AN APPLICATION OF GESTALT LEARNING THEORY TO INSTRUCTIONAL TELEVISION Thesis for the Degree of M. A. MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY JAMES ARNOLD CHERRY 1972 r“ IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII7IIIIIIIIIIIIII 3 1293 10439 LIBRARY Univcrsity . AN APPLICATION OF GESTALT LEARNING THEORY TO INSTRUCTIONAL TELEVISION By James Arnold Cherry A THESIS Submitted to . Michigan State University .1n partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS ‘Department of Television and Radio 1972 Accepted by the faculty of the Department of Televisionand Radio, Michigan State University, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Master of Arts degree. filfltflj. €5>chLLF2;p/’ Director ofAThesis ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I wish to thank: Dr. Robert Schlater, Chair-manor; the Department of Television and Radio, Michigan State Univer— sity, for his guidance in the production of this thesis; my wife Kathleen Cherry, for the time she gave up and the help she gave with details; and my supervisors and co-workers at KUSD—TV and the Department of Communication at the Univer- sity of South Dakota for their understanding and encourage- ment. ii ABSTRACT AN APPLICATION OF GESTALT LEARNING THEORY T0 INSTRUCTIONAL TELEVISION By James Arnold Cherry Research has not shown Instructional Television to be any more effective than classroom instruction. Television teachers are chosen for their skill. They have greater re— sources than the classroom teacher. The producers and direc- tors are capable in their roles. The latter however are not trained educators, and neither they, nor the teachers, are makingpractical use of learning theories. The objective of this thesis is to provide a plan far the improvement of Instructional Television by applying the principles of Gestalt Learning Theory. Television is an accepted tool for communicating to' the masses. Its use in education provides economies because of its facility for distributing facts and ideas, presented by superior teachers, to a class, a school, a school dis- trict, a state, or a nation. The techniques of television production are broken down into their components and defined as to their use. A sample program is then presented and analyzed using these iii James Arnold Cherry terms. , . Learning theories are presently divided into two camps. The Stimulus-Response theories developed from the point of view that behavior is the result of a stimulus acti— vating motor responses. The Cognitive theories developed from the Gestalt concept that behavior is a result of cen- tral brain processes. Gestalt Psychology's principles and concepts are broken down and explained. From these, the Gestalt Learn- ing Theory is explained. Gestalt Psychology views learning as a process which follows the principles of perception, principles which are used to explain all that man knows, . learns, and all that goes on about him and within him. The primary goal of'these principles, as they relate to learn- ing, is understanding, which leads to the generalizability of problem solving. The principles of television composition and pic- torial development relate directly to the Gestalt principles of perception. The relationship of the viewer to the tele- vision.picture is explained in Gestalt terms and it is shown- how, given television's physical limitations, the televisiOn program can be developed into a "good" gestalt, and become part of a "good" learning gestalt. It is concluded that Instructional Television would be more effective with a crew Which understands the concept of the program and its purpose. The program.should be distrib- uted in such a manner as to allow the classroom teacher to iv James Arnold Cherry adapt it to the needs of each individual student. The emphasis of current ITV upon facts should yield to an emphasis upon productive thinking, and eliciting in- trinsic motivation toward student-directed goals. Produc- tional gimmickry must be utilized only as it relates to the. over-all impact of the program's purpose. Present research techniques may not be adequate to test the effectiveness of the learning gestalt because they still are looking at specific responses to specific stimuli. The learning process must be studied on the basis of the individual and his understanding of his world. TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER .. I 0 INTRODUCTION 0 O O ‘ O O O O O O 0 O O O 0 Statement of the Problem Objective - Terms II. III. Iv. V. INSTRUCTIONAL TELEVISION PRODUCTION . . . . Television as a Medium of Communication Television as a Medium of Instruction Production Techniques of ITV Production Techniques in a Program Context LEARNING THEORY . . . . . . . . . . . . . Stimulus-Response versus Cognitive Gestalt Psychology Gestalt Learning'Theory' GESTALT LEARNING THEORY AND ITV . . . . . ITV as a Gestalt Perception and Interference Motivation and Goals Response and Feedback Reasoning with Wholes SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND NEED FOR RESEARCH BIBLIOGRAPHY O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 O I O 0 vi PAGE 19 3O 43 49 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION _J__.2_3’¢ temtfimm ’ In the forty years since the first experimental educational television'broadcast was made in Iowa, and the nearly twenty years since the Federal Communications Come mission allocated channels to educational television, ETV has developed into an important aspect of the educational system.1 This tool for education has been used in a variety of subjects, and has elicited research.into its effective- ness. The results have consistently shown that ". . . the average student is likely to learn about as much from a television class as from ordinary classroom.methods. . . . Over all the conclusion.has been 'no significant differ- ences."‘2 . The television teacher is usually one selected for his competence. He is provided substantial preparation time. He is assisted by competent sides. as has a fund of 1Richard B. Hull, "A Note on the History behind ETV," Edu ational Tele on: The Next Ten Year , (Stanford: The Insgitute Tor CommunicatIon ReseaEEE) 19 , p. 334. 2Wilber Schramm, ”What We Know about Learning from Instructional Television," ibid., p. 52. 1 2 materials with which to work. It would appear that in rela— tion to the classroom.Lesson the televised Lesson.would be 1 more effective. Why are televised lessons no more effec- tive than classroom lessons, and what can be done about it? Objectigg The objective of this thesis is to provide a plan for the improvement of instructional television by applying the principles of Gestalt Learning Theory. Currently, instruc- tional television is not known for its practical application of learning theory. The people who produce and direct in- structional television programs come mainly from the ranks of commercial broadcasters.2 They are not trained as educa- tors, although they play an important part in shaping the instructional message.3 Their competence in using their production tools. s not questioned, but their pedagogical background is. ' The application of learning theories to instructional television has not been attempted except on a very abstract level. 1Catharine M. williams, "Reexamination of 'No Signifi- cant Differences' That ITV Studies Report." Audio Visual Communicatigng Revi w, Winter 1962, no. 4. P. 233. 2Gale Adkins, A study 2; Critical Re uir ment for Directors in Educational elevisign Stations (anrence, Kansas: Radio-Television Research, University of Kansas) 1967, p. 90. 3Ibid., p. 95. 