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IIII.J '33 “'3' "III III33333 3333.33 3 W33'I 33.3.IIIII.I3IIII 3.3.3333 .33 WI IIIII.'33'I 3. 3: 333333.: 335‘, ”MINI“ . IIIII.'.I. 3'33 ’I‘III. 333 ”'3 .333 33"333I .qu 3.3.3.33 . 33g... IIIIIIIII IIIIIIII IIII‘III' IIIIIIIIII IIIIIII IIIII 3IIIIIII3III3IIQI33 IIIII 33333.36 33331333333 3L. 'I3II33333'II3 “I3II 33‘ 3IIII 3I.I 33 ”it, . I “3 3333 3.3. .3333 .. . 333.333 Illllllll\lllllllllllllllllllllll“lllllHIHll .__., . 3 1293 104377 LIBR A I? v rHESIS Michigan 5 Late University This is to certify that the thesis entitled Energy Information Classroom Experiment: A Measure of Student Beliefs and Attitudes presented by Bonnie Jl Knutson has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Master of Arts Human Shelter & degree m—Envirom'ental Design Major professor 1 November 1979 I)ate 0-7639 OVERDUE FINES: 25¢ per day per item RETURNING LIBRARY MATERIALS: Place in boon return to remove charge from circulation records III ‘|ll".llv ( n it. Ilia: 1.0qu in. olllut till"! it ., .I-nusuep © 1979 BONITA J EAN KNUTSON ALLRIQ-HS RESERVED ENERGY INFORMATION CLASSROOM EXPERIMENT: A MEASURE OF STUDENT BELIEFS AND ATTITUDES BY Bonnie J. Knutson A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS Department of Human Environment and Design 1979 r». M a: x 9’ J ABSTRACT ENERGY INFORMATION CLASSROOM EXPERIMENT: A MEASURE OF STUDENT BELIEFS AND ATTITUDES BY Bonnie J. Knutson The purpose of this study was to assess the effec— tiveness of information, presented in a college classroom experience, in altering energy beliefs and attitudes. Specifically, it attempted to examine the energy beliefs and attitudes of selected juniors and seniors enrolled in either the second or third of three Core Courses in the College of Human Ecology, Michigan State University, during Spring Term, 1978. Those students enrolled in HEC 301, "Management and Decision-Making in the Family," were members of the control group; those enrolled in HEC 401, "Energy and the Designed Environment," were members of the experi- mental group. Self—administered questionnaires, designed to measure energy beliefs (three questions) and attitudes (31 questions on three scales), were given to both groups on the first day of class (Time I). The experimental group then received energy information throughout their ten week Bonnie J. Knutson classroom experience, while the control group received no energy information through their classroom experience during the same period. At the end of the term, questionnaires, identical to the pretest, were again given to both groups (Time II). Frequencies and t-tests of mean differences were used to test four null hypotheses at a significance level of .025. At the beginning of the term (Time I) students in both groups were found not to be significantly different in either energy beliefs or on two attitude scales: Human Responsibility and Life Style Flexibility. Although there was a significant difference in the third attitude scale, Eckoareness, it resulted from differences on only two of the 11 questions within the scale. Using the pretests as a benchmark, the students in the control group, HEC 301, did not show a significant dif- ference on any measure between the beginning and end of the 1978 Spring Term (Time I, Time II). The experimental group, HEC 401, however, did show a significant difference in their energy attitudes on the Eckoareness Scale and a meaningful difference on the Life Style Flexibility Scale between the pre- and posttests (Time I, Time II). There was also a meaningful increase in belief in the energy crisis in the near future by the HEC 401 students. Bonnie J. Knutson At the end of the term (Time II), a significant difference was found between those who did receive energy information (experimental group, HEC 401) and those who did not (control group, HEC 301) on the Eckoareness Scale. On the Human Responsibility Scale and the Life Style Flexi- bility Scale no significant difference was found in atti- tudes. The two groups did, however, move farther apart in their expressed attitudes with the experimental group eXpressing more positive attitudes on these two scales. There was no significant difference between groups in their energy beliefs. Study conclusions suggest that an experimental classroom experience, structured from an ecosystem perspec- tive, can be a useful method for altering college students' perceptions of and attitudes towards the energy situation. To Doris and Eggie who taught me the value of human energy. iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I wish to thank my committee members who have chal- lenged and supported me throughout this endeavor. Both Dr. Joanne Keith and Dr. Barbara Ames have helped make this research project a valuable learning experience. One person, above all, commands my respect, admira- tion and appreciation. Dr. Bonnie Maas Morrison, my major advisor, spent countless hours sharing ideas and suggesting improvements. I am honored to call her my teacher and my friend. My husband, Bob, and daughters, Lauri and Aimee, warrant a special thank you for their encouragement and good natured acceptance of many home-life inconveniences necessitated by work on this thesis. iv CHAPTER TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Supply of Fossil Fuel Energy Forms The Demand for Fossil Fuel Energy Forms Educational Implications of the Energy Situation 0 O O O O O O O O I O O O Ecological Implications of the Energy Situation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Conceptual Framework . . . . . . . . . Research Problem . . . . . . . . . . . Problem Statement . . . . . . . . . Research Objective . . . . . . . . Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Discursive Definitions . . . . . Operational Definitions . . . . . . REVIEW OF LITERATURE . . . . . . . . . . . Energy Attitude Surveys . . . . . . . . Education Level and Energy Beliefs . . Experimental Studies on Educational Information Methods of Changing Attitudes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Effect of Message Repetition on Attitude Change . . . . . . . . Effect of Praise, Effort and Quantity of Information on Attitude Change Experiments in Energy Behavior: Cognitive Methods . . . . . . . . Experimental Studies Using Only Information or Feedback . . . . . Experimental Studies Using Information or Feedback Plus Incentives . . . Page ix 12 13 16 17 20 21 22 23 25 CHAPTER Energy Education in the Schools . . . . Experimental Studies Relating Attitudes to Behaviors . . . . . . . . . . . III. METHODOLOGY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Description of the Sample Population . Selection and Description of the Sample . . . . . . . . . . . . . Selection and Description of th Subsample . . . . . . . . . . . . Research Methodology . . . . . . . . . Methodology Selection . . . . . . . Questionnaire Development . . . . . Distribution and Collection of Data The Pretest Questionnaire . . . . . Introduction of the Independent Variable . . . . . . . . . . . Human Ecology Core Studies Program: HEC 401 . . . . . . The Course Content . . . . The Posttest Questionnaire . . . . Processing the Data . . . . . . Statistical Procedure . . . . . Research Hypotheses . . . . . . . . . . Hypothesis 1 . . . . . . . . . . . Hypothesis 2 . . . . . . . . . . . Hypothesis 3 . . . . . Hypothesis 4 . . . . . . Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . Limitations of the Study . . . . . . . IV. FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS . . . . . . . . . Time I--Control and Experimental Groups Hypothesis 1.1 and 1.2 . . . . . . Hol.1 Findings . . . . . . . . H01.1 Discussion . . . . . . . H01.2 Findings . . . . . . . . Hol.2 Discussion . . . . . . . vi Page 27 28 29 29 31 31 36 36 37 39 39 40 4O 41 43 44 45 45 45 46 46 46 47 47 49 50 50 50 50 53 53 CHAPTER V. Time I, Time II--Control Group HEC 301 Hypothesis 2.1 and 2.2 . s O O 0 ion . H02.l Finding H02.1 Discuss H02.2 Findings . . H02.2 Discuss Time I, Time II--Expe HEC 401 O O O O 0 ion . . . rimental Group Hypothesis 3.1 and 3.2 3.1 Finding 3.1 Discuss 3.2 Finding 3.2 Discuss Time II--Control and Experimental Hypothesis 4.1 an H04.l Finding H04.1 Discuss H04.2 Finding H04.2 Discuss SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS Overview of the Study Conclusions . . . . . Altering Energy B Attitudes . . . Similarities/Differences Between the s . . . ion . . . s . . . . ion . . . d 4.2 s . ion . . . s . . . . ion . . eliefs and Control and Experimental Groups . Other Conclusions . . Implications of the S Implications for Implications for sity Curricula Implications for Implications for vii I O O O O tudy . . Educational Programs College and Univer- Development Energy Consumption . Further Research Page 55 55 55 55 57 S7 59 59 60 60 62 62 65 66 66 66 68 68 73 73 75 75 77 78 80 80 82 83 84 CHAPTER Page Need for Study Replication . . . . 84 Need for Further Data Analysis . . 85 Need to Consider Other Inde- pendent Variables . . . . . . 86 Need for Respondent Follow- -Up . . . 87 BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 APPENDICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 APPENDIX A. Questionnaires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 B. Format of HEC 401, "Energy and the Designed Environment" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 C. Student Responses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 D. T-Tests of Mean Differences . . . . . . . . . . 125 E. Reliability Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 viii Table 10. 11. 12. LIST OF TABLES College of Human Ecology Enrollment, Spring Term, 1978 . . . . . . . . Total Number of Persons in Students' Family Home . . . . . . . . . . . Yearly Income of Students' Families Type of Family Dwelling Unit of Respondent Location of Students' Family Dwelling Unit Criteria for HEC 401 Student Course Grade Mean Scores, Standard Deviations and Proba— bility Levels for Energy Belief Items by Groups at Time I . . . . . . . . . Mean Scores, Standard Deviations and Proba- bility Levels for Energy Attitude Scales by Groups at Time I . . . . . . . Mean Scores, Standard Deviations and Proba- bility Levels for Energy Belief Items by the Control Group (HEC 301) at Time I and Time II . . . . . . . . . . . Mean Scores, Standard Deviations and Proba- bility Levels for Energy Attitude Scales by the Control Group (HEC 301) at Time I and Time II . . . . . . . . . . . Mean Scores, Standard Deviations and Proba- bility Levels for Energy Belief Items by the Experimental Group (HEC 401) at Time I and Time II C O O C C O O O O 0 Mean Scores, Standard Deviations and Proba— bility Levels for Energy Attitude Scales by the Experimental Group (HEC 401) at Time I and Time II . . . . . . . . ix Page 32 34 34 35 36 43 51 54 56 58 61 63 Table Page 13. Mean Scores, Standard Deviations and Proba— bility Levels of the Gain Scores for Energy Belief Items by Groups at Time II. . . . . . . 67 14. Mean Scores, Standard Deviations and Proba- bility Levels of the Gain Scores for Energy Attitude Scales by Groups at Time II . . . . . 69 15. Belief Responses Reported by HEC 301 (Control) and HEC 401 (Experimental) Students, Spring Term, 1978 . . . . . . . . . 113 16. Eckoareness Responses Reported by HEC 301 (Control) and HEC 401 (Experimental) Students, Spring Term, 1978 . . . . . . . . . 114 17. Human Responsibility Responses Reported by HEC 301 (Control) and HEC 401 (Experi- mental) Students, Spring Term, 1978 . . . . . 118 18. Life Style Flexibility Responses Reported by HEC 301 (Control) and HEC 401 (Experi- mental) Students, Spring Term, 1978 . . . . . 120 19. Eckoareness Scale and Items Within Scale: T-Tests of Differences Between Means for Both Groups at Time I . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 20. Human Responsibility Scale and Items Within Scale: T-Tests of Differences Between Means for Both Groups at Time I . . . . . . . 127 21. Life Style Flexibility Scale and Items Within Scale: T-Tests of Differences Between Means for Both Groups at Time I . . . 129 22. Eckoareness Scale and Items Within Scale: T-Tests of Differences Between Means for the Control Group (HEC 301) at Time I and Time II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 23. Human Responsibility Scale and Items Within Scale: T-Tests of Differences Between Means for the Control Group (HEC 301) at Time I and Time II . . . . . . . 134 24. Life Style Flexibility Scale and Items Within Scale: T-tests of Differences Between Means for the Control Group (HEC 301) at Time I and Time II . . . . . . . 136 X Table Page 25. Eckoareness Scale and Items Within Scale: T-Tests of Differences Between Means for the Experimental Group (HEC 401) at Time I and Time II . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 26. Human Responsibility Scale and Items Within Scale: T-Tests of Differences Between Means for the Experimental Group (HEC 401) at Time I and Time II . . . . 141 27. Life Style Flexibility Scale and Items Within Scale: T-Tests of Differences Between Means for the Experimental Group (HEC 401) at Time I and Time II . . . . 143 28. Eckoareness Scale and Items Within Scale: T-Tests of Differences Between Means of the Gain Scores for Both Groups at Time II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 29. Human Responsibility Scale and Items Within Scale: T-Tests of Differences Between Means of the Gain Scores for Both Groups at Time II. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 30. Life Style Flexibility Scale and Items Within Scale: T-Tests of Differences Between Means of the Gain Scores for Both Groups at Time II. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 31. Reliability Coefficients for Energy Attitude Scales. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 xi CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Americans have suddenly awakened to find themselves in the midst of an "energy crisis"--a cliche term that generally oversimplifies the most important, hOpeful, complex, and controversial environmental problem we face. Miller (1975, p. 215) The Supply of Fossil Fuel Energy Forms It is generally agreed, in both the private and public sectors, that world energy forms, especially petro- leum based fossil fuel energy supplies, are rapidly decreas- ing. The supplies of petroleum and other fossil fuels are finite; they are, for all purposes, nonrenewable resources. The geological time unit for their formation is one hundred million years; several of these time units are required to form today's fossil fuels resources. The mathe- matics of withdrawing these petroleum supplies from fixed resources is uniform exponential growth. Each time the rate of withdrawal doubles, the total amount taken from the beginning also doubles. It took mankind one hundred years to withdraw the first one hundred billion barrels from United States fossil fuel resources, on a growth rate of 4 percent increase per year. At this rate, it will take only eighteen years to withdraw another two hundred billion barrels (Dix, 1977). The United States was the primary world supplier of petroleum for the first one hundred years of production. Its dominant position in supplying the world market con- tinued through World War II, but this is no longer the case. Petroleum production in the United States has been decreasing since the early 19705 (M.S.U. Extension Bulletins E-llOO and E-1173; Dix, 1975). Consequently, dominance of production has shifted to other parts of the world, pri- marily the Middle East and Central and South America. World supplies of petroleum based fossil fuels, however, are also rapidly decreasing. In about 60 years, almost 80 percent of the world's crude oil will be depleted, and using coal as an alternative energy form will force its world production level to peak sometime between 2100 and 2200 A.D. (M.S.U. Extension Bulletin E—1173). Clearly, the world is on the decline side of fossil fuel energy supplies. The Demand for Fossil Fuel Energy Forms While the stores of fossil fuel energy supplies are decreasing, the world demand for them is increasing. World energy consumption has increased nearly 600 percent between 1900 and 1965 and is projected to increase another 450 per- cent by the year 2000 (Miller, 1975). This is primarily due to both pOpulation growth and technological advances in both developed and undeveloped nations. Former Secretary of the Interior, Stewart L. Udall (Udall, 1973, p. 35) states: World oil consumption is now so enormous that during the decade between 1970 and 1980 the nations of the world are projected to consume as much oil as was used in the hundred years between 1870 and 1970. Miller (1975, p. 216) adds: Coal has been mined for 800 years, but over one-half of it has been extracted in the past 37 years. Petro- leum has been pumped out of the