Msu‘ LIBRARIES RETURNING MATERIALS: ”— Place in book drop to remove this checkout from your record. FINES will be charged if book is returned after the date stamped below. S . THE CARING ROLE OF MIDDLE-AGED EMPLOYED WOMEN WITH ELDERLY MOTHERS: AN EXPLORATORY STUDY WITH IMPLICATIONS FOR HOME ECONOMICS EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMMING BY ./ Janice King Kauffman A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Vocational and Technical Education 1982 Gl/7’r3? ABSTRACT THE CARING ROLE OF MIDDLE-AGED EMPLOYED WOMEN WITH ELDERLY MOTHERS: AN EXPLORATORY STUDY WITH IMPLICATIONS FOR HOME ECONOMICS EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMMING by Janice King Kauffman The primary purpose of this study was to explore the caring roles of adult employed women with elderly mothers, with the secondary purpose being to identify specific approaches as to how home economics education could support these roles. The research was pursued in conjunction with a larger intergenerational study at Michigan State University (1). The purpose of the larger study was to assess the quantity and characteristics of the care of non-institutionalized elderly parents by their adult children and compare perceived needs for supportive services by parents and their adult children. Two interview schedules, developed by principal researchers of the larger intergenerational study, addressed individual and family characteristics, amount and characteristics of parent care, use and nonuse of services. and perceived need for services. Subjects were interviewed individually in their homes. The data for this research were based on the interviews with eighteen pairs of employed daughters and their mothers which were selected from the larger pool of fifty volunteer Janice King Kauffman pairs of adult child and parent. Additionally, data for this research were taken only from the sections of the interview schedules that addressed the research questions of this study. The review of literature for. this study supported the need for an exploratory study of employed adult women and their elderly mothers. Most of the past studies regarding intergenerational relationships have dealt with the satisfactions or problems of adult child/parent relationships in a very general sense. However, given that the numbers and proportion of both elderly women and employed women are large and are increasing, and that there is no research or information about the caring relationship between adult employed women and their elderly mothers, there was a need for an exploratory study of this type. Descriptive statistical procedures were used to analyze the data because this study was an exploratory one, and because the number of employed daughter/mother pairs totaled eighteen. An examination of the data indicated that the majority of the employed daughters felt that their employment limited - the amount of time they were able to spend with their mothers. Many of the daughters felt guilty that they could not spend more time with their mothers. Janice King Kauffman ' In general, the findings of the study indicated that: ‘1)'The mothers had very few needs for physical and economic support, but greater needs for emotional support; 2) The daughters' positive attitudes toward aging may have been due to their continuing and overall satisfying relationships with their mothers; 3) Few government agencies were used by either the mothers or the daughters to provide care for the mothers, and; 4) The greatest unmet educational need of the daughters relating to care of older people was for information regarding community resources. Analysis of the data suggested that home economics educators could do much to support the relationships between adult employed daughters and their mothers. There were implications within four areas of home economics education: 1) objectives of home economics education; 2) high school home economics programs; 3) support services, and; 4) plans and policies for home economics education. Implications for future research were based directly on findings from the research, possibilities suggested by the findings, and methodological considerations. (1) Barbara D. Ames, ”Care of the Elderly by Adult Offspring” (Research, Family and Child ECOIOQYt Michigan State University, 1982). ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Many persons have contributed to the planning, development, and administration of this study. Three individuals in particular deserve special recognition for their contributions and support: Dr. Barbara Ames, Dr. Marilyn Parkhurst, and Dr. 0. Donald Meaders. I am especially grateful to Dr. Ames for her encouragement and support throughout my doctoral program. Her confidence and belief in me have been essential to my accomplishments. Her interest and expertise in the area , of aging have served as a major influence in my professional development. Gratitude is extended to Dr. Parkhurst for her advice and assistance in planning and carrying out my doctoral program and for sharing her expertise in the area of home economics education. I am indebted to Dr. Meaders for his helpful suggestions and substantive criticism. His enthusiastic support has been a source of encouragement in completing the writing of this dissertation. Two other committee members, Dr. Gladys Beckwith and Dr. Ellis Thomas also have demonstrated unique ways of providing encouragement. Gratitude is extended to them for their support. Likewise, the encouragement, suggestions, and support of my friends and fellow graduate students was appreciated a great deal. Special thanks is given to my parents, Hugh and Viola King, for providing the many types of assistance without *which I would have been unable to complete my graduate program. I am especially grateful to my mother for setting an example that has served to encourage the continuation of my education. The greatest debt of all is to my husband, Dan, for his encouragement and steadfast faith in all my endeavors and to my son, Jacob, for his patience and understanding. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LI ST OF TABLES O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 v Chapter I. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Statement of the Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Research Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Rationale for Methodology . . . . . . . . . . 7 Rationale for Studying Middle-Aged Employed Women and their Elderly Mothers . . . . . 17 Definitions of Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 II 0 REVIEW OF LITERATURE O O O O C O O O O O O O O O O 21 Adult Child/Parent Relationship . . . . . . . 21 Roles of Middle-Aged Dual Career Women . . . . 30 Roles of Elderly Women . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 Female Intergenerational Solidarity . . . . . 40 Educational Gerontology . . . . . . . . . . . 46 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 I I I O METHODOLOGY 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 5 6 Procedures Used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 Selection of Sample . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 Description of Sample . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 Interview Schedules . . . .‘. . . . . . . . . 68 Analysis of Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 Iv. FINDINGS AND SUWY I O O O 0 O O O O O O O O O C 72 Effects of Mothers' Aging on Daughters! Attitudes toward Aging . . . . . . . . 73 Daughters' Perceptions of Care Provided ' for Mothers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 Mothers' Perceptions of Daughters' Care . . . 95 Public Services/Programs Used by Mothers and Daughters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 Educational Needs . . . . . . . . . . 121_ Care of Mothers by Other Family Members . . . 129 iii Chapter Page Effects Of Daughters' Working Roles on Care Of MOthers I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 135 Summary of Findings . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 v. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS . . .'. . . . . . . . 149 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 Implications for Home Economics Education . . 156 Implications for Future Research . . . . . . . 177 Concluding Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180 BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 APPENDICES ' Appendix A. Brochure Explaining Intergenerational Study. . . 193 B. Adult Child Interview Schedule . . . . . . . . . 196 C. Elderly Parent Interview Schedule . . . . . . . . 210 iv LIST OF TABLES Table ow In a. O: h) r4 O 10. 11. 12. l3. 14. 15. Age Frequencies of Mothers and Daughters . . . . . Yearly Income Range of Mothers . . . . . . . . . . Yearly Family Income Range of Daughters . . . . . . Educational Level of Mothers . . . . . . . . . . . Educational Level of Daughters . . . . . . . . . . Effects of Mothers' Aging on Daughters' Attitudes toward Aging; Daughters' Ratings of Mothers' Physical, Emotional, and Economic Independence; and Mean Ratings for Independence by Case . . . . . Effects of Mothers' Aging on Daughters' Attitudes toward Aging; Daughters' Perceptions of Relation- ships while Growing up: and Description of-Overall Relationships by Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Daughters' Perceptions of Activities Performed for Mothers by Rank Order and by Frequency of Performance 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O Daughters' Perceptions of Activities Spent with Mother by Rank Order and by Frequency of Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Daughters‘ Estimates of Hours Per Week Spent on Activities with or for Their Mothers by Rank Order. Daughters' Perceptions of how They Can Be the Most Helpful to Their Mothers by Rank Order . . . . Mothers‘ Perceptions of Activities Performed for Them by Daughters by Rank Order and by Frequency of Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mothers' Perceptions of Activities Spent with Daughters by Rank Order and by Frequency of Performance 0 O O O O O O O O ‘ O O O O 0 O O O 0 O Mothers' Estimates of Hours Per Week Daughters Spent on Activities with or for Them by Rank Order. Mothers' Perceptions of how Daughters Can Be the Most Helpful to Them . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 60 64 65 66 67 75 77 85 86 87 87 97 98 99 99 Table ' Page 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. Perceptions of Mothers and Daughters Regarding Frequency of Daughters Listening to Mothers' Problems by Frequency Performed . . . . . . . . . . 