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LIBRA my Michigan 1: Cate University This is to certify that the thesis entitled AN EXPLORATORY STUDY OF THE RELATIONSHIP AMONG ANXIETY, SELF ESTEEM AND ACHIEVEMENT USING COGNITIVE STYLE MATCHING presented by Adelbert Jones has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for l Ph.D. Education degree in Major professor DateNovember 15, 1977 0—7639 lllllllllllllllll W _. “W11; DO NOT CIRCULATE SE ONlY AN EXPLORATORY STUDY OF THE RELATIONSHIP AMONG ANXIETY, SELF ESTEEM AND ACHIEVEMENT USING COGNITIVE STYLE MATCHING By Adelbert Jones A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfiilment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Education 1977 ('7‘ J/olc :\ ABSTRACT AN EXPLORATORY STUDY OF THE RELATIONSHIP AMONG ANXIETY, SELF ESTEEM AND ACHIEVEMENT USING COGNITIVE STYLE MATCHING By Adelbert Jones Purpose of the Study The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of Educational Cognitive Style on the level of anxiety, self esteem and achievement. The gifted child was the population from which a sample was drawn using the "Purposive" sampling technique. The "degree of match" between the cognitive styles of the subjects and of the instruc- tional mode was calculated and subjects were assigned to one of two groups, namely: (1) matched (defined as group l--highest degree of match) and (2) non—matched (defined as group 2--lowest degree of match). The Cognitive Style Interest Inventory for Secondary Students was administered to determine the "cognitive style map" of each sub- ject. Three instruments were administered as pretest-posttest depend- ent measures. The three instruments were: (1) the State Anxiety Inventory for Children (STAI-C State), (2) Self Esteem Inventory (SEI) and (3) achievement tests related to instructional content information. Adelbert Jones Procedures The Cognitive Style Interest Inventory for Secondary Students was administered to the subjects. One week later the three pretest- posttest measures were taken and intervened by a two hour instruc- tional period. The cognitive style of the instructional mode was determined by a panel of experts. This factor together with the cognitive style map of the student was used to calculate the degree of match. Desigh of the Study For this study, the Analysis of Covariance statistical tech— nique was employed to test for no significant difference between group one and group two means on a posttest measure with the pretest measure used as a covariate on levels of A-State anxiety, self esteem and achievement. The Pearson Product Moment Correlation statistical technique was used to test for no significant relationship between A—state anxiety and self esteem for (l) pretest measures and (2) post- test measures for gorup one and group two. Findings The findings are listed serially and are presented in two parts. The first part is devoted to findings which address the results of the Analysis of Covariance statistical technique. In part two the findings are concerned with the results of data analysis using the Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficients. Given, then, the analysis of data on the effects of cognitive style matching on A—State anxiety, self esteem and achievement, the findings are: Adelbert Jones (1) There was no significant difference between posttest means of the matched and non-matched groups on A-State anxiety. (2) There was no significant difference between posttest means of the matched and non-matched groups on self ~ esteem (3) There was no significant difference between the posttest means of the matched and non-matched groups on Instruc- tional Sets I and II achievement measures. Given, then, the analysis of data on the relationship between A-State anxiety and self esteem the findings in the second part are listed below. (4) There is a significant inverse relationship for the matched group between A-State anxiety and self esteem on the pretest measure. Moreover, there is no significant relationship between pretest measure of the two emotionalities for the non-matched group. (5) There is a significant inverse relationship for the matched group between A-State anxiety and self esteem on the posttest measure. Moreover, there is no significant relationship between posttest measure of the two emotionalities for the non—matched group. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Many individuals contributed to the development of this study. This writer wishes to express his appreciation to the following persons: To Dr. James Page for his professional guidance as chairman and for his support, patience and understanding; To Drs. Normal Bell, Castelle Gentry and Louis Tornatzsky who as members of the advisory committee offered questions, answers and support; To Drs. James K. Brewer, Robert Gagné and Charles D. Spielberger, State University System of Florida, faculty members, for their support and guidance; ' To Dr. Ronald Bass, Dr. William Terrell, Mr. William Breese and Mr. Lester Rosenbloom for their assistance as the panel of experts; To Dr. Paul B. Mohr, Dean College of Education, Florida A. & M. University for providing encouragement and opportunities to complete the task; To my wife Ursula, and children, Crystal, Karla, Deryk, Gerard and Yolandé for their assistance, guidance and patience. 1'1 TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES ......................... LIST OF FIGURES ......................... Chapter I. INTRODUCTION ....................... The Purpose ...................... Significance of the Study ............... Definition of Key Terms ................ Conceptual Framework .................. Background of the Study ................ Achievement ..................... Anxiety and Self Esteem ............... Cognitive Style ................... Individual Differences ................ Research Questions ................... Hypotheses ....................... Summary ........................ II. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ................. Anxiety ........................ Anxiety as an Emotional State ............ State-Trait Anxiety ................. Relationship Between Anxiety and Academic Achievement .................... Regulating Anxiety Levels .............. Self Esteem ...................... Relationship Between Self Esteem and Academic Achievement .................... Relationship Between Anxiety and Self Esteem ..... Cognitive Style .................... Cognitive Style Mapping--A Cartesian Product ..... Studies in Educational Cognitive Style ........ Summary ........................ Page v vii —J kDQNONUW-bwmd 12 T4 15 18 18 18 24 26 27 29 Chapter Page III. DESIGN OF THE STUDY ................... 50 Sample ......................... 50 Representativeness of the Population .......... 51 Instruments ...................... 52 State-Trait Anxiety Inventory for Children ...... 52 Self Esteem Inventory ................ 53 Cognitive Style Interest Inventory for Secondary Students ...................... 53 Data Collection Procedures ............... 54 Assignment of Student Sample to Groups ........ 55 Hypothetical Description of Degree of Match ...... 56 Statistical Approach .................. 6l Summary ........................ 62 IV. ANALYSIS OF DATA AND FINDINGS .............. 66 Findings of the Study ................. 67 Correlation Data on Specific Variables ........ 77 Summary ........................ 80 V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ............. 82 Overview ........................ 82 Conclusions ...................... 82 Discussion ....................... 84 Implications and Recommendations ............ 89 APPENDICES ........................... 9T Appendix A, State-Trait Anxiety Inventory: Reliability and Validity ........................ 92 Appendix 8, Gifted Child Program Description and Criteria for Eligibility/Participation ............... 98 Appendix C, .Authorization to Conduct Research; .Instructional Program Description ............. l03 Appendix D, .The Educational Science of Symbols and Their Meaning; .The Educational Science of Cultural Determinants (Determinantics) ............... 126 BIBLIOGRAPHY .......................... T38 iv LIST OF TABLES Table Page 4.l Degree of Match, Pre- and Post Test Scores and Change in Anxiety for Matched Group (Group l) .......... 68 4.2 Degree of Match, Pre- and Post Test Scores and Change in Anxiety for Non-Matched Group (Group 2) ........ 69 4.3 Degree of Match, Pre- and Post Test Scores and Change in Self Esteem for Group l ................ 70 4.4 Degree of Match, Pre- and Post Test Scores and Change in Self Esteem for Group 2 ................ 71 4.5 Degree of Match, Pre- and Post Test Scores and Change in Achievement for Group 1 and Group 2 Involved in Instructional Set I ................... 72 4.6 Degree of Match, Pre- and Post Test, and Change in Achievement for Group l and for Group 2 Involved in Instructional Set II ................. 73 4.7 The means and Standard Deviation Pre- and Post Test Measure of A-State Anxiety for Groups 1 and 2 ...... 74 4.8 Degrees of Freedom, Mean Square, F Value and Significance of F for the Analysis of Covariance on A-State Anxiety. . 74 4.9 Degrees of Freedom, Mean Square, F Value and Significance of F for the Analysis of Covariance on Self Esteem. . . . 76 4.10 Instructional Set I Degrees of Freedom, F Values and Significance of F for Post Test Achievement for a Group 1 and Group 2 Sub-Sample Analysis of Covariance . . 77 4.ll Instructional Set II Degrees of Freedom, F Values and Significance of F for Post Test Achievement for Analysis of Covariance Group l and 2 Sub-Sample ..... 78 4.l2 Correlation Between Pre- and Post Test Scores for Groups l and 2 on A-State Anxiety and Self Esteem . . . . 79 Table Page 1 Test-Retest Reliability Coefficients for Fourth, Fifth and Sixth Grade School Children Over a Six-Week Interval ......................... 93 2 Item Remainder Correlation Coefficients for Individual STAIC A-State and A-Trait Items .............. 95 3 Mean Scores on Individual STAIC A-State Items Under Norm and Test Conditions ................. 96 4 Correlations of the STAIC A-Trait Scale with Measures of Aptitude and Achievement Among Elementary School Children ......................... 97 vi LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 3.l Mode of Understanding for Instructional Set I ........ 57 3.2 Mode of Understanding for Instructional Set II ....... 57 3.3 Mode of Understanding for Instructional Set III ....... 58 3.4 Mode of Understanding for Instructional Set IV ....... 58 3.5 The Hypothetical Cognitive Style of the Instructional Mode--The Referrent .................... 60 3.6 The Hypothetical Cognitive Style Map of an Individual's Mode of Understanding ................... 60 4.l The Means and Standard Deviation Pre- and Post Test Measure of Self Esteem for Groups l and 2 ......... 75 vii CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION The concern for growth in students by educators is two dimen- sional. The first of these dimensions is concern for the emotional health of learners and the second is concern that students reach their full achievement potential.) There is general consensus that specific emotions influence the lives of individuals, and the emotional state of high anxiety debilitates achievement and lowers self esteem. When meeting the individual needs of students, the goal of educators, then, should be to enhance the intellectual growth of students by placing them in learning situations where optimum anxiety levels are experienced. The Purpose Educators involved in the delivery of instructional services should design a method with the expectation that gains in efficiency and effectiveness of learning will be realized. A proven method is to adapt instruction to the individual characteristics of each learner. Students who manage stressful situations successfully have learned coping skills that condition the individual to react emotion- ally to those situations at an optimum anxiety level. The purpose of this study was to determine whether or not the matching1 of a learner's cognitive style with the presentation 1 modality (hereinafter instructional mode) will affect the learner's level of anxiety and level of self esteem and level of achievement in a learning situation. The basic hypothesis is that by utilizing cognitive style matching, self esteem will be heightened and anxiety will be regulated to an optimum level for achievement. Significance of the Study_ There is a need for educators to achieve an understanding of the emotional phenomenon of anxiety and self esteem. The methods developed in this study, that distinguish differing feeling states and the intensity of such states investigated over a particular time frame, will add to such understanding. In addition, the long neglected phenomenological experiential properties of the emotions investigated in this study, together with individual responses associated with emotional arousal, will contribute to knowledge of the instructional side effects of anxiety and self esteem. As a result of this investigation, contemporary research on individual differences in anxiety and self esteem within the Context of habit theory may point the way toward systematic use of person- ality tests in research on human interaction. The combined use of cognitive style mapping as applied in the educational sciences as a measure of habituation and the use of the trait-treatment interaction methodological approach will add significantly to the knowledge base in cognitive psychology. Hence, this study may provide educators with improved techniques for meeting the individual learning needs of students. Definition of Key Terms A-State anxiety is a: transitory emotional state or condition of the human organism that varies in intensity and fluctuates over time. This condition is characterized by subjective, consciously perceived feelings of tension and apprehension, and activation of the autonomic nervous system. Level of A- State should be high in circumstances that are perceived by an individual to be threatening, irrespective of the objective danger; A-State intensity should be low in non- stressful situations, or in circumstances in which an existing danger is not perceived as threatening.2 A-Trait anxiety is a: relatively stable individual difference in anxiety proneness, that is, differences in the disposition to perceive a wide range of stimulus situations as dangerous or threatening, and in the tendency to respond to such threats with A-State reactions. A-Trait may also be regarded as reflecting individual differences in the frequency and the intensity with which A-States have been manifested in the past, and in the probability that such states will be experienced in the future. Persons who are high in A-Trait tend to perceive a larger number of situations as dangerous or threatening than persons who are low in A-Trait, and to respond to threatening situations with A-State elevations of greater intensity. Self esteem denotes a generalized evaluation of an individual involving standards and reflected in self-appraisal. It expresses an attitude of approval or disapproval. It is a subjective experience which the individual conveys to others by verbal reports and other overt, expressive behavior. There is a direct relationship between the individual's subjective judgements of his worthiness and subse- quent overt behaviors.4 Educational cognitive style is a: concept for describing an individual's mode of behavior in searching for meaning. It is identified by an individual's disposition to use certain types of symbolic forms versus others; the derivation of meaning of symbols from roles the individual has found most satisfying; and the manner in which he reasons. An individual's cognitive style is determined by the way he takes notice of his total sur- roundings--how he seeks meaning--how he becomes informed.5 (See Appendix D for related definition of terms.) Conceptual Framework This study is associated with the body of research classified as Trait-Treatment Interaction (TTI). This methodological approach, formally known as Aptitude-Treatment Interaction (AT1), concentrates on the effects of interaction between some characteristic(s) of the stimulus/task/treatment and of the subject/receiver/performer on responses/behavior. The experimental variation employed in this study is the Trait Treatment Process Interaction (TTPI) which is essentially the cognitive process approach coupled with traits. The implication is that both traits and treatments, as suggested by a number of inves- 6 interact in combination with the way information is tigators, processed to affect outcomes.