3 It is assumed that . . . television [has] describable potentialities to create effective Learning oppor- tunities for students. However, this assumption does not guarantee that the potentialities are fully used-- as they should be-in accord with the special condi- tions for learning and with the best known principles of learning. _ Unfortunately, learning theorists have been of little help. Papers by psychologists by and large leave the TV practitioner bewildered as to their meaning for him. . . . One looks in vain for much that has recognizable application to practical instructional problems. This condition probably reflects, in part, the basic poverty of present learning theory-~it does not have a great deal profound to say with respect to application.2 Neither have the television practitioners been outstanding in their enthusiasm for applying learning theory. The suggestion was made in the Nevember-December, 1965, NAQB ng a; that ITV producers study learning theom 'm afraid I don't see much merit in teaching learning theory to ITV producers or television to psycholOgists. It seems to me that each has enough to do by practicing his own trade and keeping abreast of developments in.his own field.3 Mr. Shumacher does suggest that a learning psycholo- gist be incorporated into the production team, if only to discuss preliminary objectives and a follow-upevaluation.4 1C. ‘R. Carpenter, "Boundaries of Learning Theories and Mediators of Learning," Audio Visual Communications Review, 1962, Vol. X, No. 6, p. 295. 2Charles J. McIntyre, "Applying Learning Theory to Teéevised Instruction," NAEB Journal, XXIV, No. 6, Nov.-Dec. 19 5. p. 54 3Hazen J. Shumacher, Jr., "Applying Learning Principles to Televised Instruction,” NABB ggggggle XXV. No. 5. 1955, p. 7. 4Schumacher, NAEB Jo 1, XXV, No. 5, p. 7. 4 In 1965, Charles McIntyre proposed an application of Stimulus-Response (89R) learning theory to televised instruc- tion.1 In his article, the one to which Mr. Shumacher refers, he outlined the S-R concepts of drive, cue, response, and reward and related them to the ITV situation. Reaction to his S-R approach has emphasized its mechanistic tendency to ignore the over-all effect upon the learner. "The S-R approach is impoverished with respect to relevant implica- tions which might direct and inform the creative practice of instructional television."2 The stress of S-R on drive, cue, etc. or "bits" of information, differs from the Gestalt approach of Abraham Luchins,3 who stresses that learning should be studied from "above," (the structure and function) rather than from "be- low," (analyzing the bits). It is the premise here that this approach is more productive, and can serve as a point of departure to develop a plan for the improvement of tele- vised instruction. lMcIntyre, NAEB Journal, XXIV, No. 6, p. 54. 2 Hugh Greene, "Some Second Thoughts on S-R Theory and ITV," Educational Broadcasting Revi w, III, No. 1, Feb. 1969, p. 7. ’ 3Abraham 3. Luchins, "Implications of Gestalt Psychol- ogy for AV Learning," A! Comm. Review, Sup. IX, 1961, p. 7. Terminology Instructional Television--ITVe-is'used here to refer to televised programs designed to be used as direct instruc- tion or enrichment in a formal learning situation. Learning theory-a psychological construct relating known facts and principles about learning to one another.1 Gestalt--as used in this thesis. 1. A quality of shape, term, or regularity to be treated as a noun and preceded in the text by the article (a). . 2. A process--temporal and/or spatial, to be treated as a noun and preceded by the article (the). 3. The concept of Gestalt as used in Gestalt Psychology or Learning Theory (to be capital- ized in the text). 4. It also has the meaning of "A concrete entity per so, which has, or may have, a shape as one of its characteristics."2 (The terminology used in ITV and Gestalt Learning Theory is presented in their respective chapters.) 1Laurence Siegal, Instruction: Some Contemporary View- points (San Francisco: Chandler Publishing Company, 1967), p. 32. 2Wolfgang Kohler, Gestalt W (New York: Live- right: paper bound edition 1970), pp. 177-178. CHAPTER II INSTRUCTIONAL TELEVISION PRODUCTION Television: A.Medium of Communication Television is a medium of communication which trans— mits pictures and sound from one place to the next. "From physics we can 1earn.what makes it possible to present a visual image. We can learn how an electron beam, directed toward the surface of a screen on which a luminescent sub— stance has been spread, is made to scan the screen long enough to produce the illusion of a photographic reproduc- tion."l Television qua television is nothing more than electronics serving as "an extension of two of our senses-- sight and sound."2 "The mere imposition of a camera (or microphone) adds no magic quality to the material it sur- , veys."3 Television signals can be distributed to reach many people Or many countries, and thus may be used as a mass medium for public information and entertainment. "We must lCaleb Gattegno, Tow ds a grim Culture (New York: Outerbridge & Dienstfrey: 1969), p. 9. 2Hoyland Bettinger, Television Technigueg (New York: Harper & Brothers: 1947). P. 11. 3Roderick MacLean, Televi ion in Education (London: Methuen Educational Ltd.: 1968), p. 67 I l'lll‘l I‘I'IIIII ll]“l|'ll|lp.|,l Ill-i“ 7 not imagine that the use of a potentially vast distribution system automatically confers the virtues or implies the "1 "Television is a means vices of mass medium techniques. of communication. It has neither integrity, brains, nor feeling. It is as inclined to transmit lies as it is the truth, trivia as it is wisdom.”2 Television may be, in itself, neutral (the receiving set, sitting there, with a blank screen). When it is turned on, however,-it begins to reveal images and emit sounds that are selective and lack the fidelity of the human senses.) The eyes-can scan the environment. The TV camera can only select a portion at a time. The ear can take in the sounds around it or discriminate one at a.time.' The TV microphone is usually directional, and in any case, is indiscriminate. ”Even when telecasting is live from nature, the way the ‘cameraman uses his tool.brings back the artist and his in- terference upon the subject being presented."3 (Television’s neutrality, then, is erased when it begins to function and is put to a purpose. Used as a tool, "to convey to the audience the right sights and the right sounds at the right time in order to affect its members,"4 it can educate, lIbid. 2Lawrence F. Costello and George N. Gordon, Tesch with Tslevisios (New York: Hastings House: 1961), p. 24. 3Gattegno, p. 12. 4Colby Lewis, Tss‘TE,Direcfiorllntersreter (New York: Hastings House Publishers: l9 8 , p. . 8 inform, entertain, or terrorize. It all depends upon who decides what is ”right.” Telexisiss: A Medium sf Instructisn "The real purpose of television is not to please the eye of the camera and to create eloquent programs for their own sake, but to communicate important ideas and values from one human being to another."1 Television's usefulness to education begins with its facility of distribution. The use of the basic components of a television system (camera, microphone, transmitter, and TV receiver), can enable educators to distribute images and sounds from one classroom to the next, one school to another, or cover whole school districts and groups of districts. Distribution can be by cable, regular broadcast frequencies (VHF, UHF), or special educational closed-circuit broadcast frequencies (ITPS). Closed-circuit cable can be limited to that length of cable which connects a single camera with a single receiver. This can serve to simply magnify a microscope view, a science demonstration, or any small object or process, so that it can be seen.more clearly by more students.2 A cable system can be expanded to distribute films, record and play back LHerbert Zettl, Telsvision Produ tion Handbook (San Francisco: Wadsworth Publishing Company, Inc.: 1961, p. iii. 2Philip Lewis, Educstiogl Te evisi n osssgbgok (New York:.McGraw4Hill Book ompany, Inc.: 19 1 , pp. 9-10. 9 videotape and present complete programs on specific sub- jects.1‘ Closed-circuit educational broadcast frequencies and Open-circuit broadcast frequencies are used primarily for "produced" prOgrams, in the tradition of commercial tele- vision. Subject matter and style of presentation can vary according to the needs of each.situation. Most ITV'broad- casts have been the lecture-demonstration type of pregram, in which a single person, with varying amounts of visual aids, presents facts about a single topic.2‘ In this way, television has been used to teach an entire course, with or without pupil supervision (total teaching), as an integral part of the course (team.teaching), or as a supplement to‘ regular instruction (enrichmentL? Other types of programs, such as interviews, panel discussions, and dramatizations can be integrated into team or total teaching, or, they, as well as films and other outside materials, can be used as enrichment, ”providing an imaginative experience which may serve as a useful starting point for further activity."4 1Ihid., pp. 57-58. 