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This is to certify that the

I thesis entitled

Information Diffusion and Career Decision Making of
Natural Resource Graduates: Implications for Recruitment
of Racial Minorities

presented by
Clyde Eugene Chesney

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for

Ph. D. degree in Resource Development

 

 

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Major professor

 

Date April 25, 1980

 

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Place in book return to remove
charge from circulation records

 

 

 

 

INFORMATION DIFFUSION AND CAREER DECISION
MAKING OF NATURAL RESOURCE GRADUATES:
IMPLICATIONS FOR RECRUITMENT OF

RACIAL MINORITIES

BY

Clyde Eugene Chesney

A DISSERTATION

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of Resource Development

1980

ABSTRACT
INFORMATION DIFFUSION AND CAREER DECISION
MAKING OF NATURAL RESOURCE GRADUATES:

IMPLICATIONS FOR RECRUITMENT OF
RACIAL MINORITIES

BY

Clyde Eugene Chesney

Racial minorities—~blacks, American Indians, Orientals
and Spanish Americans--share few of the professional career
positions in environmental education, forestry, resource de—
velopment, park and recreation resources, fisheries and wild-
life or other related areas. Barriers restricting the entry
of minorities into professions in natural resources have been
categorized as academic, financial, aspirational, geOgraphic,
physiological, psychological and sociological. Yet very little
has been done to systematically examine these variables with—
in a theoretical framework in order to objectively ascertain
which policy or agency procedures need to be altered in order
to effect some practical solutions to these barriers.

The information-diffusion model of Rogers and Shoemaker
was selected to provide the overall research framework for
this study. That is, accurate, timely and appropriate career
information during the vocational choice process influences
the range and scope of occupations considered--especially in
such non-traditional occupations like natural resources--and
ultimately, an individual's choice of employment.

The primary objective was to investigate the knowledge

dimension of the vocational choice process of two cohorts of

Clyde Eugene Chesney

natural resource graduates-~1965 and 1975. Specific objec-
tives were to: (1) assess career information diffusion and
determine its impact on vocational choices . . . ; (2) com—
pare the perceived dissimilarities between careers in natural
resources and other vocations; and (3) develop a testable
model for the recruitment of blacks and other racial minori-
ties.

A mailed questionnaire to a disproportionate sample from
10 universities gathered data about the following information
dissemination variables: career knowledge, sources, methods,
timeliness, content and attitudes (expectations). Follow-up
consisted of two letters and a long distance telephone call--
the final return rate approached 50 percent (49.3). Data were
analyzed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences.
Frequency, crosstabs, breakdowns and discriminant analyses were
performed to determine differences between respondents by year
of graduation, race and employment status.

Major empirical findings were: (1) Prior to college,
minorities rated senior high courses, high school teachers and
junior high courses as moderate or higher in importance. On
the other hand, recreation/leisure participation was the most
important source factor in the choice of a career by majority
respondents. (2) Prior to college, minorities rated books,
lectures and demonstrations as important methods of receiving
career information. (3) Age at first receipt of useful career
information about six job factors did not differ significantly

by race. Yet, those now employed in natural resources learned

Clyde Eugene Chesney

about these factors an average of 2 years earlier than those
not so employed, even though all had similar training. (4)
None of the five content factors showed any differences by
race prior to college. (5) Whites and non-whites had similar
responses in career expectation for: feeling of self-fulfill—
ment; opportunity to participate in determining methods and
procedures; opportunity to develop close friendships; and
feeling that administrators are willing to discuss subordinate's
problems. The most dramatic difference, however, was regis—
tered in response to the factor--opportunity to help other
people--minorities rated this one higher by 22.6 units.

Using the information diffusion model, six null hypotheses
were formulated to guide the investigation and to help SUggeSt
a strategy for increasing the number of minorities in natural
resources. Breakdown and discriminant analyses revealed statis-
tically distinct patterns between non-white and whites for
source, method, content, attitude and career knowledge vari—
ables. No such difference was observed for the timeliness
variable.

One recommendation was the establishment of a compre-
hensive recruiting and retention program by universities that
would focus on both pre-college and college experiences. Among
other things, it should include specific roles and responsi-
bilities for disseminating career information in natural re-
sources. Finally, a combination social change-marketing model
was suggested for resource agencies to provide the impetus for

their dissemination efforts.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

To complete a dissertation a student needs financial
and moral support, advice and counseling, objective review and
other assistance from a multitude of people and organizations.
I will be forever grateful to the assistance and patience
shown by my Graduate Advisory Committee——especially my Chair-
man, Dr. Lewis W. Moncrief for his interest in this project,
his efforts to secure financial support and most of all, his
long distance efforts following my return to North Carolina.
Thanks must also be given to the other members—-Dr. Eugene
Dice, Professor, Department of Parks and Recreation Resources;
Dr. Robert Marty, Professor, Department of Forestry; and
Dr. John Wanous, Associate Professor, Department of Management
for their many helpful contributions.

The financial support came from two sources: Ngrth
Carolina Agricultural Extension Service and the North Central
Forest Experiment Station. Special thanks to R. E. Jones and
Dr. Daniel D. Godfrey, the former and current Administrator,
respectively, of the Agricultural Extension Program, for their
support of my study leave. Dr. George H. Moeller, Assistant
Director, Research Planning and Application, N.C. Forest Exper-
iment Station was instrumental in coordinating the funding
for this research and also providing the opportunity for me
to visit with USDA-Forest Service personnel in the Washington

office to discuss application of findings.

ii

For my wife, Anita and two sons--Clyde, Jr. and Charles--
enough cannot be said of their moral support, sacrifice and
love during these past three years.

In addition, I must acknowledge the assistance and coop-
eration of the many people at the ten universities included
in the sample--faculty and staff who provided the names and
addresses of their graduates and, of course, the graduates
themselves who took the time to respond.

At Michigan State there were also individuals in this
and other departments--secretaries, work study students and
computer consultants who provided assistance in many small
but important ways. Much needed computer assistance was also
provided at North Carolina Agricultural & Technical State
University.

Finally, my fellow students must be acknowledged for
they are a vital ingredient in a graduate education. They
help in ways that often go unnoticed--from providing advice
on course selection to sharing the mutual trials and frustra-
tions that characterize such an endeavor as this.

Again, thanks to all--named and unnamed--who played a
role in my graduate education and completion of this disser-

tation.

iii

LIST OF

LIST OF

CHAPTER

I.

II.

III.

IV.

VI.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

TABLES . . . . . .

FIGURES . . . . .

INTRODUCTION TO THE PROBLEM .

Need for the Study . . .
Study Objectives . . . . . .

LITERATURE REVIEW . . . .

O ’ O O O
. . .

Natural Resources Literature' .

v 9

Vocational Choice Research . . . .,

Information Dissemination Theories,

MODELS AND HYPOTHESES . . . . . . . .
Information Diffusion-Dissemination

MOdel o' o o o o 0 i. o o o o o o .‘9
Specification of Variables . . .4.
Study Hypotheses . . . . .

RESEARCH METHODS AND PROCEDURES . . .

Selection of Sample . . . . . . . .

Design and Administration of
Questionnaire . . . . . . . . . .

Analysis of Data . . . . . . . . .

FINDINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Repondents . . . . . . . . . .
Respondent Characteristics and
Information Diffusion . . . . .
Career Knowledge and Information
Diffusion . . . . . . . . . . . .
Implications for Mode Development

MINORITY CAREERS IN NATURAL RESOURCES--

HOW DOES IT HAPPEN? . . .

vi

viii

0b

31
41

46
47
54
58
6O
6O

65
7O

81
81
86
105
107

122

Recruitment and Retention Model . . . . .
Removing the Barriers—-The Social

Change Process . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Social Marketing Process

VII. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS . . . . .

Summary of Empirical Findings . . . .
Hypotheses Testing . . . . . . . . . .
Theoretical and Methodological
Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Assessment of Research for Future . .

APPENDICES

A. Factors in Selection of Colleges and

Universities . . . . . . . . . . . .

B. Initial Letter to University Contacts .
C. University Contacts Who Assisted with

Development of Sample . .

