THEBlS' . . W .5- LIBRAR y V Michigan Sta to University This is to certify that the thesis entitled The Participation of Kuwait Women in the Labor Force and their Distribution in Different Jobs. presented by Khalid A. A] -Shal 1 al has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for , M.A. Sociology Jegree in (”L/flaw 62:9er Major professor Date November 14, ,1980 0-7639 .IllljllllllllllfllllllLlljlljlllllllgllljllllllll L r _ OVERDUE FINES: Ll. ‘7 -.’ 25¢ perday per item ' 4‘ M4 . (.‘fi‘x ‘ , RETURNIKE LIBRARY MATERIALS: " I” “an", 1 Place in book return to remove ~v‘ I” .\ f ‘\ charge from circulation records ’22... a f . i‘v‘rymm “vii” THE PARTICIPATION OF KUWAITI WOMEN IN THE LABOR FORCE AND THEIR DISTRIBUTION IN JOBS by Khalid Ahmad.Al-Shallal A THESIS Submitted to Nfichigan State university in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MAS I'ER Ol’ ARTS Department of Sociology 1980 ABSTRACT THE PARTICIPATION OF KUWAITI l‘JQ‘\'[EN IN THE LABOR FORCE AND THEIR DISTRIBUTION IN JOBS by Khalid Ahmad Al-Shallal This study, which is mainly descriptive in approach, examines the participation of women in KUwait's work force within the framework of a changing society and a developing economy. Using data supplied by the Kuwait Labor Force Census for the period 1965, 1970, and 1975 the study examines the influence of soci- etal changes upon the kinds of jobs held by women, increases in their numbers in specific jobs, and their relationship to the overall labor force. An increasing population with increased governmental interest in education has channelled the largest percentage of women into teach- ing and related positions, secondarily into clerical and related jobs, and next into service categories. These jobs provide work in an environ- ment separate from.men and are hence acceptable in the society. Increased educational opportunities may admit women to higher echelon jobs. Compared to developed countries, Kuwait's women work force seems insignificant. In Kuwait the progress is substantial. Dedicated to My Wife and Children ii .ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The author of this thesis would like to express his sincere gratitude and appreciation to his major professor, Dr. William Faunce fer his guidance during the writing of this thesis and also for his support throughout the course of the Master's program. Gratitude and thanks is also extended to Dr. Christopher K. vanderpool and Dr. J. Allan Beegle for the time spent serving on my'Mhster's Committee. I wish to also recognize and express my appreciation to bun Adi Al-Tarrah for his advice and assistance. Special thanks to my parents who were so supportive of my Master's program, And Special thanks to my wife, Sara and my daughter, Rasha and my son, Yousef for the great support. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES ........................ Chapter I. INTRODUCTION ...................... Portrait of Kuwait .................. Political Organization ................ The Economy ...................... Statement of the Problem ............... Objectives ...................... Review of Literature ................. women and Development ................ The Labor Force ................... Source of Data .................... Importance of the Study ................ II. LABOR FORCE STRUCTURE OF KUWAIT ............. Introduction ..................... Recent Changes in the Labor Force ........... an-KUwaiti Labor ................... Labor Supply and Demand ................ Employment Factors .................. III. WOMEN.AND THE KUWAIT LABOR FORCE ............ Introduction ..................... Social Change in Kuwait ................ WOmen and Employment ................. WOmen and Legislation ................. Female Participation in the Labor Force ........ Distribution in Job Categories ........... Professional and Related Technical Occupations Clerical and Related WOrkers ............ Service Workers ................... Other Categories .................. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued) Chapter Page III. WCMEN AND THE KUWAIT LABOR FORCE (Continued) women and Education .................. 44 Illiteracy ..................... 47 Distribution in Professional Occupations ...... 47 Conclusions ...................... 55 IV. CONCLUSION AND RECOVIVIENDATIONS ............. 58 Introduction ..................... 58 Recommendations .................... 60 SUNMARY ............................ 62 FINAL COVMEN'I‘S ........................ 65 BIBLIOGRAPHY ......................... 67 7 F F ’ "'"'-'.JIY- .“ - ' N .4L""?'.."!V‘ 1"" " .. '1 - ; - -' w WreFWr-wfimt‘r.wn* n'F'W‘ , 5": ‘ ._ ‘1‘: p 3—“;— Table LIST OF TABLES CHANGES IN LABOR STRUCTURE ............... LABOR CLASSIFICATION BY ECONCMIC ACTIVITY (1975 CENSUS) .................... KUWAIT POPULATION BY SEX IN THE CENSUS YEARS 1957, 1965, 1970, 1975 ................ PARTICIPATION OF KUWAIT AND NON-KUWAITI WCMEN IN THE LABOR FORCE FOR CENSUS YEARS 1965, 1970, 1975 ...................... KUWAITI WWIEN IN THE LABOR FORCE BY MAJOR GROUPS OF OCCUPATION IN THE CENSUS YEARS 1957, 1965, 1970 8 1975 ..................... KUWAITI MEN IN THE LABOR FORCE DISTRIBUTED INTO MAJOR GROUPS OF OCCUPATION - FOR CENSUS YEARS 1957, 65, 7o, 75 ................... NON-KUWAITI LABOR FORCE ACCORDING TO MAJOR GROUPS OF OCCUPATION G SEX FOR THE CENSUS YEARS 1957, 1965, 1970 G 1975 ............... KUWAITI WlMEN ACCORDING TO OCCUPATIONAL 6 EDUCATIONAL STATUS IN THE CENSUS YEARS 1965, 1970, 1975 ..... RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN EDUCATION 6 PARTICIPATION IN THE LABOR FORCE FOR KUWAITI WCMEN IN THE CENSUS YEARS 1965, 1970, 1975 ................ DISTRIBUTION OF KUWAITI 8 NON-KUWAITI WOMEN IN PROFESSIONAL TECHNICAL 8 RELATED OCCUPATIONS FOR THE CENSUS YEARS 1957, 65, 70, 75 ........ Page 20 27 36 37 39 4O 41 48 50 52 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION The participation of Kuwaiti women in the labor force has sharply increased in the past ten years. Far-reaching structural changes have become the results of this increase of women's activity outside the home. As women have entered the labor force, however, their responsi- bilities in the family setting have continued. Thus a two—fold implica— tion can be noticed: the role in the organization of work as well as the role in the family. .As in most Arab societies, the issues are not only related to women's emergence into a creative and productive role but also are linked to the conditions of their immediate reality. The developing countries still persist in the glorification of the female role as mothers-and housewives without accompanying investment in their societal world of production. Furthermore, women's stereotyped role insufficiently ensures their rights in their roles, since society does not provide them.with the necessary guidance and service to improve positions. In Kuwait, the welfare of the majority of women has generally been ignored. Changes have been instituted only for a minority of women, such as those in the elite upper class who have already acquired positions while women in the lower classes remain ignored. The desire of women fer more equality and participation on all levels of human activity and expression have generated pressures for social change. This study will investigate the participation of Kuwaiti women in the labor ferce, delineating their distribution in jobs, while the implications of this change will be analyzed. Chapter I presents the situation today, in regard to the economy of Kuwait. Chapter II dis— cusses the structure of the Kuwaiti labor ferce and changes that are taking place. Chapter III analyzes the current status of women as to educational opportunities, professional demands, job distribution and, in relation to all this, the influence of the persistent traditional norms, values, and attitudes. Chapter IV concludes with a discussion of the implications which will involve the further exploration of the changing role of women in the Kuwaiti labor ferce. Portrait of Kuwait Kuwait is situated on the Northwestern shore of the Arabian Gulf, being the most northerly, the largest, and the most populous of the Arab sheikdoms and communities of the area. It is bounded on the east by the Gulf, on the north and west by Iraq, and on the southwest by Saudi Arabia. To the south, KUwait and Saudi Arabia jointly own the Neutral Zone, which also borders the Gulf (Illustration I). Caspian 5“ J\\ L; ¥AKISTNN oh°“' amines PEOPLE'S DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF YEMEN (SOUTH YEMEN) YEMEN ARAB REPUBLIC (NORTH YEMEN) [Mien Oman 8 m ”am-Mir: 0 Tehran ff Meeker»: ' 1.....-“wv-v ILLUSTP AT I Ol‘ll MAP OF THE MIDDLE EAST AND KUWAIT(in darker letters) I . II I II I Aid/U @359 Is_land , v W W, _ PARAQIBN PAN (PERSIAN) GULF 3 Fintas Al Ahmadi 0, Mfia 3 fimada I III 1 II t \ -Illustration II: Map of Kuwait, showing the islands and the major cities. The State of Kuwait consists of an area measuring approximately 5,800 square miles, comparing it to the size of the State of New Jersey. There are also a few islands with a combined area of about 400 square miles (Illustration II). Little is known about Kuwait's ancient history. It has been referred to as a little fort and was also known among such early travelers as Green who was a Danis archeologist (Zahra G Winstone, 1972). In the early 19505, a Danish archeological team had identified the remains of a civilization dating back to 2300 B.C. The original settlement of Kuwait is believed to have been established by a group of Bedauins who came from central Arabia to the shore of the Gulf about 1710. The majority of the inhabitants belong to the Aniza tribe. Political Organization The present ruling family of Kuwait, Bahrain, and Saudi Arabia stem from the same tribe. The Alsabah family has ruled Kuwait since 1796, when Sheik Sabah I became Kuwait's ruler or Emir. In January, 1961 the government announced that Kuwait was now fully responsible for her own foreign policy. By June, 1961 the 1899 agreement between the British and Kuwait was replaced by a treaty of friendship and consultation with the United Kingdom. Kuwait has since joined the Arab League, the United Nations, and other international agencies. The present political system is a constitutional