ROLE OF PRODUCT CHARISMA IN BUYING BEHAVIOR: AN ANALYSIS OF BLACK AND WHITE OWNERSHIP OF CADILLACS ' Thesis for the Degree of Ph. D. MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY VEDANAND 1 97 0. ' r 'I‘.- ‘I LIL R A R Y Michigan State University .J ”1:518 1"" IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII I" 3 1293 10456 I . 5‘: ._ This is to certify that the . thesis entitled Role of Product Charisma in Buying Behavior: An Analysis of Black and White Ownership of Cadillacs presented by Vedanand has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph.D. *wnminBusiness Administration Date 8 e] —— I 0-169 _ _ 4-4 ”##fl BINEING BY HUAG & SUNS' 800K BINDERY INC. LIBMRY'BIHN'P: 2:; 1 I ABSTRACT ROLE OF PRODUCT CHARISMA IN BUYING BEHAVIOR: AN ANALYSIS OF BLACK AND WHITE OWNERSHIP OF CADILLACS BY Vedanand A major purpose of this study was to explore the underlying motivations and psychosocial differences of black and white buyers of Cadillacs. The black community in the United States constitutes a distinct subculture-—the sub- culture of alienation and poverty. The need for belonging- ness, acceptance and recognition by significant others is very great for the members of subculture. As Such they strive to get over the tension and status anxiety by acquir— ing status symbols valued highly in the "societal community." Cadillac is such a status symbol, and many "Negroes do tend to own more Cadillacs than whites with comparable income." This study seeks to explain the underlying reasons for such consumer behavior. The study utilizes the concept of charisma for explaining the buying of Cadillacs by members of the subculture. A theoretical model of charismatic behavior is developed. This model comprises a set of empirical behavioral variables divided into three distinct planes-— 'Vedanand cognitive plane, affective plane and conative plane. An instrument is deve10ped to empirically measure these behav— ioral variables. The main strategy adOpted in the instrument is to find an explanation for behavior in terms of cognitive and affective belief-disbelief systems. A sample population consisting of black and white buyers of Cadillacs from two metropolitan areas in Michigan, Lansing and Detroit, was studied. Personal interviews were conducted and the interviewees were asked to self-score the instrument. The difference between the mean scores of blacks and whites on various factor clusters were analyzed in the light of the theoretical model. Besides testing this model, the data matrix was factor analyzed for delineating the underlying dimensions of factor structures for R and P profile typologies. Four R factor structures and four P typologies emerged. A major guiding hypothesis of this study was that black respondents would show greater alienation and crisis perception than white respondents. This hypothesis was con- firmed. There was a significant difference between the white and black in regard to crisis perception, self-perception and need disposition. On all these concepts black respondents scored higher. White respondents scored higher on identity—V/ search--they were more ambitious. A second guiding hypothesis was that black respon— dents would show greater charismatic involvement than white respondents. In general, no significant difference Vedanand was found between the white and black on their overall scores on items measuring charismatic involvement. However, on a cluster of some items which were designed to measure attitudinal response towards leaders, white respondents show higher charismatic involvement than black respondents. No significant difference was found in the loyalty of white and black respondents. A set of sub-hypotheses were designed to measure action—orientation of the respondents towards the charis- matic symbol. No significant difference was found between white and black respondents in regard to their orientation to innovation, low communication need, rationalization, and bargaining effort. There was, however, a significant differ- ence between white and black response regarding readiness to sacrifice. It seems the black respondents are disenchanted with the organized church and leadership in general. Their rejection of church and leadership is suggestive of a secu- lar change in their belief-systems. Symbols of material success seem to provide a better therapy of hOpe. This research has attempted an empirical study of charismatic involvement of white and black buyers of Cadil— lacs. The psychodynamics of the individual actors involved tvas the main focus of this research. More research on these lines seems warranted. This approach could be further utilized for studying leadership and organizational change. ROLE OF PRODUCT CHARISMA IN BUYING BEHAVIOR: AN ANALYSIS OF BLACK AND WHITE OWNERSHIP OF CADILLACS BY Vedanand A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Marketing and Transportation Administration 1970 _//_)7_I PLEASE NOTE: Some pages have small and indistinct type. Filmed as received. University Microfilms ii {EICopyright by VEDANAND 1971 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS At the end of a journey, which is usually strenuous and demanding, it is natural to look back in retrospect, and acknowledge the help one received at various stages. I would like to express my sincere appreciation and thankfulness to the members of my dissertation committee: Dr. W. J. E. Crissy, Professor of Marketing and Chairman of the committee; Dr. Donald A. Taylor, Professor of Marketing and Chairman, Department of Marketing and Transportation Administration, and Dr. Stanley Stark, Professor of Manage— ment. Dr. Crissy was helpful in many ways. But for him, I may not have been able to get the financial support to pursue my research interests on this problem. No amount of acknowl- edgement can adequately express my gratefulness to him. Dr. Taylor was a constant source of inspiration and encouragement during the whole program. He, too, has been very kind and gave generously of his time and advice when— ever needed. To Dr. Stark I owe a special intellectual debt. It was he who sparked the interest in me for research in this area--in many ways a pioneering effort. His kindness, generosity and patience have been a source of great help. I only wish I had lived up to his expectations. The rela- tionship that I have deve10ped with him during my program is in itself a satisfying reward. Many other people helped and were instrumental in the completion of this research. I would like to acknowledge the help received and thank the following: Dr. Milton Rokeach, for his valuable advice and comments on my proposal and instrument; Dr. Paul Smith who encouraged me to pursue the research project and kindly allowed me to use his room when none was available to me; Bill Richards who battled successfully with the idiosyncracies of the computer and helped me in programming and data analysis. I am also thankful to all the interviewers who despite all kinds of problems helped me in collecting the iii data. Samuel Gray and Jim Green were very helpful in get- ting the data collected in Detroit. It is not possible to mention names, but there are quite a few others who were very helpful in the research project at various stages. I express my sincere grateful- ness to them all. I express my gratefulness to Dean Seelye who was instrumental in getting me involved in the program here. I express my gratitude for all the financial assistance I got at the College of Business. Finally, members of my family too, have contributed heavily towards the completion of this work. My wife, Uma, all through the program,sought her self-actualization more in giving than in receiving. And so did the three children-- Amitabh, Lorie and Rollie. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter Page I. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 The Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 The Setting: Market of the Subculture . . . 6 Purpose of the Study . . . . . 2 . . . . . . 9 The Concept of Charisma . . . . . . . . . . ll Conceptual Framework . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Theoretical Construct: Self-Concept and Identity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 The Behavioral Model . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Hypotheses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 Usefulness of the Study: For Social Science and Marketing Theory . . . . . . . 32 Usefulness for Practitioners . . . . . . . . 33 II. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY . . . . . . . 35 Research Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 Sample Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 Collection of Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 DevelOpment of the Questionnaire . . . . . . 44 Part II of the Questionnaire . . . . . . . . 46 Other Item Description and Concepts . . . . 48 Measurement and Statistical Analysis . . . . 50 Variables for Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . 51 III. RESULTS AND FINDINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 Profile of the Cadillac Buyer . . . . . . . 56 Factor Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 Factor Structures and Interpretation . . . . 73 P Factor Typologies . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 Z Scores and P Typologies . . . . . . . . . 88 IV. SUMMARY'AND CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . 92 Findings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 Implications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 Page Limitations of the Study . . . . . . . . . . lOl Suggestions for Further Research . . . . . . 102 Further Research in Marketing Area . . . . . 103 APPENDIX A. INSTRUCTIONS AND QUESIONNAIRES . . . . . . . . 105 B. STATISTICAL TECHNIQUES . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 C. TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 IBIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 vi Table LIST OF TABLES Income of respondents . . . . . . . Median test of significance for the scores on scales . . . . . Median test of significance for the scores on charismatic orientation (based on age, education, income and religion) . . scores for fourteen factor clusters Overall means (raw scores) for fourteen factor clusters . . Mann4Whitney U Statistic fourteen clusters, higher and lower groups of whites and blacks . Summarized version Summarized version ,Summarized version Summarized version Characteristics of Characteristics of Characteristics of Characteristics of Correlations between profile types for P typologies . . . Comparative ranking of Z scores on items of R Factor I . of R Factor II . of R Factor III of R Factor IV . Profile Type I . Profile Type II Profile Type III Profile Type IV vii .Significance of difference between mean factor Page 57 62 64 67 68 69 74 76 77 79 82 83 85 86 87 89 Table 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. Frequency distribution of dents . . . . . . . . . . Frequency distribution of respondents . . . . . . . Frequency distribution of respondents . . . . . . . Frequency distribution of respondents . . . . . . . Frequency distribution of income of respondents . . Frequency distribution of respondents . . . . . . . age of respon— income of education of other sources of religion of Z scores for four profile types . Inter-group ranking of P factor Z scores Z scores for four profile types (dogmatism items) . . . . . . . . . Z scores for four profile types (charis- matic orientation items) Z scores for four profile types (purchase prOpensity items) . . . . Z scores for four profile tionalism items) . . . . Intercorrelation matrix for fourteen factor clusters for total sample Median test of significance between white and black scores for charismatic orientation viii types (tradi- type of job of Page 129 129 130 131 132 132 133 135 136 137 138 139 140 141 LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 1. Psychodynamics of the self: a model . . . . 19 2. A model of charismatic behavior . . . . . . 24 3. Factor mean scores . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7O ix . . . It is clear that the problem of truth and validity cannot be solved completely, if what we mean by truth of an image is its correspondence with some reality in the world outside it. The difficulty with any correspondence theory of truth . . . is that images can only be compared with images. They can never be compared with any outside reality. The difficulty with the coherence theory of truth, on the other hand, is that the coherence or consistency of the image is simply not what we mean by its truth. Even lies can be beautifully coherent and consistent. . . . The white-coated high priest of truth: austere, objective, Operational, realistic, validating, is degraded to the status of the servant of a subculture, trapped in the fortress of its own defended public image, and straining the grains of truth through its own value system. As the physicist dissolves the hard table into whirling atoms, so the communication and infor- mation theorist dissolves the hard fact into messages filtered through a value system. Like Hume, we pale before the abyss of skepticism to— ward which our logic leads us relentlessly, but from.which we draw back horrified, incredulous at incredulity. --Kenneth Boulding, The Image CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Introduction One of the most crucial, and yet highly elusive, areas in the marketing discipline has been the field of consumer behavior. Those who have taken upon themselves the formidable task of building a theory of consumer behavior-- and the attempt and output in this field has been quite commendable (Sheth, 1966: Nicosia, 1967: Engell, Kollat and Blackwell, 1968; Howard and Sheth, l968)—-have tried to handle it from various angles and perspectives; and yet the pursuit for truth must continue because no one can profess to have provided the definitive answer to the riddle of consumer behavior. For quite some time there has been a continued inter- est in personality approach to the study of buyer behavior, particularly in relation to the purchase of automobiles (Baker, 1957; Dichter, 1960; Evans, 1959; Evans and Roberts, 1963). Some have also used the self concept to explain buyer behavior (Levy, 1959, 1963: Newman, 1957a; Rich and Portia, 1964; Birdwell, l964). In most of these studies, the assumption has been that the buyer, when he chooses a particular brand of automobile, seeks an extension of his personality. Attempts to eXplain buyer behavior through personality factors has led to interesting debate in the literature (Steiner, 1961; Winick, 1961: Kuehn, 1963; Evans, 1961) and there is a growing feeling that the study of personality is likely to provide little insight beyond that provided by standard demographic data. However, any conclusion minimizing the role of personality in the consumer decision process is perhaps, somewhat premature (Brody and Cunningham, 1968, p. 50). An individual develops his own concept of self-image from the cognition and perception of his life, life around him, and his physical and psychological environment. From this, he deve10ps his own awareness of his needs. It is in this perspective that we can see an individual buyer being in search of identity. This becomes all the more meaningful for those who belong to a less privileged subculture of the society. The Problem It has been observed that the subculture comprising "culturally deprived" or comparatively less-privileged people is constantly in search of an identity in the image of the higher (or next higher) culture (Parsons, 1965: 4 Rainwater, 1965; Pettigrew, 1965).1 Some objects (concepts or even abstractions) become symbolic of this cultural elit- ism. Cadillac, as a product, has come to occupy such a symbolic value in regard to this much sought elite status in the American society. Members of such a subculture strive to get over the tension and status anxiety by acquiring status symbols valued highly in the "societal community." If these symbols are not within their easy reach, they would strive hard to acquire them even at the cost of a certain amount of personal and familial sacrifice. There would come a stage when members of the subculture begin to aspire and crave for these symbolic values with a high degree of emo- tional attachment. They seek the expressive life—style in a particular object (e.g., Cadillac), the mere possession of which gives them self-confidence, status and a sense of belonging. In other words, there is an emotional surrender on the part of the actor (buyer) to the image of this par— ticular object. This behavior is analogous to the behavior of devoted followers towards their leader. For the actor, i.e., the member of the subculture, the object becomes a charismatic image like the "god-anointed savior," who 1There is also evidence which suggests that subcul- ture might want to idealize the traditional heritage and try to mold a new identity. The black power movement in the United States is such an example. It has been suggested that Black Power advocates "are professional image-makers" (Franklin, 1969). But despite this obsession with "black identity," the major thrust of the movement, in terms of aspirations and achievement-orientations, is still to catch up with the privileged cultural group. "blesses" him and gives him security, status and a sense of belonging. Black population in the American society forms a distinct subculture of the less-privileged class. There are noticeable differences in the consumption patterns of the Black and White community because of obvious differences of culture and socialization process. The Negro belonging to this subculture has a conflicting "self-image" of himself; his need to "belong grows directly out of the badge of inferiority" and thus, his need for security and status is a matter of continuous concern for him. In other words, he faces a perennial crisis and suffers from a lack of self- <:onfidence. Despite such a crisis, Negroes are supposed to loe more prestige brand conscious. The wall Street Journal :some time back reported (1963) that a higher percentage of lfiegroes than whites own Cadillacs. A more recent study (Akers, 1968) has concluded that "Negroes tend to own more (Zadillacs than whites with comparable income." According to this study Negroes "tended to own higher price class automo- ‘biles, higher priced models regardless of make, and automo- biles with more cylinders than comparable income white fanfiJies" (p. 288). This seems to be an interesting and intriguing paradox. Our problem, then, is how do we explain this behavior on the part of a Negro buyer. The Setting: Market of the Subculture It is interesting to see the growing concern with poverty in the American society, so much so that one author has come to conclude that "we speak and write more about the poor than any other civilized country does." In a certain way it was Harrington (1962) who unearthed the hidden sub- culture of the American society. "It is a culture that perpetuates itself in an endlessly desperate circle; it is a culture beyond the reach of the welfare state and its inhabitants are lonely, insecure, fatalistic, without plea- sure" (Seligman, 1965, p. 6). In many respects the Negro is today living in a world the white has long since left behind (Fein, 1965). Yet, the basic paradox continues because the Negro child is the product of the subculture of the larger American society and he assimilates the values of the larger society in varying degrees. But he soon realizes the hypoc- risy of the situation when he sees the obstacles involved in his being able to achieve the goals. This "dissonant situa- tion creates tension within the individual that causes him to seek some solution to the conflict that will reduce the motivating tension or anxiety." Furthermore, "the white' culture demands that the lower class Negro conform to middle- class white values while the structure of opportunities for participation remains largely closed to him (Schwartz and Henderson, 1964). This leads to the "American Dilemma" (Myrdal, 1944). "And the basic dilemma of Negroes is whether to strive against odds to attain these middle-class values (and the goods which come with them) or to give in and live without most of them" (Bauer, Cunningham and Wortzel, 1965). Indeed, "the Negro revolution is not a revolution to overthrow the established order so much as it is a revolution to achieve full membership in that order." In one of the earliest studies of the Negro market (Steele, 1946), it was stated that Negroes are more brand conscious, more brand loyal, and that the loyalty seems to be positively related to the level of income. Later these findings were replicated (Bauer, 1965, 1966a). After a reanalysis of over a dozen local and national surveys cover- ing a period between 1962—1965, Bauer, Cunningham and Wortzel (1965) concluded: "Negroes at a given level of income repeatedly have been found to spend more on clothing, furniture and alcoholic beverages than do whites of the same income" (p. 415). In a study of two metropolitan areas, Negro women were found to be "at least as fashion-conscious or more so than white women" (Rich, 1963). Similarly, "Negroes consume at least 25% of the total consumption of Scotch in the United States, although they represent only 11% of the pOpulation." On the basis of the available evidence it has been estimated that "Negro per capita con- sumption of Scotch is three times as much as that consumed by‘whites." Not only do Negroes consider Scotch as a high— status drink, but their self-perceived mobility is "closely related to attitudes toward Scotch and toward reporting that one is a regular Scotch drinker." The stereotype Negro consumer who was supposed to be uninterested in, or incompe- tent to judge, the quality of goods has given place to a new