. Cover Letter . . . . .

. Survey Instrument . . . . . . . . . . .

D
E
F. First Follow-up Letter . . . . .
G
H

. Second Follow-up Letter . . . .
. Conversation Guide and Questionnaire
Used in Telephone Follow—up . . . . .
I. Conversation Guide and Questionnaire
Used in Pre-Telephone Contact . . . .
J. Breakdown Tables for Knowledge Variable
By Race . . . . . . . . . . . .
K. Resource Persons Consulted Concerning
Development of Recruitment Component

LIST OF REFERENCES . . . . .

General References . . . . .

122

133
133

155

156
158

161
162

164
166

168
169
170
171
172
173
178
183
194
195

200

10.

ll.

12.
l3.
14.
15.

l6.

l7.

LI ST OF TABLES

Corporate Landownership and Position
Among Largest United States Industries .

Geographic Location of Institutions

Overall Sample Size . . .

Schedule of Survey Strategy and Response

Orientation Provided Telephone Interviewers .

Results of Telephone Follow-up . .

Respondents Grouped for Analysis . . . . .

Timeliness: Age at Receipt of Useful
Career Information . . . . . .

Timeliness: Adjusted Frequency of Respondent'
Receiving Yearly Reinforcing Information . . .

Attitudes: Career Expectations . . . . . . .

Total Mean Distance Matrix
(Knowledge Variable) . . . . .

Age Distribution of Respondents . . .
Residential History of Respondents . . . . . .

Occupations of Parents . . . .

Size of High School Graduating Class . . . . .

Length of Work Experience Prior to
College Enrollment . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Percentage of Respondents with Paid Work

Experiences in Natural Resources After
Enrolling in College . . . . . . . . . . . . .

vi

24
61
64
68
69
71

74

75

76

77

79
82
83
84

84

85

85

18.

19.

20.

21.

22.

23.

24.
25.
26.

27.

28.

29.

30.

31.

32.

Breakdown of Source Variable by Race

(Prior to College) . . . . . . .

Breakdown of Source Variable by Race

(After Enrolling in College) .

Breakdown of Method Variable by Race

(Prior to College) . . . . . .

O O

Breakdown of Method Variable by Race

(After Enrolling in College) . .

Breakdown of Timeliness Variable
by Race (Age) . . . . . . . .

Crosstabs of Timeliness Variable
by Race (Frequency) . . . . . .

Crosstabs of Content Variable by

Race

Breakdown of Career Expectations by Race

Summary of Breakdown Analysis .

Stepwise Discriminant Analysis of

Source Variable . . . . . . . .

Stepwise Discriminant Analysis of

Method Variable" . . . . . . . .

Stepwise Discriminant Analysis of

Content Variable . . . . . . . .

Stepwise Discriminant Analysis of
Career Attitudes-Expectation Variable

Stepwise Discriminant Analysis of

Knowledge Variable . . . . . . .

Summary of Discriminant Analysis
(Independent Variables) . . . .

vii

92

94

95

96

98

99
100
101

108

112

114

115

117

119

121

The Innovation-Decision Process
Measurement of Individual Differences

Total Possible Cells of Matrix

LIST OF FIGURES

Career Information Diffusion

A Model of the Recruitment Component

A Model for Minority Recruitment and
Retention in Natural Resources

The Social Action Process .

Social Marketing Planning System

Removing the Barriers——The Social Marketing/

Change Process

viii

48

50

52

54

123

129

135

137

138

Chapter I
INTRODUCTION TO THE PROBLEM

The successful planning, management and development of
America's natural resources depends on a corps of diverse
professionals. Their roles span such tasks as policy mak-
ing, program leadership, management, technical assistance,
planning and communication activities.

But, because society is faced with a limit to its pro—
duction possibilities (fixed amount of land, associated na-
tural resources, labor, capital), it must choose among the
various alternatives available. Inherently, such policy
making is a pragmatic, socio-political process. Policy makers
attempt to blend economic efficiency with political realities.l

During the twenty year period from 1957 to 1977, federal
and state legislative action provided an unprecedented impe-
tus to the environmental—conservation-outdoor recreation
movement. Likewise, these two decades saw the elimination of
virtually all legal barriers restricting racial minorities
from enrolling in colleges or universities and from entering
careers of their choice.

Yet, despite the availability of colleges and universi-

ties, few racial minorities have enrolled in natural resource

 

1Richard M. Alston and David M. Freeman, "The Natural Re-
sources Decision-maker as Political and Economic Man: Toward
a Synthesis," Journal of Environmental Management 3 (1967):
pp. 167-183. 4

 

programs or entered this profession in percentages propor-
tionate to their numbers in the population. In fact, racial
minorities-—blacks, American Indians, Orientals and Spanish
Americans-—share few of the professional positions in envir-
onmental education, forestry, resource development, park and
recreation resources, fisheries and wildlife or other related
occupations.1

Since these professionals play a key role in the policy
making process, the virtual absence of racial minorities has
become a cause of professional and legal concern. This pro—
blem has been documented by concerned researchers, particu-
larly in parks and recreation and forestry. In 1972, for exam-
ple, Godbey directed a nationwide study of the "Participation
of Minority Students in Recreation and Park Curricula." Mi-
norities--blacks, Puerto Ricans, Mexican Americans and Ameri-
can Indians-—represented only 408 out of 5,043 (8.09 percent)
baccalaureate degree students and only 13 of 193 (6.73 per-
cent) college faculty positions.2

Recent results from the National Recreation and Parks

Association's (NRPA) Manpower Study also illustrate the

 

1According to Bureau of Labor Statistics, in 1977 the
percentage distribution of blacks and other minorities in
white collar occupations exceeded 12.0% in the following: re—
creation workers (l9.3%), social workers (19.1%) and vocation—
al and educational counselors (14.3%). They approached parity
as biological scientists (12.7%), health technoloqists and
technicans (12.1%), personnel and labor relations workers
(11.9%) and registered nurses (11.3%).

2Figures on Minority participation reported in article by
James F. Murphy, "Recreation Education-—A Social Concern,"
Parks and Recreation, Vol. 5, No. 9, (1970): pp. 57-58. 83. 89.

 

pervasiveness of the low number of minorities in decision
making positions. Godbey and Henkel coordinated this study
for NRPA and studied the present status of employees in park
and recreation organizations across the country between June
and November, 1975. With 50% of the sample responding, mi-
nority groups were severely underrepresented in the top five
administrative positions--only 6% (242 of 4,021) of the com-
bined total number of chief executives, assistant directors
of park and recreation departments, superintendents of re-
creation, superintendents of parks, and division heads were
minority group members.1

Recent studies of students in park and recreation curri-
cula have shown that this trend is unlikely to change. In
1974 Dunlavey, for example, completed a census of undergra-
duate students at Michigan State University and found that
the typical student was white with a middle to upper—middle
class suburban background.2

Similarly, Didriksen showed that this situation is al-
so true for other careers in natural resources. In the fall
of 1973, there were only 286 racial minorities (less than
one percent) enrolled in professional forestry programs out

of some 18,000 undergraduates at the 51 institutions accredited

lDonald Henkel and Geoffrey Godbey, Parks, Recreation
and Leisure Services Employment in the Public Sector: Status
E56 Trends, (Arlington, VA.: NaEIon 1 Recreation and Park —7
Association, 1977), pp. 35-40.

2Robert J. Dunlavey, "A Description of Personal Back-
grounds, Experiences and Attitudes of Park and Recreation
Resources Undergraduates at Michigan State University, 1974,"
(M. S. Technical Paper, Michigan State University, 1974),
pp. 89-90.

 

or affiliated with the Society of American Foresters. There
were 53 American Indians, 52 black Americans, 95 Orientals
and 86 Spanish Americans.1

And currently (1978) within the United States Forest
Service there are only 88 black professionals--(10 foresters)

out of some 27,000 permanent employees (5,000 foresters).2

Need for the Study

 

One conclusion from this data is that future students
entering careers in natural resources from Michigan State
University and similar institutions will not be dissimilar
from present career professionals. Unfortunately, this sit-
uation may create a credibility problem in terms of convin-
cing racial minorities that they do or should have an impor-
tant role in deciding the optimum utilization of the nation's
natural resources. Obviously, this situation is contradic-
tory to the Spirit behind the "equal opportunity employer"
slogan.