2Qpportunities fo Learn : Guidelines iss_Tele- visisn, ed. Alexander azier ash. D. 0.: National Educa- tion Association: 1960), pp. 10-12. 3George N. Gordon, Educatiossl Televi ion (new York: The Center for Applied Research in Education, c.: 1965), p. 66. ‘ 4uaoLean, p. 61. 10 EIQQEQILQE;222£B$122§H2£c221 f Production styles and techniques of commercial tele- vision.have been carried over to ITV, some by necessity, some by choice. The equipment remains the same, so basic operations remain the same. Terminology for use of the equipment, 1. e. camera control, pictorial composition, and pictorial continuity, remain the same. The techniques to which.the terms apply are important because cf their psycho- logical effects on an audience. Analysis of the effects in- Chapter IV utilizes some of the following definitions. gm ssntrs; Fisld sg'view- "The area or amount of the scene which is shown on the screen."1 gsfissfi_ss51sr "The direction from which the gamers, an t ere ore the viewer, sees the subject." QBEEIBMEQIEEEBIf "£ss: Turning the camera horizontally, from left 0 right or from right to left. Tilt: Tilting the camera up and down. Sometimes so called pan up and pan down. ‘ Pedestal: Elevation or lowering the camera on a studio pedestal. Tssgss: Meving the whole camera from left to right and from right to left on a boom dolly. Bosm: Moving the whole camera up and down on a camera'boom. ;Edward Stasheff and Rudy Bretz, 2%2 Televi ion.§ssr ass: 11s W ssg Pssdsstios (New ork: Hill and Wang: 4th ed., 19 a , p. 249. 2Ihid. 11 . Zoom: Changing the focal length of the lens through the use of a zoom rod while the camera remains stationary. m: Moving the camera toward or away from an object by means of a mobile ”camera mount. Tru ruks : Laterally moving the camera by means of a mobile camera mount. Ass: Moving the camera in a slightly curved dolly or truck movement with a mobile camera mount." Picture Comsssitisn M— tell one story at a time. Variety - informal balance. m— related things go together. Bug ce- control of relative attraction power of pic- ture elements. ME!- line, pattern, and movement- Psse- design picture for desired amount of eye travel. mm- relative size and placement of objects as in na ure. - ‘ M— most important object stands out. Dominance- strong point of interest. Esth- placement of subjects for dimensional illusion.2 M We t Cut- instantaneous change in scene. Dissolve- a method of transition in which one camera picture becomes stronger as another becomes weaker. 1Zettl, pp. 44-45. 2Bettinger, pp. 36-44. 12 sassy same as dissolve but rom one picture to a b ank screen or the reverse. 1 e- "Transition in which the new picture starts as a small grea and grows until it covers the entire screen." sgiszr include nothing that does not contribute to the over-all effect. Efiilflilr vary mood, pace, and proportion within unity. gsssssyr unity and variety among related things. legsssr the ”weight" or pulling power in one shot b e s with that of another. - time between transitions varies according to the need and mood of program content. gsssr time between transitions in sequences may vary within over-all rhythm. Pssssrtion- can vary to show changes in relational con e sequences or over-all. Espsssssr varies according to context, can be develop- e through all of the above. stssssssr theme, mood, or point of attraction.that carries over shot-to-shot. Pssspestizs- sourcz of sound relates to subject's dis- tance rom camera. ' glsgijzr sound distinct and not muffled.5 Loudness- consistently understandable but not over- powering.6 QBELEIY? fidelity, wide range of frequencies and lack of interference. ‘ York: 1 Rudy Bretz Te hni us of Televi ion Production (New HcGrawéHill’Book Company-Inc.: l9 2 , pp. 9§- . 2Ibid., p. 111. 3Ibid., pp. 36-44. 4Ibid., p. 75. 50. Lewis, p. 185. 51bid., p. 185. 7Ihid., p. 192. l3 stamics- vary all factors in aciordance with pic- torial needs or special effects. mats stliszr soft or hard concentration of light rays. Istensity- low or high over-all light level. Dissstisn- Egg: main light source in front of subject. Bssk- light(s) in back of subject, Opposite camera, to separate subject from background. Pi;%- lower intensity light used to diffuse aha owe. Bsckgzound- special illumination on set.2 Nestraligz- non-representational background. M- ' Repliss- faithful copy of an original. 3822222££§E$2§§lr copy style of original. stbolio- a few objects suggest setting. Psstasz- ’ Abssrsss- express mood, no existential relation- ships. Silsouests— "a concentration on subject outline." sm- "deliberately distorted reality."3 In a typical ITV program, some or many but probably not all of the preceding will be consciously applied. Film 1Ibid., p. 197. 2Bretz, pp. 336-341. 3Gerald Millerson, The Tao s; Televis on Prodss- tion (New York: Hastings House: 3r ed. 19 4 , p. 35. 14 or still photographers can spend minutes or hours composing a shot,"but the television cameraman.must compose instantly and instinctively."l "The principles, even the simpler ones which apply to television, are still too involved to be applied consciously in the heat of television rehearsal or in the greater heat of 'off-the-cuff' production."2 The ITV program of more than one static shot would, of course, use camera control techniques, but not necessarily use the full range of pictorial composition and continuity. Skill in audio can be no more than in controlling clarity, loudness and quality. Light is normally set to meet the technical requirements and little else. With a typical low budget, economy and urgency take precedence over art and technique. ______Production W is a m _9_9_ic at x The instructional crafts series, MI W, pro- duced at KUSD-TV, Vermillion, South Dakota,3 can stand as an example of those programs which are being seen in classrooms across the country. The series is part of an art and crafts curriculum for South Dakota and Minnesota. The art section has been well received for two years: the crafts was first shown in fall of 1971. Both sections are sixteen programs 1Jones, p. 79. ZStashe'ff and Bretz, p. 99. 3Produced and taught by Diana Tollefson, Rapid City Art Supervisor, Rapid City, South Dakota: Directed by James Cherry, Producer-Director, KUSD-TV, University of South Dakota. for each of eight grades. 15 A single program from Just Issgiss’might go like this: VIDEO Slide 1: logo Slide 2: Just Imagine Slide 3: Diana Tollefson Dissolve to C l on Aladdin's lamp Dissolve to C 3 on set. wide shot, zoom in to MCU of Diana C 3 zoom out and pan right to include rabbit hole facade Cut to C 4 with two shot, Diana and animal Dissolve to Slide 4: art work Dissolve to C 3 M00 on Diana Cut to C 4 on samples Cut to O 3 MCU Diana Cut to C 1 CU of project Cut between C 1, C 2, C 3 as needed during lesson JUST IMAGINE AUDIO Music: Dave Brubeck's Unsgssse 2%, up 15 sec. and to Anncr: It's time for Just Imagine, your TV lesson in crafts. Music: up 5 sec. and to b.g. Anncr: and now, here with today's lesson, is Diana Tollefson Music: fade out Diana begins lesson. Diana turns to her left to rabbit hole and pulls out toy animal. Diana talks to animal about lesson, and up-coming slide.’ Diana talks about picture on slide. Diana talks about today's project. Diana holds up samples of project and talks about them. She shows materials to be used. She begins work . She continues work. 16 VIDEO AUDIO Cut to C 2 CU on She shows completed work to C 2. object . Cut to C 3 M00 Diana She says good-by. C 3 zoom out to wide shot Music: up 15 sec. Dissolve to C l on Aladdin's lamp. Dissolve to Slide 5 logo Music: to B.G. Slide 6: Just Imagine Anncr: This has been Just . Imagine . . . etc. Slide 7: Diana With Diana Tollefson . . . etc. Tollefson Slide 8: directed by Produced in.the studios of . . . etc. Slide 9: under author— Under a grant from . . . etc. ity of- Slide 19: logo Music up to fill Fade to black Fade music out The field of view of the cameras varied from wide to close-up. The zoom lens on camera three went from wide angle to medium.close-up on the teacher at the beginning of the program, and did the reverse at the end. Camera four was generally on a close-up of some object which she was holding, except for a two shot when she talked to the animal. Camera one was used for a close-up of the work in progress. The camera angle of camera three was about head on to the teacher. Camera four was about 45 degrees to the right of camera three. Camera one was on a six foot scaffold be- hind the set, looking over her left shoulder. l7 Figure No. l. The camera movement was limited to pans and zooms, with some repositioning of camera four between shots. Pictorial composition was left to the good judgment of the cameraman, with occasional reframing suggestions from. the director. The teacher, looking at a monitor, would "talk" a close-up camera through a piece of art work. Pictorial continuity was mostly a string of cuts, motivated by a shift in the work process or by the teacher's comments about what she was doing and what she wanted the . students to see. Dissolves were used from last opening the slide, to an Aladdin's lamp, and to a shot of the set. The reverse was done at the end of the program, This use of the dissolve was intended to achieve a feeling that the teacher on 373s: 1.12.3822! was appearing and disappearing through the influence of the lamp. Opening and closing audio was pre-recorded on tape. One micrOphone, an RCA.BK6B, was used on the teacher. There was no need for special effects. 18 Lighting was set carefully for adequate level and maximum detail and contrast. The key was set about 15 de- grees left of camera three, and the fill, above camera four. Three backlights were hung about 25 degrees apart, behind the teacher. All lights were about 45 degrees vertically (see Figure l, p. 17). The set was representational of a study. Four 4 x 8 flats were connected at a.right angle (see Fig. l, p. 17). The two center flats were false bookcases with wall paper on the upper half. The two outside flats were wood panels. The teacher sat at a kidney-shaped work table, with a small shelf unit to her right and a trapezoidal display table for Athe rabbit hole facade to her left. CHAPTER III LEARNING THEORY Learning theories are divided into two major camps: Stimulus-Response theories and Cognitive theories. Both are sub-divided, other theories overlap the two to some de- gree, and others fit into neither category.1 All major theories agree upon the findings of research, but they dis- agree in their interpretation and explanation of the research results. The S-R theories see behavior solely as the result of a stimulus activating motor reflexes, while Cognitive theor- ies see behavior as a result of central brain processes. This is a conflict between behavior-in—physiological-struc- ture-terms or behavior-in-ideational-structure-terms. In problem solving, S-R looks to past history (the build-up of neural structures), COgnitive looks to the contemporary structure of the problem. S-R sees learning as habit (strengthening neural connections), and Cognitive sees it as the development of Cognitive structure.2 lErnest R. Hilgard, Theories 2; Learn (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts: 2nd ed.: 1956 , p. 8. 21b1do, Pp. 9-100 19 20 The S-R theory of Edward Lee Thorndike was developed from the earlier British associationists. The theory changed to accommodate new ideas, and grew in explanatory ability.1 The Cagnitive theories are derived from the Gestalt school, which develOped in the era of Thorndike's prominence and which leveled a vicious attack on his theory and on.the Associationists.2 Gestalt influenced Cognitive theories in areas of differing emphasis.3 The main divisions of Gestalt theory are: l. The classical Gestalt theory, developed by Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Kohler, and Kurt Koffka.4 f 2. The Sign—Gestalt theory of Edward C. Tolman, who was heavily influenced by Gestalt.5 3. The Organismic Psychology of Raymond H. Wheeler, which X was derived from Gestalt theory.6 4. The Field theory of'Xurt Lewin, which was also developed from Gestalt theory.7 lWilliam S. Sshakian, Ps cholo of Learnisg: Systems, Models, and Theories (Chicago: Markham fiblishing Company: 1970), p. 20. 2Robert D. Strom, P ch 1 for the Classroom.(New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc.: 1923), p. 189. 3D. W. Hamlyn, The Psychology of Perce tion (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul: 2nd imp. 1961), p. 112. 4Hilgard, p. 222. 5lbid., p. 185. 6Ibid., p. 225. 7Ibid. 21 Gestalt Psychology Wertheimer, the founder, and the other Gestalt psychologists do not agree on one concrete definition for the word Gestalt, but there is general consensus that Gestalt refers to a whole whose organization is dependent upon its parts and is more than its parts, and that the organization is a function of the Law of Pragnanz.1 Pragnanz is defined as the psychological organization which will always be as good as the prevailing conditions allow (compact but significant),2 or, the organization of the field tends to be as simple and clear as the given con- ditions allow.3 Pragnanz is an analogy of the concept of minimumemaximum.in physics. Either as much (significant), or as little (compact), will happen as the prevailing condi- tions will permit.4 Think of a soap bubble, floating free in the air. The forces within it and without it cause it to take on the shape and size it has. That shape and size is an example of a "good" gestalt. Some principles of Gestalt show the make-up of the gestalt process. 1David Katz, Gestalt Ps cholo : Its Nature and Si -' nificance (New York: The RonEId P5588 Company: 1955). PP. 2Kurt Xoffka, Principles 2; Gestalt Psychology (New York: Harcourt Brace and Company: 1935). . 110. 3Max Wertheimer, Productive Thinkssg (New York: Harper and Row: 1945), ed. note. 4Xioffka, p. 108. III! Ill-I'll ‘1 I'll-l l I. ‘AI' )1! )1) ll! ‘iill ll 22 Proximity-"In a total stimulus situation, those ele- ments which are closest together tend to form groups."1 Similarity-”When more than.one kind of element is pre— sent, those which are similar tend to form groups."2 Closure-"Lines which enclose a.surface tend to be seen as a unit."3 Closed areas are more stable than unclosed ones and therefore more readily form figures in perception.4 Good contour, Good continuation, Common destiny- "Parts of a figure which have a 'good' contour, or common destiny, tend to form units."5 Straight lines tend to con- _tinue as straight lines, and curves, as circles.6 Common movement- Elements are grouped when they move simultaneously and in a similar direction.7 Experience-"Experience amounts to 'consolidation of a natural response of the . . . system.”8 "Comprehension of symbolic forms is partly dependent on the circumstances under which they were learned."9 Learning-"The modification of an accomplishment in a certain direction" which ”consists in creating trace systems of a particular kind, consolidating them, and in making them more and more available both in repeated and in new lXatz, p. 25. zlsid. 31219- 4Hilgard, p. 228. 51331., p. 26. 6Hilgard, p. 229. 7katz, p. 27. 8_I_b_i_d_., p. 29. 9Katz, p. 28. 23 situations.”1 Trace-"The concept of memory traces is an attempt at explaining the influence of the past by the condition of the present.- An event in time influences another event which succeeds it after a finite interval, not directly, but onlythrough some effect which it has left behind and which, for brevity's sake, we will call a trace, without implying by that term anything about the special nature of this after-effect."2 "Traces are the exact equivalents of previous impressions in.the central nervous system,"3 which must change under the law of Pragnanz.4 At a definite moment in the life history of the organ- ism a certain process must arise for the first time and leave a corresponding trace which remains as a condition for an unlimited number of later processes. Potentially every new process may affect later processes through its trace, so that each process alters the organism.5 The articulate organization of traces has two aspects. "An individual trace may be more or less articulate." "The trace may be more or less articulate and [a] significant part in one or several larger systems."6 Aggregation between traces of nearly identical experiences will have a conserva- tive effect upon the traces. A trace within its stratum is connected with the Ego of the same stratum, but may be far removed from the Ego of a later stratum. The stronger the LXoffka, p. 544. 