ground for about 100 years, but over one-half of it has been consumed during the past 18 years. In other words, most of the world's consumption of energy from fossil fuels throughout all history has taken place during the past four decades. The vast majority of this energy has been, and is, consumed by industrial nations which have only 30 percent of the world's peOple yet use 80 percent of the world's energy. The United States, with only about 6 percent of the world population accounts for over 30 percent of the world's annual consumption of energy forms. About 95 percent of all energy used in the United States is based on the fossil fuels: coal, oil and natural gas (Miller, 1975; Stein, 1977; M.S.U. Extension Bulletins E-1100 and E-1173). Based upon current technologies, it appears that the epoch of readily available, inexpensive supplies of fossil fuels will probably be over in the world between 2015 and 2030 and in the United States by 1990 to 2015, if not sooner. Educational Implications of the Energy Situation The decreasing supply of fossil fuel energy forms coupled with the increasing demand for them has escalated energy costs at a staggering rate. Although this escalation is occurring on the world market, the greatest impact may be felt in the United States where the economy has historically been built on readily available, inexpensive energy supplies. In spite of these rising costs, it has been estimated that over 50 percent of the energy used in the United States is wasted. Although some energy is naturally wasted, according to the second law of thermodynamics, there are estimates that this nation's energy waste could be reduced by 33 to 50 percent. This reduction could be accomplished without a loss in quality of life, through a national energy awareness and conservation effort based on existing technology (Anderson, 1977; Hirst and Moyers, 1973; Makhigani and Lichtenberg, 1972; Office of Emergency Pre- paredness, 1972). Stein (1975) points out that we have become accus- tomed to the idea that we can do anything, that our resources can last forever, that it is simpler to discard something than to keep it in good Operating condition-- even desirable to throw it away as a stimulus to the national economy. He suggests further that: When we find that presupposed growth is not possible and would be destructive even if it were possible, we must then dismantle the ideology that justifies the conclusions and establish a set of attitudes and expectations that respond to the necessities of the real world. As the United States moves from "finding the cause" phase to "finding a solution" phase in the energy situation, individuals, as citizens, must realize that they will have to make decisions as to personal energy beliefs and atti- tudes, and to a probable reallocation of personal resources to adapt to the reduction in inexpensive, available energy forms. Individuals, as professionals, must also be able to knowledgeably guide those with whom they interact towards energy conservative beliefs, attitudes and behavior pat- terns. Education--information flow-—is a factor in this process. Zuiches ("Household Energy Conservation," 1976) states that the primary factor in increased energy aware- ness and energy conservation is education. McKenna (1978) adds, "How the energy situation is perceived depends on the information available . . . ." It is therefore necessary to evaluate the degree to which education can influence energy conserving beliefs and attitudes, and consequently energy conservative decision-making behavior patterns. Ecological Implications of the Energnyituation At this point, it is important to remember that the question of energy availability is not an isolated issue. World, and especially United States, dependence on a high rate of energy flow and energy waste raises multi- dimensional and interconnected questions on ecological, economic, political and moral planes. Energy seems to be a crisis of crises (Platt, 1969). It is necessary, therefore, that an examination of the issue of energy include the interrelationships of Man and his environments. The natural, man-built and behavioral environments must be considered together as they stem from the same set of interconnected factors (Morrison, 1974; Stein, 1977). Conceptual Framework Concepts are working tools, embodying the important ideas of a field of study. They are mental images of what is known, thought, and felt about an idea. Conant (in Compton, 1972) defines a science as "an interconnected series of concepts and conceptual schemes." It is from such a body of relationships among variables that theories are built. Kerlinger (in Compton, 1972) defines a theory as "a set of interrelated constructs (concepts), defini- tions, and propositions that present a systematic view of phenomena by specifying relations among variables with the purpose of explaining and predicting the phenomena." In the development of this research, several major theories were deemed to be particularly relevant. The first is structured on the human ecological or ecosystems per— spective which emphasized the relationships among Man, other species, and their physical or natural environment. Because Man is also a social and cultural being, this theory also seeks to integrate the scientific, behavioral, sociological, political, economic, and ethical factors as they relate to Man and his environment. Within this arbi- trary, definitional boundary, then, Man's life is supported by the input and output flows of energy and materials (Deevey, in Miller, 1975). A second important concept looks at environmental Man as a learning being. What distinguishes him from other living species are both his unique biobehavioral properties and his unusual capacity to learn, in other words, his ability to modify his behavior in response to a changing environment. Although all complex organisms learn to some degree, the nature and level of Man's learning capacity sets him apart from other animal species. His ability to learn, coupled with other cognitive processes, has helped him to build his own environment. Each new environment he creates evokes new responses, new interactions, and new problems, which then lead him to build other, more compli— cated, if not more advanced, environments (Ittelson et a1., 1974). The final concept upon which this study is based involved the integration theory of learning. Anderson (1970) points out that learning is a function of receiving new information and integrating it with present knowledge. He further states that the conditions under which new infor— mation is received and processed (how a person combines messages to form an overall impression) will affect the formation of any new attitudes. Given this conceptual framework, the questions are formulated: Can Man, through acquisition of new informa- tion, form new attitudes that will lead towards a more energy efficient ecosystem? Can he, as a learning species, alter his energy consumption behavior patterns to adapt to a more energy restrictive environment? It is towards the first of these two questions that this research is directed. Research Problem Problem Statement In the years since the 1973-74 Oil Embargo, studies have been initiated on a variety of energy related issues. Very few of these studies, however, have been directed towards developing effective methods of delivering energy information to college students working towards profes- sional degrees. It can be rationalized that this informa- tion would be assimilated and incorporated into their future professional, as well as private lives and thus have a multiplier effect upon energy conservation beliefs and attitudes. Research is vital in this area. It must be directed not only towards changing the private, personal energy beliefs and attitudes of the professional student, but more importantly, in developing a whole new professional aware- ness for incorporating energy conservation in daily profes— sional practices-~reaching beyond self--toward an energy conserving value in American society. This research is within this frame of reference. Research Objective The purpose of this research was to assess the effectiveness of energy information presented in a college classroom experience, in altering attitudes and beliefs about the energy situation. Specifically, the researcher examined the beliefs and attitudes of Michigan State Uni- versity students enrolled in HEC 401, "Energy and the Designed Environment," as the experimental group, and those enrolled in HEC 301, "Management and Decision—Making in the Family," as the control group during Spring Term, 1978. Their attitudes and beliefs were expressed in question— naires which were administered at Time I (prior to the delivery of course content) and Time II (immediately after the delivery of course content). Definitions Discursive Definitions The following definitions are relevant to this study. 10 Energy Conservation--technology and behavior patterns which save energy as well as maintain a quality way of life. Energy Information-—information on various facets of the energy situation presented to the college students through their classroom experience during the Spring Term, 1978. Classroom Experience—-participatory activities of the college students including listening to lecture pre— sentations, reading of assigned materials, development of an energy project, and completion of three synthesis examination papers. Fossil Fuel Energye-energy derived from world supplies of coal, oil, and natural gas. Operational Definitions Energy Belief Items--three items that measure personal belief in a national energy problem at three points in time: (1) when the questionnaire was administered; (2) within the following five years; (3) the distant future (1985—2000). Energy Attitude Scales* Eco-Awareness--a measure containing 11 items that taps three principle dimensions: (1) the *A set of four scales, which measure attitudes related to energy, was develOped by Peter M. Gladhart at Michigan State University (Gladhart, 1978). This study employs three of these scales. They appear in their 11 seriousness of the energy problem compared to crime, inflation and unemployment; (2) the finite- ness of fossil resources; and (3) the interrelated- ness of the economic system and the energy based human support system. Human Responsibility--a scale containing six items reflecting the degree of personal responsibility that individuals feel for helping to solve the energy problem. Life Style Flexibilitye-a measure which contains 14 items reflecting the willingness of the respon- dent to adapt his/her lifestyle to new circum- stances. It is a continuum which suggests willing- ness to pay for retrofitting to solar energy at one end, to the desire to pay more in order to maintain the temperature beyond 68° in the wintertime, at the other end (Gladhart, 1978). entirety in Appendix C. A fourth energy scale, Ease of Cutting Back, was not used in this research. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF LITERATURE In the six years since the beginning of the Oil Embargo, studies have been initiated on a variety of energy related issues. Primarily, these studies have surveyed people about their energy beliefs, attitudes, or percep- tions, and they have attempted, experimentally, to alter people's energy behavior. Few studies have examined the impact of education on energy beliefs and attitudes, although researchers have suggested that energy education is an important factor in changing consumption practices. In this chapter, the discussion will focus on the following: 1. Energy Attitude Surveys 2. Experimental Studies on Educational Information Methods of Changing Attitudes 3. Experiments in Energy Behavior: Cognitive Methods 4. Energy Education in the Schools 5. Experimental Attitudes Studies Relating to Behav- iors 12 13 Energy Attitude Surveys Surveys are often used as an index of Americans' beliefs and attitudes on specific issues. They are data- gathering tools to furnish descriptions of specific atti- tudes. Just prior to the Oil Embargo, in the Summer of 1973, the National Research Center found that only about 25 percent of those polled believed energy was the number one problem facing Americans at that time. Most did con- sider it an important problem, however. Those who expressed a belief in the importance of the energy problem also reported more changes in lifeStyles and a reduction in driving than those who did not express a belief in the problem (Murray, 1974). In a 1974 survey of students at Michigan State University, nearly 50 percent identified energy as a "prob- lem," and 22 percent identified it as a "shortage." Only 13 percent of the students thought of energy as a "crisis," however (Bugge, 1974). A 1974 Michigan State University Family Energy Project1 study of 216 families indicates that about 50 percent of those surveyed believed there was an energy problem. Fifty percent also indicated that they did not believe it was an immediate crisis, although 30 percent of 1The study is entitled, "Functioning of a Family Ecosystem in a World of Changing Energy Availability," AES Project #3152. 14 the latter group did expect it to be a critical issue in the following five or ten years (Zuiches, "Acceptability of Energy Policies," 1976). The following year, 1975, Cunningham (1977) found that 97 percent of those surveyed either strongly agreed or agreed with the statement, "The United States currently has an energy problem" (42 percent strongly agreed; 45 per- cent agreed). When asked if they thought there would be a serious energy problem in the next five years, almost 90 percent of the sample replied affirmatively. When asked about the existence of an energy problem in the next 20 years, 75 percent of those surveyed replied they thought there would be an energy problem. In 1976, a second Michigan State University Family A Energy Project study was completed which was designed to restudy as many of the 216 families mentioned in the 1974 Zuiches study as possible (Morrison et a1., 1978). The 1976 study included 129 reinterviewed families (59 percent of the 1974 families) and 130 new families (total of 259 families). When the data from these two studies was com— pared, it was found that: Although overall belief in the reality of the energy problem declined slightly from 1974 to 1976, approxi- mately 50 percent of the sample for both 1974 and 1976 reported a belief in the energy problem. Like Cunningham, the Morrison et a1. study also measured speculative belief in the energy problem in the near future (next five years) and distant future (1985-2000). 