‘ Since the information processing approach is used in this study, there are several events which must be considered. They are as follows: (l) the antecedent events to learning, which include expectations, learned strategies, dispositions, and other individual differences; (2) the events which take place simultaneously with the presentation of information (these include attending, perceiving, registering, selecting, coding and storing, which while functioning as individual differences, also interact with individual differences in noncognitive traits); and (3) events subsequent to the learning tasks. Included in this class is the organization or reorganization of information as it is used, retrieved and/or transferred.7 Consideration of these events singularly or collectively is the source of theories about individual differences, i.e., achieve- ment, anxiety, and self esteem, as well as methods for measuring individual differences, e.g., cognitive style mapping. While many of the antecedent events are viewed as individual difference variables, some, such as presentation modality, are manipulable. In support of 8 suggests that materials, their organization and this belief, DiVesta presentation, must be analyzed in terms of processes the learner uses, and that media can be employed to link what the learner knows to new information being received. Hence, this study is consonant with the TTPI methodological approach, because it includes assessment of the comparability between learner and instructional mode through cognitive style matching, a treatment whereby content information is processed and in turn interacts with anxiety traits to affect the outcomes in anxiety states, self esteem and achievement. (See TTPl Flow Chart, page 64.) Background of the Study This study includes four concepts which are important to meet the individual needs of students. These concepts are: (l) anxiety, (2) self esteem, (3) achievement and (4) cognitive style. Anxiety and self esteem, functioning as emotional responses, are the indi- vidual characteristics to be regulated in this study. Achievement theory assumes that a person's belief about the likelihood of attaining success in task performance lies between the perception of the task/stimulus and the final achievement-related response. Educa- tional cognitive style is employed as a method to personalize instruc- tion. This method was used in the study to reconcile characteristics by matching a learner's cognitive style to the cognitive style of the instructional mode. Achievement The relationship between student achievement and the emotions of anxiety and self esteem is an important aspect of this study. Terrell9 suggests that the relationship is clarified by viewing emotions within the framework of McClelland's affect arousal model of d,10 emotions are not achievement motivation. According to McClellan motives, but are considered the basis for motives. Emotions, like motives, involve a present state and a future state which are viewed as two points on an affective continuum. In McClelland's model, motivation is described as a change in affect. The affects of concern in this study are anxiety and self esteem. Further clarification may be gleaned in Atkinson'sn concep- tualization of achievement motivation as the resolution of conflict between a person's "hope of success" and his "fear of failure." The suggestion of Atkinson that a fear-of-failure motive is observed in the assessment of A-Trait and Sarason's12 placement of emphasis on aroused self-deprecating tendencies for high A-Trait individuals in experimental situations, may have an effect on achievement. In both models incoming stimulation arouses an affect which is revealed in approach and avoidance behavior. The behavior is a response to an affect which may have a motivating effect or a debilitating effect on student achievement when a person is involved in competition against a standard of excellence. Anxiety and Self Esteem While many studies in achievement motivation indicate that mild anxiety has a motivating effect on learning, high anxiety also 13 Student anxiety may be maladaptive to psychological development. is an important individual characteristic because the associated arousal function has the potential of being regulated. In support, 14 suggests that experimental literature on anxiety is Spielberger consistent with the hypothesis that situations which pose direct or implied threats to self esteem produce differential levels of A-State in persons who differ in A—Trait. As a unitary emotional state, anxiety may be differentially influenced by psychological threats, because life experiences cause individuals to develop response modes to varied types of stressors. When individuals experience high anxiety, they meet temporal sequences of stressful events that can be interpreted as direct or implied threats to self esteem. The effect of high levels of anxiety experienced by a student performing learning tasks may serve to activate cognitive processes that have effectively regulated A-State anxiety to a level which increases the probability of a student's success in performance. Stressful situations that are encountered frequently lead an individual to develop coping responses that quickly alleviate or minimize the threat and immediately reduce the level of A-State anxiety. An individual also may respond to threatening situations with defensive processes that serve to reduce the intensity of A-State reactions. Once a stimulus situation is appraised as threatening, the assumption is that an A-State reaction will be evoked and the inten- sity of this reaction will be proportional to the amount of threat the situation poses for the individual. The reaction is also affected by the duration of the evoking stimuli and the individual's previous experience in dealing with similar circumstances. High levels of A-State anxiety are experienced as unpleasant and may serve to initiate cognitive or motoric processes that have effectively reduced A-State anxiety in the past. ngnitive Style Cognitive style is conceived of as individual consistencies in the manner that persons have learned to adapt to their environ- ments. Cognitive psychology which relates to theories of behavior concludes that in investigations of psychological coping skills and defense mechanisms, one must also study general cognitive function- ing. Moreover, cognitive styles are linked with, but are not iden- tical to, defense mechanisms. A cognitive style denotes a charac- teristic way of organizing incoming stimulation and producing the final response. In this study, the utilization of cognitive style mapping as 15 structured in the educational sciences gives a picture of the way a student derives meaning from his environment(s) and personal exper- l6 iences. It is viewed by Joseph Hill as a Cartesian product (G), which is a combination of all elements in (s), which denotes the set of elements defining symbolic orientation, (E), which indicates the set of cultural determinants of the meaning of symbols, and (H) which designates the set of modalities of inference. The individual's cognitive style is measured through the administration of a cognitive style interest inventory. The resultant cognitive map reflects an individual's cognitive style. The individual learner's cognitive style map becomes a resource which can be used for prescribing alternative learning exper- iences for a student. A strategy employed is to fit specific charac- teristics into the instructional mode that incorporate as many as possible of the cognitive elements in sets S, f_and fl_of the individ— ual learner. The premise is that the greater the match, the greater the comparability in modes of understanding. By evaluating the instructional materials and learning activities to determine common cognitive elements, an instructor can provide an optimum learning experience geared to the learning style of a student. Individual Differences The experiences that a person receives in life form the cornerstone for development of unique sets of characteristics through which they derive meaning. Teachers are aware that these character- istics function as individual differences. They are also aware that these differences are continually amended and that they affect student performance. However, teachers have difficulty in making maximum use of individual differences which results in students' not reaching their optimum level of performance. TO Educators should recognize that success for a student in the performance of learning tasks is directly related to his ability to process content information. However, there are other factors which affect student learning. One means of understanding individual differences is to analyze each student's cognitive style. Biggs, in his work on information processing in human learning, offers support for cognitive style when discussing problems related to intelligence testing. He states: In intelligence of IQ testing, the normal procedure is to administer a battery of highly differing tests of a cognitive kind and to extract from the scores, by a method of factor analysis, certain basic underlying factors of the intellect . these factors refer to content, not to process. Items that affect intellectual performance, but which are affective or emotional in nature, are not only not represented; they are considered to interfere with the purity of the intellectual measures themselves, and are therefore deliberately excluded as being irrelevant. . . non-intellectual measures are just as relevant as intellectual measures.17 The identification of process factors through a measure of individuals' cognitive style differences is important, because once the set of factors has been identified, learning prescriptions can be designed by employing instructional strategies to diversity pre- sentation modalities to meet student needs, interests, and abilities. Cronbach18 suggests that the most adequate way of coping with individual differences might be to alter instructional methods to fit the aptitude patterns of the learner, e.g., student differences in IQ, verbal ability. This procedure would not be useful unless a trait-treatment interaction (TTI) exists. Although individual differences usually refer to character- istics which are unique to each person, a review of investigations .3 . h—a—r‘. _-_-1—n‘.n.:n.a_.-—a=-n- mm—Hfim—-—————I— ll which describe the "high ability-high IQ" learner sub-group character- istics may aid in the understanding of individual differences. This student sub-group generally demonstrates superior psychological adjustment. However, there are individuals within the group who encounter problems of anxiety, insecurity, difficulties due to dif- fering interest, and a preference for self-direction to directions by others.19 The results of Terman's20 longitudinal study showed that instruction for these students should provide necessary enrichment and challenge to keep up with their rapidly expanding abilities. The most important program objective for this sub-group, then, should be the stimulation of indiviudal interests, and standardized curriculum requirements are seen as unimportant. When comparing 55 bright and 55 dull sixth grade children, LucitoZ] suggested that a curriculum based on pupil interest should be designed, because these learners demonstrate independent and less conforming behavior. The group labeled as bright was found to be less conforming than their peers labeled as dull. In addition, 29 percent of the children labeled bright fell into the most independent category as opposed to none of the children labeled dull. In an earlier study, Smith22 compared 42 superior and 42 average adolescents and found the superior to be significantly higher in the categories of independence and dominance. Gallagher23 reports that the ability of the high IQ student generally measured by tests, is the ability to produce unique associative content information. 12 Martinson24 recommends that differentiated educational pro- grams be used with this group of students, and that the programs include a curriculum which denotes higher cognitive concepts and processes and instructional strategies which accommodate the individ- ual's learning style. Eighty percent of the respondents to the advocacy survey reported by Martinson saw a need to adjust instruc- tion to different learning styles among this sub-group. 25 reports that much of what has been called Gallagher creativity and divergent thinking in cognitive ability of this group of students, represents a cognitive style or set of preferences in their performance. Further, there is evidence that this style can operate to influence the kind of perceptions that a person has, and thus selectively filter information received from the environment. One of the problems in structuring learning experiences for high IQ students has been the lack of adequate instruments to measure their cognitive styles. Some of the reservations about measuring instruments stem from a literature which suggests that there are many transitory influences, other than intelligence tests, which are readily accepted by some, and considered invalid by others. In this study, cognitive style mapping will be used to diagnose student characteristics. Research Questions The research questions associated with this study are listed below. Research Question l: With the A-State anxiety pre-test measure as the covariate, is there a statistical signficant difference 13 between the mean on A-State anxiety post test measure (1) for stu- dent's with cognitive styles matched and (2) for student's with cognitive styles non-matched to the cognitive style of the instruc- tional mode? Research Question 2: With the self esteem pre-test measure as the covariate, is there a statistical significant difference ‘ between the mean on self esteem post test measures (l) for student's with cognitive styles matched and (2) for student's with cognitive styles non-matched to the cognitive style of the instructional mode? Research Question 3: With the achievement pre-test measure as the covariate, is there a statistical significant difference between the mean on Instructional Sets I and II achievement post test measure (l) for a sub-sample of student's with cognitive styles matched and (2) for a sub-sample of student's with cognitive styles non-matched to the cognitive style of the instructional mode? % Research Question 4: Is there a statistical significant ——.. correlation between the pre-test scores on A-State anxiety and self esteem (l) for student's with cognitive styles matched and (2) for student's with cognitive styles non-matched to the cognitive style of the instructional mode? Research Question 5: Is there a statistical significant correlation between the post test scores on A-State anxiety and self esteem (l) for student's with cognitive styles matched and (2) for student's with cognitive styles non-matched to the cognitive style of the instructional mode? l4 Hypotheses In this study, Cognitive Style Matching is the independent variable. The dependent variables are A-State Anxiety, Self Esteem and Achievement. Given that X1 is equal to the post A-State anxiety scores of the matched grou, and X2 is equal to the post A-State anxiety score of the non-matched group; and that Y1 is equal to the post self esteem score of the matched group and Y2 is equal to the post self esteem score of the non-matched group, and SINCE}J(mU) is equal to the mean and;>(rho) is equal to the correlation, then H01, H02, H04 and H05 are presented in null form to facilitate examination of the variables. Furthermore, given that Z1 is equal to the post achievement score of the matched group, and Z2 is equal to the post achievement score of the non-matched group for subjects involved in Instructional Sets I and II, and since11(mu) is equal to the mean, then HO3 is presented below in null form. In this study the hypotheses tested were: H0]: “xl = “x2 with the pre-test measure on A-State anxiety as a covariate. Hal: “xi # “x2 with the pre-test measure on A-State anxiety as a covariate. H : u = u with the pre-test measure on self esteem as a 02 yl y2 covariate. H u f u with the pre-test measure on self esteem as a a2 yl y2 covariate. H03: “21 = “22 with the pre-test measure on achievement as a covariate (a composite hypothesis). Ha3: uz] # “22 With the pre-test measure on achievement as a covariate (a composite hypothesis). 04‘ a4: 05‘ a5: XY ll 0 XY # O ‘ XY ll 0 XY # O 15 for (l) matched and (2) non-matched groups using pre-test scores (a composite hy-othesis). for (l) matched and (2) non-matched groups using pre-test scores (a composite hypothesis). for (l) matched and (2) non-matched groups using post test scores (a composite hypothesis). for (l) matched and (2) non-matched groups using post test scores (a composite hypothesis). Summary This chapter has introduced the use of cognitive style match- ing as one method for measuring individual differences. The method can be employed as an instructional strategy to adapt instruction to the individual characteristics of each learner. An illustration was made that concern for the emotional well being of students by educators can be gleaned through a measure of the individuals' self esteem levels and anxiety levels, with the goal in view to regulate the arousal function associated with these two emotionalities. An illustration was made that the concern of educators for students' reaching their full academic potential can be seen when measuring the achievement of students involved in an instructional event. In addition, a position was established for couching this study in the body of knowledge classified as Trait-Treatment Process Interaction. (TTPI) and the statistical hypothesis were listed. FOOTNOTES: CHAPTER I 1The use of the "matched and non-matched" terminology in this study should not be confused with statistical sampling language of matched experimental and control groups which reflects the equivalence of comparison groups. 2Charles D. Spielberger, "Anxiety as an Emotional State," Anxiety - Current Trends in Theory and Research, l (New York: Academic Press, Inc., 1972) p. 34. 31bid. 4Stanley Coopersmith, Antecedents of Self-Esteem (San Fran- cisco: W.H. Freeman, 1967). . 5William R. Terrell, "An Exploratory Study of the Modifica- tion of Student Anxiety Levels Utilizing Cognitive Style Matching," (Ph.D. Dissertation, Michigan State University, 1974), pp. 3-4. 6F.J. DiVesta, "Theory and Measures of Individual Differences in Studies of Trait by Treatment Interaction," Educational Psychologist, 13, No. l (1973), pp. 5-13; see also R. Glaser, "Individuals and Learning: The New Aptitudes," Educational Researcher, 1, No. 6 (1972), pp. 5-13; D.E. Hunt, "Person-Environment Interaction: A Challenge Found Wanting Before It Was Tried," invited address to the Division of Educational Psychology, American Psychological Association Meeting, Montreal, Quebec, August, 1972; M.L. Koran, "Identification of Relevant Aptitude Variables in TTI (ATI) Research," (paper presented at the Symposium on Trait-Treatment Interactions in Instructional Research, American PsychoTogical Association Annual Meeting, Honolulu, 1972). 7F.J. DiVesta, "Trait-Treatment Interactions, Cognitive Processes, and Research on Communication Media," AV Communication Review, 23 (Summer, 1975), pp. 185-196. 8Ibid., p. 191. 9Terrell, op. cit., p. 18. 10D.C. McClelland, The Achievement Motive (New York: Appleton- Century-Crofts, Inc., 1953). HJ.W. Atkinson, An Introduction to Motivation (Princeton, New Jersey: Van Nostrand-Reinhold, 1964). 16 17 128.8. Sarason et al., Anxiety in Elementary School Children (New York: Wiley, 1960), pp. 401-402. 13 14 15Joseph E. Hill, An Outline of the Educational Sciences: A Proposed Conceptual Framework for Education (manuscript, 1968, 14 pp IT 16Joseph E. Hill, An Outline of the Educational Sciences (Bloomfield Hills, Mich.: OdRTand Community College Press, 1972). 17J.B. Biggs, Information and Human Learning(Glenview, Illinois: Scott, Foresman and Co., 1968), p. 22. 18L.J. Cronbach, How Can Instruction be Adapted to Individual Differences? (Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill, 1967), pp. 23-39. Terrell, loc. cit. Spielberger, op. cit., p. 44. '9L. Hollingworth, Children Above 180 I.q, (New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, Incorporated, 1942). 