101 Perceptions of Mothers and Daughters Regarding Frequency of Daughters Seeking Information Concerning Mothers' Problems by Frequency Performed . . . . . 102 Perceptions of Mothers and Daughters Regarding Frequency of Going Together to Visit Others by Frequency Performed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 Perceptions of Mothers and Daughters Regarding Frequency of Doing Crafts Together by Frequency Performed O O O I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 108 Mothers' Participation in Community Organizations . 114 Community Organizations in which Mothers Participate (Paired Responses) .. . . . . . . . . . 115 Mothers' and Daughters' Use of Federal, State, or Local Government Agency Services (for Mothers) . . 116 Federal, State, and Local Government Agencies Used by Mothers and Daughters (for Mothers) . . . . 117 Daughters' Memberships in Organizations Geared to the Needs of Older Persons . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 Daughters' Perceptions of Their Unmet Educational Needs Related to Care of Older People by Methods They Would Like Information Received . . . . . . . 122 Methods by which Daughters Would Like to Receive Additional Information Relating to Care of Older People by Rank Order . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 Daughters' Perceptions of Which Family Members Shared in the Care-Giving Activities for the Mothers by Rank Order . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 Daughters' Perceptions of Care—Giving Activities Delegated to Other Family Members . . . . . . . . . 131 Daughters' Perceptions of Family Members Who Did More or Less with Mothers Because They (Daughters) were Employed O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 132 Daughters' Perceptions Regarding how Their Employment Affects the Amount of Time They Are Able to Spend with Their Mothers by Rank Order . . 137 vi Table - Page 31. Daughters' Perceptions Regarding How Their Employment Makes Them Feel about the Time Spent with Their Mothers by Rank Order . . . . . . . . . 137 32. Daughters Perceptions Regarding How Their Employment Affects Their Emotional Ability to Handle Their Mothers' Needs by Rank Order . . . . . 138 33. Daughters Perceptions Regarding How Their Employment Affects Their Financial Ability to Handle Their Mothers' Needs by Rank Order . . . . . 138 34. How Mothers Feel Regarding whether Both Their .Daughters and Spouses Should be Working by Rank order 0 O O O O I O O O O O O I O 0 O .0 O O O O O O 139 vii Chapter I INTRODUCTION Perceptions of the role of the family as a support system for elderly family members have changed over time. . The popular idea during the 1950's and 1960's was that the extended family system of the past was breaking into autonomous nuclear family units and therefore no longer providing support for elderly family members (Shanas, 1979) . Underlying this belief was the assumption that the elderly members had previously been integrated into large extended families and had assumed important economic and social functions as members of these families. David Hacket Fisher (1978), a family historian, has shown through research that these assumed extended family systems have little resemblence to historical reality: 'Scarcely any of them (elderly) lived in extended, three-generational households.” The nuclear family, consisting of parents and their unmarried children has been the dominant family form in all periods of American history (Dahlin, 1980). While this nuclear family form has remained relatively stable, the age composition has changed over the past century. In 1900, 42 percent of married elderly people 2 lived in the same household with one or more of their unmarried children. In 1975, only 10 percent of married elderly people shared a household with unmarried children (Dahlin, 1980). The difference occurred because in 1900 the number of years over which a woman gave birth and raised children was much greater than it is today. Women in their sixties Often still had unmarried children at home, and these children married at later ages‘thanl they do today. Today, marriage is no longer a critical factor in the decision to move out of the family home. Research documents that adult children always have tended to. internalize the social and moral belief that they are responsible for their parents and behave as such with regard to their parents' well being (Robinson & Thurnher, 1979). Research also gives evidence of substantial residential proximity and regular interaction between elderly persons and their families (Shanas, 1979). A number of demographic Changes are, however, greatly affecting the adult child/parent relationship. More elderly people, fewer Siblings to provide parental care, and greater numbers of women in the work force are creating changes in the adult child/parent relationship. Census reports document the increasing numbers of elderly people and the consequent change in family composition. In 1950 there were about 12.3 million people aged sixty-five and over. These persons constituted about 8.1 percent of the population. By 1980, there were about twice as many persons aged sixty-five and over as there were in 1950, 24.5 million, and they constituted about 11 percent of the population (Shanas, 1980). The increased life expectancy is creating the phenomenon of the four generation family with the first generation parent in his or her late seventies or early eighties and the second generation in his or her late fifties or early Sixties. Thus, two generations are experiencing their own aging processes as well as having to cope with the Changing family relationships caused by the process. A significant increase in the presence of elderly persons in the family and an expanding number‘of four generation families can be expected (Shanas, 1980). Historically the elderly population has experienced not only growth in numbers, but also changes in composition. In 1930 there were about as many men as women in the population age sixty-five and older; by 1975, there were only sixty-nine men for every one-hundred women in this age group (Treas, 1977). It is these widows, often left alone with lower incomes, who generally have needed the resources of family support systems. By the year 1990, there will be sixty-four men for every one-hundred women age sixty-five and older (Siegel, 1976). By the turn of the century there will be over nineteen million elderly women, and one in every fourteen in the United States population will be a woman in the elderly stage of life (Uhlenberg, 1979). Traditionally, support to these widows has been provided by daughters and daughters-in—law (Brody, et al., 1979). However, since the birth rate has been steadily declining, there are fewer of these daughters and daughters-in-law available to provide necessary care (Treas, 1977). In addition, economic conditions and the women's movement are encouraging many of the traditional Care—givers to seek outside employment. Between 1940 and 1970, the proportion of working married women between the ages of forty-five and fifty-four increased from 11.1 percent to 47.8 percent (U. 8'. Bureau of Census, 1973). Consequently, the care of an elderly mother is but one of a number of competing responsibilities confronting mature women (Treas, 1977). While inflation has made the incomes from two jobs increasingly necessary to maintain a family's level of living, these jobs have cut into the hours available to care for elderly parents. As a result, the limitations of the family as a support system are spawning a service industry and a professional corps to provide regular meals, housekeeping services, and institutionalized care for the elderly. This trend can be expected to continue. Outside sources increasingly will be called upon to assist in the resolution of what Blenkner (1965) has called "filial crisis“ or the crisis created by caring for one's own parents. Seelbach (1978) has asserted that the potential negative consequences of caring for one's parents far outweigh the positive ones, especially if the care is of long duration. Therefore, families probably will be challenging future bureaucratic structures to modify their functions in ways that are satisfactory to both elderly people and their kin. In order to identify support services for adult children and their elderly parents, information is needed regarding what families can and cannot do for their elderly ‘1members and.what is needed to function effectively. Shanas (1979) has pointed out the lack of such studies -- especially studies in which elderly people are sampled. Additionally, the unique circumstances of families consisting of employed adult women and aging parents must be researched. Researchers have identified many important demographic changes affecting families. However, since most of this research has examined these changes in isolation, the implications of their interactions is not clear. Research which incorporates an exploratory approach can better serve to assist dual career families in general, and women in particular, with elderly parents and establish guidelines for support systems in the future. A further understanding of the dynamics in dual career and elderly families would be especially beneficial to vocational and home economics educators as well as public policy writers in developing programs to aid in the structuring of such support systems. Statement of the Problem Little is known about the role changes, behaviors, and patterns of aCcommodation of employed adult wives/daughters and their aging mothers. While limited information regarding these relationships does exist, the nature of these relationships remains unclear. This researcher, using a structured interview schedule, explored and described the caring role of adult employed women with elderly mothers. Parent-caring interactions and activities within the families were identified and analyzed. The implications of these interactions for home economics educators were weighed in terms of the perceptions of both the employed adult daughters and their mothers. Research Questions The research was guided by a number of basic exploratory questions: (1) How has the mothers' aging affected the daughters' attitudes toward their own aging processes? (2) What kinds of care do adult employed daughters provide for their mothers? (3) How is the daughters' care perceived by the mothers? (4) What public services/programs are used by the daughters and their mothers to assist in the care? (5) What unmet