures and transactions actually used by this
competency development team; and

3. the outcomes of the team's collaborative design efforts.

Realization of these objectives is meant to provide a syste-
matic record of the set of activities engaged in by one developmental
team, working to define and refine "competency" in the area of
mathematics teaching with elementary school children.

Due to the exploratory nature of this study, the method of
investigation selected was that of participant observation. The role
in which this investigator acted as a participant was that of a member

of the MSU Mathematics Competency Development Team. As a team

member, this researcher attended all team meetings, participating in

Joyce H. Putnam

the discussions and developmental tasks. In the role of a team
member, this researcher also shared in the work and responsibilities
associated with a competency development team. In the role of a
researcher this writer attended all team meetings, subteam develop-
mental sessions, recorded her observations, later classifying and
verifying her notes through informal and formal interviews. In
addition, two opinionaires and a survey instrument were developed
and administered in an effort to collect information relative to
the team's composition.

The major findings relative to the team's composition indi-
cated an apparent importance of a balance between common and diverse
background experiences among team members, a willingness to explore
the concept of competency-based teacher education programs, and a
tendency to view self and others as positive and non-threatening.
One observation that appeared important relative to the team's
establishment was the lack of imposed deadlines for initial deve10p-
mental tasks. Another primary observation relative to the team's
establishment was that the questioning and communication skills of
the team's initial discussion leader appeared to contribute to the
developmental procedures eventually engaged in by the team. Relative
to the team's transactions and outcomes the major findings included
the team's use of consensus decisions, the team members sharing of
the developmental leadership roles, and the team's ability to continue
to review and up-date decisions and materials. Finally, relative to
the team's transactions and outcomes the team found that it was

helpful to organize their development around the following five major

Joyce H. Putnam

steps: (1) Identify the behavioral outcomes for learners (children)
in terms of specific modular knowledge/skill units. (2) Identify
if the teacher trainee has acquired the desired knowledge/skill him
or herself. (3) Identify if the teacher trainee can apply the
knowledge and/or skill in problem solving. (4 ) Identify what a

teacher needs to know in order to do what is necessary to bring about

 

 

the desired behaviors in learners. (5) Identify what a teacher needs
22.5.1.9 in order to bring about desired behaviors in learners. While
the team found that it was essential to begin with Step 1, after
that, they could work on any or all of the ensuing Steps in any
order. Each of the five steps had to be completed, however, before

any unit could be considered "developed."

AN INVESTIGATION OF THE COMPOSITION,
ESTABLISHMENT, TRANSACTIONS, AND
OUTCOMES OF A COMPETENCY

DEVELOPMENT TEAM

By

Joyce Hemmingsen Putnam

A DISSERTATION

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

College of Education

1973

Dedicated to

Jim, Bill, Judy and Perry

who each in their own special
way made this study possible.

ii

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I am indebted to a number of peOple who helped make my
doctoral study and this research project both worthwhile and stimu—
lating experiences. My sincere appreciation and thanks is expressed

to the following persons:

To Dr. Perry Lanier, my mentor and chairman for his
creative guidance.

To Dr. Judith Henderson, director of my dissertation,
for the excellent model she provided.

To Dr. William Cole, committee member, for his special help
and encouragement.

To Dr. Dale Alam and Dr. Bruce Cheney, committee members,
for their support.

To the members of the MSU Mathematics Competency Development
Team, for their cooperation throughout the course of this study.

Finally, a Special thanks to Jim, my husband, for just

being himself.

iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLES
Chapter
1. STATEMENT AND DESCRIPTION OF THE PROBLEM

Purpose, Objectives and Procedural
Overview .

Problem Statement . . .
Discussion of the Problem .

II. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Section I: Competency/Performance-Based
Teacher Education .

Introduction

Characteristics of Competency-
Based Teacher Education

Central Issues Related to Competency-
Based PrOgrams

New Faculty Roles . . . .

Issues Related to New Developmental Concerns .

Section II: Participant Observation Research
Introduction
Variations in Field Roles, Suggested
Procedures, and Related Problems

Summary . . . . . . . . . . .

Participant Observation Methodology

iv

Page

viii

15

17

21

22
25

30
30
34
45

46

Chapter
III. PROCEDURES AND METHODOLOGY

Introduction . .

Procedures Utilized to Establish and
Maintain a Constructive Participant—
Observer Role .

Permission to Carry Out Study
Researcher' 5 Entry Into the Group
to be Studied
Procedures for Establishing Rapport
with Team Members . . . .
Maintaining Cooperation of Participants
Graduate Student Research Projects
Involving University Professors

Activities Undertaken to Fulfill the
Participant Role of a DeveIOpmental
Team Member . . . .

Methods of Data Collection

Procedures Used to Obtain Information
Relative to the Team's Composition

Permission to Administer Instruments

Description of Instrument 1--
BiOgraphical Data . . . .

Description of Instrument II--Fee1ings
Related to Competency/Performance-
Based Teacher Education . . . . .

Instrument III-—Semantic Differential

Description of Procedures for Distribution
and Return of Instruments .

Procedures Used to Obtain Descriptive
Information Relative to the Team
Transactions and Outcomes

IV. RESULTS .
Introduction .

Section I: Description of the Composition of the
MSU Mathematics Competency Development Team .

Instrument I: Biographical Information Form
Instrument II: Attitudes and Feelings Related
to the Concept of Performance/Competency-

Based Teacher Education . . . .

Page
52

52

53
55

S6
58

6O

62
65

65
66
67
68
68

7O

71
75

75

75

76

84

Chapter Page
Instrument III: Semantic Differential . . . . . 92

Section II: Initiation and Establishment of
the MSU Mathematics Competency Development Team . 94

Decision to Try to Establish Mathematics

Competency Deve10pmenta1 Team . . . . . . . 94
Establishment and Initial Organization

Procedures Related to Mathematics

Competency Team . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
A More Detailed Description of Transactions . . 109
Suggestions for Consideration by a

Competency Team . . . . . . . . . . 111
Individual Commitment to Task . . . . . 111
Definition of Competency Team Membership . . . 112
Identification of Content Area to

be Developed . . . . . . . 113
Discussion and Decisions on How to Begin . . . 113
Role of Mathematics Competency

Development Team . . . . . . . . . . . 116
Role of Individuals . . . . . . . . 116
April 7,1972 Through the Morning

of April 27,1972 . . . . . . . . . . 116

Section III: Transactions and Objectives of
the Developmental Process . . . . . . . . 119

Transactions Related to Determination and

Role of Discussion Leader . . . . . . . . 119
Developmental Transactions . . . . . . . . . 123
Managerial and Time Transactions . . . . . . . 130

Team Meetings . . . . . . . . . 130

Notification of Team Meetings . . . . . . . 133

Number of Sessions and Time Involved . . . . . 133

Attendance . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Activities Engaged in During the Various

Stages of Development . . . . . . . . . . 134

An Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135

Stage One . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136

Stage Two . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147

Stage Three . . . . . . . . .. . . . . 147

Stage Four . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148

Stage Five . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157

vi

Chapter Page

V. DISCUSSION, IMPLICATIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS . . . 158
Findings and Conclusions . . . . . . . . . 158
Composition of the Competency Team . . . . . 159
Initiation and Establishment of
Competency Team . . . . . . . . . . 165
Transactions and Outcomes . . . . . . . . 168
Open Letters. . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Suggestions for Further Research . . . . . . 184
REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
APPENDICES
Appendix
A. Instructions and List of Minimal Objectives for
Mathematics Education in Michigan . . . . . . 193
B. Instructions and Instrument I--Biographica1
Information Form . . . . . . . . . . . . 222

C. Instructions and Instrument II--Attitudes
Relative to the Concept of Performance/

Competency-Based Teacher Education . . . . . . 226
D. Instructions and Instrument III--Semantic

Differential . . . . . . . . . . 231
E. Summary of Participants' Responses to the

Ranking of Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . 233
F. Sample Memorandum . . . . . . . . 239
C. First Synthesized Pre— Number Objectives, and

Final Pre-Number Module Objectives . . . . . 240
H. Numeration Objectives First Synthesization and

Final Numeration Module Objectives . . . . . . 257
I. Pupil Assessment Instrument--Pre-Number . . . . . 269
J. Pupil Assessment Instrument--Numeration . . . . . 278
K Pre-Service Teacher Instruction Design

Assessment and Evaluation Questions

(Revised Form) . . . . . . . . 287
L. Appropriate ReSponses for Pre- Number Instruc~

tional Design Questions . . . . . . . 300
M. System for Keeping Records of Individual

Developmental Time . . . . . 325
N. Researcher Biographical Background Information . . . 326

vii

Table

10.

LIST OF TABLES

Description of the Composition of the MSU Mathematics
Competency Development Team Biographical/Demographic
Information by Cluster .

Description of the Composition of the MSU Mathematics
Competency Development Team BiOgraphical University
Information by Cluster . . . . . . .

Description of the Composition of the MSU Mathematics
Competency Deve10pment Team Biographical "K-12
Teaching Experience" Information by Cluster .

Means and 3.0. of MSU Mathematics Competency
Development Teams Responses to Instrument II
by Cluster . . . . . . . . .

Cluster Views of Others

Clusters as Viewed by Others

Clusters as Viewed by Each of the Other
Three Clusters . . . .

Clusters as They Viewed Themselves
Team Meetings

Sub-Team Work Sessions: Attendance of Participants

viii_

Page

77

79

81

85
93

95

96
97
131

132

CHAPTER I

STATEMENT AND DESCRIPTION OF THE PROBLEM

Purpose, Objectives and Procedural Overview

Problem Statement

 

The problem focus of this investigation is related to the lack
of information on recommended deve10pmenta1 procedures for competency/
performance-based teacher education. Programs in teacher education are
being modified at a rapid pace from a traditional "course-passing"
approach with its emphasis on knowledge acquisition, to a "teaching
behavior mastery" approach which emphasizes the demonstration of
desired teaching performance. Competency/performance-based program
developers, aware that there are neither specified teacher behaviors
nor measures available, also find that there is a lack of related
information on recommended developmental procedures. There is a
general absence of information about such issues as (1) how decisions
on valid performances are made, (2) how the identified teacher
behaviors can be incorporated into practical and accurate measures,
and (3) approximately how much time it takes to identify behaviors
and develop related measurement instruments.

In order for competency-based teacher education prOgrams to

move beyond the "good-in~theory" stage, program developers obviously

need valid and reliable measures of teacher behavior; but before such
measures can be constructed, they need to know more about the organ-
izational procedures and decision processes of development that must
naturally precede construction of such instruments. It is to this
lack of information problem and the concomitant need for direction on
developmental procedures that this investigation is directed.

It must be noted, however, that the investigation reported
herein is but one part of a comprehensive research and developmental
effort presently underway in the School of Teacher Education at
Michigan State University. This writer is in agreement with Bruce
Biddle's (1964) observation, “It seems likely that little of signi-
ficance will come from dissertation research unless the dissertations
are embedded in broad programs [p. 37]." This is clearly the case
for this effort. Numerous references will, therefore, be made to
the Experimental Competency-Based Elementary Teacher Education Program

under development at Michigan State University (MSU).

Discussion of the Problem

One needs only to review current publication titles, prOgram
agendas of various national association meetings, and published
bibliographies to see that competency/performance-based teacher
education is a concept being explored by numerous educators. It is
apparent that educators are indeed curious as well as eager to dis-
cuss and debate the topic. Examination of the numerous discussions
and debates at this time reveals wide disparity of opinion, however,

about what competency/performance-based teacher education is, what

constitutes a competency/performance-based teacher education program,
and how one goes about "getting there” (wherever ”there" is).
The confusion surrounding the numerous issues is illustrated
by the fact that an individual trying to determine what is meant by
the abundant terminology finds a variety of definitions and explana—
tions. C00per et a1. (1972) states that:
Competency-based teacher education programs have been viewed
as programs in which the competencies to be demonstrated by
the students and the criteria to be applied in assessing the
competencies of the students are made explicit and the students
are held accountable for meeting those criteria. Further, the
competencies Specified are those particular understandings,
skills, behaviors, and attitudes believed to facilitate the
intellectual, social, emotional, and physical growth of
children [p. 3].

Cooper makes clear that the Specified competencies must be related

to the growth of children.

Houston (1972), on the other hand, asserts that the following

two characteristics are the only essential points in the concept of

competency/performance-based teacher education: (1) Precise objec-

 

tives, defined in behavioral and assessable terms, which are known

to the learner and teacher alike; and (2) Accountability, where the

 

learner knows that he is expected to demonstrate the specified
competencies to the level required and in the manner agreed upon.
Clarke (1971) suggests a very general definition when he
states that performance criteria are used to denote end products of
instruction that are in the form of distinguishable elements of
teaching behavior.
Schalock (1971) contends that competency/performance-based

certification now includes the following three classes of criteria:

(a) Knowledge Criteria, a more stringent criteria for knowing than

 

course grades; (b) Skill Criteria, the performance of Specified

 

teaching or teaching related behaviors; and/or (c) Competence Criteria,

 

the demonstrated ability of a prOSpective teacher to bring about
desired instructional outcomes, that is, desired outcomes in pupils,
or desired noninstructional outcomes, for example, the ability to
design and carry out a curriculum evaluation study.

Elam (1971) lends some assistance in determining the stance
that educators presently hold in relation to the concept of
competency/performance-based teacher education when he points out that,

There now appears to be general agreement (with American Associa-
tion of Colleges of Teacher Education definition) that a teacher
education program is performance-based if:

1. Competencies (knowledge, skills, behaviors) to be
demonstrated by the student are (a) derived from
explicit conceptions of teacher roles, (b) stated so
as to make possible assessment of a student's behavior
in relation to specific competencies, and (c) made
public in advance;

2. Criteria to be employed in assessing competencies are
(a) based upon, and in harmony with, Specified
competencies, (b) explicit in stating expected levels
of mastery under specified conditions, and (c) made
public in advance;

3. Assessment of the student's competency (a) uses his
performance as the primary source of evidence, (b) takes
into account evidence of the student's knowledge
relevant to planning for, analyzing, interpreting,
or evaluating situations or behavior, and (c) strives
for objectivity;

4. The student's rate of prOgress through the prOgram
is determined by demonstrated competency rather than
by time or course completion;

5. The instructional program is intended to facilitate
the deveIOpment and evaluation of the student's achieve-
ment of competencies specified [pp. 7-8].

In Competency/Performance-Based Teacher Education: A Paper

 

for Discussion, Henderson and Lanier (1972) found, after reviewing

 

numerous definitions and descriptions of competency/performance-based

programs, that there was some agreement, though little, and that the
source of disagreement across definitions could be identified.

Professional agreement across definitions appears to exist on

(1) commitment to t e use of public behavioral objectives

in specifying evaluative criteria and (2) in applying a

-mastery model for evaluation. The disagreement across defini-

tions is primarily on the issue of performance criteria. Some

definitions make no reference to what is or is not essential

criteria. Still others imply that knowledge criteria is

adequate, so long as it is explicitly stated and derived from

teacher roles. Others say teacher behavior, i.e., performance

criteria is also needed either by itself or in place of

knowledge criteria. Still other definitions include product

or consequence criteria, which are used to assess the pros-

pective teacher's effectiveness in terms of pupil growth.

Beyond these agreements and disagreements, there is no

consensus; in fact, surprisingly little discussion and direc-

tion on decisions relative to the nature of the competencies

themselves, e.g., what criteria should be used for competency

identification and/or how they should be evaluated [pp. 3-4].

Henderson and Lanier (1972) view a competency/performance-based

teacher education program as "any training program that requires its
trainees to demonstrate at a Specified level of mastery, behaviors that
have been explicitly described and prescribed as desirable and effec-
tive professional behaviors." A major distinction between the opera-
tionalized definitions posited by Henderson and Lanier, Cooper (1972),
Schalock (1971) and other definitions, e.g., Houston (1971) and Elam
(1971) which remain general in nature, is the inherent need for the
description of (1) specific and desirable pupil outcomes, (2) the
effective teacher behaviors needed to bring about the desired pupil
outcomes and (3) the knowledge needed to bring about the recommended
professional behaviors. That is to say, the essential conditions
for an "authentic" (Competency-Based Teacher Education, CBTE) program

include not only behavioral objectives and a mastery evaluation model,

but also that the nature and sc0pe of the objectives to be evaluated

include product, performance and knowledge objectives. Henderson and

 

Lanier (1972) place an additional restriction on the essential condi-
tions and further require that the performance and knowledge objectives
be derived frgm_the product objectives. While few teacher educators
have as yet supported this last key attribute recommended by Henderson
and Lanier, it is increasingly apparent that along with objectives and
a mastery evaluation model, more and more definitions of competency/
performance-based teacher education, are including in their criteria,

knowledge, performance and product objectives.

 

The strong implication this move carries is, that if teachers-
in-training are to be held accountable for criteria relating to
specific pupil outcomes, as well as teacher behaviors and knowledge,
then numerous controversial questions must be answered about "effec-
tiveness" decisions relative to these bases. Some of the "nitty-
gritty" questions that must be dealt with have been described by
Schalock (1971). They include such questions as,

1. What classes of teaching behavior are prospective teachers to
be able to demonstrate? And who is to determine what these
classes of behaviors are to be?

2. What are the pupil outcomes to be realized? What are the
non-instructional outcomes to be realized?

3. What will the "effective performance of specified teaching
behaviors" look like? That is, what will the criteria be
for the successful performance of a given teaching behavior?
Who will determine these criteria? How will a behavior be
assessed to determine if it meets these criteria? Who will
be assessing?

4. In what settings will the behavior be demonstrated? With
small groups or whole classrooms of children?

5. What variation in the performance of a given teaching
behavior or in the selection of teaching behaviors to be
demonstrated is acceptable for students? Are all students
in a given program expected to perform to the same criterion
level on the same set of teaching behaviors? If not, who
is to determine what variance is acceptable [pp. 46-47].

Educators across the nation, at conference after conference,
ask for answers. Books and pamphlets cite the issues and questions,
but refrain from laying out Specifically recommended answers. General
suggestions abound, such as "No one person should decide." "Teacher
Educators should not assume the sole responsibility." "Consortium
approaches should be developed." "Parity relationships with school
personnel and community persons must be established." But these sorts
of responses only leave further questions. One naturally asks, for
example, "Who should comprise the consortium?" and "What does 'parity'
really mean?" Pleas_for answers far exceed suggested answers.

Most teacher educators proceed with the business of deve10ping
Competency-Based Teacher Training Programs. They identify and list
hundreds and thousands of "needed" teacher behaviors but with only
vague descriptions of their rationale and/or the procedures they used
to identify them. That is to say, their "basis for judgment" remains
unclear.

This writer was involved in the deve10pment of one of the
early attempts made to change teacher training in this direction.
Working on the United States Office of Education funded project to
design a "model" elementary teacher education program, the staff of
the Michigan State University project developed 2,700 modules that
contained behavioral objectives for teachers-in-training. Perhaps
because of time limitations imposed on the developers of "BSTEP"
(Behavioral Science Teacher Education Program) and the other federally
funded models, pupil outcomes were not dealt with in a systematic

fashion as they related to specific teacher knowledge and behaviors.

This is not only inherent with Michigan State's program but is true
of most other programs. Smith (1971) states:

Although hundreds of teacher performance criteria are Specified
in the U.S. Office of Education's Model Teacher Education
Programs, the programs do not describe how these particular
criteria were chosen. None of the proposals contains a
detailed review of the literature upon which the model

builders based their decisions [p. 39].

It has thus been disappointing to note that little change in this
"vague" state of affairs has apparently occurred at this time. The
continued lack of clarity and specification of goals or objectives
for pupil outcomes is confirmed by Schalock (1972):

A number of problems are inherent in implementing an output
referenced personnel deve10pment program. The most obvious

one has already been alluded to, namely, the necessity of being
clear about the educational outcomes that we want from our
schools, the difficulty in measuring such outcomes, and the
fact that the discipline is not at all clear as to the factors
that contribute to the development of particular learning
outcomes in particular kinds of children. Without clarity
about such matters it obviously will be difficult to

implement such a pro ram. 0n the other hand, it is precisely
these matters that e ucation must be clear about. Adopting

a stance in teacher education that forces the discipline

and the profession to confront its weaknesses in this regard
would seem to be a reasonably good strategy for eliciting
movement within the profession as a whole. It goes without
saying that the teacher education programs so designed would
be at best a bit "rickety" until the conceptual, methodological
and empirical base needed to support them has been established
[p. 120]. (Emphasis added.)

 

Schalock's prognosis appears to have been on target. At the present
time, "rickety" conceptual, methodological, and empirical bases
abound. And while Schalock may have been right in that they are
apparently no "less productive," one wonders if they are any "more
productive."

Lanier and Henderson (1973), in a comprehensive review of

the present content and process status of teacher education conclude:

. . there have been few significant innovations in the past
generation--despite the new terminology "evidence" to the
contrary. . . . Thus, following a rather extensive examination
of existing and emerging program developments, we bring to this
review very deep concerns regarding the rate and scope of
qualitative direction being taken by teacher educators [p. 2].

Similarly, Jones (1972) notes some of the explicit problems
characteristic of the recent "competency movement."

Many of the existing developmental efforts toward change
have been piecemeal and isolated. To implement portions of
programs along competency-based guidelines, individual teacher-
education professors have identified the behaviors that they
wisheddtheir students to demonstrate at the end of a course.
Competency-based courses then were developed through modifica—
tion of objectives (to behavioral standards) or through modifica-
tion of instructional procedures, or through both.

Competency-based programs typically began in this fashion
at institutions where such programs now exist. In some cases
there may have been a push from outside influences--administra-
tive approval, seed money, released time, etc.--but the initial
surge came from the faculty. This involvement is critical; a
key ingredient in any process of educational implementation
is the participation in its definition by the persons whom
the change will impact.

The real strength of the competengy-based effort, however,
lies in its emphasis on totalpprograms. Course-by-course-
development results in a program ofiuneven quality, Graduates
of a teacher-education program usually can identify some courses
that have had the most impact on their effectiveness. However,
even if all courses in the program were effective, there still
would be gaps and overlaps among courses. Unfortunately, there
have been few systematic attempts to alleviate discontinuity
among courses in most teacher-Education_pro rams. Féw tedEher
educators’have attempted to view the totality, the gestalt, of
teacher-education programs. The search for this totality is
the heart of the competency-based movement. The movement
toward competency-based ideas often loses its effect because
of half-way measures--a single course, poorly integrated
instructional materials, etc. Although some have described
partial programs as "competency—based," they are dealing, in
fact, with answers that are not solutions to the real problem--
revitalization of teacher education throu h effective total-
program development [pp. 103-4]. (Emphas1s added?)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

In the College of Education at Michigan State University, however, a
group of teacher educators have undertaken the task of deve10ping a

"total" competency-based teacher education program of the sort that

10

Jones describes. In concert with Jones' Opinion that "course-by—
course development results in a pregram of uneven quality" and
believing that questions of the sort raised by Schalock must be
tentatively answered, a number of teacher educators concerned with
the improvement of training programs for elementary teachers has
begun the needed design and deve10pment activities.

The conceptual basis of the program has been described by
Lanier and Henderson (1973). The conceptual framework they have
described guides the developmental activities and requires the inte-
gration of the basic, applied and clinical aSpects of all subject
matter areas. Thus, the deve10pment of the mathematics "competency
area" brings together educators from the basic math instruction
(instructors of a course referred to as Math 201), the math methods
instruction (instructors of a course referred to as ED 325E) the
psychological foundations instruction (instructors of a course
referred to as ED 200) and the practice teaching component (instruc-
tors of a course referred to as ED 436). These persons are charged

with the collaborative design and development of the new competency

 

based instruction for the mathematics competency area. Educators
from other competency areas, e.g., reading, social-emotional education,
science, language arts, social studies, etc., follow a similar
organizational plan, with instructors from the basic, applied and
clinical units coming together as a team to plan their portion of
the total instructional prOgram.

To allow for articulation of all areas within the total

program, each team subscribes to a common teaching-process model.

11

The purpose of holding the teaching model constant across teams is

to reduce the conflicting and/or contradictory prescriptions made

for the teachers in training. With the common teaching model approach,
the teacher educators hOpe to increase transfer; they hypothesize

that by recommending a teaching process that is reinforced with
continuous practice in a variety of contexts and situations their
instruction will be more powerful in terms of retention and applica—
tion. The problem that the developmental personnel faces, however,

is that there is a dearth of data available that would provide direc-
tion relative to the optimal nature and procedural aspects of the

tasks they need to perform. Persons asked to serve on these teams

wonder about such things as: "What is the nature of the task?” "How
much time will it take?" "How will we ever reach agreement when we
all think so differently?" "Will we have to compromise our beliefs
and values about teaching?" "What questions should we tackle first?"

Many questions stem from the new deve10pmental and instruc-
tional procedures that must be employed, but nowhere are there
specific and/or explicit answers to be found. The amount of general
advice and inSpiration has increased in the literature in the past
year, however. Schein (1972) describes what is needed as it relates
to the collaboration concept.

. . . a professional school organized around modules which
integrate basic, applied and skill components; run by an
innovative . . . faculty who are expert in learning theory,
teamwork, and interpersonal skills; administered flexibly
with heavy involvement from Students, faculty, and future
employers; constantly evaluating itself, its output, and
the effectiveness of the profession itself through perpetual
self-diagnosis and evaluation [p. 149].

12

Schein (1972) also describes some of the characteristics needed by
persons serving on deve10pment teams. He says that:
. . . The kind of faculty needed . . . will be learning-centered
and knowledgeable about learning principles, capable of working
in team settings, interpersonally competent and positive toward
people, concerned about the career development of students, and
role-innovative [p. 143].
This type of general description (e.g., that provided by
Schein) of the organization needed and important characteristics of
those persons who will be involved is typical of the descriptive and/or
prescriptive information presently available to program developers.

Pregram developers, therefore, have been and are still forced to work

in a "trial and error" manner.

Puzpose. The purpose of this thesis is to begin the modifica—
tion of this state of affairs by making available a description of
the activities (problems and procedures) and learnings (tentative
solutions and recommendations) of the developmental team for one
competency area. This study represents, therefore, an effort to
provide needed descriptive data relative to how educators might
proceed in a collaborative manner to establish a competency-based
program. The descriptive data collected will hopefully help other
educators involved in the process of establishing and deve10ping
competency pregrams in teacher education, as well as the participants
engaged in this deve10pmental effort who will have a descriptive
record of their "trials and errors" (and success) so that improvement
and refinement of their procedures might be facilitated. In addition,

it is hoped that this study will demonstrate a method of inquiry

13

apprOpriate for the exploratory type of research needed for furthering

competency-based prOgram development.

Objectives. In an effort to lend assistance to the deve10p~

 

ment and advancement of competency/performance—based teacher education
programs, the specific objectives of this investigation are to
describe:

(1) the composition of a deve10pmental team charged with the

 

task of identifying "competency" for the mathematics

teaching area.

(2) the procedures and transactions actually used by this

 

competency development team, and

(3) the outcomes of the team's collaborative design efforts.

Realization of these objectives is meant to provide a systematic
record of the set of activities engaged in by one developmental team,
working to define and refine "competence" in the area of mathematics

teaching with elementary school children.

Procedures. Due to the exploratory nature of this study, the

 

method of investigation selected was that of participant observation.
The appropriateness of this identified method for gathering data
helpful for diminishing the problem is discussed in Chapter II.

The role in which this investigator acted as a participant
was that of a member of the MSU Mathematics Competency Deve10pment
Team. As a team member, this researcher attended all team meetings,
participating in the discussions and developmental tasks. In the

role of a team member, this researcher generally shared in the work

14

and responsibilities associated with a competency development team.

A detailed description of these procedures is included in Chapter III.
The results of the participant observation activities that

were employed are described in Chapter IV and their implications

discussed in Chapter V.

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

The literature review contained in this chapter is organized
into two major sections: the first section presents the literature
relevant to the competency-based teacher education movement and the
second section presents the literature pursuant to the mode of
inquiry used in this investigation, i.e., participant observation.

Section I: Competency/Performance-Based
Teacher Education

Introduction

 

With the advent of increased concern for educational account-
ability, both in the certification and preparation of teachers, there
is a concomitant increased concern for redesigning teacher education
pregrams. Schalock (1971) describes the existing basis for certi-
fication as it relates to teacher preparation and notes some of the
weaknesses:

For several decades the primary basis for teacher certi-

fication has been a given grade point average for a given
number of courses in given areas of study, coupled with a
recommendation from a rec0gnized teacher education institu-
tion that a particular student is "qualified to teach."
Operationally such criteria for certification require that

a student demonstrate that he knows enough in various
courses that he can pass them with a grade of "C" or better;

15

16

that he is able to apply that which he knows at some minimal
level as a "student teacher"; and that he is physically,
mentally, morally, ethically, and attitudinally acceptable
as a member of the teaching profession. The judgment is by
representatives from the faculty of the college at which he
is matriculating and by the supervisor of this student
teaching experience.

Generally speaking that basic assumption underlying
such an approach to certification is that knowledge of
subject matter, teaching methods, children's learn1ng,
and so forth-—as measured by course grades--is a basic
predictor of teaching capability. Such knowledge is coupled
with a brief testing of the ability to apply what is known
in a student teaching situation and a subjective judgment
as to the acceptability of a particular student to the
teaching profession. The reverse assumption is also applied;
there is no need to systematically gather evidence as to the
ability of a prospective teacher to behave in specified
ways, or of his ability to carry out the functions for which
he will be responsible within a school once he is certified

[p. 43].
The weaknesses in preparation and certification logic that

Schalock describes have been similarly noted by state legislators
and state boards of education. A number of states have already
"legislated" moves toward accountability by ruling to the effect,
that certification be based on teaching performance criteria rather
than knowledge criteria. As in most states, Michigan's State Board
of Education is presently wrestling with the inherent weaknesses of
existing certification codes and preparation prOgrams. Dr. John
Porter (1971), Michigan's State Superintendent, describes the present
situation as he works to improve the delivery of educational services
to the children and youth of the state.

To some, consideration of an accountability model or new

elements in education has appeared to represent a threat or a

challenge to historically developed educational approaches,

and a judgment as to the efficacy of such approaches at this

point in time. No threat is intended, but each of us must

find challenge in consideration of the new educational elements,
and there must be general rec0gnition that whatever its

17

strengths and weaknesses, the historically deve10ped system of
educational services does not today serve effectively all of
the children and youth entrusted to our care [pp. 2-3].

Even the National Education Association (1971), the teachers'
union that maintains a conservative stand on most issues which imply
that demands might be placed on teachers at any level, recognizes
the inevitability of the approaching accountability moves. Even
while trying to "dodge" the issue, they begin to "face it."

The NBA recognizes that the term "accountability" as applied to
public education is subject to varied interpretations. The
Association maintains that educational excellence for each
child is the objective of the education system. The Associa-
tion believes that educators can be accountable only to the
degree that they share responsibility in educational decision-
, making and to the degree that other parties who share this
re5ponsibility--school boards, parents, and taxpayers--are
also held accountable [p. 776].

Thus, the increased demands and pressures for accountability
forces teacher educators to re-examine their preparation programs.
The major consequence of the re-look that teacher educators have
been taking is an increased interest in and support for the develop-
ment of performance/competency-based teacher education programs. It
behooves us, therefore, to examine in detail the nature of this move-
ment and the implications it has for the activities of teacher
educators.

Characteristics of Competency-Based
TeaChér Educdtion

 

As noted in Chapter 1, many of the characteristics of
competency-based teacher education are both vague and controversial,

due to the relatively recent emergence of the concept.

18

Howsam et al. (1972), suggests that ”the concept of
competengy-based instruction has emerged from the emphases on goal-
orientation and individualization [p. 3]." Howsam et al. (1972),

asserts that:

Learning goals or objectives can be made explicit by and for
the learner. The individual then can pursue learning activities
and can develop performance skills or competencies in the
process. When this approach is coupled with an appropriate
management and delivery system, the accountability principle

can be applied to all aspects of the instructional program

[p. 3].

"Standard dictionaries provide no definition for competency-

 

 

REESE?" since it " . . . is a coined word of recent origin. The
word competency has been chosen to indicate an emphasis on the
'ability to do,‘ in contrast to the more traditional emphasis on the
'ability to demonstrate knowledge [Howsam et al., 1972, p. 3].'”

The term competency-based has become a special designation
for an educational approach, for a movement. The term cannot
be defined in a simple phrase; its meaning emerges from the
compiles of characteristics of this educational mode . . .

Two characteristics are essential to the concept of
competency-based instruction. First, precise learning
objectives--defined in behavioral and assessable terms--must
be known to learner and teacher alike . . .

The second essential characteristic is accountability.

The learner knows that he is expected to demonstrate the
specified competencies to the required level and in the
agreed-upon manner. He accepts responsibility and expects to
be held accountable for meeting the established criteria.

A third characteristic, that of personalization, is of a
somewhat different order from the previous two. It is
associated almost universally with competency-based instruc-
tion, but it is not necessarily a distinguishing characteristic
when comparing this with other programmatic thrusts.
Competency-based programs characteristically are individualized;
they are self-paced, and thus time is a variable. They are
personalized as well; each student has some choice in the
selection of objectives and of learning activities . . . Group
and even mass instructional processes are viable alternatives;

in some cases, they may be the most effective and efficient
Options.

19

. . . This approach is criterion referenced, in contrast
to norm-referenced approach that has’been emphasized throughout
muchdof our educational history . . .

. . . The emphasis shifts from the teacher and the teaching
process to the learner and the learning process . . . [Howsam
et al., 1972, pp. 3-5].

 

 

The reSponsibilities of faculty and students involved in
competency-based teacher training programs are described by
Schalock (1972) as follows:

Persons reSponsible for preparatory programs must make

explicit that which graduates of their programs will be able

to accomplish in the schools; they must make explicit the
indicators they will accept as evidence of such accomplishments;
and they devise a program that insures the majority of stu-
dents in it are able to develop to the point where they are
able to realize such accomplishment. They must also make
explicit the kind of systematic linkage called for . . .
between the expected outputs of their program and the personal
needs of schools, and these in turn to the outcomes expected
in schools. Students who wish to become certified must show
that they can "put it all together." . . . Performance based
certification at the output level requires that they know what
it is that they wish to accomplish with the children they wish
to work with, and that they can in fact accomplish those things
with at least the majority of children with whom they do

work . . . [p. 132].

General characteristics concerning competency teacher educa-
tion can be seen in the following statement by Howsam (1972).

As in all professions, this preparation involves on the one
hand the acquisition of knowledge and the ability to apply it,
and on the other the development of the needed repertoire of
critical behaviors and skills. Insofar as they thus become
the competency objectives for the teacher-education program.
The criteria for performance are derived from these
objectives [p. 6].

Concerning the deve10pment of objectives for a competency-
based elementary mathematics teacher education program, Davis et al.
(1972), states:

The purpose of the Elementary Mathematics Teacher Education

Project is to develop a "competency based" training program in
mathematics for inservice and preservice elementary teachers.

20

The program is "competeney based" in that Specific statements
of the competencies needed by elementary sChools teachers for
the teaching of mathematics are formulated. These statements
form the basis, and are the objectives, of the instructional

materials which'are deVdIoped and’implemented {pl 29].

iEmphasis added.)

Cooper et al. (1972), indicates that "once the role of the

 

 

teacher has been conceptualized, it is possible to generate statements
of teaching competencies from the conceptualized role. He points out
that teaching competencies can be derived from the following three
bases: (1) Empirical Base, (2) Subject Matter Base, and (3) Prac-
titioner Base [pp. 3+6]." In addition, Cooper et al. (1972), says:
While teaching competencies can be and should be generated
from empirical, subject matter, and practitioner bases, they
must be screened through a philosophical base and the con-
ceptualized model of the teacher's role. Unless pr0posed
competencies are compatible with the conceptualized role of
the teacher, they should not be included in the program [p. 7].

Lanier and Henderson (1973) agree with Cooper that a common
philosophical base is needed. In addition, however, they argue that
teaching competencies must ppt_be derived separately from different
bases, but must bring together the subject matter, methodology and
.practice orientations. They consistently argue for bringing together
the basic, applied and clinical instruction by unifying them in all
modules in each competency area.

In spite of the many unresolved issues and numerous differ-
ences in beliefs about how competency-based programs should be
developed and implemented, however, the movement receives continued
support.

Smith (1972) comments on the optimistic and encouraging ideas

contained in the notions of competency-based programs.

21

Discussion has ranged far and wide in education circles
for the past several years about the need for a performance
base in teacher education and certification. Everyone is for
it in theory. It is an innovative reSponse in a critical area
that is very much in need of innovation. In theory,
performance-based training provides a way for prospective
teachers to build on their individual skills and interests.

It implies an open-ended education with freedom to move, to
deve10p an individual teaching style and individual competencies.
It suggests that preparation to be a teacher is an exciting and
rewarding experience, one that will lead to lifelong intellectual
curiosity and growth; the effective teacher never stops learning.
The competency-based approach assumes that such advantages in

the teacher's own preparation will enable him as a graduate to
enter the classroom and pass on these advantages to the next
generation of youngsters.

Moreover, preparation, evaluation and certification of
teachers so that they can be all but guaranteed to be more
effective teachers of children is a direct reSponse to the
growing concern among parents, taxpayers, and minority
spokesmen for accountability on the part of our education
institutions.

If we buy the argument that schools indeed are accountable
for the educational attainment of students coming up through
the system, then competency-based training and certification
for the school staff is a logical starting point. In fact,
it is the_starting point [p. 172].

In spite of Smith's favorable overview of competency-based
teacher education, however, one still must reckon with the many
unresolved issues related to the deve10pment and implementation of
these programs. Some of these issues will now be considered.

Central Issues Related to Competency—
Based Proggams

 

 

Even though the issues related to competency-based teacher
education cover a wide spectrum, two major classifications seem to
emerge. The first classification concerns those issues relative to
the changing university faculty roles that appear to be necessitated

by the movement. The second classification is organized around the

22

developmental issues which must be dealt with as a consequence of

the decision to develop a competency-based training program.

New Faculty Roles

 

The recent literature on competency-based teacher education
is filled with references to the new roles and skills needed by staff

who will work in such programs. In Professional Education, concerning

 

new faculty roles, Schein (1972) indicates that:

The state of ferment in the professions and in the education
establishment makes this a good time to rethink education for
the professions. It is increasingly obvious that the pro-
fessional of the future must have a different set of skills,
a different self—image, and a different set of attitudes from
the professional of today . . . [p. 4].

Concerning changing professional education, Schein (1972) says:

Professional education can be changed by a deliberate yet
controlled process . . . The particular relevance of planned
change derives from the fact that we are dealing with organ-
izational change in a setting where there are strong forces
opposing the change. We do not mean, however, that changes
should be imposed on the professional schools. Our concept
of planned change implies a heavy involvement of the organ-
ization in the planning of its own change programs.

Planned change involves the learning of new concepts and
ideas, new attitudes and values, and new patterns of behavior
and skills. Part of—any planned change model must therefore
be a moddl of how individuals in a social system learn and
thereby transform the social system. This learning has to occur
in a situation in which, by virtue of their membership in the
social system, individuals already have ways of thinking, feel-
ings, and acting to which they are committed and which make
sense to them. . . . the change agent must assume that the
members of the system will be committed to their present ways
of operating and will, therefore, resist learning something
new. As a consequence, the essence of a planned change process
is the unlearning of present ways of doing things [p. 4].

 

 

 

Discussing the change in faculty roles in The Individualized,
Competency-based System of Teacher Education at Weber State College,

Burke (1972) states:

23

Being transformed from the role of class leader and lecturer

to that of advisor and consultant, the faculty members found a
definite need for adjustment, but each seemed to fit quite
readily into the new status. For some it was a pleasant change
from the unwanted lecturer role; while others missed the
Spotlight as class leader. About double the time was

scheduled for office consultation than was formerly scheduled
for classes. Requests for students to check with faculty
members for specific purposes were built into many of the
modules. Also, students were constantly encouraged to seek

the help of faculty members whenever needed. The faculty members
directed the assessment of the student's progress, assisted

the students with their own assessments, and checked out the
students on completion of the modules [p. 14].

In "Redirections in The Education of Prospective Elementary
Teachers," Gibb (1971) says concerning new faculty roles:

The interdisciplinary faculty team, the counselor, the
flexible blocks of time and the close communication and
cooperation with and continuous experiences in the schools
combine to make the Operational Personalized Teacher
Education Program a rich, diverse, and profitable experience
for students, university and school faculty alike [p. 8].

Bowles (1973) reports that at the University of Houston a
proficiency-based program in mathematics teacher education is being
developed "with a nucleus of knowledgeable young professors,
supplemented by senior members of the staff." Bowles also states:

The roster of graduate students may very well carry the names
of individuals destined to make significant contributions to
competency-based programs in the next decade. One cannot

say that the students are clustered at the feet of the masters;
hard-headed, hardworking action research and development team
leaders, yes, but there are no masters of this approach. It
is even conceivable that the master may learn from the

student [p. 511].

Relative to changing faculty roles are Schein's (1972)
comments concerning the contributions that the behavioral sciences
have to offer a changing profession. He states:

. . the behavioral sciences have made considerable advances

in understanding the psychology and sociology of client systems,
the processes by which learning and socialization take place,

24

the theory and practice of planned change, the theory and
practice of giving and receiving help, group dynamics, and
leadership phenomena. All these areas are of increasing
relevance to the professions [p. 4].

DeVault and Gilladay (1972) in their discussion related to
faculty training submit that,

New programs in new schools require new teachers. Both at

the university level and in the schools, retraining is
essential. . . . teachers will play roles either in addition

to or completely other than those which are presently exhibited
in the lecture halls and classrooms throughout the country.

No reform in teacher education will succeed without a comparable
reform in the faculty member's concept of his own role. . . .
Not only must vigorous efforts be made to initiate the needed
reform in faculty roles, both in the universities and in the
schools; comparable study and effort must be made to assure that
the nature of faculty roles for the future can be designed and
redesigned as the nature of schooling takes on new dimensions
reflecting the variety envisioned . . . [p. 55].

The following is an example of the type of problems which
universities must face if new faculty roles related to competency-
based teacher education are implemented. Burke (1972) says,

One problem of concern was that of calculating and reporting
faculty load under the new system. Some administrators hoped
this would prove to be a way of Operating with a higher student-
faculty ratio. Others assumed more faculty members would be
needed to do the same job . . . It appeared that the previous
method of equating load on the basis of credit hours taught,
would have to give way to a determination based on numbers of
students served. . . . [p. 15]

If the development of a successful new professional education
is to occur, issues will arise that are related to such questions
as: What new skills and abilities do we need? What new organizational
and reporting procedures will be needed? How do we bring about the

changes? The Committee on National Program Priorities in Teacher

Education (Rosner, 1972) recommends the following:

25

The Committee on National PrOgram Priorities in Teacher
Education recommends a major test of the power of competency-
based teacher education to improve the performance of
educational personnel in the nation's schools [p. 24].