Consequently, in 1975, concerned individuals, repre-
senting educational institutions, industry, and federal and
state governmental agencies, convened a national workshop at
Tuskegee, Alabama to address the issue of insufficient num—
bers of minorities enrolled in educational programs or ac-

tively working in natural resources. The workshop on "Entry

 

1Ralph G. Didriksen, "Minorities in Professional For-

estry Schools, 1973," Jgurnal of Forestry, Vol. 73, No. 5
(May, 1975), p. 283.

 

2Correspondence with former Equal Opportunity Specia-
list with North Eastern Forest Experiment Station, August 10,
1977.

of Minorities into Natural Resources Careers" focused on:
(1) reasons minorities appear not to aspire to natural re-
source careers; (2) opportunities in academia, industry and
government; and (3) some tools used by these institutions
which have been in some measure successful in recruiting mi-
norities into these careers.

The conference's work groups successfully identified
barriers or road blocks facing minorities: negative agri—
culture and forestry experiences, financial need, racial dis-
crimination, lack of awareness, and so forth.1 Yet, very
little has been done to systematically address these vari-
ables within a theoretical framework in order to objective-
ly ascertain which policy or agency procedures may need to
be altered in order to effect practical solutions. Since
affirmative action--a movement to see that minorities are
given equal access to professional positions--is supported
by both professional ethics and legislative mandate, it
seemed imperative that additional research be conducted.

Vocational choice, for example, is a process made up
of events or "choice acts" which take place usually during
the ten year period from early adolescence to occupational
entry.2 Moreover, there are several dimensions of this

choice process (awareness, value clarification, knowledge,

—L

1Proceedings of a Workshop in Entry of Minorities into
Natural Resource Careers, (Tuskegee, Alébama: Southern Forest
Experiment Station,Forest Service, USDA, 1975), p. 78.

2John Crites, Vocational Psychology, (New York: McGraw-
Hill Book Company, 1969), p. 155.

 

 

 

independence, fantasy, means—ends cognizance and consistency
of choices). But the one considered most relevant to this
problem is occupational information--knowledge of different
(non-traditional) occupations. Information which is accu-
rate and timely can do much to dispel the myths and half
truths often associated with non-traditional careers.

If recruiting efforts are to achieve maximum effec-
tiveness, then concerned professionals in academia, industry
and governmental agencies should at least know more about
this dimension: how career information is disseminated and

its subsequent impact on vocational choice.

Study Objectives

 

In general, the quantity and quality of career infor-
mation is influenced by the student's family background, edu-
cation opportunities and labor force experiences.1 The pri—
mary objective, therefore, of this research was to systemati-
cally investigate the knowledge dimension of the vocation
choice process of natural resource graduates. The specific
objectives were:

1. Assess career information diffusion and deter-

mine its impact on vocational choices of
graduates in natural resources.

2. Compare the perceived dissimilarities between

careers in natural resources and other voca-

tions.

3. Develop testable model(s) for the recruit-
ment of blacks and other racial minorities.

 

1Joseph A. Mihalka, Youth and Work, (Columbus, Ohio:
Charles Merrill Publishing C0,, 1969).

 

Chapter II
LITERATURE REVIEW

Because of the complexity of this problem, it required
an interdisciplinary approach involving the review of natural
resources, vocational choice and diffusion literature. A

review of the most pertinent literature is included in this

chapter.

Natural Resources Literature

There is a paucity of literature in natural resources
which addresses the problem of the lack of minority partici—
pation beyond just articulating and defining the situation.
Most writers like Didriksen in 1975, Murphy in 1970, Dunlavey
in 1974, and Godbey and Henkel in 1976, have mainly articu—
lated and documented the problem.

Godbey and Henkel's study, is very illustrative of mi-
nority representation in parks and recreation. They found
that 84,105 full time staff were employed at the municipal,
county, special district and state level. Ethnic minorities
(blacks, American Indians, Spanish and Oriental Employees)
numbered about 22 percent.1 Minorities and women, however,
were notably absent from positions of power. Both were more

heavily represented in leadership and supervisory roles.

lWomen represented about 15% of all employees but since
they represented almost 50% of those enrolled in colleges and
universities, the authors concluded that their percentages
should increase.

Minority groups were more heavily represented in the
skilled park personnel positions such as maintenance persons,
tree surgeons, and so forth.1

Additional information on the Negro's role in related
resource industries has been provided by the Industrial Re-
search Unit of the Wharton School of Finance and Commerce,
University of Pennsylvania. Northrup and Howard, respectively,
documented the role of the Negro in the paper and lumber in—
dustries.

In 1968, 700,000 persons were employed in making pulp
and paper and converting the basic products to other common

uses--about 7.3 percent or 49,000 were black. Northrup con-

cluded, however, that the racial occupational employment pat-
tern in southern mills kept them out of better paying jobs.2
Howard, likewise studied the role of the Negro in the
lumber and wood products industry. He concluded that the in-
dustry has been the largest industrial employer of blacks in
the South for many years. In 1967, blacks represented almost
136,000 or 41.6 percent of the industry's labor force. His-
torically, blacks worked predominantly in the low paying blue
collar occupations which required low skills and little edu-
cation for entry. And like the pulp and paper industry, civil

rights and governmental pressures have been unable to achieve

 

1Henkel and Godbey, Parks Recreation and Leisure Services
Employment in the Public Sector: Status and Trends, pp. 35;
Io.

 

 

2Herbert R. Northrup, The Negro In The Paper Industry,
(Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1970), pp. 1-
3, 62.

 

any major changes in that few blacks are employed in white

collar positions.1

Environmental Attitudes

Other writers have discussed the attitudes held by blacks
and other racial minorities as possible factors in their non-
selection of careers in natural resources. In 1971, Payne and
Theoe attributed the lack of blacks in forestry to their lack
of knowledge of what the profession is all about and to an an-
ti—agricultural bias. They argued that urban, low income, non-
whites are more likely to pursue careers in areas which are
perceived as being of higher status-~i.e., law, medicine or
engineering.2

Kreger reached similar conclusions about ecology and
black student opinion in a study of an availability sample of
28 black Michigan State University students in 1972. Although
the sample was not selected scientifically, the study provided
useful insights. She summarized the expressed opinions of
black students as: (l) Blacks were not as interested in eco-
logy as whites. (2) Ecological concern is a stage in a socie—
ty's life and in the United States, the dominant white group
has reached this stage, but blacks haven't. (3) Ecology is a
white middle class concern because the economic position of

blacks has imposed limitations regarding interest in other

 

1John C. Howard, The Negro In The Lumber Industry, (Phil-
adelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1970), pp. 70-76.

 

2Brian R. Payne and Donald R. Theoe, "Black Foresters
Needed: A Professional Concern," Journal of Forestry, Vol. 69,
No. 5 (May, 1971), pp. 295-298.

 

10

societal concerns. Finally, she concluded that blacks can
only be expected to take an increased interest in the ecology
movement when increased economic opportunities and other ad—
vancements are realized.1

Similarly, Meeker and others contended that National
Parks and Wilderness areas mean different things to white
Americans than to black Americans:

. . . National Parks and Wilderness areas promote the
myth of the National Garden of Eden--a place where the
(white man) can feel close to the origins of human life
and to the peace, innocence and moral purity that myth
ascribes to the pre-fallen state of mankind. National
Parks are places to seek refuge from cities and ma—
chines, offering (whites) the psychological relief
(i.e., recreation) which makes it possible to continue
their work in unpleasant urban surroundings .