educational needs are identified by the adult employed daughters? (6) Do the husbands/sons-in-law (or other family members) provide care for the mothers? (7) How do the adult employed daughters and their mothers perceive the working role of the daughters affecting care of the mothers? Rationale for Methodology In reviewing the methodology used in studying middle-aged child/parent relationships, the predominant approach used by researchers in gathering data has been a semi-structured interview schedule. The most common ‘variables examined.have included: age, income, health, marital status, dwelling (including proximity to family): and race. Research approaches have been fairly evenly divided among those interviewing: 1) only the elderly; 2) only the middle-aged children, and; 3) the older two or three generations within a family. There have been a number of studies concerned with female intergenerational relationships, but no research dealing solely with employed middle-aged women and their widowed mothers. Research based on interviews with the elderly: Seelbach (1978) used data from interviews with 595 low-income elderly parents who had at least one living child to study elderly filial responsibility expectations and realizations. He found significant positive correlations between the variables age, health, marital status, and income and the type of normative expectations. Race was not found to be significant. Using the same data and variables, he also examined the relationship between filial responsibility expectations and morale of the elderly parents (Seelbach & Sauer, 1977). He found levels of filial responsibility expectancy to be significantly and inversely associated with levels of parental morale. The inverse association held for blacks, males, the younger respondents, and the married respondents. He suggested that future research might explore the extent to which parental expectations are met and the possible relationship between expectational fulfillment and morale in later life. In a later study, Seelbach. and Hansen (1980) studied data gathered from interviews with 160 institutionalized and 207 community-dwelling elderly concerning their satisfactions with various aspects of family relationships. Responses to six survey statements regarding satisfaction with various aspects of family relationships were cross-tabulated with marital status, health, age, living arrangement, and gender. Their findings indicated that age and living arrangement (institutionalization or non-institutionalization) were the most significant variables when examining satisfaction with family relationships. Seelbach suggested that future studies also should assess the actual behaviors of the respondents' families. In 1972 Kirschner Associates undertook a major study called the Chicago Needs Assessment Study (The Gerontologiit, 1976), which looked at six. sub—groups of elderly persons in order to understand the general situation of the elderly in big cities. A variety of interview instruments were used to examine the income, housing, health, and social (including family) support systems needs of 570 elderly. The researchers determined that “family members are without doubt the greatest source of elderly persons for regular interaction, for psychological and material support, and as a source of emergency aid" (The Gerontologist, 1976, p. 63). Kulys and Tobin (1980) conducted one and one-half to three hour interviews with 249 elderly to determine how informal support systems function when the elderly are in need of help. Information relating to the following seven dimensions was obtained: demographic characteristics, capacity to function, familial and interpersonal relationships, relationship with persons designated responsible other, expectations and plans for the future, use of others when making critical decisions, and portrayal of self in interaction with others. The findings indicated that all respondents had considered the necessity of having a responsible other and that all, except for a few, could name such a person. Most of those surveyed expressed a great deal of satisfaction with the relationship with their responsible other. However, for half the sample the person 10 closest to the respondent was not his or her responsible other. Heltsley and Powers (1975) interviewed 163 rural subjects, aged sixty and over, to determine perceived adequacy of their interaction with family and friends. Variables included age, income, and proximity to family and friends. The researchers concluded that the feelings of isolation experienced by some older people may not accurately reflect the actual amount of interaction taking place. Regardless of the amount of interaction of the aged with their children and others, satisfaction with the interaction may not be achieved. Arling (1976) conducted a study to determine whether family involvement or friendship and neighboring has greater impact upon the personal morale of 409 elderly widows. The questionnaire designed by the Project Piedmont Life Enrichment for the Aged of the South Carolina Commission on the Aged was administered as household interviews. The researcher concluded that neighbor-friendship variables, rather than family, were significantly related to morale. The author further asserted that while there was a high degree of contact between older people and younger family members, both' generations often encounterd difficulty truly sharing their experiences or empathizing with each other. In summary, researchers interviewing the elderly primarily have been concerned with elderly morale and satisfactions with various informal support systems. The 11 elderly populations which have been researched were samples of the elderly residents of institutions, small communities, cities, and rural areas. In only one study did a researcher select elderly women as a specific target population. Research based on interviews with middle-aged children: A number of researchers have investigated intergenerational relationships from the perceptions of the adult Children. Simos (1973) studied the relationship of Jewish-American adult children to aging parents. She wished to ascertain the impact of parental aging on adult children through an analysis of parental physical, psychological, family, social, financial, and housing problems. She identified three major problems: failing health of the parents, problems concerning loss, and long-standing interpersonal problems. She stressed that social systems must take responsibility in all these areas. Robinson and Thurnher (1979) conducted a study based on forty-nine respondents who had living parents and who were expected to undergo the transition to empty nest or to retirement. They conducted both open-ended baseline interviews (averaging eight hours) and two to three hour follow-up interviews (eighteen months and five years later) which focused on changes in life. In their study, stress was found to result from late-life parent-child relationships in two primary ways. First, coping with perceived mental deterioration of the parent produced a 12 stressful situation and generally resulted in negative portrayals of parents by children. Stress also was identified when the care-taking relationship was perceived as confining. The authors suggested that expanding social support systems might be one solution for easing the care-taking relationship. In a study conducted in Baltimore, Fandetti and Gelfand (1976) sampled Italian and Polish residents, aged twenty-one to fifty, to ascertain their attitudes toward care of aged relatives. The one-hundred face-to-face interviews followed both an open-ended and structured schedule. Variables examined were: preferred living arrangements for elderly relatives, attitudes towards nomfamily resources, and feelings toward nonethnic caretakers. The findings showed both the maintenance of traditional kinship patterns as well as some changes in the attitudes of these two ethnic cultures. The authors emphasized the need to develop short-term policies to assist families who are oriented toward maintaining intergenerational households. Smith (1979) interviewed twenty-four women, aged forty to sixty-nine, who had children and a living parent. Detailed data were gathered concerning the amount of services, goods, financial and emotional support these respondents had exchanged with the younger and Older generations in the past year. Additionally, life satisfaction was assessed using Havighurst's Life-Satisfaction Index z. Smith determined that ”half 13 of the women in this study were providing high levels of unreciprocated help to both their offspring and aged parents (Smith, 1979, p. 9) ." Almost one-third stated that their filial responsibilities, alone, were burdensome. The author suggested that families can serve as linkages between the older person and the service network and that the middle generation.should be encouraged to take this "linkage role" rather than function as the major service provider to elderly parents. In summary, researchers interviewing only middle-aged children have been concerned primarily with the impact upon and the attitudes of adult children concerning parental aging. Frequently the authors emphasized the need for supports to assist families with intergenerational caring, however, no studies suggested specific types of support. The samples of middle-aged children were drawn primarily from different ethnic groups. One researcher did sample women who had children and a living parent to determine amounts of support exchanged among the generations. Adult employed daughters with widowed mothers were not recognized or researched as a group. Research based on interviews with two or three older generations within a family: A variety of researchers have conducted intergenerational studies in which two or three of the older generations within a family were interviewed. Many of these 14 studies look specifically‘at female intergenerational relationships. Rathbone-McCuan (1976) interviewed twenty-eight participants in a geriatric day-care program and twenty-six of their closest family members. Her purpose was to determine family attitudes toward and perceptions about the aged member. Her findings indicated that family members were struggling with the burden of caring for an impaired elderly family member. For these families, the day-care arrangement represented a ”last ditch“ effort at community maintenance. Halprin (1979) addressed the problem of change and continuity on a family level. Her study was based on interviews with four persons within each Of 148 three-generation families to determine perceptions of their relations with family members. Eleven topics were covered: health, work, education, views on issues, use of money, use of free time, attitudes toward dating and marriage, relations between parents and children, attitudes toward family and friends, personal life style, and feelings about life and people. The most striking finding to emerge from the study was the consistent difference in the perceptions of influence attempts originating with the middle-aged sons ' and daughters. Greater proportions of these middle-aged men and women reported that they try to influence their parents than is acknowledged by the older respondents. According to the researcher, this discrepency may have reflected the older generation's perception of not receiving enough attention and concern. 