20L.M. Terman, Mental and Physical Traits of a Thousand Gifted Children, V01. 1. Genetic Studies of Genius (Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 1925); see also L.M. Terman and Melita Oden, The Gifted Group at Mid-Life, Vol. IV, Genetic Studies of Genius (Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 1947); L.M. Terman and Melita Oden, The Gifted Grggp at Mid-Life, Vol. V, Genetic Studies of Genius (Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 1959). 21L.J. Lucito, "Independence-Conformity Behavior as a Function of Intellect: Bright and Dull Children," Exceptional Children, 31 (1964). pp. 5-13. 220.0. Smith, Personal and Social Adjustment of Gifted Adolescents, Research Monograph No. 4 (Washington, D.C.: Council for Exceptional Children, 1962). 23J.J. Gallagher, Teaching the Gifted Child (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1964). 24R. Martinson, "Research on the Gifted and Talented: Its Implications for Education," Education of the Gifted and Talented (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Printing Office, 1972). 25Gallagher, loc. cit. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE This investigation addresses the variables of anxiety, self esteem, cognitive style matching and achievement. The theoretical foundation of these variables is included in the body of knowledge classified as cognitive psychology. This review of literature will examine anxiety and its relationship to self esteem, cognitive style matching and achievement. This chapter is divided into three major segments: (1) anxiety, (2) self esteem, and (3) cognitive style. Anxiety An important aspect of this study is to investigate a method of regulating student anxiety levels in an instructional event. The concerns expressed in this section of the review of literature are with the three divisions described as follows: (1) the view of anxiety as an emotional state, (2) the duality of State-Trait Anxiety, and (3) the relationship of anxiety to academic achievement. Previous attempts at regulating anxiety to affect student achievement will be discussed in the third division of this section of the review. Anxiety as an Emotional State Current research relating to emotional arousal has centered around either the phenomenological (experiential) or the physiological 18 19 (behavior) aspects of emotion. The present study approaches anxiety from the phenomenological frame of reference, which regards this emotion as human reactions that are characterized by an experiential or feeling quality. Spielberger reports that "the typical paradigm employed in current research on emotions involves the manipulation "1 Hence, emotional reactions can be of experimental conditions. . . defined by stimulus-response operations together with individual differences related to previous experiences. The result is that the emotionality of anxiety will be viewed as a personality state which exists at a moment in time, with a level of intensity, recurring when evoked by a stimulus, which endures over time for as long as the evoking condition continues. Investigators approaching anxiety from a physiological aspect .; have viewed this emotionality as a sympathetic autonomic nervous reaction which takes the form of unusual motor activity, increased pulse rate and blood pressure, glandular secretions, and restricted bowel activity. High anxiety is revealed in an excessive sympathetic autonomic reaction which functions as a response to stressor stimuli. , 1 Very low anxiety is seen as a parasympathetic autonomic reaction where the individual is in a state of rest. Anxiety is seen as a generalized or specific reaction to ego threat. Environmental events which are incongruent with an individual's self esteem are ego threatening. In support, Kilpatrick 2 found that high stress instruction involving ego and failure et a1. threat, produced an increased frequency on non-specific EDR's (Electro-dermal Responsiveness) in high and low anxious subjects. 20 The studies of Cattell and Scheier3 offer clarification in their conclusion that anxiety is the result of the anxious person responding to his own environment. Jersild expresses concurrence with the explanation that anxiety exists when a person "is troubled by reminders of a gap between what he is and what he pretends to be."4 In a study with 112 female undergraduates, Bennett and Holmes5 found that (a) the threat manipulation was effective in the increase of stress and (b) a redefinition of anxiety occurred after the onset of threat was ineffective in reducing stress. Anxiety states are viewed as anticipatory goal reactions, which (1) are learned from previous cue effect association, (2) are energizers of behavior and_(3) guide individuals toward predictable end states or goals. With dependence on the particular event and on the amount of stimulation, the states are viewed as a representation of two points on an affective continuum: a present state (either low, neutral or high) which redintegrates through past learning, and a second state involving an increase or decrease in anxiety. The present-future states construct can be clarified by looking at Atkinson's6 conceptualization for resolving the conflict between a person's hope of success and his fear of failure. The event is aroused by cues associated with competition against a standard of excellence. Atkinson included among the determinants of action, the learning factor of habituation. Conflict resolution is realized by considering the strength of the approach tendency (hope of success) relative to the avoidance tendency (fear of failure) which 21 determines a person's movement toward or away from an achievement task. Atkinson's determinant of fear of failure, or the tendency to avoid achievement tasks and/or avoid failure (Taf) is a multipli- cative relationship of the motive to avoid failure (Maf), the prob- ability of failure (Pf) and the incentive value of failure (-If): T M P (3,). af X f X The affective anticipation learned from af = prior failures and experienced shame is aroused. In the formula (Pf) refers to a cognitive goal expectancy or the anticipation that an action will not lead to the goal. Atkinson's use of the Pf determinant is of great interest in the present study. Its use is guided by Tolman's work in latent learning. Tolman7 suggests that during non-rewarded and rewarded trials, the infrahumans (rats) developed "cognitive maps" of their environment and that response reward contingencies or expectations are formed. Anxiety about failure is conceived of as a specific associ- ative disposition, in contrast to the Spencian8 view of anxiety as a 9 supports the former through the nondirectional drive. McClelland incorporation of the behavioral characteristic of pleasure, and primary and secondary drives are not differentiated and complex human needs are not derived from primary need deficits. Hence, behavior is not merely undertaken as a strategy for avoiding unpleasant states. When investigating the interrelationship between measures of 10 warns that drive theory anxiety and academic achievement, Stutler as defined in his research failed to predict or interpret the academic achievement of college freshmen women students at any ability level. 22 Further warning was suggested by Cattell,n whereby inducing anxiety to utilize drive theory was viewed as inappropriate. Symonds12 cautions that learning situations are frustrating enough; therefore, it is not necessary to create artificial situations. Anxiety relates to both an arousal function which is general in nature and is characterized as diffuse intensity, and a content function which relates to specifics and is characterized as defining 13 The intensity is the feeling quality associated with experiences. arousal. When there is an increase in arousal, an increase in the intensity of feeling is experienced. When arousal is low an individ- ual is in a state of rest. When arousal is moderate to high, an individual has the capability of predicting events. When arousal is excessive, an individual is unable effectively to predict and negotiate his environment. 14 explained the relationship between degree of arousal Terrell and the individual's ability to perform (negotiate the environment) through the use of a bell-shaped curve. One tail of the curve repre- sents low anxiety (arousal) and the other tail represents high anxiety (arousal). The apex of the curve indicates sufficient arousal for optimum performance. Similarly, Malmo, when referring to arousal as a level of activation, indicated that the shape of the curve relating level of performance to level of activation is that of an inverted U: . from low activation up to a point that is optimal for a given performance or function, level of performance rises monotonically with increasing activation level: but past this optimal point the relation becomes nonmonotonic; further increase in activation beyond this point produces '- .4.‘ As 23 a fall in performance level, this fall being directly related to the amount of the increase in level of activation.15 Additional clarification of the emotional state of anxiety ‘6 equilibrium construct. can be gleaned by looking at McClelland's Accordingly, a state of equilibrium exists which does not require (only) a reduction in the level of stimulation (arousal). In furtherance of this belief, and more important to the present study, an optimum level of stimulation is reflected which, at some point, is greater than zero. McClelland posits that is stimula- tion is below that level, instrumental action is undertaken to increase the amount of sensation. Similarly, if stimulation is above that level, action is undertaken to reduce the amount of sensation. The optimum level also has been described as a threshold level. When describing the debilitating effects of high anxiety, Gaier reports that: First, if the anxiety is above individual threshold, it leads to an impairment in the ability to improvise in an unstructured and/or new situation. This results in stereo- typed, habitual, and familiar approaches that may be mal- adaptive in the situation. Second, if anxiety is above individual threshold, the individual becomes self-engrossed and concerned with his personal adequacy.l7 The individual's personal adequacy can be determined by measures of self esteem, which will be described in the next section of the review of literature. Arrington,18 seeking to clarify fully the condition under which optimal learning takes place, when such crucial variables as antecedent success and failure impinge upon subsequent performance, suggests that those subjects who experienced induced success had 24 significantly higher retention scores than those who experienced 19 suggests that varying the methods of group induced failure. Dixon reading therapy with 72 fifth graders placed in one of five experi- mental groups did not yield any advantage of a treatment group over the control group on the self concept variable and were not more effective in inducing optimal anxiety levels than the control group. According to Friedman, “Man seeks an optimum level of pre- 20 When pre- dictability in his relationship with the environment." dictability is excessive, the individual is in a high arousal state. The individual confirms the same prediction over and over again, thus the monotony of the situation (event) generates excessive arousal and instability. For persons who are in an exhauStive state, sameness is quieting which is described by TerrellZ] as a static state or boredom which is viewed as absence of a change in affect arousal. a The affective variable of anxiety is of special interest because of its relationship to cognitive learning. In addition, a high level of anxiety is one of the most frequent psychological problems encountered in the school which serves to prevent the learner from realizing his intellectual potential. By developing an awareness of the types of events that serve to trigger this problem and the process by which it deve10ps, it may become possible to arrange the learning situation in such a way as to reduce its occurrence. State-Trait Anxiety Anxiety is seen as a unitary mental state rather than a separate influence on behavior. The study of student anxiety levels 25 requires that measurement be taken during an instructional event rather than the general tendency of a student to react to events. This study makes a distinction between trait anxiety and state anxiety. Trait anxiety refers to an individual's predisposition to respond anxiously in a variety of situations, and state anxiety is viewed as a transient individual response to varied types of stressors.22 23 in their studies referred to "trait" as per- Cattell and Schier manent and "state" as momentary. Spielberger envisioned as one of his tasks a description and specification of characteristics of stressor stimuli that evoke dif- ferent levels of A-State in persons who differ in A-Trait. When reporting on Basowitz et al., Spielberger24 suggests that the dis— tinction between the two loci of anxiety is primarily a conceptual one. For a student there may be only the unitary state of emotional stress. This interpretation is consistent with the hypothesis that psychological threats may differentially influence anxiety as the unitary emotional state (A-State), because life experiences cause people to develop different dispositions to respond to various stressors. The State-Trait Theory of Anxiety by Spielberger recognizes the centrality of cognitive appraisal when an anxiety state is evoked and the importance of cognitive and motoric responses (defense mechanisms) that serve to regulate anxiety states. The assumption which accompanies the theory is that the arousal of anxiety states involves a process or sequence of temporally ordered events initiated by either external or internal stimuli that are perceived 26 to be dangerous or threatening by an individual. An example of external stressors that are likely to evoke anxiety reaction is the threat to self esteem that is encountered when a student is called upon to respond to an instructional mode which is noncomparable to his own. Any internal stimulus which causes an individual to think about or anticipate a dangerour or frightening event may also evoke high levels of A-State. For example, a student who suddently remem- bers that he has experienced failure when relating to a particular instructional mode would probably experience a sudden increase in A-State. Moreover, the appraisal of a particUlar stimulus or event as threatening is also influenced by a person's aptitude, abilities, and past experience, as well as by his level of A-Trait and the objective danger that is inherent in the situation. Relationship Between Anxiety and Academic Achievement Previous investigations into the relationship 0f anxiety and academic achievement are consistent with the hypothesis that there is a negative correlation between these two variables. In support, 25 Stutler concludes that academic achievement appeared to be related to A-Trait anxiety measures. 26 found correlations between test anxiety and 27 Ohlenkamp academic achievement to be "generally negative." Waite et a1. support the existence of a relationship between anxiety and learning in children. Their study concluded that the low anxious children had greater success than the high anxious children on complex learning tasks. 27 Nadeau28 found a significant difference between the threat and the nonthreat groups on any of the anxiety scales and the achievement-congruent (directly related to the objectives) variables. A significant difference was found on the achievement-incongruent (not related to the objectives) variables. Significant anxiety by information interactions were found on one of the anxiety scales and on the achievement congruent test. 29 in supporting the debilitating effects of high Terrell, anxiety, describes the three studies of Spence, Knight and Sassenrath, and Spielberger. The conclusions reported relate to the fact that high anxious students performed poorer than low anxious students on complex and/or competitive tasks. Feldhusen and Klausmeier30 found a negative correlation among achievement and IQ and scores on the Childrens' Manifest Anxiety Scale in both fifth grade boys and girls of average intelligence. Combs3] compared 25 boys (WISC IQ 115 and over) above the median in grade point average with a group of 25 boys of similar characteristics, but whose grade point average (GPA) fell below the first quartile. A comparison of themes written by the groups revealed that the achievers showed more freedom and more adequacy of 32 found that high anxiety emotional expression. Meyers and Dunham has a debilitating effect on the utilization of memory span in the solution of concept problems. Regulating Anxiety Levels A survey of related research, which revealed several studies attempting to regulate anxiety levels, yielded only one study which 28 attempted to regulate anxiety levels through the use of cognitive style matching. 33 showed that The studies of O'Neil, Hanson and Spielberger high anxiety often interferes with performance in a computer-assisted learning situation. However, they did not support the belief that changing the instructional mode will significantly reduce test 34 in a study involving the effects of simulation anxiety. Gustafson, on student teachers, found that the instructional mode of simulation did not lower the anxiety of student teachers. In the research related to the construct of anxiety and its influence on cognitive performance, two studies have attempted to mediate the effects of test anxiety and its interfering responses. Sieber35 showed that after observing a model performing a serial learning task, test anxious subjects improved their performance at the same task. The improvement in their performance was greater for high than for low test-anxious subjects. In Richardson's36 preliminary investigation of program effectiveness in the context of computer-managed instructional modules, a significant reduction was found in self-reported test anxiety. 