image of one who is extremely interested in quality and in the symbolic value of goods. In a study of consumer motivations of black and white (Bullock, 1961a, 1961b) it was shown that Cadillac was chosen and had the best image as a prestige car among black and white respondents. The findings reported by Alexis (1959) and Mock (1964) seem to contradict the belief that Negroes own more valuable automobiles or spend more on cars than whites. But these results have been questioned as the number of Negro observations was quite small. Akers (1968), however, has provided new evidence to support the view that "Negroes do tend to own more Cadillacs than whites with comparable income." Existing research on automobile buying behavior (Baker, 1957; Dichter, 1960: Martineau, 1958; Evans, 1959; Steiner, 1961: Winick, 1961; Kuehn, 1963; Westfall, 1962) tries to relate the buying behavior to some personal- ity correlates. No attempt has been made to explain the apparent paradox of the Negro buying a Cadillac more than the whites. Possible explanations could be attempted on the basis of social class considerations, level or degree of other-directedness (Riesman, 1950) or in terms of "trickle- down theory" which suggests that fipeople belonging to lower classes emulate or imitate the behavior of peOple belonging to the upper classes, and in the process, an innovation is gradually diffused from higher to lower classes" (Barber and Lobel, 1952; Fallers, 1954: Simmel, 1962). The theory it- self has been criticized, and it would not give adequate explanation of why Negroes tend to own more Cadillacs than whites. Another possible method of explanation has been through self concept Studies (Levy, 1959, 1963; Newman, 1957; Rich and Portis, 1964; Sommers, 1963; Birdwell, 1964; West- fall, 1962). This approach has been utilized in some recent studies (Grubb and Grotwohl, 1967; Grubb and Hupp, 1968). Results have supported the relationship of self-concept to consumer behavior. However, none of these studies has addressed itself to the unexplained riddle of Negro buying behavior in regard to Cadillacs. The present research pro- poses to give a possible explanation to this buying behavior. ,§_;pose of the Study The main purpose of the study is to explore the jpossibility of utilizing the concept of charisma in relation 'to a behavioral theory of action, and more particularly, to relate it to marketing. In a sense, it is an attempt at the emancipation of the concept of charisma from the realm of supernaturalism to a down-to-earth, every-day life situation. ‘Although the concept of charisma has existed in the social science literature for quite some time after weber presented it in his Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft (1920), its range of applicability has been limited because of its utilization only in a non—secular sense. Studies of leadership, author- ity systems and socio-political change have mostly utilized 10 this concept to explain the dynamics of historical process and adherence to leadership styles in various societies (Ake, 1966, 1967: Apter, 1968; Berger, 1963: Bendix, 1967; Dow, 1968; Friedrich, 1961; Oomen, 1967; Ratnam, 1964; Runciman, 1963; Shils, 1958; Willner and Willner, 1965). Perhaps, the earliest attempt to interpret charisma in a secular sense was made by Parsons (1937, p. 668): It is now possible to make a reinterpretation of charisma. It is the quality which attaches to men and things by virtue of their relations with the "supernatural," that is with non-empirical aspects of reality, insofar as they lend teleo- logical "meaning" to men, acts and the events of the world. Charisma is not a metaphysical entity but a strictly empirical observable quality of men and things in relation to human acts and attitudes. Next to Parsons, the only other significant attempt at reformulation of the concept of charisma has been that of Shils (1958, 1965) who tried to extend the charismatic sensitivity to "actions, persons, institutions and cultural objects." Recently more attempts have been made to clarify, redefine, reinterpret and reformulate the concept (Etzioni, 1961; Friedland, 1964: Marcus, 1961; Oomen, 1967; Bendix, 1967; Tucker, 1968; Shils, 1965, 1968; Stark, 1968, 1969; Dow, 1969) . No attempt has been made in the social science literature to relate the concept of charisma to the explana- tion of buying behavior. This is what this research pro— poses to do. It is being postulated that because of strong charismatic involvement, people behave emotionally rather 11 than rationally. The case of the Negro buyer, who shows strong emotional attachment to Cadillac will be analyzed in the light of a behavioral model which utilizes the concept of charisma. The Concept of Charisma Weber derived the idea of charisma and charismatic authority from Rudolph Sohm's Kirchenrecht (1892). Until recently his conceptualization has been available mainly from three sources to the English-reading public (Gerth and Mills, 1946: Henderson and Parsons, 1947: Fischoff, 1963). Among recent publications in English, two are noteworthy. The three-volume work on Max Weber (Roth and Wittich, 1968) brings some additional material not so far available to the English-reading public. Eisenstadt (1969) has edited a vol- ume which brings in sharper focus the problems of charisma and institution building. The concept of charisma derives from the reference in I Corinthians where St. Paul enumerates in two verses the types of charismata. The word itself is of Greek origin and denotes any good gift that flows "from.God's benevolent love unto man: any divine grace or favour ranging from redemption and life eternal to comfort, in communing with brethren in the Faith" (Wilhelm, 1907). The Catholic Encyclopedia cites an earlier reference: Die Charismen (Englemann, 1848), where two categories of charismata have been distinguished. One relates to the furtherance and growth of the Church and the 12 other relates to the charismata "tending to promote her outer develOpment." weber's formulation follows very much in this line. (Charisma, according to him is a "certain quality of an individual personality by virtue of which he is set apart :from ordinary men and treated as endowed with supernatural, asuperhuman or at least specifically exceptional powers or (qualities. These are such as are not accessible to the cardinary person, but are regarded as of divine origin or as (exemplary, and on the basis of them the individual concerned 'is treated as a leader" (1949, p. 358). This quality evokes (a sense of admiration and unqualified devotion to the leader. IJsually always, a charismatic image appears on the scene of crisis as a savior or redeemer of hope. It is the involve- ment and the commitment of the followers and devotees, who consider it their duty to respond to the call, which gives real legitimacy to the concept. Psychologically, this recognition "is a matter of complete personal devotion to 'the possessor of the quality arising out of enthusiasm, or <3f despair and hOpe" (1949, p. 359). Charisma has to be proved continuously, in the sense that the power exists. IIn other words, the gods, magical powers or heroic powers ashould not desert the possessor. Furthermore, "pure cha- Irisma is specifically foreign to economic considerations" and it constitutes a "call,"a "missiod'or a "spiritual duty." The charismatic appeal of a person (or an object), thus, calls for a total emotional surrender on the part of the (I 't" (‘1- II 13 follower or devotee (or buyer). "It may then result in a radical alteration of the central system of attitudes and directions of action with a completely new orientation of all attitudes toward the different problems and structures (Df the world" (Weber, 1949, p. 363). Again, "in general, Icharisma rejects all rational economic conduct" (Weber, 1949). Charisma can be viewed primarily as an instrument (of change. One of the main weaknesses in the Weberian :Eormulation is that it was not conceived "in relation to a sscheme of the structure of action" (Parsons, 1937, p. 663). ()n the contrary, it was conceived as a "specific theory of asocial change and developed from there." Parsons (1937) (also secularized the concept by stating that "the supernat- \Jral is nothing but the ideological correlate of the atti- izude of respect." Shils in his recent formulation states 1:hat charisma "is the quality which is imputed to persons' iactions, roles, institutions, symbols and material objects Ixecause of their presumed connection with 'ultimate,‘ 'fundamental,' 'vital,‘ order-determining powers" (1968, E3. 386). He identifies three sources of the prOpensity tn: impute charisma--neural, situational, cultural, or any (mambination of these. Thus, the "propensity to seek contact ‘with transcendent powers and to impute charisma is rooted in the neural constitution of the human organism." It appears that the prOpensity to impute charisma (or, in other words, l4 charismaproneness) inheres in the human organism. Speaking of the charismatic needs and its experience Shils further states (1968, p. 386): The intensity with which it is experienced and the strength of its motivation are also influ- enced by situational exigencies and by the prevailing culture. It can be deliberately cultivated by isolation from the routine envi- ronment by instruction and self-discipline. It can be so prized that individuals are encouraged to allow it to come forward in their sensitivity. A culture can foster the discernment of charis- matic signs and properties by focusing attention, providing canons of interpretation, and recom- mending the appreciation of the possession of these signs and prOperties. A secularized concept of charisma is of particular significance for the prOposed research. It is being postu- lated that the essential prOperties of charisma are clearly noticeable in the problem at hand. The American Negro has the perception of acute distress or crisis situation and faces an identity-vacuum. He, too, is looking for the "god anointed messiah" who may give him dignity, pride and self- cOnfidence. For achieving these ends, he is prepared to 'Vrepudiate the past," be innovative and accept revolutionary c1lange. The strong need for affiliation, esteem and dignity 1J1 the larger society creates in him a high sense of emo- Ilional loyalty to Cadillac as the savior of the crisis. The uapartness," uniqueness and "awe-inspiring" appeal of the Product gives it the appropriate setting for receiving the "eummional surrender from the devotee"--the Negro buyer of Cadillac. Here is the case of a buyer, who has such a strong prediSposition to the product that there may be 15 almost no post-purchase dissonance; and who behaves not as a cool, calculating rationalist but as a non-rationalist. lie might still live in the dirty surroundings of the "inner <21ty" or in the urban slum: he may still be unable to afford :some of the necessities of the quality of life he wants, but his strong need for prestige and dignity makes him charisma- prone and therefore, vulnerable to the charismatic appeal of the product . Conceptual Framework The conceptual framework is largely built around the <:oncept of image vis-a-vis the psychodynamics of the indi- xridual actor. The buyer behavior is explained in terms of 1:he charismatic involvement of the actor. For developing the theory we will use the concept of image (Boulding, 1956) iJl delineating the various variables of the self-image and true charismatic image. The major prOposition of this frame- “NDrk, a la Boulding, is that "behavior depends on the iJnage"--the image of one's own self and the image of the World he wants to live in. Boulding (1956) mentions two kinds of images which cOnstitute the subjective knowledge structure, the images of fact and images of value. The image is built up as a result of? all past experience of the possessor of image. Image is: "the whole of all sensory perceptions and thought interrela- An tionships associated with an entity by one individual. image is an abstraction, a simplification of reality by the 16 individual so that he can think about the totality of the entity in question" (Enis, 1967, p. 51). Again, "the entity which stimulates the picture or image may be a thought, a work, a person, a cultural tradition, etc. Anything which the individual experiences generates one or more images in his mind" (3229,, p. 51). It is being postulated that values play a very important part in the image formation. Most of the formula- tions in psychology and social psychology have given domi- nant position to the concept of attitude as determinant of behavior, ever since Thomas and Znaniecki (1918) "proposed that the study of social attributes should be the central problem of social psychology." It has been suggested (Rokeach, 1968a, 1968b; Williams, 1968) that values are far more important in that they cause attitudes and also behav— ior, and that values are a more central theme across cul= tures and disciplines. In this sense, values should be accorded a more central and higher theoretical status for analyzing behavior than has so far been accorded them. Two definitions are in order-~those of value and attitude. "An attitude is an organization of several beliefs focussed on a Specific object (physical or social, concrete or abstract) or situation, predisposing one to respond in some preferential manner" (Rokeach, 1968a, p. 16). "Values, on the other hand, have to do with modes of conduct and end-states of existence . . . once a value is internal— ized, it becomes, consciously or unconsciously, a standard 17 or criterion for guiding action, for develOping and main— taining attitudes towards relevant objects and situations, for justifying one's own and others' actions and attitudes, for morally judging self and others for comparing oneself *with others (ibid., p. 16). Within the framework of one's own image space, the individual gets a perception of himself within the total «environment and also of his needs. The environmental fac- ‘tors which define his needs are more like Lewin's "psycho— Ilogical environments" (Lewin, 1936). The images are a (composite of the total sociocultural milieu in which the ‘individual was brought up, and in which he lives at a moment c>f time. The images are of facts and values. Thus, the (zommunity to which he belongs, the place where he lives, his immediate family, the kinship pattern he has been exposed to, tflue rural/urban background, his educational achievement, \ralues regarding independence or dependence, authoritarianism arud other-directedness; factors regarding his cultural inte- gration in the community; his position in the community in terms of his income, status and material well-being--a11 these factors are of great importance in defining his need- disposition. We are using the concept of need-disposition as a major variable of the individual actor's personality. 18 Theoretical Construct: Self-Concept and Identity The major focus of the theoretical construct for explaining an actor's behavior in this study is on the psychodynamics of the individual personality. In this particular study, the psychodynamics has special meaning as we are trying to study the behavior of individual actors against the backdrop of the subculture of deprivation and alienation. A sense of identity has been defined as "a function of the nature of one's relationship to others. It develops first from membership in a dyadic system including the infant and mothering persons." This trend is later extended to membership in a family and finally to other human groups. "These groups provide a context which make one's behavior socially meaningful" (Erikson, 1950). Identity has also been called "substantive dimension of self" (Gross and Stone, 1964). One becomes situated or located in social terms only through obtaining identity. "The locations or spaces emerge as symbols of identity since social relations are spatially distributed. Often the symbols, objects and material Objects (as clothing, etc.) have been referred to as iden- titY documents or prOps" (Gross and Stone, 1964) . The question of identity becomes relevant and mean- ingful. from our point of view, when we see the individual actor involved in an adaptive, imitative process of assim- llatins; values and norms of significant others. An "ego 19 THE DEVELOPMENT OF SELF SOCIAL DISCRIMINATION Aspirations high (by comparison with what he can get) LOW 4’- Anxiety : self-abnegation SELF-ESTEEM L. caut ious Lo apologetic _+. Ingratiating—-but removed, hesitant, mistrustful AGGRESSION ’Focus on what is manifest and simple -——.- fear of looking too deeply into anything General diminution and constriction of affectivity IrritabilityA-oJ lo-Cover of affability' (less manifestation) and good humor Denial of aggression Passivity and resigned acceptance Fear of loss of control Not meeting problems head on Figure 1. Psychodynamics of the self: a model. Source: Abram Kardiner and Lionel Ovesey, The Mark of Oppression (New YOrk: World Publishing Company, 1951). p. 303. In 20 synthesis" finally leads to the develOpment of a sense of ego identity. In Erikson's words (1950, p. 197): The sense of ego identity, then, is the accrued confidence that one's ability to inner sameness and continuity (one's ego in the psychological sense) is matched by the sameness and continuity of one's meaning for others. . . . The growing child must at every step, derive a vitalizing sense of reality from the awareness that his individual way of mastering experience is a successful variant of the way other peOple around him master experience and recognize such mastery. Identity formation thus, can be said to have a self aspect and an ego aSpect. Emerging ego identity bridges the early childhood stages when new meanings are sought from the total environment. This notion is deve10ped along the lines of Freud (1932) who postulates that super-ego plays an impor- tant part in man's life. The ideational content of the super ego, the imagery content of the ego-ideal, help the actor in his mature life to carve out a niche for his own situation. The notion of identity is almost synonymous to a wide range of self-concepts which have been used by others (Mead, 1934: Federn, 1952; Sullivan, 1953; Schilder, 1934). Iiartmann speaks of cathexis of self and ego narcissism: Freud makes references to ego‘s attitude towards self. The ego ideal brings the actor closer to social real- ity. The actor begins to take a transempirical view of the leader. For him the phenomenal world becomes much more real than noumenal. For the crisis-ridden and prestige-hungry actor, the leader becomes an end as well as the means to 21 that end. Simpson and Yinger (1958) have suggested that minority groups over-react and exhibit counter-assertive behavior. Kardiner and Ovesey (1951) suggest that low self- esteem may mobilize compensation urge in the actor and it may be expressed in several forms, such as apathy, hedonism, living for present and criminality. Among the Negroes in the United States, for example, the activities for bolstering self-esteem are flashy and flamboyant dressing, especially in the male, and the denial of Negro attributes such as doing away with kinky hair.1 A number of studies have tried to focus attention on the socio-cultural determinants of human behavior with partic- ular reference to the problem of identity and social role (Derbyshire, 1966: Derbyshire and Brody, 1964; Brody, 1963). Similarly, studies on self image have given a new focus to the self concept originally put forth by Cooley (1902). Thus, Hilgard (1961) called the self-concept the organizing mechanism of human behavior. Self-concept in a way gives 1Writing about the psychology of ghetto, Clark 1965, p. 66) mentions that teenage Negroes often c0pe with the ghetto's frustrations by recreating fantasies related chiefly to their role in society: "Among the young men observed at Haryou, fantasy played a major role. Many of these marginal, upward-striving teenagers allowed others to believe that they were college students. One young man told his friends that he was a major in psychology. He had enrolled in the class of a Negro professor with whom he identified, and he described those lectures in detail to his friends. The fact is that he was a drOp-out from High School." 