monarchy. The constitution was drafted in 1962, and the country's first national assembly came into existence after general elections (excluding women's vote) in January, 1963. The National Assembly was disbanded in 1976 by the government. The Economy Kuwait is considered by many economists as one of the most rapidly developing countries. The economy before World war II was based on trade, pearl expeditions, and fishing. The phenomenal increase in oil production has caused a major change in Kuwait's economy. The first important transformation was, of course, the increase in the total p0pu1ation comprised of foreign as well as native labor who were attracted first to employment opportunities in the oil industry itself and second by positions in the greatly expanded government service, as well as employment in the mushrooming construction industry. The oil story began when the first production well was discovered and Kuwait granted concession to the Kuwait Oil Company in 1938 (A1- Tarrah, 1978). The drilling continued up to the start of World war II; it was then suspended. Explorations were resumed after the war, and the first shipment left Kuwait in June, 1946. Six oil companies, one of which is a national company, are currently engaged in oil exploration. and production in Kuwait and the Neutral Zone. The most important and largest is the Kuwait Oil Company (KOC), which handles about 92 percent of Kuwait's output. Over 80 percent of its production comes from the Greater Burgan field, which is probably one of the largest oil fields in the world. Kuwait occupies the third position among the Middle Eastern countries in the production of oil. It is ranked the seventh in world production, and fifth among all the oil exporting countries. In 1975 the total output of crude oil reached 760,729,000 barrels, which works out to a daily average of 2,084,189 barrels. Production of oil refineries amounted to 106 million barrels, i.e., 289,619 barrels per day. Production of liquified gas amounted to 18 millions barrels, i.e., 48,342 barrels per day. The KOC contributes the highest proportion of the total production of crude oil fer exportation. Next in order are the Arabian Oil Company (Japan) and the American Oil Company, respectively. The total export of crude oil reached 652,716,000 barrels in 1975, equivalent to a daily average of 1,788,263 barrels. Export of refined products amounted to 107,608,000 barrels, i.e., at the rate of 294,816 barrels per day. In addition, a total of 15 million barrels were delivered to bunkers for fuel. Export for liquified gas reached 17.2 million barrels. Kuwait probably represents the highest development of the oil economy and therefore the greatest degree of social change. In fact, at the end of werld War II, KUwait was a poor, traditional kingdom whose people earned their living from fishing, pearling and trading with the Gulf neighbors. By the 19705 Kuwait boasted the world's highest per capita.income and a system of social services — including public educa— tion, free medical care, government housing and pensions - that placed it among the most advanced welfare state in the world. A number of government programs circulated oil revenues to the people in the ferm of social services. Kuwait's population had become one of the world's fastest growing, and the country annually attracted large numbers of immigrants from the neighboring countries, elsewhere in the Middle East, South Asia, and beyond. The enormous wealth derived from Kuwait's single valuable natural resource - oil - has financed not only the remodeling of government services and the armed forces but also the physical modernization of the state's infrastructure as well as stimulat- ing massive foreign investments, loans, and gifts. In addition to new roads, ports, schools, hospitals, and industrial facilities, the govern- ment has supervised the reconstruction of'much of Kuwait's cities and the construction of large, modern residential suburbs. The most modern equipment money can buy has been purchased for the state health facilities and fer the new university of Kuwait. The dramatic transfermation has not been without problems, however. Foremost among them in the mid-19705 was the challenge of absorbing fereign workers, drawn mainly from surrounding Arab Countries, who constituted more than half the population. In fact, the present construction program is a continuation of nearly every phase of the earlier program, but with greater emphasis on deveIOpment of outlying communities, airports and low-income housing. For these reasons and many others, Kuwait developed faster than other countries in the area, besides, Kuwait has a free trade and the strategic location made her a main port in the area which connects Asia with the rest of the world. In fact, to appreciate Kuwait's.current attitude to its neighbors and to the rest of the world it is necessary to understand the social and political genesis of the Kuwaiti people. Kuwait was never a colony, but for around sixty years was a British protectorate. Hewever, even under the protectorate, the British presence was minimal and at no time were there any British troops or other forms of imperial presence in the country. The discovery of oil has been an influential factor in creating structural changes in the social institutions of Kuwait. ‘Women have also gained from the wave of western technology now entering the country (Al—Tarrah, 1978) . Statement of the Problem This study is to discuss the Kuwaiti women labor force and what factors are affecting their distribution and concentration in certain jobs. 10 Objectives 1) To discuss the development of Kuwaiti women participation in the labor ferce. 