The committee feels that in order to implement the above
recommendation, an integrated program deve10pment effort must be
undertaken. The integrated program suggested by the committee (1972)
includes:

a) a committee for program planning and coordination;

b) training laboratories for education personnel;

c) instructional materials for concept and skill attainment;

d) instruments to define competencies in actual classroom
settings; and

e) career deve10pment for master-level teacher and teacher
trainers [Rosner, p. 24].

In conclusion, Schein (1972) asserts that "development of a
genuinely different and more reSponsive professional education would
require four major changes:

(I) new kinds of learning modules built on better theories of
how students learn; (2) new kinds of faculty members who bring
different skills, attitudes, and values to their job; (3) new
kinds of administrative structures and procedures that are more
flexible and that adapt to the learning tasks to be met; and
(4) perpetual self-diagnosis and evaluation research [p. 129].

The essential message one gleans from the literature related
to new faculty roles is that many educators have noted the need, but
few have described what they have actually done to meet these needs,

as they go about developing and implementing their competency based

teacher education prOgrams.

Issues Related to New Developmental
Concerns

 

The following subsection describes examples of the types

of issues university faculties may have to resolve, if they decide to

develop competency based teacher education programs.

Burke, Elam, and Smith discuss the area of humanism. Burke

(1972), in "Curriculum Design," Competency-Based Teacher Education,

 

states that "all of the issues raised at the conference seem to be
grounded in one fundamental question: Is it morally right to change
people?" He says,

The participants seemed to be seeking a rationale for behavioral
modification that would square with philosophical notions of
individual freedom and integrity. Many questions revealed

this basic concern: What safeguards can be built into
competency-based programs for the preservation of humanistic
values? Who is wise enough to program systematically the
learning experiences of college students [pp. 41-42]?

Elam reports that:

Among the more difficult questions asked about the viability

of performance-based instruction as the basis for substantial
change in teacher preparatory programs are these: What should
the scope of the prOgram be? Should it include the humanities
and other portions of the academic program? Is the performance-
based approach more applicable to certain components than to
others? Will it tend to produce technicians, paraprofessionals,
teacher aides, etc., rather than professionals? Does it deal
only with instrumental values and not with consumatory values?
(Some experiences are worthwhile in and of themselves.) [p. 748]

Smith (1972) points out that:
Some observers view the accountability/teacher-competency movement
as the enemy of another basic concern: the need to individualize
and humanize instructional programs to accommodate the abilities
and interests of each child [p. 173].
He feels that those with legitimate concerns that accountability is in
conflict with humanistic and personalized education should be re-
assured. He states: "This critical issue must be put on the table
for conflict resolution."

Bowles (1973) identifies the following questions as ones

which module developers must face.

27

1. What behavior is truly terminal?

2. At what stage of deve10pment is the student motivated
toward the terminal behavior with maximum consequence
validity?

3. Do the learning modules exhibit consequence validity?

4. Can or should a module be developed that is teacher proof
[p. 511]?

Howsam et al. (1972) assert that "a number of issues concern-
ing objectives are of importance to those seeking to implement
competency-based-teacher education programs. These issues involve

questions such as the following:

(1) Is it desirable to base a teacher-education program on
objectives? (2} Is it ossible to base a teacher-education
program on objectives? (3i Who would make the decisions

about the behaviors that teachers need? (4) What behaviors
characterize effective teachers? (5) Should objectives of
various teacher-education programs be standardized? (6)
Should teachers be held accountable for meeting the behavioral
criteria specified by Objectives [p. 18]? (Emphasis added.)

During the development of competency programs many questions
related to the area of specification of teacher behaviors arise.

Cooper et a1. (1972) assert that one important question that
many educational researchers insist can only be answered empirically
is "What teaching behaviors are positively related to desired pupil
outcomes?" If one attempts to specify teaching competencies from
subject matter bases, COOper et al., suggest that the following ques-
tions then arise.

What knowledge and/or skills should be required as evidence

of subject matter competency?

Should these competencies reflect the current curriculum of

the schools?

Should subject matter competencies be Specified for what is
regarded as general education in the arts and sciences?

If valid knowledge changes so rapidly, what subject matter
competencies are more likely to stand the tests of time [pp. 5-6]?

28

Once behaviors have been identified then how to insure teacher
performance becomes a problem. Related to assessment of mathematics
teaching, McKillip et a1. (1972) say "There is little agreement on
techniques for the assessment of mathematics teaching methods or the

criteria for acceptable practices." He adds,

We recognize competencies in mathematics as necessary attributes
of a good teacher and are aware of the literature demonstrating
that elementary teachers are lacking in mathematics competencies.
Many teachers also lack ability and knowledge of fundamental
principles of teaching mathematics, and even where both
knowledge of content and knowled e of methodology are present,

they may not be evidEnt_ih teaChers' classroom hdhavior [p. 70].
(Emphasis addedJ

 

McDonald (1972) speaks to the issue which arises once teacher

performance of Specified behaviors has occurred. Concerning teaching

performance McDonald says,

A teaching performance is a complex of knowledge and teaching
skill, extendin over time, involving many specific items of
knowledge, and usually'ihvolving several specific skills . . .
[p. 73]. (Emphasis added.)

McDonald (1972) assumes that " . . . there is a willingness
to accept measurement as a necessary ingredient in scientific inquiry
about teaching and to accept evaluation as requisite to the improve-

ment of teacher education." He also notes, however:

The current state of the art of measuring teaching behavior
can only be described as dismal. . . . No testing program
dominates the field of measuring teaching behavior. Many Will
not lament these omissions. Yet their absence is strong
testimony to the lack of attention paid to quantitative descrip-
tion of one of the most important human activities.

In other vocations, tests of mechanical ability or
performance skills often are available. No comparable tests
exist for the assessment of teaching skills.

There are several reasons for this lack. First, the very
concept of a "teaching Skill" has been repugnant to teacher
educators for a long time. They see teaching as an art in

29

which the teacher fashions the teaching activity from moment
to moment. Second, it is difficult to apply the concept of
skill to teaching behavior. Teaching skill is not merely
a psychomotor activity, nor is it a pattern of kinesthetic
responses, nor is it a set of easily prOgrammed behaviors.
A teaching skill may have many components. Furthermore, the
definition of teaching skills will be possible only when we
have data indicating a well-defined set of students' responses
that are elicited by each teacher behavior.

Given these conceptual and empirical difficulties, it
is not surprising that we lack measures of teaching
skill [p. 73].

McDonald (1972) indicates that while the problems related to
assessment of teaching behavior will be difficult to solve,
" . . . they are not insolvable, if a national effort is mounted to
seek the solutions." He further states:

Unless such an effort is undertaken by many people,
performance-based education is likely to flounder. The
basic concepts of competency-based education are widely
accepted today, and there is widespread interest in the
changes needed to make teacher-education programs focus on
the acquisition of teaching Skill. It is obvious that we
are at a critical point; interest and support will wane
quickly if substantial progress is not made rapidly.

. . . PrOgress is needed in gathering data on teaching
performance, both of teacher trainees and of experienced
teachers. Pilot assessment systems must be established as
quickly as possible. Immediate, concrete steps must be
taken to begin to measure teacher behavior.

If these Steps are taken now, the deve10pment of
competency-based teacher-education prOgrams will gain
momentum and their future development can be assured. It
is clear where we must begin and that we must begin now [p. 74].

Howsam et a1. (1972), agreeing with McDonald that the
problems are not insurmountable, state:

A major current need is for a willingness on the part of many
sources to provide adequate funds for curriculum development.
Even more important is the need to recruit our best faculty
and school personnel into the effort. The chief goal of the
movement is not a collection of new institutions--a1though
some may be required--but a cadre of new teachers, whose
effectiveness with children will bring about the real
educational revolution: the realization of the full learning
potential of our school children [p. 55].

30

In addition, McDonald states that "competency-based education
will succeed or fail to the degree that its effects can be determined
and judged. This assertion is supported by straight forward IOgic."
He emphasizes his point:

There is more fundamental reason why it is necessary to
demonstrate the effectiveness of competency-based programs.
Such a program will be effective--as its advocates both
know well and sa --to the degree that its construction and
operations are infused with the Spirit of scientific inquiry.
. . . The training program is designed to achieve . .
specific goals. Evaluation of the effects of the program
obviously is necessary to determine whether the program has
been designed properly, and whether the skills acquired by
its graduates affect the learning of students in significant
and desirable ways [p. 57].

Section II: Participant Observation Research

Introductipp_

This section of chapter two presents a review of literature
pursuant to the mode of inquiry used in this investigation; i.e.,
participant observation. The literature reviewed here discusses
the definition and appropriate application of the participant observa-

tion method.

When we know where we are at present and where we wish to
be, a third kind of knowledge is needed. This is concerned

with how to get where we wish to be [Good and Scates, 1954,
p. 256].

How does a researcher proceed to study something about which
very little is known? Blalock (1970) suggests that "since the
research cannot rely on Specific hypotheses or a relatively small
list of variables that are likely to be significant, it clearly

must be highly exploratory."

31

Good and Scates (1954), in discussing the early stages of
research in a given area, state:

General description is characteristic of the early stage of
workdin an area where thesignificant factors have not been
isolated, and where perhaps one would nOtThave means for
measur1ng them if they were identified [p. 258]. (Emphasis
added.)

 

 

They also assert that "descriptive studies are of large value in
providing facts on which professional judgments may be based."
Similarly, they suggest that "description tells us what we reckon
with" and can "help us in learning how to accomplish desired
purposes."

Characteristics of descriptive investigation are identified
by Good and Scates as:

. . . All studies that purport to present facts concerning
the nature and status of anything--a group of persons, a
number of objects, a set of conditions, a class of events,
a system of thought, or any other kind of phenomena which
one may wish to study [p. 259].

The purpose of exploratory research, usually necessary for
laying the ground work for theorizing, is further described by
Blalock (1970) when he states:

The major objective of such exploratory research is that of
selecting out a relatively small number of possible variables,
or categories, from the extremely large number that can be
developed. To do this the investigator must become immersed
in the data and he must rely very heavily on his own insight
and intuition, without benefit of any well defined scientific

principles as guidelines [p. 40].

Blalock (1970) proceeds to emphasize that " . . . exploratory studies

 

are just that. They are beginningsJ not ends in themselves [p. 40]."

 

(Emphasis added.) He continues:

32

After the beginning has been made, there are many opportunities
for more rigorous methodological principles to serve as
useful guidelines [p. 40].

The general label which one type of exploratory and descrip-
tive research of this nature has been given is that of "participant
observation." Participant observation is defined by Kluckholm (1940).
She says:

Participant observation is conscious and systematic sharing,
in so far as circumstances permit, in the life-activities
and, on occasion, in the interests and affects of a group
of persons. Its purpose is to obtain data about behavior
through direct contact and in terms of specific situations
in which the distortion that results from the investigator's
being an outside agent is reduced to a minimum [p. 33].

Becker and Geer (1958) in "Participant Observation and
Interviewing: A Rejoinder" describe the kind of problem to which
participant observation is most suited:

Briefly, it is the problem in which one is more interested

in understanding some particular group or substantive social
problem rather than in testing hypotheses about the relations
between variables derived from a general theory. These two
aims are naturally not mutually exclusive but many studies
are particularly focused in one or another of these directions.
In the study aimed at understanding substantive problems, the
greatest difficulties lie in discovering appropriate

problems for sociological analysis and in discovering valid
indicators for theoretical variables. Participant observa-
tion is particularly useful in meeting these difficulties.
Also when one wishes to construct a model of the social
system of an organization, a technique which allows one

to see the interrelations of elements of that system in
action is especially helpful [p. 40].

Holmberg (1960) presents the perspective of participant
intervention as a method for studying change. He states:

Traditionally, anthropologists have approached the study of
culture change from the perspective of the outside observer
of a naturally on-going process. By contrast, few attempts
have been made to study change from the perSpective of an
intervening participant, one who both designs and activates
the sociocultural process [p. 76].

33

Holmberg discusses the potentialities of the research-and-development
or participant intervention method and perceives that this method
provides a " . . . fruitful approach to further investigations of
the dynamics of culture change."

The participant observation research method as Powdermaker
(1970) explains, " . . . was forged in the study of small homogeneous
societies, in which the anthropologist lived for an extended period
of time, participated in them, learned the language, interviewed, and
constantly observed." Blalock (1970) suggests, however, that "because
anthropolpgists are_probaply the most frequent users of this approach,
the participant observation method is sometimes erroneously identi-
fied with the anthropological approach." (Emphasis added.)

Examples of classic participant observation studies include:

(1) William F. Whyte's (1943) Street Corner Society in which he

 

describes his participant observation of lower-class street-corner

life in Boston, (2) Elliot Liebow's (1967) Tally's Corner where he

 

used the participant obServation method to study the lower-class black

male, (3) Philip Jackson's (1968) Life in Classrooms where he employed

 

the method in his study of teachers and students in classrooms of the
University of Chicago Laboratory School, (4) Louis M. Smith's (1972)
work described in The Complexities of an Urban Classroom employed the
techniques of participant-observer, and (5) Philip Cusick's Ipsidg_
fligh School: The Student's World (1973) where he reports his findings
after using the research methodology of participant observation.

The definition that appears to most accurately describe the

method as employed by these and other similar leaders is that

34

participant observation is a mode of inquiry that focuses on data
collection through " . . . conscious and systematic sharing, in so far
as circumstances permit, in the life-activities and, on occasion, in
the interests and affects of a group of persons . . . [Kluckholm,
1940, p. 331]." The method of participant observation appears to be
most apprOpriately applied, as Biddle (1964) describes in "The

Integration of Teacher Effectiveness Research," Contemporary Research

 

on Teacher Effectiveness. He states:
. . . participant observation is best used when one is totally
unfamiliar with the situation and when one wants an overview
in order to develop hypotheses [p. 23],

The participant observer method, therefore, appears to be
especially appropriate for the new deve10pmenta1 efforts being engaged
in by developers of competency/performance-based prOgrams.

Variations in Field Roles, Suggested
Procedures, and Reldted Problems

This Subsection of the review of literature pursuant to
participant observation investigations discusses the various field
roles, related problems, and suggested procedures for dealing with the
various roles and problems.

The term, "participant observation," covers several kinds of
research activity. However, Blalock (1970) suggests that:

The basic prerequisite of all participant observation . . .
is that the social scientist must gain the confidence of
the persons being studied . . . [p. 41].

While Becker and Geer (1960) agree that, "there is little agreement

oTithe Specific referent of the term 'participant observation,'" they

35

do suggest Gold's classification of the various procedures as a useful

source. Gold (1958) explains:

The

While a field worker cannot be all things to all men, be
routinely tries to fit himself into as many roles as he can,
so long as playing them helps him to develop relationships
with informants in his master role (i.e., participant-as-
observer) [p. 219].

four roles as defined by Gold (1958) are:

Complete Participant:

e true identity and purpose of the complete participant
in field research are not known to those whom he observes.
He interacts with them as naturally as possible in whatever
areas of their living interest him and are accessible to him
as situations in which he can play, or learn to play,
requisite day-to-day roles successfully. He may . . . work
in a factory to learn about inner-workings of informal groups.
After gaining acceptance at least as a novice, he may be
permitted to share not only in work activities and attitudes
but also in the intimate life of the workers outside the
factory.

Role-pretense is'a basic theme in these activities. It
matters little . . . or whether he has an upper-middle class
background quite divorced from factory work and the norms of
such workers. What really matters is that he knows that he
is pretending to be a colleague.

Participant-as-Observer:

AIthough deically similar to the complete observer role,
the participant-aS-Observer role differs significantly in that
both field worker and informant are aware that theirs is a
field relationship. This mutual awareness tends to minimize
problems of role-pretending; yet, the role carries with it
numerous opportunities for compartmentalizing mistakes and
dilemmas which typically bedevil the complete participant.
Observer-as-Participant:

:The Observer-as-participant role is used in studies
involving one-visit interviews. It calls for relatively
more formal observation than either informal observation or
participation of any kind. It also entails less risk of
"going native" than either the complete participant role
or the participant-aS-observer role. However, because the
observer-as-participant's contact with an informant is so
brief, and perhaps superficial, he is more likely than the
other two to misunderstand the informant, and to be mis-
understood by him.

 

 

 

 

Co lete Observer:
The complete observer role entirely removes a field worker
from social interaction with informants. Here a field worker

36

attempts to observe people in ways which make it unnecessary
for them to take him into account, for they do not know he

is observing them or that, in some sense, they are serving as
his informants. Of the four field work roles, this alone is
almost never the dominant one. It is sometimes used as one
of the subordinate roles employed to implement the dominant
ones [pp. 219-221].

Cusick (1973), agreeing that "under the heading of participant
observation are a number of variations," feels these are "best stated
by Lutz and Iannaccone who explained that

A researcher who undertakes a participant observation study may

assume one of three roles:

I. "The participant as an observer": In this case the
researcher has his group membership before he undertakes a
study and therefore his role as observer or researcher would
be unknown to his subjects.

2. "The observer as a limited participant": The observer would
join a group for the expressed purpose of studying it.

The members would, perhaps more than likely, know of the
researcher's intent in joining the group.

3. "The observer as a non-participant": That is, without
group memberships. Here the presence of the observer may
not even be known to the group and if it were known, he
would still be outside the group [p. 233].

Good (1963) says that an investigator may play any one of
several roles in the observation of social situations. He includes
the following four roles: (I) a visiting stranger, (2) an attentive
listener, (3) an eager learner, or (4) a more complete role as
participant-observer [p. 305].

The following examples seem to typify the extremes in partici-
pant involvement found among descriptions of the participant observer

role. Becker (1970) describes the extreme lack of participation when

 

he states " . . . the observer may not participate at all, as when he
hides behind a one-way screen in an experimental room." Holmberg's

description, on the other hand, of the investigator's role as an

37

interventionist, exemplifies the extreme for involved participation.

 

Holmberg (1960) states, "His job is to assist the community to deveIOp
itself and to study this process while it is taking place."

Depending on the research situation and the data desired, a
role for the participant observer is selected. Relative to the type
of role selected, two basic phiIOSOphies seem to exist concerning the
intent of the researcher. The philosophy ascribed to generally is
summed up by Powdermaker (1966). She states that, "The anthropologist
is primarily not interested in helping his informants, although he may
do so inadvertently." Holmberg (1960), on the other hand, contrasts
the perspective of the investigator who tries not to affect a situa-
tion when the subject of study is the process of research and
development. His viewpoint is expressed in the following:

In purely observational studies of the natural process of
change, it is generally assumed that the investigator stands
outside of the sociocultural process he is studying, that he
himself is not a part of it. In such approaches the investi-
gator is little concerned with the means or ends of a socio-
cultural process; he tries hard not to affect the situation;
he minimizes his influence as much as possible. In fact, he
aims for complete objectivity.

The same cannot be said, however, for the method of research
and development. Here, for the most part, just the Opposite
holds true. The investigator becomes a vital part of the
process he is studying; he defines and manipulates both means
and ends; he tries strategically and economically to influence
the situation. In fact, we might almost say that he aims
for completely "objective" subjectivity [p. 82].

Distinctive in Holmberg's comments about the participant
observation mode of inquiry, is the manner by which the researcher
gains knowledge. It is clear in reviewing the various points-of-view,
however, that consensus does not exist, and there is considerable

room for varied decision-making about the most appropriate degree of

involvement, as the researcher seeks to gather data.

38

Having decided on the extent to which he will participate,
the researcher next selects group roles in which to act, in order to
gain the perspective of the group to be studied. Blumer (1962) sayS:

To catch the process, the student must take the role of the
acting unit whose behavior he is studying. Since the inter-
pretation is being made by the acting unit in terms of objects
designated andappraised, meanings acquired, and decisions
made, the process has to be seen from the standpoint of the
acting unit . . . to catch the interpretive process by remaining
aloof as a so-called "objective" observer and refusing

to take the role of the acting unit is to risk the worst

kind of subjectivism--the objective observer is likely to

fill in the process of interpretation with his own surmises in
place of catching the process as it occurs in the experience
of the acting unit which uses it [p. 188].

Bruyn (1966) in The Human Perspective in Sociology: The
Methodologyof Participant Observation presents a number of axioms
which are interpretations of a field researcher's experience. The
axioms deal with the major issues and problems a field researcher
must face. A relevant one to be considered here is Axiom l:

Axiom l:

The participant observer shares in the life activities
and sentiments of people in face-to-face relationships.

Thus, we may observe at the outset that while the
traditional role of the scientist is that of a neutral
observer who remains unmoved, unchanged, and untouched in
his examination of phenomena, the role of the participant
observer regpires sharing the sentiments of people in
social sifuations;_as a conseqpence he himselfdid’Ehan ed
as well as chdh in to some degree thd'situatIOn invfihic
he is a participant. . . .

Researchers have noted that although they become changed
through their participation it is important that the change
not be total in character, that some part should remain un-
changed and detached. Therefore, even though they "share"
the experience, they are not entirely "of it." Herein lies
a second significant descriptive trait of the researcher's
role.

Corollary:

The role of the participant observer reguires both detach-

ment and personal involvement [pp. 13-14]. (Emphasis added.)

 

39

Bruyn (1966) cites Schwartz and Schwartz to describe the personal
involvement of the researcher who should be accepted and recognized
as part of the research process.

The issue is not whether he (participant observer) will become
emotionally involved, but rather the nature of the involve-
ment. The involvement, whether it is closer to one end of

the continuum (sympathetic identification) or the other end
(projective distortion), is very little a function of an
observer's role. Rather, it is primarily a function of his
experience, awareness, and personality constellation and the
way these become integrated with a particular situation. . .
Sympathetic identification includes empathic communication

and imaginative participation in the life of the Observed
through identification and role-taking. In this type of
involvement the observer is both detached and effectively
participating; he feels no need to moralize or judge the inter-
action; his attitude is one of interested curiosity and matter-
of-fact inquiry directed toward understanding the observed

[pp. 14-15].

Powdermaker (1966) in discussing communication, which is one
aspect of the participant observer's unique role, says:
A peculiar character of field work in anthropology and in
other social sciences is that the scientist has to communicate
with the objects studied and they with him and that he is part
of the studied situation [pp. 286-287].
Powdermaker also describes the following three conditions as necessary
for successful mutual communication: (1) physical proximity of the
field worker to the people he is studying, (2) knowledge of the
people's language, and (3) psychological involvement. She stresses
that language is only one of the necessary communication conditions.
Discussing verbal and non-verbal communication, Powdermaker explains:
The more subtle and often deeper levels are conveyed consciously
and unconsciously by nuances of behavior, such as the facial
expression, tone of voice, and gestures. The desire to com-
municate and an alertness or sensitivity (on both verbal and
non-verbal levels) to communication from others are part of the
process. . . . Some degree of personal involvement is essential

for successful non-verbal, and even for much of verbal, communica-
tion (the two can rarely be separated) [p. 289].

40

Concerning psychOIOgical involvement, Powdermaker explains:
. . . More difficult to explain, is the psychological involve-
ment which underlies communication. The problem includes the
field worker's self image of himself and of the situation,
which as Goffman has pointed out, any individual ”knowingly
and unwittingly projects" when he appears before others
[p. 289].
Related desirable personality characteristics are identified by
Powdermaker as "kindness, patience, good manners, and a fresh but not
innocent eye."

To the field worker, psychological mobility is important in
hierarchical situations. In these situations it is important for the
field worker to move easily between different levels in the power
Structure. An example of a problem that may occur is a field worker
identifying too closely with the underdog(s) or with a social status
higher than he maintains in his society. "In general," Powdermaker
(1966) concludes, "it is easier for the field worker to make effective
communication if he likes himself, if he expects others to like him,
if he can communicate easily and directly."

In contrast to Powdermaker and others, Holmberg (1960) feels
that the investigator's role, when the emphasis of study is a research
and/or development process, is to assist the community to develop
itself and to study the process while it is taking place. Holmberg
says of the investigator under these conditions:

He cannot "cure" the community as a surgeon cures a patient;
the community must perform the operation on itself. At first
. . . the investigator may have to intervene frequently and
boldly, but as problem-solving and decision-making skills

are developed the investigator intervenes less and less until

he works himself out of the role of intervener and into the
role of consultant and observer [p. 84].

41

The second axiom posed by Bruyn (1966) is also relevant to
this issue.

Axiom 2:

The participant observer is a normal part of the culture
and the life of the people under observation.

The role of the participant observer may take many
forms but in any case it is designed to be a normal part of
the life of the people being studied. . . . The type of role
which is taken is affected by the research desi n, the
framework ofdfhe culture to be studied and {he abilities of
parficular researchers to assume tasks whiEh can be accepted
as a natural part of a culturede. 15]. (Emphasis addedli

 

Bruyn also points out the importance of the participant
observer finding "a satisfactory way of entering the group to be
studied, developing and maintaining a role adequate to meet his
scientific needs, and terminating relationships. What the participant
observer actually does to fulfill the above requirements depends
entirely on the culture of the group to be studied."

TWO behaviors which Richardson (1960) asserts are important
for the field worker initially entering a group are as follows:

(1) structuring for the people the reason he is in the research area,
and (2) a picture of himself, who he is and what his background is.
Richardson also feels that knowledge of the customary stereotypes
attached to people new to the group will be helpful to the field
worker in structuring his role [p. 132].

In discussing the field worker's role and responsibilities in
gaining and maintaining cOOperation for a research project, Richardson
(1960) suggests the use of incentives. Following are examples of
incentives he suggests as potentially helpful in gaining acceptance of

a research project:

42

l. Altruism, or the opportunity to advance scientific
knowledge. This appears to be a powerful incentive.

2. Related to altruism is the prestige that may accrue from
cOOperating with a research project. .

3. Better understanding of misrepresented or unknown
institutions [p. 137].

Richardson also suggests that a field worker should alleviate the
participants' possible fears of becoming involved in too much work.

Once the field worker has gained entry into the group to be
studied, Richardson claims that the field worker should make use of
incentives to gain and maintain cooperation of the group. Examples
of incentives to gain and maintain cooperation suggested by
Richardson are as follows:

. . . In any community or organization it is valuable for the
field worker to know various objects which are particularly
valued by their owners. . . .

Perhaps the most important incentive one can offer is
friendliness, sincere appreciation, and conversation of a
nature that may be interesting and different from the kind
the informants generally carry on. Most people like to
talk about themselves to a sympathetic listener. . . .

. . . Willingness on part of the field worker to talk
freely about himself . . . appears to be a valuable
incentive. . . .

An important area of incentives appears to be the willing-
ness to do odd jobs for peOple . . . joining in and helping to
do a job, or offering specialized skills. . . . There is a
danger, however, that a field worker will become so busy
with these activities that they will seriously limit time
he needs for other research activities [p. 125].

Richardson warns that, unfortunately, the work incentive,

. . . has the connotation that these actions are all premeditated
and are being used only in order to get something in return.

If the way in which these incentives are offered is not
accompanied by genuineness and sincerity, it will probably
become immediately obvious to the people in the research

area [p. 139].

The corollary for Bruyn's (1966) axiom two is also worthy of

consideration:

43

Corollary:

e scientific role of the participant observer is inter-
dependent with his social role in the culture of the
observed [p. 18].

Concerning the interdependence of the scientific and social roles
Bruyn also notes:

In his scientific role the participant observer seeks to
apprehend, register, interpret, and conceptualize the social
facts and meanings which he finds in a prescribed area of
study. . . . He finds his social role an interdependent and
indispensable part of the scientific process.

This social interdependence . . . becomes a distinguishing
characteristic of the role of the participant observer, causing
many problems and nonscientific repercussions in terms of
confidences, commitments, and other personal involvements which
penetrate the life of the field worker. The participant
observer assumes he can make these commitments and become
involved without ignoring scientific standards or the interests
of the people he is studying.

The researcher may even take into consideration the interests
of his subjects in formulating his hypotheses and designing his
study . . . [pp. 18-19].

Bruyn believes that the participant observer must not only
be aware of the interdependence of the scientific and social roles,
but also must assume that because of the interdependence, one role
makes the other possible. Due to the interdependence of the roles,
problems related to scientific and ethical integrity may arise. The
field worker faces " . . . problems both of how to become a natural
part of the life of the observed; and thereafter, how to maintain
scientific integrity while affectively involved in research."

Bruyn further states:
If scientific integrity is maintained, there may be problems
of ethical integrity in terms of personal obligations and
commitments which deveIOp in the process of research [p. 19].

Another contribution to the discussion of the participant

observer's role is made by Webb (1966) and associates who point out

44

that "a central assumption of participant observation is that the
investigator shares as intimately as possible in the life and
activities of those he is studying." They clarify the above point
by stating that " . . . the investigator may not actually 'live in'
with his subjects, but he does partake in as many . . . activities as
possible [p. 187]."
Participant observation, according to Kluckholm (1940) calls
for a "conscious and systematic sharing.” Therefore, she states,
" . . . the investigator must survey his field for roles in the
playing of which he will be regarded as a participant, he must
analyze these roles for the data and insights they afford, and he
must examine them for the biases inherent in them [p. 331]."
Kluckholm, feeling that "the quest for the roles . . . is
the key to the use of this technique," describes " . . . a distinction
between roles which are general and specific in character." A general
role is defined as " . . . that role which one plays without reference
to any particular person." She explains that the general role
" . . . is played in relation to various persons, and, although it
becomes a part of the specific relationship with each of these per-
sons, it is general in terms of all of them." The Specific role is
defined as " . . . that which one plays in relation to a definite
person." To help clarify the distinction, Kluckholm, uses the follow-
ing example. "The role of the married woman of the upper class is,
for example, a general role; the role of a wife is specific [p. 332]."
Related to how the participant observer plays out his various

roles is a problem identified by Miller, in "The Participant Observer

 

45

and 'Over-Rapport.'" To help the investigator in protecting himself
from developing impeding "over-rapport," Miller (1952) suggests that
the researcher ask himself, "At what point does closeness to subjects
limit the research role?" While in the research situation Miller
asserts that the researcher should keep this question in mind and try
to make clear that he is interested in a number of people in the
particular situation, and that his research activities are his prime
reasons for being present. Concerning relationships between the
researcher and participants, Miller says:

In some cases, he must resolutely decide to prevent relationships
from becoming more personal than is desirable for the development
of insight and the maintenance of rapport.

For the participant observer, the problem is not merely
that of developing rapport; the question rather is what kind
and quality of rapport are desirable [p. 99].

Finally, relative to the discussion concerning the roles of
the participant observer, is the third axiom listed by Bruyn (1966):

Axiom 3:

The role of the participant observer reflects the social
process of living in society.

In a very real sense, the researcher participates in a social
process which has meaning for people in groups outside the
group he studies, since the processes of living in any society
are similar for peOple everywhere . . . The more the researcher
shows perception into the universality and relevance of the
culture in the particular group he studies, the more likely
his conclusions will have significance beyond the local setting
[p. 20].

Summagz

In summary, then, it can be said that depending upon the

research topic, the nature of the group to be studied and the

 

situation in which the ggoup is to be studied, the investigator for

a participant observation study determines the extent to which he will

 

46

participate in the activities of the group to be investigated (e.g.,
complete participant, etc.). While this initial choice of role may
change during the course of the investigation, procedures used for
entry into the group will be based, in part, on the above choice of
role. The researcher will select from group roles those roles in
which he wishes to participate.

The personality and ability of the researcher to establish
relationships appropriate to the participant observation method is
of utmost importance. Problems associated with the playing of roles
by an investigator range from lack of communication to over-rapport
and from not being accepted as a participant in the group to assimila-
tion. The most common procedures suggested for dealing with these

problems are of a preventative nature.

Participant Observation Methodolpgy_

This subsection is a review of literature pursuant to commonly
identified methodological problems in participant observation
studies.

Cusick (1973), in Inside High School: The Student's World,
discusses two standard objections to participant observation studies.
He identifies the first problem in terms of generalizability,

" . . . that participant observation studies, dealing with a limited
and perhaps unique sample, may be ungeneralizable." Cusick reSponds
to this problem by replying that:

. . . while an instance of social phenomena may be unique,

that need not prevent one from learning about and from it by
intelligent study. That is, one should not have to duplicate

47

or recreate the Battle of Saratoga to understand the lessons
therein. While a situation may be unique, human reaction to it
may be quite common. . . . Uniqueness, . . . lies in the social
setting and not in the human reaction, and a good description

of a social phenomenon, however unique, may be quite intelligible
to one who never participated [p. 231].

Cusick (1973) identifies the second standard objection to
participant observation studies, as having:

. . . to do with the absence of standardized tests of validity
and reliability. . . . As one lives close to a situation, his
description and explanation of it have a first-person quality
which other methodOIOgies lack. As he continues to live close
to and moves deeper into that situation his perceptions have

a validity that is simply unapproachable by any so-called
standardized method. Likewise, as his validity becomes better,
so his reliability, which is an extension of his validity,
becomes better. As the researcher is the actual instrument,
as he becomes more aware, more valid, so he must of necessity
become more reliable [p. 232].

In "Some Methodological Problems of Field Studies,"

Zelditch (1962) acknowledges:

. . . the Spirited controversy between on the one hand those
who have sharply criticized field workers for slipshod sampling,
for failing to document assertions quantitatively, and for
apparently accepting impressionistic accounts--or accounts

that the quantitatively minded could not distinguish from
purely impressionistic accounts; and, on the other hand, those
who have, sometimes bitterly, been opposed to numbers, to
samples, to questionnaires, often on the ground that they
destroy the field workers conception of social system as an
organic whole [p. 566].

However, he goes on to indicate, " . . . there is reason to believe

that the issue itself has been stated falsely." Further, he suggests
that "A more fruitful approach to the issue must certainly recognize
that a field study is not a single method gathering a single kind of
information." As he suggests, the crucial question for this approach

is "What kinds of methods and what kind of information are relevant?"

 

48

This writer agrees with Zelditch that various methods should
be used. Therefore, in this study the researcher has used within
the participant observation context, survey techniques, interviewing
techniques, and observation-recording techniques. As Zelditch
recommends, the researcher has used these different methods " .
as analytically different aspects of the same study."

Another "problem" frequently discussed related to participant
observation centers around the questions of validity and reliability.
When discussing validity and reliability of the participant observa-
tion approach, Bruyn (1966) emphasizes the following: "In some ways,
the participant-observer approach has already been demonstrated to be
more reliable than other formal empirical methods. . . ." He adds:

. . . the workability of the method under varying conditions
must be tested, and its ability to contribute practical
knowledge which connects with the traditional empirical and
theoretical approaches to knowledge must be examined. . . .

the reliability of the procedures and conclusions of particular
researchers must be tested over the years [p. 180].

In contrast to Cusick, who does not feel every investigation
must be repeated, Bruyn (1966) perceives that "if a piece of research
cannot be repeated there is no basis for considering a study valid
or reliable or, consequently, scientific."

Bruyn suggests that an investigator involved in participant
observation study Homans' six indices of subjective adequacy. Of
Homans' indices, Cusick (1973) also says, "to produce a worthwhile
study a researcher should endeavor to tailor his work to the six
indices of subjective adequacy stated by Homans." The six indices
as stated by Homans in Cusick's and Bruyn's (1966) work are as

follows:

49

1. Time: The more time an individual spends with a group,
the more likely it is that he will obtain an accurate
interpretation of the social meanings its members live by.

2. Place: The closer the observer works geographically to
the people he studies, the more accurate should be his
interpretations.

3. Circumstance: The more varied the status opportunities
within which the observer can relate to his subjects, and
the more varied the activities he witnesses, the more likely
the observer's interpretations will be true.

4. Language: The more familiar the observer is with the
language of his subjects, the more accurate Should be his
interpretations.

S. Intimacy: The greater the degree of intimacy the observer
achieves with his subjects, the more accurate his
interpretations.

6. Consensus: The more the observer confirms the expressive
meanings of the community, either directly or indirectly,

the more accurate will be his interpretations of them
[p. 183].

While Bruyn (1966) points out that objective adequacy is also
involved when the six indices of subjective adequacy are met, he goes
on to say: "objectivity may be studied as part of both the character
of knowledge and the conscious experience of the observer." Basically,
Bruyn examines Objectivity of knowledge in two ways: "(1) in terms
of the relationships the observer draws between his subjective data
and other forms of scientific knowledge, and (2) in terms of the
relationships the observer draws to the larger contexts of his
subject [p. 219]."

Objectivity of consciousness is examined by Bruyn, " . . . in
terms of the degree to which the observer remains open to viewpoints
other than those he is involved in studying, and thus avoids becoming
over involved in the context of his work." One of the guidelines
suggested by Bruyn for maintaining objectivity of consciousness is

to monitor " . . . the degree of distortion that appears in the

SO

record of his observations." This suggests that the participant-
observer continuously check the agreement afforded by other partici-
pants of the observations he records.

While indicating that a researcher who undertakes a partici-
pant observation study, with the six indices in mind, would have some
assurance that his findings would reach an acceptable degree of
validity, Cusick (1973) asserts: "the real proof, however, is in
the presentation of the data." He says that:

1) it is especially important to avoid over-inferring, 2) the
writer must allow the reader to draw his own conslusions, and
3) the data is presented in as realistic and complete a manner
as possible.

If as others who are engaged in Similar Situations upon
reading the data agree that "that is the way it is," so the
researcher's findings demonstrate a higher degree of
validity [p. 233].

In discussing participant observation reports, Good and
Scates (1954) indicate that it is important that:

The work was done in the spirit of research. The report is
not presented as being something more than it is--it is
offered as a starting point for further thought, not as the.
answer to all problems [p. 271].

Good and Scates, offer the following guide as generalized
characteristics of non-quantitative research:

1. The research report usually has a distinctive form, with
definite attention to describing the methodology, the
sources, the population, the trait being studied, and
other appropriate methodOIOgical or technical details.

2. Presumably original observations are taken.

3. Each step in the work proceeds with meticulous care and
with due consideration fer the large plan and purpose of
the work. The data are verified and evaluated.

4. The data are resolved, or organized into certain more
general terms, and are sometimes related to a single, over-all
thesis. Certainly the data will be summarized in some

51

form or other, as systematic as possible. What is done with
the data is a definite part of the contribution of the

study.

5. The background, sensitivity, and general competence of the
investigator as well as the Spirit with which he works, are
vital elements [p. 271].

This researcher has attempted to follow these guidelines
whenever possible. Some deviations may occur, but as Good and Scates
(1954) report:

Whether a study must have more or less than the qualities in this
list probably no definite rule can be stated. These qualities

vary in degree; various types of research have their own
criteria . . . [p. 271].

CHAPTER III

PROCEDURES AND METHODOLOGY

Introduction

 

This investigation iS_a description of the activities (prob-
lems and procedures) and learnings (tentative solutions and recom-
mendations) of a mathematics competency development team at Michigan
State University. The study represents an effort to provide needed
descriptive data relative to how educators might proceed in a colla-
borative manner to establish a competenCy-based program. Due to the
lack of information relative to how educators have proceeded in the
past or should proceed in the future with the development of
competency-based programs, participant observation was selected as
the appropriate method of investigation.

Chapter III will describe the procedures and methodology used
to carry out this investigation. The description is divided into
three major sections: (1) Procedures utilized to establish and main-
tain a constructive participant-observer role, (2) Activities under-
taken to fulfill the participant role of a developmental team member

and (3) Methods Of data collection.

52

53

Procedures Utilized to Establish and Maintain a
Constructive Participant-Observer Rdle

This section describes the major steps taken to assure a co-
operative and productive enactment of the participant-observer role.
It includes a description of (1) the steps taken for acquiring per-
mission to carry out the study, (2) the researcher's entry into the
group, (3) the procedures for establishing rapport with team members,
(4) steps taken to maintain cooperation of the participants, and
(5) steps taken to reduce the probability of potential problems

arising due to the graduate student status of the researcher.

Permission to Carry Out Study

This researcher sought permission to carry out this investi-
gation from two of the three MSU professors who were involved in the
initiation of a competency development team in mathematics. The con-
ception of the mathematics competency development team was an out-
growth of the MSU experimental teacher training programs for which
these two professors acted as program directors. Prior to the initial
actions leading to the establishment of the competency team, these
two professors had established cooperative working relationships
with the individuals who were eventually asked to participate in the
first sessions to explore the possibilities of (l) establishing a
competency development team and (2) studying the deve10pmental process
as it occurred. Therefore, the professors' current roles as program
directors, their roles in providing leadership in furthering
competency-based development, and the nature of their previously

established relationships with potential participants enabled the two

54

professors to grant her permission to seek the cooperation necessary
to carry out the study from those attending the first exploratory
meetings.

In order to gain the cooperation of those individuals who
eventually comprised the mathematics competency team, this researcher
was in attendance at three exploratory discussion meetings. While
some of the individuals invited to attend the exploratory discussion
meetings attended all three sessions, others attended only one or
two sessions. Therefore, it was necessary for this researcher to
explain the purpose of and solicit the cOOperation for this investi-
gation at each of the three exploratory meetings.

It was also necessary to explain that there was a lack of
available information concerning establishment of a competency team.
This researcher explained that one way to gain this type of informa-
tion was through participant observation study. Specifically, they
were told that the purpose of this investigation, in which they could
be involved, was to provide descriptive information relative to the
composition of a competency team, the procedures used by that team,
and the outcomes of the team's developmental work. She forther
elaborated that a description of one team and the procedures actually
used by that team could be useful to others involved in the processes
of establishing similar deve10pmental teams in other areas. In
addition, this descriptive investigation would contribute to one
aspect of the exploratory stage of research in the area of performance/
competency-based teacher education. Finally, individuals involved in
the investigation would have available to them a description of the

process in which they were involved.

55

After this researcher explained the purpose of the study, she
asked those in attendance at each meeting to verbally express their
personal concerns or feelings relative to being a member of a com-
petency team involved in a participant observation study. No con-
cerns relative to participating in the study were expressed by indi-
viduals attending the exploratory meetings. All those individuals in
attendance at any of the three sessions consented to participate in
the study if there was an agreement to establish a competency team.

In summary, the steps followed by this researcher in gaining
permission to carry out this study were (a) contacting two of the
three professors involved in the initiation of a competency develop-
ment team, and receiving permission to contact and request perspective
team members' cooperation, (b) attending the three exploratory
sessions, (c) explaining the purpose of the project to individuals
attending the exploratory sessions, and (d) requesting feedback and
cooperation from those attending the meetings.

Researcher's Entry Into the Group
todhe’Sfudied

 

 

This subsection describes the procedures used by this investi-
gator to gain entry as a member of the competency team.

At the outset of the study, the establishment of a competency
team was to begin. By joining the team in the same manner as the
other members, it was felt that this researcher would more readily
be accepted in a participant team-member role.

During this researcher's graduate study, she had worked with

the professional Staff developing an undergraduate experimental

56

elementary teacher training prOgram at MSU. Through this experience,
all but two of the regular and resource team members had previously
become acquainted, to some extent, with her. Therefore, due to the
relationships that had been established no formal process of commu-
nicating background information about this researcher was used.

(See Appendix N for description of Researcher's Background.)

It was explained by the team's discussion leader that the
researcher's main purpose as a team member was that of an investigator
for a participant observation study. The discussion leader further
explained that as a member of the competency team she would act in
the role of a participant in the team's development work.

To enter the group to be studied, this investigator employed
two procedures: (1) becoming a member of the team in the same
manner as other selected participants and (2) providing for the team
an explanation that she would act as both a participant and a
researcher.