15 Johnson and Bursk (1977) explored the affective quality of relationships that elderly people have with their adult children. Eighteen graduate students selected and interviewed three elderly parent/adult child pairs. Variables analyzed were health, living arrangements, finances, and attitudes toward aging. This study found a significant association between a positive elderly parent/adult child relationship and health and attitude toward aging factors associated with the elderly parent. Boxer (1979) conducted a study of 148 families in which each of four adult members, spanning three generations, described the differences with one another and the means «Of resolution. A wide range of topics was reported. These were grouped into four thematic areas: health; instrumental concerns (work, education, and money): views on sociopolitical issues; interpersonal and life style issues; and a miscellaneous group. The methods of managing conflict were grouped according to process -- that is, forms of discussion (such as influence attempts and confrontation) and avoidance. He also looked at outcomes which included resolution and non-resolution. He concluded that conflict appears to be part of a normative process of family relationships. His analysis revealed that conflict seems to reflect individual meanings and concerns more than salient family themes or issues. Kalish and Johnson (1972) investigated similarities and differences between adjacent and nonadjacent generations 16 of women. Fifty-three young women, their mothers, and their maternal grandmothers responded to a Likert-type questionnaire consisting of six scales: political-social values, religiosity, attitudes toward students, attitudes towards one's own aging, attitudes toward old people, and. attitudes toward death. Results indicated that mother-daughter correlations were positive for the three social issue scales and for attitudes toward old people: that grandmother-daughter correlations were positive for all except religiosity; and that grandmother-mother correlatione.were positive only for political-social values and religiosity. Generational differences, therefore, varied as a function of the particular issue. Brody, et a1. (1979) conducted a study which included 240 Philadelphia.area women belonging to eighty family triads of a grandmother, adult daughter, and young adult receive more information regarding emotional needs of self/elderly through small group seminars, five (28 percent) through workshops, three (17 percent) through one-to-one counseling, and one (6 percent) through reference materials. Concerning the topic of intergenerational relations, five (28 percent) daughters wanted to receive more information through workshops, four (22 percent) through small group seminars, three (17 percent) through reference materials, and one (6 percent) each through the media, a mini-course, and one-to-one counseling. Finally, five (28 percent) daughters wanted more information regarding dealing with chronic illness through one-to-one counseling, four (22 percent) through small group seminars, four (22 percent) through reference materials, and one (6 percent) each through a workshop and a mini-course. As was indicated, three (17 percent) daughters needed no additional information on any of the five previously discussed topics (knowledge of the aging process, physical care of the elderly, emotional needs of self/elderly, intergenerational relations, and dealing with chronic illness). 126 Fourteen (72 percent) daughters needed more information regarding both the family as a support system and coping with loss/death. Six (33 percent) daughters wanted to receive more information regarding the family as a support system through small group seminars, four (22 percent) through workshops, two (11 percent) through mini-courses, and one (6 percent) each through reference materials and one-to-one counseling. Six (33 percent) daughters also wanted to receive more information about coping with loss/death through small group seminars, while four (22 percent) wanted more information through one-to-one counseling, two (11 percent) through workshops, and one (6 percent) each through reference materials and a mini-course. Four (22 percent) daughters did not need additional information about either the family as a support system or coping with loss/death. Additional information concerning the last of the thirteen topics, improved communications, was needed by ten (56 percent),daughters. Seven (38 percent) wanted to receive additional information about improved communications through small group seminars, two (11 percent) through workshops, two (11 percent) through mini-courses, and one (6 percent) each through reference materials and one-to-one counseling. Five (28 percent) daughters did not need additional information regarding improved communications. Of the total 234 responses, 186 (80 percent) were for additional information by one of the six methods. The 127 remaining forty-eight (20 percent) responses were that no additional information was needed. Table 26 is a listing of the six methods by which additional information may be received and the frequency and percentage each method was requested. Table 26. Methods by which Daughters Would Like to Receive Additional Information Relating to Care of Older People by Rank Order Method Frequency Percent Small Group Seminars 57 I 31 Reference Materials 39 21 One—to-One Counseling 30 16 Workshop with Those with Similar Problems 30 16 Mini-Course 19 10 Media (i.e. TV, Radio) 11 6 Total 186 100 In presenting the information in Table 26, frequent references will be made to the previous information in Table 25. The method that was the most frequently requested (31 percent) for receiving additional information was small 128 group seminars. Within this category, the topics which were most often requested were: the family as a support system, coping with loss/death, emotional needs of self/elderly, and improved communications (Table 26). Twenty-one percent of the requests for additional information were through reference materials. Within this category, information regarding community resurces and making the home safe were the most frequently requested. Sixteen percent of the requests for additional information were through both workshops with those with similar problems and one-to-one counseling. Within the category of workshops, information regarding intergenerational relations and emotional needs of self/elderly were the most frequently requested. Information regarding coping with stress was most frequently requested through one-to-one counseling: Mini-courses were requested ten percent of the time as a method of receiving additional information. The topic of information most frequently requested in this manner was physical care of the elderly. And, finally, the media was requested only 6 percent of the time as a method of receiving additional information. Within this category, information about community resources was the most frequently requested. 129 Care of Mothers by Other Family Members The sixth research question was: Do the husbands/sons-inrlaw'(or other family members) provide care for the mothers? Information about whether husbands/sons-in-law or other family members provide care for the mothers was secured by asking the daughters if another member of the family shared in the care-giving activities. They also were asked which activities could be most easily delegated to another family member. Additional information was secured by asking the daughters whether certain family members did more or less with their mothers because they (the daugters) were working. Table 27 is a report of which family members shared in the care-giving activities. Table 28 lists the responses to the question regarding which activities were most easily delegated to other family members. And, Table 29 reports on the family members who did more or less with the mothers due to the fact that the daughters were employed. 130 Table 27. Daughters' Perceptions of Which Family Members Shared in the Care-Giving Activities for the Mothers by Rank Order Family Member Frequency Percent Spouse 13 40 Child/Children 10 30 Sister(s) 5 . 