2) To discuss the distribution of Kuwaiti women in different jobs and the effect of social factors in their distribution. Review of Literature WOMEN AND DEVELOHHENT The course of development in underdeveloped countries articu- lates the emergence of women from the world of non-production into the world of production. Hewever, underdeveloped countries which are developing toward capitalism provide an ambiguous line of deve10p- ment for women's access to jobs: Employment and education are provided but without the accompanying legislation or services which liberate women from their traditional roles. Changes are tolerated only When they are extensions of female activities and perpetuations of women's subordinate status. Irene Tinker in the book, women and WOrld Development says that : 11 "During much of the last quarter century develop- ment has been viewed as the panacea fer the economic ills of all less developed countries: create a modern infrastructure and the economy will take off, providing a better life fer everyone. Yet in virtually all countries and among all classes, women have lost ground relative to men: develop- ment by widening the gap between incomes of men and women, has not helped improve women's lives, but rather has had an adverse effect upon them. The main reason is that planners generally men have been unable to deal with the fact that women must perfbrm two roles in society, whereas men perfOrm only one. Development planners must begin to recognize women's dual roles and stop using mythical stereotypes as a base for their develop— ment plans. A first step is to recognize the actual economic contributions of women. Recent studies recording women's roles in sub- sistence economies show a panoply of traditional roles, both economic and familial. In subsistence economies, the process of development has tended to restrict the economic independence of women as their traditional jobs have been challenged by new methods and technologies. In the developed ’modern' world, women continue to experience restricted economic Opportunities while at the same time finding increased family obligations thrust upon them. Planners must not only consider and support women's economic activities but must also find ways of mitigating the drudgery of house work and the responsibility of child rearing. The role assigned each sex must again be made more equal - with men as well as women accepting their dual functions of work and family." Tinker, BoBramsen, and Buvinic, 1976, pp. 22 G 24. Kuwaiti society provides an example of the effect of the development of capitalism and the position of women in underdeveIOped countries. Kuwait as a developing country is presently living through a phase of abundance in oil, a natural resource which the 12 advanced capitalists countries need. However, Kuwaiti women stand at the lowest scale of this development system. The issues confronting Kuwaiti women are basic and fundamental. As in most Arab societies, the issues are not only related to a woman's emergence into a creative and productive role, but are linked to the conditions of her immediate reality. The first contradiction that faces women in developing countries is the glorification of their roles as a.mother and housewife, without any accompanying investment in their societal world of production. Furthermore, women's stereotyped roles insufficiently insure their right in this role, since society doesn't provide them with the necessary guidance and services to improve their position. As Sheila Rowbothaw in her book, Wbmen, Resistence and Revolution explains, "the liberation of women in developing countries requires the emergence of the colony within a colony." It is clear that women have, during every period in history, been good producers, craft workers, laborers, construction workers, and traders. Some social structures have required more elaborate arrangements than others to carry out their economic roles. The activity itself of women, however, has been a constant, though the formats have varied. As societies have become more complex and more centralized, the women's sector has become progressively less visible, particularly as urbanization has created a class of female clerics and decision makers out of touch with the production system of the male sector of their economics. 