In summary, the specific procedures used by this investigator
to gain permission to both carry out the study and enter the group
as a participant were based on an assessment of the Specific needs,
for the situation as determined by the nature of the existing
relationship with the group to be studied.

Procedures for Establishing_
Rapport with Team Members

 

 

This section describes the procedures used by this researcher
to establish rapport and credibility between the various team

members and herself.

57

Rapport and credibility between the researcher and all but
three of the other thirteen regular and resource competency team
members had been established prior to the origination of the
competency team. This researcher was not acquainted with two of the
three individuals at the outset of the investigation.

Rapport was established with the two participants with whom
the researcher was not acquainted through the use of situations
naturally arising out of the team's developmental work. This was
accomplished with one individual by questioning and sharing perspec-
tives Of classroom teaching and pre-service teacher training. An
Opportunity to work with the other person on a deve10pment task pro-
vided an opportunity to communicate and eventually establish rapport.

It was this researcher's observation, which was verified
through elicited feedback, that there was a definite lack of rapport
in the existing relationship with the third team member. This re-
searcher acted Specifically to try to establish with the third
regular team member the identified non-existing rapport relationship.
This was done after the administration of the instruments used to
collect descriptive data relative to the composition of the team
(to be discussed later in Chapter III). This researcher became
aware that the team member was interested in mathematics games.
Since she was involved in helping undergraduate teacher education
students plan and teach mathematics lessons to elementary school
children, she was interested in learning more about different types
of mathematics games which could be used with children. On several

occasions, it was convenient to drop into the third team member's

58

officewhen he was observed to be working with mathematical games.
Acting in the role of an interested learner, the researcher sought
to establish a comfortable rapport.

In summary, this researcher had established rapport with
nine of the other thirteen team members prior to the outset of this
study. The procedure for establishing rapport with two individuals
was via communication during team meetings and subset deve10pmental
work sessions. The role in which she acted in order to establish

rapport with the third individual was that of an interested learner.

MaintainingCOOperation of Participants

This section describes the procedures used by this researcher
to maintain continuous cooperation during the course of this investi-
gation. The decisions relative to procedures selected by the
researcher to maintain participant COOperation were based on an
assessment of the environment and human factors comprising the
university culture in which this study occurred. A result of this
assessment was that insincere behavior on this researcher's part
would more than anything else contribute to the demise of the
relationships necessary for a participant observation study.

This researcher and the director of her dissertation felt
that one way to contribute to the maintenance of participant coopera-
tion was through careful selection of the participant Observer's
roles. Therefore, the participant observer's various roles were
selected on the basis of this researcher's ability to authentically

act in the role, the role's contribution to the research project

59

and the role's contribution to the competency team's development
tasks. (See the reference to Kluckholm, Gold and others in
Chapter II.)

In addition to careful selection of roles, this researcher
also made use of the work incentive idea as a technique for main-
taining cooperative relationships throughout the course of the
study. However, in using this technique, she was aware that the
other team members might identify her in a stereotype graduate
assistant role; i.e., clerical or "busy work" role. The awareness
of this problem allowed her, with the help of her graduate committee
chairman and the director of this dissertation, to avoid the
development of a role subservient to other team members. Therefore,
the following procedure was used by this researcher to decide
. whether or not to help with a given task.

At various times team members would inquire as to whether
this researcher had the interest or time to help with a given task.
This researcher's decisions to accept or decline a request for help
were based on the following: (a) estimated time available for doing
tasks, (b) estimated time needed to perform tasks, (c) deadline for
completion of tasks, (d) nature of the tasks and this researcher's
ability to complete the tasks, and (e) the possible effects assisting
with the task would have on the investigation. If, for one of the
above reasons, this researcher felt that she should not perform a
given task she would make suggestions or question the initiator of

the request as to alternative ways of accomplishing the task.

60

The researcher knew when the between-session developmental
work was requiring more than the usual amounts of a given team
member's time. On these occasions, this researcher tried to be
cognizant of tasks with which assistance could be provided. During
these times, she volunteered to help team members either in general
or with a specific task.

In summary, one procedure used was careful selection of roles
played by this researcher to maintain participant cooperation during
the course of this investigation. Another was careful selection of
tasks with which this researcher assisted various team members.
Graduate Student Research Prgjects
InvolvinggUniversity_Professors

The following section describes procedures used by this
investigator to prevent types of problems specifically related to a
graduate student research project which involves university pro-
fessors' participation.

It must be recognized that any investigator involved in a
participant observation study is susceptible to potential scientific
and ethical problems, as discussed in the review of literature
(e.g., over-rapport or over-identification with an underdog, a
particular social class, or level in a given hierarchy; pressure to
accept a particular participant's mental set; or lack of rapport).
The potential for "stronger-than-usual" pressures and controls may
exist when a graduate student is the investigator in a participant
observation study and the study's population includes faculty members

with whom the student studies.

61

This researcher was aware that potential problems related to
a participant observation investigation involving the study of
personnel at the university in which She was enrolled could arise.
In the case of this study, three of the thirteen competency team
members were also involved in this researcher's graduate program as
committee members. In addition to being a committee member, one of
the three peOple also had the position of chairman of her graduate
committee. Another of the three individuals was the director of
this dissertation.

It was determined that various types of problems had the
potential fOr arising between or among this researcher and various
committee members, as well as between or among the various committee
members. It was decided that awareness of the types of problems
that might arise during the course of the investigation should be
considered. The graduate student researcher, for example, might
receive the brunt of political problems arising between her committee
members due to situations created by the research method. The
research method and situation required that this graduate student
work closely over a long period of time with three of her committee
members. Due to the researcher's close working relationships with
three committee members, the other two committee members might
react in a negative manner toward one or more of the committee
members involved in the investigation. The establishment of social
and professional relationships between the researcher-graduate
student and committee members involved in a participant observation

study might lead to social and professional problems. For example,

62

strong social and/or professional relationships might lead to a
reduction in the autonomy of the researcher-graduate student. An
incident could occur during the investigation which if reported would
show a faculty member in an unfavorable light. The graduate student
could be put under pressure not to report the incident as it
occurred.

During the early stages of this investigation, therefore,
this researcher discussed potential problems, of the types men-
tioned above, with the committee members involved as participants
in the study. Following consideration of the potential problems,
it was felt that on the basis of the previously established rela—
tionships, any problems which might arise could and would be Openly
discussed and resolved.

In summary, the procedures used in dealing with potential
problems related to this investigation, due to this researcher's
graduate student status were as follows: (1) awareness of the
possibility of problems arising, (2) discussion with the partici-
pants who might have been involved concerning types of problems,
and (3) agreement to openly discuss and seek resolution of the
problems should they arise.

Activities Undertaken to Fulfill the Participant
Role ofaDevelopmentalTeam Member

 

Due to the circumstances in which this investigation was
carried out, this researcher acted in the role of a participant-
as-observer. While this researcher interacted naturally with

members of the mathematics competency team, they were aware of the

63

investigative purposes of her presence. As described earlier, the
team members were informed that this investigator would function in
the role of a regular team member in addition to the role of
researcher.

The following describes the procedures used by this researcher
to fulfill her role as a regular team member. These procedures in-
clude participation in total team and subteam developmental meetings,
in clerical tasks and in acting as a liaison person.

At the third exploratory discussion meeting, at which time
the collected members decided to actually form a developmental team,
this researcher was asked to act in the role of recorder for the
team. This gave her the reSponsibility for keeping a record of con-
sensus decisions reached at each session. One team member stated
that since this researcher had to record the team's decisions for
her dissertation, she might also act as team recorder to eliminate
unnecessary duplication of effort. This researcher accepted this
responsibility as she felt the role would facilitate verification of
her research notes.

During the course of this study, this researcher was also
given the reSponsibility for between-session communication. Responsi-
bility for reminding team members of meetings and/or communicating
dates, times, and places of ensuing meetings to any team members who
were absent from previous sessions.

Another of the reSponsibilities, which this researcher
accepted as part of her role as a team member, generated from the

between-session developmental meetings. Due to this researcher's

64

participation in most of the sub-team developmental work She was
asked, when necessary, to act as liaison between sub-teams and
individuals. This researcher accepted the reSponsibility of liaison,
as it facilitated her involvement in the various sub-team sessions.

Working in the sub-teams, this researcher participated in the
development of hypothetical models ("strawmen") or "common stimuli"
to be used as discussion stimulants and "focusers." Examples of
these strawmen are the lists of pupil objectives and pupil assessment
instruments. (See Appendices A or I.) During sub-team developmental
sessions, this researcher, acting in the role of a team member, also
participated in the development of pre-service teacher evaluation
instruments for instruction and instructional design. Arranging for
typing, duplication, and dissemination of developed materials was
another responsibility given to this researcher functioning in the
role of a team member.

This researcher assumed the role of an interested and capable
learner during team meetings and sub-team work sessions. The tech-
nique used by this researcher in the learner role was that of ques-
tioning. Due to the abundance of the subjective opinion and sometimes
desultory nature of the topics discussed, statements made by team
members were frequently open to question. Because of the nature of
the deve10pment task assumed by the competency team, a more profound
rationale than just "That's what I think," or "Because God told me
so" was needed. Therefore, questioning was a useful and helpful
technique. On one occasion, this investigator asked during a meeting,

"Do all the questions I ask bother any of you?" The response was,

65

"No. If we can't explain these things satisfactorily to you, how
will we ever be able to explain them to a teacher or children?"

In summary, the procedures used by this researcher to fulfill
the role of a team member were participation in team and sub-team

developmental meetings and acting as clerical and liaison person.

Methods of Data Collection

 

This section describes the procedures and instruments used
for collecting data relative to the nature of the pOpulation (team
composition) and data relative to the nature of the developmental
processes that they actually employed (team transactions and outcomes).

Procedures Used to Obtain Information
Relative to the Team‘s Composition

 

 

The original population for this study consisted of nine
Michigan State University staff members and five graduate students,
including this researcher. Due to the unique nature of the situation
in which the group was to be studied, three instruments were developed
and administered for the Specific purpose of collecting descriptive
population data that might assist in the identification of relevant
variables for future studies. It would also enhance the possibilities
for replication (although "replication" in the strict sense is not
possible in this type of research). Not knowing what factors would
act as crucial variables in a university competency team, three areas
were chosen based on "hunches" about potentially relevant factors.

The three instruments that were developed and administered
related to these factors were (1) Instrument I--Biographical Data;

(2) Instrument II--Attitudes Toward Performance/Competency-Based

66

Teacher Education; and (3) Instrument III--A Semantic Differential
that assessed personal attitudes among team members. These are

included in Appendices B, C and D.

Permission to Administer Ipstruments

This section describes the procedures used by this researcher
to gain permission to administer the instruments. After the team
members had been selected and the team established in concept, the
members were asked if they would cooperate in responding to three
such instruments. The instruments were described to them and it was
explained that the purpose and need for administering the instruments
was to collect information which would describe the composition of
the team. In addition, the participants were asked to express how
they personally felt about reSponding to the three instruments.

The participants agreed to reSpond to them if the instruments
would not be reviewed or analyzed until the end of the research
project. At that time there appeared to be no necessary reason to
analyze the data before the end of the research project. One team
member expressed his concern that knowledge of the data might bias
this researcher's observations. Another team member did not want
other team members to have access to this information. It was
decided that if limiting factors appeared during the study due to
pgt_analyzing the instruments, participants would be asked to give
their permission based on the problems at that time. However, these
factors did not appear and the data from the three instruments was
only analyzed at the end of the study to describe the composition

of the competency team and to verify this investigator's observations.

67

In summary, the procedures used to gain permission to ad-
minister the three instruments were (a) explanation of purpose,
(b) request for participants to respond, (c) feedback elicited on
their feelings and Opinions, and (d) agreement not to analyze informa-
tion until the end of the study.

Description of Instrument I--
Biogggphical Data

 

 

The biographical information requested from each participant
included age, education, university rank, departmental association(s),
university responsibilities, memberships in professional organiza-
tions, experience in elementary and secondary school teaching, and
other educational related experiences.

The above eight areas were expanded to include ten major
questions plus requests for additional detailed information pursuant
to the major tOpics (see Instrument I in Appendix B).

It was determined that part of the biographical data being
sought was available to this researcher from the college personnel
files. The decision was made that this researcher would collect and
record on each participant's form any data available. It was felt
that the participants would especially appreciate a demonstrated
effort not to ask them to do busy work for the research project, since
they were already committing an abundance of "overload" work with the

developmental tasks.

68

Description of Instrument II--Feelings
Related to Competency7Performance-
Based Teacher Education

 

 

 

The second aspect for describing the competency team included
the participants' feelings related to performance/competency-based
teacher education.

This instrument provided information about the attitudes
toward perfOrmance/competency-based teacher education held by indi-
vidual members of the group to be studied at the outset of the project.
It was believed that the presence of positive, negative, or neutral
feelings about the competency-based notions would, in all likelihood,
effect the behavior of the group. Verification or lack of verifica-
tion of attitude as perceived by the participant observer would also
be possible.

The information gathered about participants' feelings toward
competency-based teacher education included various attitudes about
(1) concepts related to competency-based teacher education, (2) the
development of competency-based teacher education programs, and (3)
participation in the development and instruction of competency-based
teacher education programs. Instructions for participant use and a
Likert-type scale were developed for purposes of this study. The

instrument is included in Appendix C.

Instrument III--Semantic Differential
A semantic differential instrument was developed and used as
the third means of collecting descriptive information about the team.

'The semantic differential instrument employs language usage as a

69

tool to analyze an individual's attitude toward himself and others.
What the attitudes were and how these attitudes would affect the
process to be studied was not known at the outset of the study. The
semantic differential is ppt_a test having a definite set of items and
a specific score. The semantic differential is described by Osgood

et al. (1957) as a "highly generalizable technique of measurement
which must be adapted to fit the requirements of the research problem
to which it is applied [p.-76]."

The content of the semantic differential is composed of a
series of concepts or stimuli and a series of scales. The stimuli for
this study were identified as the names of each participant. Based
on Osgood's previous research, 25 scales (pairs of words) were selected
to represent three factors also identified by Osgood (1957). Osgood
et al. (1957) suggests that "about three scales" should be selected to
represent each factor (p. 78). Therefore, from the original 27 scales
used in the instrument which was administered, four scales for each
factor were selected for analysis.

The scales for the evaluative factor were unpleasant-pleasant,

bad-good, worthless-valuable, and unfair-fair; for the potency_factor,

 

gentle-violent, lenient-severe, weak-strong, and safe-dangerous; and
for the activity factor scales, slow-fast, labored-easy, passive-
active, and still-moving.

Because of the small number of respondents, it was not pos-
Sible to statistically verify the factor structure of responses as

recommended in new uses of the semantic differential (Stiggins, 1972;

70

Heise, 1969). Therefore, it was necessary to rely on factor structure,
based on prior research.

The mean score for each of the four scales of each factor was
computed. This resulted in a single person having three different
factor scores for each participant judging him. The mean factor
score for each participant was then computed. The mean factor scores
were then computed for the population classifications as follows:
Group I--Mathematics Content Representatives, Group II--Mathematics
Education Representatives, Group III--Applied Behavioral Science
Representatives and Group IV--Educational Research and Evaluation
Representatives.

The format used for the semantic differential was developed
by Osgood (1972). The technique for handling Semantic Differential
data with Opscan response sheets was developed by Stiggins (1972).
(See Appendix B.)

Description of Procedures for Distribution
and Return of Instruments

 

This section describes the packets and procedures used in
distributing and returning the packets.
Each of the 14 participants received a packet consisting of
the following five items:
1. A cover letter
2. Instrument I--Biographical Information and Directions
3. Instrument II--Feelings Toward Competency/Performance-

Based Teacher Education and Directions

71

4. Instrument III--Semantic Differential and Directions
5. A self-addressed envelope to be used to return the instruments.
The above items were placed in a brown envelope.

Distribution of the packets was carried out through the use
of the U.S. mail, university mail service and/or by this researcher
personally delivering packets to team members. The participants were
asked to reSpond to the three instruments and return the packet to
this researcher prior to the scheduled competency team meeting on
April 4, 1972.

Procedures Used to Obtain Descriptive
dtlnformation Relative to thdtTdém
Transactions and Outcomes

This section describes the procedures used by this researcher
to gather information pursuant to the developmental process. In
general, while involved in this investigation, this researcher used
the following five major approaches: (1) attendance and participation
in team meetings, (2) attendance and participation in sub-team
meetings, (3) informal interviewing, (4) formal interviewing, and
(5) observation and recording.

During the course of this investigation, three exploratory
discussion meetings and 21 regular team meetings were held. This
researcher attended all three of the exploratory sessions and all of
the regular team meetings. This researcher participated in 48 sub-
team developmental meetings where at least one other team member was
jpresent. On other occasions, this researcher worked on developmental

tasks for the competency team by herself.

72

Throughout the course of study, this researcher carried out
informal interviews with nine of the other thirteen regular and
resource team members. Additional information or verification of
Observations was the type of information sought by this researcher
at these times. Formal interviewing during the early stages of this
investigation was not carried on by this researcher but during the
latter Stages of the investigation she did formal interviewing to
obtain additional information and verification of observations.

Observations were recorded by this researcher following team
and sub-team meetings and interviews. Verification of this
researcher's notes was done through discussions at team meetings and
informal and formal interviews.

This researcher initially recorded, for each team meeting,
information relative to the following seven areas: (1) date of
meetings, (2) time spent on developmental tasks, (3) names of team
members present, (4) site of meetings, (5) purpose of meetings,

(6) transactions of meetings, and (7) outcomes of the meetings.

An effort was made to collect the above indicated information
for developmental work done by individuals working alone or in sub-
teams of the competency team when the investigator was not present.
Each team member was provided with a packet of cards (see Appendix
M) and asked to record the time factors, purpose and outcomes when
they worked alone or as a member of a sub-team. However, a recording
of the requested information was not done by any member of the team.
Subsequently, each member was asked to indicate the approximate time

factors, purpose, and outcomes of developmental work he had done

73

individually or as a member of a sub-team during the course of this
investigation. The data was received as provided from memory or from
personal calendars.

During the time in which the team held regular developmental
meetings, four sessions were audio taped. At the meeting where the
first audio taping occurred, various team members were observed
behaving in ways different from the ways they had been observed
acting during previous meetings. For example, one individual fre-
quently broke the flow of the team's discussion by referring to the
taping. Another team member began to refer in a joking manner that
his comments were being recorded. After the fourth session was
recorded, it was decided by this researcher and the director of the
dissertation that unless there was an obvious benefit from the audio
taped data, future sessions would not be recorded. The four recorded
sessions had lasted approximately four hours each, and the type of
additional information gained from reviewing the tapes did not appear
to this researcher to warrant the extensive time necessary for the
reviewing. The taping was thus discontinued, due to the fact that
it was laborious to analyze, did not appear to be very productive
and the recording of team meetings appeared to make some team
members uncomfortable .

Observation notes and materials collected during the period
of investigation were classified according to general procedures,
procedures Specific to a topic, decision rules, and developed

materials.

74

Verification of the team's consensus decisions occurred
through team discussion of synthesized rules, reaction to various
"strawmen" developed from consensus decisions and elicited feedback
from team members.

In summary, while involved in the investigation, this
researcher used five major approaches for collecting data on trans-
actions and outcomes. The five approaches were (1) attendance at
meetings, (2) attendance at sub-team meetings, (3) informal and
formal interviewing, (4) observation and (5) recording.

In reviewing the literature pertinent to competency-based
teacher education, one soon becomes aware of the apparent lack of
information concerning explicitly recommended procedures relative to
the selection, organization and/or training of faculty for new roles
as well as a lack of direction concerning actual development pro-
cedures, that might be employed. Numerous questions, like those
stated in this review of literature, remain to be answered. This
study represents an attempt to describe the manner in which one group
of professional educators went about seeking answers to these ques-

tions and solutions to some of the problems.

CHAPTER IV

RESULTS

Introduction

 

This chapter is divided into three major sections. The first

section describes the composition of the MSU mathematics competency

 

development team. The second section describes the initiation and

 

establishment process of the MSU mathematics competency development

 

team. Section three describes the tranSactions of the developmental
process and the outcomes.
Section 1: Description of the Composition of the
MSU Mathematics Competency Development Team

This section describe; the composition of the MSU mathematics
competency development team in terms of (a) biographical information,
(b) feelings toward the concept of performance/competency-based teacher
education programs, and (c) the attitude of team members toward them-
selves and other team members.

The MSU mathematics competency development team, formally
established on April 4, 1972, was composed of 14 members. The fellow-
ing chart identifies the clusters which denote the composition of the

teams. Representation on the team is from the areas of mathematics

75

76

basic content, mathematics education, applied behavioral science, and

research and evaluation.

Identification of Team Composition

 

 

 

 

 

by Cluster
Cluster Area Representing No. Members
A Mathematics 2
B Mathematics Education 6
C Applied Behavioral Science 2
D Education Evaluation and Research 4

 

Total 14

Instrument I: Biographical Information Form

The biographical information obtained from Instrument I,
Biographical Information Form, is summarized in Tables I, 2, and 3.
Thirteen of the 14 MSU competency development team members returned
completed biographical forms (see Appendix B for a copy of
Instrument I).

The team's composition in terms of age, educational experience,
and number of males and females is reported in Table 1. At the out-
set of the establishment of the competency team the mean age of the
team, to the nearest whole year, was 39 years with a range of 28 to 58
years. The highest degrees earned by the team members were earned at
eight different universities. The team reported attending 21 differ-
ent institutions while in pursuance of their higher education. At
the outset of the study, nine of the 14 individuals had completed

doctoral prOgrams while the remaining five held master's degrees and

77

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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a «anus

78

were currently enrolled in doctoral programs at Michigan State Uni-
versity. The MSU mathematics competency development team was com-
posed of four females and 10 males.

Table 2 describes the composition of the MSU mathematics
competency development team reported in terms of university rank,
primary department, discipline affiliation, and number of years
experience in university teaching.

Of the 14 team members of the competency team; 3 individuals
held the rank of full professor, 2 held the rank of associate pro-
‘fessors, and 1 held the rank of instructor. Two of the remaining 4
team members were doctoral fellows, 2 were graduate teaching
assistants.

The two individuals representing the area of mathematics con-
tent reported their primary departmental affiliation was with the
Department of Mathematics. The primary discipline affiliations were
reported by the above two people as mathematics and mathematics
education. One of the individuals held a dual appointment in the
Department of Elementary and Special Education.

Four individuals reported their primary department affiliation
as teacher education. Of those four people, two reported their
primary discipline as teacher education and the two remaining people
reported educational psychology as their primary discipline. The
Department of Elementary and Special Education was identified by
seven people as their primary department affiliation. Elementary
teacher education and mathematics education were identified by these

seven team members as their primary discipline affiliations.

79

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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umumsfiu am :oHuoEuoon kuumuo>wcb Hoowzaouwofim
some ucoanHo>oa maneuooEoo mowuoEocuoz 9m: ecu mo sewuwmoaeoo one we cowuowuomoo

N «Heme

80

All 14 members of the mathematics competency development team
reported previous university teaching experience. The number of years
of experience reported by the team ranged from 1 to 14 years with a
mean of 7.18 years university teaching experience.

The individual members of the competency team were asked to
indicate the university courses they had taught. It was found that
in some cases, courses other than those directly related to a
person's primary discipline were taught. For example, individuals
representing the area of mathematics education were involved in
teaching seminars in elementary teacher education, individualized
instruction, introduction to elementary teaching, and common elements
for elementary teachers. Four of the six representatives also had
had or were involved in supervision of student teachers and/or intern
teachers. In addition the two individuals representing the basic
content area of mathematics had both previously taught mathematics
methods courses for perspective elementary and secondary teachers.

Table 3 describes the MSU mathematics competency team in
terms of their reported kindergarten through twelfth grade teaching
experiences (K-IZ).

The three areas of mathematics education, applied behavioral
science, and research and evaluation each had representatives who
had taught in elementary, junior high and/or high schools. The
representatives of mathematics content reported having taught at
junior high and high school levels.

The average number of years of K-12 teaching experience

reported by the mathematics content representatives was 8 years. Of

81

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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82

the two members representing mathematics content, one reported 4 years
of teaching experience and the other person reported 12 years teaching
experience. Mathematics education people reported an average of

5.6 years of K-12 teaching experience with a range of from 4 to 10
years. The two applied behavioral science representatives reported

an average of 7.5 years teaching experience. One member reported
teaching 7 years and the other member reported 8 years of teaching
experience. The evaluation and research representative reported an
average of 1.63 years of K-12 teaching experience with a range of from
O to 3 years.

The range for K-12 teaching experience as reported by the
entire team was from 0 to 12 years teaching experience with a mean of
5.68 years.

The two mathematics content representatives reported that
their last K-lZ experience occurred 11 and 21 years prior to the
establiShment of the competency team. Mathematics education repre-
sentatives reported a range of from 2 to 12 years with an average of
5.40 years since their last public school experience. The two repre-
sentatives for the area of applied behavioral science reported their
last public school experience had occurred 1 and 12 years prior to
the beginning of the study. Research and evaluation representatives
reported a range of from 3 to 14 years with a mean of 3.67 years sinCe
their last K-lZ experience.

At the outset of the establishment of the competency team,

the number of years since the team's last K-lz experience ranged

83

from 1 to 21 years with a mean of 7.75 years since their last K-12
experience.

Members representing the areas of mathematics education and
applied behavioral science reported having had experience in super-
vision of student teachers and/or intern teachers.

The 14 MSU mathematics competency development team members
reported holding memberships in the following associations:

1. American Association for the Advancement of Science
2. American Association of Teacher Educators

3. American Council on Measurement in Education

4. American Education Research Association

'5. American Psychological Association

6. American Teachers of Mathematics

7. Association for Supervision and Curriculum Deve10pment
8. Association of Teacher Educators

9. Detroit Area Council of Teachers of Mathematics

10. International Reading Association

11. Kappa Delta Phi

12. Mathematical Association of America

13. Michigan Council for Teachers of Mathematics
14. Michigan Education Association

15. National Council for Teachers of Mathematics

16. National Education Association

17. Phi Delta Kappa

18. Phi Kappa Phi

84

Instrument II: Attitudes and Feelings Related to
the Concept of Performance/Competency-Based"
Teather Edhcatibn

 

The results of the survey on the attitudes and feelings of the
team members relative to the concept of competency-based teacher
education appear in Table 4. (See Appendix C for a copy of
Instrument II.) Thirteen of the 14 competency team members returned
Instrument II.

Respondents were asked to respond to each of 29 items on the
following 7-point scale: l--strongly disagree, 2--disagree, 3--
slightly disagree, 4--undecided, S--slightly agree, 6--agree, and
7--Strongly agree. The items were scored in the following manner:
the scores on each of the 29 items were added to obtain a total score
ranging from a minimum of 29 points to a maximum of 181. One hundred
and sixteen would denote a neutral attitude. The mean and standard
deviation (8.0.) for each item was reported.

The mean and 3.0. for each of the 29 items were also reported
by the fOllowing subsets: (a) Cluster A--Mathematics Basic Content
Representatives, (b) Cluster B--Mathematics Education Representatives,
(c) Cluster C--Applied Behavioral Science Representatives, and
(d) Cluster D--Research and Evaluation Representatives.

The MSU mathematics competency deve10pment team members

tended to strongly agpee with the following items: (Numbers corres-

 

pond to items on Instrument II.)
2. I feel it is important that Competency-Based Criteria

Teacher Education Programs be developed.

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16.

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89

I feel I can contribute to the development of a Competency-
Based Teacher Education Program.

I think competency criteria for Professional Teaching Behaviors
should be identified.

I think Professional Teaching Behaviors should be identified
by teams of University faculty.

I think Professional Teaching Behaviors should be identified
by University teams composed of personnel from various
University Departments.

I think Professional Teaching Behaviors Should be identified
by University teams composed of personnel from content related
Departments, Teacher Education, and public school teachers.

I feel I can contribute to the identification of Professional

Teaching Behaviors related to my content area.

a I think that once Professional Teaching Behaviors have been

identified, it will be possible for evaluation instruments

to be developed.

I feel it is important for Teacher Education faculty to model
teaching behaviors they wish students to use.

I am interested in learning more about the development of
Competency-Based Teacher Education Programs.

I think Teacher Education faculties at other Universities can
benefit from knowledge about the development of a Competency-

Based Criteria Teacher Education program at MSU.

members

1.

12.

l4.

17.

19.

20.

90

Following are the items with which the competency team
tended to agree;

I feel I understand the concept of Competency-Based Criteria
Teacher Education Programs.

I think competency criteria for Professional Teaching
Behaviors can be identified.

I think competency criteria for Professional Teaching
Behaviors which cross content areas can be identified.

I think competency criteria for Professional Teaching
Behaviors related to specific content areas can be
identified (e.g., mathematics, reading).

I think Professional Teaching Behaviors can be identified

by teams of University faculty.

I think Professional Teaching Behaviors can be identified by
University teams composed of personnel from various University
Departments (e.g., English, education, math.).

I think Professional Teaching Behaviors can be identified by
University teams composed of personnel from content related
Departments, Teacher Education, and public school teachers.
I am willing to contribute time to identify the Professional
Teaching Behaviors related to my content area.

I would use information about the actual teaching behaviors
of my students.

I would use information about the actual teaching behaviors
of my students as part of their evaluation for my class, if

they had a concurrent teaching experience.

21.

22.

23.

25.

28.

91

I would use information about the actual teaching behaviors

of my students as part of the evaluation I make of my course.
I feel I understand the concepts of Assessment, Goal Setting,
Objectives, Strategies, and Evaluation, which are currently
being taught to MSU Teacher Education students.

I think teacher education students learn teaching behaviors
through the example (model) I present as I teach them.

I think I model the teaching behaviors I want my students to
use when they are teaching.

I plan to incorporate competency-based instruction in planning

courses I teach in the future.

The following item is the one with which the competency team

members tended to slightly agree.

29.

I am now using competency-based instruction in planning for

the courses I teach.

Team members tended to be undecided about item 10,

10.

I think Professional Teaching Behaviors (related to math,
reading) can be best identified by University teams composed

of personnel specializing in the same content area.

and tended to disagree with item 11.

11.

I think Professional Teaching Behaviors can be identified

by University teams composed of personnel from one Department.

92

Instrument III: Semantic Differential

 

The MSU mathematics competency team members responding to
and returning the semantic differential instrument numbered 13 out
of a possible 14 respondents. (See Appendix D for a copy of the
Semantic Differential Instrument.)

The mean score for each of the four scales of each factor
(evaluative, potency, and activity) was computed. This resulted in
each of the 14 participants having three different factor scores for
each participant judging them. The mean factor score for each
participant was then computed. The mean factor scores were then
computed for each of the four clusters; Mathematics Content, Mathe-
matics Education, Applied Behavioral Science and Research and
Evaluation.

Table 5 describes how each of the clusters composing the
mathematics competency team viewed all other team members for each
of the three factors (E = Evaluative, P = Potency, and A = Activity
factors).

In general, for the evaluative factor each cluster viewed
all the other clusters as being more good, valuable, fair and
pleasant than unpleasant, bad, worthless, and unfair.

For the potency factor each cluster viewed all other clusters
as being more gentle, lenient, weak, and safe than they did violent,
severe, strong and dangerous.

All other team members were viewed on the activity factor
by each cluster as being more easy, fast, active and moving than

they were slow, labored, passive and still.

93

Table 5

Cluster Views of Others

 

 

 

 

 

Evaluative Potency Activity ‘:
Mathematics (Content) 5.23 3.83 4.75
Mathematics Educ. 5.07 3.77 4.77 7.
Applied Beh. Sci. 5.43 3.79 4.91
Res. and Eval. 5.10 3.67 4.44

 

 

 

 

MEAN SCORES ON HOW EACH CLUSTER VIEWED THE OTHER THREE
CLUSTERS FOR EACH FACTOR OF THE SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL

INSTRUMENT

(Note: A scale of 1 to 7 is used on the Semantic Differential
Instrument with 4 a neutral score.)

94

Table 6 describes how each cluster was viewed by all other

 

team members. Each cluster was viewed by all others as being more

 

active than inactive, more impotent than potent, and scoring closer
to the positive end of the evaluative scale.

Table 7 describes how each cluster viewed each one of the

 

23235 clusters. Each cluster viewed each other cluster as being
more pleasant, good, valuable, fair, gentle, lenient, weak, safe,
fast, easy, active, and moving than unpleasant, bad, worthless,
unfair, violent, severe, strong, dangerous, slow, labored, passive
and still.

Table 8 describes how each cluster composing the MSU mathe-

matics competency team viewed itself on the evaluative, potency and

 

activity factors. Each cluster of representatives viewed itself as
more good, valuable, fair, gentle, lenient, weak, safe, fast, easy,
active and moving than unpleasant, bad, worthless, unfair, violent,
severe, strong, dangerous, slow, labored, passive and still.

Section II: Initiation and Establishment of the
MSU Mathematics Competency Development Team

This section is organized into two subsections. The first
section describes the series of events that appeared to facilitate
the evaluation of the competency team. The second section describes
the procedures used to establish the competency team.

Decision to Try to Establish Mathematics
Competency Developmental Team

 

This sub-section describes the circumstances and events that

appeared to contribute to the establishment of an MSU mathematics

competency developmental team.

95

Table 6

Clusters as Viewed by Others

 

 

 

 

Factor Math Math App. Res. and
luster Content Educ. Beh. Sci. Eval.“
Evaluative 5.30 5.04 5.93 5.40
Potency 3.51 3.79 3.71 3.59
Activity 4.74 4.59 5.42 4.6]

 

 

 

 

 

MEAN SCORES ON HOW EACH CLUSTER WAS VIEWED BY THE OTHER

 

THREE CLUSTERS FOR EACH FACTOR ON THE SEMANTIC

DIFFERENTIAL INSTRUMENT

96

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98

During January and February of 1972, a series of six dis-
cussion meetings were held, relating to evaluation issues in
competency-based teacher education. Three MSU faculty members (one
from the area of applied behavioral science, one from the area of
research and evaluation, and one frome mathematics education) and
two doctoral students (one from applied behavioral science and one
from research and evaluation) attended. The purpose of these
meetings was to discuss and explore the various research and evalua-
tion needs related to MSU's Experimental Competency/Performance-
Based Teacher Education program efforts.

The first discussions of the committee centered around the

evaluation questions related to the product criteria issue central

 

to the CBTE developmental work being undertaken in elementary
teacher education. The discussions dealt with the development of
studies dealing with residual gain scores of elementary school
children. The results of such studies could prove instrumental in
the evaluation of the pre-service teachers' related methods courses.
As a result of these discussions the members of the committee agreed
that a prior need was a systematic identification of professional
teaching behaviors. The reason for this being that if significant
gains (or losses) in the learning of elementary school children was
observed, and we did not document the teacher behaviors that trans-
pired at the time the learning was taking place, we could not tell
if our prescriptions for teachers were valid. The identification of
explicit and desired teaching behaviors was needed so that they

could be systematically taught to teacher education students, so

99

that teacher educators could develOp reliable instruments which could
in turn be used to test the validity of the identified "professional"
teaching behaviors. That is to say, only a£333_the identification of
behaviors and the development and testing of related instruments,

could pupil growth be studied in relationship to the specific

 

teaching behaviors.

After much discussion, the committee was able to reach con-
sensus on three major focal points. 53323) that if one was to even-
tually evaluate teacher behaviors in light of student gain scores,

then there had to be gains in something Specific. Therefore, the

 

systematic identification of professional teaching behaviors should

 

be content specific rather than generic in nature. The second point
of agreement was that the hypothesized "most appropriate" way to
identify content specific professional teaching behaviors was through
the gzggnization of university staff members into "competency"

development teams. And third, the individuals agreed that ideally a

 

competency developmental team should be composed of individuals from

 

a subject matter's discipline, applied behavioral scienceJ and
research and evaluation. The preceding three points of agreement
provided the direction for future actions taken by members of the
research discussion committee.

The first step taken by the committee involved identifying a
group of people willing to volunteer their academic expertise and
time. TwO of the discussion group's members had been working with
the MSU Elementary Teacher Education TTT (Training Teachers of

Teachers) project in Mathematics Instructional Development. They

100

suggested that individuals who would be willing to explore the idea
of establishing a competency developmental team could be identified
in the MSU Department of Mathematics. Therefore, it was decided
that the first effort to form a competency team would be made in the
area of mathematics. An effort would be made to include in the
competency developmental team representatives from the areas of
mathematics content, mathematics education, applied behavioral
science, and research and evaluation.

It was decided that one of the committee members would
contact the selected individuals. The individuals would be asked
if they would be interested in attending a meeting for the purpose
of exploring the feasibility of forming an elementary mathematics
competency development team.

Six individuals, two people from the Department of Mathe-
matics, two representing mathematics education and two people who
worked in the area of teacher preparation, were contacted. (Three
of the above were members of the research discussion group.)

There was a general feeling of agreement among the research
discussion members that if individuals from the area of mathematics
were not interested in discussion or establishment of a competency
team, then individuals from another content area would be identified
and contacted.

Establishment and Initial 0r anization Procedures
_—Related to Mathematics ompetencyjlfieam
This section describes the initial meetings with individuals

who indicated an interest in establishing a mathematics competency

101

development team. It also describes the selection of regular team
members and resource personnel, and the initial organizational pro-
cedures and decisions of the mathematics competency team.

The initial meeting for the purpose of exploring the possi-
bility of establishing a competency team was held in the evening of
March 2, 1972, at the home of one of the potential team members. The
six individuals representing the areas of mathematics content, mathe-
matics education, and applied behavioral science attended.

There were three questions posed at this initial meeting.
These were derived from the earlier research discussion sessions and
were posed by the professor representing the area of applied behavioral
science. They were:

1. Is there a desire/willingness among individuals present to
explore the idea of forming a mathematics competency deve10p-
ment team? (The fact that there were no funds available fbr
compensation was communicated to the group.)

2. Is it possible to identify specific "Professional Teaching
Behaviors" related to the teaching of mathematics?

3. What are teaching behaviors which mathematics personnel
currently value?

The group decided to begin their discussion with the questions
of preferred mathematics related teacher behaviors. Individually,
they felt that they did not have enough infbrmation to begin dis-
cussion with either of the other two questions.

Each participant's agreement with the following summary of

the discussion related to teacher behaviors was determined by

102

questioning participants at the end of the discussion. Participants

indicated (at the time) that they agreed with the following statements

concerning mathematics related teacher behaviors:

A.

Teachers should be able to answer the following two questions:

 

1) "Why did I do that?" and (2) "What did I expect to change?"

 

 

Teacher decisions concerning mathematics activities should
be based on learner's needs. There was a general feeling that

an appropriate teacher behavior was the ability to look at

 

learner behaviors.

 

Record keeping skills were important teacher behaviors.
These would facilitate a teacher answering the questions,
"What am I doing?" and "What do I expect to change?"
Examples for selection of mathematics activities were:

1) need for practice, 2) "enrichment," and 3) continuation.

A desired learner outcome was identified as contemplative
behavior. Contemplative behavior was defined by the follow-
ing example: A child when presented with a problem asks,
"wa might I go about finding an answer to that question?"
Teacher behaviors which lead to contemplative learner behavior
are:
1. Providing or building on experiences familiar to
students' experiences. (Beginning with the familiar and
moving to something new.)
2. Use of concrete materials or experiences. (How much

money is spent on tobacco in this school each day?)

E.

103

Use of second order questions. (Teacher wants students
to eventually demonstrate use of multiplication
algorithm. Teacher asks, "How many tiles are on this
floor?")

Teacher answers learner questions with general reSponses

to mathematics practice activities or questions.

There were five points concerning teacher behaviors related

to mathematics practice activities.

1.

The most desired teacher behaviors would be when
teachers provided an environment such that learners,
usually, see the need for practice and initiate related
activities.

On occasion, the teacher may give a practice assignment
to an individual student. The content of the assignment
is determined from observation of learner behaviors.
Practice assigned to an individual by a teacher is less
desirable behavior than learner initiation of practice
work.

On some occasions, the teacher provides members of a
subset of the class with the same practice assignment.
This teacher behavior is less desirable than teacher
assignments given to individuals.

The teacher should not ask an entire class to do the

same practice assignment.

104

S. The variables within practice assignments should be
altered by the teacher or learner so that practice

assignments do not become repetitious.

Following the summarization of the discussion of teacher

behaviors, the three questions posed at the beginning of the evening

were asked a second time. When posed a second time, the questions

elicited the following summarized reactions:

1.

In response to the question of desire/willingness among
individuals present to explore the idea of forming a mathe-
matics competency team, there was agreement among the
individuals that the evening's discussion had been "exciting"
and "professionally beneficial." The individuals stated
that they would like a) to meet for discussion a second
time, and b) invite additional people to participate in the
discussion.

In reSponse to the possibility of identifying specific
"Professional Teaching Behaviors" related to the teaching
of mathematics, some members felt that identification of
specific teaching behaviors related to mathematics would
be an impossible task. Everyone agreed that if Specific
teaching behaviors could be identified, it would be a long,
hard task. Individually, the members said they felt they
were committed to at least one more exploratory meeting.
The group was then asked to be prepared to respond at the
next meeting to the following: a) What kind of commitment

do you have to the philosophical position of competency-based

105

teacher education? b) What kind of commitment are you
willing to make to the task of identifying mathematics
related teacher behaviors? c) What type of discipline
representation should a competency team's membership reflect?
3. In response to the question pertaining to teacher behaviors
which mathematics personnel currently value, the temporary
leader indicated that she felt that the "Tasks-of-Teaching"
teaching model (assessment, goal setting, strategies and
evaluation) could be used as an organizer once teaching
behaviors were identified. For example, teacher skills of
assessment and evaluation could be inferred from the mathe-
matics personnel's preference that teachers give assignments
based on learners' needs. Contemplative learner behavior
(problem solving skills) may relate to beyond school goals
as defined by the model. It was felt that the topic of
relating the "Tasks of Teaching" model to mathematics teaching

behaviors could be discussed further at the next meeting.

During the week of March 19th, representatives from the
Departments of Mathematics and Applied Behavioral Science were con-
tacted to see what additional people should be invited to the
March 31, 1972 meeting. Fourteen individuals were invited to
participate in the discussions. However, it was impossible for the
14 peOple to meet on a single date due to previous commitments.
Such things as attendance at out-of—state conferences, teaching
schedules and consultant appointments were types of conflicts

verbalized by the invited participants. In order to determine

106

whether it would be possible to establish a mathematics competency
development team, it was decided that the group would meet in two
sections, March 31 and April 4, 1972. This researcher attended both
meetings.

The idea of establishing an MSU mathematics competency
development team had originated with the members of the research
discussion group. It was assumed by this researcher that the
discussion leader of the exploratory sessions on establishing a
mathematics competency team would be the mathematics education member
of the research discussion group. However, due to an overseas
teaching assignment this person would be absent during the upcoming
12 weeks. In his absence, the applied behavior science person, also
a member of the original research discussion group assumed the role
of discussion leader during the exploratory competency team meetings.