2Koffka, p. 429. 3Katz, p. 97. 4Hilgard, p. 230. 5Xoffka, p. 548. 6Ibid., p. 544. 24 aggregation, the more Ego strata are brought into relation 1 "A trace strongly organized within with.the trace system. a larger trace system will, on many occasions, be less avail- able, though it has a higher survival value than a trace that haspreserved a greater degree of independence."2 This may seem a lengthy explanation of a simple term, but Koffka devotes one hundred pages to it, and this is an incomplete summary sufficient to the purposes here. Ego- I'The Ego [is] a sub-system in a larger field, its states are field events even when this fieldis not the be- havioral field, when it is not conscious."3 The Ego affects perception, learning etc., even when no conscious effort is made to include it in the process. "The Ego has a core, the self, and enveloping this core, in various communications with it and each other are sub-systems comparable to differ- ent layers."4 - Gestalt Psychology is based on the process of percep- tion, more specifically, visual perception. The concept of Gestalt, however, must, by definition, be all inclusive (man, society, the world, the universe). A part of each must be considered in its relation to the whole of each, and each must be considered in relation to the whole. The impli-~ cations to learning are that no perception by man should be considered in isolation from.the ongoing process that is man, and his perceptual field. He perceives an act or an object 1Ibid., p. 525. 2lbid., p. 527. 3Ibid., p. 350. 41bide, DO 1710 25 or a concept in relation to himself and his environment. This perception follows the law of Pragnanz, the process of ordering. I In the human organism, a continuing process occurs which orders the first impressions it receives so as to differentiate between figure and ground, to perceive shape and size, to distinguish shade and color, etc., to organize an Ego, and to establish a personal order of trace systems and understandings of himself, his world, and his relation to hisworld.1 The organism increases its sophistication as the ordered field of trace systems, in a continual process of interaction, develops new orders and priorities. Some orders, perceived to be of low priority, may weaken, or may become less available to affect later processes. Some may be weak and fleeting. Some form with present orders or serve as an influence upon later traces or trace systems. All interact to some degree. Gestaliulaazaias;lhaazz "Gestalt Psychologists do not have a common theory of learning; they differ somewhat on what takes place during learning."2 They do agree, generally, in the foregoing de- scription of Gestalt Psychology, and learning principles can be drawn from that. 1Ibid., p. 171. 2Abraham S. Luchins, Review, Vol. IX, 1961, p. 7. 26 Traditional concepts of learning, associationism.and behaviorism, are not held to be invalid or useless, but are not considered to be sufficiently inclusive. .They are but aspects of the learning process. Gestaltist ideas of learn- ing are derived from their concept of man as primarily Homo Sapiens ("a creature trying to realize the meaning and struc- ture of the world around him"1), as opposed to primarily Homo Volens (a creature driven by inner urges which cause him to perceive and act only to satisfy the metabolism), or Home Mechanicus (a black box that reacts without mediation from inside and is buffeted about by the environment). Man is not pure Homo Sapiens. He behaves at times as Volens or Mechanicus. All men have the capability to be the former, but may, at times, behave more like any one or the other. Education should attempt to develOp the Sapiens aspect over the others. What is important is the total structure and process of learning and not the organismic or environmental determinates alone.2 Thestudy of man and how he learns becomes more diffi- cult because one must stop considering just yssp the student learns and start considering the process of learning: start considering the processes and structures of learning situa- tions and devices to promote learning, start considering the interaction of the individual with his field (both internal lIbid. , pp. 8-9. 2Ibid. 27 and external) in any given situation. In that given situa- tion the basic presentation of new material must be struc- tured to let the learner grasp the significance of the material. The fact of the existence of the material may not have significance to the learner unless it is perceived to be relevant. The priority of a.mail box is not high until you need to mail a letter. Part of Learning is the process of perceiving the relevance of’the material. Algebra.may be memorized, but it will not be used correctly unless it is placed in a relevant structure and understood. Understanding is gained through insight, "apprOpriate or meaningful behavior and experience is the presence of any life-situation. The suddenness of perceptual or imaginal reconstruction of the field is the most characteristic, but not necessarily essential, feature of the process."1 Koh-' 1er's experiments with apes led him.to this concept. The apes' apparent trial and error, or random behavior, before grasping the solutions to their problems was explained not as trial and error, but as "good" errors: errors which showed. a progressive tendency to solution, as opposed to "bad" errors, those which show no understanding of the situation.2 Bad errors are caused by a lack of maturation, a lack of 1George W. Hartmann, Gestalt Psychology: A Survey f Facts and Principles (New York: The Ronald Press Company: 1935). PP. 311-312. 2Ibid., p. 160. 28 previous traces and structures with which to orient the present situation.1 The learning process may be interfered with if the ,situation creates too much tension, Material beyond the maturation level of the individual will cause anxiety and frustration. Material which creates mild tensions will be conducive to learning and serve as motivation: the motiva- tion being to overcome the tension through Pragnanz.2 The question of practice or repetition is not disre- garded by Gestalt psychology. It is not considered to be learning in the Gestaltist's sense of the word, and if it is used as such it can be bad. Repetition can be useful if successive errors lead to improvement, or a skill is sharp— ened. The pattern.must be watched. Nondvarying repetition can cause a narrowing of the field and a loss of the sense of structure, thus it can destroy curiosity and creativity. A pattern of improvement shows understanding of the struc- ture and can be beneficial.3 Blind practice can lead to inapprOpriate actions under conditions similar to those of the practiced situation, i.e. not be generalizable. This can be avoided by presenting material in a meaningful COD? text before practice starts.4 According to Luchins, a goal of education is to gain new knowledge and this is best accomplished through 1Ibid., p. 191. 2Luchins, AV Com. Review IX, p. 22. 3Ibid., p. 25. 4Ibid., pp. 24—25. 29 reasoning or problempsolving. This is the whole intent of Gestalt Learning Theory. The student must not be restricted to regimented, by rote, pprreasoned learning. "The intent is to help the pupils realize that there is no neat one-to- one correspondence between problems and solutions." Differe ent prdblems may have the same solution. A problem may have several solutions, or no solution. The pupil must learn.the relationships and understand the process.1 lnige 9 Po 2?. CHAPTER IV GESTALT LEARNING THEORY AND ITV ITV a s Gestalt The instructional television program is a process, and at the same time, part of a larger process, learning. Shot- by-shot, sequence-to-sequence, the people running the equip- ment, teaching the lesson, and directing the program, all interact with one another, the equipment, and the material being presented to create a meaningful whole, a good gestalt. All of this, in turn, interacts with the student to help him form new cognitive structures, a gestalt of his own.. This chapter has been divided into sections which correspond to the 8-H breakdown of the learning process, be- cause of the need to express this gestalt in familiar terms. This division is difficult, because a gestalt loses something when its parts are studied in isolation. Gestalt speaks of perception and interference, motivation and goals, response, practice and feedback, and reasoning, in terms of their in- terrelatedness. Although this chapter deals with them sep- arately, there cannot help but be common references made and some repetition of points. 