15 Belief in the energy problem increased with time when defined from the time of the study to the future. About two-thirds of the respondents believed that there would be an energy problem in the future. A study by Brunner (1977) found that energy atti- tudes did not change significantly between 1974 and 1975. In 1974, 62 percent of the sample either "strongly agreed or agreed" that there was an energy problem; that figure increased slightly to 65 percent in 1975. In a baseline survey for a two year longitudinal study at Grand Valley State College, 63 percent of those interviewed strongly believed that the United States does have an energy problem and 66 percent strongly believed there will be an energy problem in the future (Thompson and MacTavish, 1976). Olsen and Goodnight (1977) conclude from survey findings that a majority of Americans have a general under- standing of the basic energy situation. At least half believe the energy problem is real, now or in the future. Findings vary, depending on the wording of the questions and the time of the survey but, in general, surveys indi- cate that anywhere between 38 percent and 64 percent believe that the country faces a long-term energy problem (Leedom, 1978). Peoples' perceptions about an energy problem shift through time. It is important to keep in mind that a factor in this shift is that energy is an integral part of the 16 American lifestyle. It is totally interrelated and insep- arable from other areas of life. Therefore, peoples' expressed beliefs or attitudes about energy will be influ- enced by energy costs, national economic conditions, national and international political situations, and their past socializations and future expectations. The vari- ability of the various survey results is thus understand— able. Education Level and Energy Beliefs Studies have found a positive relationship between the level of education of the respondents and the belief in an energy problem. In a study of energy beliefs of Michigan families, Morrison et a1. (1978) found that 60 percent of those in the higher education group (more than high school) believed there was an energy problem in com- parison to 34 percent for the lower educated group (high school or less). The Zuiches Study ("Acceptability of Energy Policies," 1976) separated the respondents by sex as well as education level. Eighty percent of the female college graduates believed there was an energy crisis and 76 percent of the male college graduates believed the same. In comparison with those who had completed only 11 or fewer years of school, only 51 percent of the females and 33 per- cent of the males acknowledged there was an energy problem. In Brunner's study (1977), the proportion of respondents that expressed "concern" about the energy l7 situation rose with the education level, from 43 percent of those with eighth grade or less education to 82 percent of those who were college graduates. Thompson and MacTavish (1976), in their baseline survey designed to assess the impact of public education on energy related concerns, found that the percentage responding "yes, there is an energy problem," generally increased with increasing educational level and conversely, the percentage responding "no, there is not an energy prob- lem" declined with increasing educational level. Stearns (1975) also reports that better-educated households con- sider the energy problem as more important. Cunningham (1975, p. 20) summarizes the inter- relationships between education level and perceptions of the energy situation when he states: The issue of education then leads to more specific concerns: knowledge of energy matters as agents of change as well as the use of information sources. Experimental Studies on Educational Information Methods of ChanginggAttitudes Heitzman (1976) believes that educators are becoming increasingly aware of and concerned with the dimensions of affective learning; that is, with the effect of lessons on the attitudes, beliefs and value of students. Megar (1976) supports this belief and further states that it is the uni- versal objective of teachers to send students away from 18 instruction with at least as favorable an attitude toward the subject as they had when they first arrived. Educational awareness is an important concept in any efforts to present energy information to the public, in general, and students, in particular. The following studies indicate that information, presented in an educa- tional experience, can be a factor in changing students' attitudes and behaviors. Fisher (1968) looked at the influence of informa- tion (reading and discussion) on attitudes of fifth grade students toward American Indians. Students were given an attitude pretest to determine whether, and to what extent, they were prejudiced towards American Indians. They were then assigned by classrooms to one of three treatment con- ditions over a three week period: (1) readings favorable to American Indians only; (2) favorable readings and dis- cussions; (3) neither readings or discussions. At the end of the study, the three groups were given the same attitude test as a posttest. Significant reductions in prejudice were found in both experimental treatment groups suggesting the information presented was influential in altering students' attitudes. The group with reading and discussion showed more change in attitude than the group doing reading alone. A similar study on attitude change was conducted by Litcher and Johnson (1969) using multiethnic readers over four months. They manipulated two groups of students: an 19 experimental group which used multiethnic readers contain- ing positive information about Black Americans and a control group which used regular readers. Their experimental pro- cedure required students to be given identical attitude pretests and posttests. Based on the findings, the researchers concluded that students in the experimental group responded more favorably to minorities than the con- trol group. That is, the information favorable to minor- ities was a factor in attitude change and a potential instrument to reduce racial prejudice. Howie (1974) extended the process of information presentation to an outdoor classroom experience. He randomly assigned students to one of four groups. Three of the groups received information about the natural environment in various combinations of classroom and outdoor treatments. The fourth group received no environmental education. The post- test instrument consisted of 30 attitude questions drawn from concepts basic to environmental education. In every item, students who received one of the three treatments scored significantly higher than those in the control group. Another study of the impact of environmental educa- tion (Asch, 1975, p. 32) concluded that: . . . children exposed to a formal program of environ- mental education can demonstrate, in a natural setting, more conservational behavior than a control group, and less destructive behavior. Although the broad question of change in attitudes has not been extensively researched in education (Bloom et 20 a1., 1971; Kahn and Weiss, 1973; Ringness, 1975), the following studies suggest several factors which may influ- ence students' overall expressed attitude change. A positive relationship between students' attitude towards a specific subject and achievement in that subject has been confirmed in a large number of studies (McMillan, 1979). Researchers have stressed the importance of devel- oping positive attitudes of students toward the subject matter they study (Bloom et a1., 1971; Kahn and Weiss, 1973; Ringness, 1975) although little relationship between pupil attitudes toward school, in general, and scholastic success in specific subject areas has been found (McMillan, 1977). Effect of Message Repetition on Attitude Change Most research on attitude change employs only a single message repetition. This paradigm, however, differs from the manner in which students are typically eXposed to persuasive subject material. In this era of mass communi— cation, advertisers have long recognized the impact of repeatedly using identical or similar messages to influence peoples' attitudes towards specific products. Laboratory research investigating the effect of differing frequencies of message presentation have produced some important find- ings. When testing effects of repetition of a persuasive message on attitude change, Johnson and Watkins (1971) found 21 that repetition only facilitates attitude change when the message is not easily understood on the first presentation. Ostrem (1972) suggests that peOple will be more attentive to the message if it contains information which is new to them. He further states: When similar rather than identical stimuli are employed, repetition does result in an increasingly positive evaluation immediately following presentation (p. 38). The suggestion that repetition can influence immedi- ate attitude change is also supported by the Johnson and Watkins study (1971). In addition, the study reports that the respondents' attitude change had decayed considerably over time (two and one half months after initial testing) and that at the second testing there was no difference between those who received the message one time and those who received it repeatedly. Effect of Praise, Effort and Quantity of Information on Attitude Change After studying four undergraduate university classes, McMillan (1977) concluded that students will devel- develop more positive attitudes towards subject matter if they receive high praise comments from their instructors and if they complete assignments that require a high amount of effort on their part. In a study of 454 high school students, Cohan (1973) reported that students with more environmental information had more favorable environmental attitudes and were also 22 more willing to express them than those who received less environmental information. It is also postulated by Ander- son (1970) that attitudes are a function of the accumulation and amount of favorable information, and that factors such as order and importance of information are independent of the evaluative process and thus will not interact with them. While the results of these studies do indicate that information can be a factor in attitude change, caution should be used in placing an overreliance on information alone to alter attitudes. Kirchner and Wilder (1959) point out that attitude change does not rest on the basis of information alone; a more significant determinant is the nature and degree of the students' involvement with the subject area. Experiments in Energy Behavior: Cognitive Methods Most experimental studies that have been done in energy conservation have occurred in the years since the Oil Embargo. A number of these studies have used information or feedback in an effort to convince peOple of the serious- ness of the energy problem and/or to have them adOpt favor- able conservative attitudes and behaviors. While such treatments are akin to education, none were conducted in the formal educational system. To clarify, the studies reviewed are divided into two broad areas: 23 1. Studies using only information or feedback as a treatment condition. 2. Studies using information or feedback plus incentives as a treatment condition. Experimental Studies Using Only Information or Feedback An early attempt at using information to alter energy consumption was designed by Heberlein (1975). The first study was conducted in the Spring of 1973 after energy information had been mailed to 96 residents in a Madison, Wisconsin apartment complex. A follow-up study was conducted a year later at the same complex following the Oil Embargo. Both studies indicate that no significant change in elec— tricity consumption occurred as a result of either the pre- sented information or the embargo. Seligman and Darley (1976) looked at the effects of four consumption feedback techniques on the use of home air conditioning by residents in a Planned Unit Development in Twin Rivers, New Jersey. The studies indicate that feedback can be an effective method for energy conservation and that feedback is more successful with moderate users than with high users of electricity. In another feedback experiment, Palmer et a1. (1977) concluded that information on daily electric con- sumption was sufficient to affect a decrease in the amount of electricity used by three out of the four households studied. Generalization of this study is restricted, how— ever, due to the small sample size. 24 There have been several studies which have added variables to the feedback or information used as a treatment condition. Hass (1975) examined the effect of two informa— tion variables, the magnitude of noxiousness of a potential energy crisis and its probability of occurrence, on respon- dents' perceptions of the energy problem. Increases in the perceived likelihood of an energy shortage had no effect, but increments in perceived noxiousness or severity of an energy crisis strengthened the reSpondents' intentions to reduce energy consumption. The researchers therefore con- cluded that energy information should stress the severity of the problem. In a replication, Wasco et a1. (1976) supported these findings. Hutton (1977) used both feedback and goal setting as treatment conditions. The group that set a goal of reducing energy consumption by 20 percent and who were given daily weather-corrected feedback, significantly reduced their energy consumption by 13.4 percent. In a 1977 follow-up to the 1974-76 Michigan studies, Zuiches et al. (1978) experimentally tested alternative energy conservation programs using three kinds of informa- tion1 and two methods of delivery.2 Findings indicate that 1The information consisted of (1) government pamph- lets concerning energy conservation; (2) computerized energy audit of the housing unit; (3) infrared heat loss pictures of the dwelling unit and an interpretation of the picture. 2Delivery methods were either personal visits or the postal system. 25 the effect of information on attitudes was to increase the belief in the reality of the energy problem. This was especially evident in the group who received their infor- mation by personal visits; they expressed a 77 percent belief in the energy problem as compared to 65 percent of the group who received no information at all. Data also indicated that all treatment groups made a greater attempt than the control group to maintain lower thermostat settings. These findings suggest, then, that personalization of infor— mation can alter energy perception. Experimental Studies Using Information or Feedback Plus Incentives Some other completed studies have approached the issue of energy conservation from the perspective of com— bining information and incentives. The effects of monetary incentives and of informa- tion alone on energy conservation behavior was examined by Winett and Nietzel (1975). The incentive group averaged approximately 15 percent more reduction in electricity use than the information group, which averaged about 8 percent. This trend was maintained in two week and two month follow- ups. Kagel et al. (1976) performed a replication of this study but found that only a high price rebate condition reduced consumption and this reduction was quite small (5 to 8 percent). Support for the Kagel finding comes from Battalio (1976) who reported that although electricity use 26 did decline with monetary incentives and information, the reduction was not large relative to the size of the price rebates. Kohlenberg (1976) looked at efforts of information, feedback and monetary incentives on the electric peaking behavior of families in Seattle during the winter months. He found that a combination of feedback plus incentives worked most effectively, reducing peak electricity consump- tion by about 50 percent. In a similar experiment, Seaver and Patterson (1976) assessed two methods of facilitating fuel oil conservations in Pennsylvania households. They found that feedback plus commendation provided the greatest decrease in fuel consumption. Investigating the effects of payments, information and feedback on electricity consumption, Hayes and Cone (1977) reported that, in general, combinations of payments and either information or feedback were found to produce no greater effects than payment alone. These studies indicate that, generally, the infor- mation or persuasion approach is the least effective method of producing a change in energy attitudes or behaviors. They further suggest that incentives, especially monetary incentives, are the most effective in promoting at least short-term behavioral change. Reviews by Tuso and Guller (1976), Olsen and Goodnight (1977) and Leedom (1978) sup- port these conclusions. 27 Energy Education in the Schools Recognizing that a change in energy attitudes and behaviors cannot even begin to occur without some informa— tion, elementary and high schools are beginning to include some aspects of energy education as part of their curricula (Leedom, 1978). However, this approach is very recent and is still in its early development stages. McKenna (1978) concludes that families view the energy information received by their children at school as useful and reported that the "students were using less energy at home because of information learned at school." Stevens et a1. (1979) adds that energy conservation units taught in high school classes and task-oriented instruc— tion techniques have a significantly positive impact on student energy conservation attitudes and actions. Although the impact of energy education in schools has been studied to a limited degree, there are a number of studies which conclude that environmental information has an impact on environmental attitudes and behaviors (Leedom, 1978). Since many of the principles of environ- mental education can also be applied to meet the needs of energy education, this conclusion is important. Environ- mental education is ". . . intended to promote among citizens the awareness and understanding of the environment, our relationship to it, and the concern and responsible action necessary to assure our survival and to improve the quality of life" (U.S. Government Printing Office, 1971, p. 5). 