On the evening of March 30, 1972, the discussion leader met
with this researcher and an individual from the area of research and
evaluation to plan the meetings on March 31 and April 4, 1972, and
to provide the framework for initial facilitation of discussion
among participants.

The following items were identified at the above mentioned
meetings as possible discussion topics which might prove helpful in
making individual decisions:

I. Purpose of Competency Team's Task (Hoped for Outcome)
A. Can identification of "Professional Teaching Behaviors,"

as related to mathematics, be identified?

II.

III.

IV.

107

1. Should identified behaviors (objectives) reflect the
values and philosophy of the MSU competency development
team?

2. Can objectives based on identified behaviors then be
used for a (the) competency-based teacher education
program in mathematics?

B. Can instruments be developed to determine whether pre-
service teachers demonstrate desired behaviors in a field
setting?

C. Should the validity of behaviors and instruments be

determined by the mathematics competency team?

Establishment of a Competency Team.
A. How will we define a mathematics competency team?

B. How will competency team members be selected?

Selection of Mathematics Area for Development.
A. What area(s) should be selected for development?
B. What criterion should be used in the selection of a

mathematics area for development?

Beginning Task of Professional Teaching Behavior Identification.

A. What further information is needed by participants?

B. What types of situations, questions, problems, experiences
will elicit statements of behaviors from competency team
members? (e.g., common stimuli in the form of observa-

tions, tapes, written situations, or written questions).

108

Generally, the procedures for the two meetings were the same.
The March 31, 1972 meeting was held on the campus of MSU at 1:30 p.m.,
and was attended by six individuals representing the areas of applied
behavioral science, evaluation and research, and mathematics education.
The April 4, 1972 meeting was held in a private home and was attended
by seven individuals representing mathematics content, applied
behavioral science and mathematics education.

The meetings were begun by the discussion leader recalling
that the major task for individuals present was to decide whether a
MSU mathematics competency team should be established. If the estab-
lishment of a competency team was deemed desirable and feasible,
individuals then needed to decide if they personally wished to
participate.

At this point, there were verbal comments from those in
attendance indicating they would be interested in some form of parti-
cipation. However, as a group or as individuals the participants were
not asked to make a firm commitment to the project at this time, but
would be in the near future.

The following six items represent the topics actually discussed
during the two meetings:

1. Statement of background information on what brought forth the
perceived need for establishment and study of a competency
team.

2. Suggestions of topics that appeared to necessitate considera-

tion by competency team members.

109

3. Discussion of decision-making about individual participants
and why they were considered as potential members of a MSU

mathematics competency team.

4. Discussion of decision-making about the definition of

membership of a mathematics competency team.

5. Discussion and selection of areas(s) within the discipline

of mathematics for development.

6. Discussion and decision-making about how to initiate further
discussion of possible roles of the team members selected
for the competency team.

A More Detailed Description
of Transactions

 

 

The discussion leader began each of these first two meetings
by describing the results of the research discussion group meetings
relative to the establishment of the mathematics competency team.
Included in the description were the following points with an accom-
panying rationale: (1) University staff members were needed to under-
take the task of systematically identifying professional teaching
behaviors. (2) Teaching behaviors needed to be identified in context
with a specific content area. (3) A competency team established for
the purpose of identifying professional teaching behaviors should be
"collaborative" in the sense that it needed to include members from a
Specific content discipline, applied behavioral sciences, and
research and evaluation. (4) It was not known what the developmental

task would encompass before completion. The discussion leader also

110

included in her remarks the reasons for making public the above stated
beliefs. These were: (1) to provide information to possible parti-
cipants, (2) to initiate discussion, (3) to initiate questioning of
positions, (4) to model willingness to share, discuss, and modify
philosophical positions, and (S) to model a willingness to seek infor-
mation or understanding of other philosophical positions.

Several times during each meeting the discussion leader
reassured the group that individuals did not need to be in agreement
with philosophical positions presented; in fact, diversity of opinion
would be productive of more optimal decision-making in the long run.
It was further stated that individuals representing the areas of
mathematics content and mathematics education did not need to agree
among themselves philosophically pertaining to mathematics or mathe-
matics instruction. It was pointed out, however, that it was hoped
that individuals indicating a desire to participate on a team would
display a willingness to explore the philosophical and practical
implications of competency-based teacher education.

The discussion leader described the major outcome (product)
of a competency team in terms of instruments that could be used for
observing teacher behaviors related to elementary mathematics instruc-
tion and instructional design. The discussion leader further
described for the groups' information the historical development
of instruments related to teacher behaviors (e.g., Hughes, Ryans,
Flanders). It was felt that the form and content of needed instru-
ments would emerge as the competency team's developmental work

progressed.

111

 

Su estions for Consideration by
a Eompetency Team

 

The suggestion was made that a competency team might want
to consider the importance of studying professional teacher behavior
in terms of an ongoing decision process (sequence) and decision(s).

It was fUrther suggested that the "Tasks of Teaching" model
could be used as the organizational basis for describing teacher
behaviors and the teacher decision process.

The following description of mathematics competency was
prOposed for future consideration. A mathematics competency should
incorporate (a) knowledge, (b) performance, and (c) changes in

learner behavior.

Individual Commitment to Task

 

As a result of the March 31 and April 4, 1972 meetings, two
individuals from the area of applied behavioral science, four from.
research and evaluation, one person from the Department of Mathe-
matics and six from the area of mathematics education expressed and
indicated a commitment to and/or interest in participating in a
mathematics competency development team.

The question was raised as to how much time and manpower would
be necessary to develOp one or two mathematical areas, as yet not
defined. It was decided by the competency team that the answer to
this question could only be determined as involvement in the develop-
ment task was undertaken. Individual members of the team at no point
indicated that time was or would be a factor in their decision to

participate.

112

Definition of Competengy_

 

Team Membershipi

Those people attending the competency exploratory meetings

individually agreed with the recommendation and perceived need to

establish a competency team whose membership included representatives

from the areas of mathematics content, mathematics education

applied behavioral sciences, and education research and evaluation.

During the April 4, 1972 meeting the following decisions

relative to the selection of participants for a MSU mathematics

competency development team were made:

1.

The area of mathematics would be represented by two pro-
fessors. The individual who had represented the area of
mathematics during the exploratory meetings would be re-
sponsible for recruiting the second representative.

The area of mathematics education would be represented by
six individuals.

The area of applied behavioral science would be represented
by two individuals. The two individuals were this researcher
and the discussion leader. The decision to select only two
people from this area was based on the feelings of the dis-
cussion leader. She felt that two individuals would con-
tribute the appropriate balance for collaborative team
development since there were only two from mathematics.
Four individuals were identified from the area of research
and evaluation and would act as resource people for the

competency team.

113

Thus, the MSU mathematics competency development team was

composed of ten regular team members and four resource peOple.

Identification of Content
Area to be Developed

 

 

At both of the second exploratory meetings individuals from
the areas of mathematics content and mathematics education explained
that in the discipline of mathematics there is not a universal defi-
nition of what is or is not included in specific areas. It was
decided that the area of "whole numbers" would be the first area
developed.

Whole numbers was the area selected because it appeared to
be a "fairly Specified" area nad it is the area most intensely taught
in schools, grades K-8. Therefore, the investment made in terms of
development by the competency team could have practical application
for the mathematics content and mathematics education personnel in
that the materials deveIOped relating to whole numbers could be used
in mathematics content and mathematics education courses.

Definition of mathematical terms was identified as a task
which would be necessary to help reduce future criticism of the
materials developed. At this time, the competency team agreed that
whole numbers would include: counting, classifying, ordering,
matching, numeration, properties and Operations, and number theory.

Discussion and Decisions on

How to Begin

 

The question, "What do we do now?" was posed to the group

meeting on the night of April 4, 1972. To facilitate understanding

114

of the manner in which this question was ultimately answered, it
appears pertinent to supply the reader with some background
information.

In the State of Michigan, one of the primary areas which
citizens and school personnel have identified as important for school
learners is "mathematics" (The Common Goals of Michigan Education,
1971). The Board of Education for the State of Michigan appointed a
task force, composed of educators, students and lay citizens from
throughout the state to identify educational goals for Michigan
school children. These "goals" were Specified and eventually approved
by the collective State Board members. For the area of mathematics,
another task force was also subsequently selected. This task force
was composed of school teachers, administrators, mathematicians,
and mathematics educators from throughout the state of Michigan. It
was the responsibility of the mathematics task force to identify
performance objectives for Michigan's elementary school children.

This task was carried out and a document,entitled Minimal Objectives

 

for Mathematics Education in Michigan, was printed in 1972. It is

 

important to note that five of the members of the MSU mathematics
competency development team served on this mathematics task force.

In addition, to better understand the decision-making
regarding the "where shoulduwe begin?" question, it should be noted
that the group began by recalling certain "biases" that were expressed
and supported at previous discussions. These statements appeared to
have influenced the group's decisions as to where and how they should

begin the developmental task.

115

1. Individuals present at the first exploratory meeting
remembered that as they discussed valued teacher behaviors,
they consistently first thought about "What learners should
be able to do."

2. Individual team members generally felt that it was not
logical to identify, discuss, clarify, and/or verbally
describe teacher behavior in isolation from pupil outcomes.

3. Team members generally agreed that teacher education has only
a limited amount of time to train teachers and that time is
better spent, therefore, training for teacher behaviors which

are related to "valued" pupil behaviors.

One of the decisions made at this April 4 meeting, therefore,
included one to review the State's list of minimum mathematics objec-
tives. To avoid singularity of view, however, they also decided to

review the performance objectives stated in the Brevard County_

 

Mathematics Continuum. Based on review of these two suggested lists

 

of pupil outcomes, the objectives which belonged in the area of whole
numbers (as defined by the mathematics competency team) would then be
identified. Following the identification of objectives related to the
area of whole numbers, redundant objectives were to be discarded.
Finally, the collapsed and non-redundant list of whole number objec-
tives would be printed. Team members representing the areas of mathe-
matics content and mathematics education would then be provided the
list of objectives and would individually rate the objectives in terms

of perceived value of pupil outcome from his/her own point-of—view.

116

A numerical rating scale ranging from a low of one to a high of five

was recommended.

Role of Mathematics Competency_
Development Team

 

The competency team decided that at this time they did not
want to research further any previously identified teacher behaviors
or instruments. The participants from the mathematics areas felt they
should be free to use individually whatever resources they wished,
but that decisions Should not be made by previously developed instru-
ments or tests. Therefore, the validity of the recommended teacher
knowledge and performance behaviors and the developed evaluation
instruments would be determined on the basis of the "professional
consensus" of the competency team, until such time as correlative

research on pupil growth could be undertaken.

Role of Individuals

This researcher in the role of a team member was assigned the
tasks of (a) synthesizing the two lists of mathematics objectives,
(b) collaborating with the team's discussion leader to determine a
format and system for obtaining data relative to preferred learner
outcomes, and (c) distributing the list of objectives to the mathe-

matics content and mathematics education participants.

April 7, 1972 Through the
orning o ‘pfl A) l

The activities which occurred from April 7 through April 27,

 

1972, were many and varied. This section provides a description of

those activities. The tasks which needed to be accomplished included

117

(a) deve10pment of mathematics objectives instrument, (b) partici~
pants reSponding to mathematics objectives instrument, (c) tallying
and analysis of responses, and (d) planning for the competency team's
April 27, 1972 afternoon meeting.

By April 13, 1972, it became apparent that this researcher

would not be able, on her own, to synthesize the Minimal Program

 

Objectives for Mathematics Education in Michig32_with the Brevard
County Mathematics Continuum. Given what seemed to be the same
mathematics content, the lists appeared to differ in terms of expected
pupil behaviors (e.g., pupil manipulation of concrete objects versus

a paper/pencil task). Therefore, it was felt that the value decisions
concerning inclusion or exclusion of objectives from the two lists
should be made by the mathematics content or mathematics education
personnel.

This researcher met with the participant from the Department
of Mathematics on April 13, 1972. Through an analysis of the mathe-
matics content included in both lists of objectives, it was determined
that the content of the Brevard County Mathematics Continuum related

to whole numbers was adequately covered by the Minimal Prpgram Objec-

 

tives for Mathematics Education in Michigan. It was further

acknowledged that the Brevard County Mathematics Continuum was

 

oriented toward a particular commercial mathematics textbook series
and to paper/pencil tasks. It was, therefore, decided that the
Brevard County Mathematics Continuum would not be used and the M121:
mal Program Objectives for Mathematics Education in Michigpp_(in

working form, 1972) was copied and distributed to the appropriate

118

peOple. Thus, the developmental activities were underway and the
initiation, establishment, and organizational procedures used to
bring about the MSU mathematics competency development team's
work were terminated.

Competency team members representing the areas of mathematics
content and mathematics education would, individually and without
communicating with one another, respond to the mathematics objectives
instrument (see Appendix A).

The members of the competency team also agreed to individually
respond to three data gathering instruments: (1) a biographical
form, (2) a semantic differential instrument, and (3) an instrument
assessing each participant's interest and value of competency/
performance-based teacher education. The data from these three
instruments were to be used as part of this study to help describe

the composition of this competency team.

Selection of date for next meeting: It was decided on
April 4 that the next meeting of the competency development team
would be April 27, 1972, at 1:00 p.m. This date was selected because
various team members in mathematics content and mathematics education
would be attending the annual conference of the National Council of
Teachers of Mathematics in Chicago, Illinois. Also, time was needed
to synthesize objectives, develop format and system for reSponseS,
reproduce the results of the State Minimum Objectives task force and
to disseminate the copies. Further time was needed to allow for

individuals to respond and the tallying of responses. In addition,

119

the time provided would allow for the development of the three
instruments needed to collect descriptive data concerning each team
member.

Section III: Transactions and Objectives of the
Developmental Process

Transactions Related to Determination and
Role ofSDiscus§ion Leader

 

This section describes the procedures utilized to determine
the discussion leader and the nature of his/her role, the managerial
and time needs, and the various stages of development.

The MSU mathematics competency team at no time formally
selected a chairperson or discussion leader. The university staff
person representing the area of applied behavioral science functioned
as the discussion leader dupipg_the exploratory sessions. She also
assumed and carried out the role of discussion leader for the
competency team meetings held duripg_the eleven months of deve10pment
reported in this study.

The factors which appeared to have contributed to this
particular person's emergence as the Mathematics competency develop-
ment team's discussion leader, are as follows:

1. The mathematics education representative who had been
present at the research-discussion sessions was fblfilling

an overseas teaching assignment.

2. The person who became the discussion leader was one of the

three faculty members of the research discussion group where

120

the initial idea to explore the possibility of establishing

a competency team originated.

This particular person acted as the discussion leader for

the exploratory sessions, held to determine whether or not

a mathematics competency team should/would be established.

The university staff representative from the area of applied
behavioral science (discussion leader during exploratory
sessions) and this researcher was responsible for synthesizing
the results of the rankings of objectives done by the mathe-
matics content and mathematics education representatives.
Therefore, prior to the April 27, 1972 competency team
meeting, these two people met and developed a system for
reporting the results of the mathematics content and mathe-
matics education representatives rankings of the Minimal
Objectives for Mathematics Education in Michigan (1972) for
the area of whole numbers. Based on the analysis of responses
the two applied behavioral science representatives also
identified questions for discussion and a suggested format

fer the April 27, 1972 competency team meeting. The role of
discussion leader was not a function appropriate for this
researcher to assume as a participant-as-observer. Hence,

the university faculty applied behavioral science repre-
sentative accepted the responsibility (as temporary discussion
leader) for presenting the synthesized results of the ranking
of the objectives and suggested format for the team's meeting

on April 27, 1972.

121

At the beginning of the April 27th meeting the temporary
discussion leader asked the competency team members to express their
suggestions for a different or modified system of analysis, set of
discussion questions and/or discussion leader. The team accepted by
group consensus the system for analysis, the suggested discussion
questions and the discussion leader for the April 27, 1972, team
meeting.

At the end of the April 27 meeting the team decided to con-
tinue their discussion concerning apprOpriateness of the objectives
at the next team meeting. The temporary discussion leader asked if
someone else would like to function as discussion leader during the
next meeting. The team agreed that they would prefer to have the
same discussion leader at least for the next session. Therefore, the
discussion leader continued in that role. By the time the discussion
topics changed, the team's developmental procedures had become
established. Thus the temporary discussion leader continued in the
role of discussion leader during the eleven months of deve10pment
work reported in this study.

The manner in which the team preferred the discussion
leader's role to be executed was determined in part by the team
members' decisions relative to their roles. For example, the team

agreed that (a) decisions would be reached by consensus rather than

 

by majority rule (or some other way) and (b) each team member in

 

fact had something to contribute to decisions. Hence, it was the

 

responsibility of the discussion leader to (a) see that all positions

were heard and (b) make sure that when decisions were made they were

122

in fact based on the team's consensus agreement. For example, during
the team's discussions relative to the desirability of specific
objectives it was apparent that there was a wide diversity among the
various positions held by team members. As each objective was dis-
cussed the discussion leader first made sure that each team member
had expressed his/her particular position. The discussion leader
through questioning, asking for specific example, and doubling on a
speaker, also facilitated the team's ability to perceive the simi-
larities and "peel? differences in the various positions. These
initial behaviors on the part of the discussion leader helped the
team to center their discussions around the resolution of the "real"
problem. Team members also began to exhibit questioning and clari-
fication behaviors themselves during ensuing discussions.

At times it was necessary to leave a particular problem
unresolved; however, the discussion leader would bring the tOpic up
for further consideration at a later date. (Obtaining consensus
relative to a specific problem sometimes took several weeks.)

The role of the discussion leader also involved the responsi-
bility of helping the team to remain consistent in their decisions.
For example, the team having reached agreement on a Specific point
might at a later date reach an agreement, on a related topic, which
was not consistent (in conflict) with the first decision. At this
time the discussion leader would recall for the team the first
decision and point out its inconsistency with the second decision.
The discussion leader facilitated a reconsideration of both deci-

sions rather than simply a change in the second decision. During the

123

course of development team members themselves became proficient at
identifying inconsistencies in their development work. At times the
team revised their first decision to be consistent with their new
position. At other times the team resolved the conflict by changing
the second decision. There were times when the team agreed that as
a team they held conflicting positions. The team members would
further agree that at that time they could not resolve them.

The conflicts left for later resolution were resolved in two
ways. One way was that at a later date the discussion leader would
present to the team members the two positions for further considera-
tion. At these times one might hear such comments as, "I thought
you'd forgotten about that." The second way which the conflicts
that were "tabled" for later discussion were resolved was through
the team's discussions of related topics. At times the team found
that if it would go on to another topic it would "learn" something
that contributed to their understanding of questions which they could
not previously resolve.

The role of the discussion leader included questioning team
members, synthesizing discussions and decisions, and recalling

previous positions, decisions, and resolved questions.

Developmental Transactions

 

The competency team's general developmental procedures
included the following. (a) The team identified similarities and
differences in various philosophical positions during team meetings.
(b) The team developed Specific materials (e.g., objectives, instru-

ments) either during team meetings or at subteam meetings held

124

between developmental sessions. (c) The team at meetings reviewed,
revised, or in general reacted to previously developed and printed
materials. (d) The team, when possible, "tried" the materials in
appropriate (e.g., assessment of pupil pre-number skills) contexts.
(e) The team continued development, further reacted to, or revised
materials.

The procedure of between-session development, followed by
the team reacting to the materials continued until the team was
satisfied for the present with the developed materials.

The MSU mathematics competency development team continuously
explored the use of different types of deve10pmental procedures.

The following describes examples of the various deve10pmental pro-
cedures used by the competency team.

In general, the team first discussed their various philo-
sophical positions relative to a given discussion topic. The dis—
cussion leader and various team members played an active role in
the clarification and identification of similarities and differences.
Thus, philosophical discussions and resolution of identified differ-
ences were usually the first items tackled in any given area (e.g.,
"Why do we teach children patterning?"). When the team tried to
proceed with development in a particular segment of the area of whole
numbers, without first obtaining philosophical agreement, they were
not usually able to advance successfully in their development work.
If a philosophical question had not been previously discussed in a
team meeting, it continued to arise causing a diversion from the

Specified task at hand.

125

Resolution of philosophical questions did not appear to

result in the compromising of anyone's personal position. Positions

 

which gained the team's consensus included the best ideas and/or

 

points of the differing_positions. Members were not willing to

 

 

compromise for the "sake of argument," "to get on with the task at

 

hand," or "because you have a higher rank and therefore know more.”
Therefore, some questions or problems were discussed over several
weeks. These discussions did at times lead to a change in positions
held by team members or the identification of a new position that
would be consistent, and also compatible with both positions.

The competency team used common stimuli in all their develop-
mental procedures. A common stimulus acted as a point of departure
for a given team discussion. The common Stimuli used by the team
were printed materials, verbal questions or verbally described
situations. Examples of printed common stimuli used by the competency
team are (a) the original list of minimal objectives in mathematics,
(b) synthesized lists of objectives, (c) tentatively deve10ped pupil
assessment instruments, (d) developed lesson plans, and (e) tenta-
tively developed items for teacher behavior assessment instruments.

Based on observations it appeared that the printed common
stimulus aided discussions and decision making among the competency
team members. Team members appeared to realize this and most team
sessions ended with an assignment of a Specific task to individual(s)
which were to be submitted for reaction at the next team meeting.

The team's practice of using printed materials whenever

possible contributed to the resolution of certain types of problems.

126

For example, a tentative pupil assessment instrument appeared to
contribute to the actual operationalizing of a previously verbal
commitment to the assessment of pupil (a) knowledge, (b) skills, and
(c) attitudes as related to mathematics. In another Situation an
outline provided team members, who were Skeptical about the apparent
lack of affective learning tasks and Strategies included in

the development work, with the evidence that affective concerns were
being considered.

Printed Stimuli were also used as a method to bring team
members up-to-date as to the direction their decisions were taking
them (e.g., lists of deve10ped objectives based on consensus team
decisions). On other occasions, the printed common stimulus appeared
to help move the team off "dead-center" in discussions and advance
the practical development work.

Examples of verbal questions which acted as common stimuli
are as follows:

1. How are the following mathematical terms defined: whole
numbers, pre~number, classification, patterns, ordering,
numeration, cardinality and place value?

2. Why do we teach children classification, patterning, ordering,
cardinality and place value Skills and concepts?

3. What are the different types of patterns children should be
able to construct?

4. If a teacher determines a child cannot construct a given
type of pattern, why is it important for her to teach the

child the skill?

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

127

What type of learning is involved in the classification,
ordering, patterns, cardinality, place value objectives?
Should the technique used for teaching a child be directly
related in any way to the type of learning found in a given
objective?

Should both convergent and divergent tasks be included in
objectives?

When is it appropriate to use concrete, symbolic and
abstract materials?

How does informal teaching differ from incidental teaching?
How do we differentiate between instructional and assessment
questions?

What are the prerequisites for numeration?

Are there prerequisites for the prenumber objectives?
Should teachers assess a child's mathematics related
knowledge and skills?

Should a teacher assess a child's feelings and attitudes
toward mathematics and mathematics related activities?

How much do teachers need to know about a given component?
For example, does a teacher need to know all the objectives
related to whole numbers?

Does the concept of the "Tasks of Teaching" (assessment,
goals/objectives, strategies, evaluation) seem to be a
realistic (philosophically and practically) way of organizing

our thinking concerning teacher behaviors?

128

17. At what point is a skill or concept broken down to a point
that a child will have a problem applying the superordinate

concept or skill?

The team members did not usually work on the development of
new materials during regular team meetings. It was the team's general
procedure for subteams to work on the development of new materials at
specially scheduled between-meeting work sessions. Thus, the team's
procedures for team meetings were discussion and reaction to pre-
viously developed materials.

One of the initial problems for which the team had to develop
procedures was for handling differences in language. Differences in
education-related vocabulary among the clusters comprising the team
were observed. The differences in education-related vocabulary
between the representative from the area of mathematics content and
those peOple in the applied behavioral science cluster appeared to be
more bothersome than the other combinations. For example, for
several weeks the words "informal" and "incidental" teaching were
used in ways that appeared to be interpreted synonymously by some
participants. Finally, when someone asked various team members to
explain what each of the words meant, it was apparent that different
meanings did exist. Some people perceived the two words as having
distinct meanings as teaching techniques, others saw them as having
an incidental association with learning but not a teaching technique
and others thought they were synonymous.

As a result of these differences in meanings brought to

educational-related vocabulary by various team members, a frequent

129

request was, "Give an example of what you mean by that." Other
ways by which team members demonstrated a realization of the impor-
tance of not assuming understanding of either frequently or in-
frequently used terms was through doubling on a Speaker and/or by
giving ana10gies of a given speaker's statement.

The differences among the type of background, content
knowledge, and experiences among team members appeared to contribute
to both broad discussions and frustration. Therefore, another of
the team's activities included direct instruction. For example, the
people representing the area of applied behavioral science were on
a number of occasions "taught" the mathematics Skill or concept under
discussion. On other occasions the representative from the applied
behavior science "taught” concepts such as "Tasks of Teaching" and
"types of learning" to the other team members.

Problems related to the study of a university competency
team whose membership included members of the researcher's doctoral
committee did not arise. During the course of the investigation
neither this researcher nor any of the members of her doctoral
committee were aware of or expressed concerns relative to the
emergence of personal and/or professional problems as previously
discussed might occur.

No team meetings were held unless one of the representatives
from the area of applied behavioral science was in attendance. One
meeting was cancelled due to the fact that neither this researcher
or the other'2representative from the area of applied behavioral

science would have been able to attend.

130

Managerial and Time Transactions
This section describes the procedures used by the MSU mathe-
matics competency development team relative to time, notification,
frequency and duration of team meetings and subteam work sessions.
Table 9 describes the data relative to team meetings. Table 10

describes subteam developmental sessions.

Team Meetings

 

TWenty-one competency team meetings were held between March 24,
1972 and December 6, 1972. Two of the 21 sessions were organizational
in purpose while 19 of the meetings were developmental working
sessions.

At the end of each session the date, time and place for the
next meeting was determined through consensus agreement by the team
members. Team members took into consideration: (1) the time it would
take individuals or team subgroups to finish assigned development
tasks, completion of which were necessary for the next team meeting,
and (2) team members available for sessions. An unspoken rule observed
Operating was, "It was more desirable to have all three areas repre-
sented at team meetings than 100% representation from any one area."

The area of mathematics content was not represented at two
working sessions. After both of these sessions this researcher,
acting in the role of liaison, met with one of the representatives
from the area of mathematics content. The representative was asked
to react to the direction the team had taken at its last meeting.

This researcher, again acting in the role of a liaison person, then

131

Table 9

Team Meetings

 

 

 

DATE MATH MATH APPLIED RESEARCH TIME PLACE
CONT. ED BEH AND NO. HRS.
SCIENCE EVAL PER
SESSION
March 24 l 2 2 4.0 E/H
31 1 2 3 1.5 A/c
April 4 1 3 2 1* 2.5 E/H
27 2 3 2 2* 2.0 A/c
May 4 2 5 2 2 2.0 Ala
11 1 3 2 1* 1.75 A/C
17 2 3 2 1* 2.0 A/C
17 1 3 2 0 5.0 E/H
June 1 1 2 1 0 1.25 A/C
8 1 3 2 1 1.00 A/C
14 1 3 2 4.5 E/H
22 1 3 2 * 3.0 E/H
29 1 4 2 4.0 E/E
July 13 1 4 2 * 4.0 DIR
20 1 2 1 3.0 E/H
Oct. 11 1 2 2 4.5 E/H
18 1 3 1 * 2.0 E/H
25 1 2 2 3.0 , E/H
Nov. 1 3 2 3.5 E/E
15 0 3 2 3.0 E/H
Dec. 6 1 4 2 1.0 EZH
Total
142 = 21 61 39 11 58.5

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

21 sessions, 7 on campus, afte
14 at home

NUMBER OF REPRESENTATIVES

Math

= 2

Math Education = 6
Applied Behavioral Science =

Research and Evaluation

= 4

average time

I'I‘IOOIIB

3.36

1.64 hrs.

7722 in total session man hours

* VISITORS

Place

C 8 On Campus

H = Member's home

Time
A = Afternoon
E = Evening

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133

communicated the reactions of the mathematics content representative
to the remaining team members who had been assigned development tasks
between sessions. The area of mathematics education was represented

at all team meetings.

Notification Of Team Meetings

 

This researcher had the reSponsibility for reminding team
members Of a scheduled team meeting. Team members received either a
telephone call or memorandum one or two days prior to a scheduled
team meeting, reminding them of the date, time, and place of the

session (see Appendix F).

Number of Sessions and Time Involved

Of the 21 team meetings, 7 were held on campus during the
afternoon. These sessions lasted from 1 to 2 hours with an average
time Spent of 1.64 hours. The 14 competency team meetings held in
the evening ranged in length from 1 to 5 hours, the average working
time being 3.36 hours. The combined time for afternoon and evening
meetings totaled 58.5 hours (Table 9).

In addition to the team meetings, approximately 48 sub-team
developmental work sessions were held during the 11 months Of
development included in this investigation. Approximately 264 hours

were Spent in sub-team development tasks (Table 10).

Attendance

 

The team members readily agreed that due to the age of the
discussion leader's children, they would be willing to hold all

evening meetings in the home of the discussion leader. On other

134

occasions, several of the participants also brought their children
to the meetings. They either played with the other children or
served aS "guinea pigs" for some of the assessment or strategy
activities being worked on at the time. On a number of occasions,
various team members volunteered to have a meeting in their home if
the discussion leader was finding it a hardship to have all the
meetings at her house. Evening sessions, at which the discussion
leader was present, were held in her home. These sessions usually
began with coffee and tea being served and since the meetings went
until late, nightcaps were served late in the evening. (Numerous
bottles of brandy were served over a period of time.)

Campus meetings were held in the mathematics building unless
space was not available. When Space was not available in the math
building, the team met in the education building.

The attendance at evening sessions ranged from S to 7 members
present, averaging 6 people per session. The average attendance
was 7 people (correct to the nearest whole person) attending after-

noon sessions with a range of from S to 11 members present.

 

Activities En a ed in Durin the
VariouS'Stages of DeveIopment
The following subsection of this chapter describes the five
developmental stages and transactions which evolved during the first

11 months of the MSU mathematics competency deve10pment team's

developmental work.

135

An Overview

 

An analysis of this researcher's notes relative to the pro-
cedures used by the MSU mathematics competency development team
revealed that the team's major concerns centered around several major
questions or issues. These were identified as this researcher
attempted to organize her notes around central issues, rather than
Simply in chronOlOgical order. It was reassuring to this researcher

to find that a theoretical paper that was independently prepared by

 

her chairman and dissertation director cited and labeled five neces-
sary stages of instructional development that coincided and proved

to be directly compatible with the data organizing categories of this
researcher. This finding reassured this researcher that her empirical
observations were reliable in that they were verified by the con-
ceptual "Observations" of other participants in this project. The
labels and descriptive titles ascribed to the Stages herein discussed
were, therefore, adapted to fit those identified by Lanier and
Henderson (1973) to assure compatibility and understanding within the
larger framework of which the research Study is a part.

In seeking solutions to the questions, "What should we teach
pre-service teachers in the area of mathematics?" and "How shall we
teach this to teachers-in-training?", the competency team followed
what appeared at the time to be expeditious development patterns but
which in the final analysis turned out to be overall logically
sequential in nature.

As previously described in section two of this chapter, the

initial two points on which the competency team reached consensus

136

agreement were (1) to begin their deve10pment work with the study of
pupil outcomes and (2) to then proceed with the identification of
appropriate related teacher behaviors. In fact, these two decisions
provided the direction in which the MSU mathematics competency team's
development work prOgressed. Essentially, it was from the team's
original two decisions that the five major deve10pmental Stages
emerged. A description of the five stages through which the team

prOgressed during their developmental work is presented next.

Stage One

In general, stage one included the identification of the
recommended behavioral outcomes for pupils relative to the area of
whole numbers. (This study includes a description of the development
of the pre-number and numeration Objectives only.)

In the first stage of the development of a mathematics
competency, the team members became intensely involved in the Study
and analysis of the Minimal Objectives for Mathematics Education in
Michigan (1972). In other words, the team first focused on identi-
fying the preferred pupil outcomes, related to the area of whole
numbers, that they expect teachers to be responsible for effecting
in pupils.

The team's Study and analysis of pupil outcomes thus began
with the rating of the Objectives for the area of whole numbers

taken from the Minimal Objectives fOr Mathematics Education in

 

Michigan (1972). In rating the objectives, the following S-point

scale was developed, printed as an appendage to the original list of

137

objectives and distributed to the mathematics content and mathematics
education team members.

1. Essential: I would continue teaching this objective until
it was mastered.

2. Very Important: I would re-teach this objective at least
three times if not mastered during initial
instruction.

3. Important: I would re-teach this objective at least twice
if not mastered during initial instruction.

4. Of Little Importance: I would teach one lesson on this, but
if it was not mastered by the learner, I would
pp£_bother to re-teach.

5. Not Important: I would not have this as a purposefully

planned part of my instruction.

Return, tallyipgj:and analysis of responses. On April 24, 25,
and 26, 1972, six individuals returned the lists of objectives on
which they had indicated their responses. A seventh individual
returned his ranking on May 14. This delay is attributed to the fact
that the list of objectives was sent to the mathematics education
person who was on an overseas teaching assignment. One member never
returned the list of objectives and responses.

As individuals returned the lists of objectives, the reSponses
were recorded. A COpy of the objectives as given to the mathematics
content and mathematics education participants was used in recording

the responses for each objective. However, the above system was found

138

to be unmanageable and not useful for the purpose of analysis. This
was due to the fact that sub-areas (e.g., pre-number) were Spread
over many pages with only a few objectives on a single page. There-
fore, when the two applied behavioral science representatives met on
April 26, 1972, a new recording format was devised.

To employ this new recording format, the major breakdowns

of the content area provided in the Minimal Program Objectives for

 

Mathematics Education in Michiggp_were first identified (pre-number,
numeration, addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division).
Each category, followed by a column of numerals representing the
number of the objectives in that category, were listed on the left
side of a sheet of paper. Six columns, one for each reSpondent, were
then placed across the page. At the top of each column was the name
of a respondent. The rankings given by the named respondent, corres-
ponding to the objective number, was then placed in the column. The
six ratings fOr each objective were summed. The seventh member's
reSponseS were added at a later date (see Appendix E).

The compiled responses were then analyzed. Based on the
review of the objectives, the following system was used to code
objectives and the related discussion decision rules were developed
for consideration by the competency team.

Each Objective was rated on a 5-point scale with a rating of
"one" indicating the Objective was essential and a rating of "five"
indicating the objective was unnecessary. Thus, with six team
members responding, a total score of Six would always mean that

there was high agreement among the respondents and the agreement

139

meant that the objective was perceived as essential (by everyone).
Likewise, a total of 30 would always mean that there was high agree-
ment epd_the agreement meant that the objective was perceived as
unnecessary (by everyone).

Ratings of objectives which showed a consistent lack of
agreement were identified for discussion purposes, as they indicated
a diversity of opinion among team members. The diversity in Opinion
among team members contributed to the initial group discussion and
helped to identify and draw on the rich plurality of views that
existed.

These "low agreement" Objectives were identified as those
rated essential or very important by most, but with at least one
person rating the objective as only important, g£_as having been
rated with a variance of at least three points (e.g., scores of both
two and five or one and four occurring).

Copies of the compiled ratings were made available to all
competency team members at the April 27, 1972 meeting (see Appendix
E). The original copies of the objectives responded to by each
mathematics content and mathematics education participant were also
made available. At the meeting the above two instruments acted as
common stimulus materials for the purpose of discussion.

One participant representing the area of mathematics educa-
tion, at a later date, indicated that he felt uncomfortable with the
request to rate the objectives. He felt that his reSponses would be
viewed as those of a novice due to his limited experience in elemen-

tary mathematics. He assumed his responses would lack credibility

140

with other competency team members and, therefore, felt his contri-
bution would not be viewed as meaningful. While he also felt that
his rationale for any given ratiJig would probably not be agreed with
by other team members, he did feel that his ratlJlgS were as legit-
imate as anyone else's.

The reason given by this team member for returning his
responses for compilation was the commitment he had made to partici-
pate as a team member. He indicated that the reason for returning
his reSponses was based on his commitment and personal interest in
learning about competency—based teacher education.

The development work continued with Study of the pre-number
(see Appendix G for first synthesized list of pre-number objectives),
numeration, and operation objectives for redundancy and incomplete-
ness. In addition, the specific content Of individual Objectives
(e.g., rote counting) was discussed and decisions to include or
exclude the objectives were made. Early in the study and analysis
of the objectives, the team decided to restrict itself to investi-
gating one section (e.g., pre-number) at a time. Thus, the team's
initial focus on the area of whole numbers changed to a focus on a
much smaller segment (subsequently referred to as a module cluster),
that of pre-number knowledge and skills. AS a result, the team
began to deal (a) with the relationships between and among the pre-
number objectives and (b) with definitions and/or descriptions of
"pre-number" categories.

During the study of pupil outcomes, one of the major ques-

tions which the team members continuously asked was, "Why would we

141

want a pupil to be able to do this?" Examples of answers to the
question heard typically during the early stages of development are

as follows: "It's a good experience for children." "All children
should know how to do that." "Children like to do that." "Later

on they'll have to know that." "Because God told me they Should."
(After working together for almost a year, the team members dis-
covered that the last Statement was made in reference to an expert

in mathematics. This was as close as the team came to using authority
figures to escape dealing with a difficult question and it was in
jest.)

Examples of the team's responses as they continued to try to
answer the "Why" question relative to pupil outcomes are as follows:
"We don't know, that is a good research question." "That is a pre-
requisite Skill for a more advanced pupil behavior which we have
identified." "The later behavior will contribute to a child's
ability to deal with his world." "Because God told me so!"

The team agreed that some pupil behaviors they identified as
desired pupil outcomes were desired only because they were behaviors
which were prerequisite to later objectives.

The result of the team's effort to answer the "Why question
was that in the area of pre-number (a) the tasks of classifying and
ordering by quantity were identified as prerequisite behaviors for
the numeration unit, (b) classification and ordering by additional
Single and multiple attributes were identified as desired extension
activities, and (c) patterning was identified as desired extension

activities and a research project relative to pupil transfer

142

of patterning skills and concepts should be developed and carried
out.

When the team agreed that they were satisfied, at least for
the present, with the list of pre-number pupil outcomes, they began
to study and analyze the numeration section. In the course of
analyzing the numeration Objectives (see Appendix H for first syn-
thesized list of numeration objectives), the team began to deal with
the sequence of Objectives not only within a subsection (e.g.,
cardinality) but also among subsections (e.g., ordering and place
value).

The team's analysis of the numeration section led them to
consider again the continuing question of "Why_was a particular
pupil behavior identified by the team as a desired pupil outcome?"
In this situation the question was considered again because the team
in the process of analyzing the numeration objectives began to
reconsider behaviors which would be prerequisite to the numeration
objectives. Hence, the team identified the discrimination task of
"classifying by quantity" and the task of "ordering by quantity" as
essential numeration prerequisites. In other words, those two pupil
outcomes were desired because they were prerequisites to later
desired pupil outcomes.

Having identified prerequisites for the numeration objective,
the team then returned to further analyze the pre-number list of
Objectives, which resulted in a thorough reorganization of the pre-
number section. Definitions, specifically of pre-number and

numeration, having become Operationalized, necessitated the team's

143

further deletion and/or reclassification of objectives, which had
been incorrectly classified as pre-number concepts or skills.

The competency team's study and analysis of the original
objectives led to the development of a modified list of desired
pupil outcomes. This modification included (a) the deletion of some
Objectives, (b) the combination of overlapping and like objectives,
(c) the addition of some divergent-production task objectives, and
(d) the hierarchical classification and organization of objectives
in terms of the subordinate and superordinate tasks.

The competency team identified rules for the deletion of
objectives. Objectives were deleted based on the following rules:
(a) the objective was redundant, (b) the objective's purpose was
teacher behavior rather than pupil behavior, (c) the objective's
content was not related directly to the notion of mathematics (e.g.,
pupil knowledge of words such as; on, off, up, down, right, left)
and (d) the objectives content was not a pupil outcome desired by
the competency team (e.g., rote counting).

The initial study and analysis of the objectives by the
competency team began in April of 1972. The competency team reached
consensus on the pre-number and numeration objectives (which appear
in Appendices G and H) in October of 1972. Development in the other
stages began, however, before final consensus was reached on October,
1972. Developmental experience in each stage provided the competency
team with additional insight which provoked the consequent refine-
ment of previous "agreed upon" objectives. Consequently, the team

continuously up-dated and checked the objectives for consistency.

144

A positive consequence of the competency team's study and
analysis of the objectives related to whole numbers enhanced their
ability to better conceptualize or see what it was they wanted
teachers to be able to teach pupils. The improvement in the team's
conceptualization of the desired pupil outcomes became evident in the

next developmental stages.

Stpge one summary. The classification of the whole numbers

 

objectives as organized by the task force for the State of Michigan

was as follows:

Concept Area

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Arithmetic
I Number- II Whole
Numeration Number
Strand _ Strand
A 7
Pre-Number Addition
Segpence _ Sequence
B ' B
Numeration . Subtraction
Sequence 7 Segpence
C
Multiplication
Squence
D
..___m Division

 

 

Sequence

 

145

The team members rated the objectives (40 pre-number, 91
numeration, 27 addition, 21 subtraction, 27 multiplication and 20
division). The discussion leader and this researCher reported the
results of the team's ratings by the following categories: (a) pre-
number, (b) numeration, (c) addition, (d) subtraction, (e) multi-
plication, and (f) division.

The result of the MSU mathematics competency development
team's study and analysis of pupil outcomes relative to the area of
whole numbers is Shown in the following hierarchical diagram (see
Appendices G and H).

The section of the whole numbers area identified by the
competency team as "operations" included addition, subtraction,
multiplication, and division. During the third team session, the
team members agreed to set aside the operations section until the
developmental work (whatever that might turn out to include) related
to pre-number and numeration were completed. The team had not
returned to the operations section during the time the data for this
investigation was collected.

The team's problems in communicating with each other about
the various aSpects of the structure they were developing required a
search fer appropriate vocabulary (e.g., competency, component,
module clusters, modules) for effective team communication. See
Lanier and Henderson (1973) for a discussion of the related concepts.
Thus, one additional outcome of the team developmental work was the

clarification of the concept of a "competency."

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Stage Two

Stage two included the identification of instructional tasks
from which the pre-service teacher's knowledge and/or skills, relative
to the content of the pupil outcomes identified in Stage one, could
be determined. In other words the competency team wanted to find a
way to determine whether a pre-service teacher actually knew the
content he/she would be expected to teach to children.

The team quickly reached consensus agreement that because of
the extremely "elementary" nature of the pre-number and numeration
content they would assume pre-service teachers would have already
acquired the needed knowledge and skill in these areas. (They

probably wouldn't have made it into college if they hadn't.)