13 In fact, in theorizing the status of women or indexing the number of economic and political rights that accrue to the women, it has only recently been emphasized that female solidarity groups devoted to female political\and economic interests constitute an important criterion of female status in any society. Previously it has often been assumed that there is a direct correlation between women's participation in social production and their degree of participation in.political decision making. That is where women are in social production long enough and in sufficient numbers it was thought that they would automatically move from dependent to independent and from powerless to powerful. In the book, Women in the Third World, the writer discusses the woman's place in a society which is passing through rapid changes in all spheres of national life. In fact, it is universally accepted that the status of women determines, to a vast extent, the level of culture and civilization that a.particular society has attained. The status is judged in the light of rights, privileges and the esteem in which a woman is held in the social system. How much education is imparted to her, what opportunities of economic independence are available fer her, what kind of role is assigned to her in public life, how she is treated in such vital matters as marriage, divorce and inheritance, are some of the yardsticks by which the importance of woman's role is judged in a.modern society. "Socioeconomic and political modernization of the.Third.WOrld is a subject of serious concern among scholars of all disciplines. There are, however, numerous insurmountable barriers which hinder the achievement of this objective. One 14 of the major hinderances is the acute shortage of human resources, which are needed for the development of various sectors of national life. It is in this connection that special efforts are being expended to regenerate the lot of women who have been traditionally incapacitated to effectively participate in national life. It is a.matter of common knowledge that women in the new nations suffer from countless legal, political, economic, educational and social inabilities. In most cases their participation in economic activities and politics is almost negligible. In recent years there has been a growing reali- zation that unless women are given due rights and freedom and some positive steps are taken to emancipate them from traditional shackles, the problem of human resources in developing societies would never be solved. The question of the status and role of women in national development of new states is a difficult and complex one. Each nation has to adopt means and measures in this direction which are in consonance with its religious and social climate." Ali, 1975, Pg. 1. The situation of women in KUwait immediately affects the Oppor- tunity, the status, and the roles of Kuwaiti women. To understand the mechanics of her present identity, one would have to approach it from the vantage point of the traditional position of a KUwaiti woman, the present characteristics of underdevelopment in the woman's population, and the emergence of the Kuwaiti woman into work outside the home. THE LABOR FORCE The labor force includes all persons who are employed or who are unemployed but looking for work; it excludes those who are unwilling or unable to work. The portion of the labor force classified as employed 15 includes all noninstitutional persons 16 years or older who holds a job during the week of enumeration, even if they are temporarily absent from 'work due to illness, vacation, etc. The unemployed classification includes all noninstitutionalized persons 16 years or older who are not at work but who are actively seeking employment during the week of enumeration. (Kreps, Somers, Perlman, P. 45, 1974.). According to the above definition the rate of growth of the labor force depends upon the rate of growth of the population of working age and upon participation rates, i.e. the proportion of people in different sex and age groups who are employed or are seeking work or available for work. (Mbuly and E. Costa, P. 30, 1974.) Changes in any one of the determinants - population size and composition, participation rates, immigration will, in turn, affect the size of the labor force. The effects of changes in labor force participation rates are less easy to anticipate than those of the other determinants. Long term trends would seem to indicate a continued growth in the participation fer men. The net effect is a gradual increase in the overall rate. When combined with the growing population, the rise in the proportion of adults who work necessitates a growing economy in which the aggregate demand for goods, and hence for labor, is sufficient to prevent unemploy- ment and underemployment. (Kreps, Somers, Perlman, P. 60.) 