28 This intent can be directly applied to the energy situa- tion. Experimental Studies Relating Attitudes to Behaviors Lounsbury (1973) cautioned that a great difference often exists between environmental attitudes and environ- mental behaviors. With the issue of energy, favorable atti- tudes are not enough if they do not lead to conservation behaviors. Some evidence is offered that, indeed, energy atti- tudes do play a role in energy consumption behavior (Brunner, 1976; Curtain, 1976; Murray, 1974; Zuiches, "Household Energy Conservation," 1976). Other evidence is offered that indicates pe0ple often express attitudes favorable to energy conservation yet behave in a conflicting manner (Milstein, 1977). Further evidence indicates that attitudes and behav- iors, in general, are not necessarily related (O'Riordan, 1976; Wicker, 1969; Zimbardo and Ebbesen, 1969). In a review of studies, Wicker (1969) concluded that only about 10 percent in overt behavioral measures can be accounted for by attitudinal data. Care must therefore be exercised in not automatically implying favorable energy conservation behavior from favorable energy conservation attitude data. mation, beliefs CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY The methodology described within this chapter Description of the Sample Population Selection and Description of the Sample Research Methodology: a. Methodology Selection b. Questionnaire Development c. Distribution and Collection of Pretest Question- naires d. Introduction of the Independent Variable e. Distribution and Collection of Posttest Ques- tionnaires f. Processing of Data Statistical Procedure Research Hypotheses Assumptions Limitations of the Study Description of the Sample Population This study focuses on the effects of energy infor- presented in a classroom experience, on the energy and attitudes of selected undergraduate students enrolled at Michigan State University during the ten week Spring Term, 1978. 29 3O Founded in 1855, Michigan State University is the second largest state university in the state of Michigan and is located in the south-central section of the state, within the greater metrOpolitan Lansing area. During the Spring Term, 1978 (March 30 through June 9), Michigan State University had a total enrollment of 39,897, of which 32,127 were undergraduates in the university's 17 colleges.1 One of these colleges is The College of Human Ecology. Its programs use an ecological or systems approach developed to study the interrelationships between individuals and fam- ilies and the environmental support systems. In addition to the general education requirements of the university and the major education requirements of each of the four departments within the college (Family and Child Sciences, Family Ecology, Food Science and Human Nutrition, and Human Environment and Design), all human ecology students are required to enroll in a Core Studies Program consisting of three courses. These courses include: (1) The Family in Its Near Environment, which is usually taken during the sophomore year, (2) Management and Decision- Making in the Family, generally taken during the junior year, and (3) Human Ecological Approach to Contemporary Issues, taken during the senior year (issues vary each term). 1Office of Registration; Hannah Administration Building, Michigan State University. 31 Selection and Description of the Sample The subjects selected for this research were all juniors or seniors enrolled in the College of Human Ecology, Michigan State University during Spring Term, 1978. They were all enrolled in either the second or third of the three Core Courses in the college. Those enrolled in the third Core Course, HEC 401, "Energy and the Designed Envi- ronment," were members of the experimental group; those enrolled in the second Core Course, HEC 301, "Management and Decision-Making in the Family," were members of the control group. Table 1 summarizes the enrollment in the College of Human Ecology during Spring Term, 1978 by departments within the college. It also indicates the enrollment in HEC 301, "Family-Decision Making" (control group), and HEC 401, "Energy and the Designed Environment" (experimental group), according to departments. Selection and Description of the Subsample The subsample for this study was selected from the larger sample on the following criteria: 1. Enrollment in either HEC 401 or HEC 301 for the entire Spring Term, 1978;1 2. Completeness of research data. 181x students were simultaneously enrolled in HEC 401 and HEC 301 during Spring Term, 1978. The data from their questionnaires was therefore rejected and not used in this study. 32 Table l.--College of Human Ecology Enrollment, Spring Term, 1978. . Total Departments 1n College Undergraduates HEC 401 HEC 301 Family & Child Sciences 265 27 27 Family Ecology 262 16 15 Food Sc1ence & Human 388 34 34 Nutr1t1on Human Environment & Design 921 98 97 Total 1836a 175* 173** *Total HEC 401 enrollment was 179; four students were from colleges other than Human Ecology. **Tota1 HEC 301 enrollment was 179; six students were from colleges other than Human Ecology. dTotal undergraduate enrollment = 1837, one student was in a nondegree and no major program. Total enrollment for College of Human Ecology = 2067 including masters and doctoral students. 33 These criteria reduced the subsample size from 175 students to 67 students in the experimental group and from 173 to 64 students in the control group. The total sub- sample size was 131. The large attrition rate can be attributed to the time and method in which the posttest was administered. The posttest was given to students on the last day of class, along with the final examination. Both were to be taken home, completed, and returned to the instructors' offices within a specified time period. Since many of the students neglected to return the questionnaire with the final examination, there was a lack of across-time data for almost half of the students in each class. To better understand the socio-economic character- istics of the subsample, the following tables are presented. Table 2 indicates that a majority of both the experimental group (68.7 percent) and the control group (74.7 percent) come from what could be termed smaller families (four or less). The relatively high percentages of the totals in both groups in the one to two person category may be explained by students who are married or students who are single and have established households separate from their families' (parents'). The overall yearly family income for both groups appears to be relatively high (see Table 3). Over half of the students' families earned more than $20,000 per year (59.7 percent, HEC 401--exPerimental; 55.2 percent, HEC 301--control). About 45 percent of the experimental group 34 Table 2.—-Total Number of Persons in Students' Family Home. . . HEC 401 HEC 301 Size Of Family Percent Percent 1—2 persons 23.9 21.9 3 19.4 15.6 4 25.4 17.2 5 10.4 26.6 6 7.5 7.8 7 7.5 4.7 8 or more persons 3.0 4.7 No response 3.0 1.6 100.0 (N = 67) 100.0 (N = 64) Table 3.——Year1y Income of Students' Families. Income HEC 401 HEC 301 Percent Percent Under $5000 1.5 1.6 $5000—$9999 3.0 4.7 $10,000-$14,999 10.4 6.3 $15,000 - $19,999 10.4 20.3 $20,000 - $24,999 14.9 15.6 $25,000 or more 44.8 40.6 No response 14.9 10.9 100.0 (N = 67) 100.0 (N = 64) 35 and 11 percent of the control group come from families with incomes over $25,000 per year. The Ford Foundation Energy Policy Report (1974) classifies families earning more than $20,000 yearly as "upper" and those earning more than $25,000 yearly as "well off." The predominant type of family dwelling unit in the subsample was the single family: 82 percent for the experi- mental group and 91 percent for the control group (see Table 4). Very few of the students lived in what may be classified as apartments (4.5 percent, experimental; 6.3 percent, control). Table 4.--Type of Family Dwelling Unit of Respondent. Dwelling Type 323.22% 323.22% Single family 81.5 90.6 Duplex 4.5 1.6 Fourplex 1.5 0.0 Multi-family (5-10 apts.) 3.0 6.3 High Rise (10-40 apts.) 1.5 0.0 No response 4.5 1.6 100.0 (N = 67) 100.0 (N = 64) Table 5 indicates that most members of both the experimental and control groups live in urban centers. 36 Table 5.--Location of Students' Family Dwelling Unit. . HEC 401 HEC 301 Location Percent Percent Farm 1.5 4.7 Country/Nonfarm 1.5 3.1 Village (under 10,000) 22.4 20.3 or town Small City (10,000—50,000) 23.9 12.5 Medium City (50,000-500,000) 28.4 29.7 Large City (over 500,000) 19.4 28.1 No response 3.0 1.6 100.0 (N = 67) 100.0 (N = 64) Almost half of the experimental group (48.8 percent) come from homes in medium to large cities while 57.8 percent of the control group comes from medium to large cities. Percentages for both groups drOp somewhat in the combined categories of village/small town and small cities (46.3 percent, experimental; 32.8 percent, control). The highest representation comes from medium sized cities (28.4 percent, experimental; 29.7 percent, control). Research Methodology Methodology Selection As previously stated, the purpose of this study is to determine if energy information, presented in a 37 classroom experience, has an effect on the energy beliefs and attitudes of selected college juniors and seniors. Therefore, the experimental research design was chosen as an apprOpriate methodology for testing any change in these beliefs and attitudes. A pretest/posttest format was chosen as the research approach for this study. Rotzel (1974) states that the objective of using the pretest/posttest approach in educa- tion research has been to investigate some of the struc— tural factors of curricula materials which are thought to affect attitude change. The basic methodological assumption is that attitude change can be attributed to the effects of content stimuli by measuring a student's predispositions on a pretest and the effects of treatment presentation on a posttest. Campbell and Stanley (1963) support this approach for experimental designs which lack optimal control but are worth undertaking where better designs are not possible.* Questionnaire Development For this study, self-administered questionnaires using close-ended questions were develOped. Although there are some objections to the use of questionnaires to gather data (Galfo, 1965), they are generally accepted as a reliable source of data gathering (Heimsath, 1977). According to *Campbell and Stanley developed the term "Pre/Post, Quasi—Experiment Test Approach" to describe such procedures. 38 Compton (1972), the use of a self-administered questionnaire is an efficient method to collect data on many variables from a large sample. One questionnaire was used as the pretest for both the experimental and control groups. The questions were designed to establish: 1. Students' belief in and awareness of the energy situation 2. Students' attitudes related to energy use The second questionnaire was used as the posttest for both the experimental and control groups. It contained questions identical to those in the pretest; in addition, the posttest asked questions concerning: 1. Students' demographic information 2. Students' evaluation of various aspects of HEC 401 (experimental group only) The questions used to establish students' belief in and awareness of the energy situation, and students' atti- tudes related to energy use had been previously field tested. Three attitude scales (Gladhart, 1978): Eco- Awareness, Human Responsibility, and Life Style Flexibility, were used in their entirety in data evaluation of the atti- tude questions. Reliability tests were conducted on these three scales during this study as well as at the time of the original field testing. In both cases, the reliability levels were not optimal (Appendix E). The decision was made, however, to use the three Gladhart scales in this research for two reasons. First, the scales had been field 39 tested in at least three previous studies (Gladhart, 1976; McKenna, 1978; Morrison et a1., 1978). Secondly, no other more reliable scales had been found which would measure the three concepts of ecosystems awareness, personal respon- sibility for energy consumption patterns, and the willing- ness to alter life style in view of the global energy situ- ation. Distribution and Collection of Data An important factor in gaining cooperation for research studies is the credibility of those directing the research (Milstein, 1977; Craig, 1977). In order to estab- lish credibility for this study, c00peration was enlisted from the instructors of HEC 401, Dr. Bonnie Maas Morrison, and HEC 301, Beverly Anderson. Both instructors agreed to allow their classes to be the samples for the study and to administer the questionnaires at the appropriate times. The Pretest Questionnaire The pretest questionnaires were administered to those students in both the experimental and control group (HEC 401, "Energy and the Designed Environment" and HEC 301, "Management and Decision-Making in the Family" respectively) the first day of class, Spring Term, 1978, prior to any information about the content of either class being given (Time I). In both classes, the instructurs were assisted 40 in passing out and collecting the questionnaires by graduate students assigned to the classes. Introduction of the Independent Variable During the ensuing term, students in HEC 401 received energy information throughout their classroom experience while the HEC 301 students did not receive energy information in their classroom experience. The following description of the course content and format of HEC 401, "Energy and the Designed Environment," is presented to demonstrate the extent of the energy informa- tion presented to students in the experimental group through their classroom experience. Human Ecology Core Studies Program: HEC 401.--As the third component of the College of Human Ecology's Core Studies Program, HEC 401 is structured to provide senior level students with the opportunity to synthesize learning which has occurred throughout the college years. During the Spring of 1978, the synthesized learning process was directed towards the issue of energy and its increasingly important impact upon individuals/families, their environments and the interaction between the two. Entitled "Energy and the Designed Environment," the Spring 1978 Core Course was develoPed and taught by Dr. Bonnie Maas Morrison. Using an ecosystems approach to the subject of energy, HEC 401 had two explicit goals: 41 1. To help HEC 401 students become more aware of the energy situation, in general, and to understand the impacts and opportunities it presents to individ- uals, both as private citizens and as professionals, in specific. 2. To establish interest in the HEC 401 Core Course as relevant to senior level students in Human Ecology, thereby increasing the students participation in class work, their learning of major concepts pre— sented, and their ability to synthesize the infor- mation acquired. This research was directed primarily towards assess- ment of the first of these two goals. The Course Content.--In order to implement these goals, "Energy and the Designed Environment," HEC 401, examined three dimensions of the energy situation. The first part of the course focused upon the global sc0pe of energy resources, their supply and their demand. The second part of the course was directed towards the unique aspects of the energy situations within the United States and especially within the State of Michigan. The last part of the course dealt with the relationships between energy and various aspects of the designed near-environment, including housing and interior design, clothing and tex- tiles, food supplies and nutrition--indicating the social 42 and economic impacts on world, national, family, and individ- ual levels. Throughout the term, students received energy infor- mation in three diverse but interrelated learning strategies. These were as follows: 1. Class Lectures and Special Presentations--These included lectures by the instructor, by selected guests and by two student issue debate panels. Reading Assignments - The reading assignments included both a text (Stein, 1977) as well as supplementary library assignments. Six Energnyelated Activitythions — Students were able to choose one of six Option projects (individ- ual contracts were developed with each student). The Option projects were supervised by the instructor, the graduate assistants or qualified and interested persons. The Options were: --Development of an Energy Issues Journal from news- papers, magazines, and other printed materials. --Developing and writing an Energy Related Term Research Paper —-Voluntary participation in SUN DAY (May 3, 1978), a global celebration of solar energy. --Michigan Energy Administration Volunteer. The activity allowed specially selected students to work at MEA on ongoing energy projects. --Michigan Eco Article-~The activity allowed stu- dents to write articles for publication in Michigan Eco (published version included in the Michigan Eco, Vol. 1, No. 3, Fall, 1978). 43 -—Energy Issue Debate Panels--Two panels of six students each developed arguments and presented two sides of the following questions in class presentations: 1. Is there an energy problem? 2. Can individuals in families or as profes- sionals influence the resolution to the energy situation? Student course grades were based upon their ability to synthesize the acquired information in three take-home essay examinations as well as the individual contracted Options. Substantial weight was given to the contracted options to encourage quality participation in the Options. Table 6.