22 the individual actor his perception of himself as others see him. To quote Rogers (1951, p. 492): The self-concept or self-structure, may be thought of as an organized configuration of perceptions of the self which are admissible to awareness. It is composed of such elements as the perceptions of one's characteristics and abilities: the precepts and concepts of the self in relation to others and to the environment; the value qualities which are perceived as associated with experiences and objectives; goals and ideas which are perceived as having positive or negative valence. This overview of the theoretical construct, which umderlies the psychodynamics of the individual actor pre- sents the background against which we have deve10ped our instrument. The main strategy adOpted in the instrument is to create an interrelated link backwards from conative plane, i.e., action plane, to the cognitive plane: and try to find an explanation for behavior in terms of cognitive and affec- ‘tive, belief-disbelief systems. "A person's cognitive func- Izioning is not a thing apart from his affective or emotional functioning (Rokeach, 1960, p. 399). In classical psycho- Einalysis, man has been viewed as "id-driven, egotistical: rationalizing and sublimating." But in recent years this 'Wmegative view" has come into disfavor among psychologists. T1l‘us, we find greater emphasis on "man's cognitive needs and hie; tendencies toward growth, productiveness and self- ac“Zualization" (Rokeach, 1960). Perhaps, there is validity i-1'l'.both positions. It is therefore assumed that all belief— di-Sbelief systems serve two powerful and conflicting sets of 23 motives at the same time: the need for a cognitive frame- work to know and to understand and the need to ward off threatening aspects of reality (p. 67). Following this logic it was conceptualized that dogmatism might be one of the major personality traits leading to high charismatic Ibelief. Although no study has been made so far to correlate (dogmatism and charismatic involvement, we are tempted to tnake an a priori assumption that dogmatism might be posi- ‘tively correlated with high charismaproneness. One can see the image of Hoffer's True Believer replicated in a person who is also highly dogmatic. The analogy is that 130th may be exhibiting a strong sense of commitment, loyalty and.devotion. All these traits again are very important in ‘the charismatic believer. The Behav ior a1 Mode l There are four major dimensions of the behavioral mOdel which is being conceptualized: A. Cognitive Plane: 1. Psycho-cultural dimension 2. Identity-crisis dimension B. Affective Plane: 3. Charismatic image dimension C. Conative Plane 4. Action dimension The model presents a version of theory of action explaining buYer behavior. We have the individual actor (ego) to begin Vita), in a given situation, and he engages in goal—directed actrions. Action is being defined as behavior which is directed towards goals and comprises sharing of cultural 241 unOwwm ocacammumm . codummaawc0aumm owwz coaumoacsEEou 3oq u0a>mnmm w>aum>OCCH moauauomm . r—INMQ‘U') .u0a>mnon caumEmaumLo mo Hmooe 4 .N musmam GOaum>auoz weqawoq Allllly mocmcomman\mo:m:0mcou .m cosmoauacmam:H\oUCmonacmam .m seeHennmcmucHxsueennamcme .H ZOHBU< consumemnemm oooz m0uawswooeom ucoficoua>cm amusuaso m.~ msumum vcm mEoocH N.N H.N 00¢ mmmcomuomuaonuonuo Emacmaumuauonus< monumuaa :mnuo\amusm manages ummnomaaommo \uwmsomcaoEmo moHeazoo Ame m>Heommm¢ Ame NO uo3om uHumEmauan m>HeHzooo Ado 25 synnbols and value-and-belief systems of the societal environ- ment. The personality system of the actor, symbolizing the ccxgnitive images of himself and his environment will define huts need-disposition as stated earlier. But there will be barriers and obstacles in the environment, which will not permit the actor (ego) to gratify the need. This will cause frustration, anxiety and insecurity. This will lead to a marked dependence need in the actor (ego) for sharing the nrxrms, values and symbols of the alter. This, in turn, will lead to a strong desire for identification (Freud, 1932) and iJnitation, the alter providing the basic model for imitation (Parsons, 1951; Bronfenbrener, 1964) . This further leads true actor to search for an identity for himself, and thus, fcu: a symbol which may give a meaning to his identity. This synnbolic image (which Could be a leader or a product) for tfiJn is the charismatic image, and to obtain it he may even shcmv"aggressive identification." He also tries to seek congruency between his own self-image (a bundle of his need- dispositions) and the charismatic (product) image which, supposedly would give him the Opportunity to share the norms, and Values of the alter (significant others). The important characteristics which give the image a charismatic appeal are: l. Identification--this means, it identifies with the crisis situation. The main prOperty is that of security and status which the image provides to the actor, for whom it may mean an end (symbolically) to the crisis situation he has been living in. The image, thus, 26 becomes the savior of crisis and "redeemer of h0pe" and gives the actor his lost pride and identity. 2. Competence-dwould signify the functional com- petence, the omnicompetence and the omniscience element, in the capacity of the object to per- form. 3. Sacrifice--it is rather difficult to relate this element to an object as compared to that of a person. However, we can visualize an element of sacrifice in the case of an object when we say that it is a classic, and not the usual run-of—the-mill type. 4. It must also be unique, in the sense that no other thing is like it. It is non-substitut— able. It is the only one, which can communi- cate self-confidence and give an expressive life-style to the actor. 5. Attributes-~it must have high quality and prized attributes, both intrinsic and extrinsic. This constellation of properties in the image, will develop in the actor a tendency to idolize the image. One Inajor reason for this spirit of idealization (or idolization) is possibly and perhaps, the perfect match between the actor's own self-image and the capability of the image to fulfill this need configuration. In the affective plane, it is posited, the actor will show a strong (rather than weak.) tendency to emotional attachment to the charismatic image because of his need—disposition for esteem, affilia- ‘tion, prestige, status and belongingness. In the Lewinian Sense, the actor will have a net positive valence toward the (“Dject (and purchase it). The search for identity, the con- cer'nand restoration of self-confidence and lost pride, give 5’ highly subjective tone to this need—disposition. As such, 27 the model will give emphasis upon measuring the subjective dimensions Of the charismatic image. There are three Opposite pairs of salient characteristics of the image entity: 1. Tangibility versus intangibility of the entity to the actor, 2. Significance versus insignificance of that entity to the actor, 3. Degree of consonance or dissonance of the entity with the actor's self-image. In the context of the need-disposition and the dichotomies, e.g., tangibility-intangibility about the charismatic image, it can be seen how there will be gener- ated a strong loyalty and commitment towards the image, which then, brings forth the motivation to act. This com- mitment is analogous to the commitment of a follower or devotee to a Jesus or Moses. The action may involve, there- fore, any or all of the following: 1. .Sacrifice--the actor will be prepared to make personal and/or familial sacrifice in terms of time, money, etc. .More objectively, the actor may postpone or forego some of his and/or family's current needs and/or future needs. 2. Innovation--being drawn to the charismatic image may mean doing something which is non- routine and therefore, innovative. (However, it need not necessarily be innovative.) 3. Low communication need--because of the loyalty and strong predisportion towards the object, the actor may show an unwillingness to hear anything negative about the image. This will give him a low communication need. 28 4. Rationalization-dwhatever happens, the actor will, because of his strong predisposition, show a marked tendency to rationalize his action towards the object or image. 5. Effort (bargaining)--the effort may involve investment Of time and money to gain nearness or close relationship with the Object (leader). If it is a material Object like Cadillac, then, it may refer to the bargaining effort involved in buying the product. Hypotheses PrOposition: .Members of the subculture are crisis- ridden and in search Of an identity, and hence will exhibit a high need for dependence. H.l The higher the perception of crisis of an individual, the greater will be his need for dependence. Proposition: ,Members of the subculture will develOp in terms Of their self-image, strong need for security‘and status. H.2 The more the search for identity by an individual, the greater will be his need for security and status concern. Theories concerning the determinants of attitudes usually emphasize the need satisfying prOperties of objects toward which the attitudes are held. If a physical or social Object is rewarding to a person, he will develop a positive attitude toward it; if it frustrates him he will develop a negative attitude. Thus if Cadillac is viewed as the need-satisfying Object, the individual will develOp a positive attitude towards it. 29 Propostion: Members of the subculture will be positively predisposed towards such images and objects which are viewed as prestigious and which fulfill the "subjective needs." H.3 The greater the subjective need of an individual the higher will be his charismaproneness. Proposition: Product charisma lies at the root of the total H.4.l H.4.2 H.4.3 emotional surrender on the part of the buyer. The more intangible the need Of an individual, the greater will be his loyalty towards the Object. The more significant the object, the greater the loyalty The greater the consonance with the self-image, the higher the need. PrOposition: Action will be the result of high degree of loyalty to the charismatic image, and as such, may have a large emotional content. H.5.1 The greater the loyalty of an individual to the charismatic image, the more will be his prepared- ness for sacrifice. H.5.2 Charismaprone individuals are more likely to be innovators than non-innovators. The greater the loyalty of an individual towards the charismatic image, the less will be his need for critical information about the charismatic image. The greater the charismatic involvement (commit- ment) Of an individual towards the image, the stronger will be his tendency to rationalize (his choice of the Object, etc.). 30 Design The subject-list of Cadillac owners was Obtained through the COOperation of local dealers in metropolitan areas Of Lansing and Detroit. The composition of the pOpu- lation in terms of the distribution of black and white ownership was ascertained beforehand. The experience and personal contact of the dealers were extremely helpful for this purpose, particularly in view of the absence of any other source from which details regarding racial composition Of Cadillac ownership could be obtained. The sample list of subjects comprised all buyers of Cadillacs from the dealers over a period of time. The period Of purchase ranged from April to September, 1969 for Lansing, and for Detroit the period covered was January to March, 1970. Almost all the subjects from Detroit were black. All those subjects who agreed to COOperate and respond to the questionnaire were approached. The subjects who were either not traceable or did not want to COOperate, were drOpped from the list. All the subjects falling in the sample were admin- istered a set of questionnaires (see Appendix A). The ques— tionnaires are designed to measure certain psychocultural, Value and attitudinal dimensions of the respondents, rele- Vant to the hypotheses. The following value-attitudinal dimensions were scored. 31 A. Cognitive: l. Identity-crisis dimension B. Affective: 2. Charismatic image dimension C. Conative: 3. Action dimension A two part questionnaire was used for measuring the following value attitudinal dimensions: A. l. General-social typology B. Crisis perception Self-perception Identity search Need-disposition tthI-J . Charismatic image Image congruence . Loyalty WNH O Sacrifice Innovation Low communication need Rationalization Bargaining effort U'IIbUJNH C These value-attitudinal dimensions incorporate the basic prOperties of charisma, and thus, facilitate the identifica- tion Of the charismatic appeal Of the Object as well as the emotional involvement of the actor. The questions have been framed to suit a seven-point rating scale, like the one used in the semantic differential test (Osgood, Suci and Tannen- baum, 1957). The data from "Social Typology--General" part is used to determine if there are any demographic correlates 0f the Charismaprone personality. The resulting data were analyzed by using apprOpriate statistical tests. 32 Usefulness of the Study: For Social Science apd MarketingyTheory 1. The present research utilized the concept of charisma in a secular sense and tested it empirically, perhaps for the first time. By analyzing and identi- fying the important variables and properties of charisma, it would add to conceptual clarity. For marketing theory, the present research may provide additional building blocks for formulating a better and more comprehensive buyer behavior theory, particularly in respect to a segment of prestige-hungry and crisis-ridden peOple. It may help the marketing theorist in better con- ceptualization of the product classification, at least in a more meaningful way. Also it may help in identifying certain properties and characteris- tics, which may be utilized in building a better product image. The present research may also give an insight into better understanding of the psychocultural dynamics Of the buyer. This may help in the conceptualization of more Objective theory of action in a behavioral sense. It may also lead to a further research on "sociology Of innovation" using the concept of charisma as the basis. In a more general sense, an understanding (through a measuring technique of charismaproneness) of the 33 non-rational behavior of the actor, may lead to better conceptualization of theories of change- process and modernization in backward communities. Also, it may have implications for marketing theory, in the sense of how this change comes via marketing. Usefulness for Practitioners 1. The study may enable the marketers to have a clearer understanding of the market segmentation of some of their products. By explaining who will buy a product and why, the concept could be Operationalized, hOpefully, to predict the buyer behavior or at least identify the possible buyer segment. It may help the marketing executives in planning the promotion and appeals regarding products in a more meaningful way. Also, the promotions may be better focussed towards certain segments of the audience in terms Of "need-dispositions of the actors." By applying some dramaturgy, as in the field of human charisma, the charismatic appeal of a product could be increased, maintained or stepped from going down. It may have some implications for marketing in ghetto areas. It could help in identifying the segments of ghetto areas or of backward communities 34 in general, which may be more or less Charismaprone, and hence in planning strategies of marketing. CHAPTER I I RESEARCH DESIGN AND.METHODOLOGY Chapter II presents the design and methodology of research employed for collecting and analyzing the data. The first section is devoted to discussion Of the rationale for ex pg§t_§§g£2 research in social sciences. It also deals with certain related problems involved in handling research Of cross-cultural or sub-cultural nature. The second section deals with the selection Of subjects and the descriptiOn Of the procedure involved. The third section deals with the development of questionnaire and the research instrument. It also gives details of interview procedure and data collection. The final section gives an account Of the statistical techniques used for analysis of data and testing of hypotheses.' One Of the primary purposes of research in behav— ioral sciences is explanation Of human behavior. The individual researcher tries to do this with the help of a theoretical construct which is usually a "logically artic- ulated conceptual scheme." Armed with this construct, he Observes the phenomena--the actors involved and the events. He seeks a meaning in those events and tries to find cause 35 36 and effect relationships. The explanation which he gives for the phenomena helps prediction of future events and also control Of events. Max weber looked at social science as "an empirical science Of concrete reality" (Wirklichkeitswissenschaft). According to him: Our aim is the understanding of the characteris- tic uniqueness Of the reality in which we move. we wish to understand on the one hand the rela- tionships and the cultural significance Of individual events in their contemporary mani- festations and on the other the causes of their being historically §2_and not otherwise (1949, p. 72). It is of utmost importance that the investigator maintains a sense Of detachment and Objectivity in describing and explaining the cause and effect relationships of events. Often the subject matter in social science is emotion- arousing; and there is every likelihood that the researchers may be guided more by emotion than by intellectual and imper- sonal reaction (Chapin, 1955). It is therefore necessary that explanation should be logically elegant and empirically potent. However, there does remain a difference Of Opinion about the nature and function of scientific explanation. According to Hempel and Oppenheim: TO explain the phenomena in the world of our experience, to answer the question "why?" rather than only the question "what?", is one Of the foremost Objectives Of all rational enquiry: and especially scientific research in its vari- ous branches strives to go beyond a mere descrip- tion of its subject matter by providing an explanation of the phenomena it investigates. 37 While there is rather general agreement about this chief objective of science, there exists considerable difference of Opinion as to the function and the essential characteristics of scientific explanation (1953, p. 319). Weber himself emphasized the need for "understand- ing explanation." Many contemporary writers emphasize the need for prOper understanding and scientific explanation of social phanomena (Brown, 1963; Gibson, 1960; Greer, 1969). This need becomes all the more important when the research is related to a cross-cultural or sub—cultural area and deals with psychological phenomenology (MacLeOd, 1969). Such an understanding is important for the research focus of the present study. While it has been our endeavor to maintain Objectivity and detachment, we have also tried to seek the "understanding explanation." Research Design The research design of the present study is, ex_ post facto or post—dictive, i.e.: . . . research in which the independent variable or variables have already occurred and in which the researcher starts with the Observation of a dependent variable or variables. He then studies the independent variables in retrospect for their possible relations to, and effects on, the depen- dent variable Or variables (Kerlinger, 1964, p. 360). The term e§_post facto means: from what is done afterward. In other words, the aim of the research is to inquire and interpret the causal relationship between the event and other variables which might have affected the 38 event, after it has occurred. Thus, it is in contradis- tinction to the experimental predictive research where the investigator can control and manipulate certain variables in causing the event. In §x_post facto research, the researcher: . . . cannot manipulate or assign subjects or treatments, because in this kind of research the independent variable or variables have already occurred. The investigator starts with observa- tion of the independent variables for their possible effects on the dependent variable (Kerlinger, 1964, p. 291). It is accepted that the main purpose of enquiries in the sciences is to discover cause and effect relationship among observable phenomena. Also, the ideal Of science isthe controlled experiment. Usually the scientist seeks a mean- ingful relationship between X and Y, the independent and the dependent variable. In the laboratory or experimental research both X and Y can be controlled and manipulated. Thus, one can proceed with the hypothesis: if X, then Y. Under this hypothesis Y can easily be explained as being caused by X. Also, the nature and strength of this causal relationship can be explained by experimental manipulation Of X. This convenience is not available in ex_post facto research. There is no way to control the independent vari- ables. The event has already occurred and the explanation is being sought in retrospect. Whatever the treatments, they have already been assigned to the subjects under enquiry. For example, in the present study white and black respondents Of our sample were already there with 39 respective treatments: and there is no way whereby these could be controlled. Uses and limitations. Three major weaknesses of ex post facto research have been mentioned: (1) inability to manipulate independent variables, (2) the lack of power to randomize, and (3) the risk of imprOper interpretation. By the very nature of ex_post facto research, the scientist cannot control and manipulate the independent variable; and as such the risk of misinterpreting the data arises. This could be eliminated in part, at least, by carefully hypothesizing the causal relations and scien- tifically testing the hypotheses. Although, experimental research is better; the conclusion that e§_post facto re— search is inferior to experimental research is unwarranted (Kerlinger, 1964). A number of small and large scale ex post facto re- searches are reported; and they all seem to be focussed on the macro-perspective of the phenomena as compared to the micro-perspective (Adorno §£_al,, 1950; Davis, 1948; Caldwell and Courtis, 1925; Sears, Maccoby and Levin, 1957: Pettigrew, 1959; Sarnoff et_§l,, 1958). In the field of social sciences, much research, often quite creative, has to be of §x_post facto nature because a myriad of socio-cultural phenomena do not lend themselves to easy and controlled eXperiments. And yet they do deserve to be studied and enquired into. It has 40 been even suggested that we cannot avoid §§_pgst facto research. Kerlinger (1964, p. 373) puts it clearly: It can even be said that ex post facto research is more important than experimental research. This is, of course, not a methodological Obser— vation. It means, rather, that the most impor- tant social scientific and educational research problems do not lend themselves to experimenta- tion, although many Of them do lend themselves to controlled inquiry of the ex post facto kind. . . . If a tally of sound and important studies in psychology, sociology and education were made, it is likely that ex post facto studies would outnumber and outrank experimental studies. Sample Selection It was explained in Chapter I that our research focus is on the buying of Cadillacs by white and black peOple. We faced a good deal of difficulty in getting a sub- ject list for our study. It was originally proposed that we might get such a list from the State Licensing Authority in Michigan. Although they do have a large volume of data on Cadillac car owners, no breakdown of racial composition is available. It was finally decided to get the subject list through the COOperation of two dealers in the metropolitan areas of Lansing and Detroit. The list consisted of all Cadillac buyers from a particular dealer, spread over a six- month period. Information regarding the name, address, type Of car, income range, price paid, credit used, and the race of buyer were Obtained on a Specified form (see Appendixll). This gave us the necessary information and a reliable sub- ject list. At no stage did the subjects know that this 41 kind Of information was being collected or that we got this information from a particular source. The following criteria were used in determining the respondent list: 1. Only car (Cadillac) owning subjects were included. 