Stage Three

Stage three included the identification of instructional
tasks, by the competency team, that would enable them to determine
whether or not pre-service teachers could apply the knowledge and
Skills identified in stage two. (Knowledge and skills related
directly to pupil behaviors identified in stage one.)

In this Stage the MSU mathematics competency development
team once again agreed that they would assume pre-service teachers
were able to employ the pre-number and numeration knowledge and
skills (e.g., if the pro-service teacher had not already acquired the
concept of 1-1 correspondence, they would not be able to do such
things as set the table, or buy the correct number of stamps for

their Christmas cards.)

148

Stage Four

The mathematics competency development team in stage four

identified what it is a pre-service teacher needs to know in order

 

£g_dg_what is necessary to bring about the desired behaviors in
pupils (identified in stage one).

During the initial developmental process in stage four the
competency team reached consensus that they would first identify the
teacher behaviors and related instructional materials that a pre-
service teacher should know about for instruction of pre-number and
numeration concepts and skills. The team agreed that they would then
proceed to work on the identification of instruments (Stage five)
to be used for the assessment of teacher performances. Thus the
team members committed themselves to the complete deve10pment of one
segment of the whole number area. The members of the team agreed
that by developing one segment they would then be able to make use
of the procedures which proved to be successfu1, in developing the
rest of the whole numbers area.

The competency team returned to the list of pre-number objec-
tives to identify the methods a pre-service teacher would need to
know in order to instruct children in the pre-number objectives. The
question of "how to identify the appropriate teacher behaviors" pre-
sented a tremendous problem. The point of departure from which
development should proceed was difficult to determine. Two lines of
thought concerning the team's direction were evident among the team
members. One group of the team members thought that the teacher

behaviors which should be identified next were the specific

149

strategies or techniques a pre-service teacher would use to teach the
pre-number objectives. A second group of team members thought that
the teacher behaviors which Should be identified next were those
related Specifically to the assessment and diagnosis of pupil needs.
This division among the team members occurred in Spite of the fact
that all team members had verbally agreed, during the team's initial
meetings to follow the organization of the "tasks of teaching” model
(which begins with assessment, and then moves to objective selection,
strategies, and evaluation). The first group of team members did not
verbally express a change of attitude toward the "tasks of teaching"
model itself, but their behavior was indicating that they had not
internalized the verbally expressed value. Apparently at this point
various team members had Simply returned to their "old" patterns of
behaving. At meetings held while the team held diversified opinions
as to the teacher behaviors to be identified next, this researcher
Observed the team dealing with the topic in a very general nature
(e.g., "Teachers should use whatever they have at hand to teach
classification.").

The discussion leader contributed to the team's unification
in terms of the direction for deve10pment. For example, during this
time when the team was working on the identification of teacher
behaviors the discussion leader pressed team members for explicit
statements and examples. She would describe several situations to
which team members were asked to respond (e.g., "You're teaching
kindergarten children. How would you decide which of the pre-number

objectives you would teach?" and "How would you determine that a

150

child was 'ready' for the objective?"). After several very frus-
trating sessions the team members decided that the first teacher
behavior they wished to identify and describe was that of "assess-
ment." The team had verbally ascribed, at an early date, to the
importance of the "tasks of teaching” behaviors which included
assessment. The team decided that it was necessary to identify the
Specific assessment questions a teacher would need to ask in deter-
mining whether or not a child possessed the pre-number skills. The
decision to identify pre-number assessment questions resolved the
problem of 22353 to begin the next step of development. The question
of "How?" was yet to be resolved. This decision, to identify assess-
ment tasks, when acted upon by the mathematics competency team was

in effect the team's first indication of "real" acceptance of the
organization of teacher behaviors provided by the "tasks of teaching"
teaching model.

In attempting to answer the question of "How do you identify
pupil assessment questions of tasks?" several unsuccessful techniques
were used by the competency team. These unsuccessful techniques
included team members using the pre-number objectives as a common
Stimulus fOr pupil assessment discussions, team members role playing
pre-number instructional assessment lessons, team members audio
taping their role playing of pre-number assessment lessons, and team
members bringing children to team meetings and teaching assessment
lessons. The major problem which emerged during the above experiences
was the team members' inability to distinguish between assessment

and instructional questions or tasks. Thus, the team asked one of

151

the representatives from the area of mathematics content to deveIOp a
"strawman" assessment instrument which the team could use as a

conmon stimulus in an effort to further their progress. The "strawman"
assessment instrument developed by the mathematics content repre-
sentative contributed to the team's ability to Specify exactly what
pupil behaviors they wished to assess and what type of assessment

tasks (e.g., verbal, paper/pencil, or manipulative) were desirable.

The team members agreed to use manipulative tasks incorporating the

use of concrete Objects for the assessment of the pre-number
Objectives.

The team members then assigned the responsibility of identi-
fying pre-number assessment questions/tasks to a representative from
the area of mathematics education and this researcher. Hence, pre-
number assessment tasks and an instrument were developed and even-
tually pilot tested for reliability and validity on kindergarten
and first grade children. The instruments were then taken to a
competency team meeting at which time they were revised, based on
the feedback from the results of testing and input from team members
(see Appendix I for sample pupil assessment instruments).

The identification of the numeration assessment questions/tasks
began with the responsibility being given directly to two of the
competency team members. The two team members identified assessment
tasks related to the area of numeration. The tasks were organized
into an assessment instrument and tested for validity. The instrument
was then taken to the team for their reactions and further revision

(see Appendix J).

152

In conjunction with the identification of the pre-number
pupil assessment tasks, the competency team organized the tasks into
an assessment instrument that could be used by teachers. At this
point, the team began once again to consider Specific strategies
they would use for helping learners acquire the pre-number
objectives.

Examples of techniques used by the competency team to identify
Specific instruction/strategies for the pre-number objectives included
(a) team discussions, (b) team role playing of "instructional"
lessons, and (c) individual team members' development of instruc-
tional designs. During the course of development in stage four,
various team members collected three-dimensional concrete and
symbolic materials. These materials and materials related to
mathematics were used in the role playing situations.

The instructional design development experience contributed
to the team's clarification of the task of teaching identified as
"strategies." The instructional designs produced by the team members
included considerations for the human, environmental and curriculum
variables. Therefore, the competency team broadened their discussion
of preferred teacher instructional behavior from only those Specifi-
cally related to curriculum to include all three variables.

The competency team found that in order to make any progress
in the identification of appropriate strategies they needed to con-
sider not only the mathematics content but also the human and
environmental factors. The team, therefore, considered such topics

as (a) the nature of the learner (e.g., readiness, attitudes and

153

feelings), (b) the appropriate length Of instructional time, avail-
ability of supplies, materials equipment and their appropriateness to
the specified curriculum content, and (c) the organization and
management of instruction.

In this stage, the team reached consensus that a pre-service
teacher would receive continuing instruction in the knowledge of the
"tasks of teaching" model; that is to say, this Should/would not be a
prospective teacher's first encounter with the task-of—teaching model.
Therefore, the develOpers of the mathematics competency considered
themselves to be responsible for knowledge of the application of the
model to mathematics related content, as it would be implemented in
the instructional design and instruction of mathematics. The mathe-
matics educators would then accept the reSponsibility of instructing
pre-service teachers in specific mathematics related assessment,
Objective setting, strategies, and evaluation behaviors.

Included in the instructional design responsibilities of the

team was the development of a method of evaluating the pre-service

 

teacher's knowledge of the specific assessment, objective setting,
strategies and evaluation behaviors needed for successful teaching of
the mathematics units. The team agreed that the method of evaluation
would have to include measures of the pre-service teacher's knowledge
of the human and environmental factors as well as the curriculum
knowledge. That is to say, a teacher would need to know human

factors (e.g., a child's attitudes, prerequisite Skills, and abilities,
stage of intellectual deve10pment) and environmental factors (e.g.,

appropriate materials, time, scheduling issues) as well as the

154

curricular factors (e.g., knowledge of content sequence, purpose
and structure).

Through the team's discussions it became obvious to the
members that knowledge could only be evaluated verbally (e.g.,
paper/pencil, interviews). The team agreed that if they used only
Observations of the pre-service teacher's performance during instruc-
tion, they would only be able to iflffi:.relat°d knowledge (e.g., the
discussion leader explained this with the following example: "If
someone had observed me while I was teaching in an elementary school,
they would have said that I "knew" a lot about positive reinforcement.
The fact is that I pged_positive reinforcement, but I didn't actually
know or understand the concept.).

The team agreed that assessment of teacher performance in a
classroom setting Should include observation of instruction, evalua-
tion of prepared instructional designs, and interview information
(Stage Five). However, the team wanted to be able to assess and
evaluate a prospective teacher's knowledge Of the mathematics related
assessment, goals/objectives, Strategies, and evaluation behaviors.
The team members discussed their desire to be able to assess and
evaluate the prospective teacher's knowledge prior to his/her appli-
cation of this knowledge in a classroom setting.

The MSU mathematics competency development team thus began
the deve10pment of an evaluation instrument. The team found that
questions related to instructional design tasks could serve as a tool

from which the pre-service teacher's knowledge of behaviors could be

155

evaluated in terms of the recommended mathematics related teacher
behaviors.

Questions relative to the tasks of teaching and related
Specifically to the area of mathematics were developed and admin-
istered to a group of pre-service teachers. (See Appendix K for
revised instructional design assessment tool.) The pre-service
teachers had had prior instruction in mathematics education and the
tasks of teaching. A technique for scoring had been developed from
the instructional designs deve10ped by the competency team members.
The pre-service teachers' responses to the questions, the instruc-
tional design instrument was revised. The revised instrument was
then administered to another group of pre-service teacher education
students. This group of students had previously received instruction
in the "tasks of teaching" model. The instrument was administered to
this group during the first session of their mathematics education
class. At the time the tests were to be scored, the following two
items became apparent: (l) The scoring tool needed to be refined
(see Appendix L for scoring tool). (2) The instructional design
questions appeared to indicate those students possessing the mathe-
matics education knowledge desired by the mathematics competency
team members. At the termination of the data collection period for
this investigation, the instructional design instrument and related
scoring tool were still in the development process.

The competency team's deve10pmental work on an evaluation of
knowledge instrument took them directly to the problem of finding

ways to evaluate a pre-service teacher's ability to apply the

156

knowledge and Skills identified by the team in stage four, that is,
it took them to the stage of developing a means of evaluating

performance (instructional behavior).

 

Stege Five

 

Stage five includes those activities in which the MSU mathe-
matics competency team was engaged in while pursuing the question of
how to reliably describe a pre-service teacher's ability in a class-
room setting to (1) actually produce a plan for the learners based on
the knowledge identified by the team in stage four and (2) actually
carry out the plan. The competency team, therefore, began to work on
instruments for observing pre-service teachers in a classroom setting.

The competency team agreed that the two applied behavioral
science representatives who had previously developed and worked with
descriptive instructional behavior instruments Should initiate the
"strawmen" in this area. The purpose for developing their instru-
ments was to provide a means for assessing and evaluating a perspec-
tive teacher's performance in a classroom setting.

At an earlier Stage in development, the team became aware
that it was important to evaluate a pre-service teacher's ability to
actually carry out instructional design procedures as well as igpie:
mentation of the design (instruction). That is, they should not only
kpgg_how to do instructional design, but they should actually do it
as they teach. The team agreed that the evaluation of a pre-service
teacher in a classroom setting would, therefore, be incomplete if

only actual instruction was evaluated. Hence, they decided that the

157

developmental effort would focus pp£h_on the assessment of a pre-
service teacher's ability to design lessons as well as to successfully
engage in actual instruction.

The two representatives from the area of applied behavioral
science thus began the development of such instruments. A preliminary
instrument was in the process of development at the termination of

the collection of data for this investigation.

Summary

The development team, while beginning their work in stage one,
did not then prOgreSS distinctly from stage to stage. The team could
be found at times operating in two stages and going, for example, from
stage four to stage three. Analysis of the decisions which took the
team from one stage to another indicates that this may have occurred
because the team needed to "discover" each major issue and explore
the ramifications of decisions. At times, decisions made by the team
contributed to lengthy blocks of time which appeared to be nonproduc-
tive. However, during these times, additional information and exper-
iences were gained by the team members providing them with additional
"insight." The team members were able to make use of the additional
experience and knowledge in up-dating previous decisions and/or
developmental directions. Frustrating as it was at times to travel
on "dead-end" roads, the competency team members maintained an opti-
mistic outlook. A plea of "We'll never be able to do it, let's send
back the money!" (participants received no remuneration) was generally
followed by a statement such as "Well, at least we know that's not

the way to do it!"

CHAPTER V

DISCUSSION, IMPLICATIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS

In this final chapter the implications of the findings
reported in Chapter IV are presented. In addition, the implications
and decisions which administrators, university faculties, and other
professionals should be cOgnizant of in establishing competency
development teams are presented in the form of two open letters.

These letters are addressed to (1) university administrators inter-
ested in establishing program development teams for competency-based
instruction and (2) interested "others" who might become or are

active participants in competency development teams. Suggestions for
further research in establishing competency development teams conclude

this chapter and the dissertation.

Findings and Conclusions

 

The first section of this chapter discusses the implications
of the findings reported in Chapter IV relative to the team's composi-
tion, initiation and establishment, and transactions and outcomes.
Many of the implications and discussions of the findings which follow
may be categorized as assumed, expected, or important ingredients for

any collection of individuals joined together to accomplish a given

158

159

task. Therefore, in reporting many of the findings, the results in
and of themselves are not necessarily as Significant as the fact that
they did occur within the MSU mathematics competency development team.
It has been this writer's experience that the characteristics of a
developmental team's composition include common and diverse exper-
iences, interest in the area of development, and reSpect for self and
others. These are certainly highly valued characteristics in the
establishment of any team. In reporting the findings of the MSU
mathematics competency development team, the previously stated highly
valued characteristics were apparent at the team's inception and were

maintained throughout the duration of this study.

Composition of the Competency Team

Examination of the biographical data collected and presented
in Chapter IV indicated that the team possessed both a set of rela-
tively common background experiences and a set of diverse background
experiences. The relatively common background experiences included
K-12 teaching experience, a history of working together on somewhat
similar deve10pmenta1 tasks and a history of university experience in
teacher education. Of the fourteen competency team members, for
example, thirteen individuals had previously had experience in K-12
teaching. The data indicated that the previous teaching experience
included a broad background of K-12 teaching situations. Also at the
outset of the Study all ten of the regular team members were working
on at least one other project which provided them the opportunity to

work in public schools with classroom teachers. These experiences

160

suggest that the team was unlike the stereo-type teacher education
professors who have "seldom been in a classroom” and who deserve the
descriptive "Ivory Tower" label.

Various sets of the team members also indicated a previously
established working relationship. It was not true, however, that
every member of the team had worked with each of the other members
in a prior capacity. Hence, the membership of the competency team
was not composed of a group of people who were "Strangers" or of
individuals who had not previously worked with at least two or three
of the other team members.

Another common experience held by team members was their
previous university teaching experiences in teacher education. All
team members reported having worked in some capacity with prospective
teachers at the university level. The experiences reported ranged
from supervision of pre-service teachers in classroom settings to the
teaching content courses to prospective teachers in campus settings.

The diversity among the team members experiences can be cate-
gorized into three areas: (1) a variety of universities attended by
the team members, (2) a variety of professional organizations in which
team members participate and (3) a variety of "academic" areas in
which the team members hold "expertise."

The team members reported that they attended 21 different
universities while acquiring their higher educations. Thus the team
members brought by virtue perhaps of these diversified educational
experiences, a variety of points—of-view. The differences in exper-

iences and resulting differences in the various positions held by

161

team members may well have contributed to the wide range of positions
that emerged in team discussions.

The second difference among the team members indicated in the
analysis of the biographical data, was the diverseness of the pro-
fessional organizations in which the team members held memberships
and actively participated. The number of professional organizations
to which the team members belong and the degree to which they are
active and regularly attend conferences in the organizations, suggest
that team members value or enjoy communicating with other profession-
als. Thus, the team's "behavior" in terms of seeking relationships
with persons whose backgrounds differ from theirs may indicate that
the team members valued "give and take" discussion on professional
issues.

The third category of diversity was in the "academic" areas
represented. Various team members possessed expertise in mathematics
content, mathematics education, applied behavioral science or educa-
tional research and evaluation. The composition of the team's
membership reflected knowledge in learning, clinical field work,
mathematics content, mathematics instructional methods and research
and evaluation. Thus a diversity in "expert" knowledge was repre-
sented rather than expert knowledge in one area (e.g., a competency
team composed only of mathematics education representatives).

The findings reported in Chapter IV indicate that the
competency team was composed of members who expressed an openness to
learn and a willingness to explore the concept of competency-based

teacher education. An analysis of the data collected by Instrument

162

II--Attitudes toward competency-based teacher education indicated
that the team members were cognizant of and willing to admit that
they could learn more about competency-based teacher education.
While the data indicated a diversity in how much various members
felt they knew about competency-based teacher education, none of the
members indicated they "knew the answers" about the best ways to
proceed. Thus the composition of the team reflected not only an
Openness to learning but also a willingness to participate in the
exploration of a segment of a competency-based teacher education
program.

The findings described in Chapter IV, relative to Instrument
III--Semantic Differential, indicated that the team members held an
attitude of respect for themselves and other team members. For
example, the results of the analysis of the semantic differential
data indicated that team members generally both perceived others and
were perceived by others as good, valuable, fair, gentle, lenient,

weak, safe, fast, easy, active and moving rather than unpleasant,

 

bad, worthless, unfair, violent, severe, strong, dangerous, slow,
labored, passive and still. The MSU faculty representatives' re-
sponses were also reviewed by cluster membership. This review
included an analysis of the faculties' attitudes (in terms of
evaluative, potency, and activity factors) towards the graduate
student members of each cluster. This analysis indicated that there
was little difference between how university faculty members per-

ceived graduate student members and how they perceived other faculty

163

team members. The analysis of the collected data appeared to indicate
also that team members viewed each other as nonthreatening.

Thus, there was not only a diversity in the competency team's
academic background as indicated by their attendance at 21 different
universities and in the variety of professional organizations and
committees in which they were involved but also an indication of
initial respect and trust. These factors may well have contributed
to the team's apparent willingness to participate in the professional
discussions among the competency team members.

The findings that the team valued professional "give and take"
discussions with persons of diverse backgrounds may indicate why the
team appeared to function so well together. By "function well" this
author means that there was amicability, cooperation, and a lack of
hostility among team members whether they were together in (a) team
meetings, (b) sub-team developmental sessions, (c) other professional
tasks, or (d) social situations. For example, during team meetings
and subteam developmental sessions, the various team members exhibited
a persistence in the resolution of differences among the various
philosophical positions. They asked and answered clarifying questions
in an effort to understand and to be understood. Even though these
discussions were often very frustrating to the team members, they
continued to attend the meetings. Thus, the team members did not
suspend their affiliation as a competency team member in the face of
differences in opinion and hard-to-solve problems but instead, they
continued to initiate and participate in the resolution of these

problems.

164

Similarly, the findings that competency team members possessed
an Openness to the study and exploration of competency-based teacher
education may also help explain the team's continuing participation
in the competency team's developmental tasks.

The broad background of relatively common prior K-lZ teaching
experience possessed by the team members may also explain the team
members' empathic responses to the examples of teaching situations
used by various team members. Thus, common knowledge of "real"
potential teacher or pupil responses to problems or materials may
have contributed to the team's ability to clearly communicate and
identify developmental problems (e.g., the meeg_for pupil profile
Sheets on which teacher's could record assessment data).

The findings that suggested that the competency team members
respected themselves and others and were not threatened or perceived
as threatening by others may help explain the team's ability to share
and question contrary Opinions. This could also help explain the
team's willingness to become involved in an ambiguous task (explora-
tory in nature) in which, from the beginning, no one knew how "to
accomplish" it or how to proceed.

While one frequently hears the values of openness and accep-
tance espoused as being important for productive team work, it is
the experience of this writer that frequently the verbally stated
value is not actualized in behavior, as it was for this team.

Administrative mandates that require an entire department to
modify their instruction to a competency-based model, or decisions

made by majority vote that all should move to competency-based

165

instruction are examples of behavior that runs contrary to what we
believe to be important attitudes. Therefore, this writer re-
emphasizes the importance of acting on these values by recommending
that the decision to participate in program deve10pment be left to
individuals.

Initiationignd Establishment of
Competency Team

 

 

The findings reported in this study indicated that the MSU
mathematics competency development team was established through the
initial efforts of MSU faculty and graduate students. This implies
that the movement toward this competency-based teacher education
program was begun as a "grassroots" movement rather than as an ad-
ministrative dictate or mandate. Likewise, individual as well as
team goals and developmental time commitments were identified and
set by the team members without an outside or administrative
influence.

The findings indicate that the team members were not re-
quested to commit themselves for a Specific period of time or until
"previously" specified amounts of development work had been accom-
plished. It was also noted that team members agreed to participate
as often and as long as they could. It was found that the team did
not assign long range deadlines fer themselves. For example, they
did pg£_say, "In two weeks we will have the pre-number pupil out-
comes identified." The findings indicated that, from the beginning,
the team assigned developmental tasks to subteams who accomplished

what they could in an "informally" suggested time limit (e.g.,

166

development of pupil assessment instruments took longer than initially
planned).

Finally, to the initiation and establishment of the competency
team, are the findings reported in Chapter IV which may indicate that
the role of the competency team discussion leader during the initia-
tion and establishment of the MSU competency team may have strongly
contributed to the procedures actually established by the competency
team. For example, the "developmental skills" of questioning, clari-
fying, and explaining modeled by the discussion leader may have
contributed to the team's actual exhibiting of questioning, clarifying,
and explaining behaviors.

The Observed lack of imposed (before the fact) task and/or
times deadline may account for the fact that subteams felt free to
ask that team meetings be postponed at times, because deve10pmental
work involved more time than expected. Likewise this may be one
reason that subteams felt free to ask the total team to meet as they
needed additional input. At times when the team members initiated and
volunteered to do a task, they found that they could not really com-
plete the task which everyone thought could be done in a couple of
hours. This resulted in the members taking the time necessary to do
the task in the way which they were comfortable and satisfied with
outcomes rather than completing "something" to meet a deadline. Thus,
in this writer's opinion the grassroots initiation and lack of imposed
time schedules contributed to the quantity and quality of the team's

developmental work.

167

The absence of imposed deadlines may account for the team
member's willingness to accept the responsibility for continuing
progress in developmental work. For example, on no more than two
occasions did a team member "forget" to work on an assigned task.

Similarly this writer feels that the team's apparent flexi-
bility in this exploratory situation may be accounted for by the
findings that there was an absence of factors being imposed on the
team by administrative or other outside forces. It appeared to this
writer that the team's ability to remain flexible in this develop-
mental situation resulted in a built-in system for self-correction.
For example, a discovery three months into the development work which
required a change in materials developed earlier caused team members
to systematically find out what implication their new decision had.
The team would then review previous discussions and make necessary
changes. This writer feels that the team's ability to continuously
review and make necessary changes was very possibly facilitated by
the presence of flexibility in terms of time and task demands.

This writer also believes that the discussion leader's ability
to function in that role without imposing her leadership, goals, or
time commitment on the team members (that is, they were allowed a
choice in these matters) may have also contributed to the flexibility
and the members' self-acceptance of responsibility.

In addition, the acceptance of reSponsibility by team members
may also have been due to the observed Sharing of leadership. That
is to say, there was not a single person who functioned as 1:_h_e_ leader

for the various aspects of development. For example, during the

168

discussions and decision-making relative to pupil outcomes, the dis-
cussion leader continued to help in facilitating the discussions, but
at the same time the various team members from the areas of mathe-
matics content and mathematics education assumed the leadership for
determining valued pupil outcomes. The leadership of the team was

thus shared from the beginning.

Transactions and Outcomes

 

The findings as reported in Chapter IV indicated that the
competency team's developmental efforts included work on five central
tasks. The findings further indicated that the team members actually
followed a number of non-productive paths while pursuing the develop-
mental tasks. As a result, the team did not progress systematically
through "previously" identified stages but because of the efforts
to continuously answer Specific major questions, the process even-
tually emerged as one which necessarily included the five stages
described by Lanier and Henderson (1973).

Movement through the developmental states was most difficult,
in terms of taking non-productive paths before the necessary stages
became "Obvious." The data most supportive of this generalization
was the factor of developmental time. The observations indicated
that the time it took team members to accomplish a task was greatly
reduced the second time the team members dealt with a given task
(e.g., development of pre-number Objectives then development of
numeration objectives). It is this writer's opinion that the team's

having had to "discover" their way through a stage by identifying the

169

major developmental questions and related deve10pmental procedures for
finding answers may account for the difference in developmental time
needed between the first and second assumption and completion of a
major task. This writer now believes that the MSU mathematics com-
petency team could at this date, based on their common "exploratory"
experiences systematically plan and implement a development task

that would include "deadlines." In other words, with direction in how
development should proceed as indicated by the "developmental stages,"
and having already had the opportunity to "freely" explore the team
would now become more "efficient," in terms of needed time.

As indicated in the findings reported in Chapter IV the MSU
mathematics competency development team agreed to and actually did
arrive at final decisions through consensus. When discussion con-
tinued to the point that the team was divided in that they held at
least two positions on appropriate teacher or pupil behavior (either
based on conflicting research data or an absence of research evi-
dence) the team agreed to accept and teach both positions as accept-
able teacher behavior. In addition, the team then planned to study
both positions. The team members also agreed to base future deci-
sions on the outcomes of the research. The team's willingness to
make decisions in this manner may indicate their respect for empirical
Study and commitment to gather additional evidence for optimal
decision making.

Another observation relative to the team's transactions
concerns the continuing informal nature of their sessions. The

findings as reported in Chapter IV, indicate that from the outset of

170

the team's establishment the characteristic of informality could be
associated with the team's transactions. For example, the team held
the majority of their team meetings during the evenings in the home
of one of the participants. While sitting around on the floor during
the early stages of the meetings participants drank coffee. Meetings
usually ended with some members stretched out on the floor relaxing,
carrying on informal discussions concerning "non-academic" subjects,
and having a drink. During the sessions, team members did not make
formal motions or take formalized votes relative to their develop—
mental decisions. While the team tended to continue to pursue their
tasks it was observed that they were able to break away from the
tOpic at hand and deal with things that were tangentially related.
This did not appear to distract or undermine the developmental out-
comes. Rather it seemed that team members returned to the topic less
frustrated and with renewed energy (e.g., As an extreme example, it
should be noted that on one occasion the team members took a break
from their developmental discussion and unloaded and stacked two
cords of wood for the fireplace. The warmth of the fire was always
enjoyed. AS might be expected, good natured grumbling and kidding
took place.).

The team members'relatively common, positive attitudes toward
themselves, others, and the developmental task may have in part
contributed to the informal nature of the team's relationships. The
informal nature of the sessions may have contributed to the team's
continued ability to function well tOgether. For example, this

writer observed that humor was frequently used to relieve frustration.

171

The Observed skill of the members to deal with frustration may have
contributed in part to their ability to continue, over a long period
of time, to disagree with one another on task related issues and not
on a personal basis. Likewise, the team's ability to continue to
take issue with ideas rather than personalities may have contributed
to the continuing informality of the team's sessions.

An observation relative to the team's outcomes concerns the
continued tentativeness with which the outcomes were viewed by team
members. The findings reported in Chapter IV may indicate that the
team members believed it was alright to make mistakes. The ability
of the team to make developmental decisions necessary for the team's
progress may in part be due to the attitude held by members that it
was alright to make errors. Associated with the members' feeling
that it was alright to make mistakes was the observation that the
team continuously reviewed and up-dated their decisions and the
related materials that were deve10ped. The sample instruments
included in the appendix, for example, are even at the present time

considered to be tentative drafts.

Open Letters

 

The second section of this chapter contains two Open letters
which include recommendations for (l) administrators interested in
the establishment of competency or other program development teams
and (2) "other professional educators" interested in the establish-

ment of competency or other program development teams.

172

To: Education Administrators Interested in the Establishment of
Competency-Based PrOgram Deve10pment Teams

From: A Researcher Who Was Involved in a Participant Observation

Study of a Competency Team

I am writing to you to Share my thoughts relative to contri-
butions you might make in helping your staff develop and implement a
competency teacher education program. The thoughts and feelings I
wish to share are based on a study which I have just completed, of
the composition, establishment, transactions and outcomes of a mathe-
matics competency development team. The results of this study indi-
cated to me the importance of the role which you might play in the
success of the developmental efforts of a competency teacher education
prOgram. i

As an administrator you may not actually be involved as an
active member of a development team but there are other contributions
you can make which will very likely effect the degree of the team's
success. These contributions might be thought of as administrative
Sppport factors. Administrators who value development of competency-
based programs can demonstrate this value by offering support to
staff members who indicate an interest in developing such programs.

The first kind of administrative support to be considered is
that of "time." Presently in a large number of colleges and uni-
versities a faculty member's reSponsibilities are administratively
assigned based on "course credit hours." Time thus, becomes an
important administrative factor initially in terms of "developmental"

activity and later as new programs are implemented in terms of "new

roles" for faculty members.

173

First, let us consider the administrative support factor of
faculty deve10pment time. The competency team members which I studied
volunteered to spend the numerous hours above and beyond their uni-
versity assigned tasks and other professional commitments. It is my
Opinion that these faculty members or others could not reasonably be
expected to carry on the immense program developmental tasks that were
demanded without some extrensic rewards, in addition to their own
intrinsic rewards. That is, I doubt if they would have continued
much longer without some support, such as released time from their
normal teaching or advisement responsibilities, overload compensation,
or other such "Special" considerations. The magnitude of the develop-
mental task appears to necessitate the assistance of an administrator
who will also contribute to the new programs by helping make it pos-
sible for faculty members to begin and continue deve10pment.

I would recommend that once development teams are established,
they first be allowed to proceed without development deadlines through
the time it takes for the team to completely develop one segment of
a given area (e.g., pre-number; identification of pupil outcomes,
prospective teacher knowledge and performances). The team should then
be allowed to develop without deadlines an entire second area using
the refined developmental techniques which they found successful in
the development of the first segment of an area. Then, based on the
results of the team's development of the two segments you might
encourage the team to establish deadlines for their future deve10p—

ment in the area.

174

Another implication relative to the administrative support
factor of time is that of "faculty—student" time. Consider, for
example, that traditionally one faculty member teaches a three credit
hour mathematics course, to approximately 30 Students which requires
about three hours a week of class contact, time for preparation,
time for student conferences, and time for review of student's
written work. Based on the team member's experiences, discussions,
and deve10ped materials, that I worked with, it appears that the
activities in which Students would be involved during class time may
require the presence of more than one staff person. Another factor
which may emerge is faculty observation of students in classroom
settings. It is conceivable that in addition to the faculty member's
traditional reSponsibilities encountered when teaching a three credit
course, that there may be nine or more hours a week required for
observations of students in classrooms. Even if specially trained
observers did the in-school observations for on—campus instructors,
the instructors would still need time for conferences with the
observers. Competency-based instruction appears to necessitate more
actual teaching time. Thus, as an education administrator you could
demonstrate your value for new education programs by redesigning
systems typically used for the assignment of faculty responsibilities.

The administrative support factor of additional time cannot
be considered, of course, independent of the monetary factor. I
would urge that you Offer support for faculty deve10pment of new
programs both through program budgets and personal remuneration.

Budgets for experimental programs and for implementation and

175

continuing revision of prOgrams can offer support to faculty members
involved in new program development. It seems to me that faculty
members involved in prOgram development would lose their commitment
to development if they could see no way that money can be provided
so the program could be tried. It also would appear that a budget
for the implementation of new programs would encourage other faculty
members to initiate new program development. In addition, persons
engaged in development cannot get feedback on the worthwhileness of
their ideas and products unless provided the Opportunity to work with
actual students. Thus, experimental programs need to be available
for testing the outcomes of developmental efforts.

The second monetary support factor involves personal remunera-
tion. I would encourage you to consider a program development factor
in the determination of faculty members' promotions and salaries.
Thus, as an administrator you could demonstrate your value for
faculty member involvement in the development of new programs by
rewarding those who assume added reSponsibilitieS that require risk
taking, ambiguity, and continuous growth.

Within the discussions relative to administrative support for
new programs through the factors of time and money, a third general
administrative support factor has been implied. The third factor
involves administrative support for a "variety" of programs. It
would seem to me that one strength of the development of a variety
of new programs is that opportunities for various questions to be
researched will arise. I further believe that no one program can

realistically be expected to develop the necessary counter prOgrams

176

in order to research important questions. I think that faculty
members committed to a given philosophical approach should be able
to develop and research that program. These same faculty members
while being aware of the critical questions Should not also be ex-
pected to develop other programs so that comparative research neces-
sary can be completed. Thus as an administrator who has supported
the deve10pment of more than one program you can eventually get
empirical evidence for use in decision making. As a final recommenda-
tion, I would suggest that you furnish interested persons with
thought-provoking materials with descriptions and prescriptions
relative to how other competency development teams have proceeded
in their developmental work. The trial and error effort is most
difficult and learning from the experiences of others will be helpful.
The competency-based movement and the excitement it can
generate appears to me to be a powerful stimulant for identifying
means to improve existing teacher education programs. I hope you
will provide stimulation and support for those faculty who are

interested.

To: Professional Educators Interested in Establishing and Actively
Participating in Competency Development Teams

From: A Researcher Who Was Involved in a Participant Observation
Study of a Competency Team
I am writing to you in order to share with you some thoughts
relative to competency-based program development. The thoughts and
feelings I wish to Share with you are based on the study of a

competency team which I have just completed.

177

You may find the following recommendations helpful if you are
an educator interested in actively participating in the development of
new teacher education prOgrams. As a professional educator actively
involved in new prOgram development you may find yourself considering
questions such as "How do I initiate and establish a competency
development team?" "What do others suggest relative to the composi-
tion of such a team?" "What transactions and outcomes can be
expected?" "What would others who have been involved as competency
development team participants recommend?" Thus, the following
recommendations concerning factors relative to establishment and
composition, transactions and outcomes are presented for your
consideration. Let us first consider the factors involved in the
establishment of a team and the related leadership factors.

I would recommend that if you are responsible for the future
establishment of a competency team that you initiate procedures
through the use of informal discussion sessions. At these meetings
it is recommended that you describe for potential participants the
exploratory nature of the developmental task and the various roles
which might be necessary in order for development to proceed. I
would further recommend that during initial discussion meetings you
frequently request feedback relative to all proposals and suggested
roles. It is important that as a leader you use Skills which will
not only elicit responses but also will demonstrate an acceptance and
interest in the feedback received.

I strongly urge that from the time of your initial contact

with potential participants, you also demonstrate those Skills you

178

would wish to see the future competency team members use. For example,
if you as a leader of a potential competency team value openness and
acceptance of diverse ideas and/or people you need to make this known
to others. Likewise, if you value outcomes which have been reached
through consensus agreement rather than majority rule, you need to
demonstrate collaborative behaviors from the start.

In conjunction with the leadership role, I would suggest that
while team members may decide to have a single discussion leader
throughout the duration of their developmental work, discussion
leaders should encourage various team members to assume other develop-
mental leadership roles. That is, as various aspects of development
arise, members having a related expertise should be encouraged to
assume leadership.

Another factor which you as a competency team participant may
want to consider is that of "deadlines." Based on my experience with
the mathematics competency team I would recommend that during the
initiation of a competency development team the issue of developmental
deadlines be considered, and that initially no long-range developmental
deadlines be imposed by any team participant. I would strongly
recommend that teams deveIOp one entire module cluster (e.g., pre-
number) without developmental deadlines. (This would includeidenti-
fying factors relative to desired pupil outcomes, prospective teacher
content knowledge and performances, knowledge of teaching performances
and implementation of instructional design and instruction in class-
room settings.) This would allow the team, from its inception, the

freedom to explore, discuss, test materials and revise until they are

179

satisfied with the developmental results. As a team member you may
then possibly not feel the need to produce a product which lacks
quality and depth just to have something produced by a given deadline.
It will also help decrease anxiety. It is suggested that once the
team has completed their development of the first segment they develOp
an entire second module cluster (e.g., numeration). Then, based on a
team's previous two developmental experiences a team Should then set
developmental deadlines for their future development tasks. This
procedure is recommended because it is simply not possible to set
realistic deadlines before this time. How long any given task will
take is dependent upon the knowledge and skill levels of expertise
held by team members.

Factors regarding the selection of the initial team members
should also be given serious consideration. While it may be assumed
that most leaders would naturally value and consider the following
factors, I wish to stress the importance for you as a potential leader
to demonstrate your value for the characteristics. The first factor
suggested for consideration is that of a team member's Openness to
exploring and learning about factors related to the development of
competency-based programs. A second factor for consideration is a
person's openness and respect for people with experiences and Opinions
which are diverse from their own. For example, this writer would
recommend that peOple who display characteristics of openness and
respect be encouraged to participate as team members.

I believe that there are a large number of problems related

to the establishment and development of new teacher education

180

programs (e.g., competency-based programs). It is essential that the
people trying to establish and develop new teacher education pro-
grams at least begin their tasks with the support of those partici-
pating in the task. This is not to say that team members need to
initially agree on philosophical or practical points, but rather

that they agree to begin by Sharing, identifying and attempting to
find solutions that will capitalize on the differences. The support
needed is encouragement to begin and to collaborate.

It would also be strongly urged that individuals from differ-
ent "academic" areas join tOgether in a developmental project (e.g.,
representatives from the areas of basic content, methods, applied
behavioral science and research and evaluation). In addition, if
the team members with diverse academic backgrounds have shared some
previous relatively common experiences I feel they will have an
easier time in establishing and maintaining communication. I believe
that these mutual experiences (e.g., teaching experiences, working
on other deve10pmental tasks) help to provide respect and credibility
between and among the team members I studied who had diverse
academic expertise.

As a professional educator interested in establishing a com-
petency team, you may wish to consider some additional recommendations
relative to transactions and outcomes. I would recommend that edu-
cators involved in the development of competency-based programs first
consider the philosophical questions relative to "what" competency-
based teacher education means. Questions relative to the desirability

of identifying pupil outcomes, related to prospective teacher content

181

and performance knowledge, and related performances Should be re-
solved. I feel that a team's development work will be facilitated
if they initially discuss questions relative to their proposed out-
comes. For example, a team may initially value identification of
pupil outcomes, but a team may not know whether or not they wish to
eventually consider pupil outcomes as part of the evaluation of a
prospective teacher's competency. Yet, identifying what a team does
value may contribute to the initiation of developmental work. The
knowledge and experiences gained as a team works may in return con-
tribute to the solution of unresolved questions. Thus, I would
recommend that members of competency teams actually begin develop-
ment work before all possible questions and problems are discussed.
My experience with the mathematics competency team has led me to
believe that a competency team can make progress without first
resolving all problems. In fact, it has been my experience that some
presupposed problems may not even become problems.

Relative to a team's transactions and outcomes, I would
strongly recommend that you consider the five developmental stages
I have described in my dissertation and which have been further
described by Lanier and Henderson (1973). Consideration of the five
developmental Stages may at the very least help you and other members
of your team clarify positions relative to competency-based programs.
You may eventually find a useful framework from which to advance your
deve10pmental work.

As a member of a team you may wish to consider "consensus"

as it relates to a development team's transactions and outcomes. By

182

"consensus" I mean that a team's decisions are reached through agree-
ment by all team members without members giving up their position
just to continue developmental work. If positions are changed, it
Should be because one Sincerely believes the change is an appropriate
one to make. For example, as team members you will need to know all
sides of an issue concerning either a philosophical or practical
question. During the discussion of a particular topic or idea,
various members may become aware of related factors which cause them
to change their positions, resulting in members reaching common
agreement. At the same time, team members may have at their disposal
knowledge of research which may support two or more of the various
positions held by the team members. Similarly team members may find
that they are unable to find any evidence other than personal opinion
to support their various positions. If this occurs, the best fOunded
alternatives should be accepted and the problem cited as a needed
research question. Thus, while developmental teams need to con-
tinuously inquire into the validity of both the identified desired
pupil and prOSpective teacher behaviors they can agree to tentatively
accept pp£h_positions while making special arrangements to collect
more evidence relative to the "no best answer" tOpics. Thus, I would
strongly recommend that competency teams use the process of reaching
agreement by consensus rather than other means (e.g., majority rule).
Relative to a team's transactions, I would recommend that the
leaders of competency teams consider recording a team's transactions

and outcomes as they occur. The team I worked with found that such

183

records contributed to the consistency in materials deve10ped and to
the clarification and resolution Of problems.

A final recommendation I prOpose would encourage future
competency teams to explore various organizational schemes for
developmental tasks. For example, a sub-team consisting of two
people may expedite a particular task which the total team Cannot
resolve. However, this does not imply that the total team should not
react to a sub-team's conclusions and recommendations. Based on my
experience, I would speculate that if the total team does not syste-
matically react to all efforts produced by a sub-team, there may
arise inconsistencies and/or lack of identification and resolution of
diverse opinions.

Finally, I must share with you my conclusion based on the
experience I had with the mathematics competency team, that as an
active member of such you can expect a lot of hard work. While we
were involved in all the extra work, however, we found that the inter-
action among members was both exciting and stimulating. You will
probably find, as we did, that ideas you have held for a long time
are questioned and challenged by others. Also throughout the course
of development, you will undoubtedly discover a number of times that
your course of development has taken you down a blind alley. While I
know that the blind alleys and hard work will contribute to your
discouragement at times, I am confident that you will be able to look
back and see the vast amount you have learned. I found the growth to

be worth the costs. I hope you do too.

184

Suggestions for Further Research

The scope and sequence of relationships appropriate to the

composition, initiation and establishment, and transactions and out-

comes of competency teacher education programs should be investigated

continuously. No Single "best way" will be devised for the develop—

ment of competency-based programs for prospective teachers, but more

efficient and effective ways can be developed by imaginative research.

The following suggestions for additional investigations are offered as

a result of this Study.

1.

The factors of trust, respect, and balance of diverse and
common background experience be further operationalized and
considered as potentially Significant variables for future
research. Further evidence of their contribution to the team
members' ability to discuss diverse ideas while participating
in ambiguous situations should be gathered.

Allowing competency team members the freedom to choose,
diverse and explore, at the instigation of a competency team
appears to contribute to the team members' future productivity
in terms of being willing emg_able to proceed efficiently and
effectively towards the development of qualitative competency-
based programs. More study of this "hypothesis" is obviously
needed.

Still other questions center around the nature of shared
leadership. While it "appears" important to this writer,
future research will be needed to better understand its

relationship to "successful" collaboration.

185

Based upon the results of this Study, the knowledge of the
five developmental stages could provide a useful system of
organization for development and thus assist others wishing
to develop competency-based programs. Well-controlled compara-
tive studies of the outcomes of teams which use the "compe-
tency stages" framework with those that do not, could provide
additional evidence of the utility of the framework. In
addition, future descriptive reports concerning the develop-
mental activities of competency teams should provide useful
information relative to useful transactions as well as
outcomes.