37 tend to support the possibility of reducing Many and Many anxiety in elementary and junior high school age pupils by enhancing the way in which they see themselves. In a study using a community 38 in an attempt to modify college freshman population, Terrell, student anxiety levels utilizing cognitive style matching, found that high A-Trait students with cognitive styles matched to the cognitive style of the instructional mode tend to have greater reduction of 29 A-State anxiety levels than non-matched students. Moreover, students with cognitive styles matched to the cognitive style of the instruc- tional mode tend to achieve higher grades than students who are non- matched. In addition, low A-Trait students with cognitive styles non-matched to the cognitive style of the instructional mode tend to have less reduction of A-State anxiety levels than matched students. In this portion of the review of literature the dependent variable of anxiety has been characterized as (1) an emotional state, and (2) a learned influence on an individual's behavior. Moreover, the State-Trait anxiety construct was explained, and the relationship between anxiety and academic achievement was described as having a negative correlation. Self Esteem Educators are attempting to determine which factors associated with the instructional process influence achievement. One of the important factors which investigators consider as an influence on achievement is self esteem. In 1967, Coopersmith39 defined self esteem as the attribution of positive or negative attitudes toward oneself. Among the social experiences antecedent to the development of positive self esteem, he included the individual's history of successes, relative to his own values and aspirations. Self esteem is seen as a complex chain of beliefs and eval- uations held by a person with reference to himself. This suggestion is based on self-consistency theory, which indicates that individuals 30 have a tendency to act in ways which defend and/or confirm their self esteem. In the literature, support for the self-consistency idea is found in the statement of Anastasi40 who posits that self esteem operates as a self-fulfilling prophecy. In the instructional process, students are confronted with two behavioral consequences, namely success and failure. As a strat- egy for identifying with self, a student maintains inner consistency by selective perceptions of experiences and by the manipulation of his environment. I For students with a high self esteem level, failure would be seen as threatening, and would require defensive behavior. Success for these same students would be seen as an enhancement of self esteem, and would invite confirmatory responses. In students whose self esteem levels are low, their expectancies would be reversed, that is, failure will confirm the expectancies and successful exper- iences would require defensive responses due to the incongruency with self esteem. Self esteem is theorized to be a learned influence on behavior. 4] makes the assumption that an individual's self-regard Ruth Wylie is learned through the combining of rewards and punishments for one's behavior and self-characteristics. Certain things are learned through success and failure experiences when manipulating the environ- ment and a student's level of self-regard is of great importance in predicting his actions. 31 Relationship Between Self Esteem and Academic Achievement If, indeed, self esteem is a means of predicting behavior, then perhaps it can be applied to the behavior of academic achieve- ment. Research efforts have been conducted to determine the relation- ship between self esteem and achievement and, if a relationship exists, to what degree. Ohlenkamp42 reports that correlations between self esteem and academic achievement are generally positive. Simon and Simon43 studied the relationship among self esteem, achievement and intel- ligence. Their results affirm positively the relationship between self esteem and standardized academic achievement, and verbal IQ and self esteem for the total sample. Lang44 concludes that higher achievers differ from their lower achieving peers in the area of self esteem. 45 studies investigated the relationship The Primavera et a1. between academic achievement and self esteem with reference to pos~ sible sex differences. The coefficients of correlation between self esteem and academic measures were significant for the total group of girls but only one was significant for the boys. 46 noted that academically unsuccessful boys engaged Katz in significantly more self-criticism than successful boys, even when the experiment was so designed that both groups would succeed. He concludes that such self-criticism could be an effort to reduce anticipatory anxiety in achieving situations, due to a prior history of negative reinforcements from parents. 32 In a study involving 44 male college students, Goldberg47 investigated the effects of fear of failure when it is related to self esteem. The results confirmed the expectation that students with fear of failure would have an approach-avoidance conflict about academic pursuits. The fear of failure group had a lower self esteem and a negative attitude toward college. Coleman48 suggests that a sense of personal control or personal efficacy regarding the ability to influence others and confidence in one's own ability are the most important correlates of minority students' school achievement. Academic programs offered to all students have been adjusted historically to the norm or average.49 The result is that those viewed as different in potential encounter a program of limited significance. The intellectually superior student presents chal- lengingeducational problems because of his deviation from the norm. Hollingworth50 showed that students in this target group typically performed far below their capacity, found their educational exper- iences frustrating, and often felt inferior, inadequate and insecure within their peer group. High IQ students encounter difficulties in attempting to manage and direct activities. Since their ideas differ, they lose the participation of others and find themselves marginal and isolated. When conditions are changed and the students are given opportunities to satisfy their desires for knowledge and performance, their own sense of adequacy and well-being improves. In general, high IQ students at the secondary level have been found to be better adjusted than the general population, although 33 there are definite relationships between educational opportunities 51 standardized psychological and adjustment. According to Martinson, tests used in various studies have shown that these students resemble college men and women more closely than they do the youth of their own age. 52 Gallagher found among adolescent boys better attitudes than among girls, despite the fact that all were intellectually 53 administered the Thematic Apperception Test and superior. Smith Interpersonal Adjective Checklist that provided data on self and self- ideal concepts. No differences were found between the superior adolescent group and the average group in self-acceptance or accuracy of self-perception. Relationship Between Anxiety and Self Esteem Most investigators conducting research in the area of anxiety together with self esteem conclude that there is a negative to zero correlation between these two emotionalities. The interaction which exists is revealed in the graphic representation of a linear distri- bution; in other words, given a high anxiety level, there will be a low self esteem level. high Anxiety Level low Self Esteem Level 34 The findings of Many54 indicate a consistent pattern over grades four through eight of a negative, low, yet significant rela- tionship between anxiety and self esteem. Horowitz55 concluded that the more anxious children tend to have lower self esteem levels. 56 examined the relationship between a measure Many and Many of self esteem and each of two measures of general anxiety and test anxiety. The results showed there were statistically significant negative correlations between the measures of self esteem and each of the measures of general anxiety and test anxiety when scores were' 57 found analyzed by the total group, grade level, and sex. Sarason high anxious students more self-deprecatory, self—occupied, and generally less content with themselves than low anxious students. In this segment of the review of literature the dependent variable of self esteem has been characterized as a learned influence on an individual's behavior. In addition, the relationship between self esteem and anxiety is reported to be a negative or near negative correlation. The correlations between self-esteem and academic achievement generally are reported to be positive. Cognitive Style The content and feeling function for both anxiety and self esteem are associative in nature. However, according to Friedman, an emotion can be identified only in terms of content. Moreover, Friedman posits that: Once a match for identification has been achieved and the individual becomes aware of the initiating event and the feelings he associates with it, his feelings are specific because he is aware of the conditions from which his feelings 35 arise. Subsequently, when a match for prediction is achieved, his feelings about the event become even more specific because not only is he aware of the conditions which give rise to his feelings but, in addition, he may be aware of the specific goal that will reduce arousal and satisfy his feelings. 8 These views are important to the present study because the matching of an individual's cognitive style with the cognitive style of the instructional mode is a strategy for reproducing the affective expectation in the manner that an individual derives meaning from his internal environment. When there is too little predictability (lack of a match) between the individual and the instructional cog- nitive style maps, the individual's arousal increases because there is a pronounced incongruity between an individual's "neuro-print and the event." In an instructional setting, the result is that the lack of predictability confuses the student, there is an over- abundance of arousal, and mental processes become unstable. When an individual's mind is unstable, his inability to relate effectively to the environment functions as a threat. Friedman suggests that: When there is too much predictability, he will search for variety and novelty. When there is too little predictability, he will search for familiarity. These compensatory reactions to either too much or too little predictability are directed toward stabilizing the mental process.59 Earlier in the review of literature, support was found for Friedman's suggestion in McClelland's equilibrium construct. The lack of a match between the cognitive styles of the instructional mode and the student, functions as the stimulus which arouses affective expectations from prior experiences. The premise 36 is that emotions are learned and anxiety and self-esteem are repro- duced by the stimulus similar to those present during the period of original learning. The content is processed as incoming sensory stimulation and is ”transformed, reduced, elaborated, recovered and/or used."60 In support, Friedman posits that: The value an individual places on the selection and con- firmation of predictions is positively correlated with the intensity of arousal or emotion that is generated at the time. The maintenance of predictability is valued above all else . The importance of predicting a specific event is determined initially at the time a match for identification is achieved and the individual becomes aware of the inten- sity of feeling he associates with the event. The more intense his feelings are, the more he will value the reduc- tion of the intensity or arousal. When a match for pre— diction is achieved, arousal may increase or decrease, depending upon whether or not the reduction of arousal is predicted. After evaluating the feelings and content of an instructional event, a neuro—print is formed by the student and the individual expresses a preference in making a selection of a master neuro-print when such matters as the probability of achieving a goal by means of a given program are under consideration. In this study, the conten- tion is that an individual's cognitive style is a master neuro-print. The matching of the cognitive style of the individual student and the cognitive style of the instructional mode is a relevant neuro- print. The content of the ideas embodied indicate that the achieve- ment of the events and the instructional program (process) necessary for achieving them form an optimal neuro-print which relates to optimal predictability in a learning situation (event). The indi- vidual evaluates his feelings associated with neuro-prints as a 37 given program directs him toward McClelland's end states, and also evaluates how he feels when the goal has been achieved. The identification of an individual's preference in the manner that he derives meaning from the environment is especially appropriate in the identification of cognitive style matching as a master neuro-print. The implication is that when the content of an idea of a match and the feelings associated with the match are solidified as the individual's choice for attaining stability, the result is that the individual seeks a pleasurable experience, and a preference for academic action which is predictable. The arousal function is viewed as the agent having the responsibility of monitoring, ordering, and tracking the internal events. The source of arousal which flows from both the internal and external events is defined by the content function. Friedman62 states that the relationship, in a master neuro—print, between internal and external events is gleaned when an external event is predicted to reduce the arousal attached to an internal event. Friedman's statement may be clarified by viewing the (l) cognitive styles of the student and the instructional mode and (2) cognitive style matching as positive factors, and using the arithmetic opera— tion of addition to explain their non-arithmetic relationship. Hence, the relationship may be displayed as follows: ( + Individual Cognitive Style + Map-Internal Event) (+ Instructional Mode Cognitive Style Map-External Event) (+ Cognitive Style Matching- External Event). 38 Self esteem and anxiety are two cognitive characteristics found to be members of each individual's unique bank of behavior resources. Cognitive style is a description of the total cognitive characteristics of an individual. The use of educational cognitive style answers the call for further investigations which involve specific educational tasks, conditions, and analysis of student and environmental characteristics. Cognitive Style Mapping-- A Cartesian Product A method used for describing a broad pattern of individual learning behavior using symbolic language is cognitive style mapping. Hill defines cognitive style as: a cartesian product, S, composed of three sets, S, §_and H,-where S denotes the set of elements defining symbolic orientation, §_indicates the set of cultural determinants of the meaning of symbols, and H_designates the set of modalities of inference.53 The Cartesian product, a non-arithmetic display of elements contained in two or more sets, is represented by the equation, G = S31§3J H, The product G is defined as the combination of all possible elements found in S, §_and H, In this study the cognitive style is determined by an anal- ysis of a cognitive style interest inventory instrument administered to learners. The analysis describes the individual's set of cogni- tive characteristics which is referred to as the "cognitive map" of the learner. The "map" is descriptive of the way in which the student derives meaning and becomes informed in his environment based 39 upon his symbolic orientation, personal experiences, and methods of reasoning. In the set S, the student's use of symbols to acquire know- ledge and meaning is examined. The two types of symbols that are related to the set S are the theoretical (words and numbers) and the qualitative symbols which present and then represent the awareness of an individual to the sense of smell, feelings, commitments and values. There are four theoretical symbols which are listed as follows: 1. T(VL)--Theoretica1 Visual Linguistic--ability to find meaning from words you see; 2. T(AL)--Theoretical Auditory Linguistic--ability to acquire meaning through hearing spoken words; 3. T(VQ)--Theoretical Visual Quantitatives--written numerical symbols, relationships and measurements; 4. T(AQ)--Theoretical Auditory Quantitative--numerical symbols, relationships and measurements. Qualitative symbols associated with sensory stimuli are: l. Q(A)--Qualitative Auditory--hearing; Q(O)--Qualitative Olfactory--smell; Q(S)--Qua1itative Savory-~taste; Q(T)--Qualitative Tactile--touch; 01-wa Q(V)--Qualitative Visual--sight. Qualitative programmatic symbols are classified under Q(P)-- Qualitative Proprioceptive, primarily motor responses and skills. This takes into consideration such things as left and right-handedness and eyedness and physical timing. The qualitative symbols associated with cultural codes are: 4O 1. Q(CEM)--Qualitative Code Empathetic--sensitivity to the feelings of others; 2. Q(CES)--Qualitative Code Esthetic--sensitivity to the beauty of an object or an idea; 3. Q(CET)--Qualitative Code Ethics--commitment to a set of values (not to imply morality); 4. Q(CH)--Qualitative Code Histrionics--acting or playing a role; 5. Q(CK)--Qualitative Code Kinesics--body language; 6. Q(KH)—-Qua1itative Code Kinesthetics--simulate any acceptable societal form; 7. Q(CP)--Qualitative Code Proxemics--knowledge of social distance; 8. Q(CS)--Qualitative Code Synnoetics--personal knowledge of oneself; 9. Q(CT)--Qua1itative Code Transactional--sa1esmanship; 10. Q(CTM)—-Qualitative Code Temporal--social timing. In the second set of the cognitive style map, cultural influences which determine the meaning which the student will assign to symbols are eXamined. There are three cultural determinants of the meaning of symbols: 1. I--Individuality; 2. A--Associates (peers); 3. F--Fami1y. The third set of the cognitive map is “Modalities of Infer—‘ ence." Information associated with this category reveals the reason- ing pattern(s) which an individual can use in deriving meaning. The forms of inference are: 1. M--Magnitude--need to use norms or categorical classifi- cations; to define things in order to understand them; 41 2. D--DifferenCe--one-to-one contrasts or comparisons of selected characteristics; 3. R-«Relationship-«ability to synthesize, through analysis of a situation to discover its component parts; 4. L—-Appraisal--uses M, D, and R, giving equal weight to all three; 5. K--Deductive Reasoning. The three sets collectively comprise the cognitive style of the student. A maximum of 3,200 different profiles of the elements are possible for an individual to show in his map at a given level of educational development. There are 20 levels of educational development. A major orientation is noted by the capital letters indicating a particular characteristic and is accorded a given characteristic if it occurs in the 50th-99th percentile range. A distribution of that element at a given developmental level, e.g., T(VL), would indicate a major orientation in theoretical visual linguistic symbolis mediation. A minor orientation will indicate that the student realized a score for a given element in the range of the 26th-49th percentile of distribution of that element at a given developmental level, e.g., T'(VL), read “T prime VL," would indicate a minor orientation in theoretical visual linguistic symbolis mediation. An element will be included in the sets if it has a major and minor orientation based on percentile range. In addition to the major orientation and minor orientation, there is a third classification referred to as a negligible orienta- tjgg_which indicates that a student realized a score at the 25th percentile or below of a distribution of scores for a given element 42 at a given developmental level. The symbol for this element is omitted from the indiviudal's cognitive style map. Studies in Educational Cognitive Style The utilization of cognitive style matching as an influence within the educational sciences has generated over 60 doctoral dissertations. This influence can be seen in the work of Denike.64 He investigated one concern in educational cognitive style for the types of behaviors, or elements, employed by an individual to derive meaning from an educational task. To determine if a student's educa- tional cognitive style is related to learning from a simulation game, Denike conducted an exploratory study with a sample of 24 fifth grade students. Knowledge gain was measured by identical pre- and post-tests. Results indicated that those students likely to derive maximum cognitive knowledge from a simulation game were those who gather information by listening, prefer peer group interaction, and tend to reason on the basis of rules. Students who tend to receive the least benefit from games derive information from both reading and listening and prefer independent activities. 