15 Brother(s) 5 15 Total 33 100 Total Daughters Who Reported Care-Giving Shared with Other Family Members: 15 Total Daughters Who Reported No Family Members Shared in Care-Giving: 3 131 Table 28. Daughters' Perceptions of Care-Giving Activities Delegated to Other Family Members Family Member Activities Spouse Child/ren Sister Brother Yard Work/Gardening 2 2 0 1 Car Maintenance/Washing 2 1 0 0 Household Repairs 1 0 0 0 Business Affairs 2 0 0 2 Emotional Support/Affection 1 0 1 0 General Care 2 l 0 1 Family Visiting 2 4 2 l Transporting 2 2 2 0 Totals 13 10 5 5 132 Table 29. Daughters' Perceptions of Family Members Who Did More or Less with Mothers Because They (Daughters) Were Employed Amount Done* Family Member - A B C D E Spouse 0 1 15 2 0 Child/Children 1 l 14 l 0 Brother(s) 2 l 7 l 0 Sister(s) 3 0 4 2 0 Totals 6 3 30 6 0 Total Responses: 45 *A 8 A Great Deal Less B 8 Slightly Less C 8 About the Same D'8 Slightly More E 8 A Great Deal More The findings in the tables will be presented in two parts. The first part, family members' care-giving activities, will include findings from Tables 27 and 28. The second part, family members who did more or less because daughter' were employed, will consist of findings from Table 29. Family Members' Care-Giving Activities: Fifteen (89 percent) daughters reported that other family members shared in the care-giving activities for 133 their mothers. The remaining three (17 percent) reported that they (daughters) did all the family care-giving activities. . The fifteen daughters who reported that other family members shared in care-giving had a total of thirty-three responses within the four family member categories. Of this total thirtyrthree responses, thirteen (40 percent) of the family members who shared in the care-giving activities for the mothers were spouses. Ten (30 percent) responses were in the category of child/children, five (28 percent) in the category of sister(s), and five (28 percent) in the category of brother(s). Of the types of activities delegated to other family members, general maintenance (i.e. house, lawn, and car) ‘was the most frequently delegated to the spouses. lSpouses, along with brothers, also frequently took care of business affairs. Children helped with car and lawn maintenance, as well as visiting and transporting. Sisters were delegated the activities of visiting, providing emotional support, cleaning, and transporting. Brothers also were delegated the activity of visiting along with yard work and visiting. One daughter reported that while her brother did take part in some care-giving activities for their mother, she found it hard to delegate activities to him. 134 Family Members Who Did More or Less Because Daughters Were Employed: . There were a total of forty-five responses by the eighteen daughters to the question regarding which family members did more or less with mothers because the daughters were employed. Thirty (67 percent) of the responses indicated that the family members did about the same amount of work, despite the fact that the daughters were employed. Six (13 percent) of the responses indicated that the family members did a great deal less and another six (13 percent) of the responses indicated that the family members did slightly more. Three (7 percent) responses indicated that family members did slightly less. The majority within each family member category did about the same amount of care-giving even though the daughters were employed. Of the eighteen spouses, two (11 percent) did slightly more, while one (6 percent) did slightly less work. The other fifteen (83 percent) did about the same amount. Of the seventeen daughters who reported on their childrens' participation, fourteen (78 percent) reported that their children do about the same amount of care-giving. One daughter each reported that her children did a great deal less, slightly less, and slightly more. The majority of brothers (64 percent) also were not affected by the daughters' employment regarding care-giving to the mothers. Two (18 percent) brothers did a great deal less, 135 while one did slightly less and one did slightly more. Four (44 percent) of the nine responses in the sister(s) category were that the sisters did about the same amount of care-giving. Three (33 percent) did a great deal less, and two (23 percent) did slightly more. Effects of Daughters' Working Roles on Care of Mothers The seventh research question was: How do the adult employed daughters and their mothers perceive the working role of the daughters affecting care of the mothers? Information about how the daughters' working roles affect the care of the mothers was secured by asking the daughters four questions: (1) How does your employment affect the amount of time you are able to spend with your mother? (2) How does working make you feel about the time you spend with your mother? (3) How does your employment affect your emotional ability to handle your mother's needs? (4) How does being a two job family affect your financial ability to deal with your mother's needs? For each question, a range of possible anSwers was made ' available on cards for the daughters to select from. Information regarding the mothers' perceptions of the working role of the daughters was secured by asking the mothers if they felt that both their daughters and their 136 daughters' spouses should be working. Again, a range‘of possible answers was made available on cards for the mother to select from. Table 30 is a listing of the frequencies of the possible answers regarding the effects of employment upon the time spent with the mothers. Table 31 lists the frequencies of the answers regarding how employment makes the daughters feel about the time spent with the mothers. Table 32 lists the frequencies of the answers to»how the daughters' employment affected their perceived emotional ability to handle their mothers' needs: and Table 33 lists the frequencies of the daughters'answers'to how employment affected their financial ability to deal with their mothers' needs. The range of all possible answers presented to the subjects for each question are listed in the tables. The mothers' perceptions regarding whether both their daughters and their daughters' spouses should be working are presented in Table 34. Again, the table lists the frequencies of each possible answer. 137 Table 30. Daughters' Perceptions Regarding how Their Employment Affects the Amount of Time They Are Able to Spend with Their Mothers by Rank Order Effects of Employment Frequency Percent It limits the amount of time I can spend. 9 50 I have'to structure my time and plan activities. 4 22 There is no effect. 3 17 I probably spend more time because we make a greater effort. 2 11 Total 18 100 Table 31. Daughters' Perceptions Regarding How Their Employment Makes Them Feel about the Time Spent with Their Mothers by Rank Order Effects of Employment Frequency Percent There is no effect. 9 50 It makes me feel guilty because my time is limited. 6 33 It causes me to appreciate our time more. 2 11 My time is precious and I resent sharing it. 1 6 Total 18 100 138 Table 32. Daughters' Perceptions Regarding How Their Employment Affects Their Emotional Ability to Handle Their Mothers' Needs by Rank Order Effects of Employment ‘ Frequency Percent There is no effect. 10 56 It increases my ability. 7 38 It reduces my ability. 1 6 Total 18 100 Table 33. Daughters' Perceptions Regarding How Their Employment Affects Their Financial Ability to Handle Their Mothers' Needs by Rank Order Effects of Employment Frequency Percent Mother does not need financial help. 9 50 There is no effect. 6 33 It allows me to do extras for her. 2 11 Second check only offsets my expenses created by working. 1 6 Even two incomes do not cover the needs. 0 0 Could not help without both of us working. 0 0 Total 18 100 139 Table 34. How Mothers Feel Regarding whether Both Their Daughters and Spouses Should Be Working by Rank Order - Mothers' Responses* Frequency Percent Yes 14 78 It is their decision. 3 17 Undecided l 5 No 0 0 Total 18 100 *Responses to question: Do you feel that both your daughter and her spouse should be working? The findings in the tables will be presented separately. The presentation will be in the following order: effects of daughters' employment upon amount of time spent with mothers, effects of daughters' employment upon their feelings about time spent with mothers, effects of daughters' employment upon their emotional ability to handle mothers' needs, effects of employment upon their financial ability to handle mothers' needs, and, finally, mothers' feelings regarding employment of daughters. Effects of Daughters' Employment upon Amount of Time Spent with Mothers: Half of the daughters (nine or 50 percent) responded that their employment limited the amount of time they could 140 spend with.their mothers. Four (22 percent) daughters felt they had to structure their time and plan activities more carefully in order to spend time with their mothers. 'Three (17 percent) of the eighteen daughters felt that their employment had no affect at all upon the amount of time they spent with their mothers. However, two (11 percent) daughters spent more time because they felt they make a greater effort. Effects of Daughters' Employment upon Their Feelings about Time Spent with Mothers: Half of the daughters (nine or 50 percent) perceived that their employment had no affect upon how they felt about spending time with their mothers. However, six (33 percent) daughters responded that they felt guilty because their time was limited. Two (11 percent) daughters felt that their employment caused them to appreciate a little more the time spent with their mothers. However, one (6 percent) daughter felt that due to her employment, her time was precious and she resented sharing it with her mother. Effects of Daughters' Employment upon Their Emotional' Ability to Handle Mothers' Needs: The majority of daughters (ten or 56 percent) perceived that their employment had no affect upon their emotional ability to handle their mothers' needs. However, seven (44 percent) daughters perceived that it actually increased 141 their ability. Only one (6 percent) daughter felt that her employment reduced her emotional ability to handle her mothers' needs. Effects of Daughters' Employment upon Financial Ability to Handle Mothers' Needs: The daughters' employment had very little effect upon their financial ability to handle their mothers' needs. 'The primary reason was that the mothers simply did not need financial help» Nine (50 percent) daughters perceived this to be true. Another six (38 percent) daughters felt that their employment had no effect upon their financial ability to handle their mothers' needs. Of the remaining three daughters, two (11 percent) felt that their financial ability due to employment allowed them to do extra things for their mother. The last daughter perceived that her check only offset the expenses created by her working. Again, it must be noted that the sample of elderly women in this study were generally in a fairly high income range and were economically independent. Mothers' Feelings Regarding Employment of Daughters: When asked whether they felt that both their daughters and spouses should be working, the majority of mothers (fourteen or 78 percent) responded that they should. Three (17 percent) mothers felt that the decision was up to their daughters. One (6 percent) mother was undecided as to 142 whether her daughter and spouse should be working. None of the mothers felt.that their daughters should not be working. Summary of the Findings Chapter IV presented the findings from the data collected with interview schedules for adult employed daughters and their mothers. The findings from seven research questions were presented. Those findings can be briefly summarized as follows: . (1) How has the mothers' aging affected the daughters' attitudes toward their own aging processes? The daughters generally had a positive or realistic attitude toward their own aging processes. Those daughters who rated their mothers as quite independent (emotionally, physically, and economically) had especially positive feelings about their own aging processes. The less independent the daughters perceived their mothers to be, the less positive the daughters were about their own aging processes. Likewise, those daughters who described their relationships with their mothers while growing up and their overall relationships with their mothers in a positive way, also felt positively about their own aging processes. 