Another variable that appears to be important to the success
(continued effort and eventual outcomes) of a competency team
is the member's Openness and willingness to explore the concept
of competency-based teacher education programs. It appears
to this writer that the amount of actual knowledge about
competency-based teacher education possessed by team members
may not be as important as the willingness to explore and
learn. Likewise, it is felt that the team members displaying
a "I already know everything" attitude might well "turn-off"
the open and exploring members. Similarly this writer feels
that open hostility by team members toward the concept to be
explored or other team members could make the deve10pmental
situation so unpleasant that participants would soon find
that they were really "too busy to get involved." Perhaps in

future Studies of the outcomes and transactions of competency

186

teams which include "hostile" members will be reported. This

type of data is, of course, needed if the presented hypothesis

is to be tested and the findings generalized.

6. This writer concludes that an important contribution is made
by a balance between relatively common and diverse background
experiences to a team's transactions and final outcomes. Thus
this writer believes that the factors involved in a balance
between common and diverse experiences should receive further
study.

When answers to some of the abOVe questions and problems are
discovered, a better understanding of the important roles and func-
tions of a competency developmental team will result. Hopefully,
answers to these questions will also help guide decisions on current

and future research.

REFERENCES

REFERENCES

Becker, H. S. SociOIOgical work. Chicago: Aldine Publishing Co.,
1970.

 

Becker, H. S., 6 Geer, B. Participant observation and interviewing:
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APPENDICES

APPENDIX A

INSTRUCTIONS AND LIST OF MINIMAL OBJECTIVES

FOR MATHEMATICS EDUCATION IN MICHIGAN

APPENDIX A

INSTRUCTIONS AND LIST OF MINIMAL OBJECTIVES

FOR MATHEMATICS EDUCATION IN MICHIGAN

T0: Bill Fitzgerald, Lauren Woodby, Perry Lanier, Dave O'Neil,
Paul Kacanek, Jackie Resh, Bill Cole, Bob Scrivens

FROM: Joyce Putnam

Enclosed are the objectives from the Minimal Program Objectives for
Mathematics Education in Michigan, which relate to Whole Numbers,
(Counting, numeration, properties, Operations, and number theory),

as defined by the TTT Mathematics Competency team, during their meeting
on April 4, 1972.

 

 

Your reaction to the desirability of these student behaviors would be
appreciated at this time. Simply check the appropriate column. Please
add any objectives or behaviors which you feel are not specified by

the printed objectives but would be desirable.

Your responses will be compiled and based on the results we will
develop the first common stimulus instrument. From this instrument,
which you will receive at the April 27th meeting, we hope to begin to
identify mathematics related teaching behaviors.

I would appreciate receiving your responses, if possible, before
Monday, April 24, 1972.

Thanks for your help.

193

194

AN APPENDAGE

 

Please assign an importance rating to each objective by placing

a number corresponding to the importance weight you believe the object-

ive deserves in the right hand margin. The 1 to 5 scale is defined as

follows:

1.

Essential: I would continue teaching this objective until it was

mastered.

Very Important: I would re-teach this objective at least three

times if not mastered during initial instruction.

Important: I would re-teach this objective as least twice if not

mastered during initial instruction.

Of Little Importance: I would teach one lesson on this, but if it
was not mastered by the learner, I would
pgt_bother to re-teach.

Not Important: I would not have this as a purposefully planned

part of my instruction.

 

195

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

   

 

 

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221

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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mucoEEou we“ nonmauxm fimuxv mo>wuoonno auHmOHm canoe

APPENDIX B

INSTRUCTIONS AND INSTRUMENT I--

BIOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION FORM

 

APPENDIX 8

INSTRUCTIONS AND INSTRUMENT I:
BIOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION FORM

TO: Henri Barns, Walt Brown, Joe Byers, Bruce Cheney, Bill Cole,
Gerald Duffy, Bill Fitzgerald, Judy Henderson, Paul Kacanek,
Perry Lanier, Dave O'Neil, Jackie Resh, Bob Scrivens, Bob Stone,
and Lauren Woodby

Included in this packet are three instruments, which we hOpe will help
us in describing the people that are or may be involved in some

aspect of the development of the TTT'Competency Based Teacher Lducation
Program

In the future some of you may be asked to again respond. (For example:
The people involved in the development of the mathematics competency
criteria will be asked to respond to the same or similar instruments
at the end of Spring term or during next Fall term.)

We appreciate your taking the time to respond and we will make every
effort to fully use the information in a worthwhile manner. It is

our hope that others interested in developing Competency Based Teacher
Education Programs will benefit from our experiences.

You will find enclosed:

l. Instrument I Biographical Information Form

2. Instrument II Statements of concepts related to Competency
Based Teacher Education Programs

3. Instrument III Scales and the names of people you are and/or
may be working with during TTT prOgram
development.

4. Return envelope Mail the three above completed forms in
the self-addressed envelOpe.

Thank you for your cooperation.

Joyce Putnam

Judith E. Henderson

222

223

INSTRUMENT I - BIOGRAPHICAL INFORMAT ION FORM

The first instrument is a Biographical Information form. It is the
first in the series of three instruments, which we hope will help
us in describing the people that are or may be involved in some
aspect of the development of the TTT Competency Based Teacher Educa-
tione Program.

We have gathered all the information available to us through the
University. This information has been recorded on your form in an
effort to diminish your task. If the recorded information is incorrect,
please change it.

We would very much appreciate it if you would complete the form by
providing the missing information.

224

B I OGRAPI 11 CAL I NFORMAT 1 ON

The fellowing questions are asked in an effort to determine what each

individual is "bringing to" the TTT‘program development. This infor-

mation will be used in the description of participants in a Competency
Criteria Development team. (e.g., Mathematics)

If any of the information already entered on your form is incorrect,

please change it. we would appreciate your providing the information
where we have been unable to obtain it.

Name Date of Birth

 

1. Schools Attended: Degree:

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

2. What is your present University Rank?

 

3. What is your primary Department affiliations?

 

4. What is your primary discipline affiliation? Please indicate the
approximate percentage of time spent in this area

 

 

(ANSWER ONLY IF DIFFERENT FROM DEPARTMENT AFFILIATION.)

5. Please indicate the approximate percentage of time you spend in the
following:

A. Teaching

B. Research (Brief description if possible)

 

 

C. Service (Brief description or examples, if possible) __

 

 

10.

225

What courses do you most usually teach?

 

 

What memberships in professional associations do you hold?

 

What is the total number of years of full time public school class-

room teaching experience you have had? Was any of this in
secondary schools? Was any of this experience in
elementary schools? Was any of this experience in junior

high schools?

What was the termination date of your last full time public school
classroom teaching experiences?

What is the total number of years of experience other than public
school classroom teaching? Please specify dates and
nature of experiences.

 

 

 

APPENDIX C

INSTRUCTIONS AND INSTRUMENT II--ATTITUDES

RELATIVE TO THE CONCEPT OF PERFORMANCE/

COMPETENCY~BASED TEACHER EDUCATION

 

APPENDIX C

INSTRUCTIONS AND INSTRUMENT II--ATTITUDES
RELATIVE TO THE CONCEPT OF PERFORMANCE/
COMPETENCY-BASED TEACHER EDUCATION

INSTRUMENT II - ATTITUDES RELATIVE TO THE CONCEPT OF PERI’OIU‘IANCE/
COMPETENCY-BASED TEACHER EDUCATION

INSTRUCTIONS: Included in this booklet is a series of statements
related to Competency Based Teacher Education Programs and their
development. The procedure we have chosen to measure your reactions
to various concepts related to Competency Based Teacher Education
PrOgrams is to have you indicate the degree to which you agree or dis-
agree with each of the statements.

HOW TO USE THE SCALE:

If your feelings about a statement are very closely related to one end
of the scale, for example, if you stron 1 disagree or agree with the
following statement, respond as follows:

I think Competency Criteria Teacher
Education Program should be developed . Z 3 4 S o 7
or
1 2 3 4 5 o I

If your feelings are quite closely related to one end of the scale, for
example you disagree or agree with the statement, then you should respond
as follows:
1l34so7
or
12345I7

If your feelings are, however, only slightly related to one end of the
scale respond accordinlgy:

12l4so7
01‘
1234.07

If you are not sure or undecided how you feel about a statement, you

should respond:
123lso7

226

l.

10.

227

I feel I understand the concept
of Competency Based Criteria
Teacher Education Programs.

I feel it is important that
Competency Based Criteria Teacher
Educations PrOgrams be developed.

I feel I can contribute to the
development of a Competency Based
Teacher Education PrOgram.

I think competency criteria for
Professional Teaching Behaviors
can be identified.

I think competency criteria for
Professional Teaching Behaviors
should be identified.

I think competency criteria for
Professional Teaching Behaviors
which cross content areas can be
identified.

I think competency criteria for
Professional Teaching Behaviors
related to specific content
areas can be identified. (e.g.,
mathematics, reading)

I think Professional Teaching
Behaviors can be identified
by teams of university faculty.

I think Professional Teaching
Behavior should be identified
by teams of iEiversity faculty.

I think Professional Teaching
Behaviors, (related to math.,
reading) can be best identified
by UniverSity teams composed of
personnel specializing in the
same content area.

 

STRONGLY DISAGREE

H

DISAGREE

N

SLIGHTLY DISAGREE

(A

UNDECIDED

A

SLIGHTLY AGREE

U1

AGREE

0‘

STRONGLY AGREE

\l

ll.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

228

1 think Professional Teaching
Behaviors can be identified

by University teams composed

of personnel from one Department
ment.

I think Professional Teaching
Behaviors can be identified
by UniverSity teams composed
of personnel from various
university Departments. (e.g.,
English, Education, Math.)

I think Professional Teaching
Behaviors should be identified
by Univer51ty teams composed
of personnel from various
University Departments.

I think Professional Teaching
Behaviors can be identified by
University teams composed of
personnel from content related
Departments, Teacher Education,
and public school teachers.

 

I think Professional Teaching
Behaviors should be identified
by UniverSity teams composed
of personnel from content
related Departments, Teacher
Education, and public school
teachers.

I feel I can contribute to the
identification of Professional
Teaching Behaviors related to
my content area.

I am willin to contribute time
to identify the Professional

Teaching Behaviors related to my

COIltCI'lt area .

STRONGLY DISAGREE

DISAGREE

SLIGHTLY DISAGREE

UNDECIDED

SLIGHTLY AGREE

AGREE

STRONGLY AGREE

18.

19.

20.

21.

22.

23.

24.

25.

229

I think that once Professional
Teaching Behaviors have been
identified, it will be possible
for instruments to be developed.

I would use information about
the actual teaching behaviors
of my students.

I would use information about the
actual teaching behaviors of my
students as part of their
evaluation for my class, if they
had a concurrent teaching
experience.

I would use information about
the actual teaching behaviors
of my students as part of the
evaluation I make of my course.

I feel I understand the concepts
of Assessment, Goal Setting,
Objectives, Strategies, and
Evaluation, which are currently
being taught to MSU Teacher
Education students.

I think teacher education students
learn teaching behaviors through
the example (model) I present as I
teach them.

I feel it is important for Teacher
Education faculty to model teaching
behaviors they wish students to
use.

I think I model the teaching
behaviors I want my students to
use when they are teaching.

STRONGLY DISAGREE

DISAGREE

SLIGHTLY DISAGREE

UNDECIDED

SLIGHTLY AGREE

AGREE

STRONGLY AGREE

20.

27.

28.

29.

230

I am interested in learning more
about the development of Competency
Based Teacher Education Programs.

I think Teacher Education faculties
at other universities can benefit
from knowledge about the development
of a Competency Based Criteria
Teacher Education program at LSU.

I plan to incorporate competency
based instruction in planning
courses I teach in the future.

I am now using competency based
instruction in planning for
the courses I teach.

STRONGLY DISAGREE

DISAGREE

SLIGHTLY DISAGREE

UNDECIDED

SLIGHTLY AGREE

AGREE

STRONGLY AGREE

APPENDIX D

INSTRUCTIONS AND INSTRUMENT III--

SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL

APPENDIX D

INS'I'RUIVIENI' III - SEWWl'IC DIFFERENTIAL

INSTRUCTIONS: The procedure we have chosen to measure your reactions to

the various people you might work with on the'TTT Competency Based Teacher
Education Program is to have you judge each against a set of descriptive
scales. The people whose names appear at the top of each page are individuals
available in the development of the TTT Competency Based Teacher Education
Program. If you do not know the person whose name appears at the top of a
page, you will have very little reaction to them and they should be given a
neutral rating.

You have been asked to indicate your reactions to 15 people and yourself. The
page what you are to indicate responses about yourself has been titled
”MYSELF."

HOW TO USE THE SCALES:
If you feel that the person whose name appears at the top of the page is very

closely related to one end of the scale, for example, if you see SUSAN COLSON
as extremely active or passive, respond as follows:

Active I 2 3 4 s o 7 Passive
01"
Active 1 2 3 4 5 6 I Passive

If you feel that the person is quite closely realted to one end of the scale,
as for example in the case where you feel that MYSELF is veEy strong or weak,
respond accordingly:

Strong 1 I 3 4 s o 7 Weak
Strong 1 2 3 4 5 I 7 Weak
If, however, you see only a slight relationship to one end of the scale, for

example, if you react to SUSAN COLSUN as being only slightly positive or
negative, then you should respond:

Positive 1 2 | 4 S o 7 Negative
or
Pos itive l 2 3 4 U 0 7 Negative

If both sides of the scale are equally associated with the person, if the
scale is completely irrelevant or unrelated to the person, or if you do not
know the person, then you should respond:

Active 1 2 3 | 5 6 7 Passive

AS YOU RESPOND:

Take a few seconds to think about the person and the scales.

Make each response a separate and independent judgment.

3. It is your first considered impression that we want. Please don't labor or
puzzle over any scale.

NH
0 o

231

violent
unpleasant
lenient
fair

weak

bad
unenjoyable
light
passive
still
worthless
safe

fast

labored

EXTREMELY

VERY

N

SAM

SLIGHTLY
NEUTRAL

(A

232

SMITH

«5

SLIGHTLY

VERY

U1

0‘

Please enter and code the
last 4 digits of your
Social Security number.

EXTREMELY

\J

gentle
pleasant
severe
unfair
strong
good
enjoyable
heavy
active
moving
valuable
dangerous
slow

easy

APPENDIX E

SUMMARY OF PARTICIPANTS' RESPONSES TO

THE RANKING OF OBJECTIVES

APPENDIX E

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eye:

gee:

:ufla

:HSA

:ufla

:ufla

Pro—number

Objective

11.1..L1.11111111111111111111111111111111111

0011012233977323902554FJ5111
1111111111 .1111 1111111111

4993579745 884
1... 111 111 (.1...
3333334333224333212332333333223232322223
1111111111113121221...322221111112232323112
111111111111111.1111122331111111221433113

222223233~3113223122222223333223331222111

222311313321~3313233333221111223332222113

l121221322213332113333332225111331333222

1234567009

10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40

233

234

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fleece

oeou

.aex .eu gee:

ucopcou sum?

.ex eceeeou see:

.aex .eu sesa
.aex .ep gee“
.eee .ep saga

anerat ion

11111 1111111111111111111111111111155221111

88990 050303 0
11111111

0390700022127 713 1.17 783808966
1 11.11 .1 1.1. .11 1 ll

)HZZZZ 14433337Q23333322 1122117423331143331233

74273.34 43232333333322~32212223~Dll44279321~3~33n33

1111.1 1111111.11111111111111111.111111.111.11.133

11.111 .1111111.1111111111111111112111133111133

1111112111111111.11111111133313111143111122

1.1.11]l4242423792222111111542213111131111122

l

2

3

4
S

(

7

8

9

0
11
13
15
16
17
19
20
21
23
24
25
26
27
29
30
31
32
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42

235

desi .3 5e...“

H6509

eeou

.mez 6m fiat
.994. ucoucou ~39...
.mem pcepcoc see:
.mox .eu 5m:
.aex .3 new:
.med .3 5m:

Nume rat i on

11111131311le1

01.800772017730070
1.1.1 1 1

6L2222~3321179127a

)bznrallZllesn/ulzd

10
11

lllllSllZZZZlZfi/g

111111111111111

211111111121111

11111234113111]

43

44
45

40

47

48

49

50
51

52

53

54

SS

50
S7

322Idea/ulllllll11.333322792273213

10
9

32.,32322

2112212

220“].121

1111111

1111111

211113111

17290992222020111113
.1 1 .1 11111111111111
112222233332312742333
32322222222332333222
11111121111211111111

112222111111111111111.

21111112222133222222

31312113333112222223

236

.mex .ep :Hsa
Hench

been

.moz .wu cum:

.aem pceucou Lem:

dam 28.83 fie:

.mez .ep £931
.aez .em new:
.aex .wm gum:

Numeration

32.1122

11
14
13
13
13
15

332223

134434

42.3.3.3.3.3

7.32233

86
87
88
89
9O
91

Addition

1.111i11117azuzuli1ilili1.

1

11

3212113222322

121111~3~311111

1111112111211

1111112111111

1311312111111

1111115322121

117.ZDA.R.AU7IQqunu
1

1
1

2
1

7).

51111151155511

13xv7.RuRuRu7aososnunuiiRuzs
1 1 111 1

32222222222223

11111112222324

11111111111111

21111121111111

31111131133311

32122232211113

14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27

Subtraction

123

237

.gmm .nu gas“
Hmpog
mmou
.mwz .nm saga

.Qmm pcoucou :Hfla

.mom acoucou :umz

3m .B fin:
.amm .wm gum:
.amm gxiapgd

Subtraction

1IZSFJS~353555555555

1939991212999998990
1 l 11. l

.QZZSZOLZZSSSZZSZZZS

«22212 22232222111113

111111111111111221

112111121111111111

113111233111111112

32322233111222222

Multiplication

1111111111

1190114788
11 1111
3433332222
2212233111
1111112111

2111121111

1111113111

2222313122

238

.aom .um

.mom .um

.mmm pcopcou

.mom acoucou
.aom .um
.aom .um
.aom .nm

cum:

HmpOH

ovou

can:

cum:

sum:

cum:

cum:

cum:

Multiplication

11111555115511.1515

10
10

”UAAnU,U.4.Un8
1111 111111

OJ

0

l
1

1
1

02 415
11 111

«Lain/“22222222222222

17222233~3233333333

11122313111111~322

11111122211111.1112

223313.,33113313313

32121333111122223

11
12
13

14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21

22
23

24
25

20
27

Division

11111111321111111225

40973222311233.31114317
11 11111111111111111

~32232322222322222222

27212211223333333~3335

11111111211111112113

1.111111111111112

111

41142333133331113312

333343443232333333313

12345678901234567890
111111111112

APPENDIX F

SAMPLE MEMDRANDUM

APPENDIX F

SAMPLE MEMORANDUM

M E M O R A N U U M

—————_————o

TO: B. Fitzgerald, L. Woodby, B. Cole, B. Scrivens, P. Kacanek,
J. Resh, D. O'Neil, H. Barnes, B. Stone, K. welsh, J. Henderson

FROM: Joyce Putnam

REMINDER: Thursday
May 4, 1972
1:00 to 3:00 p.m.
214 A - Wells Hall
Mathematics Team Working Session

239

APPENDIX G

FIRST SYNTHESIZED PRE-NUMBER OBJECTIVES, AND

FINAL PRE-NUMBER MODULE OBJECTIVES

Maia BOHHo=DOih

.vuAupoaov

anacauoe uu «use ouaauuuu-
uwuuoaau d On nuavuouon
Soc—do :3 3:. 306.33 23
J»: «0 has»: a 3 v3.3. 0..

 

Eng H9630 :3 35 38:3 no a: u 830 .q
A.wo.uuu¢uu. on ..vousoauuua
um<H onupanosm «an unuuouov u~«:.o£ ..o #3
pznuunbun unusuaoo .aauuuuuuaooC—u can uou egocenunu
0:0 uuoauo ou aduuauo add: can
gain as on ou0>Ooouv on uQAu onaunbuuuua
and: hunt on a“ uuUOnao has an weavuouou nuuonao
@2330 3 I3 3:33am 93- 3t. hounded 05 is;
announce can huuouauu uo auUwua> a a“ voqum on coo
a: zoo and: 50:3 so: awn» ouuonao no you a aubuu .m
“ma. 3:959:
Hzmcmmpzoo nummuzoc
To». .2393
ucaoo van ouuu «aim .uubuuau .oA-su .ouaa .hOnOo
«a manic Auooaa new ..w.ov .ouuuu out ussu nuoumaflu
snack no .uo~Ou neon . nus“ nuodnao one. ufima unmaoz
may no ooaauqa and!» nachos“ ogu .auaawuuuc mumuwm ousuxoh
125 ”quH .auw;oosu a up ahao vmuLOm on cwu onwm
xuwfla vac vac ..moa urn» muuoano «0 who « Cm>uo .N. oguzm
ucaou
pro Luauowmdw
"c. .. “cane “ma; piuhm.a ousnfiuuu< ofiuaflm
xm<h «an ..2flfia-~uw sump: nan as; “cofiuaofimwmmuau
onH—2600mm wwgpuwo. g a .ghowwno no gum a um,uo -~
muaoaaoo new moameuxm mo>wuoonno.a¢mwmum . i agave:
hoaa=Zuoum .<

Nn\Ha\m

 

GOflHdkO—uflz ... HOD—=32

240

241

 

Um<h IOHHDDnafln
hzuulflblbc IFH‘UZOO

M93. ZOHHUH 90m...
hzmomm>zoo NHQMUZOO

¥m<H
nOHFquoomm mhmxozog

um<h
monknzuooum uhmzuzoo

mucossou can mowmsmxm

.uuoonao undo” on» so“: «on
any can: can ouuonao umoa «Au
and: you can can: can noon
uoiaabuavoiloa on» cuouuu
nu“: noun-cu onu .oqunao
"coda—'3 0.3.! no u... '50

.m: . uuuawpwvan can aumuuu
"w i L.uuwtw can .uuumnno
maugusoum ooze we Nun cuvmw

.ouuomna unofi msu sud: uwa
any was «nooaso nomad mgu nuoz
own any huduouva and: ovauuofl
nag .muuonao Huuduauva «9
mat» uau~o>usvusaoc can capuo

.anamrwzvn

ouc may» as» Logu mo«nua~oxo
no .uauuowoo .ouovnpo ax»
wauuwaaouadfi an Ounuuocoaov
«.*3 noouco~ any .ouoouno
Huuausovu «0 nova can ao>ue

mo>wwoonoo amwwonm

nu.u=ouv
mousafiuuu< ofluafim

":ofiuuofimHmmanu

canvas

242

Hasu BIBQIHDIDO
al< BIIQIIDHQ fluflluzao

.ouoonao can and

can you silsuo hol.ou

Inga IOHPUDnQflu
hnflunlblbo nun-uzoo

..uouuua .«a ouooodase "do:

0‘ .ouoonao «c you ouoouaoao o
abbau cos: ‘a- Iuouuon I ouoouo
«:3 ago.— 30 730 .0:-
.ouIAo .uOuoo .....v auscuuuuo
coo halo «c canon any oo
un-ucuuuv .uoonao on you - capo»

.ouoonao «o

no. o.louu.nluuoOuoo .Iuoauoo
«an 3.32.3 «stun-Bun: 05
A.ouo .ouu. .omono .uouoo ..u.ov
cannuuuuo coo huoo no nus-a

ago no unououuuv uncanao cool
no noun» ou«oo.nuouuon I oo>ao

 

naih IOHHUDDQNN
quudubzco nflmuuzoo

Mm<H BOHPoDnoum
Hlnumubun uhuxuzoo

A.uuo .ooonn
van uauwol .oaosa van
uoaou .ouua van pogoo

.ouuuuou can coun- ..u.0v

.ouoauo

h; ”oeuquoo had-auo> own,

uoau o.u:&auuuu ouol we 9:» no
noouuuauaaoo venue-A. nodbus
uuoonao £8 33.— 3..) ago.—
onu .oouoa«uuuo o—ouuaol
wags-n .uoonao no no. I gorge

.voauauoooa

on «caspauuuo «no onuuonov

“a“: o: ....a .noauauuuuaooau
nus you canneduou any gnoAuo ou
cacao". -«I.ou .ouo>ooo«n on
pong ocuobauuuq ouoa no 030 mo
o¢o«u1a«AIou oamuuoa. obi: was»
.uouoouo oao« ouoonao uuou flaw:
uoauomu Gnu .nouanduuuo odouufiaa
weapon ouuonao «0 you I noouo

.«u
.uu ”onuouuou
ousoauuu< eds-um
.o~
nouaauuuu< o~o«uusz
.a "soou-uauouuudo

 

moccaEOU vow monwam

mo>wpoowmo eamwwnm

canto:

243

uu<H
IOHHUDaa-h Bllufllbun
. Hznuunblbo nHMMUIDO

.cvcuu
uncc any o» no can coco
A—ooaoc ca» ha acclo

SI .39. no cvcl .

mac ....cv cocoauuuc
dollop c coco u~c
coo-cc; u« no u.oco ca
:0» cuacu accuse. c an

Mm<H zowuopaomm

HZMUKHDHQ HFNKUZOO

Kath lbfihuanoiu
annudubloo nvnuuzao

.ccusauuuuc

colaou oo cacao «soon; ucoocnuc
ucnu axooHa can canon». 0c -«3
ucnhcca as» .ccuoa«uuuc odouumoe

nous oxooun no you c oopau

.Efluumfi.

.2; ouaoouaae “aas.og auooqao no
ucu ououwdonfl c al>uw can? an on
.ououuco can aucanno no nonuio van
cucuuco c succuo ”an: Manhood on”
A.0uc .ouuc no\cac coma» .uo~on
.ow.cv .ocuaauuuuc can«u~:e

uo mgmcn ccu co uaouomoor

.muocnao «0 ac» c coaum

.ccaucc oucuucm on»

cocuoloo uuua.acuuccu on» .cc«ucc
ucoocc c2» no uocnao ucuuu

cg» vac coca. waxvoc nouoo ha
cucsucn c c« vouccuuc cuocnao
cool yo ccu:u uo ccuucu c ocoau

.na

.1.

u EOuUIh
ouoaduuu< canauaax

 

mucoaaou can moamacxm

mo>wuoonno aumuoum

oHavoz

244

fig... ZOHPUDQOE
Hanomhpzoo Unqonthm

umdh ZOHPUSDOMQ
Bzuuxflbzco HHHMUZQO

.uovuo

3: co“ vac—«03o» 2.3 311—3...
vac ucvuo ucuauco oaoa o.

ion» uceoo “~«D,ucoocc~ onu
.A.uoo .asuuocu .auguaon .ow.ov
uncuoOu unoaooouccl coo mo
canon can no haoo mouuouuuv
.cuououo c ou aucnao coo
.ccuauouo c>wu no you c ocoao

.ucvuo c3 you £33.33

0:» oacuono vac uovuo "ouou1o
39.. 3 .85 hoouo «:9
own—hood on» .Acccuc .303!»
.cnunoca .cuaouca coouoc>
..w.cv uncoooo uoolcuoccca coo
no canon ago no huao nowoomuuv
cuocaoo «o oowuooofioo o oo>uc

mumouoou pooaousmooz

"unfiaouoo

 

muooaaou vow moamadxm

mo>fiuoowmo acumoum

canoe:

24S

.uuo .v
afluoon\=om .m
oufim Honuo no nausea .N
noHou .H
“mawuoon now «can mo xuofiua> o oo>wo "canaoxm
mafia: mo nonaaz .m
coauxoh .v
onam .m
uofiou .N
32.0. .H

"so venue» on canoe

soap .moouuSQ mo xuowuo> a oo>wu "camaoxm
mooxuonu vow mmou oauuon .N
floououoa Haogm coo zonao .H "moanaoxm

.cou on ma mxoz xooa no a“
muoonno sawmmauu on a“: ouuoaooom smuoonno
on» Amwmmafiu on coo mxoz some 30:

"muooaaou

fi.vaflm

-fiuaocfl on Amuuusnfiuuua
on» unwoumov ago: 0:
..o.fiv .coflpuowmfimmufio a“;
mom oHaoowuou onu mnoguo
ou ofiaanxo “a“: woo muo>ou
-mwu on page amuounn
ufiuuua saw on uofluuouuo
muoonno whom Ha“: noohooa
on» .mxo3 mo xuofiuo>

a a“ wouuom on one was»

 

 

 

 

 

xm<9 onhuaooam hzmu¢m>Ho mammuzou muuonno mo won a :o>flo .N
.t iihlr. \JJI/
. Am mu nnmfe . Ema:
.\ (K 0.8»on
@ o
ogonm
. .ooo poouommflv on» ou
.oamaoxm uofiom Haw: noouoofl one uoHou.
.oxfiao ouo sows: one was ousnwuup< camcwm
xm<h onHquoumg mhmmuzou Mao .muuohno mo you a oo>fiu .H
"oofluoUMMwmmoHu .~
Na\mfi\ofl muaoaaou can mofimaaxm mo>opuohno canoe:

meZDZummmnummhmDAU mqsooz

246

 

novofifixo Hope: .N
vacuum can»
now>oon novoflaxu Hope: .
umuwm cusp nounmwa xon moo .
nousmfloz xon oco .
onwmuoamgmuuoHoo can
nooam .xuou .v
uo>~o> .mcfipumn :ouuou .o
Hogan comm .n
uaummfla .m
"mono“ ousuxou nonuo
moNflm new ooHoo mommy
umfiv :uooem .N ousuxoh
umfiv :msom .H "monmeoxm
uoHou meow
Amoflpuwev momma "anew .N
uoHoo meow ouflm

H

N

H ugmfioz
m "madmaoxm

mmoHnnaEV mvuon among .H "moflaemxm
axoofln ouapouuu< .~ ogmgm
magma .H "mofimaoxm
muoxuogu xuaam .N
muoxoonu com .H
mcouusn moan .m uoHou

mcouuap vom .H "moamsoxm
xm<e onhuaooma Hzmumm>zou mhmauzou

n.0uo .unwfloz .ohsuxou
.omanm .oNflm .uoHou
..u.ov oxfiao and yoga
mooumsau cpofi maoonpo
whom Haw: panacea on»
.ousnwuuua camcflm a so
sane vouhom on coo pogo
muuonno mo pom o oo>Hu .n

 

uofiou .n
chauxoh .N
oaanm .H

”mamfiuoums acouommwv Eoum
come mommnm mo Auofium> m co>wo "ofimaoxm

 

mucoesou vow mofimamxm

 

mo>fluuowpo

 

mauve:

247

 

ucfiumosuoo .mcficowumosv "

 

nonuo .moofiuuouwv

moauaauacm

ucfizoaaom .mcwoozmom .mcwHflEm "moflvnonmom

 

.mdawnouoa vow mofluw>wuuo
ow pooexonoo\umououcw
ouahumooaom HH 3 acousum

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

honuo .mcwcoumwfl .mcfixooH unaccouu< och uo>fipoowno o>fiuuomm< .o
.oH3h m.uonuooa no easy was
on ucflvnouuo .mousnfihuuo
oawoflm xn muoonno any upon
emu .mauonno ououuoou mo
now a oo>mu con: .uoohoo
mucossuumcH wooEmmomm< com ugh uo>fluuonmo o>fiufiommw .m
.noHoo >9 poem 0» one
axon ecu xma cos» cw sue pontoon
mane .mofimcmuuou .monwscm .moHonHu
.moflmomwnh .muoumsfiu a“ woman oaom
ogu mo mxuoHn any Ham pan on aw:
xmm unmfie ocooEom .oo3uxou .onwm
.ommnm .ooHou so muoomno any uuom ou
ocoosom so uouuouflv ma noouuoa on»
mxooHn ounnfiuuu< .N
mawucom\mcom .H .wonfiuumov xHHmnuo> ma non»
"mm zoom muoomno mo won a co>fim can: "ofimsmxm ouznfluuum aflmfluomm o
o» unavoouua muoonno
--vom: poem HHM3 noouooa
on emu m o>wuoomno you moflmemxm "mucanou on» .mxmz mo xuoflno> o
no vopoom on coo was»
xm<~ onbuaaomm hzmumm>zou memmuzou muuonno we won a oo>fio .e
muooEEou was moamsoxm mo>wuoonno oaauoz

248

 

.951... a. 8.. uc- aos... £383 3
mac {nod-on a cl. ucc Juno. #333 A3
vac “Goon-5.57.83 lououucoo 33' ca
noon-o uni occa- cocc no unaco ago Juno

 

z... 1 nnfl. Egon-1M5» So. noun-cm I.» .38 no album 6
.333.
no nil... ococ oc 3.8 .n
.39ch .30ch ucccu on» Aug. ucc I.» lo a.
no no! .358 on :33 J ”mango cuocnoo pool on» 5.3 «cc can 2 vac cnoc

non—95:90.3- 2.» cuccno Sal n5

n3... BEE Eng Bongo 1» ..uoonflioutucwo .8.- no no. :88 .c

 

 

 

 

 

 

.382...
on n21... cocoon no ‘3 .u
.332...
no nio ocvo lo 550 .u ”can!
.33 Hogan-Go o3 coccno Sat noon-ca
3:. .8 E u 38 3» ammonia ohms-3 mum-1 81m: 348th
a mm. o ‘
oo oo o o
”can-Inn
.oocnco ncfiooc so soon:
8.... 38:... ~33 no 28.. not. .332...
3c- ...»quan unoccu- uflufia "coo-lo soon I.» and! no. I.» 1| .3ch ucccu
_ I.» out. no. lfi @333 fiat noon-cu It 53530
g gonna—gong nonunion .383. «o 3.- 3115,48: In Iowa 1mm
moo:
.33 53:2... Ion no A 683523 cnc coco can solo in ”and?”
33.525 no 332330..." “g ”manic inc no guano; .3830 In gun—Ki ...nam
3 moon»; :«I nconcca on» .30ch .
nus. aonfifioofi Basso 3893: we 38 «315:... 25 :38 .n was

 

3:05.00 vow mougxm mozouowdo 323:

L}

 

249

1 14] ~38
.3309! 558332. “Eu-«=3 .0
‘ .350
...Sugv 38:8
no a; 55.3.! ”9:383 .a

.823! .2333— 35133 .<
E casual
SI .3353. 5 cognac “.0333 395-
A .813 :3 ulna. a. "g
.703 13 iv uaoacpwscolon out 30- $3.1
vac anon-52.0 on. ouc- auug 353.70 .8

H.332. .3830 I.» Randi—«all up 398.
.8... :«I wound: in .3830 39563 no

 

 

 

 

 

:8 cal! «:38 "flaming g

Anni—.31.“ 3.44.31 N8 cocci-£3 7% 39.259 cal—3.8.396
3236.3
.311: no a! all can 5 33 £53 .933

:8 a... 35252.: 1.9.3-8.. v38... 3
93 cal—ll on; 30. no .31 use 839 33530
mus. 755.685. 8885 :3 ulna: 3: .38 ma g :86 6 £88
3330pr ago—unwound. 33.02

3:25.80 28 «39588

250

.uuo

.0504. guano. noumnb
.qaosn caucauuu coup
.mango cgouma no»
“coagu-auAloo quad-com
uo—uulwhu

.nououuo .cou-auo
cam; .:o-oh .vau

”nonlnm
"ououou "awiuu .u

”nodal-nu
xm<a onauanomn azuumm>na nauzuzoo

 

.vouuuuudqa

«a ooaaauuuu- can onauooov may. on ..u.«
.nauu-oquao-aao can an» cauuouunu ca»
3050 3 33A!- 3.‘ a .3253:

a: nun» .oa:;«uuuo ounl_uo on» no candy
.qa«AIuo «dawn-A. npua non» case-sac cued
3330 98- .31. ~35.— Su 3823.8»-

3333 9.3 30.30 «o no. a 328 .

mo>fiuuofiao

 

ou¢glphun¢~ anon-nounc com

a

 

 

~18
.uluu-oauou .uuanouunoav
‘1+ 4:4:IJ was»:
.3333; 3:523
an unapolnu- .na«uall
.Ir.4 unsuo
.3332. $333.:

«anus-«udau .u

 

”uuuqaoa-QM ,m

33.383. ....
.nunauoona va-
-o«u«p«uuo «a uni-swan. u-ouoaau unsung
annuao uuwu.uuovnun can “spauuo.»o aruunnu
...3- A3 .315! I.» 55 PSI 9:23
can. gnu on unaoa uu«3.u¢lh¢o» an» nae.“
-no cucuunoo.uo can. opal no a and waves
0 chasm any ..000 uncalvasco can on ucuoa
-a3.h¢auouu «A» caveman oceans-o no quot
oun- uo n arena any .ouooaao «nag-a. aga
.3 undo; uuuu.uaanucu on» .uoOnAo unencuuuv
~ 3.. .331? n 95.3398 .382. 88»
-80 mo #3 9.850 A3. "gunman“

can; .090: .udOuI»aucm "auscuuoo ounaavuoaun

 

1

  

.a

”33¢“:
3.53:

.mmuno

 

 

mucoaaou vcu madmaaxm

mo>wuuonno acoammomm<

agave:

251

NI .53 5r. ...3:
30 am .nv-on v...» van .530»
now '3 on» :02. cm 33.3.. up»;

any on axon o .3qu «N8 05 no
yum; u a: u: 3cme+ .nfiomu a« aruvaa
man 33 03.— a canon». .3933 GE.

.33 v9.» v25 8:.» 3c... 0:3
0 0 G
"smug

“c250
«m5 gagged» Page Ego

080030 no ao- - Iona

”03.5“: .63»: 93 3.0.3.5... Sub kg

0:» £030 .03. .13. .830 ..u.3
32:5»- 80 £3 «a 3.3 I.» .5 3803.2.
30%... III no .03» 033 gul— - .858 J

ouanfinuu<
caucfim

"95033. . N

 

.3 a... m ~553on 3.... 238
In” ...: 333 0.3 2:333... 3
”:30... .35 3033330 «Sam-om "mango

xmfiw ZOHHBQCIMW bingo Exogv

.3050 P «2.2023

5.333» 0.3 :5 3393.3”; 39- no 25

no 2833380 3303» ”523 300:...

£6 33.. 3!- kg: 23 ‘32:...qu
07:33. warns 3330 no you n :33 an

 

noun .v
chauuuu van uuuou .0
once. an. ua-«pu .a
on: can .830 .u
"8.. 3.: 2.3..

noun-3 3... 28333.0 uoauo ”3.3.0
.uuo
.053.- ououuo 30qu
.093. 39.3.3
:96.» "25333.80 33:8
508: £95» «nouauach
osmuanwuu
330.30 .0836. Canaan 3.50 .m

 

‘l‘

 

 

3:05.80 28 «.3953

$3304.30

01602

252

 

3.9“} ca 159...? ... £0 Rom

..Luuvw a“ rsnwuuaam s>c3 on» we can

«“ nxauuqn >gu ucunuwuonv on .aqu5-

0:2 int: $3 mo no. No.33. age“.
J 3 ...).

..-L c , . ”annuuua

~n.b; "cu any aaxtfl .umnun caua

;c:» ‘ u 'Mw «‘52:. mu: punduuuu
...‘.u a co).m cwcp mnaqu uoahnou ”ode-inn
:uu;muc 3:“ wua on: uca haw no hnB_um

11.1,” .7;

II. \. I I. ‘

...._.__....8 ...E ..zmumfifia 2.2.525.

... ‘Q l.’.. 5 '3'... ,I.i-‘,"'l'. l -.. l

%wr nbznu oz» «0
haw :

cu 34c“ ;£u nauuquaaav

wag av-vo nap muzvpcu quMQOu wxw
\u/
(U (\

 

Jaws. Ca uzouvawdn . acoaA vow ”:Qbau

O

n. s. «4
ru dd 0 , sgfiuuaa
u r r .9 w 9
5.9.33 0 0 fl. 0 U D U u 99.....0
x W a
pH nu fly

a uofluuca
0.0

A
.

L

.

2.. 30111; ‘5 0|

nhcuuun can auscuwnat «fig? 0: .muuomao
no no. announauv u aoruu ads: and unsuuoa
a oaocxu fiu«3 uOfluIan can n.0uy .uawa
..Aqnn .uOuou ..u.ov ousauuuun one sumo «0
«main ma» co ucaxvunqw auuoaao «a you a ao:«u

 

o,

1".”

 

 

mucoaaou and moflmadxm

mo>fiuuowno

2252

255

0.9.3003 can» 05 zoSom 3w: 93.33 05.

68

330......— h—

.mowuom 05 2838 v5 gaps mu

0:3 coouu won 33 van

“:25 "ca-Sq...—
639 3391 on»
not: on» ..60qu 600

a: 3 3: 3 i .3933 St. "can'v

.ouuuwo can

on» an»: Page. 83 05

I... 39.33 8.3 on» no»:
30.50 van 2.» 0...ch 5‘ a: 93:..-
333 33 a va- cuuuuo can

a 352. Zn) «255 In.

«:3 053. vow 09—:

3‘3 33!

Mmfi. raga-4. Eogu Egan.

33.3. as»! can

335 :1. .3313 «Au .333 v30:
.5 no 8.3.. ucflu I: v3 is.»
.32!- uouco 3 and»: n 5398»:

30030 988 .8 035 no .3»: 0 35¢ .

mopwuoonno

moans—«.32
333::

“mcuauuum

 

'

325.933 uaeigoefi. a3.

 

onuidhsa «uni Canine

3» 5 glaucoma-.935 noun-col
.3 Sub ulna-8 In. " «a .8

.389!— - 839-3 3 an. .1883 3 Jul
son 3 .3093 C :«t .393 1.» 0393.3

c». 3931' «o 3.1 one no 08.333
30030 no no. 0 9’3 any .320 non—5!.
In 3 In» .530 a... «och-o.— Ifl canal-o

no :23 a.» 8 :8 2233:. 332.. no .

833:8 n 393 8 “flue-.48.. audio.

..Zuxm can Raga luau 3 00! .n

 

 

3:838 28 mo awn—Sam

3530 Ho «“3332

0.2.602

254

®®® DEN

A53 3003

...50 as»
.8 1.: on» o» 5.3- .352.
can shunt. o» :3: IF .4
8.3.: .E:- .... sun-8..— u an
.33 «a :83 .82..

 

 

«Juno-I w 535:0
....ououuuv 2. 33330 a»: alum .« . ...—0qu .3 bun page:
0 0 333»: I.» 33.5- .!- uovuo manna-a 251$
:33: no .- 3 '5 .330 «SD non-I3 I.» .730 $38
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. mmfi. .iwfi amuuasaggo gm ..u. 833.! 5:. .31.. we a” o 13?.

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3:05.80 28 moagxm mo>wuoo .30 33.0:

 

 

 

255

w

.9332 no 33.:- W

Wmfi Eggncmm gumgbmuo Hogak Uwqog

is. 2,552.?“ 382560 Sfifiumimrmuusc k

 

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on use! Ira ...-.339 no. 05 3.8 and!
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on» .93" at: 3 I! am we 3033.8»
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.uaoauou a» unouuon-
a... Jaguar... 3 .5333 In:
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3.3 on» no 516 anatomy: 333.. c 3

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3:038 van 3353

. mo>floo Ho.