16 Source of Data The research material will be drawn from three sources. One statistically chosen from the 1975 census and the annual statistical abstract. Second, published materials and library sources. And my study will be mostly descriptive. Importance of the Study Because Kuwait is a very young deve10ping country and undergoing rapid changes (due to oil production) the main problem is lack and shortage of such studies. Since this country is so similar to other deve10ping countries there is a need for these and.more studies. To accommodate to the dynamics of such rapid changes in one hand, and.main- tain stability and continuity on the other, every effort should be made to undertake extensive studies in various aspects of these changes and the impacts that such changes may have on the circumstances conditioning the lives of individuals and groups. CHAPTER II LABOR FORCE STRUCTURE OF KUWAIT Introduction \. In Kuwait the labor force is the prime indicator of social and economic develOpment. Its structure and distribution are but reflections of the country's population and.manpower. This force is one of the most, if not the most, important determining factor of deveIOpment directions. By and large, changes in the economic sectorial activities of the labor ferce would show the relative trends of the country's economy. However, there are some exceptions, the most obvious of which is the oil sector, where it is highly capital intensive. The government employs about 41 percent of the labor force. This segment is controlled by the Civil Services Commission. The private sector employs the balance under the supervision.of the Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs. The Ministry of Education and Kuwait university are the major suppliers of Kuwait manpower. The participation of Kuwaiti women in the labor force has increased in the past ten years from.2.5 percent of the total labor ferce in 1965 to 8.1 percent in 1975. But this increase is conservative in comparison to the present demands of Kuwait for labor power and in light of the fact that non- Kuwaiti women are being imported to fill required jObs. Kuwaiti women 17 18 today are not involved in any of the production jobs. In fact, among' women there has been a movement since 1957, and particularly in the past ten years, toward the professional and the related technical occupations. The shift from service workers into professional fields occurred between 1965 and 1970 (Al-Tarrah, 1978). Recent Changes in the Labor Force The growth of Kuwait's labor force during the fifties and early sixties has been remarkable, averaging about 9 percent annually during 1946 through 1957, and over 16 percent annually in the following eight years, reaching by 1965 a total of 184,298 people (Table 2.1). This incline was largely due to the rapid growth in construction and infrastructure deve10pment rather than in the growth of the oil industry. Also, the deve10pment phase of the oil industry ended during this period so that the requirements of a large labor force fer oil-related con- struction gave way to the much lower requirements for the more capital intensive production phase. Thus, in comparison to other countries, the labor ferce continued to increase during the second half of the sixties and early seventies, while the growth rate came down to lower levels, averaging in the mid—sixties to about 6.5 percent annually. Reasons for this decline were the decline in economic growth and the increased restrictions on entry into the country. 19 According to the 1975 census (Table 2.1), the Kuwaiti labor force numbered 304,582, of which host nationals represented about 30 percent and non-Kuwaitis 70 percent. The corresponding figures for 1970 are 27 percent and 73 percent, and for 1965, 23 percent and 77 percent. Apart from the inordinately high percentage of non-Kuwaitis, there are a number of significant points concerning the size and struc- ture of the labor force evident in Table 2.1 and explained as follows: 1. The relatively small labor force participation rate (about 40 percent in the sixties and less than 30 percent in the seventies) is due to three principle reasons: i 1) Social and cultural factors that normally discourage women from seeking employment. Evidence of this is the very low percentage of women in the labor ferce, amounting to about 2.5 percent in 1957 and 11 percent in 1975. 2) The large proportion of people under the age of 15 relative to the total population, particularly in recent years. This group constituted almost 45 percent of the population in 1975 compared to 40 percent in 1965. 3) The relatively high percentage of economically inactive people among host nationals. This percentage for the total population was estimated at 42 percent in 1975 and more than 85 percent fer the KUwaiti population alone. Because of the limited role of women mentioned above, a calcula- tion of the male inactive proportion is more meaningful, giving a per- centage of 12.1 percent. Also, the definition of the working-age group in Kuwait includes people between the ages of 15 and 60, whereas else- where the definition normally excludes people under 17. 