--Criteria for HEC 401 Student Course Grade. Classroom Experience/Project Points Possible Examination I 30 Examination II 30 Examination III (Final) 45 Contracted Options 45 Total Possible Points 150 The Posttest Questionnaire The posttest questionnaires were administered to both classes (HEC 401 and HEC 301) at the time of the final examination for both classes (Time II). As previously stated, the posttest contained the same questions as the pretest concerning students' interest in the Core Studies 44 Course, students' interest in energy related information, students' beliefs in and awareness of the energy situation, and students' attitudes related to energy use. In addition, the posttest contained demographic questions as well as class format evaluation questions (HEC 401, experimental group only). As with the pretest, the HEC 401 and HEC 301 instructors were assisted in administering the posttest by their respective graduate assistants. Processing the Data The raw data obtained from the pretest and posttest questionnaires was coded and transferred to coding sheets by a trained coder. A 25 percent reliability check was then made on the coding by both the coder and researcher. Random samples from both the experimental and control groups were drawn from those students who completed both the pretest and posttest. The samples were drawn to approximate the proportion of the various majors within the College of Human Ecology as represented in the class enrollments of HEC 401 and HEC 301 during the 1978 Spring Term. The sub- sample size was 67 for HEC 401 (experimental) and 64 for HEC 301 (control). Total sample size was 131. The key punching of computer cards and a 10 percent reliability verification were completed by Michigan State University Computer Center keypunchers. After the cards were returned to the researcher, they were further verified 45 against the raw data (25 percent check) and found to be accurate . Statistical Procedure A statistical program using frequencies, independent and dependent t-tests of mean differences was developed to test the hypotheses by detecting the extent of any change in the students' energy beliefs and attitudes between Time I (prior to the delivery of course content) and Time II (immedi— ately after the delivery of course content). The program was run on the CDC 6500 computer, Michigan State University, using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) program. Mean scores and standard deviations are reported for the responses to the three energy belief questions, the three energy attitude scales, and the questions within each scale (Appendix D). Frequencies are also reported for these same categories (Appendix C). Research Hypotheses From the conceptual framework used in this research, and the review of the literature, the following hypotheses were develOped. They have been stated in the null form according to standard statistical procedure. Hypothesis 1 Hol.1: There is no difference in energy beliefs, as measured on three energy belief items between 46 HEC 301 and HEC 401 students at the beginning of Spring Term, 1978 (Time I). There is no difference in energy attitudes, as measured on three attitude scales: (1) Eckoareness, (2) Human Responsibility, (3) Life Style Flexibility, between HEC 301 and HEC 401 students at the beginning of Spring Term, 1978 (Time I). Hypothesis 2 H02.1: There is no difference in the energy beliefs of HEC 301 students as measured on three energy belief Items between the beginning of Spring Term 1978 (Time I) and the end of Spring Term, 1978 (Time II). There is no difference in the energy attitudes of HEC 301 as measured on three Energy Attitude Scales: (1) Eckoareness, (2) Human Responsibility, (3) Life Style Flexibility between the beginning of Spring Term 1978 (Time I) and the end of Spring Term, 1978 (Time II). Hypothesis 3 H03.l: 3.2: There is no difference in the energy beliefs of HEC 401 students as measured on three energy belief questions between the beginning of Spring Term, 1978 (Time I) and the end of Spring Term, 1978 (Time II). There is no difference in the energy attitudes of HEC 401 students as measured on three energy atti— tude scales: (1) Eckoareness, (2) Human Respon- sibility, (3) Life Style Flexibility between the beginning of Spring Term 1978 (Time I) and the end of Spring Term, 1978 (Time II). Hypothesis 4 H04.l: 4.2: There is no difference in energy beliefs, as measured on three energy belief items between HEC 301 and HEC 401 students at the end of Spring Term, 1978 (Time II). There is no difference in energy attitudes, as measured on three Energy Attitude Scales: (1) Eco- Awareness, (2) Human Responsibility, (3) Life Style Flexibility between HEC 301 and HEC 401 students at the end of Spring Term, 1978 (Time II). 47 Assumptions 1. Experimental research design is an apprOpriate research design methodology for testing a change in beliefs and attitude hypotheses. 2. A questionnaire is an apprOpriate research instrument for collecting information concerning students' energy beliefs and attitudes. Limitations of the Study The limitations of this study relate to several factors which can affect students' expressed energy beliefs and energy attitudes. First, questionnaires and their manner of administration can, in themselves, influence responses and in turn bias the findings. Secondly, stu- dents' access to information from outside the classroom eXperience may be different. Those in the control group may have had access to energy information in other classes or in the mass media. It should be noted that during the ten week period of the study, the local printed media was relatively void of energy information. The lone exception to this fact was the coverage given to the Lansing cele— bration of SUN DAY activities which was coordinated by Lansing Community College. Thirdly, the Winter of 1977- 1978 was especially long and cold in the state of Michigan. Personal circumstances of restricted and/or expensive energy supplies may have impacted the students' perception of the energy situation during the 1978 Spring Term. Finally, the 48 socialization process of each individual student may influ— ence that student's perception of the information presented. Another limitation requires that these findings must be considered representative of only those students enrolled in the subject classes. They are not necessarily representative of all college students enrolled in other curricula. Further study would be required to determine if other college students hold the same energy beliefs and attitudes as the tested students. Finally, caution must be exercised in drawing con- clusions on such a complicated and multifaceted issue as the energy situation. As Dr. Glenn T. Seabourg points out, "Energy is the essential underpinning of almost all of our society" (Miller, 1975, p. 229). There are no simple answers for such a complex question. CHAPTER IV FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION This chapter contains the results of the analysis of data. The hypotheses develOped and tested in this study have been stated in the null form according to standard methodological procedure. It was assumed that the popula- tions sampled were normal. AThe two sample sizes were 63 and 67. A significance level of .025 (2 tail tests) was determined prior to the data analysis. For each hypothesis, the findings and discussion of the statistical tests are reported, in separate sections according to when (Time I, Time II) and to which group (HEC 401, Experimental; HEC 301, Control) the questionnaires were administered: 1. Time I (Pretest); Control (HEC 301, Experimental HEC 401) 2. Time I, Time II (Pretest, Posttest), Control (HEC 301) 3. Time I, Time II (Pretest, Posttest); Experimental (HEC 401) 4. Time II (Posttest); Control, Experimental (HEC 301, HEC 401) 49 50 Time I--Control and Experimental Groups To detect a change in subjects due to a treatment, it is necessary that the control and experimental groups not be significantly different from each other prior to the application of the treatment. Independent t-tests were employed to test the null hypothesis that, in fact, the students in HEC 301 and HEC 401 did not differ significantly in their energy beliefs and attitudes at the beginning of the Spring Term, 1978. Hypothesis 1.1 and 1.2 Hol.l: There is no difference in energy beliefs, as measured on three energy belief items between HEC 301 and HEC 401 students at the beginning of Spring Term, 1978 (Time I). H 1.1 Findings.-—Hypothesis H 1.1 was supported on O 0 all three items indicating no significant difference in the two groups at the beginning of the study on their beliefs in the energy problem (Table 7). H01.l Discussion.--In both groups, the percentage who did express belief was considerably higher than the results from other studies cited. About 95 percent Of the experimental group expressed a belief in the energy crisis "now" and "in the near future" whereas 87 percent of the control group expressed belief on these same questions. When asked about an energy crisis in the "distant future," 88 percent of the experimental group and 70 percent of the control group expressed belief. These figures indicate a 51 oususm . . . hem” mofla How 0mm ucmumfla may CH EOHQOHQ wvm Hm OOH ow mvm mo H Hem 0mm >mumcm CM GA moaamm . . OHSHSE Hm . . . cam. NO.H How 0mm Hmmz mcu CH Emanoum n av OOH mm mmm mo H Hom 0mm >muocm cm cw mmflamm vvm. NO.H How Um: 302 EOHQOHm moH. mma vo.a ham. HH.H Hem 0mm >muocm cm cw mmwamm >uflaflnmnoum Eocooum mo coflumfl>oo whoom eeam>ue Hemelm mooumoo puppcmum cmoz .H mEHB um mmsouw >2 mEODH mOHHom wquocm nOm mHO>OA >uflaflnmnoum cam mcoflumfl>oo pumpcmum .mmuoow cmozll.h dance 52 slightly decreasing belief in an energy problem with time in both groups. This is contrary to other studied reviewed (pp. 12-17) where increasing belief was noted as time became future oriented. Several factors could attribute to these results. College students, by nature of their age and experience levels, seem to be generally more aware of and concerned with pOpular issues of the period. Since the Oil Embargo of 1973-1974, energy has been such an issue. Secondly, some may have expressed what they deemed to be an expected or proper response for a Core Course in Human Ecology. Finally, some may have been influenced by personal experi- ences during the severe Michigan winter which immediately preceded this study. In the question concerning an energy crisis in the distant future, "distant future" was defined as the year 2000--22 years after the study, when the respondents will be in their forties and undoubtedly experiencing a different lifestyle. Most persons in their twenties cannot relate to middle age lifestyle; which might explain the drop in eXpressed belief. The lower percentage could also be reflecting an affirmation in the concept that technology will, by that time, be able to solve the energy crisis. H01.2: There is no difference in energy attitudes, as measured on three attitude scales: (1) Eco- Awareness, (2) Human Responsibility, (3) Life Style Flexibility, between HEC 301 and HEC 401 students at the beginning of Spring Term, 1978 (Time I). 53 H01.2 Findings.--The null hypothesis of no differ- ence was confirmed on the Human Responsibility Scale (p = .110) and Life Style Flexibility Scale (p = .634) but rejected on the Eckoareness Scale (p = .020). This sug- gests a significant difference between the two groups as to their awareness of the ecosystem at the beginning of the study (Table 8). H 1.2 Discussion.-—Although the hypothesis was O rejected on the Eckoareness Scale, a look at the proba- bility levels of the individual questions within the scale indicates that the two groups were indeed more similar than the t-test reveals. The groups were found to be signifi- cantly different on only two of the 11 questions. When asked to what extent the scarcity of fossil fuels was a part of the energy crisis, 51 percent of the control group and 80 percent of the experimental group answered "a great extent" (p = .000). When asked whether they thought the price of energy is too low considering that most energy sources are nonrenewable, 52 percent of the experimental group "agreed or strongly agreed" whereas only 31 percent of the control group expressed the same agreement (p = .004). Therefore, the difference found on these two questions was not felt to undermine the concept of similar energy atti- tudes in both groups at Time I. 54 >MH.¢ mh.mm Hov 0m: sue H me a 6 sum 6 Ha vmo. mmH mv.l mmo.v mm.wm Hem um: .H n H H w mmm.m vm.OH How 0mm quHHQHmcommmm cmEDm oHH. mmH H©.HI own.m mm.mH Hom 0mm VOH.v OH.mm Hov um: mmmcoumzmoom ONO. hm.mmH Om.m| hv©.v mm.Hm Hem 0mm >uHHHanonm Eocooum mo coHumH>oo ouoom osHm>|e HHMBIN mooumoo pumpcmum coo: >9 monom OpsuHuud >Ouocm MOw mHo>OA >DHHHQonum pcm mcoHDMH>OQ cumccmum .H mEHB um mmsouo .mmuoom :mozli.m OHQMB 55 Time I, Time II--Control Group HEC 301 If a control group is not subjected to a treatment, it would be expected that the expressed beliefs and atti- tudes concerning the subject or issue being tested would not change significantly over time. It is important, there- fore, to determine whether the energy beliefs and attitudes of the HEC 301 students did or did not change significantly between the beginning and end of the 1978 Spring Term. To test the null hypothesis that they did not change, dependent t—tests were employed. Hypothesis 2.1 and 2.2 H02.1: There is no difference in the energy beliefs of HEC 301 students as measured on three energy belief items between the beginning of Spring Term 1978 (Time I) and the end of Spring Term, 1978 (Time II). H02.l Findingy.--This hypothesis was confirmed at the a = .025 level on all three items (Belief "now," p = .083; Belief "near future," p = .289; Belief "distant future," p = 1.000), showing no significant difference in the energy beliefs of the control group at the two times tested (Table 9). H 2.1 Discussion.--The percentages of respondents 0 expressing belief in the energy crisis "now" and "in the near future" were virtually unchanged from Time I to Time II ("now": 87 percent and 89 percent; "near future": 87 percent and 87 percent). There was, however, an increase 56 mususm «He. mo.H HH mEHB . . . accumHC OCH CH EUHQOHC 000 H mo 0 mvm mo H H oEHB kaOCm :0 CH mmHHmm . . mususm . . mvm. OH.H HH NEHB Hmwz OCH CH amHnoum mmm Ho no HI Hom mo H H EH9 >mumCm Cm CH mmHHmm mmm. Ho.H HH oEHB 3oz EOHQOHC mmo. He OH.H mHm. HH.H H mefle sauces cm eH mmHHmm >uHHHnmnoum EOOOOHE mo CoHumH>oo onOom osHm>IB HHMBIN moouooo cumpcmum cmoz n )l :l h u U (I ll l 1) u l I: l H H 'l 1 .HH mess eem H mefle um AHOM ommv msouo Honueoo OLD >n mEouH MOHHOm xouocm Cow mHo>oq >uHHHnmnoum pcm mCOHumH>OQ pumccmam .mouoom Cmozil.m OHQMB 57 of 13 percent in belief in an energy crisis in the distant future; this in spite of identical means. Looking at the standard deviations indicates a wider range of responses on the pretest than on the posttest; in other words, a narrow- ing of group Opinion across time. This conclusion is sup- ported by the rise in percent--half of which appears to come from students who expressed no belief on the pretest and half from students who expressed no opinion on the pretest. This slight move towards belief in a future crisis could be a result of information gained outside the controlled classroom situation such as from media, other course studies, or personal experiences. H 2.2: There is no difference in the energy attitudes of HEC 301 as measured on three Energy Attitude Scales: (l) Eckoareness, (2) Human Responsi- bility, (3) Life Style Flexibility between the beginning of Spring Term, 1978 (Time I) and the end of Spring Term, 1978 (Time II). H02.2 Findings.--As with the belief component, the dependent t-tests indicated no significant difference between the energy attitudes of the HEC 301 students expressed at the beginning and end of the 1978 Spring Term, thereby confirming the null hypothesis at a = .025 (Table 10: Eckoareness, p = .682; Human Responsibility, p = .304; Life Style Flexibility, p = .715). H02.2 Discussion.