2. Sample was confined to two specific urban metro- politan areas, including the suburbs, thus holding the region and community size constant. 3. Those subjects who were either not traceable or not willing to be interviewed were drOpped. We faced a good deal of difficulty in obtaining interviews with the black respondents in Lansing, while the response rate from the white subjects was fairly good (42%). As a result we had to get an additional sample Of black respondents so that our comparisons could be more meaning- ful. (This new sample was obtained through another dealer from Detroit.) The tentative target was put at 150 com- pleted interviews with sufficient representation Of black respondents. Collection of Data Since the questionnaire involved psycho-social measurements in a rather sensitive area, we had to train interviewers eXplaining to them the general nature Of the study and the necessity for cautious handling of the ques- tionnaire items. Detailed instructions were given to them before they proceeded to contact the subjects. If they had 42 any doubts, these doubts were clarified. Usually a group of interviewers was employed, and black interviewers were asked to interview the black reSpondents. It was assumed the responses would be more Open and unrestrained under this The interviewers were given the names from the arrangement . subject list, and they contacted the assigned subjects and collected the interview data. The interviewers were specifically asked never to mention that the interview was connected with the buying of a Cadillac, or that he/she was trying to find out the moti- vations underlying the purchase of a Cadillac. Details regarding Cadillac were gathered rather casually, often the interviewer expressing a mild surprise or appreciation that the respondent owned a Cadillac, although every interviewer knew beforehand that the subject owned a Cadillac. The interviewer knew details regarding the model and price, etc. 01‘- Cadillac owned by subject, but he was asked never to betray this knowledge. If a subject no longer owned the Cadillac, as per details of the list, the interviewer e"mused himself and did not pursue the interview. The interviewer's kit consisted Of a letter of introduction, the two parts of the questionnaire and the respondent cards. There were two kinds of cards, yellow Cards were meant for white respondents and pink. cards for black respondents. These cards were meant to be handy for getting responses to questions about age, income, marital 43 status, education, job, sources of income, monthly rent, and value Of house. The interviewers were also asked to keep a watch on the interview time, and they usually filled in these details on the cover page of the questionnaire. After the interview was over, the interviewer filled in certain details on the basis of his Observation, such as the respondent's sex, race, erzality of his house, type and quality of dwelling, and impressions regarding the status of the respondent. The collection of data was begun in July, 1969 in Ilansing. Out of a list of 209 subjects who purchased Cadillacs between April, 1969 to October, 1969, 89 inter- Views were completed. This gave a response rate of 42.1 Pelnzent. Unfortunately, this consisted largely of white respondents, the number of black respondents being only eigirt. As a result we had to go to Detroit to get addi— ticuial interviews from black subjects. As was mentioned earlier, we got a subject list of black buyers of Cadillac frCNn a dealer in Detroit. Out of a list of 110 subjects, 54 :interviews were completed. Five persons could not be traced or had moved away. A number of subjects refused to be interviewed. The interviews in Detroit were completed bet“weenMarch and May, 1970. After the interviews were over we got 143 completed interviews. The 143 completed interviews, comprised 81 white and 6 . . . :2 lblack respondents. Upon scrutiny seven questionnaires had 44 to be rejected. One black respondent had refused to give relevant information on the questionnaires; another black respondent did not complete the second part of the ques— tionniare because he could not read. The remaining five questionnaires had similar discrepancies. This left us with 136 completed interviews, 80 white and 56 black. The overall response rate, for completed interviews, came to 42.6 percent. DevelOpment of the Questionnaire The questionnaire1 is divided into two parts (see Appendix A). Part I: Social Typology, contains thirty- eight items subdivided under fifteen major headings. The questions were asked by the interviewer, and answers to some of the questions were checked on the response cards (for age, marital status, income, education, employment, etc.). Be- sides the general questions regarding the socio-economic and demographic details, there are fourteen questions regarding the ownership Of cars and Cadillacs in particular. Items on social typology are designed to see if there are certain socio-economic and demographic correlates of Cadillac owner- ship. For example, the data on income gives us an insight into the modal income group which buys Cadillacs. Interest— ingly, more cars have been bought in the lower income ranges than in the higher income range. 1Some information received from Cadillac headquarters proved of help in develOping the questionnaire in final form. 45 Questions under number 10 are designed to Obtain details regarding the respondents' car ownership history. These indicate the pattern through which the respondent finally switched to Cadillac. Some questions also inquire about the level of satisfaction and main motivating factor in buying the car. Questions under number 11 seek informa— tion about effective involvement Of the respondent towards the car. These were designed to find out whether one group of respondents showed more attachment to the car than the other. Questions under number 12 were designed to measure bargaining and shOpping effort on the part of the respon- dent. The assumption was that if a subject became charis— matically involved he may put in little or no bargaining and/or shipping effort. Items under question number 13 are designed to measure brand consciousness and prOpensity to consume costly and prestigious drink, particularly Scotch. The purpose was to see whether this could be correlated with the ownership of Cadillac, particularly with regard to the black respondents. Question number 14 was included to see if the respondent considered Cadillac as one of his most cherished possessions. The question was left Open-ended so that the subject could feel free to put down any item of his possession which was cherished most. Finally, the questions given under number 15, were to be filled in by the inter- viewer as mentioned earlier upon his observation. 46 Part I_,Of the_Questionnaire Part II of the questionnaire comprises a self— administered instrument. The instrument is composed of four sub-scales, which conjointly include items relating to the psychodynamics of the individual respondents. There are fifty-four items in the instrument: every item has a seven- point rating scale. This instrument was self-scored by respondents, and the interviewer provided only clarifica- tions and necessary guidance. The fifty-four items which comprise the instrument seek information regarding the respondent's dogmatic belief structures, charismatic involvement, purchase propensity, and traditionalism vs modernism. we presented the underly- ing assumptions of our theoretical construct in Chapter I. It has been mentioned there that the main strategy adOpted for constructing our instrument is to create an interrelated link backwards from the conative plane to the cognitive plane. By doing so we want to find an explanation for be- havior in terms Of cognitive and affective belief-disbelief systems. It was conceptualized that dogmatism.might be one of the major personality traits leading to high charismatic involvement. Similarly, high charismatic involvement might be associated with traditionalistic beliefs. Again, char- ismatic involvement may be associated with emotional and impulsive purchase behavior. 47 With this background in mind, we selected fifteen items from.ROkeach's (1960) Dogmatism Scale.1 Out of these fifteen items, ten are from his shortened version of D-scale. The selection of these items was based on the suitability to our conceptual scheme. In a way these have been fitted into our mold. Thus, items number 32, 44, 55, and 25 are primarily focussed on the individual actor's crisis- perception and his self-perception. The items include such concepts as helplessness, loneliness, self-inadequacy, de- pendency, paranoid outlook on life, concern for power and status, self-aggrandizement, authoritarianism, intolerance, and belief in a cause. A slight modification was made in items number 25, 30, and 35; all other items were adopted without any modification. Items number 21, 35, and 44 are included in Schulze's (1962, p. 94) shortened version of the Dogmatism Scale which contains only 10 core items. Five of the items (13, 32, 35, 40, 48) of our scale were used in the short-form 2Since the publication of Rokeach's The Open and Closed Mind (1960) the concept of dogmatism and the Dogma- tism Scale (DS) have been used widely in the literature. Rokeach has claimed that DS is a better measure of general authoritarianism; and thus, is an improvement upon the F Scale. This contention has since been substantiated (Plant, 1964; Hanson, 1968). Reliability measures reported for the DS Scale have been generally high for adults. Also studies dealing with the scale's predictive or construct validity have reported that "factors tended to group around Rokeach's conceptualization" (Vacchiano, Schiffman, and Strauss, 1967). 48 of the Dogmatism Scale by Troldahl and Powell (1965, p. 44). This short-form contains twenty items, and had high reliabil- ity coefficient. The scale was used for a study on subjects in Lansing, and the Lansing cross-validation reliability for the twenty item vs the forty item score was .94. Other Item Description and Concepts In accordance with our conceptual framework regard- ing charisma, a series of twenty questions were either developed or modified from some existing scales to become part of a charisma sub-scale. Three items were taken from the F-scale on Authoritarian Personality: 24, 39, and 54. One item was slightly modified from the Left Opinionation Scale, item 20. The remaining sixteen items under this sub- heading were develOped. The concepts included in these items are: Opinionation (left or right), alienation, com- mitment to cause, sacrifice for cause, rationalization, intolerance, dependence, loyalty and devotion, congruence, faith and trust in leaders. Besides the above items, a set of eleven items were designed to seek information regarding the individual actor's purchase-propensity towards conspicuous consumption. These items include the concepts of impulsive purchase, concern for material success, carefulness about details, obtuseness to admit mistakes, prOpensity to idolize beliefs, respect fOr routine. All items under this heading were developed. One item was taken from the Gough-Sanford Rigidity Scale, itern 56. 49 In recent years an ever increasing concern for the study of modernization and change of societies has been shown by scholars. Some recent studies have tried to focus attention on the motivational problems involved in bringing about change in individual attitude. Elaborate instruments have been deve10ped to measure modernism (Kahl, 1968). Studies by Eisenstadt (1968), Inkles (1969), and Rogers (1969) have tried to identify the variables that gO into the dynamics of change. The proceSs thus involves a move- ment from gemeinschaft to gesellschaft orientations. Based on this perspective of the dynamics of change, it was visual- ized that the members of the subculture might exhibit some definite pattern in relation to their dogmatism, charisma- proneness, on the one hand, and with traditionalism vs modernism on the other. As a result eight items were taken from an instrument used by Williamson (1968) who, himself, had taken it from an earlier study by Kahl. The main con- cepts used in these items are: Obedience, faith, trust, and sacredness. All the items included in the instrument fall under the following clusters of factors: A. Cognitive Plane: 1. Crisis perception 2. Self-perception 3. Identity search 4. Need diSposition B. Affective Plane: 5. Charismatic image 6. Image congruence 7. Loyalty 50 C. Conative Plane: 8. Sacrifice 9. Innovation 10. Rationalization 11. Low communication need 12. Bargaining effort D. Traditionalism4flodernism 13. Obedience 14. Faith Measurement and Statistical Analysis All the items in the instrument are scored on a seven-point rating scale which gives a range from very much disagreement to very much agreement as follows: I DISAGREE I AGREE very on the a little uncertain a little on the very much whole whole much ()1 ()2 ()3 ()4 ()5 ()6 ()7 Thus, if some one checks 7, it means he agrees very much. It will denote a positive favorable response. Similarly, if someone checks 1, that means he disagrees with the state- ment very much. The questionnaire was pretested on a limited scale for ensuring its general clarity and usability. The data were coded according to a predetermined classification, and were transferred on cards for computer analysis. The punched data were checked for accuracy before being fed into the computer. 51 Variables for Analysis A major purpose of this research was to identify certain psychocultural variables which might cause charis- matic behavior of Cadillac buyers. The likely charismatic involvement Of Cadillac buyers was the major dependent variable. This variable had sub-dimensions. As mentioned earlier the various sub-dimensions formed fourteen factor clusters according to our theoretical construct. For the purposes of analysis five independent variables were chosen. These were: race, age, education, income, and religion. The race variable related to white and black subjects. For the purposes of analysis we assigned the subjects to groups of these independent variables. Thus age category was put under two groups: young (up to 44 years), and Old (beyond 44 years). Graduation from college and beyond was treated as high education category and less than this level Of education was treated as low education category. The data on income created some problems. We had reasons to suspect that some peOple had deliberately filled in higher incomes. we also found a difference between the income figures that were reported by the dealers and the ones that were filled in by the respondents themselves. Also, we were concerned with the purchase of a product worth $6,000-$8,000 in most cases. Accordingly, the low, medium, and high income categories were fixed as follows: Up to $10,000 Low $10,000 to 20,000 Medium $20,000 and above High 52 The variable of religion was divided into two main categories: Catholics and non-Catholics. Most of the non- Catholics were Protestants. The data collected in the present study lend them- selves to nonparametric statistical tests. "A nonparametric statistical test is a test whose model does not specify con- ditions about the parameters of the population from which the sample was drawn" (Siegel, 1956, p. 31). Thus, non- parametric statistical tests are based on less rigorous assumptions as compared to parametric tests like t test and F test. Another important aspect of data analysis involved factor analysis of the data. In our total formulation fifty-four variables were used for each respondent. The problem Of charismatic involvement and the consequent buyer behavior is a multivariate phenomenon. It was a formidable task to differentiate and separate the relevant variables from a large set of matrices. Factor analysis was therefore used for solving this multivariate problem. "Factor analy- sis is useful, especially in those domains where basic and fruitful concepts are essentially lacking and where crucial eXperiments have been difficult to conceive" (Thurstone, 1947, p. 56). It enabled us to find out from amongst a large set Of data, the smaller set of crucial factors, which may lie at the root of behavioral phenomena. This analysis was done at two levels. Chi square was used to test significance of relationships between vari- ables. The results are given in tables in the Appendix C. 53 Secondly, R and P factor analysis was used to find out fac- tor structures of fifty-four variables and profile types of the two groups of respondents. The FACTAN Program which was used for this analysis does not handle more than 100 obser— vations. As such, 100 respondents were sorted out on random basis as the representative group for P factor analysis. (See Appendix B for rationale and technical details of these techniques.) Another level of analysis focused upon finding attitudinal differences between the respondents of the two races in terms of the charisma sub-scale and mean scores on fourteen factor clusters of our theoretical construct, as mentioned earlier. For the purposes of statistical analysis we used existing computer programs at the Computer Institute for Social Science Research at Michigan State University. The following programs were used: 1. PERCOUNT, CISSR Technical Report No. 18, MSU (1968) for Obtaining frequency distribution and percentages on various socio-economic variables. 2. FACTAN, Principal Components and Orthogonal Rotations, CISSR Technical Report NO. 34, MSU (1967), for obtaining R and P factor scores. 3. WRAP 2CISSR Program for Obtaining factor scores. 4. NPSTAT, CISSR Technical Report NO. 40, MSU (1967), for nonparametric statistical routines, particu- larly X2 tests of significance. CHAPTER III RESULTS AND FINDINGS This chapter deals with the presentation of results and findings. In section one, we present certain relevant details regarding the general socioeconomic characteristics Of the two groups of respondents. This section also pre- sents relevant details about the ownership of Cadillac cars by the two respective groups of respondents. The second section is devoted to presentation of results related to the hypothetical construct of the behavioral model presented in Chapter I. The various hypotheses and subhypotheses are tested in this section. The third section is devoted to the R and P factor analysis Of data. In it are presented the R factor structures and the ipsative profiles of the respon- dents based On P factor analysis. The last section presents a discussion Of these results. Introduction The main focus of the present study has been on the likely charismatic involvement of Cadillac buyers--partic- ularly the black buyers. The underlying theoretical postu- late has been that both, white as well as black, buyers may be involved in the product charisma of Cadillac. But, 54 55 since the members of the black community in the United States constitute a distinct subculture, their needs and motivations for upward mobility and material achievement may be significantly different from those of the white community. A major guiding postulate of the present study has been that the subculture of alienation and poverty provides the fertile background for arousal or "eruption" Of charis- matic propensities. Members Of the subculture, therefore, have a higher cognitive perception of crisis. The detailed theoretical construct Supporting this formulation was pre— sented in Chapter I. Here we will briefly restate the major guiding hypotheses and subhypotheses that were tested. There are two major hypotheses, in cognitive and affective plane, and each of these is followed by subhypotheses. In the conative plane there are four additional subhypotheses, which, in a way, follow the two original major hypotheses. Briefly stated theSe hypotheses are: H.l The crisis perception of black buyers is likely to be higher than that of the white buyer. H.1.l Likewise, the black buyer's perception of himself being in crisis is likely to be higher than that of the white buyer. H.1.2 The need (and consequently search) for . identity will be higher for black buyers than for white buyers. H.1.3 The need for material achievement will be greater for black buyers than for white buyers. 