143 (2) What kinds of care do adult employed daughters provide for their mothers? According to the daughters, the major activities they performed for their mothers were being on call in -emergencies and listening to problems. Those activities provided the least frequently were providing personal care,sewing or mending, and helping to caretake with another person in the household. Activities which the daughters reported doing frequently with their mothers were visiting with each other and talking on the phone. Attending church related . activities, attending plays or movies, having overnight ‘visits, and attending club meetings were done with the mothers very infrequently. The majority of daughters (56 percent) spent no more than five hours per week on activities with or for their mothers. The remaining 44 percent spent between six and ten hours per week. Eighty-nine percent of the daughters perceived that providing all types of emotional support was how they could be the most helpful to their mothers. The other 11 percent selected a specific type of emotional support -- providing signs of caring -- as the‘way they felt they could be the most helpful. (3) How is the daughters' care perceived by the mothers? Generally the perceptions of the mothers and daughters were in agreement regarding daughters' care of their 144 mothers. There was, however, in one area a major discrepency. The majority of the daughters perceived that they listened to their mothers' problems at least weekly, while the majority of mothers perceived that their daughters performed this activity less than once a month or barely or never. The perceptions of the mothers and daughters concerning the frequency of the daughters performing the other activities generally were in agreement. Both perceived that the major activity provided was being on call in emergencies and that caretaking with another person in the mothers' households was the least frequently performed activity. Again, both perceived that visiting with each other and talking on the phone were the activities the most frequently done together. The mothers perceived that their daughters spent more time on activities with or for them than their daughters perceived. However, the majority of both groups estimated that the daughters spent no more than five hours per week on such activities. And, finally, the majority of both groups selected emotional support as the most important way in which the daughters could be helpful to their mothers. (4) What public services/programs are used by the daughters and their mothers to assist in the care? The majority of the mothers participated in some community organizations. Church organizations and senior 145 citizens clubs were listed the most frequently by both the mothers and the daughters. Half of the mothers and daughters agreed that no government agencies were used to help provide care for the mothers. Five (28 percent) pairs agreed that government agencies were used, and the remaining four (22 percent) pairs did not agree on whether government agencies were used. 0f the agencies used, nutrition centers were the most frequently listed. Very few daughters were members of any organization geared to the needs of persons in their mothers' age range. Of the organizations that-were listed, church related groups were the most frequent. (5) What unmet educational needs are identified by the adult employed daughters? According to the daughters, their greatest unmet educational need relating to care of older people was for information regarding community resources. The most frequently selected method to receive this information was through media. The second.greatest need was for information regarding both coping with stress and making the home safe. One-to-one counseling was selected the most frequently as the method by which they wanted to receive information about coping with stress. They selected.reference materials as the best method for getting information about making the home safe. 146 The topics about which the largest number of daughters needed no further information were nurturance/love and time use/family and work. Of all the responses, 80 percent were for additional information on one of the thirteen topics, while the remaining 20 percent were that no additional information was needed. The method that was the most frequently requested for receiving additional information was small group seminars. The media was requested the least number of times as a method of receiving additional information. (6) Do the husbands/sons-in-law (or other family members) provide care for the mothers? The majority of daughters reported that other family members shared in the care-giving activities for their mothers. Forty percent of the family members who shared in the care-giving were spouses, 30 percent were children, 15 percent were sisters, and 15 percent were brothers. Spouses generally were delegated the care of the mothers' household maintenance or business activities. Children did a wide variety of activities including yard work, shopping, visiting, transporting, and entertaining. Sisters provided emotional support, shopped, and cleaned, while brothers visited, took care of business affairs, did yard work, and offered counsel to the mothers. According to the daughters, the fact that they were employed had little impact upon the amount of care-giving 147 provided by other family members to the mothers. Sixty-seven percent of the family members did about the same amount of care-giving despite the fact that the daughters were employed. In fact, 20 percent provided less, while only 13 percent provided slightly more care-giving. (7) How do the adult employed daughters and their mothers perceive the working role of the daughters affecting care of the mothers? The majority of daughters perceived that their employment did affect the amount of time they were able to spend with their mothers. Half of the daughters felt that their employment limited the time they could spend. Half of the daughters also perceived that their employment had no effect upon how they felt about the time spent with their mothers. However, 33 percent felt guilty because, due to their employment, time spent with their mothers was limited. Again, the majority of daughters perceived that their employment had no effect upon their emotional ability to handle their mothers' needs. Yet, an additional 38 percent perceived that their employment actually increased their ability in this area. Employment of the daughters had very little effect upon their financial ability to handle their mothers' needs. However, the primary reason was because their mothers did not need financial help. 148 Finally, the majority of mothers approved of the fact that their daughters were employed. Only one was undecided about how she felt regarding her daughter's employment. Chapter V CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS The purpose of this study was to explore the caring role of adult employed women with elderly mothers. In order to accomplish this overriding purpose, interviews were conducted with eighteen employed daughters and their mothers during the summer of 1981. The research was pursued in conjunction with'a larger intergenerational study at Michigan State University (3). The purpose of the larger study was to assess the quantity and characteristics of the care of non-institutionalized elderly parents by their adult children and compare perceived needs for supportive services by parents and their adult children. Two interview schedules, developed by principal researchers of the larger intergenerational study, addressed individual and family characteristics, amount and characteristics of parent care, use and nonuse of services, and perceived need for services. Subjects were interviewed individually in their homes. (3) Barbara D. Ames, “Care of the Elderly by Adult Offspring“ (Research, Family and Child Ecology, Michigan State University, 1982). 149 150 The data for this research were based on the interviews with eighteen pairs of employed daughters and their mothers which were selected from the larger pool of fifty pairs of adult child and parent. Additionally, data for this research were taken only from the sections of the interview schedules that addressed the research questions of this study. The review of literature for this study supported the need for an exploratory study of employed adult women and their elderly mothers. Most of the past studies regarding intergenerational relationships have dealt with the satisfactions or problems of adult child/parent relationships in a very general sense. The conclusions from these studies were that families do provide care for their elderly members, but that this care can be burdensome and stressful. Four factors pointed to the need for an exploratory study of a specific sub-group of adult children and parents -- specifically the sub-group of employed adult women and their elderly mothers. These factors were: (1) The number and proportion of the elderly female population is large and is increasing. (2) The number and proportion of middle-aged employed women is large and is increasing. (3) There is no research or information about the caring relationship between adult employed women and their elderly mothers. (4) While past research in intergenerational relationships has in some cases pointed to the stress which is often a part of the parent-caring 151 role of middle-aged children, no specific recommendations have been made as to how this stress might be alleviated. Given these four factors, there was a need to confirm through descriptive data whether adult employed women were experiencing any difficulty with various kinds of support to their mothers. Additionally, there was the need to identify specific approaches which would assist home economics educators in developing programs that supported the unique relationship between employed adult women and their mothers. To obtain the data needed for making recommendations about the role of home economics education, seven research questions were examined. The remainder