3302

256

 

3639...".3”... 28830.24 ...-a

£133.! and 32338

23 3 upgnuwxuoououg an 39535.5
3:. unnamed in. 3.39. 8 (Tumumwwd.
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.550 .3» 00.3qu mu. «3“» use 3» CU
v3 .muofiqfl «:8 3n .3 CV .30nt
:8 a: .2. 3w :5 no. of 3:33
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no ucaaaunnou naugwao mo awg- arguaoou
-8... m .3- 55 ”333

.wnmmsuuugviai

h

«.5350
32:30
.95

 

nucguaau unsung: oom

 

11

Saudi! «..0- 33.3.3:
05 5 ugmcoxuooucanu an 393»;

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.33..-

ago! Gnu an? you. 3» 3 33!. can):
on» a»; “on on... 5.3 ~33 “laud-ave: 64
3!. «an 3.1. Sr: ...-P33 It .321!-
n 3 a noun «0 mafia-«ac 39039 no 39-

PSI S can... 330 msg#43518. ’auuam .

absence 33... 6.3» on?»

 

 

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323.3
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3:253 33 «3956

mo>wuuowpo

0:60!

APPENDIX H

NUMERATION OBJECTIVES FIRST SYNTHESIZATION AND

FINAL NUMERATION MODULE OBJECTIVES

.oomm Hzmomm>zoo mhwmuzou

onHquoumm mhmmUZOU\Hu<mem<

.oomm .zoo Ho<mkmm<\mkmmuzou

ZOHHquoumm mkmmuzou\Hu<mHmm<

mN was .wN .hN .oN .mN
.vm .MN .NN .HN .om .mH .NH .HH .ofl .m .m ”muonasc mo>fiuuompo Hacfiuwuo 0:» cuaflocfi mm>Hpumnmo mmmzp

.muom msoflum> on» cw

co>ww muuomno on» new Hmuoasc uumuuoo any
mafia: cmo vaflno a amuoonpo so» on one scum

mo wcwumflmcouv muuonno ououocou mo muom co>wu

.muom mawvcommounoo

on» xmwucovfi :mu vmfinu a .mnupaoa no» on

mac scum mcwcfiaucoo muuoflpo ouuuucou mo upon
and new on one Scum mflmumes: any mo an“ :o>fio

.muum msownm> on»

xoaon undo Hwhosdc unawaaonmqm on» madam any
wad .muom m30wua> on» ca muuonno mo 9025::
may Hflou any ado vawnu a fimuonsoa so» on mac
mo wcflumflmcouv muuomno ouonocou mo muom co>wo

.muom mawvcommouuoo
onu Amflucovw can vaanu a .mhonEQE no» on one
scum wcwcfiaucou muuonno ouonucoo mo muom wad

.co» on one scum muonssc Mayo any mo xam co>wo

apfiflacfiuaau

 

mucoEEou van mofimemxm

.Nnma .NH xaz

mo>wuuowno ewmmmum

canto:

onH<mmzaz

257

258

 

.o .v .N
nvw .hpo Hmcwmfluov
xm<P .ooma .>zou Pu<mhmm<

ham we“ om .hpo Hmcfimfinov
xm<h .ooma .zou pu<memm<

V5: .82 .28 5:924
flamcwmfluo mo m0 .m90 m“ mfighv

.oucosaom on» :a
hopes: axon on» away: no HHop aflwz nocuuoa
an» mamuoasc know on 039 we mocoacom m co>fiu

.Hovuo unaccouma :a
son» omcuuum Hafiz nocumoH ecu .mHmuossc
uwmfiv n 90\ucu N we umwa aovaau a co>flu

.uovuo mcwvcoumu aw
mamuoesc onu nacho Hafiz uocuaoa on» .ovmuov
a :fizufiz manned: macs: couuflaz mo won a co>flo

pagansonu a“
covsauafi no .m
.nno ouomon
novnflocw on

.m cm w mm .nmo
agnomm Hmeoz

.H mcfiuouuo .HH

 

xm<H HZmomm>zoo Hu<mhmm<

muom
Hmcflmfiuo on» mo ow .mm .mm .mm
mucosa: movsHucfi m>wuumnno mwghv

xm<b
.ooma .zou quomz>m\memuzou

.houuo unaccouma
cw mflmnoasc an» nouno ago nocumofi on» no”
on H soumv mfiuuoesc conga“: once 90 conga :o>fio

.ocfifi nunasc on» no mucflom msoflna> xoaon
mamuoasc oHMwumoumam away: no ooaflm nonawo
on cad .muom on» x9 voucomonnmu muonasc

ecu xwm any .ocaa on» no nacho mcfimaouucfi :«
muonsos OH on anon Baum upon ausupmaoo any
Haw: accused onu .mucoauom «coaumcou a“ mmo
noxame mafia mcofi a and muoonno ouonucou co>wu

.H mcwuovho .H

 

mucoesou we“ mofimemxm

mo>fiuoowno swnwonm

”Hana:

259

 

.uompSm :ouo now nonssc on» ounnz

 

 

 

 

ucomno>=oo
pomnumo< ouonucou .u .uomnsm :ooo nom nooasc on» xom .m
ucomno>cou .mnomodm mo mnnam
uuonumn<\ouonucou .m cannmmom and open now :o>nm one onmnmmom .<
ncomno>no ouonucou .< "Han: nocnmon onu .muoonno nozom no man: co>no .N
xman ucomno>cou .muomoom 30g on» mo zoom cad: xHHono .o
noonumn<\ouonocou .a .muomoom mo nwam m own“ new 30: any nonunnnom .u
. .uom on» mo can: nonezc on» ounnz
oceano>na ouonucoo u can pom 30: a mananom nonpouou anon on» o>o2 .m
ucomno>cou .uom
poonumn<\ononucou .m gone x9 vnao Hanoasc unannmonmmw on» madam .<
"Han:
xmoh ucomno>cou nocnoofi on» .mnonaoa nozom no naom mcn>on soon
noonumn<\ouonu=ou .< muoonno mo muom ozu you .muo .mvnmo Honoasc :o>nu .H mcnmsono
mucoaaou vow moamwwxm mo>nuomwmo awnmonm unsooz
m 22, E .3. .3 .S .3. 8360.38 zonnéméz

260

 

.mmnonm mng now
anaconuon can :nanmxo van muuonno on»
ozonm “an: nocnaoa on» nmnonas: co>oan

 

 

 

 

ucomno>no\ouonocou .v was co>ov unconno mo conuoonnoo a co>no .v
.ono .A.ouo .mocn: .moonnu .moao
".090 .mo>nm-xp:ozu .mo>nm .mono ".ouo
.mvonmcsm .mcou .moco ..u.ou .vonmosoon
xmah ucomno>cou ma xunucoso a muonm coo nonnaoa
numnumn<\ouonu:ou .m on» .muuomno ouonocoo mo conuoonnoo a :o>no .m ucnmsonu
mucossou new nonmaaxm mo>nnoowoo summonm onsfioz

“om .nm .05 .mn .95 .mn .Nn .Hn .on .ao .mo .00 .mo
.vo .mo .No .no .00 .mm .mm .nm .om .mm .vm .mm .Nm .Hm .om mo>nuoonnoo

onH<zmzaz

261

 

.uom nag» mo nonasc Huannnmo
oz» ouuum now won on» mo mnonaoa can

unsoo n3 nonnaon can .mno aha .
gun: mnuo.oo mo no» a ao>no "oammmxm
.mHanm ounmnavononn
noumoe on on vasoo mucovsum on» Aun>nnua
mo can» on» mo onEuxo ca an ucnzofinom
on» .o>nuoonno Honnsnou as» nonmaa

on o~ouc5 an unavaum onu mm ”mucosaoo
.Qomm .zoo h0<¢hmm<\mhmmuzou

an muoonno mo nooasc can anon can
wanna a .nmnonsoa zucmzp op onon
mo mannmnmcoov muoonoo mo muom co>no .N

.33 moonno> on»

 

\‘I".

“,

\s-.,|l!;/ .s /. \ -
\\0 01/: .\ ... \X \‘J,
A\Nm o . \\:J . . rr\
2 _ r4f\ . o i. _
. _ x 3 art
/ .3 o x w .x x 5
III \\ I! II... \

.mnonaoe conga gun: won
on» xmnucovn on ucovaum on» nxma muom
vomcunna mcn>as noguoou can ”on an

onHquoumm mammUZOU\Hu<memm<

monocommonnou 0:9 Awnucovn coo wanna
a .mnopaoa xunozu on one» aonm «snows»
-coo upoonpo mo muom can nucozn on ones
aonm kanonno> mnooasc can mo xno ao>nu .H nonnacnvnou .H

 

. muflm

 

 

mucoESou can monmamxm

~n\mH\oH onH<mmZDZ

mo>nuoomno amnuonm canto:

"HH xmbmsau mango:

262

 

xm<b .ooam .>zou mkmmuzou

.muom mooHnm> 0:» :H mpoonoo 0:0 now
Hanoasc uuonnou an» opan HHH3 nonnuoH
0:» .Hmuoomoo on on H sonm mo mannmnm

-coov muoomno ouonocoo mo mpom :0>Ho

.m

 

my “Mg fimw

XQX ‘VQH ” I.
650 .60] HQ?
"onmmxm

---.-

 

-;. ...H- ..

 

.mnom monoconmonnoo

ocn xmnucovn coo anzu a .mnonsoe
xpcozu on 0:0 aonm mancnaucoo muoomno
mo mpom mo monsuono vow xucozu

 

 

onnHzooomm onoomz>m\no<mnmm< on one sonm mHanoesc on» no no“ co>no .v
-- .,_ .-..N. . H
. r .
“mph meh H.L . .~
-_ ,.
I I ,. x ._ I/. \\ as. I/ -
\Qu. \. /.u. i. ..‘V ....w. a.‘ . o .
u . 0.... ha. ~ .. 5" u .0 ru‘ \.
\q ‘4 x xx! \ // \. /. .
.< (1“... IIII‘; ,IIII“ . ..I .
.Hmnoesc ogn x9 voem:
mnoosoe mo noneac 0:» mcn>os now 0:»
mo nonooV pconm an mvnmu Honoesc on»
ouon HHH3 nocnmoH 0:» .mnoosoa ..ouo .mnom
.0>Hm vow nzom .00nnu .ozu .0co mo monocoamonnou 0;» annaovn coo oHnnu a
mannmnmcou mnuo mo mo muom om mow on .mn0380a upcozp on onou aonm mancnmucou
nmaonnn H monau Honossc c0>nu "0H xm muuohno 0n0noooo mo muom can Anco3u
onequoumm mhmmUZOU\hu<memm< on onon Eonm mHonoesc 0:» mo new :0>Hu .m

 

 

 

mucosEou vow mononm

m0>Hu00noo sanwonm

0Hsvoz

263

 

. .nones: H0:an00 0:00
0:» 0>0: »m:» m»0m 0:» me»:0un
HHH3 n0:n00H 0:» .m»0m :H0»n00

mo mo»0oHHann» no m0»0onHm:o :»n3
m»00.:o 0-0 mo m»0m Hmn0>0m :0>Ho .u

.»0m
IIHm:HmHno 0:» :0:» m»00n:o n030m
0:o :»n3 »0m 0 0:0: HHH3 .m»o0n:o
mo :on»o0HHoo :3o 0H: m:Hma n0:n00H
0:» .m»00w:o HHmem mo »00 0 :0>no .m
.ymmuHm::m:no 0:» :0:»
»00n:o 0noE 0:o xH»umx0 00: »0:»
»0m n0:»o:0 Enom Han mm»00h:o mo
:on»o0 oo :30 mn: m:Hm:U n0:n00H

0:» .m»o0.:o HHmsm mo »0m 0 :0>H .
”00memxm

.H 0>H»o0n:o H0:wen0» :mnHanoom

o» 0H:0:s 0n0 x0:» m: o: o» 00:00 0:
vHaoo m»:0ns»m :oH:3 00H»H>H»um mo monk»
mo 00H:50x0 0n: mcnonHom 0:9 um»:0EEou
“pm o>flpuonpo gun: mcofiop

H 0>H»o0m:o now :0>Hm 00Ha50x0 mo x:0 oov
xm<n .oomm .>zou memaUZOU\HU<mhmm<

 

 

.m»00n:o mo n0:::: 0»0Hn:onmmm

0:» :»H3 »00 0 0»00n0 Han n0:n00H
0:» .m»00n:o mo msonm 0 6:0 vnmu
Hmn0es: 0 no xHH0:n0> n0nss: 0 :0>Ho

.o

 

 

m»:0:Eou 0:0 m0Hm50xm

m0>n»00n:o ewnwonm

0Havoz

264

 

\\ ”uHsmmm

mausooum ofiwzo

“:0>no

vHH:U

.HGVHO as” UKOG mOEOO

»0:» »0m 0:» snow HHH3 n0:n00H
0:» .n0:»o 0:» :0:» mmoH 0:0 no

0noa 0:0 00: :0H:3 m0 0:0 .m»00.:o mo
m»0m v0n0vno AHHan»:0sd0m 03» :0>Hu

Huu::n00no .N

 

:mah »:0mn0>:0u
»00n»m:<\0»0n0:ou
»:0mn0>no\0»0n0:oo
»:0mn0>:ou
»00n»m:<\0»0n0:ou
:moh »:0mn0>:0u
»00n»m:<\0»0n0:0u

 

m»0m::m 30: 0:» mo :000 0:0: xHHmno .a

m»0m::m mo

nnaa a 0»:H »0m 30: 0:» :0H»:»n0m .u

»0m 0:» m0

05:: n0:::: 0:» 0»nn3 0:0 »0m 30:
0 m:Hanom n0:»0u0» m»0m 0:» 0>0z .m

»0m :000 5: undo

Hanoez: 0»0Hn:onam0 0:» 000H: .<

"HHH3 n0:n00H 0:» .mn0na0a

n030m n0 nzom m:»>0: :000 m»00n:0 m0
m»0m 03» 0:0 omuo .mvnwo Honoss: :0>Hu .5

 

 

m»:0asou 0:0 0Hmaaxm

00>H»00n:o aanwon:

£352

265

 

 

x005 .vonm .>:oo »00n»m:¢

 

unmo Hmnmsd: :000H: n0:n00g .n

”mmunna n0:n004 .u

 

AIM! + J? «i iolw
1:. fig A. 1. q A "w
w\fl flu .Wu WM ¢:
.11... ._ .r\ , , L
«ll. .0. .-x/ 1 I) x w
1 (...0 >0 w , 0.: C
x. \m w. 0.

.mM 7.... mmma

--. a ( .4
"039533:
Mm<H .Qomm .>zou Uqumzwm\MHmmUzoo

 

.n0vn0 w:nv:0000n n0\v:0 m:Hv:0000 :n
0H0n0sa: 0:» n0vn0 :00 n0:n00H 0:» Aom 0» 0
Sonny mHmnmas: :0»»»n3 0n08 no 00n:» :0>Ho

.0:HH nmnab:

0:» :0 m»:n0: msoHnw> 30H0: mHmnoas:
mumnnaonaam 0an3 no 000H: n0:»»m

m»0m 0:» a: n0»:000n:0n 0n0:E:: 0:» :0m
.0:HH 0:» :0 nmvno w:»000n0:»

:H mn0:E0E ON 0» o Bonn mum: »0:n»0:oo

.¢

"HHH3 n0:nm0H
0:: .0»:0Bw00 »:0:nw:00 :« wmo vwxnua
0:HH m:0H 0 v:0 m»00n:0 0»0n0:00 :0>Hw

...—‘L

.m
IIIJ

 

 

m»:0eaou 0:0 monmmxm

m0>n»00n:o 50mmwn:

0Hsvoz

266

 

0:00:<
50:02

.»00:00n :0 .0»00n:0 oH
m:H:H0»:00 :000 .00H0::: oH 0:0: HHH3
n0:n00H 0:» .0»00n:0 H00H»:00n ooH :0>nu

fififi

"00:0:00m

on u:0>Hu

..m.0 .nones:

:0>nw 0:» m:»»:000n:0n »00 0 snow Han
n0:n00H 0:» .0»00w:o mo meaz0 0 0:0 om
....om .oH »00 0:» Eonm H0n0ss: 0 :0>Hu

 

h.o»o .0: .0: .0 .00
0.03» x: 80:» anonm 0» 00:00
0:0 0»00m:o 0H :0>Mm 0H n0:n00H 0:9

n0:0o:0 .0000: .0:0n»0 .0momnHHoH
.030n»0v .0»00 00»00:00n 00 H0:0H 0:0
anon: m:0 :0» m0 0»00 snow HH»3 n0:n00H

0:: .0»uu.po om o» 0: .00 .00 .ou ce>mm .H

”00H 0xm

xm<H 92mumm>zou Hu<ahmm<\mhmmuzou

 

. .00 00 o» 00»00:00n

xHH0no :0:3 :0» :m:on:» 0:0 Eonm n0::::
00»0:Mn000 x:0 a: x»fi»:0:0 0 maonw :00
n0:n00H 0:» .0»00n:o mo :0»»00HH00 0 :0>no

 

0:H0>
000Hm .m

 

0»:0550u 0:0 00HmE0xm

00>H»00n:o :0nwon:

0H3002

267

 

m + on

.a
00:0 0 0:0 0:0» 0 "00:0:03:

mm ”:0>Ho

.000H:

00:0 0:» mo 00H0> 0:» 00H: 000H: 0:0»
0:» m0 0:H0> 0:» m:n»:000n00n .

+ 00 no .00:0 x:0e 00 0:0 0:0»

»:0E 00 00 "0x02 03» :» :0H»0»0:

000:0:x0 :n »H 0»Hn3 0» 0H:0 0: HHH3

n0:n00H 0:» .H0n025: »HMn0-03» 0 :0>Hu .N

 

c8030... :00:
30:8 .3030: "00:00.0:

@@@@

.00»:000n:0n H0n0es: 0:» 0»Hn3 0:0

:00 :00 n0:n00H 0:» .0:0» A: 00::onm
0»00w:o om :0:» once 0: mo »00 0 :0>Hm .H
"00H 0xm

xm<k H2mu¢m>zou Hu<mhmm<\mhmxuzou

 

.Eo»0x0 :0n»0n053: H0:0M»:0>:00
0 m:n0: 50:» »:000nm0n :00
:00n0n 0 .0»00m:0 mo nonss: >:0 :0>Hu

.N

 

0:H0>
000H:

 

0»:0ssou 0:0 00HmE0xm

00>H»00n:o E0nmon:

0H30oz

268

 

00 .00 .00 .00 .00 - 000000
00 .00 .00 .00 .00 - 00>00 .0

000 .000 .00 .00 .00 - 000000
00 .000 .00 .00 .000 - 00>00 .0

000 .000 .000 - 00000000
000 .000 .000 - 00>00 .0

"00Hmmmxm

.n00n0 u:00:00000 0:0
0:00:0000 :0 50:» 0m:0nn0 HH03
n0:n00H 0:» .0H0n0es: »0m00 00n:»

 

 

0000 .0000 .>zoo 00000000 00\000 0:0 00 0000 000000 0 00>00 .0
00 .00 .00 .00 - 00000000
00 .00 .00 .00 - 00>00 .0
0H mo 00H00»H:a 03» 0:0 :003»0m .0
NM 03.. 0mm 0mm 0mm ... uncommom .Hovho wnflucoomov 28 ”053.308
00 .00 .00 .00 .00 - 00>00 .0 00 00000000 000 00000 000:
mMNMNmmmm 0000000 000 .00 00 00000000 0 000000 .0
"magnum—H»:
0000 .0000 .>000 00000000 00000 00000 000 030 00 0000 0 00>00 .0 .00--00000000 .0

 

 

0»:0eaou 0:0 00Hma0xm

00>0»00n:o :0nwon0

00000:

APPENDIX I

PUPIL ASSESSMENT INSTRUMENT-—PRE-NUMBER

 

 

0000 00:0 00 0008 00 0>0n Ammmouwvmuom 000:0 mo £0003 .u

 

 

005000 00:0 00 0000 0:0 000 0m500u 000:0 mo 000:: .0

 

 

00:0 00:» 00 0000 0:» 000 0000 000:0 mo 000:: .m

 

0m300m 00:0 0000 000 0mmouw 000:0 mo nuflsz .o

 

 

 

0000 00:0 0000 000 0000 000:» mo 200:3 .u

 

 

000m 00:0 00 0:000>0mmm 000 mmmouw 000:0 mo song: .0

 

 

 

000m 00:» cu 00000>0nw0 000 0000 000:» mo :00nz .<
000m 0:000>0:cm .0

 

mv—mmh. Hogva—

000000-0 00002-0
0:00num mumoum mumo-m

000m camfinmmsou 00m 0000:

.0000000 0:» cu mc030000m 0:0 00 0000500 cofipmsuflm 0 30am

 

newumaufim 00000mmsm
mo noflumwuom0n

 

00:00000000000 0-0 "uaoocou 000:000000m3m

00002000 ”20000000000000

269

 

 

000000>0000 000 00000000 .000000000 .00000000 000:0 00000 00» 000 00::

 

 

 

270

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

. 00:00 . 000000000 “0000000000 .u
000000002 . 00:00

. 000000000 000000000002 . u0000300< H000000000000 .m

00000>000< . 00:00 . 000000000 . 0000000 "00000002 .0

"00 00000000\000000000 mo 00000:0 00 00000000
00000000 00» :00:3 0000 0000000 0:0 0: 000000000000 000>0:0: 000 0-.+V 000000000 0002 .<

 

m>090mmm<

 

 

0000 00:0 0000 000000000 000 00m000wvm000 :0003 .o

 

 

0000 00:0 00 0000 00 0>0: 000 00 00m000wv 0000 :00:2 .0

 

 

0000 00:0 00:0 00300 0>0: mmmmmmwwmwmw 000:: .m

 

 

0000 00:0 00:0 0000 0>0: 00mmo0mv0000 :00:2 .<

0000 0003 0000 .0

 

 

0000 00:0 0000 000000000 000 mmmmmmwwmmmm :00:2 .0

 

 

0000 00:0 00:0 0000 0>0: 0mmo0wu000 :00:2 .<

, 0.0 0000 00 0000000000
00 00000300: .00000000 00 000000000 00000000 00 00V000 0003 0:0 00:000 0030 0002 :00: 0000 .N

271

 

 

.uum man» ma xcaa mm
was was» now can on pcflom .o

 

.uom was» on ucuau>flaua
ma was» won ecu on wagon .u

 

.uom was» ad osum can
can puny muum on» on ucwom .m

 

 

 

 

 

 

.oamm an» and
away muoonpo ogu on ucwom .<

xuo~nua
xoaumua mHHanum \ mumuum
muom comwummaoo \ Hove:
"wcwzoaaom
on» on uaHfiafim cowuaSuwm a nochwoa 30cm

mumoum
xUfium-H mfiHanun \ mflamn-m
muom acmfiuamsoo Hove:

"amazoaflom
on» on umflfiafim coaumsuflm a accuse” 3bsm

mumo-~
mnau-H muuoum
muom acmwuamaou \ mnuo-~
"mafizoaaom
any 09 nmflfieflm cowumsuwm a nochmoa zonm

xuoHn-H Hampun
"mcwzoaaom any on naafiafim new a nochaoa zogm

.m

.<
.H

 

mxmup

muom acoua>mncm
cofiuasufim noumo am mo cowumwuumoo

cusp mmoq .qunu one:

muom ucofla>fi3dm "mumoucou oumcfluhonsm

>9sz<=o onp<oHuHmm<qu

272

 

 

 

.uom man» can»

xUfium-H
mHHanum mxooflnum \mumu-m
muom acmflnmmaou \Hovoz
"ucfizoaaom

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

mama o>as muom snag: .m on» on unawawm :ofiuaauflm a nonhuufl one scam .m
mxoofln-m
axooan-~ xuoHn-H \mxoofln-v
.uom many can» mmoa u>an . somwuamaoo \Hovoz
cufizz muom on» on ucwom .< ”mcfionHom on» on coaumauflm m uochmofl one 30cm .<
mmoa an“: muom .m
xooHnuH
mxuoHnnm axooanum \mxooflnum
pom :Omwummaou \Hovoz
.uom «as» can» once o>an ”mcwonHom
was» «com on» on wagon .m can on umflwawm :oHumauflm nochaoa scam .m
.uom many
a“ unconno on» mo anon
on» scum unoHoMva m“ Mao-” mxuoHpun
wasp puonno on» on ucfiom .< ”mcw3oHHom on» on unawawm you a uoauaoa 30am .<
one: an“: uuom .N

 

mxmap

cofiuasufim woumouusw mo cowamwuomon

273

 

 

«$33.33 new flmonopcw .muufimg pzonm F33 39A 3v was:

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

. umnuo . mumosvom . mcowummso “mcfiumwuwcm .u
nonuo . mamwuuumz mcflumannwcmz . wcfiuozmc< ”mcfivcoamom .m
. “capo . mcwcoumwg . mcfixooq "unaccouu< .<

"m4<HmmH<z oz< >HH>HHU< 2H
Hzm2>onzm\hmmmmhzm - mo + Qmmmmqu Dow :UHIZ 20mm moH><zmm om>mmmmo 92¢ muzmmmmzm mHoz

um>Hhummm<

274

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

ucfluafluficu mcwpmfiuwcu
mcfincoamom .uuau .p»< .vaau .up< .caau .»u< unfiucoamua
ucfivzupu< .mmfla acouommfia osum m:a¢¢ouu<
o>fluocmm< mmoq one: .p:o~a>wscm u>fiuuomm<

 

 

 

 

mu xqma

 

mm was
.uco
unoMva new ad acma
.uozom -uomev mnzoum .osmm ox“
a.mmoH .onoa «upon «.ucoau>fi: oaaz

 

 

 

 

 

.maawuouus was mowufi>fiuoa a“ ucoaxomco\umououcfl
ouuuumcosov Haw: acousum one no>wuuowno o>wuoowm<
.mmou - ncv .aovoa ecu cusp once mcw>mn

muom onu on unwoa Hafiz “nausea on» muuonno ouonocou mo
upon 0903 no n van Hovoa a czosm any .mpcm ucoaa>wsco
us» ca unwoa Haw: nochaoa on» muuonno ououucou mo

muom once so m :3osm hwy .muuonno um Haam ucacaaucou
.muoonno ououucou we won a co>flu "mo>fluoo no o>flufi cu
«no; .ouoz .ucoam>fizcm "mumoocou unusaunonbm

  
 

.muofl>anon ucfiumfiuficw

can .mcfivcommou .mcflucouum swaongu mamwaouwa
uqa mowuw>wuua a“ ucoax0nco\umouou=m magnum
-cosou Hafiz unavaum any uo>wuuonno o>fiuoomm<
.Ammufl and onoav ucofim>fiavococ aha upon

gown: nan ucofia>w=vo on¢ «pom coax: ucwcflmfigxo

no .0» mcfipcwom .muuonno on» mcfluaasmficma xn

ouuuumcoaov Haw: Hosanna 0gp .muuomno ouonocou

uo>wuuuwno o>wuwcuou
"amounoo opacwvuouomsm

mo muom macs no v co>wo
mucoucommmhuou H-H

xufipcuso - ona<uHmHmm<gu

Hummm qumomm

27S

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

uaflumfiuficH : z m z = z m 2 a z .z .2
mcfincommom

«caucouu< oudm

o>wuuomm< xufiucmso unmwmz ouauxoe mun< omanm uoHou osaz

 

 

 

.muofi>unon ucfluafiuwaw can .mcfivcommou .mcwvcouum nmsougu muawnouaa

van mowpfl>fipuu cw ucosxon:o\umonoucfi cumuumcoeou HM“: Managua ugh

.oH3u noguoqa van cash was on unavaooua .mousnwuupm ofiuawm x9 mpoonno
on» upon :au .muuonpo ououucoo mo Mum a cu>fim con: .uocuaoH och

m.uo:uo:a
no cash x2 . 2.

0H3» mam - :.

Axuwuquso .ousuxme .won< .usufiuz .ogacm .HoHouu
muaouaou new mHHflxm song op ouwz - onp<uHmHmm<gu

Hmmmm mgHmomm wad mxm<9 Hzmzmmmmm<

 

no>wuuonno o>wpoumm<

 

uo>fiuomwno o>wufimumm

276

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

:
z
mcmumwufica umoa umoa
unaccommom unaudwuwcH \umo30m \umozom mawumwufifiH umoa ou Hovho
caucouu< m m m mcfivcommoa AMfiuaovw xMfiucovw mcflvcommom unwed Hausa“:
o>fiuummm< 200 m m o u 2 ao> < a m a a wcflccouu< :mo :mu unaccouu< scum osom
mcuouumm mcfiuovuo o>fiuuomm< "muom-m "muomum o>fluuomm< uouno a“ nacho madz

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

«Han m.uo:pocw 90 cash x: u z
oHau ma: u m.

.muofl>mnon mcwuawuficw

wad .mcflvcoamou .wcflvcouum

smacks» mamflnoume vcm mowufl>fluom on»
:w pcoexOHco\umoucu:m cumuumcoewm
HA“: nocuaofl oak ".nao o>fiuuomm<
.cuoupma

a ouonEou Avg van .vcouxo now
.umomon any .ouaouu may Haw:

amended any meannfiuuum oamfiuflss mo
mwmun on» so uconommflu unconno mo
wow u co>wo Amy .hovno Hmusum:

oeom a“ Eon» uonuo Hafiz uncuaofi

ogu umoocoo oco mo mamas one

co cho mcfiuowmflv muuommo mo cod»
-ooHHou « co>flu AHV flywao o>fiufimumm
wngxm oz< mhmmozou :02x 09 mmoz

 

 

mezm mgHmoma
>eHez<so >m oszmamo

.mu0w>a;op mnwumwuflcw

can .mcfivcommou .mcfl

-ucuuua nmsousu mfiafiumuma can
mowufi>wuou any :« ucosxonco
\umouounw ca oumnpmcosom HHmz
Hocuuoa och "ammo o>wuuomm<
.oucozdom ca «pom o3»

nonuo any coozuun m“ away

new as» any and muonsos «mama
man was “NV .mquEQE umos ogu
mu: may puny pom mg» xmwucovw
Haw: nocumofi on» .muoDEms

m op a scam mo uawumflmcou
muucnno mo muom mommsuomcou

n and ao>flo ".wno o>wuflmumm
munooaou ouucwnuopsm

 

umzmmhh<m
”mzmmhh<m

 

.muow>mnon mcfiuawuwcw

van ucwucommou .mcfi

-vcouua smacks» mflafinouae an“
mowuw>wpuu on» a“ annex0nco
\pmououcfi ca ouuhpmcoaov HHmz
nocumoH one "awno o>fiuuomm<
.muonan umoa can saw: you

ogu op mnonEos umozmm on» and:
you 0:» 809m uovpo Huflucoswom
cw anon on» woman Hafiz nonnaoa
ecu .muonsoe m op H scum mo
mcwuwfimnou muoonno o muom 0905
go conga =o>fio ".no o>wuw oo

w>erz<=c >m
"emmuzou ma<zHamoammam

 

 

UZHmmamo

277

 

 

mnwpufluficm

 

uawvconmom

 

ucfivcouu<

wm0apw>flpoa

can .mnhoocou .umunoucfl .mnocnuoH usona gamma sax vfiv was:

.maaflnouae can xufi>wuum a“ acoaxoh:o\umonou:fi n 90 + ammmmmzm 30>
roam: scam moH><mmm nm>mmmmo oz< muzmmmmzm mHoz nm>Hhummm<

 

 

«axon moaou you scan:
.uxoc moaoo pom gown: sax

A.uovno cw
33 00.2» pupa 0989.33 33.33%
muau-e .mxuflum-~ .mfldun-m .xoofin-fi

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

damp no ooaam vaaonm magnum; .< .HHH "mcflzoaaom ogu Hocuaoa 0:» 30am .H
humafi moaoo unwed 0:» cu“:
pom osu gnu umhwm mosoo umozom
one saw: won on» was» an 30p
a :fi.muom anon» oucmuua so» gnu .o mHHmnuo .muuoum .xuoHn-H
wanes on» ma: non saws: .m "ucfizomaom on» on
nunaoav Hmfifiaflm cowuuSuflm a Hocuaoa ogu 303m
wumozom us» ma: non gown: .< .HH mHHap-o .mnaoum
wumoa map man you gown: .m ”ucwzoaaom can
numaofiv ou umfiflafim nowuasufim a Hochuoa 0:» 303m
wumo3om ecu ma: uom scan: .< .H umemmuzoo me<anmomam
m a - whoa-
ppmoa on» ma: pom sown: .o wamemum xuownuu
wumozom one man you sows: .u .muuoflno
.umos op aunaoav acouommflv mcficfiaunou pom sumo .pom non
. muoonno v on H “muomuv "nocuuoa on» on
umozom scum anon» oucauu< m .ucwzofiaom on» on naafiawm :ofiuusuwm a scam
.uouuo oaom cw muum omen» coma; .< .H

 

nag

 

mxm<h Hzmzmmmmm<

>erz<=o rm oszmamo

"mzmmhh<m

cowuasuflm vouuaoa
mo cowumeUmoa

APPENDIX J

PUPIL ASSESSMENT INSTRUMENT--NUMERATION

._..__—... -..-.._ .

 

mque N mam H H<mmmm
.muummno mo Aponesc
umguv mucomoummh nufizz
Upmo Hmuoesc ogu ou ucflom .n

 

._ __.-__.;., . .,

. ~__E_--_<,.
.7._.....__. _7 -._._‘L-.V _ ,

m_m f _
quHmH

SUOIAVHHH JO GNODHH

wuom “50%
:H ohm mpowhno zcma 30: .m

now vcommop “magmoa m>mn
new a nocnow mm: m: hopw< .N

.uom mfigp Souw muuwmno

may mo osom mcfims pom m age» 7 .hmchmma
”pmchmmfi mnu xmm kafimnhm> .H _ exp mo yachm :fl oN-o mwhmu
Aqum msz N Hmhmazc esp wcm muummno pucflpmfiw

xmmh ucowum>fi2 pumhpmn<\mumhucou .< om mo uom m woman .m w .<

zde m4<HmmH<Z Qz< ZOHH<DHHW

.mpofl>mzwn wcflumfiuflcfl mam wcfiucoammu .mcflowuum :m20hzu
mamfihoums wad moflpfl>fluum :fl peoE>0mcm ummhoHCH
mumgumCOEow Hafiz hocpmoa mzH nm>fluuo.no o>fipuomm<
mummnsm 3mg map mo some

oEm: xfifimho .9 van ”mumeSm mo hfiwm m oucfl pom 30c

w:u COflHflHHmQ .u ”pom mzu mo wads hopes: ecu mufihz cam
pom 30c m m:H::ow gozymwou mumm ocu o>os .m ”umm some »n
wkmu Hmhoadc oumflHQOkQam man woman .< "Hafiz pmchmoa

map .mgonEmE uQme ho cop mcfi>mc comm muumm o o

muom ozu wad oN-o .Upmo Hmhmssc mo>flo ”.90 o>flufl ou

 

 

>HHA<ZHQm<U

278

279

 

 

N:“QW mg:
ca mum muuomno xcme 30: .m

”xmm cam pom oco umyfiw ou pcfiom .H
xmmw “compo>:ou pumuumn<\opmuucou .u

.fimuumhno mo
hoaszc umnuv mucomoumou nuacz
whmu Hmufiumesc map cu ucflom
”on
E“: xmm xauuohpou pom wmumoscon
weapom mm: pocpmofi ecu hmum< .N

2 x93 3
so» zozm p0: wfiw m: mpmnesc omav

.
w

pochmmfl mo unchm ca

_
muuonno hmzmw go a wcacflmucou uom sumo
”muumhno pucflumflv mo mumm N mumam .u

.
.
.
,
.

 

w m N__H_ m NWHM

ma<HmH m4<HmH

"'éfiéififiié'ié'fifiéfifi" Q”

NH nu NH An n Am .....QE zo:m
ho
mo pom m Egon
"on Hockmoa map xmm xafimnpo> .H
Eda 9ma5§V
xmme «cowhm>:ou uumupmn<\mumuucou .m

mam<b

 

mq<Hmmb<z oz< onh<=HHm

280

 

 

wmoHuH>Huum was £5850
$5335 30% F33 so» HVHHU umHE .Q
.850 .3333 .mcoHummzo umcHumHuHcH .o
.850
.wcHumHancmE .mrHHQZqu .mcHHanmmz .m
.<

 

Hague .mchmpmHH .wconoq .mCchmuu4
.QEBSH oz< EH>HB< 2H bzaéomzm
£3vasz . mo + ammmmEzH Do» 2053 _6mm

 

wmpom 3:98:va 33 N :H
3830 305 32: 833 so» :8 .m

 

 

pnpmnesc umzuv oHHH3_:o> :mo .n
.HHucmm wan mema HmcummH o>Ho

 

 

1"—a-o—c-1—-—~+——-—--A--—-—————--——-1—-—--—1-——---—

30m 3m: on» :H 9.8 has 30: .m
37.1 .3830 9.? 60¢
How 28 5.8m 3 .HmFHmmH 05 v3.4. .m

.

 

 

éfiéiifiéé‘éé'fifiéfifi'

95.3w

gamed: 92 20522.3

281

 

 

 

.mcHH

.ungHV uuoHHou map onon
mwpmu Hmuossc m mH: oumHm
"ou wHch mnu xm<

 

mummoH ou pmoev

.Hmvho mcchmumow :H
memu Hmpmssc mmmnu Ham .N
".HochmoH mo unopm :H mpmcuo
"wxm mumHa vcm muumu a: xUHm

.
—
.
.
.
.
.
.
u map so ucHom moumHHQOHagm
.
.
.
.
.
_
.
.
.
.
.

 

Humoa ou ammoH Ecumv
.Hovuo

wcHucoumow\mcchoumm :H

mfiumu Hmpmes: ommsu Ham .H

1------------

"320 ofi x2 .<

H Ha 0/
N A. g g . o o .V

. .mzHH ms» :0 mucHom
ouwHHmougmm map onon uhmu Hmumszc
..Hofio 28 98 33 23.833 :93.

.vHHnu may mo

ucoum :H mucuewmm Hmsco Hm ovaH

wmthe ocHH m oumHm .mvgmu
Hmumssc m HmzummH on“ m>Ho .m

 

‘....v

382.82 93
Ho uccHw cH stoucmH Hom-ov
mwumu Hmuoszc v Ho m oumwm .<

A.

 

 

 

"”§fiéifi9fififi‘ié‘fifié§ifi'

Mm<H mA<HmmHKZMQz<.ZOHH<SHHm

.mHoH>mnon

wcHumeHcH flaw .wcchcamoH .wchvmuum
AMSOHEH mHmHHoumE van moHuH>Huum :H
pamexohco can umohoucw mumuumcoemw
HHH3 HushmoH mnH "H50 m>Huummm4
.HQUHO wcchoumou cam

mcchmumm :H mHmHmesc ecu Hmuuo :wo
HochmoH map .omuo .mHmHmesc :muuth
whoa Ho mmhzu co>Hu "mac m>HuHmwou

 

.H qummnmo

282

 

q

HmoHuH>Huum

van .mchucou mummumucH
usoom cummH :ox.mmw umcz
Huguo

mumoscmu .mcoHHmmso .mcHumHuHcH
Hocuo .mcHHmHsm
..HHHmz £5.8sz .mcHHEommmZ

--F—----‘ -- -

 

 

mchmumHH .mcHxOOH .wchcmuu<

----------------------——-——----

SHOIAVHHG 50 080338

my. m5.

.Q

.

.U‘

.m p

O 4.

Eggs; figHB/H 2H Hzmz
uwowzm\5mmmmHzH n mo + Qmmmmm
2H :0» :Usz 20mm xOH><Imm
Qm>xmmmo Qz< muzmmmmzH mHOZ

<H<Q m>Hhummm<

mg<Hmmb<z oz< onH<DHHm

283

 

 

 

HucouoHMHv .Honuocmv wxma
wHqu m :H mm outh 30x cmu .m
km: uzogomec w :H :Hmmm mm ouHuz .N
”EHm xmm zHuuoHHou mH:p moow o: HHV

 

.Hommm mng co mm oHHuz .H

 

“psowsum mcu xm< .m . HHucog wcm Hmmmm .m
meonssc Hanuv oHHH3 50> :mu .m . HHucoQ cam
"xmw xHuuoHHou HNH mpmzmcm m: HHV m Hmamm uaowspm ecu o>Ho

 

whocquOH HHm ohm ouonu
mquHm xqu 30; we HHmH sex cam .N mquum cop mo mmecsn

mmoH Ho m HmchmmH o>Ho

 

SNOIAVHHH d0 UNODHH

--------_____-___-.._-_._-__-_-_-..___-______-._-__-.-_---.-----L.-_._p-__.|...u.

.EH; co>Hm m>mc
so» muuohno map Eoww :wu an mm
OH mo Hmumm .mmHmcsnv mQSOHw
Heme mw show on HocummH exp xm< .H
meH pcmwpo>cou Humhumn<\muohucou .4

.mquHm mmmwou .mHUHonm
so on om HmCHmoH mzu o>Ho .<

zm<H WH<HmMHsn Qz< ZOHH<DHHm

 

.wcHumHuHcH wcw mcchommoH .wcHucopum
smzoucu mHmHHmumE wqm mmHuH>Huum

map :H pmoHoucH\u:oE%ohco mumupmaoEm
HHHz HochmmH cab ".30 m>Huuomm<
.woucmmmHmoH Hmhmesc map outh vcw

xmm :mu HochmmH exp .mcmu xn onDOHm
muumhno om cusp oHoE 0: mo pom m am>Ho
.WHUQHDO OH

wchHmucou 20mm .mmchsn mmoH Ho m mxma
HHH3 HushmmH man .wuumn o muHH:
mmoH Ho om cm>Ho ".30 o>HpH ou

  

  

 

MDH¢> mU<Hm

284

 

q

Hmcuo .mcHuszchmE .wcHHozmcw "wcchoammx .

.mmHHH>Hpum mam mcpoucou
.mummpmucH usonm chmmH so» wHu ngz .
Hmzpo .mummscmH .mcoHummac "mcHHmeHcH .

mum

Hmcuo .wchmumHH .wconoH ”mcchoHH< .<
"mégmbi 972. 35:9» 5

EzanHOWVfl\Hmmmm.H./H u do + QmmmmmzH 30> 20??

20mm mOH><zmm Qm>mmmmo 92¢ muzmmmwzH mhoz

 

 

-------------—----—q--———c------------—--c.--. -..

SEOIAVHHH :10 (180338

mxméfl.