56 H.2 The perception of charismatic image by black buyers is likely to be higher than that of white buyers. H.2.l Black buyers are likely to be more loyal than white buyers. H.3 Black buyers will be more sacrifice- oriented than white buyers. H.3.1 Black buyers are likely to have less need for critical information (low communication need) about the charis- matic image than the white buyers. H.3.2 Black buyers will show greater prOpensity to rationalize than white buyers. H.3.3 Black buyers are likely to engage in less bargaining effort than white buyers. Profile of the Cadillac Buyer Race is one of the major independent variables in our study. Unfortunately, the data relating to the socio- economic characteristics Of the subjects of our study do not enable us to make any generalization regarding the overall percentage Of white and black buyers. An earlier study by Akers (1968) has suggested that more blacks in the compar- ative income range buy Cadillacs than whites. This study neither refutes nor confirms that finding. The buyer in this study is comparatively younger. A Fortune study (Sheehan, 1968, p. 117) had stated that "the profile of today's Cadillac customer is not significantly different from.what it has been in the past. His median age is fifty- three, his median annual income $25,000 plus." In this 57 study roughly half (49.2%) of the buyers fall in the cate- gory Of young buyers (i.e., up to 44 years). The black buyers are younger than white buyers. As compared to 38.7 percent of white buyers who fall in the category Of young buyers (up to 44 years), 64.3 percent black respondents Thus, the median age of black belong to this category. buyers would be in the 35-44 year group. income of the buyers are presented in Table l. The data regarding Table 1. Income of respondents Category Total % White % Black % Under $5,000 4 2.9 l 1.3 3 5.4 $5,000 to $9,999 28 20.6 14 17.5 14 25.0 $10,000 to $14,999 45 33.1 20 25.0 25 44.6 $15,000 to $24,999 20 14.7 14 17.5 6 10.7 $25,000 and above 34 25.0 28 35.0 6 10.7 NO response 5 3.7 3 3.7 2 3.6 Total 136 100.0 80 100.0 56 100.0 58 It is evident from these figures that more than half of all buyers fall in the income categories ranging up to $14,999. Three percent Of all buyers have an income Of less than $5,000.1 The $10,000 to $14,999 income group accounts for the highest volume of purchases (33.1%). Comparatively, a smaller percentage of black buyers belong to the high in- come categories, which is quite understandable. The median income Of the black buyer is lower than the white buyer-- 75 percent of blacks fall in the income categories ranging up to $14,999 as compared to 43.8 percent whites. Thus, the median annual income for black buyers falls in the $10,000 to $14,999 group, but, for the white buyer, it moves to the $15,000 to $24,999 income group. In this regard, then, the profile Of Cadillac buyer in our study seems to be different from the one reported in the above-mentioned Fortune article. This profile seems to be definitely different—-the buyer is not only younger in age, but is likely to buy a Cadillac with lower income. We do not have comparative figures for used and new Cadillac buyers for the two metrOpolitan cities. However, the data from Lansing indicate that out Of 89 buy- ers from this area, 33 (37%) bought used Cadillacs. Of these 13 (39.3%) are in the low income group, 17 (51.5%) belong to the medium income group and 3 (9.2%) are in the 1It seems likely that some persons who gave no (Peeponse to the question on income, might belong to this 3U1come category. Also, we noticed a tendency among respon- dents to exaggerate their income figures. 59 high income group. Of the new Cadillac buyers 7 are in the low income group, 20 are in the medium income group and 28 fall in the high income group. It is interesting to note that out of 13 Catholics in the total sample 11 bought new Cadillacs. Three respondents reported owning two Cadillacs. Two of these are in the medium income category and one is in the low income category. Two black respondents bought the highest price cars in the sample, one for $15,000 and the other for $11,000. Both Of these also owned high priced Continental cars besides the Cadillac. Occupationwise 50 percent Of all subjects fell in the category Of head Of large business, prOprietor of small business, professional and technical. The respective percentages for whites and black respondents belonging to these categories are 57.5 percent and 39.3 percent. A large percentage Of black respondents belonged to the semi—skilled, laborer and servicedworker category (35.7%). Respondents from both of the races, in general, have low education. Persons who graduated from college or had graduate or advanced degrees beyond college constituted 27.9 percent Of the total sample. The respective figures for white and black respondents in this category were 27.5 per— cent and 14.3 percent. A large percentage of Cadillac buyers, thus, had low education--6l.3 percent Of white respondents and 83.9 percent of black respondents fall in this category. 60 A very large percentage of the total sample was Protestant (80.l%). The number of Catholics was very small. As such we could not use religion as one of the independent variables for analyzing charismatic involvement of the respondents. Besides the above mentioned characteristics Of the Cadillac buyers, there are certain other attitudinal details which deserve to be mentioned here. Buyers seem to have almost similar motivating factors which led them to buy the car. However, a larger percentage of black buyers (23.2% as compared to 16.2% for white) felt Cadillac to be a prestige and status car. Both groups of buyers seem to show a high level of satisfaction from their car. A high percent— age Of white (75.0%) and black (76.8%) respondents plan to buy Cadillac again in the future. Also, 78.8 percent of white and 75 percent of black respondents would recommend Cadillac to their friends. Contrary to our expectation, a larger percentage Of black reSpondents (75%) as compared to white respondents (40%) got their cars washed. Thirty-two percent of white respondents as compared to 7.1 percent of black, wash their cars themselves. It seems the black buyer wants to get better professional care for his Cadillac. Some black respondents even get their car washed twice a week. White buyers were involved in less shOpping and bargaining effort as compared to black buyers of Cadillac. Seventy-one white (91.3%) and 33 black (58.9%) respondents finalized their purchase in less than 7 days. The black buyer seems to be more dealprone than the white buyer. 61 A larger percentage Of black respondents (69.6%) as com- pared to white respondents (38.8%) engaged in efforts for getting a better deal. Regular gas was always used by 1 white respondent and 3 black respondents. In response to an Open ended question 34 (70.7%) black and 23 (20.8%) white respondents indicated Chivas Regal to be their most pre- ferred brand Of Scotch. This, in a way, is in line with earlier findings that Negroes show a greater preference for Scotch as a status drink. Similarly, in response to another Open ended question, 36 (64.3%) black as compared to 41 (51.2%) white respondents indicated that Cadillac was their most cherished possession. Other possessions mentioned, mostly by white respondents were: German Shepherd dog, pistol or rifle, photo equipment or prOperty. Black re- spondents Often listed their family, wife and children as their cherished possession. This section will be devoted to the presentation of results as mentioned earlier. Table 2 below presents the respective positions Of white and black respondents on dog- matism, charismatic orientation, purchase propensity and traditionalism-modernism. No significant difference was found between the white and black respondents' scores on dogmatism, charismatic orientation and purchase prOpensity. Only on the scale of traditionalism-modernism a significant difference (P =.01) was found. 62 .om u z xumam “om n z wheeze Ho. me me no m vHH.m mmn.o mem.a mmm.a mx om om om om om om Om om 2 ca mm Hm hm cm we mm mm cmeome o>onm so be ma mv mm me om mm mm NV amends BOHom m 3 m 3 m 3 m 3 £3.60: soaom Ho o>on< Emanumooz. auamcmmoum COHumusoaHo EmHumEmOQ IEmaamcofluHOmue mmmnousm OHumEmaHmnO mm mom m a co mmuoom on» How mocmonwcmam mo ummu smeomz .N manna 63 Table 3 below presents the results of median test of significance for respondents' scores on charismatic orientation in relation to their age, education, income and religion. Table 3 presents data on tests of significance for the total sample regarding the charismatic orientation of the subjects. Charismatic orientation is being treated as the dependent variable, and age, education, income and religion are the independent variables. NO difference was found regarding the charismatic orientation of the total population in relation to the various categories1 based on age, education, and income. The difference between the Catholic and non-Catholic pOpu- lation was significant at (.20 level. Even this has to be read and interpreted with caution. ‘A priori it can be said that Catholics are likely to be more Charismaprone than Protestants, because of their more traditional and conserva- tive ideology. But, despite some level Of significance, our data are meagre and not very representative. The total num- ber of Catholics in the sample was only 13 as compared to 123 non-Catholics. As such, some of the cell values for Catholic population turned to be very low (some were even empty). Therefore we were restricted from making scientific comparisons on the basis of religion. In the Appendix we 1The rationale and basis for these groupings has been given in Chapter II. 64 om. V mu m: we m emm.~ omh.o Nmm.a Nev.a Nx «NH ea mm me am ov mm mm mo 2 mo v ma om ma ma mm mm mm cmaome m>onm HO um mm oa ma mm ma mm ea mm om endows 30Hmm Oaaonumo oeaonumu swam Eseomz. 3oq swam 30A OHO masow scape: Icoz o>on¢ HO 3Oamm mEOOcH nodumosom mom conaamm mAcOHmwamH cam msooce .cOeumosom .mmm co pmmmnv coHumucweuo oeumEmemno GO mouoom one How mocmowmecmam no pun» amends .m manna 65 have given additional tables for showing differences between white and black charismatic orientation in relation to some independent variables. NO difference was found in the charismatic orientation of young and Old of both races. There was, however, a significant difference between low and high education categories of white respondents (X2 = 5.473, P = 0.02). No such difference was Observed in the two education categories of blacks. Similarly, no difference was found in the chariSmatic orientation of respondents Of both the races belonging to low, medium and high income categories. We could not evaluate the differences between the charismatic orientation of the two groups on the basis of religion because of low and empty cell-values for Catholics. In Chapter I while discussing the theoretical con- struct it was posited that individual dogmatism and charis- matic involvement may be positively correlated. Also, within the framework of our conceptualization, there was an assumption that impulsive purchase behavior (measured by items on purchase prOpensity) and traditionalism.may also be correlated with charismatic and dogmatic attitudes. An intercorrelation matrix of the four series confirmed this ,a priori assumption. Scores on the first two series, i.e., dogmatism and charisma had a positive correlation of .52. The other two, i.e., purchase propensity and traditionalism, were also correlated with low positive r values. 66 Now we turn to the listing of our hypotheses. Tables 4 and 5 present the overall means (raw scores) for the fourteen clusters of our theoretical model. The differ- ences in the higher and lower value of these mean scores are again tested by applying the Mann4Whitney U test which is appropriate for nonparametric statistics (see Table 6). we notice that hypotheses l, 1.1 and 1.3 are confirmed at the .05 level. Hypothesis 1.2 was not confirmed. Although a significant difference (.05 level) was found, the results were in the Opposite direction. The mean score for white respondents was significantly higher than that for black respondents. This would call for a rejection Of the null hypothesis. In the affective plane, H.2 was not confirmed. Though there was a significant difference in the mean scores Of white and black respondents, the white score for percep- tion Of charismatic image was higher, not the black score. NO significant difference was found on the concepts for congruence and loyalty. In the conative plane the results were not significant in regard to the concepts Of innovation, low communication need, rationalization, and bargaining effort. Only on sacrifice was there a significant differ- ence (at .05 level). Again the white mean score for sacri- fice was higher than the black mean score, which was con- trary to our expectation. Although the concepts clustered 67 .ucmoflmacmflm you n mco .Umms mm3 ummu u omaamu mco .Hm>oa mo. um uanHmacmHm nuanmmmn .mOHuomoumo o>auommmmu CH occamucoo manna Ham How monoom omumEEsm 3mm mo amuse Hobomm nwmuH50m now m mouoom Cmmfi :mm3umn mocmuwmeo mo cosmoamacmwm neo.m m~.- mm.m m~.ea enema .ea nom.e me.ae me.e Ho.ee moceeemno .ma EmHCHOOOZrEmHHm:OHuHOMHB .Q m: em.e eo.aa om.e mo.me eschew managememm .NH me ma.m e~.ma ea.e om.ma aceumueemeOHumm .HH we ea.a o~.ma ee.m ea.ma ewe: eoeumoeesssou zoq .oe me ma.m e~.ea em.e mm.en eonum>oeeH .m nam.m ma.m eo.m mm.oa moemenomm .m mamam 0>HumGOU .0 me mm.m em.ea mm.m o~.ma spammed .e we vo.m ~m.oa em.e Ho.ma encasemeoo .o nae.m m~.ma oH.m mm.ea woman oeemsmeumeo .m memes m>euowmmm .m amm.e m~.mH mm.e mm.m aceuemommaa emmz .e nee.o me.HH mm.m me.ma noummm sueuemcH .m nae.m me.o~ mm.e mo.ma ceaeamoumdumnwm-.m amm.o He.am so.m mm.me aceemmoemd memeuo .H Osman w>euacooo .m um cm s cm s manmeum> Aomnzv xomam Aomnuzv when: mhwumSHU ..e magma 68 Table 55. Overall means (raw scores) for fourteen factor clusters All White Black Variable (N=l36) (N=80) (N=80) A. Cognitive Plane 1. Crisis perception 3.43 2.67 4.32 2. Self-perception 3.49 3.02 4.16 3. Identity search 3.53 4.61 2.86 4. Need disposition 3.33 2.47 4.57 B. Affective Plane 5. Charismatic image 4.20 4.46 3.82 6. Congruence 3.99 3.90 4.13 7. Loyalty 3.71 3.82 3.57 C. Conative Plane 8. Sacrifice 4.55 5.53 3.16 9. Innovation 4.22 4.15 4.32 10. Low communication need 4.19 4.05 4.40 11. Rationalization 4.25 4.12 4.42 ~ 12. Bargaining effort 3.88 4.01 3.69 D. Traditionalismanodernism 13. Obedience 4.44 4.87 3.82 14. Faith 3.51 2.86 4.45 69 .mflmmnuomxn Hans can» m mo mueaanmnonmo .om :msu Hmummum Na £ue3 D monue£BIGsz mo msam> n .mm N Z xomam Kom u z .mua33m mooo. oooo.o oo.meo xomHm when: enema mo. mooo.o oo.eeea means xomnm oocmnemno m: mmoo.o oo.oomn muses somam became maecemmumm we wmme.o oo.mmma xumHm when: cOAumunamQOHemm ma mme~.o om.moam xomam when: ewes acnemUHeassou 30a m: mmeo.o om.moma xomam when: aceum>oeeH mo. oooo.o om.mem when: somam moemaeomm ma mmma.o om.omma muses xumHm seaweed ma emmm.o om.meom xomHm whens mucmsumcoo mo. omoo.o oo.eooa means xomem mmmse oeumEmeumeo mo. oooo.o oo.mom xumnm when: caeuemommne emmz mo. oooo.o oo.oee means xomem noummm sueeemeH mo. oooo.o om.aeoa xomam when: aceummoumeumamm mo. oooo.o om.mme xomam when: casemeoumm memeuo cosmoamacmam om D macaw moose HOuomm mo Hm>mq Q o5am> osam> Herman nelson mmxoman one mmuwc3 mo mmsoum szoa one Herman .mumumsao Houomm CompuSOM Oaumwumum D monuwnzwccmz .0 manna '70 — Black -—-—-—-White All -—0‘ I—ln h—M 7'1 5‘d 531933 —1 -I untea aouatpaqo 310333 Buturebxeg uornezt -IEUOI:ea paeN uotneo —tunmmoa moq uorienouul 931311393 $312501 aouanxhuog afiemI oriemstxeua uorqisodsrq paaN unless fintnuapI UOdeealad -JIaS UOdeaDlad $15113 (Concepts) Factor mean scores. Figure 3. 71 under traditionalism-modernism were not part of our hypoth- eses, it is interesting to note that there is a significant difference between the black and white scores. White respondents scored higher on obedience than black respon- dents. In other words they are more traditional than black respondents. Items under the concept of faith have a dimen- sion Of authoritarianism and belief in leaders. Black respondents scored higher than white respondents on this concept. Factor Analysis Besides testing the theoretical model for analyzing attitudinal differences, the data matrix was factor analyzed for delineating the underlying factor structures and profile typologies. According to Cattell (1965) factor analysis is primarily a device to classify and combine a number Of trait variables into a few basic dimensions. Thus, the primary purpose of factor analysis is to produce a number of factors or dimensions that are smaller than the number of interre— lated variables in the correlation matrix (Stogdill, 1966, p. 397). The two main aims of factor analysis are to seek basic underlying dimensions from amongst a large number Of variables and to develOp a classificatory scheme. As a heuristic device it helps in delineating typologies of factors "which are similar to one another in some way" (Winch, 1947: Overall, 1964). 72 Correlations among the fifty-four attitudinal vari- ables as contained in the items Of Part II Questionnaire (see Appendix A) were computed from the matrix of raw scores for 136 respondents. When the Objective is to intercorre- late the variable scores the interest lies in the columns of the various statements, i.e., the manifest variable. This is known as the R method. The purpose of R methodology is to derive a few dimensions underlying the total number Of variables. The obverse of R method is the P method. In the P method, which relates to persons, the data are read for persons in the rows rather than for variables along the columns. Thus, R factor analysis involves correlations between variables or statements but the P factor analysis involves correlations between persons. In R method one gets clusters of statements but in P method one gets clusters of persons. Both kinds of clusters delineate two kinds of typologies. Both kinds of clusters are given individual loadings-~one for variables and the other for persons. One looks at "between-person consistencies and the other looks at within-person consistencies." The technical details of factor analysis are given in Appendix B. In this section, we will describe the respective R and P factors and their underlying dimensions. We also provide an interpretation of these factors. 73 Factor Structures and Interpretation Four R and four P factors were identified on the basis Of varimax rotation. These items are arranged in descending order of loadings in the tables that follow. The criterion used for the selection of an item in a par- ticular factor structure was a minimum loading of .25. ACtually, we used an g_priori criterion of .30 loading for an item to be included in our factor structure. From a practical point of view, often the criterion of conceptual clarity and logical consistency in a particular factor structure seems to be the most important criterion. The values of communalities for the items are also used as another criterion for selecting and rejecting an item. In our factor solution, R factors I through IV account for 36 percent of the total variance. The dominant theme of R factor I (see Table 7) seems to be belief in cause and readiness to sacrifice for the cause. Three items of Dogmatism Scale (items 17, 48, 13) with loadings Of .66, .63, and .48 are represented in this factor. Item number 17 and 48 have the two highest loadings in this factor structure. All three items designed to measure sacrifice orientation are also clustered in this factor. Items from the Dogmatism Seale cover the concepts Of intolerance towards the disbeliever, belief in cause and authoritarianism. The Opinionation item regarding rich getting richer and poor getting poorer suggests a sense of self-inadequacy. Similarly, item 46 (I buy for distinction) 74 .ucmEmNHocwnmmmlmamm .Ammmcosoficdv coduocflumao How summon .momsomomce .cOHuchMCHmO .wocmumHOuce .moamauomm .omsmo CH mmwamn "moEonam 0H. mm. cofluOcHumHo MOM mun H we mm. mv. magnumo osmusm Op mnemoccm He 5%. ve. nousso we: 0» musnfluucoo canonm cemumm Ne mm. 0%. co>mm£ CH musuom usonm >HHO3 ob mmmamcwnmmz me am. he. Hmuoom Hoom .HmEOHH magnumm scam om ow. we. manammom mm £058 mm moamauomm .mamwuo CH he hm. mv. mcon3 m.os momsmmu choEOm cmn3 wagon oooan >2 ma mm. am. mmsmo How ammo ummnm m ooemeuomm o.H ma we. mm. unsoucoo sundown msoum mnemmuuon somuom hm Av. mm. mxmumee bases 0» uoc amusumz am we. mo. mmsmo Suez AsmmchmQE omen me be. we. om>aa u.cmm£ mmsmo on nuez am: we N2 magenoq coflumwnomon muamnCOHumoso 5. Henssz smuH H .HOHUMW M NO COHmH0> CONflngflm om. OHQMH. 