65 indicates that (1) students With cog- The study of Terrell nitive styles matched to the cognitive style of the instructional mode tend to achieve higher grades than students who are non-matched; (2) high and low A-Trait students with cognitive styles matched to the cognitive style of the instructional mode tend to have greater reduction of A-State anxiety levels than non-matched students; and (3) it is essential to control for cognitive processes, through 43 cognitive style matching or some other equally effective method, in the study of the effects of anxiety on achievement. 66 investigated the effects of educational cognitive Berke style as an aid for teachers of educationally disadvantaged college students. He found that the mathematics program which employed cognitive style mapping as a teaching aid was judged more successful than the program which did not make use of educational cognitive style. An investigation by Cotter67 related student cognitive style with student curricular choice. He found that students who exhibit a "Major individuality"--I--selected curricula which stress fundamen- tal disciplines (e.g., liberal arts and science curricula) as opposed to applied arts and sciences. 68 in a study involving nursing students concluded that Lange the matching of students' educational cognitive style to the cogni- tive style of the instructor resulted in lower failure-withdrawal rates than nursing students who are non-matched and the matched students tended to receive higher grades. Wasser69 reported that elementary teachers tended to give higher grades to students with cognitive styles than match their own. In this segment of the review of literature cognitive style matching has been characterized as the interaction of characteristics of (l) the individuals cognitive style and (2) the cognitive of the instructional mode. Cognitive style mapping was described as a cartesian product, which identifies the individuals characteristics and depicts an individual's expectation in the manner that meaning 44 is derived from his environment. The strength of the characteristics was described as an orientation, either major, minor or negligible. The basis for classification by orientation is percentile range. In addition, previous studies in educational cognitive style were described which indicate that cognitive style matching has a positive influence on learning. Summary This chapter as attempted to illustrate the relationships among anxiety, self esteem, achievement and educational cognitive style. Trait-treatment interaction is a fruitful research area and this study can be classified as representing the area. A statement of educational cognitive style is reported which includes an explanation of cognitive style mapping. FOOTNOTES: CHAPTER II 1Charles D. Spielberger, "Anxiety as an Emotional State," Anxiety-Current Trends in Theory and Research, I (New York: Academic Press, Inc., 1972): 39. 2D.G. Kilpatrick et al., "Self Reported Fears and Electro- dermal Responsiveness of High and Low Trait Anxious Subjects to Fear of Failure and Other Stressors," Social Behavior and Personality, 3, No. 2 (1975): 205-211. 3R.B. Cattell and I.H. Scheier, The Meaning and Measurement of Neuroticism and Anxiety (New York: Ronald Press, 1961). 4A.T. Jersild, Child Psychology_(5th ed.; Englewood Cliffs, N.Y.: Prentice Hall, 1960), p. 361. 5D.H. Bennett and 0.3. Holmes, "Influence of Denial: Situation Redefinition and Projection on Anxiety Associated with Threat to Self-Esteem," Journal of Personality and Social Psyghology, 32 (November, 1975): 915-921. 6J.W. Atkinson, ”Towards Experimental Analysis of Human Motivation in Terms of Motives, Expectancies, and Incentives," Motives in Fantasy, Action, and Society, ed. J.W. Atkinson (Princeton, N.J.: Van Nostrand,—l958), pp. 596-616. 7E.C. Tolman and C.H. Honzig, Introduction to Renewal of Reward, and Maze Performance in Rat, University of California Publi- cation in Psychology, IV, No. 19 (Berkeley: University of California, 1930): 267. 8K.W. Spence, "A Theory of Emotionality Based Drive and Its Relation to Performance in Simple Learning Situations," American ngchologist, 13 (1958): 131-141. 9D.C. McClelland, "Some Social Consequences of Achievement Motivation," Nebraska Symposium on Motivation, ed. M.R. Jones, III (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1955), pp. 41-65. 10D.L. Stutler, "The Interrelationship Between Academic Achievement of College Freshmen Women and Measures of Anxiety and Ability," (Ph.D. Dissertation, Oregon State University, 1973). nR.B. Cattell, "Anxiety and Motivation: Theory and Crucial Experiments," Anxiety and Behavior, ed. C.D. Spielberger (New York: Academic Press, 1966), p. 45 45 46 12P.M. Symonds, What Education Has to Learn from Psychology (New York: Teachers College, Columbia Unitersity, 1958), p. 64. 13M.I. Friedman, Rational Behavior: An Explanation of Behavior That Is Especially HumanTTColumbia, S.C.: University of South Carolina Press, 1975), p. 112. 14Terrell, op. cit., pp. 19—20. 15R.B. Malmo, "Activation: A Neuropsychological Dimension," Psychological Review, 66 (1959): 384. 16 17R.L. Gaier, ”Selected Personality Variables and the Learning Process," Psychological Monographs, 66 (1952): 11. 18C.M. Arrington, "Effects of Failure and Success Upon Memory With Low and High Anxious Children of Different Social Classes," (Ph.D. Dissertation, Fordham University, 1976). D.C. McClelland, op. cit. 19J.R. Dixon, "The Effects of Four Methods of Group Reading Therapy on the Level of Reading; Manifest Anxiety, Self-Concept, and School Personal-Social Adjustment Among Fifth and Sixth Grade Children in a Central City School Setting," (Ed.D. Dissertation, State University of New York at Buffalo, 1974). 20Friedman, op. cit., p. 113. 21Terrell, op. cit., p. 18. 22E.E. Levitt, The Psychology of Anxiety (Indianapolis: Bobbs- Merrill, 1967). 23R.B. Cattell and I.H. Scheier, op. cit. 24Spielberger, op. cit., p. 41. 25Stutler, op. cit. 26E.A. Ohlenkamp, "The Relationship Among Test Anxiety, Self Esteem and Achievement for Cooperative Career Education Students in Grades Eleven and Twelve," (Ed.D. Dissertation, Northern Illinois University, 1976). 27R.R. Waite et al., "A Study of Anxiety and Learning in Children," Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 57 (1958): 267-270. 28M.A. Nadeau, "The Effects of Anxiety and Expectations on the Performance of University Students," (Ph.D. Dissertation, University of California, Los Angeles, 1973). 47 29Terrell, op. cit., p. 22. 3OJ.F. Feldhusen and H.J. Klausmeier, "Anxiety, Intelligence, and Achievement in Children of Low, Average, and High Intelligence,” Child Development, 33 (1962): 407. 31C.F. Combs, "Perception of Self and Scholastic Under- achievement in the Academically Capable," Personnel and Guidance Journal, 43 (1964): 47-51. 32Joel Meyers and Jack Dunham, "Effects of Anxiety on Aptitude by Treatment Interactions," (paper presented at the meeting of the American Educational Research Association, New York, February, 1971). 33H.F. O'Neil, Jr., D.N. Hanson and C.D. Spielberger, "The Effects of State and Trait Anxiety on Computer-Assisted Learning," (unpublished paper, 1969). 34K.L. Gustafson, "Simulation of Anxiety Situations and Its Resultant Effect on Anxiety and Classroom Interaction of Student Teachers," (Ph.D. Dissertation, Michigan State University, 1969). 35J.E. Sieber, "A Paradigm for Experimental Modification of the Effects of Test Anxiety on Cognitive Processes,” American Educa- tional Research Journal, 1. No. 6 (1969): 46-62. 36F.C. Richardson et al., Development and Preliminary Eval- uation of an Automated Test Anxiety_Reduction Program for a Computer- Based Learning Situation (Austin, Texas: Texas University, Computer- Assisted Instruction Lab, 1973). 37MA. Many and W.A. Many, ”The Relationship Between Self- Esteem and Anxiety in Grades Four Through Eight," Educational and Psychological Measurement, 35, No. 4 (1975): 1017-1021. 38 Terrell, op. cit. 39Stanley Coopersmith, op. cit. 40A. Anastasi, Psychological Testing_(3rd ed.; New York: Macmillan, 1968), p. 577. 41R.C. Wylie, The Self-Concept (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1961). 42 Ohlenkamp, op. cit. 43W.E. Simon and M.G. Simon, "Self-Esteem, Intelligence, and Standardized Academic Achievement," Psychology in the Schools, 12 (January, 1975): 97-100. 48 44S. Lang, "Research Relating to Personality Differences Between High and Low Achieving Black Children," (report to the Institute for Juvenile Research, 1969). 45L.H. Primavera, W.E. Simon and A.M. Primavera, “The Relation- ship Between Self-Esteem and Academic Achievement: An Investigation of Sex Differences," Psychology in the Schools, 11 (April, 1974): 213-216. 461. Katz, "The Socialization of Achievement Motivation in Minority Group Children," Nebraska Symposium on Motivation, ed. D. Levine (Lincoln: University of Nebraska, 1967), pp. 133-191. 47C. Goldberg, "Some Effects of Fear of Failure in the Academic Setting," Journal of Psychology, 84 (July, 1973): 323-331. 48J. Coleman et al., Equality of Educational Opportunity (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Office of Education, 1966). 498.5. Bloom, "Mastery Learning,” Handbook on Formative and Summative Evaluation of Student Learnipg_(New York: McGraw Hill Book Co., 1971). 50L. Hollingworth, op. cit. 51R. Martinson, Educational Programs for Gifted Pupils (Sacramento: California State Department, 1961). 52J.J. Gallagher, Research Summary on Gifted Child Education (Springfield, Illinois: State Department of Education, 1966). 53D.c. Smith, Personal and Social Adjustment of Gifted Adolescents (Washington, D.C.: Council for Exceptional Children, Research Monograph No. 4, 1962). 54M.A. Many, "The Relationship Between Anxiety and Self- Esteem in Grades Four Through Eight," (Ed.D. Dissertation, Northern Illinois University, 1973). 55F.D. Horowitz, "The Relationship of Anxiety, Self-Concept, and Sociometric Status Among Fourth, Fifth and Sixth Grade Children," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 65, No. 3 (1962): 212-214. 56Many and Many, op. cit. 575.8. Sarason, "Empirical Findings and Theoretical Problems in the Use of Anxiety Scales," Psychological Bulletin, 57 (1960): 401. 58Friedman, op. cit., p. 116. 5911nd, p. 113. 49 60U. Neisser, Cognitive Psycholdgy (New York: Appleton- Century-Crofts, 1966), p. 4. 61 62 Friedman, op. cit., p. 114. Ibid., p. 120. 63Joseph E. Hill, "Cognitive Style as an Educational Science," (unpublished paper, Oakland Community College, 1968), p. 2. 64L. Denike, "An Exploratory Study of Cognitive Style as a Predictor of Learning from Simulation Games," (paper presented at the Association for Educational Communications and Technology Annual Convention, Dallas, Texas, April, 1975). 65Terrell, op. cit. 666.8. Berke, "Employing Educational Cognitive Style as a Teaching Aid for Educationally Disadvantaged College Students," (Ph.D. Dissertation, Catholic University of America, 1976). 67J.T. Cotter, "The Effects of the Educational Sciences of Cultural Determinants of the Meaning of Symbols on Curricular Choice," (Ph.D. Dissertation, Wayne State University, 1970). 68C.M. Lange, "A Study of the Effects on Learning of Matching the Cognitive Styles of Students and Instructors in Nursing Education," (Ph.D. Dissertation, Michigan State University, 1972). 69L. Wasser, "An Investigation into Cognitive Style as a Facet of Teachers' Systems of Appraisal,” (Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Michigan, 1969). CHAPTER III DESIGN OF THE STUDY In this study, the "Nonequivalent Control Group" research design suggested by Campbell and Stanley1 was employed. The experi- mental group includes the students with cognitive styles matching the cognitive style of the instructional mode. The control group includes the students whose cognitive styles are non-matched to the cognitive style of the instructional mode. The two groups constitute naturally assembled collectives. Sample This study was conducted during the spring session, 1976, using two groups of students who met the following criteria: a. The students were participants in the gifted child education program sponsored by the Leon County, Florida, School District; b. The students completed the data gathering instruments which included: 1. the Cognitive Style Interest Inventory for Secondary Students, 2. the A-State Anxiety Inventory for Children, and 3. the Self-Esteem Inventory. 50 51 c. The students completed the pre-test and/or post-test associated with achievement of instructional content. Fifty three (53) students met the above criteria for inclusion in the sample for this study. The sampling procedure used is based upon human judgment and is determined on the basis of what the researcher considers from his past experiences to be a typical or representative sampling unit. Hill and Kerber refer to this type of sampling procedure as ”judgment" or "purposive." They also indicate that: It may also be based upon the findings of an analysis of the statistical population relative to physical, psychological, sociological, or economic characteristics. Sometimes it is a haphazard selection of accessible population elements . . . Frequently, "purposive" selection is considered "segmental“ selection, to the extent that the selection is restricted to certain segments of the total statistical population.2 The use of this technique is based on the assumption that if the sample is representative with respect to known population charac- teristics, it will also be representative with respect to unknown characteristics. The difficulty which arises when this assumption is made is that individuals who are providing the data usually include only those persons within each category who are most readily available. Representativeness of the Population The population of interest in this study consisted of all sixth, seventh and eighth grade students enrolled in the Leon County School District's gifted child education program who completed the cognitive style mapping instrument. There were 77 students who completed the task. Four (4) of the participants were eliminated 52 due to errors in completing the instrument and 20 students were not in attendance when the instructional activities and the A-State anxiety and self esteem instruments were delivered to the students. An explanation for the high absentee rate is that toward the end of the school year children became tired.