of this chapter focuses on the conclusions from the research questions and the implications for both home economics education and for future research. Conclusions Within the confines of this study, which utilized a non-random sample of eighteen adult employed daughters and their mothers, the following conclusions were drawn. Conclusions are organized by research question. Summary and general conclusions are listed at the end. 152 Daughters' Perceptions of Care Provided for Mothers: (l) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) Mothers' (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) The daughters perceived that providing emotional support was the way in which they could be the most helpful to their mothers. The major activities performed by the daughters for their mothers were being on call in emergencies and listening to problems. The activities performed the least frequently by the daughters for their mothers were house sitting, sewing or mending, and helping to caretake with another person in the household. Activities which the daughters did the most frequently with their mothers were visiting'with each other and talking on the phone. Activities which the daughters did the least frequently with their mothers were attending sporting events, attending church related activities, attending plays or movies, having overnight visits and attending club meetings. The daughters generally spent about five hours per week on activities with or for their mothers. Perceptions of Daughters' Care: The mothers perceived that providing emotional support -- specifically signs of caring -- was the way in which their daughters could be the- most helpful to them. The majority of the mothers perceived that their daughters rarely listened to their problems. The mothers perceived that the major activity provided by the daughters was being on call in emergencies. The mothers perceived that care-taking with another person in their households was the activity the least frequently performed by the daughters. Visiting with each other and talking on the phone were perceived by the mothers as being frequently done with their daughters. (5) 153 The mothers perceived that their daughters spent somewhat more time on activities with or for them than their daughters perceived. However, the majority of mothers perceived that their daughters spent no more than five hours per week on such activities. Affects of Mothers' Aging on Daughters' Attitudes toward Aging: (1) (2) (3) Generally, the more independent the daughters perceived their mothers to be, the more positive they (daughters) felt about their own aging process. Generally, the less independent the daughters perceived their mothers to be, the less positive they (daughters) felt about their own aging process. The more satisfying the mother/daughter relationships were while growing up, as well as the overall relationshps, the more positive the daughters felt about their own aging processes. Public Services/Programs Used by Mothers and Daughters: (l) (2) (3) (4) (5) The majority of mothers participated in some community organizations. Church organizations and senior citizen clubs were participated in the most frequently by the mothers. The majority of mothers and daughters agreed that no government agencies were used to provide care for the mothers. Few daughters were members of any organization geared to the needs of persons in their mothers' age range. Church related groups were the organizations geared to the needs of elderly persons in which a few daughters participated. Educational Needs: (1) The greatest unmet educational need of the daughters relating to care of older people was for information regarding community resources. (2) (3) (4) (5) 154 The daughters would like to receive additional information regarding community resources through media. The second greatest need was for information regarding both coping with stress and making the home safe. . The daughters perceived that they did not need additional information regarding both nurturance/love and time use/family and work. The method through which the majority of daughters would like to receive additional-information relating to care of older people was small group seminars. Care of Mothers by Other Family Members: (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) Other family members shared in the care-giving activities for the mothers. Spouses and children comprised the majority of other family members who shared in the care-giving activities for the mother. Of these two groups, spouses provided slightly more care. Spouses generally were delegated taking care of the mothers' household maintenance and business activities. Children did a wide variety of care-giving activities for the mothers (i.e. yard work, shopping, visiting, transporting, and entertaining). Sisters and brothers offered little in the way of care-giving activities to the mothers. That fact that the daughters were employed had practically no effect upon the amount of care provided the mothers by other family members. Effects of Daughters' Working Roles on Care of Mothers: (1) The majority of daughters perceived that their employment affected the amount of time they were able to spend with their mothers. Half of the daughters felt that their employment limited the time they could spend with their mothers. (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) 155 One-third of the daughters felt guilty because, due to their employment, time spent with their mothers was limited. Half of the daughters felt that their employment had no affect upon how they felt about the time spent with their mothers. The majority of daughters perceived that their employment had no affect upon their emotional ability to handle their mothers' needs. Yet, 38 percent perceived that their employment increased their ability in this area. The daughters' employment had little affect upon their financial ability to handle their mothers' needs. The majority of mothers approved of their daughters employment. Summary and General Conclusions: (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (5) Generally, the daughters' perceptions were in agreement with the mothers' perceptions. The mothers were generally physically and economically independent and able to maintain their own households. The mothers had very few needs for physical and economic support and therefore rarely relied on or received such support from their daughters. The mothers were somewhat less emotionally independent (than physically and economically) and relied on and received this type of support from their daughters. A relatively small number of hours were spent by the daughters each week on actual activities with or for their mothers. However, it must be noted that the types of support needed by the mothers (emotional) may not necessarily require large numbers of hours. The mothers perceived that their daughters spent little time listening to their problems while the daughters perceived that they spent a great deal of time. (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13) (14) 156 The daughters' positive attitudes toward aging may have been due to their continuing and overall satisfying relationships with their mothers. These positive attitudes toward their own aging process also may be partially attributed to the fact that their mothers were relatively independent physically, economically, and emotionally. The mothers and daughters were more likely to look to and participate in church organizations than any others for assistance in care for the elderly. Few government agencies were used by either the mothers or the daughters to provide care for the mothers. This may be partially attributed to the relative independence both financially and physically of the mothers. There was a need on the part of the daughters for additional information regarding community resources. The employed daughters were more responsible for the majority of care-giving activities for their mothers than were their spouses or children. Many of the daughters felt guilty that, because of their employment, they could not spend more time with their mothers. The majority of the daughters felt that their employment limited the amount of time they were able to spend with their mothers. Many of the daughters felt that their employment increased their emotional ability to handle their mothers' needs. The majority of the mothers approved of the fact that their daughters were employed. Implications for Home Economics Education The section on implications for home economics education will be separated into four parts: objectives 157 of home economics education: high school home economics programs: support services: and, plans and policies for home economics education. Objectives of Home Economics Education: The well-known definition of home economics adopted by the fourth Lake Placid Conference has served as the model for the field of home economics: “Home economics . . . is the study of the laws, conditions, principles and ideals concerned with man's immediate physical environment and his nature as a social being, and specially the relation between those two factors (Lake Placid Conference on Home Economics, 1902, pp. 70-71).“ This definition from the ”Lake Placid Proceedings" of 1902 is only a very small excerpt. The entire statement is a resolution on courses of study for home economics. It established the home and the family as the focus for study. It described home economics as a philosophical study of relation in contrast to the empirical studies like economics, sociology, and chemistry, which concern themselves with events and phenomena. It recognized the ”application of science” idea but specified that the committee viewed home economics as ”primarily a study of connections and relations between certain phases of man's nature (West, 1981, p. 11).