75 indicates concern for status. All in all, this factor seems to be loaded with items which indicate strong and rigid belief systems. Factor II (see Table 8) contains four items from the scale on traditionalism (57, 59, 61, 62) and has seven items (11, 12, 22, 24, 29, 39, 43) which measure charismatic orientation. The broad theme of this factor is devotion to leader, dependence and authoritarianism. The items number 24, 39, 57, 61 and 62 are particularly loaded with the con- cept of authoritarianism and Obedience. This factor, in general, seems to be concerned with charismatic involvement with special focus on leader orientation. The top five items have a loading of .50 and above. Items connected with the support of leader are particularly noteworthy. Some items show strong commitment to cause or mission. Item 52 seems to be a misfit in this factor. For one thing, it has the lowest loading in the whole factor structure (.18). In this sense, it does not qualify to be in our group of items. Also, in terms of conceptual framework it does not seem to fit prOperly, unless we interpret it to be an expression of an authoritarian vieWpOint about rejecting new ideas and life-styles from others. The broad theme of factor III (see Table 9) seems to be material success and achievement. Items concerned with hedonistic orientation, conspicuous consumption and concern for power and status seem to cluster in this factor. Also, this seems to be a bipolar factor because three factors 76 .AEchmaHmuHHonusmv mmoaomoH >HHEmm HmnOHuHOmuu .COHmmnOO msoum .oocmocmmmo .ucmEuHEEOO .mocmaomno .HOOmoa ou coHuO>oo paw «swamp "mesmnem so. me. measum when one memes 3m: udmuum on easoemmeo mm ha. Hm. mun m nuuo3 nonconm 3oz mm mm. am. :30 we no cocoonm uoc mm: NH hm. Hm. mucoemosm .mumeuo co masocomoo ca Esme 02 me ha. Om. umexw u.cmo mmocwuommeo meaumnmaou msouo mm am. mm. mumowma no means GD muwuume o>mwn Ha ma. mm. >m3 06mm monuOHo mmo new so use om em. mm. xomn xamu u.eeasonm eneno em me. we. OHHO3 meaocmumnmoa: How mumomoa ou acumen no mm. mm. mucmumm keno pasonm oaanv Ho mm. mm. becaueeeoo no xomn om OD HmHOEEH mm mm. em. mmxmumae muemmoo Hoomma on» uuommnm mm om. mm. mHOOmmH oouo>mo momma anucsov em me. mm. qoflusuaumcw oouomm m aaafimm mm me. we. unmwm Op GOADmCeEHmumo momma endow mm m: mcwomoq nodumwnomon mHHmGGOHummso an senses sane m.HH HOuomm M NO codmum> omneumafism. .m manna 77 .msumum cam Hm3om How cnmocoo .Eoonmuume Mom ommc .Hmusumcummsm Ge nuamm .oonom Op uHOmmH .cOHumEsmcoo moosoammcoo .Emeusuam>Om .Emwcooms "mmEonam om. Hm.l Hmzom amusum: Inmmsm seem as spasm w>m£ canonm mcoaum>m em mm. ov.l mueum Ho>o Gwmmnmn Ou HmoenuoCD mm ea. mm.u onmzoo m>HH :mnu one: crop up ou Hmuumm ow mm. mm. mmummu cam mmmeawn HmHHEAm mo monmflnw suHB we o>aa Ou >m3 ummm Hm mm. ov. mommcousm m>emasmEH mme H mm am. am. omsmo mcaocm>om How women 0» unemmm am He. Hm. codmmee mcHSmHHmEOOOm How OHQEmm Ou mummmoooz ma me. am. mmdecu msoummCmo mneoo moncm me mm. mm. moummmeo 0:3 mmosu mo Hmoaueuo OH Nv. mm. awe ummum on On coHueQEm umuoom mm 3.. S. 30 30am on 33 3:03 mm m: meaomoq GOHumeuommD OHHchOAummso GD H3852 EmuH MHHH Houomm m mo codmuo> omnaumeasm .m manna 78 (33, 40, 54) have negative loadings. These factors in a sense are at the Opposite end of the continuum of the under- lying dimension Of this factor. If material success and high achievement orientation is the broad theme Of this factor, then, naturally utilitarianism and pragmatism should be associated with this concept. That is why a rather flex- ible attitude towards martyrdom seems warranted. Also, bargaining for a better deal (item 33) does not seem to be unethical. There is also an underlying theme of making one's own destiny, which is quite conceivable with high achievement-orientation. It is in this perspective that faith in the supernatural (item 54) is rejected. It has the highest negative loading (-.51 ). This factor contains six items from the Dogmatism Scale (15, 16, 21, 35, 40, 51), and most of these are related to self—aggrandizement and concern for power and status. Interestingly, item 28 (I'd like to show Off) has the highest loading (.61 ) in this factor. This fits in well with the tendency to make impulsive pur- chases (item 36). These two items are supported by the theme Of ambitiousness to be a great man (item 35). The theme Of conspicuous consumption and the concern for power and status is well supported by a Spirit of innovation and adventurism (item 45, Enjoy doing dangerous things). Factor IV (see Table 10) consists of statements which tap an area related to reSpondents' "pre—ideological" beliefs: 79 .wuammoa .mocmocommo .coHumcowam .mmmdmmmamamn .momoooomcHlmawm "mMEman Ho. mm.| mmmcemmmn mmoono O.H om no. mm. couoaaco mama mm: madamm mmmmm am am. NV. Ommamwe mHmOMmH mo mOHuHHU hm hm. me. Hmomma Op nOauO>oo ceaam em ov. me. mmsoum anemones Mom odor Oz ma mm. me. mocoaum ooom team on onmm ea me. am. one m>onm on Don Uaoonm CQEOS mm mm. mm. mumnuo mucosamcw on mmB haco mmooosm Hmaumumz mm 0m. em. wanmuomae can mmmamams em: mm mv. mm. mcouz we so>m HOOMOH powwow caso3 om hm. mm. mmmcemmmncs mmcann mamam mcexmz 00 mm. mm. once masocmmm CH Emma oz mm mm. om. maamoeueuo we um xOOH mummcmnum mm me. No. medeQ szosx as made OOCOOHMGOU me am. mo. mmusaemm mum mamomm umoz mm mm. as. womam QEOmocOH m canoz we we oneomoq codumauomon mHHmCSOHumoso as HmnEsz EwuH m>H Houomm m mo cOamHm> omNHHmEEsm .oa manna 80 . . . These primitive beliefs are concerned with whether the world we live in is friendly or hos- tile, what the future has in store for us, the adequacy of the self, and what must be done to alleviate feelings of inadequacy (Rokeach, 1960, p. 75). The broad theme of this factor seems to be alienation, crisis-perception and self-inadequacy. It contains five items from the Dogmatism Scale (25, 30, 32, 44, 55). Items 32 (Man is helpless) and 44 (World is a lonesome place) are related to self-inadequacy. Similarly, items 25 (Strangers look at me critically) and 55 (Most peOple are failures) indicate a paranoid outlook on life. Item 30 has a negative loading. It seems to have fitted very well with factor III which was primarily concerned with material success and achievement. In the Rokeach framework, a sense of inade- quacy generates anxiety for COping with the unfriendly environment. It is in this sense that this factor seems to be at the other end of the continuum. This factor includes also some items on charismatic orientation (l4, 18, 27, 34, 50) indicating a sense of alienation and devotion to leader. P Factor Typologies R factor analysis was concerned with between-persons comparison. Under P factor analysis we delineate typologies on the basis Of within-person (ipsative) consistencies and compare the similarities of the profiles. In P factor analysis the variables become observations and the persons take the place Of variables. After having got the typol- ogies, the factor loadings of the respective types were 81 again utilized for calculating the z scores for making mean- ingful comparisons between the four types in relation to the fifty-four variables. (This was done by using CISSR program WRAP 2.) Out of the four P factor typologies, type I (see Table 11) has 40 persons, 30 white and 10 black. Out of the 10 black subjects, 2 have negative loadings. This group seems to constitute the dominant type amongst the four found. It is composed of comparatively older persons, the majority of them being married. This group seems to represent the typical middle class virtues of the American society. They are dedicated to the country and the community. They have a high 2 score for items related to sacrifice orientation. They show a high sense of commitment and cohesion. This type is positively correlated with type III and IV with r values of .51 and .72, respectively. It is negatively correlated with type II, which is composed Of all black respondents except one. The correlation is -.43 (see Table 15). Profile type II (see Table 12) is composed of younger and low educated persons. Except for one, all other respon- dents in this group are black. Also they have the highest loadings amongst all other groups. Their highest 2 score is on item 53 (I see no harm in spending more). They also Show high loadings on items concerned with self-inadequacy and alienation. This group rejects the church and leadership. 82 .002400OH o>4ummwc 30:0 mucoocoamou xom4n 03.4.c M .+00. 44 .:04m 04 .00.-0m. mm ..:0eo-:0z 0m ..00: 00.004040: 04 .x0040 0 .040500 44 .204: 00 .040 oenz H .om. 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This group could be called the traditional modernizer. Members of this type are highly dedicated, but for their own leader which might be different from the tra- ditional leader. They are disenchanted with the existing system of things. They are prepared to give blind obedience and unquestioning support for their leader. Thus, this group is significantly different from all others. The broad theme of this structure is material success and conspicuous consumption. P type III (see Table 13) has 23 persons in the group. Of these 16 are white and 7 black. .Except for one, all other black respondents have negative loadings. This group, like type I, is also highly loaded on similar items. For example, its highest 2 score is on item 30 (I'd choose happiness) which incidentally was the item for type I too. Type III is composed of mostly younger people. The level of education is equally distributed between low and high groups. These too are involved in conspicuous consumption and gain- ing a better life style for themselves. Profile type IV (see Table 14) seems to be composed of highly traditional and authoritarian people. This group has its highest 2 score on item 57 (Child should not be per- mitted to talk back). Most of the items from the tradition- alism scale have a positive 2 score among the members of this E35 0 .+00. 0 .0040 04.om.-00. 4N ..0400-coz m ..002 04 .0044402 0 .40040 0 .040600 44 .004: .040 0an 0 + 4 .00. 04 00 0 .04400400 0 .304 0 .040040 04 .04402 00 .0400 04 .304 .00004 40400 00.- 00004 4004004040 0040 0044402 40040 0402 304 0050» mm 00.- 0000 4004004040 304 004440: 40040 040: 304 00004 00 mm.- 00m0 4C04m0404m £042 04mc4m 04403 0402 304 0:500 4 mm.- 0000 4004004040 E54002 0044402 40040 0402 304 040 004 40.- 0000 4004004040 304 040040 40040 040: 304 00004 00 00.- 0040 04400400 00400: 004440: 40040 040: 0040 00004 40 00.- 0000 4004004040 304 0044402 40040 040000 304 00004 044 0N. 00mm 4504004040 E54002 0044402 20040 040E0m £042 0:50» mm 00. 0000 4004004040 0040 004440: 04403 040: 0040 040 00 mm. 0000 4004004040 E54002 0044402 04423 0402 304 00500 00 N0. 0000 4004004040 E54002 0044402 04403 0402 004m 040 00 00. 0000 4004004o40 0040 0044400 04403 0402 0040 040 00 00. 0000 4004004040 0040 0044402 04453 0402 304 0050» 04 00. 0000 4004004040 00400: 0044402 40040 040000 0040 040 0 00. 000m 4004004040 E54002 04mc4m 04403 0402 0040 @0500 mm 00. 000N 4004004O4m 304 040040 04403 0402 £040 @050» 0 00. 0000 4004004040 00400: 004440: 04403 040: 0040 040 00 00. 0000 4004004040 0040 0044402 04403 040: 0040 040 00 00. 0000 04400400 004: 0044402 04403 0402 304 040 0 00. 0000 4004004040 E54002 040040 04403 0402 304 0050» 04 mm. 0000 4004004040 304 040040 04403 0402 304 0050» 00 N0. 0000 4004004040 004: 0044402 04403 0402 304 0050» m 00. 0000 4004004040 0040 004440: 04403 040: 0040 040 00 00040004 00440 00404400 0E0004 054040 0000 x00 004400500 0mm 400E5z 400 4044402 4:00comm0m 444 0009 0444040 40 004404404004000 .M4 04409 865 0 .+00. 0 .0040 44 .00.-00. v4 ..0400-0oz 44 ..000 04.004440: 0 .40040 0.040000 0 .0040 0 .040 omuz 4 + 0 .00. 04 05 0 .04400400 0 .300 0 .040040 04 .0440: 00 .0402 04 .300 04 .00004 40404 00.- 0000 4004004040 004002 004440: 40040 0400 0040 040 044 40.1 0000 4004004040 304 0044402 40040 0402 004m 040 ~04 00.- 0000 4004004040 004002 040040 40040 040: 0040 00004 ~04 0m. 0000 4004004040 E54002 0044402 40040 0402 0040 0050» 044 00. 0000 4004004040 300 040040 04403 0402 300 0000» 00 00. 0000 04400400 004000 004440: x0040 040: 0040 00004 00 00. 0000 4004004040 300 040040 40040 0402 0040 00004 404 0m. 000m 4004004040 E54002 0044402 04403 0402 304 0050» m0 00. 0040 04400400 300 004440: 04403 0400 0040 00004 00 40. 0000 4004004040 E54002 0044402 #0040 0402 0042 @050» 004 «0. 000m 04400400 E54002 0044402 04403 0402 304 0050» mm 00. 0000 4004004040 300 004440: 04403 0402 300 040 00 00. 0040 04400400 0040 004440: 04403 0402 0040 00004 00 00. 0000 04400400 00400: 004440: 04403 040: 0040 040 00 00. 0000 04400400 0040 0044402 04403 0402 300 040 40 00. 0000 4004004040 00400: 0044402 04403 040: 0040 040 0 00. 0004 4004004040 004000 004440: 04403 040: 300 00004 00 00. 0000 4004004040 0040 004440: 04403 0402 0040 00004 0 0m. 0044 4004004040 304 0044402 04403 0402 304 040 00 00. 0000 4004004040 854002 0044402 x0040 0402 £04m @050» 004 00040004 00440 00404400 080004 054040 0000 x0m 004400500 000 400652 400 4044402 4000000000 >4 0009 0444040 40 004404404004000 .V4 04406 87 Table 15. Correlations between profile types for P typologies Profile Type Profile Type I II III Iv I 1.000 -0.425 0.510 0.720 II -0.425 1.000 -0.357 -0.255 III 0.510 -0.357 1.000 0.535 IV 0.720 -0.255 0.535 1.000 88 group. They are like type I and II, prepared to sacrifice and believe in the existing leadership. This group also seems to be composed of higher income group people. Out of 20 members in this group 8 are black. Three black members have negative loadings. Z Scores and P Typologies The arrays of item 2 scores provide us further insight into attitudinal responses of the respondents who were clustered in the four P typologies. Each 2 score measures weighted responses for each factor regarding each P type (see Appendix B for technical details). Tables 25 through 28 (see Appendix C) present the item 2 scores for each variable arranged in the order from most accepted to most rejected. This shows the hierarchy of item acceptance and rejection for each type regarding the variables contained in the four sub-scales. Table 16 shows the comparative rank- ing on the basis of hierarchy of acceptance to rejection, and gives the highest and lowest 2 scores. It is interesting that P type I and II which have a negative correlation (r==-.43) seem to be diametrically Opposite in their acceptance and rejection patterns. P type I has its highest 2 score on item 30 (I'd choose happiness) but P type II rejects it as its lowest item. 0n the other hand, item number 53 (No harm in Spending more) which is the lowest item (2 score==-2.01) for P type I has been accepted by P type II with the highest 2 score (1.36). P type I and type III have highest 2 scores on the same item (number 30). 89 Nb. >H 0cm H mama Hm. HHH cam H mama mv.l HH cam H mama cmmzumn ooHumHmuuou umm3oq mo.HI a maamowuano GE um xooH mummCMHum mm umwsmwm ov.~ v xomn xamu 0» omuuHEHmm on non vasosm oaano m mm >H mama mawwonm umm3oa mo.al a Emummm mo mmsmomn monsawmm mum mamowm umoz mm ummnmum so.~ a mmmcammmn mmoono c.H om HHH mews mawmoum ummsoq oo.al H mmmcammmn mmoono ©.H om umwnmflm mm.a v muoe mcwocmmm CH Sum: oz mm HH mQ>B maflmoum ummsoq Ho.m| a once moaocmmm ca Bum: oz mm umwnmum am.a m mmmcummmn mmoozu o.H om H mo>8 maamoum muoom N xcmm COfiumeommn HMQESZ _ msouwuumucH EmuH mama“ so mmuoom N no mawamH m>aumummeoo .oa manna 90 Similarly, P type IV has its highest 2 score on item 57, and the lowest on item 25 (Strangers look at me critically). Interestingly, the black respondents in general and P type II and type III in particular seem to be more permissive than the other two types. In summary, we can now examine the overall profile of the black and white respondents in our study in terms of our hypotheses and the two types of analyses. Some of our conceptualizations as presented in our model warrant an explanation in terms of the empirical results. Our major concern is in regard to the attitudinal dimensions of black respondents, particularly in relation to their rejection of church and leadership, which accounts for their different kind of charismatic involvement. It appears "religious frenzy and escapism" as provided by the traditional church does not have any meaning for these respondents. They have tried to secularize their belief systems. The achievement- oriented Negro youth (and even older men) seem to be trying to break away from the tradition of alienation and poverty. The most meaningful therapy of hope for them is provided not by the spirituals but by something more material and real-- like material prOperty. This prOperty is symbolic of their achievement and aspirations. This creates a halo around them and helps them in getting recognition. They seem to behave typically like children, and seem to be in need of 91 a father figure. 80 the theme of such a buyer becomes: "This little light of mine, I'm going to let it shine, everywhere I go." Real and live symbols of material suc- cess and achievement provide this halo to him. In our conceptualization, Cadillac becomes such a unique symbol for the black buyer. This then becomes his leader which provides much needed bliss and the real meaning to life. This also seems to suggest that there is a definite market segment in this subculture for which Cadillac will continue to provide this much needed savior of crisis. CHAPTER IV SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS A major purpose of this study was to explore the underlying motivations and psychosocial differences of black and white buyers of Cadillacs. The black community in the United States constitutes a distinct subculture—-the subculture of alienation and poverty. The need for belong- ingness, acceptance and recognition by significant others is very great for the members of the subculture. As such they strive to get over the tension and status anxiety by acquiring status symbols valued highly in the "societal community." Cadillac is such a status symbol, and many "Negroes do tend to own more Cadillacs than whites with comparable income." This research tried to explain the underlying reasons for such consumer behavior. The main focus of the study was on the charismatic involvement of the black and white buyers of Cadillac. For this purpose, the concept of charisma was utilized to explain the consumer behavior. So far the concept has not been used in the field of marketing. Actually, the concept of charisma has been used primarily to explain the dynamics of organizational change and historical processes 92 93 in societies. Studies on leadership have been largely speculative while using this concept in relation to the behavior of followers. Only Berger (1963) and Nyomarkay (1967) come close to applying empirically the concept for seeking an explanation to historical events. This study has been more ambitious in the sense that it not only used the concept of charisma, but it also pioneered an attempt to test empirically the concept in the area of consumer behav- ior. Following the Parsons-Shils approach to charisma, this study used the concept in a highly secular sense. The attri- bution of the extraordinary, unique and "supernatural, super- human," is being made not to a leader or person but to an object. A theoretical model of charismatic behavior was deve10ped which comprised behavioral variables relating to the psychodynamics of the individual actor. These variables were divided in three distinct planes--cognitive plane, affective plane and conative plane. An instrument was deve10ped based on this model for obtaining relevant infor- mation from the respondents. The main strategy adOpted in the instrument was to find an explanation for behavior in terms of cognitive and affective belief-disbelief systems of individual actors. A subject list of Cadillac buyers was obtained from dealers in two metropolitan areas of Michigan, Lansing and Detroit. This procedure had to be adOpted because the con- ventional sources did not provide information regarding the racial composition of the buyers of automobiles. Since the 94 enquiry related to a rather sensitive area of psychosocial behavior of black and white respondents, data were collected by personal interviews. The interviewers were trained beforehand, and were made thoroughly familiar with the methods and the objectives of the research. Black inter- viewers were used for collecting information from black respondents. The respondents self-scored that part of the questionnaire which related to the attitudinal variables. The first part of the questionnaire contained enquiries about the socio-economic characteristics of the respondents. After the completion of the interviews a total of 143 com- pleted questionnaires were obtained. Out of these 7 were later rejected because of certain discrepancies.a The data relating to 136 observations were transferred to computer cards after prOper scrutiny. The punched data were checked before being fed into the computer for analysis. Existing computer programs at the Computer Institute for Social Science Research at the Michigan State University were used. Analysis was made at two levels. One was to test the theo- retical model by studying the differences between the mean scores of black and white respondents on the various factor clusters as hypothesized in the model. Another level of analysis was to subject the data matrix to factor analysis for delineating R and P factor structures. Four R and P factor typologies were obtained by using varimax rotation. 