30 31 Peyceptisn.ssd Interference .The perceptual field for the television viewer is the-V screen, as the frustum of a rectangular pyramid. Within this field many elements can be presented. The viewer will operate under the law of Pragnanz to order those elements 'using the principles of similarity, proximity, closure, com- mon movement, and continuation. Anything which does not contribute to the fulfillment of the need for Pragnanz can be considered as interference. The process of perception is interfered with by the limitations imposed by the pyramidical field of view. The size and lack of definition of the television screen also deters the process. To overcome these facts the television team works to select the proper field of view for the message and the proper sequence of views. These are presented under' the necessary, and creative, elements of lighting, audio, (set, pictorial composition and continuity.1 They create the meaningful whole with the elements they have. The combina- tion of these elements is aided by language of techniques which has become accepted by the viewers. Even the child, by the time he has reached school, has been exposed to this language enough to understand it and accept educational materials in this context. 1Gerald Millerson, pp. 205-206. 52 The psychological effect of the techniques on the ~viewers can be inferred by common sense, but Gestalt Psychology, as a theory of perception, can serve as an ex- planation of how they work. The basis of Gestalt Psychol- ogy is visual perception specifically, and sensation in general, so it is not surprising that television, as a highly visual medium, and Gestalt principles can come to the same conclusions. For example, TV traditionally uses an estab- lishing shot to show the relationships among elements in.the set. Gestalt theory calls for this on the grounds that the parts cannot be understood without an.understanding of the whole. Television practitioners know that the parts can be shown separately, but not for long, or the tension-toward ”closure" will interfere with the message. This is not to say that to reveal the whole bit-by-bit, to play on this tension does not have its place, if it is dens right. If the progress toward the whole is logical and the viewer can relate the parts to one another, it will be effective.1 As the viewer structures the wide field, the gestalt begins, and particular objects become differentiated. At this point a narrowing of the visual field concentrates the ‘ attention on the differentiated objects. -The TV production takes advantage of the process by narrowing-the field to these Objects, and selecting those to which attention is to be directed. The selection of a medium or a close shot then 1Ibid., pp. 223-224. .l I) | I [I‘ll il l .. I) (i ll I I) \‘l) 33 side in the process. In a two dimensional medium, special care is taken to present material in its proper physical perspective, so as to give it the appearance of solidity and depth. Without the advantage of visual parallax, a box seen from straight on is seen as a square, but a box seen from the proper angle is a cube.. In any given situation, there is a best angle which will give the correct proportions. The selection of the angle can affect the viewer's perception of the subject.1 Camera movement is another area that follows the Gestalt principles, in this case, good continuance. Unless a movement is used to survey the scene, to show relation- - ships , 2 it should be motivated by some action or audible sig- nal which de-structures the field and calls for re-structur- ing. A.movement of the teacher's head to look off screen, or a noise off camera, in accordance with the principle of good continuance, creates a tension to follow the line of view or direction of sound to its conclusion and re-structure the field. The camera does this for the viewer through a pan or tilt. These movements can also have further uses, as they take meaning from.the context in which they are used. Those meanings are dependent upon the developments before and after them to give the impression, for example, of speed, power, elation or depression. 1Colby Lewis, p. 67. 2Ibid., p. 106-107. 34 To restructure the field by movements such as dolly or truck, may cause the viewer to lose contact with the elements unless they are motivated by a lack of present structure. The movement of the whole scene across the screen will separate the viewer from the action, because, following 'the principle of common movement, the viewer will restructure the field as a whole rather than concentrate on wholes within the field. The conventions of the TV language, known as pictorial composition, are more than mutually agreed upon as visual terminology. They are practical aspects of the development of meaningful wholes. They structure the visual field so as to overcome the Pragnanz-tension of the viewer. The tension is mitigated if Pragnanz is assisted by good pictorial com- position. Any negative of the principles of composition can have its own appeal if it is used to create tension for a particular purpose. The principles closely follow the law of Pragnanz. "The psychological organization will always be as 'good' as the prevailing conditions allow." "Good," in this context, as defined by Kohler, is explained in almost the same toms as "good" picture compositiOn. Katz, in quoting Kohler, refers to the characteristics of "regular- ity, symmetry, inclusiveness, unity, harmony, maximal sim- ,,1 plicity and conciseness. The difference between the se and the principles of continuity is one of emphasis. They can 1Xatz, p. 40. 35 be paralleled to some degree: 92:39.43; 2! . unity 7 unity harmony harmony regularity rhythm and pace symetry balance , proportion, variety The ideal of both remains the same, the structuring of the field into a meaningful whole. In the continuity of pictorial development, the tran- sitions from one whole to another structure a new whole. Transitional techniques are different means of creating the new wholes. The instantaneous change of a out can de-struc- ture the continuity or strengthen it. If the viewer per- ceives a break-down in the old structure, either through audio or video, he is prepared to accept a new structure. The shock effect of a out comes when he is not prepared. The cut motivated by action or sound is a release of tension. Not motivated, it creates tension. The blending of fields by the dissolve mediates the tension to re-structure, by gradually imposing the new field. If the fields are drastically discontinuous, the dissolve tends to force a relationship upon.themt Depending on the productional context of the dissolve, this relationship may be perceived as temporal or spatial. If the dissolve is unmotivated, the confusion of fields can result in high ten- sion. slit 4‘]. [I] [A.illllll'ltll 36 , The interrupted wipe, or split screen, effectively aids the formation of the gestalt if the two sides of the split ' are interrelated. Imbalance can be used for its own effect. The complete wipe divides the attention by restructuring the field gradually and.results in less tension to re-structure than the dissolve, because it does not present two complete fields simultaneously. The principles of pictorial continuity relate to Prag- nanz in the same ways that composition does. Variety, bal- ance, harmony, etc. are all necessary components in the make— up of the whole. They are probably more important to the 1 whole in this context than in composition alone. The viewer can structure the whole with the exclusion of some of the parts, if the exclusion is not too extensive. Mstiystion and stls Gestalt Psychology defines motivation in the usual terms of needs, such as Ego needs (Homo Volens), or tissue needs (Homo Mechanicus). Instead of working with either one it works with both in a larger context of goals, motives, and responses. To study or, in this case, guide behavior, we must ”first try to grasp the structural features of an act."1 Motivation may be either intrinsic, or extrinsic. Intrinsic motivation is that which comes from.the individ- ual's perception of the "Significance to himself of the 1Luchins, fl Communisstions kview, p. 12. 