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One of the most spectacular changes in contemporary Kuwait is the establishment of widespread educational facilities for women. Education has become a means of security for women as well as for men. CLERICAL AND RELATED WORKERS The second group of occupations which show a concentration of Kuwaiti women is that of the clerical and related worker's sector (see Table 3.3A). In 1975 they formed 27.4 percent of the female labor force. SERVICE WORKERS The third group of occupations where the Kuwaiti women labor ferce is found is that of service workers. There has been a major decline in the percentage of women in service occupations although there has been an increase in the absolute number of women in these occupations. The decline in percent of women in these occupations is because most 'women entering the labor force since 1957 have gone into professional or clerical jobs. 44 OTHER CATEGORIES 'The occupations of production and of agriculture have not in- cluded women in the past, and in 1975 they included only 0.5 percent and 0.2 percent of the female labor fbrce, respectively. At present, Kuwaiti women have almost lost interest in sales jobs as evidenced in the shift from 1957, 10.9 percent, to 1975, 0.3 percent. WOmen of means, who have capital, prefer to invest it in es- tablishments which are related to wholesale and retain trade. In 1975, of the total 335 establishments owned by Kuwaiti women, 245 were of the wholesale and retain trade category, or 73.1 percent. Women and Education The state has defined its educational role in the following constitutional provisions: Article 13: Education is a fUndamental requisite for the progress of society, assured and promoted by the state. Article 40: Education is a right for Kuwaitis, guaranteed by the state in accordance with law and within the limits of public policy and morals. Education in its preliminary stages shall be compulsory and free in accordance with the law. Education in the modern sense actually started after the dis- covery of oil (in the late thirties) and its full exploitation which has changed the face of the country. Another important development in the field of education was achieved in Kuwait in the late sixties. The 4S policy of education took then its distinct shape in cohesion with the nature of Kuwait, its national aims, its local circumstances and the demands of its economic and social deve10pment. The following table illustrates the considerable increase in the numbers of schools, students, and teachers between 1945/46 and 1975/76: Table of Number of Government Schools, Student, and Teachers (1945/46 - 1975/76) Scholastic NUmber of Year Schools Students Teachers 1945/46 17 3,635 142 1960/61 134 45,157 2,255 1970/71 230 138,747 9,085 1975/76 326 - 201,907 15,472 Source: Central Statistical Office, Nfinistry of Planning, Annual Statistical Abstract, 1976. The total expenditure on public education in Kuwait in 1975/76 ‘was around K.D. 87 million, which comes to about 9.4 percent of the total government expenditures. The educational system includes the following stages and institutes: 1. Kindergarten: A 2-year course 2. Primary Stage: .A 4—year course 3. Middle Stage: A 4-year course 4. Secondary Stage: 46 A. General secondary education: A four year course. In the third year, students either go to the arts section or to the science section, and they continue until the fourth year. B. Technical School: A four year course. C. Religious School (Institute). 5. There are also some institutes: .A. Teacher Training Institute B. Technical and VOcational Institute C. Commercial Institute D. Health Institute E. Special Education Institute 6. university of Kuwait KUwait is keen to provide free education on all levels for all. For that, the state has encouraged girls to have their share of education on an equal fecting with boys, especially at the University level whether at home or abroad. The state has, without discrimination, sent men and women on educational misSions and scholarships to other Arab states and fereign countries. This has helped women to hold technical, administra- tive, and leadership posts in various departments of the government. It is also a recognition by the state of the society's contribution to the building of the country's foundation, and the importance of education in deve10ping reSponsibility, feeling, and consciousness. 47 ILLITERACY ~In the past ten years, the following trend is apparent: a drop in the illiteracy among Kuwaiti women in employment from 47.8 percent to 10.0 percent in 1965 (see Table 3.5). The correlation between educa- tion and the participation of women in the labor force is high at every level and has been increasing since 1965. For the three census years, 1957, 1965, and 1975, the highest participation rate has come from university graduates and the lowest from those with intermediate school certificates (see Table 3.6). Formal education for girls was not established until 1937, twenty-five years after the first boy's school. Whereas men were literate, KUwaiti women were illiterate and ignorant. Before the establishment of the first school and until the 19505, Kuwaiti girls could only learn to recite the KOran and attend some religious classes. These classes were held by religious women in their homes and were probably taught by their fathers. DISTRIBUTION IN PROFESSIONAL OCCUPATIONS until 1960, when the first group of Kuwaiti women graduates re- turned with University degrees, they were unqualified for Kuwaiti pro- fessional occupations. Today the fellowing three characteristics are obvious in the professional distribution of Kuwaiti women. 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