95 Findings A major guiding hypothesis of this study was that black respondents would show greater alienation and crisis perception than white respondents. This hypothesis was confirmed. There was a significant difference between the white and black in regard to crisis perception, self- perception and need disposition. On all these concepts black respondents scored higher. White respondents, on the other hand, scored higher on the concept of identity search-- they were more ambitious. All these differences were signif— icant at .05 level. A second guiding hypothesis was that black respon- dents would show greater charismatic involvement than white respondents. In general, no significant difference was found between the white and black on their overall scores on items measuring charismatic involvement. However, on a cluster of some items which were designed to measure atti- tudinal response towards leaders, white respondents showed higher charismatic involvement than black reSpondents. No statistically significant difference was found in the loyalty orientation of white and black respondents. A set of subhypotheses were designed to measure action-orientation of the respondents towards the charismatic symbol. No significant difference was found between white and black respondents in regard to their orientation to innovation, low communication need, rationalization and 96 bargaining effort. There was, however, a significant dif— ference between white and black response regarding readiness to sacrifice. It seems the black respondents are disen- chanted with the organized church and traditional leadership in general. Their rejection of church and leadership is suggestive of a secular change in their belief-systems. For them, symbols of material success and socio-economic achieve- ment seem to provide better therapy of hOpe for the present as well as the future. Implications In our attempt to study the charismatic involvement of the white and black buyer of Cadillac, the main focus of research was on the psychodynamics of the individual actors concerned. In our study the general profile of white and black buyer seems to belie the existing notions. As was mentioned earlier in Chapter III, the profile of both black and white buyers in our study is different from the one pre- sented by Fortune (1968). Our buyer is both younger and belongs to a lower income group. The findings in general suggest the existence of a definite market segment of the subculture in American society. This segment seems to be perennially charisma hungry; and as-such it will continue to look forward for some symbol which may enable it to bridge over the gap of insecurity caused by a sense of anxiety. In this context we can see a definite utility of this approach to explain consumer behavior, which is only one aSpect of 97 total human behavior. The focus, then, becomes not one particular segment or race, as such, but on the whole seg- ment of the subculture. The notion that race alone is of significance does not seem to be a valid approach. In fact, one may conceive the possible differences in the black and white only in degree, if at all. Otherwise, both may be equally involved charismatically with a symbol or object. Inembers of this subculture do not want to accommodate to the pathology of their environment but want to break away from that suffocating and stifling status. In this sense, they engage in innovative behavior. This innovation takes them on to new pastures, new life-styles and status symbols. Incidentally, this is also the strategy for bringing change in a stagnant society. One can very well imagine a tradi— ‘tional society in which rigid belief systems in church and other religious values are associated with attitudes of self- <3iscipline, puritanism and low-consumption. Thus, there are some definite implications of this study in the consumer behavior area in particular. The fact 'tlnat there are consumers in every day life who are not the tlfifpical utility maximisers in the economists' sense, but who Ealre more typical cases of pathology warrants a definite mar- lteeting strategy. As we have seen in this study, many facts Seem to belie the generally held notions on consumer behav- ji<>1:. ‘When a person with a pension income of $5000 goes out arid: buys a Cadillac for $8000 he certainly seems to be dif— ferent from the average consumer. But there are a number of 98 such consumers who daily indulge in such behavior in the real world. These considerations therefore should enable the firm to plan its marketing strategy in a more realistic way. Another implication of this study is related to the approach that the firm might take in utilizing the product charisma to its best advantage. As in the case of human leaders, so here also, it would be a mistake to dilute the charisma component of the product. Continuous efforts must always be made to maintain and renew the charismatic aura around the product. Therfore, well planned strategies for image building must be carried out. Since it is a fact of life that "charisma has a tendency to be routinized or wither away," it is necessary that efforts be made to main- tain the product image. By analyzing the relevant behav- ioral variables as prOposed in the present research, charis- matic behavior could be better explained. In the area of marketing theory, this may help in providing a building block for more sophisticated buyer behavior theory, partic- ularly for the luxury goods. Perhaps, this might also help the marketing theorists in a more meaningful product classi- fication. It seems not all products would qualify to be called charismatic. The technique of measurement and the instrument itself, would be refined further; and thus it may be used in studies on organizational change and moderniza- tion. 99 Other uses and applications of this study have been given earlier in Chapter I. .We will briefly present some observations about the psychocultural dynamics particularly relating to black community, in relation to their charis- matic involvement and buyer behavior in general. It has been suggested in Chapter III that rejection of church and the traditional leadership on the part of black (and also quite a few white) respondents suggests a secular shift in their belief-systems. A number of interpretations of secu- larization have been given. Schneider (1970) mentions at least four different ways in which secularization of reli— gion or religious belief could be understood. Parsons looks at secularization primarily as social differentiation, with- out involving any decline in religion. According to him, the individual in modern society gains and works for freedom from the stifling hold of organizations, and thus the "indi— viduals have come to be by and large free of organizational control and in this sense to act autonomously on their own responsibility." Also secularization has meant the loss of the magic of religion. Most important of all a transition from religious values to "worldly and material values" when religion gets transformed precisely in the direction of worldliness, is crucial to the Negro subculture. This view of secularization fits in with our interpretation. Those who become charismatically involved with a symbol in modern societies may belong to a particular type. Commenting on the hypocrisy of the Christian Church and the 100 shift in the stand taken by Negro leadership, Washington Jr. (1964, p. 74) suggests that some leaders have lost their commitment to "religion as a force of change." This also means a break from the traditional Negro folk religion. Those who become charismatically involved with Cadillac are empathising with a psychological reality in an intuitional way. They are engaging in a romantic kind of mentation in relation to the Cadillac. This mode of mentation also sug- gests that such peOple might belong to a type--the charis— matic type, who are perhaps, on the "immature" side of the maturation scale. Their affective and emotive needs are greater as compared to those who belong to the rational type. Since their need for security and dependence is great, they are more likely to be looking for persons and symbols which may have magical, mythical or supernatural and extraordinary powers to provide that much needed security. Such peOple also continuously need some kind of father figure or image as has been suggested by Knickerbocker (1948) in leader- follower situations. This relationship is heightened to a transcendental stage in relation to charisma. Marcus (1961, pp. 236-238) says: The very notion of transcendence means the stepping out of one's present self into an idealized alter-ego and this total transformation requires the projection of the self into some- thing beyond it. In this empathic projection, the individual experiences vicariously a tran- scendent state of being by identifying himself with an immanent ideal. 101 This process provides the individual a release from the tensions of his life. To the typical Negro respondent in our sample, then, Cadillac appears as something much more than a mere means of conveyance. He is identifying himself with this alter-ego of a charismatic hero, and by so doing he realizes that transcendental self. He is also likely to relate himself to the object in a phenomenological-existen- tial sense of "eXperiencing" and knowing and understanding. The verstehen involves nonrational orientation as contrasted to the typical Weberian or Rorschachian rationality. Might not one suggest,then, that the true believer is involved via his romantic mentation in "phenomenological ontology"? Is not the true believer engaging in Kantian "productive imagination"? These questions will remain to be answered as more of the social science enquiry begins to seek episte- mic relation with cause and event. Limitations of the Study 1. The concept of charisma, although having a more gen- eral applicability in the social science, may have limited applicability in the area of marketing. In- sofar as our concern is to delineate the prOperties of charisma, which cause emotional and nonrational response on the part of the actor, we seem to be generating an "affective theory of action." 2. From the practical point of view, the study will have applicability for only those products which could be identified as charismatic. 102 3. The differences in charismatic orientations of Black and White in terms of their Cadillac ownerships were studied in two metropolitan areas of the north. The results may not necessarily hold true for the two races in the south. Thus, generalization in respect of peOple of other areas (or even cultures) may not be possible. 4. Differences in psychocultural variables of the actor in a different cultural or geographical context may be another limitation on the generalizability of results. 5. Differences in values and perception of the charis- matic image in a different situation (non-crisis) or cultural context may be another limitation to gener- alizability (e.g., RollséRoyce may not take the position of Cadillac in the United States and vice- versa). §£Eagestions for Further Research So far our concern has been mainly the buyer of Cadillac. In other words, we were primarily concerned with the effect of charismatic image influence of a product in creating a strong predisposition, and thereby motivating buyer behavior. Because of the emotional surrender on the 53‘313t of the actor, there may be almost no cognitive disso- histhee, since the buyer may show a tendency to rationalize or icieEalize the choice/object. Further research, therefore, C=c>tlld be directed in the following areas: 103 1. More objective and meaningful research may be done by identifying the charismatic leader and charisma- prone follower. Such leadership studies could be made in fields of management, political science and sociology. 2. Attention could be focussed on developing a compre- hensive "charisma instrument" which could be Opera- tionalized for studying leader-follower relationship. HOpefully, the present research will provide the first building block. 3. Studies on modernization and social change may utilize the concept of charisma in a more meaningful way. Particularly the social scientists and the administrators and government planners could find the concept of charisma useful for planning adminis= trative strategies for bringing reforms and changes in nonmodernizing societies. It might be fruitful to explore whether people in gemeinschaft societies are more Charismaprone than those in gesellschaft societies. Furtflier Research in Marketing Area 1.. An analysis of the effects of the purchase of the product in question. 2. An analysis of the long-run loyalty behavior or charismaproneness of the households. 104 3. An analysis of whether the concern for prestige and status does give rise to further demonstration effect in terms of striving for a better house, and other appliances or a general approach to a better quality of life. 4. An analysis of the various properties of charisma and its place in a general buyer behavior theory. 5. Simulation studies may be made by incorporating the various variables of the charismatic image for pre- dicting future buyer behavior. Future research in the area seems definitely war- :ranted. Its greatest sc0pe and promise lies in the social esciences, particularly in relation to leadership and orga- riizational change. Charismatic leaders have provided the ggreatest stimulus for resource mobilization and overall ssocio-economic modernization in almost all backward econ- cnnies. Perhaps, it is there that the concept could be more effectively ut i1 ized . APPENDIX A INSTRUCTIONS AND QUESTIONNAIRES INSTRUCTIONS TO INTERVIEWERS Interview Kit Each interviewer will be provided with the following: a. List of subjects b. Identification card and letter c. Questionnaires, instructions, and respondent cards. Subject Lists All interviewers will be supplied with a list of subjects at least one day prior to the day interviewing will take place. The list will contain the following details for each subject: a. Name and address b. Telephone number c. Respondent number d. Year and model of car purchased e. Date on which interview is to be conducted. Rho Will Be Interviewed The person who purchased the car and in whose name tzhe Cadillac is registered, will be interviewed. If the car :is owned jointly, then, the person in whose name the car is registered, will be interviewed. It is immaterial whether the owner of the car is the head of the household or not. §fletting Up Time for Interview If the subject is not at home or cannot be inter- Viewed on that day, try to get another appointment within a day or two. If a subject does not want to be interviewed, hiAB/her name should be drOpped from the active list, and a "Enition be made to that effect in the subject list. Since most of the subjects might be working, interviews may be fixed in the evenings by making telephone calls. Th\esmest ionna ire The questionnaire is divided in two parts: part one (contains questions on social typology. Part two contains c1"1e§tions on the instrument. Part two should be self- admln istered by the respondent. In cases where a respondent 105 106 cannot read or understand the interviewer will have to explain the items to be scored. Be sure to explain the importance of the study and the role that the respondent can play by his/her cooperation. Also, please check that the respondent's number appears on the front of the ques- tionnaires and the upper left corner of page. Care should be taken to explain the study in terms of buyer behavior and general socio-economic characteristics of the household. At no stage should it be told that the study has anything to do with the buying behavior of Cadillac owners. MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY DEPARTMENT OF MARKETING AND TRANSPORTATION ADMINISTRATION EAST LANSING, MICHIGAN CADILLAC BUYERS BEHAVIOR STUDY Serial No. Date/Year of Purchase Following details may be inserted without any inquiry. Sex Male Female Race White Black Other 1. Name of buyer 2. Address: Home Phone Office Phone 3. Make and model of car purchased: New Model Any other detail Used Model Any other detail 4. Price paid: $ 5. Income category of the buyer: 6. Credit facilities utilized: 107 108 Questionnaire CHARISMATIC BUYER BEHAVIOR STUDY DEPARTMENT OF MARKETING AND TRANSPORTATION ADMINISTRATION Michigan State University East Lansing, Michigan Respondent No. Code Name: Street Address: City State Zip Code Telephone Purchase Date/Year: Interview Date: YearAModel and Make of Car: Interviewer's Name: Total Interview Time: DO NOT WRITE BELOW THIS LINE NO: Group: 109 MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY East Lansing, Michigan CHAR ISMATIC BEHAVIOR .s'rupx Good Evening! (Good afternoon, etc.) I am . . We are a group interested in making a study Of peOples' likes and dislikes and Opinions about certain social issues. I look forward to having your COOperation in this study. May I come in? (After entering, make sure you do not sit tOO far from the respondent, because you might have to help him/her in filling in the questionnaire.) Explain briefly the nature and purpose Of the interview. Begin with Part I Of Questionnaire. Respondent's Code No: 1. 110 Part I: Social Typology Address: (interviewer should fill in the address, if it is different from the one provided in the subject list) (11) Listed address ( )1 Present address ( )2 Please check the box which correSponds to your age category: (hand card #1) Under 25 years (12) 25 years tO 34 years 35 years to 44 years 45 years to 54 years 55 years to 64 years 65 years and more AAAAAA vvvvvv 0‘ U1 #- u N l-' Marital status: Please check the box which corre- sponds to your current marital status: (hand card #2) Single (13) Married Divorced Separated Widowed Other (specify) AAAAAA VVVVVV m U1 4) to N IF" Religion: What would you say is your religion or faith? Protestant ( )1 (14) Catholic ( )2 Jewish ( ) 3 Other (specify) ( )4 If the respondent has some religion/faith, then go to 4.1, otherwise skip to 5. 4.1 How Often do you go to your church? Once a week (15) Once a month Occasionally Don 't care AAA/K VVVV 4}- u N l-' 7$10,000 to $14,999 111 Education: Please check the box which corresponds to the extent of your formal education: (hand card #3) Grade school or less (16) Some high school Graduated from high school Some college Graduated from college Graduate or advanced degree AAAAAA VVVVVV 0‘ U1 :5 m N H Occupation: What would you say is your employment status? Self-employed (l7) Employed Unemployed Other (specify) AAAA vvvv uh u N l-‘ If employed, please check the box which corresponds to your job: (hand card #4) Head Of large business (18) Professional and technical Managerial and Official Clerical and sales Supervisory (craftsmen & foremen) PrOprietor of small business Semiskilled Laborer and service worker Farmer and farm manager AAAAAAAAA VVVVVVVVV \O Gd 0‘ U1 :5 0) N H Income: Please check the box which corresponds to your total income before taxes last year: (hand card #5) Under $5,000 (19) $5,000 to $9,999 $15,000 to $24,999 $25,000 and above AAAAA VVVVV U" h (A) N H Please check the box which corresponds to the source Of the greatest part of your family income: (hand card #6) Inherited wealth (20) PrOfits and dividends Earned salary Earned hourly wage Other: (please Specify) AAAAA vvvvv U1 lb U) N H DO you rent or own your house? Rent ( (21) Own ( NH 8.1 1C). 10.1 112 What is the monthly rent that you pay for your house/apartment? (hand card #6) More than $500 ( )l (22) $251 to $500 ( )2 $151 tO $250 ( )3 $101 to $150 ( )4 $75 to $100 ( )5 $50 to $74 ( )6 Less than $50 ( )7 What would be the value Of your house, supposing it were put on sale today? (hand card #7) More than $50,000 ( )l (23) $35,001 to $50,000 ( )2 $20,001 to $35,000 ( )3 -$15,001 to $20,000 ( )4 $10,000 tO $15,000 ( )5 Less than $10,000 ( )6 What is the size Of your family? (Include children supported by you who are away to school.) (If respondent is single,proceed to 10.) 2 to 4 ( )1 (24) 5 to 6) ( )2 7 to 8 ( )3 More than 8 ( )4 DO you own a car/cars? If so which one/s: Make Model/Year HP/Cylinderg. Price When Bouqht 1. 2 3 If you have owned car/s previously, other than the one/s you have now, please give the following details: (Please give details for your first car and the last three cars, except the most recent one. Begin with the last and go back to previous ones.) .Model/ Year_ Price Duration MEEE. Year HP/Cylinder§_ Bought Paid Used lst car bWNI—J C O O 10.2 10.3 10.41 1C).5 .1C).6 113 Which is the latest car that you have bought? Model/ Date Of Price Credit Make Year HP/Cylinders Purchase Paid Used 1. What would you say was the most important motivating factor in your decision to buy the most recent car? (Check one) Best buy for money paid (25) Long life car Sound and dependable car Prestige and status car Workmanship & styling Other (specify) AAAAAA vvvvvv 0‘ U1 uh u N I" Are you satisfied with your latest car? Yes ( )1 (26) NO ( )2 If the answer is Yes, go to 10.5, otherwise skip to 10.6. How would you rate the level of satisfaction that you have received from your latest car? Excellent ( )1 (27) Good ( )2 Fair ( )3 Poor ( )4 Supposing there are some (imaginary or real) reasons for dissatisfaction with your latest car, would you still: Plan to buy this brand in future’ ( )1 (Yes) (28-29) ( )2 (N0) Recommend it tO your friends ( )1 (Yes) ()2 (N0) Which gas do you use in your most recent car? Regular Always ( )1 Sometimes ( )2 Never ( )3 (30-35) Premium Always ( )1 Sometimes ( )2 Never ( )3 How Often do you use your most recent car? Usually always (36) Fairly Often Sometimes Sparingly ”AAA VVVV A no N P" 114 11.2 DO you wash your latest car yourself or get it 11.3 12. 12.21 122.2 washed? (37-40) Wash myself Always ( )1 Sometimes ( )2 Never ( )3 Get it washed Always ( )1 Sometimes ( )2 Never ( )3 How Often is your recent car washed? Once a week (41) Once a fortnight Once a month Once in two months More than above AAAAA vvvvv U1 0h W N l" How many dealers did you visit before purchasing your most recent car? One (42) Two Three or more AAA VVV wNI-J How much time did you take in finalizing the purchase of your most recent car? Less than 7 days (43) Two weeks One month More than a month AAA/"N VVVV 450.2 N 1" Did you try to get a better deal on your most recent car? Yes ( )1 (44-48) NO ( )2 If the answer is Yes, how much effort did it involve? Shopping effort Many visits ( )1 Some visits ( )2 One visit ( ) 3 Bargain over price Much effort ( )1 Some effort ( )2 None at all ( )3 On special occasions, do you Offer your friends/guests Scotch as a drink? Yes ( )l (49) NO ( )2 Would you like yourself to be Offered Scotch as a drink on similar occasions at other places? Yes ( )1 (50) NO ( )2 13.2 14. 115 If the answer is Yes, go to 13.2. Given the choice, which brand/s Of Scotch would you prefer to have? (Rank the brands in order Of your preference, the best being No. l and so on) l. ( )1 (51—56) 2. ()2 3. ()3 List three Of your most cherished possessions? 1. ( )1 (57-58) 2. ()2 3. ()3 116 Part II Questionnaire The research is related to what the general public thinks and feels about a number of social and personal ques- tions. There is nothing like a good-bad or right-wrong answer to the questions that follow. The best answer to each question is your own personal impression or Opinion. The questions cover many different points Of View; you may find that there are some statements with which you agree strongly while there may be some with which you may disagree equally strongly. There might be others about which you might be uncertain. Whatever the case, you can be sure that many peOple share your views. And for our purpose, it is immaterial whether you agree or disagree with a statement: is that you should give your What does matter, however, l'ICDnest and frank Opinion or view, on these statements. We are interested in knowing your personal View. The questions are designed to get your reaction to Certain issues and concepts. Please keep in mind that we are interested in knowing what these issues mean to you. 258 you will notice each question can be scored on a seven 5) 0 int scale . 