37 motivating experience."l Extrinsic motivation is that which "is divorced from the actual subject matter ofan assign- ment."2 * "Behavior is determined by inner tensions based on needs. A need establishes the value of an object for a par- ticular kind of behavior."3. Thus ”conscious learning is guided by the purpose or intention of the learner."4 The above describes the process of intrinsic motivation. Gestalt Psychology does not dismiss extrinsic motivation, because it serves to attract the attention to conditions which will ‘ serve to arouse intrinsic motivation. Motivation has to be self-realizing. It manifests itself in curiosity and problem solving. In one sense "virtue" is its own reward, the vir-.- tues being "the names for realized potentials."5 1 Television in instruction serves most often as extrin- 6 Television, however, has been shown to be sic motivation. most effective when the student has chosen TV as a means to reach his goals.7 This is intrinsic motivation. 1C. W. Bending Communicatisn s_n_d the Schsols (Oxford: Pergamon Press: 1970 , p. 214. 2Ibid. 3Kata, Gestslt Psycholsgy, p. 142. 4Hartmann, gaspsip Psycholsgy, p. 270. 5Joseph J. Schwab, "Teaching and Learning as Inquiry and the Contributions of Television," Inquiry, ed. Wilma 114.328.“ (Washington, D. 0.: National Education Association: A 9 P0 1 - Snuchins. __t__Gee alt em. 41 2.622.125. p. 14.- 7Schramm, The Im ct p; Edpsstional Telsvision (Urbana: Ngtional Educational elevision and Radio Center: 1960, p. ' 38 In other cases, the goals of the student may not be the goals of the teacher. ITV helps these goals coincide by arousing interest in a subject to fester intrinsic motiva— tion, and thus, further activity. Enrichment programs serve in this capacity. Most ITV assumes the goals of student and teacher to be congruent, and ignores intrinsic motivation, by presenting mostly facts and answers to problems. "The concept of teaching apparent in the programs seemed to be that the learner's chief need was for as much information as could be armed into the time allotted for viewing."1 ITV has become more sophisticated in the years since that was written, but the idea expressed is still apparent in current criticism.2 Still, programs seem to placeless than optimum emphasis on the raising of questions and the stimulation of further study. Re onse, P actice, and Peedbsck Gestalt Psychology makes little specific reference to response, because of the consistent viewpoint of the whole. It does express strong opinion on practice and feedback, because of their importance in the S-R.model of learning. Gestaltists do not see ”response" as descriptive of behavior. "Behavior is not haphazard, but purposive, goal-directed, 1O ortunities for Lssssisg, ed. Alexander Frasier and Harold E. Wigren (Washington, D. 0.: National Education Association: 1960), p. 11. 2Bending, Cossu_nipatign gags phs Schopls, p. 255. 39 i.e. orderly and meaningful."1 Response implies behavior which is not ordered, but reactionary, like a knee-jerk. "Gestalt writers likewise insist that mental processes do not merely bridge a gap between stimulus and response; they are part of an all-inclusive dynamic field and have no mean- ing except in terms of thatfield."2 In discussing response -we generally refer to the overt reaction to a stimulus. This overt.behavior does not necessarily reflect the under- standing, and organization that has taken place covertly. Overt correctness may not indicate covert errors, and vice versa.3 Gestaltists have a very low opinion of practice or repetition. ”Learning is a creative process, depending upon creation and discovery. The establishment of conditions -favorable to insight is the progressive substitute for rope- 'titive drill."4 Insight, then, takes the place of practice or repetition as the key word in a configurationist picture of learn- . . . The chief function of repetition, according to Koffka, is to prepare the ground for the construction of an appropriate figure. . . . After the configuration has once been constructed, repetition serves to make the behavior appreciably firmer and easierf-but not before.5 lKoffka, Principles pi: Gestalt Ps cholo , p. 311. 2Hartmann, Gestg_l_t Ps cholo , p. 270. 3Luchins, oegtgt gps A! pom, p. 17. 4Hartmann, Gestalt Ps cholo , p. 270. 5;pid., p. 171. 40 Regarding feedback, Koffka says simply, in agreement with the 8-H theorists, that in some cases ". . . the success of the action performed is respons- ible for its being learned. . . . Success transforms a process in such a way as to give it new meaning, i.e., a new role in its total goal-directed activity. In my theory success need not be the only effect to change the trace of a unitary process. Failure may be another, punishment a third and there is still room for many other varieties of results of actions. In the interaction of learning, feedback is essential, whether it be positive or negative. The teacher also needs feedback from the students to gauge the impact of the lesson. Gestalt Learning Theory does not handle this directly; it is implied in the infer- ences which may be drawn on evaluation of learning, which will be discussed in Chapter V. Many ITV programs attempt to elicit overt responses by the students. The repetition of foreign words or the filling in of words in visual or auditory gaps in the lesson, are not interaction in the Gestalt sense, but they are, in a way, feedback. The process of interaction has been attempted by the use of electrical signaling devices, classroom micro- phones, write-in responses, and the placement of a represen- tational class in the TV studio.2 It has also been simulated in ersatz Stimulus-Response language training, where the lXoffka, Principles s; Gestalt Ps cholo , p. 552. 2Dale Wolgamuth, A Comparative Study of Three Tech- ni ues of Student Feedback in Television Teachisg: _The Ef%ectivenes of an Electrical Sigpal Feedback System (Title IV Project_ No. 749096, National Defense Education Act of 1958, Grant No. 749096, Department of Health, Edu- cation and Welfare, Office of Education, 1961. 41 television teacher repeats the correct response.1 This is overt response and feedback, but no television system has been able to Judge covert responses in the total behavior situation of the classroom. warm Reasoning, or problem-solving involves the same prin- ciples as any holistic process. It is a form-process which is governed by the same laws as sensation. There is an analogy between an Open question and an open figure. The student organizes them in the same ways.2 In education the process is expanded to learning the most appropriate means of prdblem closure. The student learns the process of prob- lem-solving by using reasoned approaches in selecting hypoe theses, rejecting them and substituting others to reach his goal.3 1William Dean, "A New Approach to Conversational French by Television" (Presentation at the Midwest Tele- communications Conference: June 15, 1971.) 2Katz, Gestalt Ps cholo , p. 286. 3Hilgard, Theories 9; Learning, p. 236. 42 The work of Pavlov, as reflected in the theories of Watson and Skinner, has influenced teachers to view learning (on a theoretical level at least, practice adapts theories in relation to practical situations), as "repetition, atom~ ization, reward, and punishment."1 Television has reflected this schoolroom situation in its emphasis on facts and lack 2 As a result, ITV'has become a "Rhet- of prdblem solving. oric of conclusions."3 In the classroom and on television, the problems which are presented, because of the short time between presentation of the question and presentation of the solution, do not create tension toward solution by the student . 4 1%! Po 14 2W .19.; mar . p. 11. 