On the other hand, they suggested the feelings of non-
whites for the land differed dramatically: "The heritage of
slavery for the black man and the brutal conquest of Indian
lands shaped their conceptions about land." Cleaver, for
example, wrote in his essay on "The Land Question and Black
Liberation" that during slavery black people learned to hate
the land. He suggested the daily grind of working the land
"for profit they themselves would never see or taste" has
made blacks sensitive to being referred to as farm boy, "to
infer he is from a rural area or in any way attached to an

agrarian situation."3

‘

lJanet Kreger, "Ecology and Black Student Opinion," Jour—
nal of Environmental Education, 3 (Spring, 1972), PP. 32-35.

 

2Joseph W. Meeker, William K. Woods and Wilson Lucas,
"Red, White and Black in the National Parks," The North Ameri-
can Review, (Fall, 1973), p. 4.

 

 

3Eldridge Cleaver, "The Land Question and Black Liberation,"
Post Prison Writings and Speeches, (New York: Random House,
1968), PP. 57:72.

 

11

But as long as the more basic social and economic needs
of blacks and other minorities remain unmet, it is not sur-
prising that this group remains skeptical of an "environmen-
tal movement," especially one which has focused exclusively
on solving higher needs-—recreational benefits, wilderness
use, environmental quality, etc.

Hunt wrote in 1973 that this is one reason blacks have
avoided or looked with skepticism on the environmental move—
ment. Many have felt that national priorities would be di-
verted from achieving improved health care, housing and equal—
ity in employment and directed to improving the quality of
the environment.1

Disadvantaged groups, moreover, may not only feel that
concentrating on improving the environment is a misplaced
priority but a deliberate scheme by insensitive national lead—
ers to sabotage their drive for equality. In March of 1976,
the Potomac Institute, Inc., published "Environment and Equity"
which documented in part the friction between the "haves" and
the "have-hots". This paragraph from the introduction helps
illustrate the issue:

Through most of the present century, those seek—
ing to protect forests, wildlife, streams, and land-
scapes have been viewed by social equity interests
as too often the conservers of a status quo America

having little place to house, employ, and otherwise
release millions locked in poverty.

1John D. Hunt, "Natural Resource Use and the Hierarchy

of Needs," Journal of Environmental Education, 4 (Summer,
1973), pp. 20—21.

 

2Environment and Equity, (Washington, D.C.: The Potomac
Institute, Inc., 1976), p.'1.

 

12

The criticism of several minority leaders and others
take a similar form. Bayard Rustin, President of the A.
Phillip Randolph Institute, remarked: "The good and sweeping
intentions of many environmentals are now an obstacle block-
ing those less fortunate Americans who desire economic jus-
tice."l

Mayor Richard G. Hatcher of Gary, Indiana commented:
"The nation's concern with the environment has done what
George Wallace was unable to do: distract the nation from
the human problems of the black and brown American, living
in just as much misery as ever".2

And, ironically, where there has been an opportunity to
meet the most pressing environmental and/or outdoor recreation
needs of the disadvantage, it has not materialized. A perti-
nent example which Burdick documented in 1975 was the inequi-
table distribution of money from the Land and Water Conserva-
tion Fund. He concluded that the use of the fund "has been
particularly prejudicial to the needs of impoverished resi—
dents of inner city neighborhoods, where high densities and
a paucity of private open space create special public respon-
sibilities."3 For example, Land and Water Conservation monies
are often used to locate regional parks in metropolitan areas,
which theoretically supply recreation benefit to all area re-

sidents. In the past, however, little attention has focused

1Ibid., p. 5. 21bid.

3John M. Burdick, Recreation in the Cities: Who Gains
From Federal Aid?, (Washington, D.C.: The Centér for Growth
Alternatives, I975), p. 13.

 

 

13

on the social, psychological and physical accessibility pro-
blems of low income residents who must rely on inefficient or
non existent public transportation to journey into suburbs
where they often are not wanted.1

But perhaps the most intensive examination of this con-
flict--between environmental quality and social justice-~occurred
during the 1974 conference convened by the Conservation Founda-
tion. In Chapter I of the Conference's Proceedings, James
Smith, a Senior Associate with the Conservation Foundation
wrote that advocates of social justice are readily characterized
in social, economic and ethnic terms: "it is a lower class,
poor, and largely minority."2 In contrast the environmentalists
are largely middle to upper-middle class and almost exclusive—
1y white. And, perhaps more significantly states Smith, "they
are part of a small, relatively affluent minority which wields
social and political influence disproportionate to their abso-

lute number."3

Population and Resource Distribution
According to Hazel Henderson in Chapter VIII of the Con—
ference's Proceedings, the central issue in the environmental
debate concerns redefining economic growth or reslicing the

economic pie:

 

11bid.

2James N. Smith, "The Coming of Age of Environmentalism
in American Society," Environmental Quality and Social Justice
in Urban America, (Wasfiington D.Ci: The Conservation Founda-
Erafij—IE7ITT“§§T‘2—6.

 

31bid., p. 7.

14

The new questions concern, on the one hand, the
the price in social and environmental exploitation
which we pay for economic growth . . . and on the
other hand, the companion questions of how we should
distribute the costs and benefits of a new set of
social arrangements geared toward a 'steady—itate
economy' in equilibrium with the eco-system.

In other words, the issue revolves around the basic eco-
nomic questions: what is produced; how is it produced; when
is it produced; who benefits and who pays the costs?

Ironically, the costs of environmental control appear to
fall most heavily on poorer citizens. For example, when en-
vironmental standards are implemented, costs are most often
passed on to the consumer.2 But even more "ironic“ as
Henderson suggests the poor also suffer more disproportionate-
ly when environmental problems go unattended. But, since the
environmentalists are part of the "small, relatively affluent
who control the social, cultural and political rules of the
game in America," Smith states that changes advantageous to
the poor may be slow in materializing: "The central issue
then is linking the traditional concern for the preservation
of the natural landscape with the ecological health of the
urban environment."3

More specifically, the agenda for the urban poor include

the problems of hunger, malnutrition, poor health and premature

 

lHazel Henderson, "Redefining Economic Growth," Chapter
VIII of Environmental Quality and Social Justice in America,
P. 123.

 

21f this product of service has an inelastic demand or
is considered a necessity such as an automobile, the low in-
come consumer may end up paying a larger percentage of his
income for the goods or services.

3Smith, Environmental Quality and Social Justice in
America, p. 14.

 

15

death. Unfortunately, in 1974, this linkage had not material-
ized and in 1979, it is still lacking. More alarming, however,
has been the slow erosion of much of the 1960's progress. In-
dicative of this trend has been the cutback in social programs,
referenda on limiting governmental spending and charges of
reverse discrimination aimed at ambitious attempts to compen-
sate for past discriminating practices.l Obviously, during

the latter half of this decade, wider cleavages have developed
between the rich and poor, suburbia and central city, middle
class and lower class, black and white, the haves and have
nots. While environmental awareness by the public is perhaps

at an all time high, concern for the poor living in poverty

in the central cities is less apparent.

The Agrarian Heritage
While the heritage of slavery cannot be erased, it is
perhaps useful to consider the agrarian situation of the black
American following emancipation and the Civil War as'a means
of better understanding present attitudes about the land and
the natural environment. Blacks are now overwhelmingly city
dwellers: in 1977, New York City had 2.5 million blacks,

Chicago 1.5 million, Los Angeles and Long Beach 1.0, Philadel-

2

phia 0.9 and Washington, D.C. almost 0.9 million. But during

4

1See for example, The State of Black America: 1979,
(National Urban League, Inc., January 17, 1979), p. ii.

2Frank G. Pogue, "The Mobile Black Family: Sociological
Implications," The Black Rural Landowners--Endangered Species,
Leo McGee and R65ert Boone, ed., Twestport, Conn.: Greenwofifi
Press, 1979), p. 23. Data from official 1970 Census of Population,
prepared by SROS Consumer Market Data Division (January 1, 1979).

 

 

16

the Reconstruction Era following the Civil War, the majority
of blacks continued to labor in the same fields they had
tilled as slaves.