‘ In this situation they were asked to participate in a series of activities, e.g. testing-achievement, research, etc., in the regular classroom and the gifted program activities. Recognizing the voluntary nature of participation in the program, the 31 percent absentee rate is understandable. The remaining 53 students formed the defined population. Since there is no reason to believe that students involved at the time when the investigation was conducted demonstrated abnormal par- ticipation, all students who met the criteria were included in the sample. The defined population was considered representative of the population from which it was drawn. Instruments State-Trait Anxiety Inventory for Children The State-Trait Anxiety Inventory for Children (STAI-C), developed by C.D. Spielberger, C.D. Edwards, J. Montuori and R. Lushene, copyright 1968, is based on the State-Trait conceptualiza- tion of anxiety originating in the work of Cattell and Scheier.3 The inventory is divided into two parts labeled Form C-l measuring state anxiety, which fluctuates over time, and Form C-2 measuring trait anxiety, which is much less sensitive to Short-term 53 environmental change input and hence remains relatively constant. Numerous reliability and validity studies, many of which are sum- marized by Spielberger et al.,4 have been reported in the literature (see Appendix A). The STAI-C is appropriate for use with elementary school children. Norms are available for large samples of fourth, fifth and sixth grade children. Validity and reliability data are presented in Appendix A. Self Esteem Inventory The Self Esteem Inventory (SEI) is an adaptation of the self report scale developed by Coopersmith, copyright 1967. The instru- ment utilized in this study consists of 25 items selected from the original instrument. Total scores including the lie scale range from 0 to 66 points. The higher the score, the higher the self esteem. This form was administered to one class of fifth graders of both boys and girls. One hour later the inventory was readministered to the same fifth grade students with a test-retest reliability of .88. Cognitive Style Interest Inventory for Secondary_Students The Cognitive Style Interest Inventory for Secondary Students measures the theoretical characteristics, qualitative written char- acteristics and qualitative non-written characteristics. The charac- teristics are listed below. Theoretical Qualitative (Written) °Verbal Reasoning--TVL °Q(CEM), Q(CES), Q(CET), Q(CH), Q(CK), Q(CKH), Q(CP), Q(CS), Q(CT)- 54 Theoretical Qualitative (Written) ~Listening--TAL Recording -Cultural Determinants--I, A, F. ~Reading--TVL (Gates) ~Modalities of Inference--M, D, R, L. -Numerical Listening--TAQ Tape -Persona1 Code. -Grammar--TVL Qualitative (non-written) -Qua1itative Auditory ~Qualitative Olfactory The Cognitive Style Inventory is available in the Testing Center at the Orchard Ridge Campus at Oakland Community College. Data Collection Procedures The study was conducted during the months of May and June, 1976. Prior to the collection of data, administrators of the Gifted Child Education Program of Leon County gave their approval for the investigation to include students enrolled. The Leon County Research Advisory Board then followed with their approval of the research proposal. A list of students was obtained and a schedule of events prepared. In a series of meetings, the instructors were given instructions regarding how they and their students would be involved. After consultation with the instructors and program leaders, a decision was reached to involve students in a manner that was viewed as normal program operation. Prior to the start of data collection, students were informed that they would be involved in data gathering activities. The following procedures were utilized in gather data for the study: 55 a. During the week of May 9 through May 15, 1976, the Cognitive Style Interest Inventory was administered. The criteria for inclusion were previously cited under the section labeled "Sample." b. During the two weeks which followed, May 16 through May 29, 1976, students in a test-retest instructional setting, were given: 1. A-State Anxiety Inventory for Children (STAI-C), 2. Self Esteem Inventory, and 3. content information tests for achievement. The students involved in the investigation were transported to the Leon County Academic Resource Center for one half day per week. All activities involving the sample used in this study were conducted at this location (see Appendix B--Criteria for Eligibility). Assignment of Student Sample to Groups In this study, students in the sample were assigned to groups by determining the degree of match between the cognitive style of the student and the cognitive style of the instructional mode. To deter- mine the student's cognitive style, the Cognitive Style Interest Inventory was administered to the sample. The Oakland Community College Data Processing Center, then, interpreted the results and identified the cognitive style map of each student in the sample. The cognitive style of the instructional mode associated with the instructional program(s) was determined by a panel of experts.5 The panel consisted of Dr. Ronald Bass, Instructional Development Specialist, College of Denistry, University of Florida; 56 Dr. William Terrell, Instructional Development Specialist, Virginia Polytechnic Institute; Mr. William Breese, Coordinator of Media Pro- duction and Technical Training, Duval County School District in Florida; Mr. Lester Rosenbloom, Assistant Professor, University of Florida; and this investigator. The panel viewed the package for each of the instructional set's and noted in writing the cognitive style embodied. The notes were tallied, and the characteristic traits listed. Figures 3.1 through 3.4 indicate the cognitive style traits included in the mode of understanding required by Instructional Set's I, II, III and IV, respectively. The degree of match between the student's cognitive style and the cognitive style of the instructional mode required by the instruc- tional set for the purpose of identifying those students matched to the instructional mode and those students non-matched were calculated.6 Students in the sample with a degree of match at the 69 percentile and above were assigned to the matched group. Students in the sample with a degree of match below the 69 percentile were assigned to the non-matched group. Hypothetical Description of Degree of Match Degree of match can be calculated by taking the arithmetic cognitive style score of the instrUctional mode (the referent) and equate the arithmetic cognitive style score of the individual. The measure of the degree of agreement is described in the arithmetic sentence which follows. 57 Mode of Understanding Number of Panel Members Listing the Trait CJ >1—4‘T1 OOOOO—l—l 3 V“ RI of of of of of of of 00450101010101 01010101010101 4 of 5 Figure 3.1--Mode of Understanding for Instructional Set I. Mode of Understanding Number of Panel Members Listing the Trait T( L) T( L) Q( ) Q( 1 Q' T) Q' P) 0( EM) Q( ES) F I A ZED-f1 of of of of of of of of mmwwwmmm U'lU'lU'lmmU'lU'lU'l 5 of 5 Figure 3.2--Mode of Understanding for Instructional Set II. 58 Mode of Understanding Number of Panel Members Listing the Trait -/-\A O O m -le>I-' [— —|v vvv H'fi) COCO-1'4 AAA v (323 “v of of of of of of ##01010101 010101010101 5 of 5 Figure 3.3--Mode of Understanding for Instructional Set III. Mode of Understanding Number of Panel Members Listing the Trait H) 000000—44 AAAAAAAA O O C.) D O < < > C3370 ‘f-I W. of of of of of of of of #0101-5010'10‘101 UlU'lU'lU'IU'ImUlU'l 0'1 01 of 5 of 5 Figure 3.4--Mode of Understanding for Instructional Set IV. 59 Let X, represent the cognitive style score of the referent, and, also let Y, represent the cognitive style score of the individual, then, take a measure- ment to determine if Y is equal to X, or _ X__ Y - X, and X - 1 The elements in the referent are given a numerical value of 3 (see Figure 3.5, p. 60). If the elements of the individual's map are the same as the cognitive style elements of the referent, they are given a value of 3. However, when the individual's element differs from the referents, based on whether an element is described as having a major orientation e.g. T(VL), Q(A), etc., or described as having a minor orientation e.g. T'(VL), Q'(A) (described as a prime), the elements of the individual is given a value of 1 (see Figure 3.6). The values of the theoretical and qualitative symbols are placed in binomial combinations as revealed in the addition figures 3.5 and 3.6, page 60. The values of the cultural determinants and the modalities of inference is determined by assigning elements which have a major orientation a value of 3. However, the value of the elements with minor orientation are included in the total as a binomial combination with elements which have a major orientation. Using the totals displayed in Figure 3.6, if an individual's map showed the same cognitive style elements as the referents, this sameness represents a perfect match, which is explained in the equation which follows.A UT 0 1 _+1 03 + 03 0.101 (A) 6O Theoretical Cultural Modalities of Symbols Determinants Inference + T(AL)-3 T(VL)-3 F=3; I'=3; A'=3 D=3; M'=3; R'=3 m '2; Q(V)-3 3 3 F = 3 D = 3 g; Q(S)-3 6 6 I'+ F 3 + 3 = 6 M'+ D 3 + 3 = 6 3? Q'(A)-3 6 6 a, Q(0)-3 6 6 A'+F 3 + 3 = 6 R'+ D 3 + 3 = 6 .2 Q(T)-3 6 6 1'; t Subtotal 30 30 15 15 C9, TOTAL 60 15 15 Figure 3.5--The Hypothetical Cognitive Style of the Instructional Mode--The Referent. Theoretical Cultural Modalities of Symbols Determinants Inference + T'(AL)-l T(VL)-3 F=3; I'=3; A'=3 D=3; M'=3 m _8 Q(V)-3 4 6 F = D = 3 g; Q'(T)-l 2 4 I'+ F 3 + 3 = 6 M'+ D 3 + 3 = 6 °>’ Q'(S)-l 2 4 3g Q'(A)-3 4 6 A'+ F 3 + 3 = 6 E Subtotal 12 20 15 9 5 TOTAL 32 15 9 Figure 3.6--The Hypothetical Cognitive Style Map of an Individual's Mode of Understanding. 61 If the totals displayed in Figure 3.5 and Figure 3.6 are compared, an imperfect score would result and the degree of match is revealed in the equation which follows. Individual Cognitive Style Map _ ReTerent Cognitive Style DEGREE 0F MATCH £+l§+i o 15 15 + .5333 + 1 + .500 = 3 3 2°I§33 = .7111 or 71st percentile In this study, the sample total was 53. There were 25 mem- bers above the 69th percentile, three members at the 69th percentile and 25 members below the 69th percentile. The 28 member total at the 69th percentile and above were assigned to the matched group. The 25 members below the 69th percentile were assigned to the non- matched group. Statistical Approach In this study, two statistical techniques were used to analyze the data. Firstly, the Analysis of Covariance was used to test “01’ and H . This test was a measure of the effect of cognitive 02 03 style matching on A-State and anxiety levels, self esteem levels and H achievement levels using an F-test for statistical significant dif- ference between nonequivalent group means at o. = 0.05. The second test, the Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficient, was used to test H04 and H05. The linear relationship 62 was determined between A-State anxiety and self esteem (l) for the matched group and (2) for the non-matched group on pre-test and post-test measure at (x = 0.05. Summary This chapter describes the sample, representativeness of the population, instrumentation employed in the study and the data col- lection procedures. In addition, the method for assignment of student sample to groups and a hypothetical description of degree of match was explained. Moreover, the statistical approach was identified. 63 .am: mFXGm m>wpw=mou-i.m.m mczmwd A J N. I, N J \ EBB), CrovO AmUVO EUVO AIXUVO AXUvO AIUVO AFwUVO AmeVO ‘ ASEUVO vi .... Vi iw V EVO H A30 CLO 5.5 55 730 AO>:. 73:. ACE.- r L F L r L r 35C >mO_>_w_>_ mmUZwmwnzé mHZEm._.mD mZOEkPZwEO m0 mw.t..m E0m4® LL. 11 01 64 No Consult with Form Null Hypothesis H Resource Sample Groups Formed Persons "Degree of Match“ Between Instruc- tion and Sample Identified I No (1) State trait anxiety inventory for children (2) Self esteem inventory, and (3) Achievement instruments identified Instruments Administered as the Pretest Conclusions and Recommendations No Activities Population Identified Yes Panel of Experts 1 Interpretation Instructional of Mode Instructional Identified I No \ Two-hour Instruments Treatment - Administered Provided Yes Yes Findings No {gfinalysis of Data Figure 3.8.--Trait Treatment Process Interaction. FOOTNOTES: CHAPTER III 1D.T. Campbell and J.C. Stanley, Experimental and Quasi- Experimental Designs for Research (Chicago: Rand McNally College Publishing Company, 1963), pp. 47-50. 2Joseph E. Hill and August Kerber, Models, Methods and Analytical Procedures in Educational Research (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1967), pp. 43-44. 3R.B. Cattell and I.H. Scheier, The Meaning and Measurement of Neuroticism and Anxiety (New York: Ronald Press, 1961). 4C.D. Speilberger, C. Drew Edwards, R.E. Lushene, Joseph Montuori and Denna Platzek, STAI-C Manual (Palo Alto, California: Consulting Psychologists Press, Inc., 1973). 5Joseph E. Hill, "A Suggested Technique for Determining Degree of Match Between 'Styles' and Between 'Styles and Modes of Understanding,'” (Bloomfield Hills, Michigan: Oakland Community College, Manuscript, 1973). 6The degree of match for sub-samples Group 1 and Group 2 are displayed in the tables found on pages 68 thru 73 in Chapter IV. 65 CHAPTER IV ANALYSIS OF DATA AND FINDINGS This chapter includes a restatement of the five null hypothe- ses governing this study. the findings are included. An analysis of the data and a summary of Also, an overview of data collected and related statistical results are presented in tabloid form. In addition, a diScussion of each hypothesis is included. The operational hypotheses tested in this study were the following: Operational Hypothesis 1: Operational Hypothesis 2: Operational Hypothesis 3: With the A-State Anxiety pre-test measure as the covariate, there is no statistical significant difference between the mean on A-State anxiety post test measure (1) for student's with cognitive styles matched and (2) for student's with cogni- tive styles non-matched to the cognitive style of the instructional mode. With the self esteem pre-test measure as the covariate, there is no statistical significant difference between the mean on self esteem post test measure (1) for student's with cognitive styles matched and (2) for student's with cognitive styles non-matched to the cognitive style of the instructional mode. With the achievement pre-test measure as the covariate, there is no statistical significant difference between the mean on Instructional Sets I and II achievement post test measure (1) for a sub-sample of student's with cognitive styles matched and (2) for a sub-sample of student's with 66 67 cognitive styles non-matched to the cognitive style of the instructional mode. Operational Hypothesis 4: There is no statistical significant cor- relation between the pre-test scores on A-State anxiety and self esteem (l) for student's with cognitive styles matched and (2) for student's with cognitive styles non-matched to the cognitive style of the instructional mode. Operational Hypothesis 5: There is no statistical significant cor- relation between the post test scores on A-State anxiety and self esteem (l) for student's with cognitive styles matched and (2) for student's with cognitive styles non-matched to the cognitive style of the instructional mode. Findings of the Study This study was designed to find out whether the matching of a student's cognitive style with the cognitive style of the instruc- tional mode had a significant effect on the level of A-State anxiety, level of self esteem and level of achievement. Within the design, student's were assigned to one of two groups; namely, matched (here- inafter group 1) and non—matched (hereinafter group 2). The assign- ment of students to groups was based on a measure of the degree of match between the student's cognitive style map, which is determined by scores received by students on a Cognitive Style Interest Inven- tory, and the cognitive style of the instructional mode which is determined by a panel of experts. The cognitive style matching process is described in Chapter III. The results of the data collected are presented in Tables 4.1 thru 4.6. In Table 4.1, page 68, the degree of match, pre- and post A-State anxiety scores and the change in A—State anxiety for 68 Table 4.1--Degree of Match, Pre- and Post Test Scores and Change in Anxiety for Matched Group (Group 1). Degree of Pre-Test Post Test Change in Student Match Scores Scores Anxiety 1 100 30 20 -10 2 96 24 20 - 4 3 95 29 31 2 4 95 33 31 2 5 95 31 31 0 6 92 29 28 - 1 7 86 31 29 - 2 8 85 33 27 - 6 9 84 35 30 - 5 10 83 37 32 - 5 11 83 31 26 - 5 12 82 28 31 + 3 13 82 30 30 0 14 82 29 29 0 15 81 36 29 - 7 16 80 30 34 + 4 17 80 34 36 + 2 18 80 41 30 -ll 19 79 36 42 + 6 20 78 44 39 - 5 21 72 31 25 - 5 22 72 30 30 0 23 71 27 22 - 5 24 71 20 20 0 25 70 34 22 -12 26 69 30 34 + 4 27 69 33 23 -10 28 69 40 39 - 1 group 1 are presented. In Table 4.2, page 69, the same data is pre- sented for group 2. In addition, Tables 4.3, page 70, and 4.4, page 71, lists the degree of match, pre- and post self esteem scores and change in self esteem for groups 1 and 2, respectively. Similarly, Tables 4.5, page 72, and 4.6, page 73, presents the degree of match, pre- and post achievement scores and gain scores for a sub-sample 69 Table 4.2--Degree of Match, Pre- and Post Test Scores and Change in Anxiety for Non-Matched Group (Group 2). Degree of Pre-Test Post Test Change in Student Match Scores Scores Anxiety 1 68 29 31 + 2 2 68 22 21 - 1 3 68 30 3O 0 4 68 31 31 0 5 68 3O 30 0 6 68 33 41 + 8 7 67 41 30 -11 8 67 41 30 -11 9 66 29 30 + l 10 66 29 30 1 ll 65 27 23 - 4 12 65 35 34 - 1 13 64 29 29 0 14 63 33 27 - 6 15 61 21 23 + 2 16 60 23 24 + 1 17 58 29 29 0 18 56 31 3O - l 19 56 31 37 + 6 20 56 30 30 0 21 56 31 37 + 6 22 56 35 3O - 5 23 54 . 31 26 - 5 24 53 30 30 0 25 48 30 40 +10 of group 1 and 2 participating in Instructional Set I and II, respectively. The analysis of covariance statistical technique was used to test for H0] for no significant difference between group 1 and group 2 means on a post test A-State anxiety measure with the A-State pre- test measure used as the covariate. Null Hypothesis: HO: “x1 = pxg with the pre-test measure on A-State anxiety as a covariate. 70 Table 4.3--Degree of Match, Pre- and Post Test Scores and Change in Self Esteem for Group 1. Degree of Pre-Test Post Test Change in Student Match Scores ‘ Scores Self Esteem 1 100 49 51 + 2 2 96 67 73 + 6 3 95 55 55 0 4 95 53 67 +14 5 95 65 67 + 2 6 92 65 71 + 6 7 86 65 65 0 8 85 53 53 0 9 84 65 71 + 6 10 83 45 43 - 2 ll 83 45 51 + 6 12 82 65 61 - 4 13 82 63 61 - 2 14 82 41 49 + 8 15 81 67 71 + 4 16 80 57 53 - 4 17 80 65 69 + 4 18 80 63 63 0 19 79 59 57 - 2 20 78 45 45 0 21 72 69 69 0 22 72 73 71 - 2 23 71 69 69 O 24 71 57 57 0 25 7O 71 71 0 26 69 55 57 + 2 27 69 57 59 + 2 28 69 40 30 —10 For this between group test of no significant difference between means, the means and standard deviations for group 1 and group 2 A- State anxiety were calculated and are displayed in Table 4.7, page 74. The covariate F, main effect F value, mean square value and the probability criteria (significance of F) were calculated and are presented in Table 4.8, page 74. The F values were determined by dividing the mean square value by the residual value. 71 Table 4.4--Degree of Match, Pre- and Post Test Scores and Change in Self Esteem for Group 2. Degree of Pre-Test Post Test Change in Student Match Scores Scores Self Esteem 1 68 69 67 - 2 2 68 67 63 - 4 3 68 59 63 + 4 4 68 55 57 + 2 5 68 57 53 - 4 6 68 43 45 + 2 7 67 69 71 + 2 8 67 53 63 +10 9 66 41 49 + 8 10 66 41 49 + 8 ll 65 59 61 + 2 12 65 57 63 + 6 13 64 70 73 + 3 14 63 61 67 + 6 15 61 53 59 + 6 16 60 55 57 + 2 17 58 69 69 0 18 56 75 75 0 19 56 49 ' 43 - 6 20 56 61 69 + 8 21 56 73 75 + 2 22 56 63 71 + 8 23 54 55 61 + 6 24 53 67 71 + 4 25 48 57 59 + 2 72 Table 4.5--Degree of Match, Pre- and Post Test Scores and Change in Achievement for Group 1 and Group 2 Involved in Instructional Set I. Student DeiSiin“ P5133122" ”£22.22“ AEEi-‘Ziimlflt Group 1 1 100 17 100 +83 2 95 42 83 +41 3 95 25 92 +67 4 95 8 33 +25 5 92 42 TOO +58 6 86 17 83 +66 7 84 25 92 +67 8 83 25 92 +67 9 82 17 100 +83 10 72 0 83 +83 11 59 17 100 +83 Group 2 12 68 17 92 +75 13 67 17 92 +75 14 63 42 100 +58 15 58 58 92 +34 16 56 8 42 +34 17 56 , 33 , 75 +42 73 Table 4.6--Degree of Match, Pre- and Post Test, and Change in Achievement for Group 1 and For Group 2 Involved in Instructional Set II. Student ”9112?,“ @3312? F3252?" 