--Within the three attitude scales, there is a total of 31 questions. On only one was there any significant difference found. On the Eckoareness 58 emm.e me.mm HH eeHH HHHHHemeHH mHHHm mHHH mHn. mo nm.l mmo.v mm.mm H oEHB MHH.m mm.mH HH oEHB >uHHHQHmCommmm cmfidm QOm. mo vo.H oH>.N on.wH H mEHB OOH.v vv.Hm HH oEHB mmmCOHMBCOOH mwo. mo Hv.l oom.v mm.Hm H oEHB >HHHHCMCOHO EOOOOHE mo osHm>nB COHUMH>OQ ouoom HHMBIN moouqmo pumpcmum cmoz .HH eeHe new H meHe Hm HHom Ommv esouo Houueoo on» He monom opsuHuud >mHocm HOH mHm>OH >uHHHanoum ccm mCoHumH>OD cumpcmum .mmuoom Cmmzll.oH OHQMB 59 Scale, students were asked to what extent they thought waste and inefficient use of energy contributed to the energy problem. On the pretest, 85 percent answered "great extent," but this drOpped to 71 percent on the posttest. Thus, although significantly different, the means moved in the direction of less awareness by the control group over time. Time I, Time II—-Experimental Group HEC 401 As Rotzel (1974) states, the basic assumption in experimental research design, using a pretest/posttest format, is that any attitude change can be considered a result of the treatment condition employed. Since this study was specifically structured to determine if the energy information presented to HEC 401 students could heighten their energy beliefs and attitudes, the following hypotheses are most important. Although stated in the null form, the hypotheses of interest are based upon the premise that the energy information presented yppld result in a more positive belief in an energy problem as well as more positive personal attitudes towards the awareness, respOnsibility and flexi- bility aspects of the energy situation. The dependent t-test was used to test the null hypotheses at the proba- bility level of a = .025. Hypothesis 3.1 and 3.2 H03.l: There is no difference in the energy beliefs of HEC 401 students as measured on three energy belief questions between the beginning of Spring Term, 1978 (Time I) and the end of Spring Term, 1978 (Time II). 60 H 3.1 Findings.--No significant differences in 0 means were found between the pretest and posttest for HEC 401 students on any item. This would indicate that the energy information presented did not affect the students' energy beliefs, thereby accepting the null hypothesis at a = .025 (Table 11: Belief "now," p = .321; Belief "near future," p = .058; Belief "distant future," p = .370). H03.1 Discussion.--When a group of respondents communicate an existing strong belief in an issue, it may be difficult to employ a treatment that would significantly change that belief. This appears to be the case for these three questions. The HEC 401 pretest shows that a large percentage of the students held positive beliefs in the existence of the energy crisis at the three points in time designated (94 percent "now": 95.5 percent "in the near future": 88.1 percent "in the distant future"). Based upon this starting point, it was not surprising that a signifi- cant change was not found on any of the belief items. On the question concerning the energy crisis in the distant future, there was an increase of 4.5 percent in belief and an identical decrease in the no Opinion category. Much of the energy information presented to the HEC 401 students stressed the long term implications of the global energy situation, both in terms of conservation requirements and constrained availability Of alternative energy sources (given today's technologies). Thus the tested classroom 61 ouzusm mom. hO.H HH OEHB . .I . . qupmHQ OCH CH EOHQOHH Ohm 00 OO hvm mO H H oEHB mmHmCm Cm CH HOHHmm . . OEH mususm . . OON. om.H Hm oE+% Hmoz OCH CH EUHQOHH mmo mm mm H va m H . >muwcm cm CH mmHme mum. mo. HH OSHB 302 EOHQOHH Hmm. so oo.H «em. mo.H H meHe HmHmem em eH HmHHmm >uHHHQmQOHm EOOOOHE Ho coHumH>OO ouoom osHm>|B HHMBIN mOOHOOO pHmOCMHm com: I 1‘UI'.' -iii.’ nil-.- -nilii- A! -D’.'l. .HH oEHB Ocm H mEHB um HHov Ummv msouw HmquEHuwmxm OCH >3 mEouH moHHom >Ouocm HOH mHO>OH >uHHHCmnoum pew mCoHumH>oo pumpcwum .monoom Cmmzlu.HH mHnt 62 experience exhibits the potential for encouraging students to at least form an opinion as to the existence of an energy crisis; in this study, evidence would suggest that the change would be towards positive belief. H 3.2: There is no difference in the energy attitudes of HEC 401 students as measured on three energy attitude scales: (1) Eckoareness, (2) Human Responsibility, (3) Life Style Flexibility between the beginning of Spring Term, 1978 (Time I) and the end of Spring Term, 1978 (Time II). H03.2 Findings.--This hypothesis was partially con— firmed. There was a significant difference in the energy attitude on the Eckoareness Scale from the beginning to the end of the 1978 Spring Term (p = .001). No such significant differences were found, however, on the Human Responsibility Scale (p = .653) or the Life Style Flexibility Scale, although the latter difference could be considered meaning- ful (p = .074) (Table 12). H03.2 Discussion.-—Because the concept of attitude change due to the information presented is at the heart of this study, and because the results of the dependent t-tests are varied, each attitude scale will be discussed separately. Eckoareness. At Michigan State University, the College of Human Ecology is organized around an ecological or systems model which stresses the interdependence and interrelatedness of human life within its environment. Its Core Studies Program is an integral element Of this 63 mam.v h©.mm HH OEHB . x H a on w m o H «be. we mm.H- HHH.e mH.mm H meHe H.H.n. HH H um H.H . . OmH N hO.OH HH oEHB >uHHHQHmCommom Cmfidm mmo we wv I mmN.N vm.mH H OEHB . . . . NHN.M H®.VM HH OEHB mmmcmhm3¢00m H00 00 mm.ml VOH.V OH.mm H OEHB >uHHHQmQOHa EOOOOHE no o: m coHumH>OO OHoom HHmelm mOOHOOO H >|E UHOpcmum com: I: h u n V I H .HH OEHE UCO H oEHB um >Q monom OUOHHHD< >Ouocm HOH mHo>OH >uHHHnmnoum paw AHOv umzv QCOHU HmUCOEHuomxm mnu mcoHumH>oo pumpcmum .mouoom Cmozll.NH mHnme 64 organization. By the senior level course, HEC 401, stu- dents are encouraged to draw from their past learning experiences and synthesize them towards a specified issue. Therefore, the findings of this study can be termed very important from the college's ecological perspective. Within this scale, three items exhibited a signifi- cant increase in awareness. The first dealt with overcon- sumption of energy resources by United States citizens (p = .006). In the pretest, 71.6 percent of the responding stu- dents said the U.S. overconsumption was, to a great extent, a part of the energy problem. At the end of the term, this rose to 85.1 percent. A meaningful difference was found in students' responses to the question pertaining to what extent they thought waste and inefficient use of energy was a part of the energy problem (p = .070). The percent citing "great extent" rose from 85 on the pretest 0t 94 on the posttest. A third item showed a significant difference in the number of students who thought the energy crisis was a "put on" (p = .001). At Time I, only 7.6 percent disagreed with the statement: "The 'energy crisis' was a 'put on' in order to raise prices of fuels." At Time II, this percent increased over 12 fold to 92.4 percent. Human Responsibility. HEC 401 students expressed a high level of human responsibility on the pretest. On five of the six questions in the scale, over 90 percent of the 65 students answered, according to the scale, in a manner reflecting a high degree of personal responsibility felt for helping to solve the energy problem. These percentages held fast on the posttest. The sixth question, indicating a responsibility for not depriving the poorer peOples of the world of basic necessities due to high individual levels of living, rose from 77 to 85 percent. With such a high beginning level of expressed responsibility it would not be unexpected that a significant change in this attitude scale's means was not found. Life Style Flexibility. Although not significant, the difference in means between the pre- and posttests on this scale is meaningful, indicating an increased willing- ness of the student to adopt his/her lifestyle to changing circumstances brought about by decreasing energy supplies and increasing energy costs. The most notable change was evidenced in the students' expressed willingness to pay for more costly solar energy to decrease the demand for petroleum (p = .008). Time II--Control and Experimental Groups Assuming that two groups are similar at the beginning of a treatment, the question must be asked whether the two groups are then similar or different at the end of the treatment. In order to assess the effectiveness of any treatment, the differences within each group from the pre- test tO the posttest must first be ascertained. The 66 resulting gain or loss scores can then be compared to deter- mine whether the beliefs or attitudes expressed by the two groups on the posttests were indeed significantly different from each other, given their respective positions on the pretest. The dependent t-test was used to test the null hypothesis that students in the experimental and control groups were not different in their energy beliefs and atti— tudes at the end of the treatment condition. The hypothesis of interest, however, is predicated upon an anticipated means difference between gain scores between groups. Hypothesis 4.1 and 4.2 H04.1: There is no difference in energy beliefs, as measured on three energy belief items between HEC 301 and HEC 401 students at the end of Spring Term, 1978 (Time II). H 4.1 Findings.--On each of the three belief items, 0 no significant difference was found between means of the difference between gain scores, suggesting that the HEC 301 and HEC 401 students were similar in their energy beliefs at the end of the 1978 Spring Term. The null hypothesis is thus confirmed (Table 13). H 4.1 Discussion.--As shown on the first belief 0 hypothesis (H01.l) students in HEC 301 and HEC 401 were found to hold high degrees of belief on all items. Although the HEC 401 class did receive energy information throughout their classroom experience and the HEC 301 students did not, neither group changed significantly by the end of the term 67 OHCUCH OOv. vO.I Hov 0mm uCOumHC OCH CH EOHCOHH mew OH moH we now O HOm 0mm >mwOCm CO CH HOHHOm . . Oususm O m. . . Omm. OO.| HOV Wmm HOOZ OCH CH EOHCOHH n MH mHH OH va mo I HOm m >OHOCM CO CH HOHHOm hem. vO. HOV 0m: 302 EOHCOHH Hem. mmH He. nee. mo. Hem omm HmHmem cm :H HmHHmm > uHHHCmCOHC EOOOOHH mo OOHO>IB coHuOH>OQ Ouoom HHOBIN mOOHOOO pumpcmum COO: ‘, 9)" I 1,). l. Ii)i- ii in (yri'l.ll ii- 1-. (riuli' ‘illv‘ iiil‘..i ‘1) ( it‘ll'l.| Illl" Iliin' .HH OEHB um mmdouo HQ mEOuH HOHHOm hmHOCm HOH mOHoom CHOU OCH Ho mHO>OH HHHHHCOCOHC Ocm mCOHpmH>OO pumpCmum .mOHOOm COOZII.MH OHCOB 68 (Hypothesis H 2.1 and H 3.1). This would lead to the expec- 0 0 tation that the two groups would not be significantly dif— ferent in energy beliefs at Time II. Indeed, statistical evidence bears this out. H 4.2: There is no difference in energy attitudes, as measured on three Energy Attitude Scales: (l) Eckoareness, (2) Human Responsibility, (3) Life Style Flexibility between HEC 301 and HEC 401 students at the end of Spring Term, 1978 (Time II). H04.2 Findings.--The null hypothesis was rejected on the Eckoareness Scale (p = .024); it was confirmed on the Human Responsibility Scale (p = .137) and the Life Style Flexibility Scale (p = .322). These findings suggest that, at the end of Spring Term, 1978, the HEC 401 students were significantly more aware of the energy situation than the HEC 301 students. They also suggest that HEC 401 students exhibited slightly more personal responsibility for energy conservation and slightly more flexibility in willingness to adapt their lifestyles to a more energy restrictive world (Table 14). H04.2 Discussion.--Educators are becoming increas— ingly aware of the dimensions of affective learning; that is, the effect of lessons on the attitudes, beliefs, and values of their students (Heitzman, 1976). From the statis- tical evidence presented, it appears that the energy infor- mation presented to the HEC 401 students was at least a con- tributing factor in altering some of their energy attitudes. 69 HOm.v 00.1 How Omm >UHHHCHxOHm Okum OHHH mmm. mm.nm OO.H mmn.> OH. HOm 0mm OOm.m MH.I How Um: >uHHHCHmCommOm COECm hMH. mH.Om Om.H vvo.v mm. HOm 0mm mmH.v Hm.H| HOO Um: mmOCOHO3OQ OHoom OCHO>IB . . HHOBIN mOOHOOO puppcmum COO: .i ‘ iii. In Ii! iiiil‘i‘ii.|.ii .HH OeHH Hm mmsouo Hp wOHmom opsuHuua >muOcm HOH mOuoom CHOU OCH HO mHO>OH >uHHHCOCOHm OCO mCOHumH>OQ OHOOCOum .mOHOom COOZII.vH OHCOB 70 As with Hypothesis H 3.2, each attitude scale will be dis- 0 cussed separately. Eckoareness. On the Eckoareness Scale, a differ- ence of 1.49 was found between HEC 401 and HEC 301 gain scores at Time 11.1 This difference suggests an increased cognizance of energy's interactive role within the ecosystem by those students exposed to the information. The most significant difference was found in how the respondents per- ceived the reality of the energy crisis (p = .010). Between the pre- and posttests, there was an increase of 3 percent of HEC 301 respondents who expressed disagreement with the statement that the energy crisis was a "put on" in order to raise fuel prices (Pretest, 27 percent; Posttest, 30 per- cent). The percentage Of HEC 401 students expressing the same disagreement rose from 21 percent on the pretest to 93 percent on the posttest--a gain of 72 percent. Human Responsibility. On each of the six questions in the Human Responsibility Scale, the percent of HEC 401 students, whose answers indicated greater personal responsi- bility for energy conservation, averaged 10 percent higher than the percent of HEC 301 students at Time II.2 The most 1The range for the Eckoareness Scale is 27. 2Based upon students who expressed "disagreement or strong disagreement with nonresponsible statements or "agreement or strong agreement" with responsible statements. 71 significant difference in gain scores on individual questions within the scale was found in how the two groups viewed the impact of individual family conservation measures (p = .009). This finding suggests that the students who did receive the energy information developed a more positive attitude that their individual family efforts at energy conservation could make a difference in the aggregate energy consumption. Life Style Flexibility. Although the means of the difference between the HEC 301 and HEC 401 gain scores is not significant on the Life Style Flexibility Scale, the findings do indicate that the two groups did move farther apart on their expressed willingness to adapt their life— styles to a changing energy situation. The gain score for the control group, HEC 301, between Time I and Time II, was .41, whereas it was 1.71 for the HEC 401 experimental group.1 Within the flexibility scale, the greatest differ- ence between HEC 301 and HEC 401 gain scores appeared in whether the students thought the energy situation would require families to do without the comforts and conveniences they had worked for just when they get to the point that they can live well. Eight percent more HEC 401 students expressed concern about this possibility on the pretest than on the posttest indicating that, possibly due to the 1The range for the Life Style Flexibility Scale is 12. 72 information received in the classroom experience, students perceived a need to alter their future lifestyles in spite of what might be considered due them (pretest, 65 percent; posttest, 73 percent). In contrast, concern by the HEC 301 students dropped by 8 percent (pretest, 73 percent; post- test, 65 percent). As measured by the gain scores, there was also a difference in the willingness of both groups to accept the possible risks to health and safety from nuclear power plants rather than severely limit their energy use. The percentage of HEC 301 students who were willing to accept the risks remained virtually constant over the term (85 percent, pretest; 86 percent, posttest) whereas, on the same issue, the percentage of HEC 401 students expressing willingness decreased from 94 percent to 87 percent.1 The suggestion is thus made that the information presented either discouraged HEC 401 students about nuclear power itself and/ or presented energy alternatives that were more acceptable to them than nuclear. Since the use of alternative energy sources was discussed throughout the term, this finding is important. 1On the questionnaire, students were asked to agree or disagree with the statement, "I would accept 'possible risks' to health and safety from nuclear power plants, rather than severely restrict my energy use." CHAPTER V SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATION Within this chapter, the discussion will focus on the following points: 1. Overview of the Study 2. Conclusions 3. Other Conclusions 4. Implications of the Study 5. Implications for Further Research Overview of the Study The development of this research was based upon the assumption that receiving information about the energy situ- ation could alter the energy beliefs and attitudes of pre— professional college students. It was theorized that this information would be incorporated into their future private and professional lives, thereby having a multiplier effect on energy conservation. It was further theorized that by helping to develop a new personal as well as professional energy awareness, conservation would become an integral part of their daily lives and professional practices--moving towards an energy conserving value in the American society. 