According to Manning Marable writing in Chapter I of The
Black Rural Landowner--Endangered Species, most blacks elected
to live and work in the South after slavery--many believed that
their masters' plantations would be divided and distributed to
the former slaves.l However, as Manning documents, the basic
pattern of southern land tenure changed very little after 1865.
"In most counties, the wealthiest 5 percent of all landowners
controlled 40 percent of the property or more, and the upper
tenth of all farmers owned from one-half to two-thirds of all
land in every county."2

Yet, the desire for owning their own farm land continued
as a strong motivating force for the freed man. By the 1890's,
for example, land acquisition and the development of a strong
black land base became an ideological imperative articulated
by such spokesmen as Booker T. Washington who preached the
rationale of self sufficiency through land ownership.3 And
despite the exploitative sharecropping system--a functional
alternative to a shortage of cash following the Civil War with

which to renumerate farm 1abor--b1acks increased their owner-

ship of farms to 213,000 representing 16 million acres by 1910.

1Manning Marable, "The Land Question in Historical Per-
spective: The Economics of Poverty in the Blackbelt South,
1865-1920, "The Black Rural Landowner-—Endangered Species,
pp. 4-5.

 

21bid., pp. 5-6. 31bid.. pp. 11—15.

17

After 1910, however, the number of black farmers and
black landowners started to decline. Faced with exhausted
land, a poor cotton market and increasing discrimination and
harassment by the Klu Klux Klan, blacks started to leave the
South in a migration stream that has only been slowed and now

reversed in the l970's--almost 60 years later.

The Urban Orientation of Minorities

Increasingly, after 1910 racial minorities-—b1acks in
particular-~sought to escape the racial discrimination, low
wages and other disadvantages associated with a rural Southern
life style by migrating to the urban Northeast and Midwest.
During the first half of the 20th century almost two million
migrated. This constituted, according to Lerone Bennett, Jr.,
"the greatest internal migration in modern history."1 By
1930, for example, one out of every four blacks had left the
state of his birth and nine out of every ten northern blacks

lived in cities.2

Herbert succinctly summarizes this exodus:
"A people who in 1900 were 77 percent rural, in half a century

became more than 65 percent urban."3

 

1Lerone Bennett, Jr., Before the Mayflower: A History
2f the Negro in America 1619-1964 (Baltimore: Penguin BoOks,
1966), p. 9359

 

 

2Leslie H. Fishel and Benjamin Quarles, The Black Ameri-
can (Glenview, Illinois: Scott Foresman and Co., 1970), pp.

3624363.

 

 

3James H. Herbert, "Urbanization and the Negro," National
Conferences of Social Work, Proceedings, 1933, (New York:
Macmillan, 1934), p. 41. Quoted in Frank G. Pogue, "The M0-
bile Black Family: Sociological Implications."

18

This transformation of the black population from a pre-
dominantly rural to an overwhelmingly urban orientation has,
of course, brought about massive social and economic changes.
But according to Williamson, despite the urban reality of
blacks and other racial minorities, "the process of urbaniza-
tion did not necessarily strip the black Americans of an
affinity for the trees, songbirds, fishing, swimming holes,
or the clean fresh air of the less populated South."l He,
furthermore, argued that while a number of migrants achieved
their dreams of a better life, a vast number were disappointed
with the ensuing quality of life in the city--few trees, few
songbirds, noise, pollution and so forth.2 And ironically,
the black American's affinity for the natural environment-—
i.e., the trees, songbirds, fishing, swimming holes to which
Williamson refers--was both nourished and stifled by his ex-
periences in the rural south:

It is the land of bitter memories, it
is the land once worked by slaves; the land
on which tenant farmers and sharecroppers
struggled to survive, a land so hard that
those who worked it cursed it and those
who owned it often considered it a mill-
stone around their necks. It is the land
from which millions of blacks fled during
the great trek from the South. . .

One indication, however, of increasing dissatisfaction

of minorities with the quality of urban life in northern cities

1Robert D. Williamson, "Urban Minorities: Don't We
Count?," Journal of Forestry, 73 (May, 1975), p. 281.

 

21bid., p. 282.

3Earl Caldwell, "Gaining Ground on Black Property,"
Black Enterprise, (May, 1978), p. 21.

 

19

has been the slow reversal of blacks leaving the South. Be-
tween 1970 and 1974 the number of blacks four years old and
over moving to the South closely approximated the number leav-
ing—-276,000 immigrants versus 241,000 outmigrants.l

And so, where once the promised land of the North at-
tracted yet another generation of young blacks during the
1950's and 1960's, this promise turned sour in the Seventies—-
spiraling living costs, high crime rates, polluted air and

filtiurstreets first slowed, then reversed this migration.2

Land as an Equity Resource

This great trek from the rural south to the northern
metropolitan cities in search of dignity and decent wages
did not solve all the problems for the black man. In fact,
it may have exacerbated life for many. He came seeking dig-
nity and a decent wage, but found in many instances unemploy-
ment, underemployment, substandard housing, inadequate educa—
tion for his children, and so forth.

The civil rights gains of the Sixties—~voting, access
to public accomodations, desegregation of public facilities-—

moreover, were spawned in part by civil rights demonstrations

k

1Frank G. Pogue, "The Mobile Black Family: Sociological
Implications." Chapter 2 of Tse Black Rural Landowner-~En-
dsngered Species, p. 29.

 

 

2Flontina Miller, "Coming Home: Many Find the North No

'Promised Land,'" The Greensboro Record, part of the Record
Series "Years of Change . . . I954-I978," an attempt to assess

the changes in Greensboro's black community since the 0.8.
Supreme Court decision in May of 1954 outlawing segregated
public schools.

20

which forced media attention on the incongruence of the plight
of American Blacks and this country's principles.

But now in the Seventies with problems of environmental
quality and inflation-recession, many of the hard fought gains
in civil rights have been eroded by an increasingly conserva—
tive national mood. Although attitudes were altered enough
for passage of much civil rights legislation, many now perceive
that too much was done for this minority group. They readily
accept the myths that the problems of discrimination no longer
exist, that most blacks have achieved middle class status, that
total equality of opportunity has been achieved and that there
is no need for Special efforts on behalf of blacks and other
minorities.l

Yet much of the progress of blacks and other minorities
over the past twenty years, has depended largely on their
ability to find and keep jobs (through civil rights initiatives),
but any substantial progress toward economic security is depend-
ent on more than just acquiring a good job. Minorities must
begin to conrol a larger proportion of the economic wealth in
the United States. For example, fluctuations of the economy
during the Seventies, if nothing else, has taught blacks and
other non—whites a cruel lesson. They own or control dispor-
tionately less of the capital resources in American than any

other group.2

-_‘

lVernon E. Jordan, Jr., Introduction to The State of Black
smerican: 1979 (New York: National Urban League, Ific., 1979),
p. ii.

 

 

2Lester Thurow and Robert Lucas, of the Massachusetts In-
stitute of Technology, claim that in twenty-five years of steady
economic growth, the income shares are essentially the same in
1970 as they were in 1947.

21

In a study by Peter Henle of the United States Depart-
ment of Labor, he noted a persistent trend in the economy
toward actual inequality. For example, from 1958 to 1970 the
share of aggregate wage and salary income earned by the low-
est fifth of male workers declined from 4.60 percent to 4.10
percent, while the share of the highest fifth of the male
wage and salary earners rose from 38.15 percent to 40.55 per-
cent. Given this trend, he concluded that the structure of
the economy was producing more high-paying, high-skill jobs
while low—skill employment remained constant.1

Although civil rights legislation has indeed "Opened
the door," perhaps true social progress depends upon acquir-
ing a larger slice of the economic wealth of the United States.
Unfortunately, the lack of capital resources and business
management expertise has been a persistent barrier to minority
economic development.2

And, perhaps even more ironic, the search to find minority
equity ownership focused attention on the importance of non—
white land ownership, especially in the rural South were land
constitutes the largest equity resource under minority con-
trol, but from whence millions of blacks migrated thirty to

forty years ago.

— ‘_-_

lSmith, Environmental Quality and Social Justissj p. 130.

 

2James M. Hund, Black Entrepreneurship (Belmont, Califor-
nia: Wadsworth Publishing Co., Inc., 19707, pp. 32—33.