11211123523 T- Group 1 l 96 ' 50 100 +50 2 85 40 100 +50 3 82 20 100 +80 4 81 10 80 +70 5 80 40 100 +50 72 30 90 +60 7 7] 30 80 +50 8 69 0 40 +40 Group 2 9 68 50 100 +50 10 65 30 90 +60 11 64 50 90 +50 12 56 10 80 +70 13 54 0 100 +100 74 Table 4.7——The Means and Standard Deviation Pre— and Post Test Measure of A-State Anxiety for Groups 1 and 2. Source of Data N X SD Group 1 Pre-test 28 32.0 4.98 Post test 28 29.29 5.78 Group 2 Pre-test 25 30.64 4.78 Post test 25 30.12 5.27 With an F value of 15.405, the test for significant difference between means on post test A—State anxiety measures shows a signifi- cant difference between group 1 and group 2 on pre-test A-State anxiety measures. However, when pre—test A-State anxiety is the covariate, and when the F value is 1.408, there is no significant difference between the post test means of the two groups. Therefore, H0] failed to reject. Table 4.8--Degrees of Freedom, Mean Square, F Value and Significance of F for the Analysis of Covariance on A-State Anxiety. Degrees of Mean Significance Source of Data Freedom Square F Value of F covar'ate 1 363 729 15 405 0 001 (Pre-anxiety) ' ° ' Main Effect (Gp. 1 _ Gp. 2) 1 33.270 1.409 0.239 Residual 23.611 01 = 0.05 75 The analysis of covariance statistical technique was also used to test H02 for no significant difference between group 1 and group 2 means on a post test self esteem measure with the pre-test measure employed as a covariate. Null Hypothesis: H0: Uyl = uyz with the pre-test measure on self esteem as a covariate. For this between group test of no significant difference between post test means, the means and standard deviations for groups 1 and 2 self esteem were calculated and are displayed in Figure 4.1. Source of Data N X SD Group 1 Pre-test 28 58.68 9.43 Post test 28 59.97 10.54 Group 2 Pre-test 25 59.44 8.97 Post test 25 62.44 8.77 Figure 4.l--The Means and Standard Deviation Pre- and Post Test Measure of Self Esteem for Groups 1 and 2. The Covariate F value, main effect F value and the probability cri- teria (significance of F) related to H02 were calculated and are presented in Table 4.9, page 76. With an F value of 205.024, the test for Significant difference between means on post test self esteem measures shows a significant difference between group 1 and group 2 on pre-test self esteem measures. However, when pre-test self esteem is used as the covariate, and when the F value is 2.120, there is no 76 Table 4.9-~Degrees of Freedom, Mean Square, F Value and Significance of F for the Analysis of Covariance on Self Esteem. . Degrees of Mean Significance Source of Data Freedom Square F Value of F Covariate (Pre-Self Esteem) 1 3926.013 205.024 0,001 Main Effect (Gp. 1 - Gp. 2) 1 40.597 2.120 0,148 Residual 19.149 9 = 0.05 significant difference between the means of the two groups. There- fore, H02 failed to reject. Null Hypothesis: HO: p2] = uzg with pre-test measure on achievement as a covariate (a composite hypothesis). The analysis of covariance was also used to test H03 for no Significant difference between group 1 and group 2 means, on Instruc- tional Sets I and II post test achievement measures, with the pre- test measure used as the covariate. For this within group test, the covariate F value, main effect F value and the significance of F related to Instructional Set I were calculated and are presented in Table 4.10, page 77. When the F value is 2.889, the test for Significant difference between Instructional Set I means at a = 0.05 indicates no significant difference between the groups on pre-test achievement scores. When the pre-test is used as a covariate, and when the F value is 1.095, there is no significant difference on post test achievement scores. Therefore, the null hypothesis failed to reject. 77 Table 4.lO--Instructional Set I Degrees of Freedom, F Values and Significance of F for Post Test Achievement for a Group 1 and Group 2 Sub-Sample Analysis of Covariance. Degrees of Mean Significance Source of Data Freedom Square F Value of F C°Varlate 1 14 059 2 889 0 111 (Pre-Achievement) ' - - Main Effect (Gp. 1 _ Gp. 2) 1 5.328 1.095 0,313 - Residual 4.867 a = 0.05 For the within group test related to student performance associated with Instructional Set II, the covariate F value, main effect F value and the significance of F were calculated and are presented in Table 4.11, page 78. The results of a test for signifi- cant difference between means at a = 0.05 indicates no significant difference between the two groups on pre-test achievement scores. The F value was 4.693. With the pre-test used as the covariate, and with the F value of 0.417, there is no significant difference between post test achievement means. Therefore, the null hypothesis failed to reject. Correlation Data on Specific Variables As a measure of the relationship between variables, two statistical correlation tests on H04, one for group 1 and the other for group 2, were conducted on pre—test measures. Similarly, two 78 Table 4.ll--Instructi0nal Set II Degrees of Freedom, F Values and Significance of F for Post Test Achievement for Analysis of Covariance Group 1 and 2 Sub-Sample. Source of Data Dagggfigmof SUSSVe (F Value Signgiigance COVaTIate. 1 10.465 4.693 0.056 (Pre-Achievement) Mig3.51ffcgp. 2) 1 0.929 0.417 0.533 Residual 2.230 a = 0.05 statistical correlation tests on H05, one for group 1 and the other for group 2, were conducted on post test measures. A Pearson Product Moment Correlation statistical technique was used to test for no significant relationship between A-State anxiety and self esteem pre-test measures for group 1 under H04. The same statistical technique was also used to test H04 for no significant relationship between A-State anxiety and self esteem pre-test measures for group 2. Null Hypothesis: Ho: pX = 0 for (1) matched and (2) non-matched groups Using pre-test scores (a composite hypothesis). The results of the correlation as defined in a two tail statistical test r at a = 0.05 is presented in Table 4.12, page 79. The correlation of the two variables associated with group 1 was Significant with an r valueof -0.3364. The H04 related to group 1 was rejected. The result is that there exists a weak to moderate1 ' inverse relationship which is significant at a = 0.05. Revealed 79 Table 4.12--Correlation Between Pre- and Post Test Scores for Groups 1 and 2 on A-State Anxiety and Self Esteem. Source of Data N r Significance of r Group 1 a. Pre-test: anxiety and self esteem 28 -0.3364 0.040 b. Post test: anxiety and self esteem 28 -0.3647 0.028 Group 2 a. Pre-test: anxiety and self esteem 25 +0.0674 0.374 b. Post test: anxiety and 25 -0.1601 0.222 self esteem a = 0.05 in the results is that there is some tendency among group 1 that the higher the pre-self esteem the lower the pre-anxiety. The correlation between the two variables under H04 associ- ated with group 2 was not significant with an r value of 0.0674. The H04 stating that there was no significant relationship between A-State anxiety and self esteem on pre-test measures for group 2 failed to reject. These results indicate there is virtually no relationship between pre-self esteem and pre- A-State anxiety for group 2 students and the correlation is not significant at d = 0.05. The Pearson Product Moment Correlation statistical technique was also used to test for no significant relationship between A-State anxiety and self esteem post test measures for group 1 under H05 for no significant relationship between A-State anxiety and self esteem measures for group 2. 80 Null Hypothesis: Ho: pxy = 0 for (1) matched and (2) non-matched groups using post test scores (a composite hypothesis). The results of the correlation as defined in a two tail statistical test r at d = 0.05 is presented in Table 4.12, page 79. The correlation of the two variables related to group 1 was signifi- cant with an r value of -0.3647. The results of the test is that there exists a weak to moderate inverse relationship which is signifi- cant at the d = 0.05. The results is explained as some tendency among group 1 students that the higher the post test self esteem the lower the post test anxiety when the two variables are correlated. The correlation between the two variables when considering group 2 under H05 was not significant at a = 0.05. However, the H05 stating that there was no significant relationship between A-State anxiety and self esteem on post test measures for group 2 failed to reject. Summary The findings resulting from the analysis of data indicated that when using the Analysis of Covariance statistical technique, failed to reject at d = 0.05. Utilizing the Pearson H H and H 01’ 02 03 Product Moment Correlation statistical technique, the analysis of data did indicate a significance in the relationship between A-State anxiety and self esteem on group 1 pre-test scores and post test scores, whereby, HO4 and'H05 were rejected at d = 0.05. However, when group 2 pre-test scores and post test scores were considered, H04 and H05 failed to reject at a = 0.05. Discussion and implications of these findings are considered in the following chapter. FOOTNOTES: CHAPTER IV 1John W. Best, Research in Education (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, Inc., 1970), p. 247. 81 CHAPTER V CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS The purpose of this study was to examine (l) the effects of cognitive style matching of students with instruction on A-State anxiety levels, self esteem levels, and achievement levels and (2) the relationship between A-State anxiety and self esteem. Overview The subjects were Leon County School District gifted sixty, seventh and eighth grade students. The sample was those students who completed data gathering instruments on specific variables. The degree of match was calculated and subjects were assigned to one of two groups; namely, Group 1 (matched) and Group 2 (non-matched). Fifty three subjects participated in the investigation (see Appendix B--Gifted Program Description and Criteria for Eligibility). . Conclusions In this section, the conclusions are listed serially and are presented in two parts. The first part is devoted to conclusions which address the results of the Analysis of Covariance statistical technique employed in this study. In part two the conclusions are concerned with the result of data analysis using the Correlation Coefficient statistical technique. 82 83 Given, then, the analysis of data on the effects of cognitive matching on A-State anxiety, self esteem and achievement, the con- clusions in the first part are as follows: 1. No significant difference was found between the post test means of the matched and non-matched groups on A-State anxiety. 2. No significant difference was found between the post test means of the matched and non-matched groups on self esteem. 3. No significant difference was found between the post test means of the matched and non-matched groups on Instruc- tional Set I and II achievement measures. Given, the analysis of data on the relationship between A-State anxiety and self esteem the conclusions in the second part are listed below. 4. A significant inverse relationship was found for the matched group between pre- A-State anxiety and pre-self esteem. No significant relationship was found between the pre-test meaSures of the two variables for the non-matched group. 5. A Significant inverse relationship for the matched group was found between post A-State anxiety and post self esteem. No significant relationship was found between post test measures of the two variables for the non- matched group. 84 Discussion In this study, no significant difference on post test measures was found as revealed in conclusions 1 through 3. These conclusions are presented in the composite display which follows. I1 T1 IMatched Non—matched A—State Anxiety/Self Esteem/Achievement There could be several reasons for these results. The first reason is, that, the technique used to test the statistic (difference between means) could have contributed to the results. The Analysis of Covariance statistical technique used pre-test measures as the covariate. The analysis of data associated with conclusions 1 and 2 showed that the difference between group means on the pre-test measure were significant at a = .001. The interpretation of the results is that the sample groups started at different levels. However, when the covariate is taken into account and/or when consideration is given to the fact that the groups started at different levels, no significant difference was found between means on post test measures. This fact justifies the rationale for using the Analysis of Covariance technique to test the statistic. Accounting for the initial differences between means of the two groups through the use of the Analysis of Covariance tech- nique is important, because if this activity were not included in the study the possibility exists that the results could have been different. A reason for no significant difference found in the results which relate to conclusion 3 may be explained in the population 85 characteristics from which the sample was drawn. The figted child population is viewed as a homogeneous group of high achievers (see Appendix-—Criteria for Eligibility). The total sample demonstrated high levels of achievement when measured against a standard of excellence' this fact may tend to support the construct that because the population is a high ability group, a high percentage will demon- strate high achievement levels. Given, high achievement by this population, then, a major goal should be to assist these learners to reach their full potential. Another reason for no significant difference associated with the first three conclusions is related to the fact that a sample of the population was used rather than the total population. In this study, the ”purposive” sampling technique was employed. The use of this technique is based on the assumption that if the sample is representative with respect to known population characteristics, it will also be representative with respect to unknown characteristics. The difficulty which arises when this assumption is made is that indivudals who are providing the data usually include only those persons within each category who are most readily available. A larger N might have produced different results. Partici— pation in the educational delivery system which accompanies the gifted child program is voluntary. This fact justified the use of the purposive sampling technique and also accounts for the small N investigated in this study. Student participation in the educational delivery system is not mandated by the school district, therefore this intervening variable was uncontrolled. 86 The inability of this investigator to control student par- ticipation resulted in a statistical test between sample group means and correlations. If the total population would have been investi- gated, then, the true mean and correlations could have been determined, and the possibility exists that different results could have been revealed. There are a set of reasons which relate to the degree of match construct employed in this study which may account for the results. These reasons which will be discussed in order are: (l) the method employed to calculate the degree of match and (2) the percentile range of the degree of match recorded for the total sample. First, there are two alternate combinations for calculating the degree of match. The first is to match the cognitive style of the learners to the cognitive style of the instructor. The second is to match the cognitive style of the learner to the cognitive style of the instructional mode. In this study, the latter combina- tion was employed, because its relationship to the purpose for the investigation. In the first combination an investigator can use percentile ranges to refine calculations of degree of match. In the second combination, a panel of experts is employed to interpret the cogni- tive style of the instructional mode, and percentile ranges related to cognitive style characteristics are not utilized. It appears, then, if the Size of the panel of experts were increased and the interpretations were different due to refinement of the referent 87 (cognitive style of the instructional mode), then, the calculations of the degree of match could have been different. The second reason associated with the degree of match is that the percentile range for the total sample from 48 percent to 100 percent is a ”major" orientation. The subjects with the highest degree of match (matched group) had a percentile range from 69 percent to 100 percent. Subjects with the lowest degree of match (non— matched) group had a percentile range from the 48th percentile to below the 69th percentile. The findings of no significant difference between means tends to support Hill's principle that subjects at the 50th to 99th percentiles with educational levels for a set of cogni- tive style characteristics is a “major” orientation. There was one subject with a perfect degree of match of 100 percent and one subject at the 48th percentile. The analysis of data supports the conclusion that there is no significant difference between subjects with a degree of match that is a major orientation. An unknown factor related to the present discussion and related to earlier discussion on control is that individuals in the population who were not in the sample could have been those students who had a "minor” or "negligible" orientation. If this factor was true, the study could have yielded statistical results which were significantly different. Another reason for the results in this study is the two hour time frame of the treatment between the pre-test and the post test. The time frame for the treatment is viewed as a short time frame. Its selection for use was due to a consideration governing the con- duct of this study to minimize the effect of intervening variables 88 affecting a change in the emotionalities of anxiety and self esteem scores. The scores on A-State anxiety, self esteem and achievement, associated with conclusions 1, 2, and 3, respectively, were pre-post measures taken in relationship to an instructional session. However, other intervening variables may have been maximized by suing the short time frame. A variable which could have affected the results is interference due to recall of item responses in a test-retest situation. A longer period between pre-test and post test, e.g. an academic quarter, semester, might have yielded Significantly different results. In this study, a weak to moderate significant relationship was found for the matched group and no significant relationship was found for the non-matched group for pre-test measures and also for the post test measures between self esteem and anxiety. These findings relate to conclusions 4 and 5. The interaction which exists is revealed in the linear distribution represented below; in other words, given, a high self esteem level, there is a low anxiety level. SELF ESTEEM LEVEL Hi h >i(non-matched) Low (matched) ANXIETY LEVEL The findings associated with the matched group revealed that a significant relationship was found when pre-test and post test 89 measures were investigated. The strength of the relationship falls within the category classified by Best as a ”weak to moderate” inverse relationship. The pre-test measure associated with the non-matched group revealed a low positive correlation between the two variables. However, the post test measure showed a calculated r value which fall within the category classified by Best as a ”very weak” inverse relationship which is not significant. The statistical significance associated with the matched group and the lack of significance associated with the non-matched group tends to support the use of cognitive style matching as an appropriate instructional strategy. implications and Recommendations The following suggestions for future research are based on the findings of this study and the insights gained during the investigation. 