117 Example: 0. Success depends on hard work. I DISAGREE I AGREE very much on the whole a little uncertain a little on the whole very much ()1 ()2 ()3 ()4 ()5 ()6 ()7 M: o The numbers are given only for purpose of tabulation and computer analysis. They do not give any ranking or order of priority. You should be guided by your own judgment. 0 Please check only one, and do not put more than one mark in reply to a question. 0 Be sure to mark every question—-do not omit any. 0 Please move directly from one scale to the next—-do not check back and forth. 0 Don't bother yourself about the items. It is your first impression that is important. At the same time, please try not to be careless. We value your judgment. 0 Please try to fill in the scales at a fairly quick Speed. 0 If you have any questions or want clarification on some item, please feel free to ask. 118 Part II --Quest ionnaire 3.3.3 Instead of worrying that I have to know everything myself, I would rather leave the matters in the hands Of our trusted leaders. 1.1.3 Even if I want to succeed in life, it may not be possible for me to make it on my own. 2.2.2 My blood boils whenever a person stubbornly refuses to admit he's wrong. 1.2.3 It is hard to find good friends these days. 2.1.1 If a man is to accomplish his mission in life it is sometimes necessary to gamble "all or nothing at all.“ 3.3.2 I have a tendency to be too critical of those who disagree with my ideals. 2. l. 2 A man who does not believe in some great cause has not really lived. 1.2.6 Sometimes I feel there is no hope for mem- bers of minority groups in this society. 3.103 I would be willing to sacrifice a great deal for the cause which I believe in. 1.1.6 I belive it is only too true that the 135-C?! are getting richer and the poor 99tting poorer. 2.2.4 I? the long run the best way to live is to pick friends and associates whose tastes and beliefs are the same as one's own. 3 . 4 . 1 OnCe we have chosen a leader, we should support him even if he makes some mis~ takeS. After all, it is only human to make mistakes. 3 - 2 - 1 Even though there may be nothing new in a new product, it is worth a try. 2 - 1 . 4 gist this country needsmore than laws t. it Political programs 18 a few courageous, Cane-less, devoted leaders in whom the people plit their faith. i" 2 ~ 2 loci‘fe often felt that strangers were 1’19 at me critically. f' 2 ~ 1 g1rcz'up which tolerates too much differences Of . exiopln ion among its own members cannot 3 st for long. T83 ‘ 1 o . are Se who critiCIse our trusted leaders likely to mislead us. ()1()2()3()4()5()6()7 ()1()2()3()4()5()6()7 ()1()2()3()4()5()6()7 ()1()2()3()4()5()6()7 ()1()2()3()4()5()6()7 ()1()2()3()4()5()6()7 ()1()2()3()4()5()6()7 ()1()2()3()4()5()6()7 ()1()2()3()4()5()6()7 ()1()2()3()4()5()6()7 ()1()2()3()4()5()6()7 ()1()2()3()4()5()6()7 ()1()2()3()4()5()6()7 ()1()2()3()4()5()6()7 ()l()2()3()4()5()6()7 ()1()2()3()4()5()6()7 ()1()2()3()4()5()6()7 (ll) (12) (13) (14) (15) (16) (17) (18) (19) (20) (21) (22) (23) (24) (25) (26) (27) 119 1.4.2 Given the choice, I would like to Show Off and impress Others instead of being lost in the crowd. 2.3.1 Once a commitment is made to a cause it is downright immoral to go back on it. 1.3.4 If I had to choose between happiness and greatness, I'd choose happiness. 3.4.2 It is only natural for a person not to admit his mistakes. 1.1.1 Man on his own is a helpless and miserable creature. 3.5.4 It is unethical to bargain over price at a one-price shop. 2.3.3 Usually I am prepared to give my blind devotion and unquestioning support to my favorite leader. 1.3.1 While I don't like tO admit this even to myself, my secret ambition is to become a great man. 3.5.1 Often times I end up in making impulsive purchases. 2.3.2 A person who betrays his group is beneath contempt. 2.1.3 These days the only way to influence others and win their reSpect and approval is by achieving material success, irreSpective of the means used. 3.1.1 What the youth needs today is strict discipline, rugged determination, and the will to work and fight for family and the country. 103.3 It is better to be a dead hero than to be a live coward. 3.5.2 I find it irritating and annoying to pursue meticulously the various details before deciding to buy a product. 2.3.4 IEven though it means some hardship, a jgmrson chould contribute to his church. 1.2.4 LI see no harm in depending on others’ judgments. 1u1.2 I?undamentally, the world we live in is a EDretty lonesome place. 3.2.2 ”E enjoy doing something dangerous for the t hrill Of it. 2 - 3.3 when I buy something rather important, I make sure that it gives me some distinction. )l )4 )4 )4 )4 )4 (28) (29) (30) (31) (32) (33) (34) (35) (36) (37) (38) (39) (40) (41) (42) (43) (44) (45) (46) 120 3.1.3 In times of crisis, every one should sacrifice as much as he can. 1.3.5 It is only when a person devotes himself to an ideal or cause that life becomes meaningful. 1.4.4 It is meaningless to worry about a future heaven when one cannot live comfortably in the present. 3.4.4 Once I accept some one as a leader, I would like to defend him even though it is clear that he might be wrong. 1.4.6 It is sometimes necessary to resort to force to advance an ideal one strongly believes in. 3.2.6 It is usually difficult tO accept new ideas and life-styles from other cultures. 1.4.5 I see no harm in spending more than one earns. 1.2.5 Everyone should have complete faith in some supernatural power whose decisions he obeys without question. 1.1.5 Most people are failures and it is the system which is responsible for this. 3.2.1 I always put on and Off my clothes in the same manner. 4.1.1 A child should not be permitted to talk back to his parents. 4.1.2 Women should not be placed in positions of authority over men. 4.1.3 The family is a sacred institution divinely established. 4.1.4 Making plans only brings unhappiness because plans are hard to fulfill. 4.1.5 The most important thing that a child can learn is to Obey his parents. 4.1.6 The only way to understand a confused world like ours is to listen to leaders and persons in whom we have confidence. 4.1.7 One can have confidence only in people he knows well. 4.1.8 The happy family has many children. )1 )1 )2 )2 )3 )3 )4 )4 )4 )4 )4 )5 )5 )5 )6 )7 )7 )7 (47) (48) (49) (50) (51) (52) (53) (54) (55) (56) (57) (58) (59) (60) (61) (62) (63) (64) 121 The interviewer should fill in the following by Observation after the interview has been completed: 15.0 Respondent's NO. Code: (1-5) 15.1 Respondent's Sex Male ( Female ( (6) VV NH 15.2 Respondent's race White ( )1 (7) Black ( )2 Other ( )3 15.3 Respondent's dwelling type Single house (8) Attached on one side Du-plex Two family dwelling Four-plex Apartment Other (specify) AAAAAAA vvvvvvv \l 0') U1 uh» U) N 1'" 15.4 Give some idea of the surrounding neighborhood and the kind Of locality where the respondent lives: Luxurious private residence area (9) Middle class dwelling area Working class dwelling area Slum and inner city VVVV OPWNH AAAA 1.55.5 Make some Observations about the impression you got about the respondent's style Of living as evidenced by the furnishings and decorations in the house (particularly the living room): Luxuriously furnished and tastefully decorated ( )1 (10) Average furnishing and decoration ( )2 Poor furnishing and lack Of organization ( )3 Other (specify) ( )4 Thank you very much for your COOperation. Let me assure you £E:§fi33idu that all the information that you have given to us will - Itleain confidential. We appreciate very much your COOpera- ion for this research. (Good night: good bye, etc.) 122 ORGANIZATION OF ITEMS UNDER FOUR SUB-SCALES TOTAL 54 ITEMS Dogmgtism Item 59. 1 l3 2 15 3 16 4 17 5 21 6 25 7 26 8 30 9 32 10 35 11 40 12 44 13 48 £14 51 :15 55 II Charisma Orientation 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 I III Purchase PrOpenSity 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 I IV Traditionalism- Modernism .I_t_e_fi_1 N9. 47 57 48 58 49 59 50 60 51 61 52 62 53 63 54 64 123 THEMES TAPPED IN SCALE ITEMS Item NO. A. Dogmatism in Ques. 1. Aloneness, isolation, helplessness [32,44] 2. Self-inadequacy, need for martyrdom [40] 3. Self-aggrandizement, concern with status and power [30,35] 4. Paranoid outlook on life [25,55] 5. Authoritarianism, belief in cause, [17,48] intolerance [13,16,26] Narrowing [21] 7. Knowing future [15] 8. Belief in force to revise present [51] B. Charisma 1. Crisis perception, alienation, despondency [12,14,18,20] 2. Faith and devotion to leader [22,24,34,50] 3. .Dependence [11,43] 4. Sacrifice [19,42,47] 5. Faith in supernatural [54] 6. Intolerance Of criticism, rationalization [27,31] 7. Commitment to cause, betrayal [29,37,39] 8. Innovation [45] [There are some methodological limitations regarding the generalizability of results Of this study. For example, t211£3 items selected from Rokeach's Dogmatism Scale are typi- C=ESILly suited for our purpose and serve the needs Of our I'l'l'C>Om HO duodenum e.m m o.ma NH o.HH ma mmmaaoo Eoum omumSOMuO «.mm ma ~.H~ be H.- om mmmaaoo meow ~.mm ma m.- ma m.~m Hm Hoonom some Eoum omumsomuo m.o~ ma m.ma as H.ma om Hoonom amen meow e.oa m m.m m o.m m mmma HO Hoonom memuo X z x z x z muommumo HmsOeumooom. xomam muonz Hmuoa mucmosommmu mo Godumoooo mo coHusnawumwo mosesooum .ma manna 131 o.ooa mm o.ooa om o.ooa oma Hmuoe m.a H m.m m m.m e mmoommmu oz 5.0a o m.m N m.m m Hmmmsme Eumm new Hmsumm ®.ma Ha o.oa m m.ma ma uoxwo3 moa>umm com Hmuonmq H.0H m N.H a v.5 OH omaaflmeEmm H.0H m m.>a ea m.ma mm mmosamon Hanan mo HODOHumoum m.a H m.m m m.m v AsmEouom oom ngmummMOV anoma>wmmsm H.n e o.oa m m.m NH mmamm new Hmoauwao m.m m m.aa m H.m Ha HMHOHMNO pom Hmaummmsmz v.am ma m.mm ON m.>~ mm Hmowcromu pom amso«mmmmoum m.H a m.h o H.m h mmmswmsn momma mo ommm s z s. z e. 2 now no mass xomam wuasz Hmuoe muomosommmu mo DOn mo memo mo SOADSDaHumHo mocmsomum .om magma 132 Table 21. Frequency distribution of other sources Of income Other Sources Total White Black Of Income N % N % N % Inherited wealth 24 17.7 15 18.8 9 16.1 Profits & dividends 89 65.4 51 63.8 38 67.8 Earned salary 12 8.8 9 11.2 3 5.4 Earned hourly wage 6 4.4 4 5.0 2 3.8 Other -- -- -- -- -- -- NO response 5 3.7 l 1.2 4 7.1 Total 136 100.0 80 100.0 56 100.0 Table 22. Frequency distribution Of religion of respondents Total White Black Religion N % N % N' % Protestants 109 80.1 57 71.2 52 92.9 Catholic 13 9.6 11 13.8 2 3.6 (Lavish 2 1.5 2 2.5 0 0.0 ()ther 12 8.8 10 12.5 2 3.5 Total 136 100.0 80 100.0 56 100.0 1333 ov.3| 30.3- om.o me.3- muwruo mu:053wc3 Ou >m3 >3c0 mmwousm 3m3umumz mm vh.o Nv.3 v3.3l mN.3 udEwusoo commode msoum mc3>muumn COmumm em vo.o- m>.o M3.3 eo.o mommrouom w>3m3ode3 mme 3 Om em.o em.3 mm.o mm.3- one ummum on Co co3u3nEm umuomm mm no.0: mm.3l hm.on m3.o- woOmO3 0» co3uo>mo 0:33m em mo.o mm.o- 30.3- Nv.o OO33Q uo>o :3mm3mn 0» 3m03rumco mm mm.3- ~m.3- mm.o ~3.o- m3nmuom3a pom mmm3d3mc Cm: mm mv.o No.3 00.3- mo.o wxmum3e u3epm Cu uoc 3musumz 3m 00.0 no.3 00.3- 00.3 mmmc3aamc omooco v.3 03 3o.o- ¢~.o- mm.o- me.o ucoEu3EEOo so xOmn cm 03 3mHOEEH mm m3.o- 3m.o mm.3 h~.3- moo 3Onm 0» ox33 63:03 mm em.o- mm.ou hm.o 3m.o- pmo3m3e mumpmm3 no m03u3uo em m~.o- 03.0 mv.o- Om.o um3xm u.Cmu mmocmumwm3p mc3um3o303 d3530 mm 00.3- 33.0- 03.3 40.3- 3330033330 me am xOO3 mummcmuum mm 03.0 03.3 03.3 03.3 mumomm3 emuo>mo memo: suucsoo 03 30.0 33.0 m0.3- ~0.0 333 0 auto: suscoum 3mz 03 no.0 mm.o- mm.o mv.3 mmxmum3e 033mmmo uOOmm3 quddsm mm mo.o m3.o mm.o ~m.o- moummu pom mmm33on 3M33E3m «0 mocm33m 2033 m3 o>33 Cu amz ummm 3m 03.3- om.o m3.3- m~.o- usuoom 300d .uer33 mS3uumm £03m ON 33.3 oo.~ mm.o- mv.3 mmsmu 303 3mop ummum m OO3w3uomm 0.3 m3 mm.3- mo.o- ~m.o- mm.3- mascum >D3HOC3E 30m one: 02 m3 hm.ou -.3 vm.3- mo.o oo>33 u.:mmr omsmo 0: £033 cm: 53 V3.o- mo.on m3.3 om.oa Ooummm3o 0:3 mmoru mo 3mO3u330 o3 mv.o- om.3 m¢.o m~.o- :O3mw3E mc3rm33mEOOUm 30m m3nEmm Cu yummmoomz m3 3~.3- 00.0- 00.0 00.0- mocm333 coco 0:33 03 030m 03 no.0 ~m.3 mn.o- om.o mc033 m.oc momswou msomEOm cmcz m33on OOO3b x2 M3 30.3- mo.o- vN.3 mm.o :30 we so compose Don was m3 m~.o mv.o- mm.o mm.o muoomm3 mo moon: :3 muwuums o>mm3 33 >3 333 33 3 co3uo3uommo m33mcco3ummso awash m33uoum mouoom N mound 3030mm :3 usessz EODH mmmxu m33woum 350m 30w mmuoom N .mm O3nt 1L34 m0.0- 00.0- 0m.0I m0.0- 00003300 >006 000 033800 >000m 00 0m.0- ~0.3| 00.3 00.01 0000000 0300x 03 x300 0000030000 m0 ~0.o- 00.3I 33.3 00.0 03003 0030000000005 000 0000003 00 000033 m0 00.3 00.0- 03.0- m0.0 0000000 >000 035000 03300 30 30.31 3m.3- 00.0: 00.31 00003000005 000300 00030 003x02 00 00.3 03.0 00.0- ~m.3 00305030003 000000 0 >33E0m 00 30.0- 03.3- 00.0 00.3- 006 0>000 00 000 035000 00503 mm 00.0 30.0- 20.0- 000 0003 0300 000 033600 03300 00 m0.3 03.01 No.3 00.0 >03 0800 0000030 000 000 00 050 00 mm.3- 00.3- 3m.0 00.31 00053300 000 030000 0002 mm 00.0- 03.3- 00.3I m~.0- 00300 300500030050 0600 03 00300 0>00 035000 000>00>m 0m no.3l 0m.3| 0m.3 30.- 0008 00300000 03 800: oz mm 00.3 mm.0 0m.0 0m.0 003%00 0033 000 00003 300 000000 00 035030030 mm 00.0 00.0 00.3 03.3- 00500 003000>00 000 00000 00 000000 30 00.0: 0m.3- 00.0 0m.0- 00033 03 00>0 000003 000000 03503 om 03.3- mm.o 00.3- 00.0I 00>000 03 00500m 05000 00003 00 00030030002 00 00.0 00.3 33.3I nm.3 00500 0033 3500030005 0033 00 mm.3 30.3 00.3- 00.3 03030000 00 0058 00 003030000 .030300 03 n0 ~3.3 00.0 00.3- m~.0- 00300030030 000 050 H 00 00.0- 00.0 3m.3 mm.3- 000300 050000000 00300 woflcm 00 00.3- 03.3I 00.0 00.0l 00030 05000003 0 03003 00 m0.0 mm.0n 0N.0 00.0 000080050 .000000 00 003000000 03 600: oz 00 00.3 00.0 00.3- m0.3 003500 030 00 0050300000 035000 000000 00 03.0 00.0: 00.0- 0m.0 0330000 050050 00 00300004 30 00.0- 00.0- N0.0I nm.0- 030300 0>33 0000 0300 0000 0D 00 000000 00 ~0.3 00.0 00.0 00.3 00030 00 0030003230000 00000 :000» 00 >3 333 33 3 00300300000 0030000300050 00009 0330000 000000 N 0000< 000000 03 000052 E003 005030000|Im~ 03009 135 Table 24. Inter—group ranking of P factor 2 scoresa Profile Types Item No. in Ques. Description I II III iv 11 Leave matters in hands of leaders 3 4 l 2 12 May not succeed on my own 3 4 2 1 13 My blood boils when someone refuses he's wrong 2 l 4 3 14 hard to find good friends 2 4 3 l 15 Necessary to gamble for accomplishing mission 2 3 4 1 16 Critical of those who disagree 1 4 3 2 17 Man with no cause hasn't lived 3 l 4 2 18 N0 h0pe for minority groups 2 3 4 1 19 I'd sacrifice great deal for cause 3 l 4 2 20 Rich getting richer, poor poorer 3 1 4 2 21 Best way to live is with friends of similar beliefs and tastes 1 4 3 2 22 Support leader despite mistakes 4 3 l 2 23 New product worth a try 3 l 2 4 24 Country needs devoted leaders 3 4 2 1 25 Strangers look at me critically 2 4 3 l 26 Group tolerating differences can't exist 4 l 3 2 27 Critics of leaders mislead 3 4 2 l 28 Would like to show off 1 4 3 2 29 Immoral to go back on commitment 4 l 2 3 30 I'd choose happiness 3 l 4 2 31 Natural not to admit mistake 2 l 4 3 32 Man helpless and miserable 3 4 2 1 33 Unethical to bargarin over price 4 l 2 3 34 Blind devotion to leader 4 3 l 2 35 Secret ambition to be great man 1 3 4 2 36 I make impulsive purchases 2 4 3 l 37 Person betraying group beneath contempt 3 l 4 2 38 Material success only way to influence others 1 4 3 2 39 Youth needs determination to fight 3 2 l 4 40 Better to be dead hero than live coward 4 1 2 3 41 Annoying to pursue details 4 l 2 3 42 Person should contribute to his church 4 l 2 3 43 N0 harm in depending on others' judgments 4 3 l 2 44 World a lonesome place 3 4 2 l ‘45 Enjoy doing dangerous things 1 4 3 2 446 I buy for distinction 2 1 3 4 ‘47 In crisis, sacrifice as much as possible 4 l 3 2 «48 Life meaningful with cause 3 l 4 2 ‘39 Meaningless to worry about future in heaven 3 l 4 2 5() Would defend leader even if wrong 3 4 l 2 51 Resort to force for advancing cause 1 4 3 2 522 Difficult to accept new ideas and life styles 3 l 2 4 513 N0 harm in Spending more 1 4 2 3 54% Everyone should have faith in some supernatural power 4 l 2 3 55 Most people are failures 2 4 1 3 56 Put on and off clothes same way 2 3 l 4 57 Child should not talk back 3 1 2 4 58 Women should not be above men 2 4 l 3 59 Family a sacred institution 3 1 2 4 60 Making plans brings unhappiness 1 4 2 3 €31. Child should obey parents 3 l 2 4 €52 Listen to leaders for understanding world 3 4 l 2 63 Confidence only in known persons 2 4 l 3 64 Happy family has many children 1 3 2 4 \ aRank of 4 is highest and l is lowest. 1336 4: HUME. 0 0 0 03 08003 003000000 0 0 0 0 08003 000000000< 0m.3: 00.3: 3m.0 00.3: 00353303 030 030000 0002 mm 00.0 00.0 00.3 03.3: 00500 003000>00 303 00303 00 030000 3m 00.0 00.3 33.3: 0m.3 00500 0033 3530030008 0333 00 00.3: 03.3: 00.0 00.0: 00030 08000003 0 03303 00 00.0: 00.0: ~0.0: 0m.0: 030300 0>33 0000 0300 0000 00 00 300000 00 0m.0 0m.3 m0.0 00.3: 008 00030 00 00 00303080 003000 mm 00.3: ~m.3: mm.o N3.0: 030030038 000 00030300 002 mm 00.0 00.N 00.3: 00.3 000030000 000000 0.3 On NN.0: 03.0 00.0: 00.0 003x0 0.000 00000303330 0030030300 05030 0m m0.3: 33.0: 0m.3 00.3: 0330030330 08 00 0003 030000300 mm 00.0 03.0 00.0 mm.0: 000000 000 0303300 3033830 30 0000333 0033 03 0>33 00 003 0000 3N 00.0: NN.3 00.3: 00.0 00>33 0.0000 00500 00 0033 002 03 03.0: 00.0: 03.3 00.0: 00300030 003 00000 30 30030330 03 00.0: 0m.3 m0.0 0m.0: 0030038 0030033080000 303 030800 00 330000002 m3 00.0 mm.3 00.0: 00.0 00033 0.00 0000303 0000800 0003 03300 00030 02 m3 >3 333 33 3 00300330000 0330000300050 00000 0333030 03 30085z 8003 003000 N 00330 300000 08003 803008000 00000 0333030 3503 303 003000 N .mm 03008 137 03 33 03 0 08003 003000fl00 03 0 03 N3 08003 0000000000 00.0: 03.3: 00.3: mm.0: 30300 303500030050 0800 03 00303 0>00 035000 000330>m 00 00.0: 00.3: 00.0 0m.0: 00033 33 00>0 300003 000300 03503 00 00.3 30.3 00.3: 00.3 03030000 00 0058 00 003333000 .030330 03 00 00.0: 00.0 30.3 m0.3: 000300 050300000 00300 >ohcm 00 30.0 30.0: 0~.o 33.0 008050033 .mumzuo co mc3ccmam0 c3 230: oz 30 00.3 00.0 00.3: m0.3 003500 030 00 0050330000 035000 000300 m0 mv.3 00.0 00.0 0~.3 00033 00 0030003830000 0000: 00503 mm 00.0 ~0.3 03.3: 00.3 00800000 0000000 05030 003303000 000300 mm 00.0: 00.3: 03.0: 03.0: 300003 00 00300>00 00330 00 00.0 No.3 00.3: 00.0 0000038 03800 00 000 3035002 30 30.0: 0m.0: mm.0: m0.0 0008038800 00 0000 00 00 3030883 0m 00.0: 00.0: 00.0 3m.0: 0003038 0300003 30 0030330 mm 00.0 03.3 03.3 03.3 0300003 0000>00 00000 0300500 00 30.0 mm.o: mm.o m0.3 mmxmum3e 0030000 300003 0300090 mm 03.3: 00.0 03.3: 03.0: umuoom 3000 .300033 0:30000 0030 om 33.3 00.~ 00.0: 00.3 00500 303 3000 00030 0 003333000 0.3 03 0m.3: 00.0: «0.: 00.3: 005030 30330038 303 0000 02 03 3~.3: 00.0: 00.0 00.0: 0000333 0000 0033 00 0300 03 30.3: 00.0: 00.3 mm.0 :30 >8 00 0000050 000 002 m3 0~.0 m0.0: 00.0 m0.0 0300003 30 00000 03 0300008 0>003 33 >3 333 33 3 00300330000 0330000300050 00039 0333030 003000 N 00330 300000 03 300852 8003 08003 00300000330 03008033000 000%0 0333030 3503 303 003000 N .0m 0300B 1.38 m m m m mEmuH coHuownwm o o o o mEmuH wocmummuoa mv.a ha.on mo.a mm.o >m3 mamm mmcuoHu “mo wcm co usm om hO.HI vm.al om.a Ho.NI muOE asaocmmm CA Sum: 02 mm hm.a mm.o o~.o om.o mwaxum mwfla 6cm mmmnfl 3m: unwoum Ou wasunmam mm ma.au mm.o mm.au om.on cm>mm£ CH mucusm udonm >uu03 Ou mmmamCACmmz mv NH.A mo.o mo.a- mm.ou cofiuucflumflc new was H ow va.o vv.on mm.os vm.o magnumn msmusm Ou mcflxoc24 av o¢.an Ho.au om.o mn.au mumcuo mucmaamcH Ou >m3 xaco mmmuusm Hmflumumz mm v0.0- mm.o ma.a v0.0 mmmmcousm m>HmasQEA mme H om mo.o mm.OI HO.AI m¢.o woaum um>o Cwmmumn Ou Amofinumca mm ma.on Hm.o mm.a nm.al uwo 303m 0» wxfla vase: mm mm.o HH.o mo.au ~m.o xuu m nuuoz uusooum 3mz mm >H HHH HH H Godumfluomwo muAmCCOAumwso mwmxe maamoum a“ “massz EwuH mmuoum N >muu< uOuomm mEmuH >uwmcwmoum mmmnuusm mmmxu maauoum u30m “Ow mwuoom N .nm manme 139 m n m v mEmuH cofluowflmm m a m v mEmuH mUCmummuoa 3.0- 3.0- 3.0- 3.0- 531.5 :2. mm; 323 Egg 3 Vm.0| mo.Hn vo.a hm.OI mCOmuwm c3ocx CH Naco wocmvdwcoo mo NV.OI vo.au HH.H v5.0 vauo3 mcHUcmumumvc: Mew muwcmma Ou cwumflq mo oo.a om.ou 0H.OI mm.o mucmumm xmno vasonm waaco Ho Ho.au Hm.Hn mo.on nv.al mmchmmmncs wmcHuQ mcmaa meaxmz oo mo.a va.o mv.0| mm.a Goduzuwumcfi Umuomw m NHHEmm mm Hm.on ma.au mm.o vo.al awe w>onm mg no: vasogm cmeoz mm ov.~ AN.on mw.OI no.0 xomn xamu uoc vasocm UHHLU hm >H HHH HH H Godumauomwo muHmccoflumeO mmmxe maawoum CA quESZ EmuH mmuoom N xmuuc “Ouomm mEmuH Emaamcofiuaomue mmmxu oHHmoum uSOM qu mwuoom N .mm magma 140 oo.H mo.ou mo.o va.o mm.o mo.o mm.o| mo.o mH.o mo.0| Hm.o Av.ou mv.o nm.o va oo.a oa.o ma.o Ha.o mo.o ov.o av.o ~H.OI hm.o mm.ou hm.o mm.ou na.ou ma oo.a va.o ma.o mH.o H~.o v~.o mo.o mH.o ma.on mm.o mo.o mo.o NH oo.H mm.o hm.o ma.o hm.o mo.o ¢N.o ma.o no.0 hm.o ma.o Ha oo.a mm.o mo.ou mm.o mo.o mm.o oa.o 00.0: mm.o mm.o 0H oo.a 00.0: mo.o ha.o ma.o om.o mH.ou ma.o Ha.o m oo.H mm.o 00.0: mv.o No.0: 00.0 mm.0| av.on m oo.H mH.o Nv.o Va.on om.o mo.o va.o n oo.a om.o ov.o Ho.o hm.o mm.o o oo.a vH.on mm.o v0.0 mo.o m oo.H om.on Hm.o mv.o v oo.a m~.on mN.OI m oo.H om.o N oo.a a va ma NH HA 0H m m n o m v m m a a .d O 38 8 NOW. I S n1 D IS ON SI d8 d3 9 a. 1.2 e a o o u e o o m u. 1.8 a D. a a a 1 4| mumumnao HOuUmm I. a 1.1 3 3mm u 3 X“ u Be 88 98 1T. 11. 3 p 06 I. p. O I E 6 61 do. IU 31. as U. I. 12 O n A I. T. I at. O 33 a. at. a 1.... u u e I. 3 n S s US... d ds u u e I. 3 I. .A a m I. 1, .4 3. o T. T 3 I. 3 u e 3 K .1. I. a u I. B o a 3 3 1. O O ,b 2 .4 u 8 I. O u u e I. D u .4 o T. u o U Aoma u zv mHQEmm Hmuou new mumumsao Heuumw cmeHDOm MOM Xauume GodumamuuoouwucH .mm magma 141 Table 30. Median test of significance between white and black scores for charismatic orientation ‘ ¥ Be low or Above Median White Black Age : Young Old Young Old Be low median 16 20 20 10 At or above median 16 28 16 10 N 32 48 36 20 x2 0.255 0.014 P n.s. n.s. Education: Low High Low High Be low median 17 19 21 3 At or above median 31 13 27 N 48 32 48 8 x2 5.473 0.003 P .02 n.s. B IBL IOGR APHY BI BL IOGR APHY Adorno, T” gt_§1, The Authoritarian Personality. New York: Harper and Row, 1950. Ake, C. 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