3m. p. 20- “Tmchins. .niELGe t m A! amiss. p. 26. CHAPTER V SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND NEED FOR FURTHER RESEARCH Summary From the beginning we have attempted to develop the thought that instructional television can be made more effec- tive through the application of Gestalt Learning Theory. The method for this has been to compare the elements of each, draw parallels, and show congruities in the two wholes. In Chapter I the stated objective is to provide a plan for the improvement of instructional television by applying I Gestalt Learning Theory. This is from the viewpoint of the producers and directors of instructional programs. And that is why much of the paper has dealt with the psychological implication of television techniques. As we progressed, however, into Gestalt Psychology, it became increasingly clear, that to be "Gestalt" about the whole thing, these production techniques could not be dealt with in isolation from the whole learning process. Chapter IV is an attempt to do both. Chapter V will use the comparisons to come to some conclusions that are not explicit in the preceding chapters. It has been stated that to break down a gestalt into its elements loses something of 43 44 the whole. In this place we will attempt to restructure the whole. __aaL_§0°ncl on anagrams-21:11.92: To study television, apart from.the context in which it is used, is pointless. The learning context should be, 1. a superior teacher on television. . 2. a production crew, including director, trained in the concepts of learning theory, as well as TV production techniques. 3. a production designed to meet specific needs. 4. a distribution system which allows for local selection of materials. 5. a classroom.setting which permits the teacher to adapt the materials to the needs of the individual student. The selection of a television teacher should not be on the basis of classroom.success alone. Television is a dif- ferent organization. The main aim should be to find some- .one who can transmit enthusiasm and interest as well as content. Learning is productive thinking. The emphasis of the teacher should be on the transfer of problem-solving to all areas of the student‘s life. The student will be con- fronted with more, and different, problems.than we can pre- sent in a formal learning situation, and he must learn how to deal with them. The production crew, especially the director, needs not only to be skillful in their work, but to understand what 45 they are doing. In.an ITV program they need to understand what the prOgram is trying to accomplish. This follows directly from.the idea that to concentrate upon the part that a crew member plays in the whole does not necessarily lead to his understanding of the whole. If the participants are aware of the principles involved, they can do their part with more understanding, and greater effectiveness. The ITV production which results from this combination, should reflect the carefully planned objective of the lesson. Specific needs have to be identified and specific measures taken to insure the effectiveness of the lesson. Before facts are presented, they must be placed in a relevant struc- ture. Once the student understands how these facts relate to the problem he can more readily learn them, and apply them to the solution of the problem. The process should be repeated in different contexts so as to give it more general applica- bility. The method of distribution of the televised lesson should be flexible enough to allow for local needs to be met. The structure of American schooling is such that local con- trol is the norm. The European system of national education leads to a conformity that is inflexible to localized prob- lems. America is so much more diverse that a master teacher on television, though no doubt superior, cannot hope to serve equally well the needs of Appalachia, Chicago, and the South West at the same time. If the master teacher's televised lesson can be distributed to a local center, then A 46 local decision can determine how he is to be used to meet local needs. The guidance to Learning takes place in the classroom setting. The teacher selects the materials in a sequence and pace which guides the individual student to satisfaction of his cognitive needs. The teacher's use of television along with other visual aids, texts, and personal contact leads the individual to a gestalt of his own. The teacher must consider the student's entier background, his cognitive level of maturation, his interest in the material, and his ability. The ideal learning gestalt has not been reached, al- though it has been preached. Educational problems have come to particular prominence since the era of Sputnik. Tele- vision was offered as a solution to the problems of quality as well as quantity. It has been shown to be as effective as classroom instruction, but it has not been shown to improve on classroom instruction, perhaps because it has been imposed from outside the learning context. The effec- tiveness of televised instruction has been troubled by the attitude of the TVAteam. The commercial TV shOW-biz syn- drome has taken over for the talking face. Directors right- fully try to make the productions technically perfect, but they tend to become enamored with productional complexity. The object of good Gestalt in a program is best expressed in Koffka's terms to describe "good" in Pragnanz, which in- clude simplicity and conciseness. . 47 The television teacher, in an attempt to adapt his "best" classroom.practices to television, has carried over techniques which are not appropriate to the job. This is reflected in the comments of critics who condemn the usual lecture-demonstration format, the emphasis on answers rather than questions, and even the setting designed to simulate a classroom. The televised lesson needs to derive its style, format, or structure from the context of the message to be delivered. The TV lesson must become "compact but signifi- cant," compact enough to hold the message, but significant enough to complete the intent. Need for Further’Researgh The research in televised instruction has been based on the need to convince administrators of the need fer using ITV. The research results have consistently shown that it does teach, and teach as well as classroom instruction. Also, the research has given indication as to the advantages of various combinations of classroom settings and production techniques. This is well expressed by Wilbur schramm in his chapter on "What We Know about Learning from Televised In- struction," in the book Educational Televigion: The,flggt‘ggg ,zgarg, He points out that this research has not been measur- ing the "intangibles" and they are the real outcomes of learn- ing. This is what Gestalt Learning Theory has been saying. The measurement of skills, or information gained, does nOt indicate.the usefulness of the skills or information. Aside 48 from the premise that TV does teach as well, perhaps it teaches better, and the research methods used just do not reveal it. Something may be wrong with the tools. The Gestalt suggestion in this case is to devise tools which look at the whole learning process of the individual and use them to determine how he interacts with it. BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY Books Adkins, Gale. A Study 2; Critical Re uirements for Directors in Educational Television Stations (Lawrence, Kansas: Radio-Television RSsearch, University of Kansas), 1967. Bettinger, Hoyland. Television Techniques (New York: Harper &.Brothers: 1947 . Bretz, Rudy. Techniques 2; Television Production (New York: McGraw- i 1 00 Company, Inc.: 1935). Costello, Lawrence F. and Gordon, George N. Teach with Tele- vision (New York: Hastings House: 1961). Gattegno Caleb. Toward ‘3 Visual Culture (New York: Outer- bridge a: Di___f—§enst rey: mg 9 . """'"""' Gordon, George N. Educational Television (Neerork: The Center for Applied Research in Education, Inc.: 1965). Hamlyn, D. W. The Ps cholo 2; Per 6 tidn (London: Rout- ledge and—Regan.Paul: 2nd imp. 1931). Hartmann, George W. Ge talt Psycholggy: A Survey 2; Facts and Principles (New York: The Ronald Press Company: 1935 ._ Hilgard, Ernest R. Theories 2;,Learn (New York: Appleton- Century-Crofts: 2nd ed.: 195 . Hull, Richard B. 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