 

22

Significance of Natural Resources

More racial minorities should be involved in owning,
planning, managing, using and developing natural or land re-
sources for three basic reasons: (1) significance of natural
resources as factors in production, (2) political influence,
and (3) economic influence. Since land and associated resources
are basic factors of production along with labor, capital and
management, those who own or control them help dictate to a
large extent what is produced, how it is produced and who
benefits. Land, according to Raleigh Barlowe is a natural
source of food, fiber, building materials, minerals, energy
resources and other raw materials essential to modern society.1

In 1970, 1.6 billion acres (69 percent) were classified
as forest, range land and inland waters.2 Most of this
acreage--825 million acres (70 percent) are privately owned.
Outdoor recreation, water, timber,wi1dlife and minerals re—
flect the diversity of the goods and services that flow from
this land resource:

. . . Nearly all of 1.6 billion acres
is used in some form of outdoor recreation
by well over half the population.

. . . Forest and rangeland influence
the quanity, quality and timing of water
in the streams, lakes and reservoirs of the
country.

lRaleigh Barlowe, Land Resource Economics: The Econo—
mics of Real Property, (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Pren—
tice—HalI, 1972), p. 9.

2U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, The
Nation's Renewable Resources—-An Assessmens, 1975, p. l.

 

 

 

23

. . . Timber is the nation's second most
important agricultural crop in terms of value-—
equal to about 17 percent.

. . . All 1.6 billion acres provide habi—
tat for various forms of wildlife-~big game
as well as countless numbers of lesser mam-
mals, song birds, upland game birds, water
fowl, reptiles, amphibians and fish.

. . . Extensive mineral deposits underlie
forest and rangeland. Between 1930-1971 some
3.7 million acres of land in the United States
were mined.

The potential for political and economic influence can
also justify increased minority involvement in natural re-
sources. In 1978, national income from the agriculture,
forestry and fisheries industry represented 44,594 (million
dollars) or 2.36 percent of a total GNP--l.887 (billion dol-
lars). Individually, farms represented 39,814 (million dol-
lars) or 2.10 percent.2 On the other hand, government outlays
by function show natural resource and environmental programs
receiving 12,125 (million dollars) in l978-—this amount was
2.62 percent of the 462.2 (million dollar) fiscal 78 budget.3

Yet to really see the significance of the relationship
between land resource ownership and control and political and
economic influence, one might examine corporate land ownership.

According to Marbury, major corporations owned 122.2 million

acres (See Table 1) of commercial non-federal forest land.4

 

lIbidol pp. 42-52

ZTse World Alamance and Book of Facts-—l979, pp. 94-97.

 

31bid., p. 94.

4Carl Marbury, "Decline in Black«Owned Rural Land," in
Tse Black Rural Landowner—-Endgangered Species, pp. 104-105.

 

24

Table 1
Corporate Landownership and Position
Among Largest United States Industries

 

Acreage in Millions of 500 Largest
(including some 0.5. Industrial

FOrtune DireCEGFY'”

offshore) Corporations
(ranked by sales)

 

ENERGY COMPANIES

 

 

 

 

Total

 

Standard Oil of Indiana 20.3 12
Texaco 9.9 5
Mobil 7.8 4
Gulf 7.5 9
Phillips Petroleum 5.3 26
Standard Oil of

California 5.2 6
Continental Oil 4.5 18
Union Oil 4.1 35
TIMBER COMPANIES
International Paper 7.0 62
Weyerhauser 5.6 69
Georgia Pacific 4.5 53
St. Regis 3.9 128
ITT 2.1 11
U.S. Plywood-Champion 2.0 74
Scott 1.8 168
Boise-~Cascade 1.8 111
Union Camp 1.6 225
Crown--Zellerbach 1.6 115
Kimberly-~Clark 1.5 148
Continental Can 1.4 67
RAILROAD COMPANIES
Burlington Northern 8.4
Union Pacific 7.9
Southern Pacific 5.1
St. Louis—-San Francisco 1 4

 

122.2 million acres

 

 

lFortune, May 7, 1979, pp. 26

8-293.

25

Although this is only 18 percent of the total, all energy
and timber companies with sizable acreage are ranked in
Fortune's Magazine's Directory of the 500 largest U.S. Indus-
trial Corporations (ranked by sales). The only exceptions
were railroad companies. Energy companies were ranked no
less than 35th, while Timber companies ranged from 11th to
225th.1

Marbury only used corporate landownership to preface
his thesis that fewer and fewer owners control the land, es-
pecially with the number of absentee landowners increasing.2
Yet, prime farm land--land having the best combination of
physical and chemical characteristics for producing food,
feed, forage, fiber and oilseed crops--has increasingly been
selected as a hedge against inflation by all sorts of investors.
In fact, because of the demand from weekend farmers, ranchers,
investors, developers and full-time farmers themselves, farm
land prices recorded a 14 percent nationwide increase in 1979.
This compares to a 9 percent increase the previous year.3

Moreover, Barlowe, suggests that of the many institu-
tional factors that affect ownership and use of land resources,

none are more important or fundamental than the concept of

1Computing a direct correlation between land ownership
and a corporation's sales is beyond the scope of this study.

2Marbury, "Decline in Black—Owned Rural Land," The
Black Rural Landowner--Endangered Specissj p. 105.

 

3Jack Bickers, "Why the Southern Land Boom May Be Just
Beginning," Psogressive Farmer, July, 1978, p. 15.

 

26

property rights. Consequently, sentiment favoring farm and
especially home ownership has had a marked effect upon the
nation's land policies and an integral part of our accepted
political philosophy.1

Nelson, for example, states that "in a society based on
capitalism, land ownership becomes an essential and unalterable
prerequisite for economic development and the exercise of sub-
stantial political influence.2

Unfortunately, since 1910 there has been a steady decline
in the amount of black-owned farm land. From a high of eleven
million acres, less than five and one-half million acres re-
main, which is itself being lost at the rate of 6,000 acres a
week.3

Lester Solomon in a study of black—owned land carried out
for the Office of Minority Business Enterprise, had earlier
documented this disappearing equity base--a loss of five
million acres of land or over 330 thousand acres per year be-
tween 1954 and 1969.4 He later refers to this phenomenon as

a crisis and an opportunity because land represents a sizeable

equity resource to support non—agricultural minority economic

1Barlowe, Tend Resource Economiss, p. 358.

 

2William E. Nelson, Black Rural Land Decline and Political
Power, Chapter 6 in The Black Rural Landowner-«Endangered Spe—
cies, pp. 83-85.

 

3Earl Caldwell, "Gaining Ground in Black Property," Black
Enterprise, May, 1978, p. 22.

 

4Lester M. Solomon, Black- Owned Land: Profile of a Disap-

pearing Equity Base (Working Paper Institute of Policy Review
and Pu 5[1c Affairs, Duke University, 1974), p.11.

 

27

development, but at the same time is rapidly being depleted
through a variety of legal and paralegal procedures, i.e.,

partition sales, tax sales, foreclosures, and adverse posses-

sion.l

Finally, Caldwell notes that "for Blacks," memories of
the land have not changed. But the South has changed. The
importance and value of the land has changed, too, and that
is reflected in the intensity of the effort mounted to halt
the loss of black-owned farmland in the South:

It is still the land of bitter memories.
These memories cannot be erased. But the
people who live in the South on the land that
the slaves once worked, the land tenant far-
mers and sharecroppers struggled to survive
on, they believe that it is important that
they share in the ownership of the national
territory. They believe that the ability to
deny people land is the gay of keeping them-
selves—-economic slaves.

Therefore, because of this potential equity base and be-
cause of the quality of life in the South, as opposed to north-
ern ghettos, and because of new job opportunities, minorities
are slowly returning to the "new South" and rediscovering
that they can indeed take pride in rural ownership because

ownership of such land can help achieve the goal of social

3

justice and equality in America. Given this trend, old

assumptions about this group's perceptions of the land and

their attitudes about the South should perhaps be reexamined.

lIbid.
2Earl Caldwell, p. 48.

3Jack Nelson, "A New Landscape In the South," Greensboro
Daily News, June 17, 1979, LA Times--Washington Post News
SerVice.