73 74 This study specifically looked at the energy beliefs and attitudes of juniors and seniors enrolled in the College of Human Ecology at Michigan State University during the ten week Spring Term, 1978. Self-administered questionnaires, containing pre- viously field-tested questions designed to measure energy beliefs and attitudes, were administered to a control group (HEC 301) and an experimental group (HEC 401) at the begin— ning of the 1978 Spring Term (Time I). The experimental group then received energy information, through various educational strategies, throughout their classroom experi- ence. At the end of this period, identical posttest ques- tionnaires were given (Time II). The major Objective was to determine if disseminating energy information in a college classroom situation could contribute significantly to the alteration of energy beliefs and attitudes. Careful attempts were made to control for what could be other explanations for differences. Random samples, which approximate the enrollment distribution in departments within the college, were drawn from only those students who completed both the pre- and posttests. Data was checked and verified at three points of processing and found to be accurate. It was not, however, within the sc0pe of this research to control for the impact of outside variables such as information received through media or other course work, family beliefs and attitudes, or natural phenomena. 75 A statistical program using frequencies and inde- pendent and dependent t-tests of mean differences was devel- Oped using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) program. Comparisons of means were made by groups and time. Conclusions Did the energy information presented alter the energy beliefs and attitudes of those who received it? Were the two groups studied significantly alike in their beliefs and attitudes before the information was presented and significantly different after? Several conclusions can be drawn from the analysis. Altering Energy Beliefs and Attitudes In providing conclusions based upon evaluation Of an energy education program, two kinds of evidence should be provided. First, there should be evidence about the extent to which the program's goals are achieved. In this study, there is evidence that the program used did increase the students' perceptions of past, present, and future universal energy problems, as well as their cognizance of conservation measures. There was an increasing move towards more positive energy attitudes in the HEC 401 experimental group between the beginning and the end of the term. The Eckoareness Scale showed a significant difference at a probability level 76 of .001. When looking within the scale, those items which showed the greatest difference related to overconsumption of energy resources by the United States, waste and inefficient use of energy, and a realization that the energy crisis was not a "put on." At a probability level of .074, it was felt that the attitude change reflected on the Life Style Flexibility Scale was meaningful. This indicated a growing acceptance of changing lifestyle patterns in light of a restricting energy supply for the HEC 401 experimental group as compared to the HEC 301 control group. The results showed no significant difference on the Human Responsibility Scale, but since the responses favoring responsibility were high (over 90 percent) on the pretest, it was not felt that this was a critical result. The educational energy strategy did not produce any significant change in the three energy belief items of the experimental group. As with the Life Style Flexibility Scale, however, the percent expressing belief was overall very high on the pretest, and equally high on the posttest. It is important, therefore, that the change-goal was achieved. From this analysis, it may be concluded that an energy education program, such as used in this study, is potentially effective in increasing students' perception of the energy crisis. The second kind Of evidence which should be pre- sented in evaluating an energy education program concerns 77 the appropriateness of the program for the target population of students. While no empirical data is available to measure apprOpriateness in this study, the findings do suggest that the HEC 401 students were receptive to both the information and the class format. In fact, by an almost 2:1 ratio, HEC 401 students indicated that they would favorably recommend the energy course to others.1 Similarities/Differences Between the Control and Experimental Groups At the beginning of the study, the two groups were found to be similar in the beliefs and attitudes they held towards the energy question. It is on the basis of this similarity that an evaluation of the treatment condition can be formulated. In any experimental research design, it is imperative that the groups being studied be comparable on the issues in question. Without this common foundation, the structural factors of curricula materials which are thought to affect beliefs or attitude change cannot be evaluated. With this similarity as a benchmark, the posttest results showed a significant difference between the gain scores of the two groups, as measured on the Eckoareness 1A question in the evaluation section of the HEC 401 posttest asked students if they would recommend the class to other students. Sixty percent said "yes," 33 per- cent said "no," and 9 percent gave no response. 78 Scale (p = .024). Although there were no significant dif— ferences found on the Human Responsibility Scale or on the Life Style Flexibility Scale, at probability levels Of .137 and .322, respectively, they can be considered meaningful. These findings, then, suggest that the information presented could be considered a factor in altering the expressed attitudes of the HEC 401 students. It may also be postulated that these new attitudes will become a corner- stone for their future private and professional lives. Time will have to answer this question. When looking at the measures of belief in the energy crisis at three points in time (now, near future, distant future), no significant difference was found between the groups on either the pre- or posttests. The primary factor in these findings appears to be the high level of belief that each group expressed at the beginning of the term. The percentage saying they did believe in the energy crisis remained virtually constant between measures--that being in the 90 percent range for HEC 401 and in the 80 percent range for HEC 301. It was therefore not felt that these results indicated a lack of effectiveness by the HEC 401 course . Other Conclusions In the fourth century B.C., Diogenes, the Greek philosopher, said, "The foundation of every nation lies in the education of its youth." This statement is still 79 applicable today, 24 centuries later, especially within the realities of decreasing world energy supplies and increasing world energy demands. The United States, with its unique position within the world's energy picture, has an Opportunity to direct the dictum of the Greek philosopher towards answering the challenge of multidimensional and interconnected problems precipitated by the energy crisis. In the past, the United States has traditionally used its vast educational system to discover and develop new ways to manipulate the earth's physical and ecological systems to meet its demands, while other cultures assimilated their societies into the environment. With the constraints of finite energy forms, this is no longer possible. Pru- dence would therefore suggest that the United States redirect its educational efforts--whether they be on the elementary, secondary, university, or continuing education level--towards a more energy conserving way of life. Educational programs, such as the one tested in this research, can be a step in this new direction. Questions about a program's rationale, goals and objectives, its content and instructional strategies, its provisions for instructor and student assessment, and its implementation represent considerations about the internal qualities of existing or proposed energy education programs which must be addressed. Persons who are responsible today for making decisions about energy education are fortunate. Unlike the 80 past when decisions had to be made primarily on the basis of testimony or Observation, there is today an increasing body of evaluation research--in general education, in environ- mental education, and now beginning in energy education. One of the primary purposes of this evaluation research is to provide reliable information to educational decision- makers about how well energy education programs "can work." Designing instructional strategies that teach people to alter beliefs and attitudes, and in turn values and behav- iors, on the basis of what they have learned in energy educa— tion is a challenge of major magnitude. Implications of the Study Implications for Educational Programs The consequences of world energy shortages coupled with increased energy costs affect people, on a personal level, throughout the world. In the United States, where much Of the economic and social organization is structured on a foundation of low-cost, abundant energy, the change to high-cost, scarce energy represents a major national challenge, both in the immediate future and in the long term. Education is an important tool in attempting to answer this challenge. Research, economic incentives, legal regulations, and law enforcement are likewise important, but each require varying degrees of energy education for 81 policy-makers, researchers, Opinion makers, and the general public. Gallagher (Dr. James Joseph, unpublished) empha— sizes that . . . laws and institutionalized economic incentives lack the flexibility and responsiveness to new energy problems that an educated public provides. We can avoid greater restrictions of our individual freedom only to the extent that problems are solved through wise choices made by many people--choices based on sound education. The United States' ability to solve its energy problems appears, then, to depend in some measure, on the ability of its citizens, and therefore on its educational system. Individuals will be forced to make energy choices-- their concerted decisions influencing national energy policy and their individual choices determining their life styles. This situation requires knowledgeable citizens, aware of their personal values and goals, who are skillful problem solvers and decision-makers and who are able to predict the consequences of their energy choices and decisions, both for themselves and for the society in which they live. There are implications for energy education. Energy education must be multifaceted; it must present information, but also deal with social, economic, political and moral issues of the energy question. It must help increase individuals' abilities to define their values and goals, to solve problems, and to make decisions. 82 Implications for College and University Curricula Development The University engages in basic research; it sup- ports elementary and secondary education; it engages in vocational training; it provides undergraduate instruction, professional education and advanced scien— tific training through educational television and educa— tional services. Because of the interdisciplinary nature of energy education, it should be related to all those levels of endeavor (State of Florida, 1979). Colleges and universities can play an important rOle in energy education. Besides training people to solve the technical problems, they can help educate all their students, as well as the general public, to understand the world—wide web of energy interrelationships and to incor- porate energy awareness into personal and professional life- styles. Informational strategies of this nature could educate the general public to understand the energy problem and make better choices as to where we (as a nation) are going (Magarrel, 1977). Strategies used in such an educational endeavor might include: 1. Incorporating energy concepts into established curricula. 2. Utilizing experts from the many disciplines to present the energy problem from varying perspec- tives. 3. Encouraging and supporting the development of additional required and elective courses in differ- ent aspects of the energy issue. 83 Implications for Energy Consumption One of the intents of the United States Energy Materials Conservation Act of 1975 was to call for a com— mitment of educators to "assist students in the process of changing attitudes" (Riendeau, 1975). Attitudes are derived from some base of information; therefore, a necessary condition for attitude change must be apprOpriate kinds and amounts of new information. Glad- hart (1976) states that the successful promotion of atti- tude and behavior change in regard to energy requires pre— sentation of distinct types of credible information such that individuals can integrate them appropriately. It cannot be assumed, however, that providing stu- dents with information about energy necessarily will have any effect on their energy consumption. Indeed, most of the studies cited in the review of literature did not reveal a consistent relationship between attitudes and behaviors. There is, however, a small body of evidence that does sug- gest that attitudes can affect overt behavior. Champagne (1977) points out that behaviors related to energy consump- tion, like those related to eating, are in general, habitual, requiring no deliberate attention from the individual. To achieve the goal of changing students' behaviors with respect to energy consumption, the instructional strategies 84 must take this habitual nature of these behaviors into account. Implications for Further Research Need for Study Replication.--A replication of the exploratory study with a more heterogeneous sample would be of value. The subsample used in this study was obviously rather homogeneous (similar majors in college, similar ages and years in college, similar demographic features). It would therefore be valuable to repeat this study in other colleges within Michigan State University and/or other uni- versities. Complete new scale items, still structured around the concepts of Eckoareness, Human Responsibility and Life Style Flexibility might also be developed for any future replication. It might be that the questions used in this study were not as applicable to college students as to the families for whom they were originally developed. The fact that these scales had been successfully used in previous studies (Gladhart, 1976; McKenna, 1978; Morrison et a1., 1978) led to their being adopted for this research. In a replication, consideration should be given to the inclusion of a second control group, one which only would lChampagne defines educational strategy as the pro- cess by which the conditions for learning a certain class of behaviors are created. 85 be given the posttest questionnaire. By incorporating this second control group into the research design, comparisons could also be made between the experimental and control group which only was given the posttest. In this way, con- trol would be exercised for possible biased results caused by the administration of a pretest to a single control group. It would also be beneficial to alter the way in which the pOsttest questionnaire was administered. Rather than allow students to take the questionnaire home for com- pletion, which could lead to biased responses, and did lead to a low rate of return, students should complete the post- test during the class period. This change in administration should yield a higher number of cases with complete data across time, and thus more meaningful results. In a replication, it would be beneficial to precode, differently, the responses to some of the questions used in the scales. Such precoding would eliminate/reduce the need to "weight" those responses, thus making data analysis easier. Need for Further Data Analysis.--Since respondent's demographic information was obtained in this study, it would seem useful to further analyze the data using this information as independent variables: dwelling type (single family, multi-family), dwelling location (rural, urban), family income, number of persons in the household. 86 These explanatory variables have potential to reduce the amount of unexplained variance. Since the energy belief questions and three energy attitude scales had been previously field tested, it would be interesting to compare the data from this study with that from the previous studies. Such a comparison could well give insight into the concept of using the educational system as an avenue to greater national/individual energy conservation or as a comparison between aggregate college age youth and the adult population. Need to Consider Other Independent Variables.