”235.22 92 onH<Dme

 

.pmoE ou ammoH _
scum magma ecu Howuo
Ho HmH .Hm
.om .NH .OH “.m.ov .mHHHQesc
HHwHw N mchHmucoo mvhmu Hmumesc
Eowcmh o-m HochmoH map o>Hu .u

.Hovho wchcoumm
m :H mfinmu mgu mmcwHHw
"on HmCHmoH ecu xm<

L5

 

umoE on umMOH
Eouw mvuwu oz» Huwho
Ho HHm .omn .Hm .HH
.HNH ..w.ov .mHmHoezc HHHHH m can
N anon mchucou mwhmu Hmumezc
Eowcmu 0\m HmCHmoH map m>Hu .m

.Hmeo mcHwCoumov\m:Hw=oumw
:H mwkmu HmHmES: onu owcmuh<
”on HmcumoH mgp xm< .m

 

285

mwchmoHuov .umme ou umoEV
HmchmoHucH umoE ou pmmoHV .HowHo
mchcoUmmv Ho wcHwCoumm :H
mvumu HmHoESc onu Ham

"HochmoH 0:» xm< .<

mmmn .HOH .nmN ..w.mv .mhmnfisc
unHw m mchHccu mwumu Hmhmasc
Sow:MH H\m HocumoH map m>Ho .<

 

 

SHOIAVHHH dO UNODHH

xm<H mH<HmmH<z mz< one<DHHm
.mH0H>m:mn wchmHuHcH can .mchcbmmoH
.wcchmpum cwsowgu meHHoume ucw moHuH>Huum
ozu :H uqoex0n:o\pmmHoHcH upmhumcos

HHHz HochmoH use no>Huuo.no o>HHuomw<
.Hmwuo mchcoumw :H Ewnu mmcmuhm

HHHB Hochme any .pmHH Eou:m~ m nvwnm

“OH we monHuHSE 03p xcm cmozuon an "OH

mo mHQHHHDE m :quHz Hm mHmHmED: HHMHV 00H:u
can ozu we mnHHmHmccu Hmu «Hues:

mo pom m co>Hu uo>Hpuo.no m>HHH ou

  

 

HH UZHmemo

 

 

NmoHuH>Huua uca mchuocoo
_ mwmouoacH anon“ chmoH aox vHu was: .

_-_-1_

 

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Ham .Nm .mm
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:H wvhmu ecu mwcwHH< w :quHz mcumu HmHoED: uHme

no» HocpmoH man xm< .Q N eowcwH o-m MoshmmH mnu m>Hu .Q

———————-:—————————-4——————--——— _. _

 

 

mxw<H mH<HmmH<z oz< onH<=hHm

éfiéiifiéfi'ib' fifiéfiéfiT

APPENDIX K

PRE-SERVICE TEACHER INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN
ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION QUESTIONS

(REVISED FORM)

 

.coHuosuumcH mo ans umHHw know we vac on» on so: scum :H omauco vHsoz :oHuuSHHm mqu aH
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.mmaHu asox can so» anon you oHannuuoz was wcHuHuxo coon o>mz
HoonUm mo mxooz umuHm 0:9 .coanHgo em mo mmaHu a some» on vocuHmmm coup o>ug so» nonuaou cuoucH ca m<

onH<DHHm

 

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zmom ammH>mm
HZmZDmHmzH HZmzmmmmm< zuHmmo q<onHUDmHmzH

287

288

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.uH unHupou wanna cu vHsox
sex 30: flaw was woo: sax xcHnu so» :oHuuauomcH Hu=0Hquv¢ was: any "oAHnonon

 

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so» ouomon :oHHHSHHm can usonu «pan once o>us so» was» uauuuogaH mH uH Hoom 30>

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equivelmteets.
etosm't

Ton can identify a set of objects. He can sort objects by color and shape. He clout
sort objects by ems/size, texture, or weight. In om identify sets with less

then a given set but is unable to identify equivalent sets or sets with more than a
given set. He can identify which object is differmt when given a set which inclules
{our objects that ore the same and one that is different. he initiated questims

qbjects by colore, snipe, area/size, tance. and Height. She remand to ell-the
chant the tasks.

asks.

ndsetswlthnoretlmuulessflmsgzlvmoet. Vickiiselso

290

Sally camot identify a set of objects. She can sort objects by colon but not by
that is different. She attended to the task. Sally comm hurtlfy equivalent sets or
sets with note than or less than a given set.

shape, texture. area/size, or weight. Sally cmmot identify the object that is
dlffmtwhcnshe isslnmoset offourobjects thetarethe sneanlmeobjects

sattobjectsbyteamnemxlweight. luvecanidmtifyoetswlthmtlm

identify a set of objects. No on sort objects by color , dupe and size.
objects that are the some and one that is different. He rewarded to the tasks.

He isuxableto

Macon

 

'iflce to’Ihow Stills and Concepts"
learner will point to the different one.

2. Given a set of objects that can be sorted in

SIMPLE OF OIJICIIIII

1. Given a set of objects, all but one which are alike, the

IMdMsu‘

to any attribute(s)

the learner will sort objects according

g.

f ob ects
learner
col
eb
11 sort
is
5. The learner when given s set of concrete objects. can

the objects'by single attritaates, may»; to his rule

s rule.
6. The student will denonstrste interest/enjoynent in activities

another

 

 

Classification:
Single Attributes

Color
5W,
Size
Texture
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cw pcmshOn:o\vmvuuan mawupncoaov Haw: hocumma one

.umm amvoa map cusp mama mcw>mn meow o» anwon Haw: nocumoa
on» mpumnno muouocoo mo noon once uo m.u:m won Hence a axonm

.Amvpom unedw>fidao an» on unwom
Haw: umcpmma m2» muomnno oomuocou no mama whoa no m macaw

.mHsh m.uonoo:a no
camp was on mawuuoouw .mopanwuapu mamawm ha muoonno on»
“non :mo mpoonno upmuoaou no no» a co>wm cos: nonumoa any

pnmfioz An .muspxmaflm .confiuommc haampuo> oasnfiupua ufiufiooqu
mg» on mafivuouoa aaoonno anon Haw: nocumoa on» mhmz
mo mumwpm> m a“ umppom on ado gown: maumnno mo pom m cm>wo ”mo>fiuoonno

.mxma» on» on voucommou hone .pcoummwwc

ma pang vomnpo one vs“ 03mm on» can van» maoonno usou mmuzaocfl sown: you

w sm>wm cos: psoumMMfiv mw poonno sown: hwwucoow can hmna .amm am>wm m
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m can» muoe nufix mumm mwwpcoufi ou manw mum moss .pSMfimx ho mhmaxmp an
mpomnno puom o» magma: mum hone .mmfim ncw oamzm .uoaou an mnoonno upon emu

mmne .muoonno mo pom w huflpqovfi on can» mum canvafino ommny "canvawnolm

ngthzoo mhmm Q<onyoumEWZH

298

 

me

now pmmfl exp :0 on nanoa Jon pmn3 cmo 30% mm xfinmoflgflummm mm moan mmn

\1 1‘4
GE “.5

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fizoarom on on mcfiom wpm Jon awn: emu 40» mm AHHmUflmaum

.GOfiamofluflmmmao meanhmucou nowpqumew «o

 

xmm: map CH cowposupmwfl mo‘va pmmfi on

npo-EwomzH nowadaBHm qqz ”hm mm

 

mcfinmflcwm mswp wdflccwmom

 

msmz m>

r

 

“xmmh

30c mfl pH

H COfiuomm

299

.cOHponumefl mo
kmv umma m2» mnwsoaaom vflu so» was: emu no» mm haamoflmfiooam mm mnfluomva

uxmma

 

.pficu nonedctmpa msw poa coapogppmcw
mo awn pnma as» so can so» was: cwo :0» mm haamuwufiomam mm mnwuommo
nxmme

 

.wcwumugo nan .mnumppmm .cOfipmofimwmmmHo mcfivuaocw pfldd punsdclmgm
opflpco mna cfl mmmao use» weaponppmcfi vmaoaaeoo cam umccmaa 3oz m>mc now

ulo<smomzH ZOHH<QHHm A¢ZOHBHQQ<

 

meh mafismficflm mafia mcwccfimmm

 

mama pr cOfipomm

APPENDIX L

APPROPRIATE RESPONSES FOR PRE-NUMBER

INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN QUESTIONS

mucooauml
mo anon xaco
:o :owuoofiaoo «not any
uofl>onon
o>wuficuoo - umououm may

uxn oaao ucoammommo
o>fiufl=uoo mo cofiuooaaoo
on» muflafia unoVSHm 0:»
ma unwom oco mscwa ouoow

.d

o>fiuflcmou . ucoammomm< Aflosm .H

 

u=05mmomm< .

names: .m

 

HGOEmemm< HMHOGOU .<

o~nouo>omca

pacemmomm<

 

.H

m2<z

 

 

 

ucqauoommflgu mamas: .m

 

 

25 .w

 

maowuouoa .o

 

 

 

mamas: umzuo .n

 

unouSum .u
"uuwv uaoEmommmo

 

an ~+ mucmvaum Ham uoououo Adv
ouou>unon o>wuw=woo u unououm AHV
. aowuooauoo «and How «wou90o
oamuoomm movsaocw van dune ucoa
umooomo Human mo nonhu oawuooAm you
wood a mouooauaa no now axon ucou
noun «nu ma nova unwom uco ouoom .o
u>uuwawou u uauaumoomd flinch .H
a+ mcowuwvaoo huomaom .w
~+
H+
H+ ucmsmwcmuuo\oooam .v
H+ oo>fiu00nno uo\vcm Hoom ucouaoo .o
.rIIIJ H+
~+
oamaooom now coo: a mouoowvca no
you «Jan unavauo ma unwom oao ouoom .N
H+ oufimov hung coauueuowcfi uons zHHooum

 

 

 

uwooom oumowvca uoc ouov uon .cowuma
spouse once wow wow: u mouaoflvcw no
How axon ucovsum ma wagon oco ouoom .H

 

ucoammomm¢ Houocoo .<

ucQEmmomm< .H
o~n¢uo>wm

«a sawuoom

300

301

 

 

n+ nunnnauum nuaonuoau Amy
H+.1ldoo:oo vnoBOn movaunuuo mafiauw Amy

 

 

 

 

n+ ocaouwxoaa unnauu nov
n+ ‘llwanuununan Amy
H+ llwcnvaomoon Amy
n+ wanoaouuu Any

Honocom

an Hoozom on vouoaon onon>on
non o>nnoumwm Hanna wancnoocoo
«now now vooa m moumonvcn no oxmm
unavaum onu ma nanom oco onoom .o
o>nuoowmm u ucoEmmomm< anmam .N o>nuoommo u namammomm< Hnaam .N

 

mA<HOH

 

H+ Amonooo noon moon>
-ono ocuv monnw nnosa man
nvvfiocn monooon Eonm anon Avv

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

. WW undo unomon nonno on
a H+ «now unomon ucanmm Any
T H+ «now unomon nonuoow on
n+ mono onooon\auuo unoaum ANV
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ado oaasvn>nvcn nag: mom on

«an» a huHm nuns usonm socx
moan nus: u mHHuEnomcn a:
voxowm o>un moan nuns uao
vcnm cu «Hoavn>nv:n coau
amour Auv on ucovzuo zoom
«nos: use vcnu u unwavn>
snug“ conumuov Aav ..w.ov
Hnocom\nmmwmcoc mouoonvcn Apv

wcnuoouonm anacoo -
\nuaoo afico no on: mouoonvcn AAV

 

 

 

 

302

 

mA<HOH

 

H+ camoom
oun30mon mo zunHHAMuasooom 0:» man
unnouuoo «now now wow: u muumonocn
uaovoum «an an unnom oao unoom .n
H+ $22.
Inna hunmnw>nco .mnoouasao> uconma
.mconumaunm wanauauu aaUu .mnomflo:
ucovam .333 nonowmu ..mdv
mound nuSooOU mm magnum Hoccomnoa
mo nunnnnmanm>u can on o>nuunmn
undo new cows m mouwowvcn no mxmm
ucovsum unu wn unnom woo onoom .m
unoEwmomm< . memes: nmnuo .q usuammomm< u mcmsdm noauo .o

mA<HOH

 

 

 

4.

+'+'+'++

voom any
conuaonooe how
conmn> Amv
magnum: ANV
Hnmzm mo xow AHV
vows
o mouoonoCH no mxmw ucovsum man
sona3 now muoo ucwemmummm Hmonmmnm
mo ewun some now nanoa oco onoom .u

 

.

 

 

4.

 

 

4.

 

 

 

 

auonmznm - quEmmoum< anmzm .m Hmonw%:m n ucwEwmwmm< Hanan .m
, mq<non
n+ manumnuncn Amv
H+ mcnvcommon Amy
n+ wcnoaouuu AHV
monumEmnume

ou AHHuonunomam wouwaon mnow>u£mn
m>nuowwwm anasm wcncnoocoo «now

now wows m mmumonwcn no now mxmm
ucmwsum mcu wn unnom use wnoom .n

 

 

 

 

303

 

onmaosono 8333 3%.?
can: anuon Han: H: :.nom mo unoocou
on :0 cu non» oneness mo unoocoo on»

on voumnon mcommon gun: :nwon Han: H:
.mnmouaoo noasscuonn mo oucomna an nap
mannxm\numoo:oo conuonossc movsnucn sown
nosnnmcn nonnncn no mnmonuonn monoonvcn

 

 

 

 

..u.ov mpnoocou nonescuonm ovsaoxo H+ conuoe

suns: mucoaononm conunnnomov nnonn -noucn oocoooom\maunmnavonono noon

an novsnocn wad cannwanowcn oucoscom no ucou now com: a moumonvcn no mxmm
onnmnscononn now too; a onaonvnn no: moov ucoosuw onu mn nanoa mco onoom .m
ucovspm on» Mn nanon oco moans onouw .u mocoavom

. \ounmnsrononm acoucoo no uaoammumm< .N

cocoacom\onnmnacononm ncoucou N H+ wannmono Amv

H+ mcnmuuwm ANV

H+ AmanunOmv wanhwnmmmao AHV

mxmmu ucoemmmmmm anwwn on
nanoa mm mononmnsm ucwucoo nonasc
nunm we wwvaSOGx mmumonucw usmv
-sum wnu wn comm ucnom oco onoum .n
H+ mHmow no\vcm
mu>nuuonao cums no umnn non
vows a woumonUCn no now mxmm AmV

 

 

 

 

 

H+ monsm Enaaunnnso
now vmwc mmumonvcn no now mxmm ANV
conumnnomou no:\mn: H- H+ xoonuxuu
Eonm mnanxm\mumou=ou none::-onn now vows o moumonv:n\mxmm AHV
Ham movaaoxo was connmenOMCn oucaanSm conumsnowcH oucmumnsm ucoucoo now
nconcoo now coo: a onaonvcn no: moou vow: m moumonocn no now mxmm ucoo
acounnm on» an unnoa oco macna onoum .a uoum on” an some unnoa oco onoom .o
oocunmnsm nconcoo .H oocwumpam ucouaoo .H
ncoammomm< nannunnnau .o ucoammomm< noaaonnnau .u

 

 

 

 

mqm<mo><m23 m4m<xo><m

304

munuweo
unune mnoE anoow ou mace anomwoumc
an zqu mcncnmon uanu mwuwowvcw
ucmvaum onu wn nanom oco moans onoom

 

H+

how ano>o uHanm Awanhwn

ummowov mawunoo ow: hmnu to: con
nuanno can xmo vases H .mmomnsm
nuancoo wo owconsoax mouuowvcw
unavSum ucu ww nanom uco onoom

 

H+

 

.m

ooomnsm ucuucoo

.m

:.om= coo conwwnzo ecu mwcnau uEOm
on wouuwon maomman he «Joe on

hnn wanes H: :.:nma on: on u>ma
u.:ov 03 uwnu co m: awansu nuns
convwnno can xma vH=o3 H: :.:uda
um: 03 .umnnm: ..w.wv oaomnom
ncoucoo wcncnoocou conumsnOwcn
now come a moumonocn no mxmm
ucovsum on» wn unnoo oco onoom

 

 

H+

nunucmov an mannovno ANV

 

H+

nunucmav no mannwnmuuno Anv
mHanm noses:

Iona vco conumno83c now mounm
unavwnwnm wo wwwmwsocx moumunucn
ucowsum man wn nanom «so unoom

 

.n+

munucosu any

 

H+

wnnm .oE:Ho> .ucwno3 .uswnw: Adv
np wannmuno Anv

 

H+

mousnwnuum owmnuwoe any

 

H+

onsnnnuuo owmcwm Adv
manouuom ANV

 

H+

muwucmsv Auv

 

mononnnuuo wamnuwoe Anv

 

 

 

 

H+

 

owusnnnuum owwcwm Adv
muoonno\muwm wcnzwnmmowo AHV
mouusuum
nmnEJCIona wo mmwowaocx mwumowvca

 

ucmuSum mcu wn unnom mco onoom

.fl

moonnam ufloucoo

.p

305

Ill!“

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lllll Ll

JIHJ

 

mafia on

 

naonnnvaoo hnOoaom Anv

 

ucuamnavo Aqv

 

ucuwmqam Amy

 

unannouua ANS
ucoeuwaannu\ooomo va
huwabsaoo .o

 

ucaonwmawm Any

 

Anna» wo mafia .mmv
Hoonoo wo :nwcon ..w.ov oEnu on

 

«conunvcoo »n0ncma Any

 

unwannnvo Aqv

 

mowwmmzm Amv

 

unannaume ANV

 

ucaeomcmnnm\oooom va
Hoonom .n

 

H+

conuoanuman wo many
.uowsvonom soon ..w.ov mean on

 

:.vcaono Bonn

3on5u convanzo wan no no>o Han HHon nonu
omaooon coannSo ou woman o>nw u.:oo sow:
A.mwonnmuue Hnocom\noaom no vnoopxwono wo
on: maco monounvan was «now Houcoeconn>co
now xmo uoc mace ucovsuo any :. on
«and on u.cvnoos H on o>on u.co3
zwnonona Hoonom once: ..w.ov vouonnumon
wanmn wo wcnwomw a mouoownCn connmnnommw
m.ucovsum onu wn nanom oco moans onoom

 

 

.H

 

uCUBm m0 m mdw H “Ham—Suck H>CM

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Anonuuo3 an monsoonumaun
~ono>umv aconuwvaoo hnomqwm Amv

 

31+

monwmmsm on

 

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".8539? A8

 

H+

unannouaa ANS

 

 

 

H+

 

 

ucoeuwcmnno\moomo AHV
Boonmmowo .m
"uumo Houaoeconn>co
Hmnwcom now woos o mouoonvcn no now
axon uaovsum can wn nanom oco unoom .H

 

ucoEmoomm< wouaoecommwcm .a

6
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nosuo any [mu
oo-<o\mououon unumocwuno new n+. 1|;
xnouco>cn manooon onumocwonv Anv H+ H+ nmSuo Amv
monoom noon vonnvnavcoum on H+ ~+ meanonm mananomn Acv
unomon ucmnom Any H+ ~+ Ho>uw manomon Amv
oo-<u\mumo ououon any own n+ «you» .o.n ANV
wnmsa\uconoa u conmosomnv AHV H+All.w+ monmwnomxm vadonwxomp va

ucmVSum can an wmuounvaw conume

anowcH wo Ewan comm now unwom ado mnoum

om

anon ucoEmmomm< m>nuncwoo\wonocou a wagon .N

ucouznm can %A condonvcn conumenowcn
wo Bonn zoom now ncwoa mco unoom

om

moan
unmaumoam< a>nunamou\nmnoaao - nnosm .N

 

 

 

 

Amannwvno

mono can an sawmowwnommm mumv name
unwommo Hnmna now woos m moumowvcn
ucmvsum man ww unwoa oco onoom

 

 

 

 

 

mouoonvcw ucovsum can anon
wo monaom coda now ucnoa oco onoom

Op\q

nun: Honocou\o>nuncwoo .H

momDOm

 

Goadz

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A:.moocmenownom
:Nmonuosmnume on
vmuowon o>m£ ownasn ow mumooaoo no
annnxm puns: ..w.ov munuqemsuqe

on mwwoonwnomam vouowon ouov name
snowman Hanna now come a moumonvcn
ucouauo onu wn nanom oco onoom

H+
nosuo 3v umflrlullancnouuom wanhwnmmmwov .nerEuono wo
conmmaomno ANV n+
mxmmu woumwon cums wo mocmenownoa H+
anosa wo oumv conum>nmmno vmvnoomn on
vwnco zoom on Nwav Hono u>nw Amv H+ w
umouona mov mfl+ ozon>anm...:
n.00an Any H+
unomon nonomou ozon>ona Amy H+
monoom ummu muon>onm va H+

om

mama nun: nmnuaoo\m>nuncwoo - nnosm .n

zowh<2m0mzH

 

swab: .<

connoonnou anon neoEmmomm< .nn

an conuuom

307

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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nofio A3 H+
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unomon uaanoo on H+IIIJE
29a 53 82333 So n+|ll
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uncoon uconam on mHllIlf
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wn0n>m£un wanumwuncw .wcwccoaman
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mumonoucn Anaam Amv
uncoon 3v fill,
monooon owuoocmanv A3 «null
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unoaon nonoqou nonuo Avv Hflflill:li accommmn .mcwvcwuumv monumEm
unomon ucunoa on fifillrl :59: an n§§0ncm\umonuucn 3v
v.35 can: cowomsounv 3v w+ H+ 939$ wo «mono umonoucn A3
anon>mnmn manuanuncn .wcwvcommon ,IIIIIIIIH+ muwwnnmum Hmcowuoeu ANV
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Honocoo\woonom va unashonco\uaonwusw Honocou va
Bonn coco now condonvcw ucovoum an vanoonvan swan conume
cannon sumo now nanon «so onoom .o unowcw coco now ucwom oao onoom .o
33 uaosooomg o>nuooww< . Zoom .m 3.5 305333» o>nuooww< .. :95 .m

308

 

unonuo Ago
nuaundm on
anosoauu Anv
wamwocnnm Adv
onooucswo> Any
nanuo AuV
unoaoaou Any
woawoawnm Amy .
«Hanna: ANV
noSuo on
mnonouuu Anv
womnocwnm Amy
amonm Any n+ moon“ Hangman Anv
cowumanowca wo afluw Sumo now ucmvdum kn vmumuaucw Emuw aowume
vmumuwvcw monsow Soda now undon wco unoom .m snowCH nomm now unwom 0:0 unoum .m
«cuss: nonuo we nunnnnannu>< .m mamas: guano no nunnnnmnn~>< .m
guano Ago
munooun Auv
unomon Anv .
:OHuo>nomno Amv
sung»; noonmnsa new
nwcuo on
mvnooon onumocwonu Apv
conum>nomno va
uawnxm wazmw> Amv
nunuo Auv
mvnooon onuoocwunu Anv
cowuw>nomno Amv
mwwnxm anouwvsm ANV .
monooon Anv
conuo>nouno Auv 4
onnnu we xam Any n+ n+ onnno we now any
ucmvsum
ucovsua on» an vouuowvcw aowuqenowcw can hp woumonucH Euuw sounds
wo monsom some now nanom uco wnoom .w unowcH sumo now uCHoa oao unoom .n
anon usuammomm< wuonwmsm u wnosm .o anon uaoEumomm< woowmmnm u Hanan .v

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__.

+++'++++

 

 

 

H+ mnooucswo> uaonom Anv

 

 

4

 

 

w+ mnuawu: ucuwsum ANV

 

 

 

 

 

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Anomwm
n+ .ooow zmsocmv nunmm; naunmnna now

 

 

 

 

 

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n+ mnnnxm nusmn> AmV

 

 

 

 

n+ wnnnxm nnounosa Amv

 

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309

 

mnocuo Amv

H+

 

mnonEmE zuw:=EEoo Avv

H+

 

ouconoa AUV
anonooou Anv

H+
H+

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womnucnna on
«Hmong monsomon on

H+

 

H+

 

unusuo Auv

H+

 

mnonoqun any

H+

 

Hoawuawnm An
monsooou aduw Any

owooom monaomon on

 

H+

 

anonuo Avv

he!

 

auwmnu>wna on

 

onozuau A5

 

Hoanocwna Anv
uuauoaum Aqv

 

 

:3 flit? 11

 

 

 

Ell

wannoouu anon Amv

mucowSuo huwmno>wca Aqv

310

 

nmsuo Acv

:mewuov nosuooH Any

mwvwsw EDHDannso Amy

exceeuxen AHV

.u:on=um man up

vouwowv:w :OwumanOwcw wmonnaa u:ou:oo
wo oun30m some new u:woa H onoom

 

 

 

 

 

omonnsm acoucoo

 

nenuo new

me>weeewee we new: AmV

mwvwsw EaHSannsu ANV

exceeuxew Anv

.:0wumEn0w

-:n mucosvwm wuwmwsvmnwna u:wu:oo
wo munDOm Loam new ucwoa H wnoom

 

Azmmo:mumn=m u:wu:oo vmwwwucovw can

:nmoH cu vow: :wanwno on was:

:wuooocoo nmzuo %:m an von no:

HHna w:w Howwma on no: HHwa

umnu :Owumuwnoaoa ouon m>Ho>

-:w :OmmoH wsu moon: ..w.wv

.:0wuuan0w:w onoonso

u:ou:oo new vow: m mouoowvan
u:wv:um man ww ucwoo H wnoom .m
uncansm u:wu:ou

 

 

 

 

 

mocwzuom\mnwmw:vmnm acoucou

 

nonuo Amy

ee>wweewee we new: Amv

mwvwsw E3H50wnn=o on

axoonuxoh Any

onwcuwou noauo ANV

neeweawwe wcwenwem Anv

.ucwvsum ocu kn

vouoowocw :OwumEnOwcw oucmumpso ucou:oo
wo mon=Om zoom now u:woo H mnoom

 

A:.:0wuo=num:w unmum

cu mnwca socx cu vow: H:

:.mu:mv=um man omSw:Ou cu no:

mm 0m mocwnvmm :« uxw: mmfiou

uwss socx 0» Von: H: ..w.ov

.:0wumen0w

-:w wocwsumm\wuwmwnvmnwno

namu:oo new vow: o mwumowvcw
u:mv:um mg» ww ucwoa H onoom .m
wocmsuwm\wuwmwsvmnonm u:wn:ou

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

H+
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Qucwumnfim quuCOU

 

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A:mw>w: Ewumzm mwsu moon
Emnwona .cumfi wo mahn nuns:
:~:0wuo:num:n nwuwm 30::
cu ucmuoum wan u:w3 H on
:.w:w:ommu E: H Ho>oH
mcu um E=H=uwnn=o wan :w
new wwHHmu mw uw;3 30:x cu
:.w:w:omon on vHsos
H muaoocoo u:w mHwam nos:
30:: on www: UHsoa H: ..m.uv
.:0wumEn0w:w mo:mumn=m
ucwu:oo nOw com: o moquwvcw
u:wo:um msu ww u:woo H onoom .m
wo:mumn=m ncmu:oo

 

and H30 ..nHHSU . m

311

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

H+ anon
naoauooomo w:anooon new aonmhm
a on: HHH3 o:u\on oouoowvcw
uaovano man ww unwoa H unoom .H
mum: uaoammoom<iumnvnooom .9 once nauaononu¢Lumwonoowm .a
:58 so I. 1 8&5 so
mnopaoa wuw::asoo Amy H+V H+. o:oHqu:ou any
235 So H+ H+ weeaewaem So
3238 AC H... H+ 3:33 H8
Heeweawnw H3 H+ H+ 33.8%: a
:Owuo>nomno AHV H+_ H+ u:maow:onn< moonm aHv
muwcafinoo .u manna—Eco .u
:58 3V 3 H+ 2:55.38 So
338 AC H+ H+ 9:3 5
mnonoome on H+ H+ acoHqu:oo anamcom on
Hmawocwnm AmV H+ H+ ucmaawsdm Amv
mume aneucm>cH Amy H+ H+ mHmwnmumZ ANV
:oHum>nomno AHV H+ H+ ncoamwcnnn<\oomaw AHV
Hoonom .n Hoonom .p
H+ 25 H8
nwsuo on H+ H+ acoHuwvaou mnOm:mm Amy
meaam any H+ H+ maanaam A¢v
mnmsomme AQV H+ H+ ucmaawaum AMV
Huowocwnm AmV H+ H+ mewnmuwz ANV
mume uncu:0>:H ANV H+ H+ ucoaowconno\oooam AHV
:oHuo>nwmno AHV H+ EconmmmHo .m
soonmmoHu .m .u:mvsum mnu up
.amuw :owumsnowcw zoom new vouoownaw Eouw ncosmmommo Hou:oe
wouoowocw oun20m sumo now ucwoo H onoom .H uaonw>co comm nOw unwoo H onoom .H
u:oSmmomm< Honcoaconw>:m .0 ucoEomomm< Hou:06:onw>:m .o

wonsom

 

 

 

 

:oHqunOw:H

312

 

H+ un:: noaa::uonn can now
onow Hoonoonv:omon ouuoonv:n
. u:ov:um «an wH ncwom 0:0 mnoom .o
.IJ H1... “...—”:9 nungauonm
now anow Hoonom wo 990 any now
owvoHsocx now vow: o mouoowvcn
u:ov:um can wH uawoa 0:0 onoom .m
H+ H:.wewseeee ae H
sowg3 :H axon:oo HoconumSnHm man
an oHAHamom on vHsos nann Hmow
Hoonomuv:o>un any we osmoHo:w :m
wwweeeew ences n: ..m.ev Heem
Hoosomnvcommn wo oaonm:m :m
awnuauvw vHsos o:m\m£ monmowv:w
ncovSum can wH ucwoa 0:0 onoom .N
H+ A:.u:mEmmommm wcwnsv vocwenoumv
HHme vco omvoHsocx ooaouonsm
ucoucoo Hoonunaonume vovoo: osu
wo :oHuooHHaao vcm :oHuHmwsvoo
mesm oumowvcw vH:03 nosu Haow
Hoonomnvcoxmn m wwHu:ovH vHaoa H:
..m.wv Haom Hoonoouv:0%on a «noun
v:o mwnucovw vHsos onm\o: monoo
nwvcn u:ov:um onu wH u:Hom mco onoom .H

 

 

 

 

 

 

:oHumonHucmvH Hmoo .< :OHuoonHu:wvH Hmou .<

mHnmno>mwcp mHnmno>mm

 

 

 

 

mm>HHUmvmo 92¢ mA<Ow .MHH

.eww cewweem

313

 

:oHuwuwcssaoo .o

 

H+

«mesn 0» oo>Huoonno\uHmow
ououH::EEoo on m:de ouuuowvaH
nauvnnm can wH nawom 0:0 onoom

 

:oHumowcaano

 

H+

mucovsnm
HoovH>chw on vocwwmmo :mon o>mn
oo>Huoohno coco anon Hacowuonnumcw
o:Hanouov vHsos o:m\o: mauoowvcw
ucovsum «nu wH ucwom m:o onoom

 

H+

«adv ucoEmwoomo n:ov:no :o vomon
mucovSum Hosvw>wv:w now mo>Huomnno
uooHow vH=o3 o:m\o: mouoonvcw
u:ov:uo can wH ncwoo 0:0 onoom

 

ucmaawwuuu Hoow now
anommooo: oo>Huoonno 0>Hnoowwo
can wcwuouu an uHoHmem Hwow
«no oxms vHaos ono\o: omuoowvcw
u:ov:um any wH ucwom 0:0 unoom

 

H+

 

anon» oHonz on» now nan mHosvw>Hv:H
now mo>wnoonpo nooHom no: moov
n:ovsnm ozn wH u:woa o:o m::Ha onoow .H

 

:ownoonwwoomm o>Hnoonoo .m

 

 

 

 

u:08:Hanuo Hoow now
hnommooo: oo>Huoonno o>HnH:woo
on» wcwuoum an uHoHHaxo Hmow
Gnu oxoe vH303 ona\o£ mwumuwv:w
ucovnum unu wH u:Hom 0:0 unoom

.H

.H

 

gueewmmeeem «Zueefio

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.m

314

o>Huuohno mean

:0 no o>Huuomao ousnwnpuu

oHu:Hm nmnww :o :Hmon mHHnsn

HHo was» monouwv:w n:ov:um
on» wn ucnon o:o n=:H: onoom .H

mHHmsm now
eefieeonee ewwweemm meiwweeeew .<

oHnuno>ow::

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

H+ mnow>wnmn manaHnH:H now
mHHoo 0>Hnounno o>wuuuww< Amy
H+ H .Fe - 33530 AS
H+ m .Hee - eeusewnuue onwcwm HHV
uo>on .v
H+ mnow>msmn
wcwv:ommon vomwonu:w now
oHHmo 0>Huoomno w>Huouww< Amv
H+ H ..Ee . 33:30 a
H+ H .Hne - ensenwuee onwewm HHS
uhHHmm .o
H+ mnoH>osmn
wcwumHuwcw w:H::Hu:oo now
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H+ «.mn~.H .Hee - nuwueeeo HNV
H+ m .nno n monoannum oncwm AHV
”Boa .n
H+ mnoH>mnmn mcwumwuncw new
mHHmo o>nuoonno o>nuomww< Amv
H+ u:oEoonow:Hmn no
\vcm mowuomnm mm mmucwwnwmxw
:onumonHmmoHo mmscwuaou ANV
H+ mw>Huummno
:nmuumm :o xno3 on :mem AHV
”.30.; .w
H+ :OHuQHnumov

nm£\mH£ :H wmvsHo:H ucvaum may umnu
sonn Ewuw some now ucHom mco wnoom

 

anmno>mm

mm>HHUMHmo Qz< mq<du .AHH

Ann cewueem

315

.:oHno=nnm:w moon»

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

oHogz zH:o movsHo:H :oHHAwnumov
m.n:ov=nm osn ww ncwo: H . onoom .H

:dasm .<

oHnono>ow::

 

 

 

 

H+ :.noHou up mHnawao wan unOo
cu.aw: xou vHsoa H moHoEHau :H
venounonan on HHHm: :.n.:oo
zany xansu on mHnosa «nu u:o3
w.:ee H: =.ee enaee unweee one
wdnsuuBOm ovnHoaw vHaos H: ..w.ov
.mnoH>a:on
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H+ mHuaovaooovan
wcnxnoa an no NV mHHasm .8
H+ hHu:ov:oaov:H wawxnoa Hwasm .H
H+ :oHuoanwm w:w£ouou soon we was .3
H+ mucmvanm zuwmno>w:= we was .fi
H+ mnmouasHo> uaonua wo mm: .H
H... movwm nanomou wo um: .n
H+ onoaHo: u:ov:nm we on: .m
H+ wawHovoE
now soHHo on mHHosa w:wu=ono .w
H+ name
-:Hmuuo o>wuoompo o>wnoowwm now
soHHo cu measa w:Ha=ono .o
H+ newuosHo>o o>wuuan0w
:o vomon meaaa w:Ha=onwom .v
H+V o>wuuunno mean any :0
wcwxnoa onm 0:3 measo wawosonu .o
H+_ :ownusnum:w nomnom .n
H+ :Owuoanum:w nonnao van

Anomv ononw oHo:3 anon we on: .m
.:oHnawnomov

non\mw: :n vovsHo:w n:ov:nm

«so Bonn Loom now u:wom H onoom

.H

 

::35: .<

oHnono>om

mmwumb<mhm .HHH

HHH cowuuom

316

 

.moHnH>wnuo :u:HHHon nonomon:

 

H+

ncoa
ummoomo Hwasa Hosvw>wvcw
:o vooon vow: oavw:£oou
naoaoonOwcwon wo oamfi Any

 

aHono:owv mononcnoou
uaoaoonOwawon wo om: on
uaosoonOw:Hom Any

 

oo>Hnoonno ousnnnuuo
oHawuHszuwawnovno on

 

H+

oo>Huoon
uno onsaHnuuo oHaHuHse
van on:wmum:nouuom ADV

 

H+

mo>wuoonno
zuwuaosducoHuoonwmooHo on
nOw oxmou wawcnooH nooocoo Amy

 

H+

mousnwnuno
oncwm mcwnovno Anv

 

H+

Ahuwu:o:v naooxov
mo>wuoonno onsnwnuuo
oHawuHse vco onawm
we cewweewwweeeno new
now mxmou
wcwanooH :oHuo:HawnooHn th
w:H:nooH nconoao .o

 

H+

A:.aoonw mHSn :w ocomno>o new
xHHE wo :Ounoo o wcwnp .mHHomzv
:oHnoanum:H HoEnow:H .n

 

H+

mxmou noonw
HHoEm no u:ov:ooov:H Amy

 

H+

vouoonwv nonoooe AHV
cowuosnumcH Hoenom .o
"now movw>ona naovsum one .N

 

H+

 

xH:o movsHo:H :oHannomov

m.n:ovanm can wH H . onoom AH
noHaoHnnso

.m

 

 

 

 

.:0wuownomov
no;\mw£ :w vovsHo:w u:ov:um
osu Eouw nooo new unwoa H onoum .H
noHsuwnnso .m

 

317

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

H+ 3o: wcwznoBOo :nooH
cu Hwaaa now %uw:=nnonao Amy

H+ Hwese we
Ho>oH w:H:nooH no on sway Amy

H+ A:.muoonno omonu unOo :oo sow

who: hams so: oom o.uoH nan

.ewe; on Hn.ww seen n .neeew

ouoonno we now u:onowwwv

o o>on H .vo: o3 nuoofino

onu unOm On who: o3n v:ww

vHaoo =0» movnouoor: ..w.ov
Anweee ensuwzv eweenneno ANS

H+ nonwo Any

H+ :oHsn ms moose: on
$58 so

H+ uom HocoHnosnumcw non Amumv
H+ mowuw>wuoo wo >uowno> wo om: Amv

H+ onsuosnum
xmeu ancews eeeweoe Hweew Hey
H+ xmou wo onsuo: movwoov Hwosm Any
H+ xmou wo nasoao movwoov Hwoom Amy
H+ oxoou macaw oovwoov Hwosm HHV
w:w:nooH u:ov:oamom
H+ xoou wcwHovoE nozoooa Amy
H+ xeee mcwneees enweew HHV
wewneeez
H+ oHoHnouoE ouono:0o we
on: ovsHocw sowca mo>wuoonno
wo anoumoe Hwasa nouwo mH:o
mHownouoE owHODEAm we own
H+ oxmoh ucowno>wo

 

 

 

 

H...

 

mxmok u:owno>:oo

318

 

H+ AoHoHnouoE o>wuoHomwcoE
w:Hv:Ho:Hv noncoo wcwcoumHH .:
H+ sumo mouscwe m muom
unsmum .cowuosnumsw adonm oHo:3
mouscwe oHv ucosowocoe oEHH .m

 

 

 

 

 

 

n+ 333 .33 .w
H+ moono umonoucw wo om: .o
H+ mnoucoo >uw>wuoo wo om: .v
H+ ovnoon :wuoHHon wo om: .o
H+ wcwcnooH HoEnowcn

wo omoansa now EoonmmoHo wo
ucoEowconno vcm oooam mouoowvcH .n
H+ :owuosnumcw HoEnow
wo omoanso now EoonmmoHo wo
g ucoEow:onno vco ooomm moumowvcH .o

 

 

mHoHnouoE Hwo H- :oHu
ucoa\noaoa wo cho om: ouoowvcw mcoHa uawnomov no:\mwn :H movoHo:H ucov5uo
m.ucov:um oLu ww ucnom oco mocwe onoom .H onu Eouw cooo now ucwoo o:o onoom .H

 

 

 

 

 

 

Houco8:onw>cm .0 Hou:oE:onH>:m .0

319

 

H+

gunnewnen ANNV

 

H+

novnooon
omoH A
HNV

 

H+

v::
on eeneon Homo

 

H+

no
Hawcouoon ooHnoH A
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APPENDIX M

SYSTEM FOR KEEPING RECORDS OF INDIVIDUAL

DEVELOPMENTAL TIME

P“.- -_..---_—.—~——‘-..

 

APPENDIX M

SYSTEM FOR KEEPING RECORDS OF INDIVIDUAL

DEVELOPMENTAL TIME

 

Record Card

Purpose: Present:
Outcomes:
Date: Time: From to

 

 

325

.4-.. ._,...-._—..._......._.-‘

 

APPENDIX N

RESEARCHER BIOGRAPHICAL BACKGROUND INFORMATION

 

APPENDIX N

RESEARCHER BIOGRAPHICAL BACKGROUND INFORMATION

Family Background

 

According to Stanley and associates (1956) system of classifi-
cation this researcher was born and raised in a middle class family
situation. The family was located in a small town with a population
of approximately 6,000. This researcher's family consisted of mother,

father, and two non-masculine siblings.

Academic Background

 

This researcher acquired a 8.8. degree from Central Michigan
University in 1961 with minors in sociology, art, bioloby, and Speech.
She earned a Master of Arts degree in elementary education from
Michigan State University in 1967. At the time of this study this
researcher was completing the requirements for a Ph.D. in elementary

teacher education at Michigan State University.

Professional Work Egperience

 

This researcher had been employed as an elementary and inter-
mediate school classroom teacher between the years of 1961 and 1968.
From 1968 through the academic year of 1971 the researcher was an
elementary intern consultant responsible to an MSU off-campus teacher
education center. In the intern consultant role, this researcher was
released from all personal classroom teaching responsibilities. This

researcher was reSponsible for working with six to nine

326

327

intern-teachers. The intern«teachersfunctioned as a classroom teacher
(Special State Certification Provided) for one year prior to graduation
from the Elementary Intern Undergraduate Teacher Education Program.
This experience included the opportunities to observe teachers and
record and analyze the field observations. Verification of observa-
tions was obtained through informal and formal interviews.

During the three years as an E1? consultant and for two sub- Th
sequent years this researcher taught, to university juniors, the
introductory university course in educational psychology and social

emotional learning. This researcher was also involved in teaching

 

h~w~

university graduate courses such as "Instructional Techniques" and
"The Open Classroom."

During the two academic years from 1971 to 1973, this re-
searcher maintained a position at MSU; the first year, as a graduate
fellow in teacher education and the second year as an instructor.
During this time this researcher worked in the deve10pment and field

work aSpects of an experimental teacher training program.

Related Experiences

 

Public school teaching provided this researcher with the
opportunity to work in a participant observer role. (See Rachel

Reese Sady, Perspective from Anthropology, 1961, p. 7, and others.)

 

This researcher, over a five-year period, had been asked to partici-
pate on numerous professional committees, in various participant
observer roles.

On several occasions this researcher was trained as an observer

and participated in field research studies and field projects. These

328

experiences included training in recording and analyzing both
objective and subjective data and in informal and formal interviewing.

Prior to this researcher's arrival to campus for the purpose
of completing her MSU graduate residency requirements, she was
employed as a consultant for an elementary teacher intern program. In
this position as liaison between public school and university per-
sonnel, she became aware of the differences in the language of public
school employees and university professors. After being on campus
and in a position to continue field work in public schools this
researcher consciously maintained and used a public school language
in those contacts, while learning and using the university language
in that society. Therefore, language problems that did exist between
this researcher and members of the group being studied were those
related to the situations where people from various disciplines were
trying to work together. This problem also existed among the other
team members. Thus the problem was resolved as a team problem.

As a participant-as-observer, this researcher attended all
team meetings. Since the investigator expressed the desire to attend
subteam development work sessions, the researcher was included in
them. In subteam situations this researcher continued to act in the
roles of member and learner.

This researcher was involved with various team members in
other professional situations. Also, since this researcher lived in
the Lansing area she was able to attend various professional and

social functions to which she was invited by various team members.

"‘11111mm