 

 

28

Identified Barriers

Perhaps, the first national effort to focus on the pro-
blem of the lack of minorities pursuing careers in natural re-
sources was the 1975 Tuskegee Workshop on "Barriers Facing the
Entry of Minorities Into Natural Resource Careers."

Berry, a keynote speaker, categorized these barriers as
academic, financial, aspirational, geographic, physiological,
psychological and sociological. He further suggested that few
blacks or other minorities have been involved in educational
preparation because leaders in this field have not in the past,
sought, encouraged, nor welcomed black high school graduates.1

Following other presentations on specific aspects of these
barriers, the workshop participants reached a final consensus
on thirteen roadblocks restricting the entry of blacks and other
minority groups into these professions:

1. Resistance to change by the natural re-
source professions.

2. Negative agricultural and forestry ex-
periences.

3. Urban orientation of minority groups.
4. Financial need.
5. Racial discrimination.

6. Lack of awareness and exposure to natural
resource careers.

 

1Gordon L. Berry, "Career Development and Afro-Americans:
Defoliation of the Barriers," in Esoceedings of Workshop on
Entry of Minorities Into Natural Resource Careers, (Tuskegee,
AIébama: Southern Forest Experiment Station, FEEest Service,
USDA, 1975, pp. 9—17.

 

 

29

7. Past jdb availability.

8. Education system--teachers, counselors,
administrators and professors.

9. Home culture and environment.

10. Too many foresters for available jobs
today.

11. Poor academic preparation.
12. Lack of role models.
13. Lack of positive interest by personnel
representing academic institutions, in-
dustry, state and federal governments.
Secondly, the workshop participants recognized a number
of factors which have enabled a limited number of minorities
to successfully pursue careers in natural resources: scholar-
ships, summer employment, Youth Conservation Corps, cooperative
education, environmental education and cooperative relation-

ships between industry and academic institutions.1

Summary and Implications from
Natural Resources Literature
The results of this review may be summarized under three
headings: limited minority professional employment, negative
land and environmental heritage, more barriers than opportu-
nities.
1. Ethnic minorities hold few positions of
power in parks and recreation organiza-

tions but even fewer are professional
foresters.

1Proceeding of a Workshop on Entry of Minorities Intg
Tatural Resource CareeEsJ P. 78.

 

 

3O

2. Blacks played an important role in the
development of the southern forestry in-
dustry--pulp and paper and lumber and
wood products--but primarily as low paid,
unskilled labor.

3. The heritage of slavery and rural experi-
ences in the south have given many blacks
negative conceptions about the land.

There is a feeling that the environmental
movement has distracted from the priori-
ties so important to racial minorities
such as adequate health care, housing,
education and employment.

4. The existence of financial, aspirations,
geographic, physiological, psychological
and sociological barriers does not pre-
clude the influence of positive factors
if nurtured.

In essence the struggle and continuing vigilance of black
and other minority Americans to achieve and retain basic human
rights has, perhaps, precluded their extensive involvement in
the environmental movement. Thus the major articulation of
the inequalities of the American System by black and other
racial minorities has focused on civil rights, housing, em-
ployment and educational opportunities. For these reasons,
many may be oriented to careers which are perceived as instru-
mental to this struggle (i.e., law, medicine and education).

Yet, no systematic study of graduates of programs in
natural resources has been attempted to establish the exis—
tance of a correlation between career decision making and the
many variables influencing their selection. No systematic

study has attempted to ascertain commonalities, if any, among

minority graduates who do pursue careers in natural resources.

31

Since blacks and other minorities, moreover, are a diversified
group with different backgrounds and experiences, future ef—
forts to recruit both minority students and professionals may
be less than optimum without a more complete understanding of

this problem.

Vocational Choice Research

 

Although no systematic study of graduates of programs in
Natural Resources has been initiated to establish a correla-
tion between career decision making and the many variables
influencing their career selection, or to ascertain commona-
lities among minority graduates who do pursue careers in na-
tural resources, this does not mean that the career decision
making process has not been researched. On the contrary, the
process has been widely studied; but despite numerous studies,
career decision making still remains only a partially under-
stood process. Vocational psychologists like Crites have
agreed, however, that it is a process made up of a series of
events or "choice acts" which usually take place during the
ten year period from early adolescence to occupational entry.l

According to Crites, there are seven dimensions of voca—
tional choice appearing in the literature: (1) orientation to
choice-~awareness that one must choose an occupation as his
life's work; (2) clarification of vocational self-concept--

crystallization of traits and aptitudes; (3) occupational

 

lCrites, Vocational Psychology, p. 164.

 

32

information--knowledge of occupations and how to enter them;
(4) independence—-more self sufficiency in decision making;
(5) day dreaming and fantasy-~picturing oneself in different
kinds of work; (6) means-end cognizance--relating goals with
the necessary steps to achieve them; and (7) consistency of
choices--agreement among choices increases with maturity.1

Of these seven dimensions, however, occupational informa-
tion appeared to have the most relevancy to this problem.
Super, for example, states that as the individual ages, he
also gathers more information about occupations and how to
enter them. And as the individual matures, this career infor-
mation should increase in relevance, reliability and specifi-

city; he or she should use it more often as a basis for their

decisions.2

Treatment of Race
Within this specific dimension of occupational knowledge,
racial background is a critical factor. The history of racial
minorities in America indicate that lack of occupational know-
ledge due to past discrimination and its legacy influences their
failure to consider many non-traditional career options. For
the purpose of this review, treatment of race in vocational

literature may be classified as pre-1970 and post-1970.

lIbid., pp. 165-167.

21bid., p. 167.

33

Ese-l970 Studiss

 

Prior to 1970 three major studies focused on race as a
major factor in vocational choice: Hyte1 in 1936, Gray2 in
1944 and Lawrence3 in 1950. These studies and other results
lead Crites to conclude that almost without exception, black
youth selected three occupations most frequently: (1) physician,
(2) teacher, and (3) musician. They selected the occupations
of lawyer, engineer and farmer less frequently.

Yet among the available Pre-1970 studies that compared
the differences in vocational choice by race, results were
inconclusive when all other factors except race were controlled-—
race is not a major predictor of career choice. But Crites
did cite one study by Witty and others that concluded: Whites
prefer occupations which are largely "thing-oriented," while
Negroes select occupations which are mostly "people-oriented."
The occupations which ranked the highest for Negroes were postal
work, musician, physician and lawyer; for whites, they were

engineer, aviator, mechanic-machinists and forester.4

1C. Hyte, "Occupational Interests of Negro High School
Boys," School Review, 44 (1936) pp. 34-40, cited by Crites,
Yocational Psychology, p. 224.

 

28. Gray, "The Vocational Preference of Negro School
Children," gsurnal of Genetic Psychology, 64 (1944) pp. 239-
247, cited by Crites, yscational‘Psthology, p. 224.

3P. Lawrence, "Vocational Aspirations of Negro Youth
in California," Tournal of Negro Educaths, 19 (1950: pp. 47-
56.

 

 

 

4P. Witty, S. Garfield and W. Bunk, "A Comparison of the
Vocational Interests of Negro and White High School Students,”
Journal of Educational Psychology, 32 (1941) pp. 124-132, cited
5? Crites, Escational PsychologZ: p. 226.

 

 

34

Some insight into why blacks have traditionally selected
teaching as a career was provided by Brazziel's 1961 study of
170 sophomores and seniors at a southern university. He found
that more than half entered teaching as a second choice, while
slightly less than half intended to use it as a stepping stone

to another occupation.l

In other words, many black college
students, recognizing the restrictions against their race, chose
teaching as a "second best" but realizable goal.

Brazziel also attempted to determine the key influentials
in the vocational choice process. He found that parents and
public school teachers were the most influential.

In 1961 Uzzell studied the influencers of occupational
choice of 301 senior male Negro high school youths in eastern
North Carolina. He found a definite relationship between re-
spondent's occupational aspirations and their knowledge of oc-
cupational models: of the 211 respondents who knew models, 162
or 77 percent indicated their choices were influenced by mo-
dels; only 49 or 23 percent who knew models indicated they were
not influenced by them.