1. This study used a sample which yields an estimate of the statistic to be analyzed. Future studies should look at the popula— tion statistic which would yield true values of the statistic. 2. Replication should include a larger N. The increased N would increase the sample size and group size and would yield more precise statistical results. A strategy to be employed to increase the size of N may be to consider students in all grade levels. 3. In this study the relationship between anxiety and self esteem were measured. Future studies should measure the relationship between achievement and the two emotionalities measured in this study. 9O 4. This study used the degree of match between the subject and the instructional mode. Replication should also consider the degree of match of the instructor, because percentile ranges relating to cognitive style characteristics could also be employed. In conclusion, previous investigations utilizing cognitive style matching has concentrated on cognitive style as it relates to achievement. However, achievement is one dimension of concern for growth in students by educators. Another concern that Should receive ”equal treatment” is concern for the emotional health of the learner. It appears to this investigator that when a student receives content in the manner that he derives meaning it becomes a form of pleasure. Further, to consider one dimension and not the other is a consistent error made throughout the educational enterprise and made at all levels. APPENDICES 91 APPENDIX A STATE-TRAIT ANXIETY INVENTORY: RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY 92 Reliability Test-retest reliability (stability) coefficients for the STAIC are presented in Table l for 246 elementary school children after a six week time interval. Since a valid measure of A—State should reflect the influence of unique situational factors existing at the time of testing, low test-retest correlation for the STAIC A-State scale were anticipated. Table l.--Test-Retest Reliability Coefficients for Fourth, Fifth 1 and Sixth Grade School Children Over a Six-Week Interval. N A-Trait A-State Males 132 .65 .31 Females 114 .71 .47 Given the transitory nature of anxiety states, measures of internal consistency such as the alpha coefficient would seem to provide a more meaningful index of reliability than test-retest cor- relations. The alpha reliability of the STAIC A-State scale, computed by Kuder-Richardson formula 20 as modified by Cronback (1950),2 was .82 for males and .87 for females. Further evidence of the internal consistency of the STAIC scales is provided by item reminder correlations, which are presented 1Spielberger, op. cit., p. 6, 1973. 2L.J. Cronback, “Coefficient Alpha and the Internal Structure of Tests," Psychometrika, 1951, 16: 297-335. 93 94 in Table 2. The internal consistency of the STAIC scales is reasonably good. The test-retest correlations for the STAIC A-State scale are quite low, as would be expected for a measure designed to be sensi- tive to the influence of situational factors. Validity Evidence bearing on the construct validity of the A-State scale is available for a sample of more than 900 fourth, fifth and sixth grade students. The mean scores in the NORM and TEST conditions for each indivudal A-State item are reported in Table 3. Critical ratios (CR) for the differences between these means, and point—biserial correlations for scores on each item with the two experimental conditions are also reported in Table 3. Table 4 presents correlations between the STAIC A—State and A-Trait scales with the California Test of Mental Maturity and the California Achievement Test for groups of 80 to 140 fourth, fifth and sixth grade elementary school children. Most of the correlations are negative as might be expected with these measures of aptitude and achievement. 95 Table 2.--Item Remainder Correlation Coefficients for Individual STAIC A-State and A-Trait Items. A-STATE A-TRAIT Item Males Females Males Females l .41 .41 .35 .34 2 .33 .55 .34 .42 3 .45 .44 .35 .37 4 .36 .51 .28 .27 5 .24 .23 .36 .43 6 .35 .33 .44 .44 7 .28 .45 .34 .38 8 .50 .43 .24 .16 9 .42 .55 .40 .46 10 .38 .46 .38 .45 11 .26 .52 .37 .36 12 .43 .54 .41 .49 13 .37 .42 .29 .37 14 .50 .61 .42 .44 15 .55 .56 .33 .42 16 .44 .51 .20 .31 17 .33 .46 .49 .51 18 .26 .43 .24 .27 19 .39 .53 .35 .40 20 .50 .54 .38 .41 - .5; 96 Table 3.--Mean Scores on Individual STAIC A-State Items Under Norm and Test Conditions. MALES (N=456) FEMALES (N=457) Item Norm Test CR r(pb) Norm Test CR r(pb) 1 1.90 2.51 15.97 .44 1.94 2.64 20.14 .51 2 1.14 1.60 12.60 .36 1.18 1.72 15.00 .40 3 1.83 2.43 16.43 .44 1.86 2.46 17.46 .45 4 1.33 2.03 18.06 .47 1.37 2.16 20.32 .53 5 1.31 1.83 13.39 .39 1.30 1.94 16.85 .46 6 1.99 2.41 10.04 .29 2.05 2.55 13.56 .37 7 1.15 1.76 16.02 .45 1.17 1.94 20.98 .55 8 1.99 2.51 13.34 .37 2.00 2.66 18.27 .49 9 1.23 1.96 17.97 .50 1.26 2.06 20.91 .54 10 1.97 2.43 11.74 .34 1.93 2.55 16.29 .45 11 1.13 1.60 13.56 .38 1.13 1.77 18.25 .48 12 1.82 2.47 17.37 .45 1.77 2.52 19.98 .50 13 1.89 2.52 16.53 .44 2.01 2.65 17.45 .47 14 1.74 2.33 15.34 .40 1.66 2.42 20.88 .51 15 1.22 1.68 12.28 .36 1.22 1.78 15.17 .42 16 1.31 1.71 9.78 .30 1.25 1.75 12.42 .37 17 1.82 2.28 12.98 .34 1.72 2.32 16.86 .43 18 1.16 1.53 10.21 .30 1.15 1.60 12.64 .35 19 1.29 1.75 11.72 .32 1.29 1.83 14.15 .38 20 1.88 2.42 14.36 .37 1.77 2.47 18.17 .47 I: 97 Table 4.--Correlations of the STAIC A-Trait Scale with Measures of Aptitude and Achievement Among Elementary School Children. MALES FEMALES Grades: 4th 5th 6th 4th 5th 6th California Test of Mental Maturity I.Q. Score 18 '12 '37 '36 '12 '36 California Achievement Test Reading -14 -21 -28 -34 -14 -33 Language -12 -21 -28 -32 —08 -24 Arithmetic -10 -17 -24 -34 -13 —32 Composite Score -13 -17 -29 -37 -13 -31 Study Skills -l3 -16 -32 —33 -09 -3O APPENDIX B GIFTED CHILD PROGRAM DESCRIPTION AND CRITERIA FOR ELIGIBILITY/ PARTICIPATION 98 GIFTED PROGRAM (1974—1976) B. CRITERIA FOR ELIGIBILITY l. The child must meet the following: a. Obtain an IQ score of 130 or above on the WISC, WISC-R, or the Stanford Binet. This score can be verbal, performance, or full scale score, or b. An IQ score of 130 or above on the Slosson administered by psychologists, psychcmetrists, or specially trained teachers of the gifted. Must fulfill all of the following: a. Recommendation of classroom teacher confirming the student's intellectual functioning as evidenced by preponderance of 5's on a majority of the characteristics and objectives on the screening and referral form. b. Social and emotional maturity. c. Parent approval. C. PROVISION FOR SCREENING, REFERRAL, IDENTIFICATION, PLACEMENT AND DISMISSAL 1. Screening The following evaluations are done each year in the fall under the supervision of the guidance department: a. Kindergarten (1) Kindergarten Inventory of Teaching Essentials (KITE), preliminary Edition b. Grade 1 (1) Comprehensive Tests of Basic Skills, Expanded Edition, Form S, Level B c. Grade 2 (1) Comprehensive Tests of Basic Skills, Expanded Edition, Form S, Level C d. Grade 3 (1) Comprehensive Tests of Basic Skills, Level 1, Form Q (2) Short Form Test of Academic Aptitude, Level 2 99 100 e. Grade 4 (1) Comprehensive Tests of Basic Skills, Level 1, Form R (2) Short Form Test of Academic Aptitude, Level 2 f. Grade 5 (1) Comprehensive Tests of Basic Skills, Level 2, Form Q (2) Short Form Test of Academic Aptitude, Level 4 9. Grade 7 (1) Comprehensive Tests of Basic Skills, Level 3, Form Q (2) Short Form Test of Academic Aptitude, Level 4 h. Grade 8 (1) Florida Statewide Eighth-Grade Tests Referral Referral may be made to school principals by parents, teachers, guidance counselors, students, school psychologists, and self- referrals. Identification Any student meeting Criteria 1 and all of 2 will be considered for placement in the gifted program. Placement a. The placement of an individual in the program for the gifted will be the responsibility of a special staffing committee. The staffing committee will include the referring teacher, the school principal or his representative, and any other school personnel deemed necessary to insure proper placement. The final decision for placement will be made by the Coordinator of Exceptional Child Education. b. Parents will be notified by letter of the placement decision. c. Prior to placement, the Coordinator will obtain written per- mission from the parent or guardian for placement in the Gifted Program on an acceptance form provided by the Exceptional Child Education Department. Dismissal a. Dismissal may be reccmmended by the classroom teacher, principal, and resource teacher due to lack of ability to profit frcm the program. Dismissal must be approved by the placement committee. 101 b. Dismissal through advancement to a grade level not being served by the Gifted Program. c. Dismissal by parent request. INSTRUCTIONAL PROGRAM The Leon District's program for the gifted is growing. In February, 1975, sixty-seven third graders were added to the program, bringing the total number of students to approximately 500. Students in grades three through eight are being served 135 minutes per week of instructional time. The program is housed in a resource center of four rooms at Bond Elementary, and has a staff of four teachers and a coordinator. This center has unique advantages, as each student is offered a program of highly individualized enrichment to add dimension and depth to learning. The students are offered the opportunity of learning at levels and rates commensurate with ability to achieve. The utilization of home and ccmmunity resources, along with an unusual variety of activities and materials allows students to study in areas not included in the basic curriculum. A computer terminal has been acquired for instructional purposes which provides the gifted students with new learning expeirences. Classes are small and informal, and students are free to move about the room in pursuit of their studies. Participation in two types of activi— ties is required in the resource room. Imperatives are chosen by group interest, and each student is required to choose an imperative. These imperatives include courses in logic, computer science, photography, oceanography. Students individually pursue subjects and activities as electives. FACILITIES 1. Present facilities are four resource rooms located at Bond Elementary School. 2. Facilities for the gifted program are inadequate due to: a. Lack of floor space for students' individual pursuits. b. Lack of storage space for materials, supplies, equipment, and students' unfinished projects. c. There are no black-out curtains for the viewing of audio—visual materials. d. No quiet area is available for student—teacher conferences, or for consultants working with individual students. e. The cooling and ventilation system is inadequate for the pro- vision of the optimum learning environment. 102 TRANSPORTATION The Leon School District provides bus transportation to and from the home school to the resource center. Travel monies are paid to the resource room teachers for the purpose of providing inservice training to sending teachers. PROGRAM PERSONNEL Four teachers staff the resource center, who are certified at elementary and secondary levels in various subject.areas. A full-time coordinator is responsible to the district's program. SUPPORTIVE SERVICES ' l. The full range of school support services is available to all students in the gifted program. 2. Community resources have been utilized continuously in the program. Resource persons from FSU, FAMU, Florida Department of Education, LeOn‘County District Schools, and the community at large have provided enrichment in many subject areas. ‘PERSONNEL DEVELOPMENT ACTIVITIES There were two one-hour inservice workhops for all sending teachers,’ principals, curriculum assistants, and interested district staff during the l97h—75 school year. Inservice is provided to all schools sending students to the gifted program,and teachers of the gifted spend one day per week in the home schools working with sending teachers. An active parent group is striving to improve the quality of education for bright students. ' PROGRAM EVALUATION Certain aspects of the program may be objectively evaluated; while other aspects may only be estimated subjectively. However, some objective evidence can be assembled on which judgments may be based. 1. An increased interest in school is indicated by the statements'of pupils, parents and home school teachers, in addition to observations of increased student reading, use of community resources and home activities stimulated by school experiences. 2. Improved classroom procedures are evidenced by ratings.and checklists which record pupil participation in discussion, improvement in re- search skills, and ability to follow through on individual projects. 3. There is improved personal and social adjustment within the resource room and home school, which is evidenced by checklists, pupil inter- ‘views, and parent and teacher observation. h. An evaluation of the instructional system will be conducted by an evaluator as proposed in the Title III Gifted Project Grant. APPENDIX C .AUTHORIZATION TO CONDUCT RESEARCH .INSTRUCTIONAL PROGRAM DESCRIPTION 103 INST. 62 BOARD MEMBERS MIKE J. OEAUDOIN. Chalrmon BROWARD P. DAVIS,Vlco Chlivmon DORIS N. ALSTON PETER W. EVERETT 0. D. ROBERTS C. GRAHAM CAROTHERS, School Board Auomcy SCHOOL BOARD of Egg; fl P. 0. BOX 2825 2757 WEST PENSACOLA ST. TALLAHASSEE. FL 32304 // May 11, 1976 Mr. Adelbert Jones Rt. 13 Box 210-C Tallahassee, Florida 32304 Dear Mr. Jones: The Leon County Research Advisory Board has approved your request for research. We are looking forward to reviewing your results. Your input may benefit our educational programs and will be made available to interested persons within our educational system. Contact the principal of the schools in which you wish to conduct your study as soon as possible. The principal is responsible for making the decision relative to his or her school. I suggest that you make an appointment to meet with the appropriate principals about your research proposal. When you meet with each principal, show them this letter. It is your responsibility to return the enclosed "Principal's Consent for Research Participation" signed by the principals of those schools to be involved, prior to the start of §_y research. Send this form to the Chairman of the Research Advisory Board. Receipt of this consent form by this office will complete the approval process. In the interest of continued research benefits and the coordination of research interests, send this office one (1) copy of your results 32g discussion. This information, and any other relevant information you may think to include, will be filed in our research library and added to our annotated listing of research projects. The research library is open to any persons interested in school based research. We encourage your contributions. To facilitate records control each research request is assigned a number. The number for your project appears at the top right of this page. When you contact the principals of those schools where you would like to conduct research, please inform them of your assigned number. 104 Mr. Adelbert Jones May 11, 1976 Page Two We need input as you plan future research activities. I am available for consultation concerning identified areas of research needs within the school system. We appreciate your research interests and encourage consultation in planning for research that may be compatible with our school system's needs. Most important, we look forward to your results and any suggestions they may offer toward improving the educa- tional process. Please feel free to call if we may be of further assistance. I can be reached at 487-2870. Sincerely” fl W . . W . illiam D. Piotrowski, Chairman Research Advisory Board WDP/la 105 REQUEST FOR RESEARCH DATE: Janqu 7 1976 PRINCIPLE INVESTIGATOR: Luenmmt.krws ADDRESS: Route 13, box 210C Tallahassee, blorioa 3230A TELEPHONE #: 222-8030, 2.24:. 221 QNIVERSITY or DEPARTMENT/AREA SPONSOR (include sponsor's name) or Affiliation: Florida 1’. I". University ADDRESS: __ College of Lducation Tallahassee, Florida 32307 c/O Adelbert Jones TELEPHONE #: 222-8030, m. 221 STUDY DESCRIPTION: [malysis of the modification of anxiety levels and . selfwesteem levels and their relationships TITLE OF STUDY: Pml,.'s;s of the edification of erg-ism: levels and selfoesLeer: levels and their relationships via cognitive style rntehing. SHORT TOPIC OF STUDY (5 words or less): Hunssrnt