--The relationship explored in this study primarily concerned the effect of energy information, presented in a classroom experience, on the energy beliefs and attitudes of selected college juniors and seniors. In any future replication, it would seem fruitful to obtain data on and analyze the pos- sible impact of other independent variables on these expressed beliefs and attitudes: other energy courses taken by students, media exposure of energy issues, students' families' energy beliefs and attitudes, natural occurrences, and national or international events which could affect the lifestyles of the students and/or their families. 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Wilson, W., and Miller, H. "Repetition, Order of Presenta- tion, and Timing of Agreements and Measures as Determinants of Opinion Change." Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 9 (1968): 184-188. Winett, Richard A.; Kagel, John H.; Battalio, Raymond C.; and Winkler, Robin C. "Effects of Monetary Rebates, Feedback and Information on Residential Electricity Consumption." Journal of Applied Psychology 63 (February 1978): 73-80. Winett, Richard A., and Nietzel, Michael T. "Behavioral Ecology: Contingency Management Of Consumer Energy Use." American Journal of Community Psychology 3 (1975): 123-133. Zimbardo, Philip, and Ebbesen, Ebbe B. Influencing Atti- tudes and Changinngehavior. Reading, Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley Publishing CO., 1969. Zuiches, James J. "Acceptability of Energy Policies to Mid- Michigan Families." Research Report for the Michi- gan State University Agricultural Experimental Station, East Lansing, Michigan, March, 1976. Zuiches, James J. "Household Energy Conservation: Practice and Potential." Paper prepared for presentation at the Utah Home Economics Association Spring Conference, April 30-May 1, 1976. 97 Zuiches, James; Gladhart, Peter; Morrison, Bonnie M.; Zabik, Mary; Schaimberg, Larry; and Field, Anne. "Changing Family Energy Behavior Through Infrared Heat Loss Evaluation: An Experimental Approach." Institute for Family and Child Study, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, 1978. Zuiches, James J.; Morrison, Bonnie Maas; and Gladhart, Peter Michael. "Interviewing Families: Methodology and Evaluation of 'Energy and the Family' Survey." Michigan State University Agricultural Experiment Station, East Lansing, Michigan, September, 1976. APPENDICES APPENDIX A QUESTIONNAIRES APPENDIX A QUESTIONNAIRES Pretest/Posttest Questionnaire The word energy is used in many ways. In this survey it is used to mean energy produced from coal, 931, natural gas, or existing nuclearypower plants and used to provide fuels and electricity. 1. What is your Opinion on the following questions? Check one answer for each question. Following the Oil embargo of 1973 there was much dis- cussion of an energy crisis or energy problem in this country. 1. DO you think there IS an energy problem in this country NOW? Yes No No Opinion 2. Do you think there WILL BE an energy problem in this country in the near future (within the next five years)? Yes No No Opinion 3. DO you think there WILL HE an energy problem in this country in the more distant future (1985 to 2000)? Yes No No Opinion 98 99 Please answer the following questions about how serious you think the energy problem is compared to other prob- lems in the United States. Check (/) one answer for each question. More As Less Serious Serious Serious 1. Compared to inflation the energy problem is 2. Compared to crime the energy problem is 3. Compared to unemployment the energy problem is To what extent is each of the following a part of the energy problem? Check (/) one answer on each line. Never Great Some Not At Thought Extent Extent All About It 1. Scarcity of fossil fuels (natural gas, oil, coal) 2. Waste and inefficient use of energy 3. World overpopulation 4. Overconsumption by United States citizens Below are statements of Opinion about subjects related to the energy problem. Some people agree with these statements, others disagree. Please check (/) the one answer that indicates to what extent you agree or dis- agree with each statement. Strongly Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Disagree 1. Most families in this neighborhood are taking steps to conserve energy at home. 100 Strongly Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Disagree Our family is entitled to as many material goods as we can afford regardless of the energy required to produce them. The amount of energy all American families could save is unimportant com- pared to the amount of energy that government and industry could save. Government officials are not providing any clear directions to help families make decisions about energy use. The citizens of the United States are entitled to use as much energy as they can afford. My family can main- tain a satisfying way of living even though we buy fewer material goods. The technology is available to pro- vide new sources of energy, only the commitment of resources is needed. If each family tried to conserve energy, it would really make a dif- ference. 9. " 10. ll. 12. l3. 14. 15. 16. I should be con- cerned about the energy that will be available for future generations. The natural envi- ronment should be preserved even if I must change my way of living. The price of energy is too low when considering that most energy resources cannot be replaced. The only way to get. families to conserve energy is by impos- ing government con- trols. The "energy crisis" was a "put on" in order to raise prices of fuels. I don't mind hand— me-downs or used goods for my family. Stopping pollution is more important than lower prices for products. American car manu— facturers make a good selection of economy cars. 101 Strongly Agree Strongly Agree Disagree Disagree 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. I am concerned that the cost of travel is becoming so expensive that I will not be able to visit friends or relatives Often enough. I am concerned that the cost of housing is becom- ing so expensive that I will not be able to afford enough space for my needs. I would pay for more costly solar energy to decrease the demand for new sources of petrol- eum. Small cars are not as safe as big cars. Buying imported cars is unpatriotic. Small economy cars are durable. It is hard to relax and be comfortable in a home kept at 68°. If most Americans continue their present high levels of living, they will deprive peOple in poorer parts of the world of basic necessities. 102 Strongly Agree Strongly Agree Disagree Disagree 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. If we continue high levels of energy use, generations wi not be able to have our future 11 a level of living like ours. Today, when families get to the poi where they can begin to live well, are asked to do with- out the comforts and nt they conveniences they have worked fo I would accept "possible risks" to health and saf r. ety from nuclear power plants, energy use. I would rather rather than severely restrict my Pay extra than keep my house at 68°. I would rather extra than decrease the temperatur use of hot water in my home. I would give u Pay eor P living space to install a sola heating and cooling I" system in my house. 103 Strongly Agree Strongly Agree Disagree Disagree 104 Demographic Questions Added to the Posttest Questionnaire for Both the Control and Experimental Groups In order to do analysis which will have meaning, we need to know the following characteristics of your family. Check (/) one answer for each question. 1. Where is your home? In a large city (over 500,000) In a medium city (50,000-500,000) In a small city (10,000-50,000) In a village or town (under 10,000) In open country, nonfarm On a farm 2. What kind of house do your parents live in? Single family Duplex Fourplex . Multi-dwelling (5-10 apartments) High-rise (10-40 apartments) 3. How many persons live in your family home? 1-2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 or more 4. Approximately what is the total income of your family from all sources, during the past year? Under $5,000 $5,000 - $9,999 $10,000 - $14,999 $15,000 - $19,999 $20,000 - $24,999 $25,000 or more Answers to all questions will be held in strict confidence. 105 Class Evaluation Questions Added to the Posttest Questionnaire for the Experimental Group, HEC 401 The following questions are designed to allow you to evalu- ate various aspects of HEC 401. Your answers are important in designing future energy issue related classes. 1. Rank in order of importance the various presentations in HEC 401. maNI-H II a II II II \DCDQGUI-bLAJNH O 0 FJH F40 12. 13. 14. 15. l6. l7. IIHHIHIIIHH very important important unimportant very unimportant no opinion, did not hear lecture Dr. Herman Koenig and James Shaffer Jeanne Alissi Ortiz B. Chadwick Walter III Robert Capelletti Richard G. Stein Volker Hartkopf Dr. Bonnie M. Morrison Joel Sharkey Gordon Vandertill Denise Guerin Dr. Kaye Crippen Dr. Peter Gladhart Dr. Joanne Keith Dr. Denton Morrison Representative Jondahl Energy source panel Energy and society panel 2. Where did you gain the most information generally? Check (/) one. the lecture (live or tape) the assigned readings the individual projects 3. How Often did you use the tapes of class lectures? Check (/) one. never (0 times) seldom (1-5 times) often (6-15 times) 106 Describe the take home examination as: (Check / one) too easy fair too difficult Did the take home examination reinforce learning about energy issues generally and in your professional life? Check (/) one. greatly reinforced slightly reinforced did not reinforce Would you recommend Energy and the Designed Environment to fellow students? (Check / one) Yes No APPENDIX B FORMAT OF HEC 401, "ENERGY AND THE DESIGNED ENVIRONMENT APPENDIX B FORMAT OF HEC 401, "ENERGY AND THE DESIGNED ENVIRONMENT" Speakers and TOpics for HEC 401, Spring Term 1978 (In order of presentation) Speaker Dr. Bonnie Maas Morrison, Dept. of Human Environment and Design, M.S.U. Dr. Herman Koenig, Director Center for Environmental Issues and Dr. James Shaffer, Dept. of Agricul- tural Economics, both from M.S.U. Jeanne Alessi Ortiz, Graduate Assistant, Dept. of Human Environment and Design, M.S.U. B. Chadwick Walter, III, AIA, Lansing, Michigan Architect Robert Capelletti, Acting Director, Michigan Energy Administration Richard G. Stein, FAIA, Richard Stein and Partners, New York City* Topic Energy and the Designed Environment: An Ecological Approach The Energy Dilemma: Physical and Economic Issues Energy and Human Ecology Energy: The Challenge to the Designer/Architect Energy Efficient Building Codes and Standards Architecture and Energy *Author of Architecture and Energy, the text used in HEC 401. 108 Speaker Volker HartkOpf, Director Advanced Buildings Studies, Carnegie-Mellon University Jack Sharkey, Supervisor, Issue Analysis, Public Service Commission, Michigan Gordon Vander Fill, Director of Alternative Energy Divisions of Jordan College, Michigan Denise Guerin, Graduate Assistant, Dept. of Human Environment and Design, M.S.U. HEC 401 Students (Option Project) Dr. Kaye Crippen, Energy Institute, University of Houston, Texas Dr. Peter M. Gladhart, Dept. of Family Ecology, M.S.U. Dr. Joanne G. Keith, Dept. of Family and Child Sciences, M.S.U. Dr. John S. Steinhart, Dept. of Geology and Geophysics, University of Wisconsin in Madison Dr. Denton E. Morrison, Dept. of Sociology, M.S.U. HEC 401 Students (Options Project) Rep. Lynn Jondahl, Michigan House of Representatives, 59th District Topic Rehabilitation and Energy Conservation Energy Systems and Michigan Alternative Energy Systems Solar Interiors: Energy, A New Element in Design The Energy Source Panel Energy and Textile Pro- duction Energy and Life Style Household Energy Conserva- tion: Behavior or Tech- nology Energy and the Food System Energy and Equity The Energy and Society Panel Energy and the Michigan Legislature 109 Examination I, HEC 401 Name Student Number Major ENERGY AND THE DESIGNED ENVIRONMENT HEC 401 Dr. Bonnie Maas Morrison April 25, 1978 Take Home Examination I INSTRUCTIONS: Use only this sheet - (including backside). Type or write clearly - outline or paragraph form acceptable. Question: Is there an energy problem? State a position and defend it, pro or con. Criteria for Grading: 1. Statement of position 5 pts. (clarity will be considered) 2. Defense of position 15 pts. (logic and clarity of position development will be considered) 3. References or documentation from 10 pts. lectures, assigned reading and other sources. KEY TO REFERENCES: S = Stein M = Morrison K = Koenig C = Capelletti SH = Shaffer H = HartkOpf O = Ortiz EB = Extension Bulletin W = Walter B = Book (text) ME = Michigan Energy Code Develop others as needed. 110 Examination II, HEC 401 Name Student Number Major ENERGY AND THE DESIGNED ENVIRONMENT HEC 401 Dr. Bonnie Maas Morrison May 11, 1978 Take Home Examination II INSTRUCTIONS: Use only this sheet - (Including Backside). Type or write clearly - outline or paragraph form acceptable. Question: What are the implications for your professional life in the state of Michigan, given present and future energy forms. (Note: Think about your career Opportunities and/or constraints as well as responsibilities in light of the energy question.) Criteria for Grading: 1. Opportunities and/or constraints defined and explained in relation- ship to the Michigan energy picture. 10 pts. 2. Responsibilities defined and explained in relationship to the Michigan energy picture. 10 pts. 3. References or documentations from lectures, assigned readings and other sources. 10 pts. KEY TO REFERENCES: Develop others as needed. S = Stein DG = Denise Guerin K = Koenig M = Morrison SH = Shaffer C = Capelletti O = Ortiz H = HartkOpf W = Walter EB = Extension Bulletin JS = Joel Sharkey B = Book (text) GVT = Gordon Vander Till ME = Michigan Energy Code 111 Examination III (Final), HEC 401 Name Student Number Major ENERGY AND THE DESIGNED ENVIRONMENT HEC 401 Dr. Bonnie Maas Morrison May 25, 1978 Take Home Examination III DUE June 2 BY NOON INSTRUCTIONS: Type or write clearly using no more than 2 pages (this sheet and one other). Return to Dr. Morrison no later than NOON, June 2. Turn in at the Institute. Question: What will life in the year 2000 be like? (1) List three possible energy related futures. (Hint: you could refer to Dr. Shaffer's energy cost and time curves.) (2) Choose ere of these possible energy futures and discuss in depth the lifestyle or social implication. (Hints: Think about employment, cost and kinds of energy, housing, food, clothing, transportation, recreation and appliances. Think about family roles across generations and between family members: males, females and children. Think about education for necessary skills and knowledge. Think about human energy and time.) INSTRUCTIONS: You need not discuss all of these, but con- centrate on what you think is most important. You may take a positive or a negative stance. Criteria for Grading: l. 112 List three energy related futures. (Give each a name and describe in one sentence or so.) 15 pts. Detailed discussion of gpe of the energy futures related to life- style. (You may concentrate on one aspect, or develop a broad perspective.) 20 pts. References and/or documentation from lectures, reading and other sources . 10 pts. TOTAL 45 pts. KEY TO REFERENCES: GVT PG JK DM Stein Koenig Shaffer Ortiz Walter Joel Sharkey Gordon Vander Till Peter Gladhart Joanne Keith Denton Morrison Develop others as needed. 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How 0mm mumu OHm mm mmmm OOO. HO.OOH OO. ONO.H OH. Hom 0mm mm uoz mumu HHmam omnmmz mommm Unemwd u.cmo H page :OHm mom. mH.I How own 009 mcfleoomm mcflmsom OOO. ONH OH. OOO. OO.- Hom 0mm mo umoo cmcumocoo muflawnwnoum Eovmmum o: m coflumfl>ma muoom HHMBIN mo wwnmmo H >IB vumwcmum cam: .wmscflucooll.om magma 152 musumummfime 5mm. «Q. How 0mm Hmumz pom mmmmuomo ONO. ONH OH.u OOO. mo. HOO om: case muuxm mam umsumm mmh. mo.| How 0mm owe um mmnom mmwm OOO. ONH OO. OOO. HH. Hom 0mm case muuxm Omm umsumm wuHHHnmnoum Eovmmum coHHMH>mQ wuoom wSHm>|B HHMBIN mo mmummo Unmocmum :mmz .wmscHucoouu.om mHnma APPENDIX E RELIABILITY TESTS APPENDIX E RELIABILITY TESTS Table 31.-~Reliability Coefficients for Energy Attitude Scales. Scale Alpha Gladhart, 1976 Ecosystem Awareness women .783 men .777 Human Responsibility women .735 men .740 Life Style Flexibility women .701 men .682 Knutson, 1979 Eckoareness pretest .559 posttest .613 Human Responsibility pretest .727 posttest .692 Life Style Flexibility pretest .571 posttest .625 153