“ This brief, often-quoted definition described home economics as an inclusive study with emphasis on the interrelationships of the family and the environment. Home economists often have tended, however, to take a unifocal 158 view of both the environment (that is, food, clothing, and shelter) and the family (its relationships and development of individuals). If home economics truly is to focus on the family, it is necessary to link both the natural environment and the social environment. The approach must be ecological: a search for understanding and controlling the mutually sustaining relationships that couple people with their environments (Paolucci & Hook, 1970). Home economics, as a field of study that focuses on the human and material forces affecting homes and families and on the improvement of the overall quality of life, is in a unique position to focus on the needs of families and their aging members. With its emphasis on both the material and nonmaterial aspects of our culture, home economics is well suited to facing the multidisciplinary challenges of our increasing aged population. Mannino (1977) has suggested several areas of understanding which all types of family professionals must concern themselves with in seeking to understand family and community relationships. These areas particularly apply to home economics and show the relationship between the ecological objectives of home economics and the concerns of elderly women and their daughters as described in this study. Mannino‘s areas, which take an ecological approach to understanding family and community relationships are as follows: 159 (1) Understanding variations in family life styles and using this understanding to identify family needs so that community programs can be planned in an intelligent manner. For example, by taking information about the needs of employed women and their elderly mothers, home economics educators can make plans for meaningful programs for the families involved. Although this may sound somewhat simplistic, it is a place to begin. There is no reason why such information should not or could not be used to assist in planning community educational programs that promote the more effective functioning of families. (2) Understanding the functional relationship of behavior to certain environmental situations. Understanding the functional relationship between behavior and the environment makes it possible to design means of intervention in specific social settings in order to bring about a desired change in behavior and social activity. By gaining some understanding of the relationship between the behavior of daughters who are married, have children, and also are employed and the behavior of their mothers who are widowed and living alone, home economists can design means of intervention (or support) in order to promote satisfying relationships. (3) Understanding the effects on the family of those institutions and organizations with which the family interacts. In studying families, home economists cannot treat the family as though its structure and patterns of 160 relationship are a function entirely of the individual personalities within the family -- or intrafamily functioning. The focus must be on family-institutional relationships. This is especially important when seeking information and understanding about employed daughters and their mothers. The fact that the daughters are employed and spend a great deal of time involved in that employment affects the relationships with their mothers. Additionally, information about other institutions and organizations with which the daughters and their mothers interact is necessary in understanding their relationships. (4) Understanding the 'ecologic ethic,” a basic principle of ecology that holds that systems and systems components are of tremendous complexity and interrelatedness and that one cannot intervene in a part of the system without knowingly or unknowingly affecting other parts. This principle holds true whether one is considering the natural environment or the social environment. It is, therefore, very important that home economists anticipate the unintended and latent effects before implementing any type of support or intervention. In planning educational programs, home economists must anticipate the effects of those programs upon the individual, group, organization, or community. Mannino's four areas, as listed above, serve as examples of how and why home economics educators, whose roles are designing and implementing educational programs for the support of families, must focus on 1.61 family-environment interaction. Furthermore, if home economics is truly a profession that is committed to the betterment of the human condition of persons of all ages, then it has a responsibility to the aging family members. Home economics education, with its ecological approach, is truly in a unique position and has a responsibility to address the needs of employed women and their elderly mothers. High School Home Economics Programs: High school home economics programs focus on both youth education and adult education. The findings from this research have implications for home economics education in both areas. As was pointed out in the previous discussion, given the objectives of home economics education, home economics educators have an obligation to address the issues of aging. There are several major specializations within high school home economics education. These include: housing and equipment; food and nutrition: clothing and textiles: consumer economics and home management; and, family and interpersonal relationships. There are implications for the aging within each of these specializations for both youth and adult education programs. However, the scope and the conclusions of this research limit the major implications of this research to the area of family and interpersonal relationships. Before presenting the 162 implications as related to family and interpersonal relationships, however, a brief discussion of general implications within each of the other specializations will be presented. Education in housing and equipment must provide a focus on how to help older persons and their families make crucial decisions about where the aged can best live. Furnishings, lighting, privacy, safety, noise level, and psychological stimulation within the home also must be explored. Education in food and nutrition must provide a focus on the special dietary needs and stringent budgets of many aged persons as well as the important social role of meals. Education in clothing and textiles must provide a focus on the importance of clothing design for aged persons. Garments need to be easy to put on, take off, and maintain. Additionally, education must provide a focus on the role that clothing plays in the self-concept of aged persons. In the area of consumer economics and home management, wise spending and wise investment are crucial to the elderly. Education must provide a focus on how to manage resources in order to remain independent as well as the making of wills and planning of estates. Educational programs must help make sense of the mazes of red tape in claiming social security, supplemental insurance, medicare and medicaid, food stamps, and tax easements. Within the area of family and interpersonal relationships, home economics education must help dispel 163 myths and stereotypes about the aged and help all family members understand their roles in relation to their aged members. Based on this rather broad statement, the findings of this research point to several specific implications regarding the home economics education of high school students within the area of family and interpersonal relationships. Since the greatest need of the elderly mothers found in this study was for emotional support, high school students must be encouraged to offer emotional support to local elderly individuals. Schools are age segregated. There usually are no people over the age of sixty-five to be found in public schools. Therefore, students generally are isolated from the realities of growing older. Home economics educators could, as part of a curriculum on aging, encourage their students to 'adopt" an elderly individual to visit periodically. These visits would benefit the elderly person who may need the emotional support, and they would benefit the high school students who would learn to know what older people are really like. Another conclusion from the research was that a life-long satisfying relationship between the mothers and daughters may have helped create positive attitudes toward aging in the daughters. This has many implications for education about family relationships. In particular, creating positive attitudes toward the aging process is one more argument for educating students in how to create positive and satisfying interpersonal family relationships. 164 Additionally, positive attitudes toward the aging process, on the part of the daughters, were shown to be linked to the independence of the mothers. Students must be educated both in how to promote their own independence as they age, as well as how to assist elderly persons in maintaining independence. iHigh school students would benefit from learning about the community resources available to support elderly persons. Many of the daughters interviewed for this study reported that this was an area in which they needed additional information. Encouraging high school students to learn about community services will ensure that as adults they will be more aware of both the services available and how to go about getting needed information. The fact that the daughters' employment had little affect upon the amount of care-giving by spouses and children to the elderly mothers has implications in educating about roles. High school students need to be made aware of the family and time pressures placed upon employed women. Male students especially need to be encouraged to share in nurturing and emotional types of‘ support to family members as well as sharing in general household tasks. Additionally, both male and female high school students must be encouraged to take an active role in providing support to their own grandparents, especially if their mothers are employed. Education for adults could cover basically the same topics as for youth with some changes in the focuses. 165 Again, there are implications for teaching adults about the aging process and about the problems of aging people in each of the major areas of specialization within home ecnomics. The general implications within these areas which were presented earlier apply to both high school students and adults within home economics education. However, the findings of this research point more specifically to implications regarding adult education within the area of family and interpersonal relationships. The greatest educational need of the employed daughters in this study was for information regarding the community resources that are available to assist in the care of their elderly mothers. Perhaps home economics educators could conduct a seminar on this topic with the final result being a resource booklet which could be made available to the public. 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