Finally, Uzzell suggested that the number of visible mo-
dels for superior or high aspiring students may be very limited
in small towns that have a low socio-economic level. The gen-
eral occupational structure is unlikely to include a representa-

e a O 2
tive cross section but rather a concentration of low status ones.

1W. F. Brazziel, Jr., "Occupational Choice in the Negro
College," Psrsonnel and Guidance Journal, 39 (1961) pp. 739-742.

 

2Odell Uzzell, "Influencers of Occupational Choice,"
Psrsonnel and Guidance JournsT, 39 (1961) pp. 666—669.

 

35

Post-1970 Studies

 

In 1970, Pallone, Rickard and Hurley studied the "Key
Influencers of Occupational Preferences among Black Youth."
They compared the reported key influencers of occupational
preferences of black and white youth from working class fam-
ilies in four northern cities.l

They concluded that the most potent influencers of
occupational preference was the same-sex parents in tandem
with approporiate occupational role models, whatever the sub-
jects race or sex. Only among black males did the influence
of the opposite—sex parent, rival that of the same—sex parent.

In 1974, LaFette analyzed the work values of university
students by ethnic group and sex. She started with the premise
that values are "inner determiners" that tend to dictate a per-
son's choices in life. Work values can serve as a tool for dif-
ferentiating priorities of interests, alternatives and the val-
ues that influence these alternatives.

She found that there were indeed differences and similari-
ties in work values (as measured here by the Work Value Inven-
tory) between ethnic groups. Her data demonstrated by order of
emphasis that:

1. American born groups placed way of life
as the highest value; foreign students
gave creativity the highest mean score.

2. Anglo-Americans emphasized way of life,

achievement, altruism and independence.

lN. Pallone, F. Rickard and R. Hurley, "Key Influencers
of Occupational Preference Among Black Youth," Tournal of Counse-
TTng Psychology, 17 (1970) pp. 498—501.

 

 

36

3. Black-Americans emphasized way of life,
economic returns, supervisory and achieve-
ment values.

4. Mexican—Americans emphasized way of life,
security, achievement and independence.

5. Oriental Americans emphasized way of life,
creativity, achievement and surrounding.

6. All groups emphasized achievement.l

Responding to this gap in the vocational development
knowledge of black individuals, Elsie J. Smith compiled a "Pro-
file of the Black Individual in Vocational Literature." In
1975, she examined past research in terms of impact of family
role models, family stability-instability, work concept and
job values, Maslow's need hierarchy, the motivator—hygiene
theory, self concept and identity foreclosure. Although her
profile was useful, Smith readily admitted its accuracy was
open to debate and research verification: "the profile of
the Black individual as portrayed in the research cited is a

portrait of a vocationally handicapped person. ."2

The pre—1970 research of blacks in the vocational lit-
erature also sparked June and Pringle in 1977 to suggest that
career development theories in the past have had limited

applicability to the black or minority experience. Black and

- fl

lPat Chew LaFette, "Work Values of University Students:
An Analysis by Ethnic Groups and Sex. (Master's Thesis,
University of Texas, 1974), pp. 66-67.

2ElsieJ. Smith, "Profile of the Black Individual in

Vocational Literature," Journal of Vocational Behaviss, 6
(1975), pp. 41-59.

 

37

other racial minorities face problems unique to their particu-
lar groups which need to be considered.1

In 1975, gsreer Behavior of Special Groups further doc-

 

umented the psychological, sociological, economic and educa-
tional viewpoints of vocational choice behavior. In Chapter
two, Carter and Picou discussed "Status Attainment Theory and
Black Youth." They suggested that status attainment research
has been very productive in testing basic socio-psychological
theory and advancing the understanding of the actual processes
by which status is allocated within and across generations.
Since Blau and Duncan developed the basic model of this process
in 1967, it has become useful in summarizing the situation of

blacks and whites in America:

. . . They are apparently operating under two
distinct systems of stratification. The primary
stratification system can be defined as "insti-
tutional racism," in which the society at each
stage of the life cycle, gives blacks a smaller
reward than it gives whites for equivalent
investments or attainments. . . it does not
appear to make much difference how much status
a black attains at any one stage of the life
cycle: the system will not allow him to carry
that attainment on to the Bext stage as easily
as it will a white person.

Using this basic status attainment research, Woefel ad—
vanced "A Theory of Occupational Choice" to explain or predict

actual job choices. Basically, socio—economic status, sex and

L _-

lLee N. June and G. Pringle, "The Concept of Race in the

Career DeveIOpment Theories of Roe, Super and Holland," Journal
9T Non—White Concerns, 6 (1977), pp. 17-24.

 

2Michael T. Carter and J. Steven Picou, "Status Attainment
Theory and Black Male Youth," Career Behavior of Special Groups,
ed. J. S. Picou and R. E. CampBEIl TCqumbus, Ohio: Charles
E. Merrill, 1975), pp. 28-40.

 

38

other factors exercise casual influence over socio-psychologi-
cal factors, which in turn exert direct influence over indivi-
dual attitudes. Ultimately, the individual selects a career
where these different forces of influence are in balance--
occupational expectations from significant others, personal
expectations, socio—economic variables and so forth. Or

, in

other words, a career choice logically attempts to balance
these dissimilarities in occupational expectations.l

A year later in 1976, Smith completed additional research:
"Reference Group Perspective and the Vocational Maturity of
Lower Socioeconomic Black Youth." She interpreted the signi-
ficance of her finding as lower socioeconomic black youths
vocational maturity varies as their reference group perspec-
tives, post high school plans (work or college bound), and
their views of the opportunity structure (open or closed)
varies. Because of so much potential diversity, black youth
should not be treated as one homogenous group.2

Dillard assumed in his 1976 study that levels of career
maturity are related to socio—economic status independent of
race. He subsequently found in his study of 252 sixth grade
black males that self—concept may have less influence on their
career maturity than was initially expected among the indepen—

dent variables; socio-economic background seems to be the

‘_

lJoseph Woefel, "A Theory of Occupational Choice,"
Michigan State University, 1975 (mimeographed).

2Elsie J. Smith, "Reference Group Perspective and the
Vocational Maturity of Lower Socio-economic Black Youth,"
Tournal of Vocational Behavior, 8 (1976) pp. 321-336.

 

39

most useful in predicting career maturity.l

Under-representation of minority groups in science careers
was studied by Maureen Sie and others.2 For the most part, the
results did not clearly illustrate any differences between the
groups' family background, motivation or attitudes and ex-
periences within the University. The small sample size, how-
ever, of black science majors precluded widespread generaliza-
tion. But personal preferences, enjoyment of the subject, and
getting a good job were of paramount importance for all respon-
dents.

Osipow concluded his discussion of career development
theories by suggesting the process involves at least six steps
regardless of the specific theory: self-assessment, obtaining
information, processing information, planning, decision-making,
and coping with crisis and change.3

Conceptually, these six steps are interdependent; although,
the obtaining and processing of career information controls the
success of the entire process. Accurate, timely, and pertinent
information are prerequisites for effective career decision-

making.

1John M. Dillard, "Relationship Between Career Maturity
and Self-Concepts of Suburban and Urban Middle and Urban Lower
Class Preadolescent Black Males," Journal of Vocational Be-
havior, 9 (1976) pp. 311-320. ‘

 

2Maureen Sie, Barry Mackman and Stephen B. Hillman,
"Minority Groups and Science Careers: An Ecological Analysis,"
paper presented at the American Educational Research Associa—
tion Annual Conference, April, 1977.

3Osipow, Tseories of Career Developmens, p. 16.

 

40

Summary and Implications of

Vocational Choice Literature

Throughout this literature, there were frequent refer-

ences to career information of knowledge of careers and its

importance to effective decision making. For these reasons,

the importance of career information cannot be minimized.

Other major highlights may all be summarized under the head—

ing of race and career choice:

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

Although blacks may have different
occupational selection patterns,
race is not a major predictor of
career choice when all other fac-
tors are controlled.

Black and other racial minorities
may select careers in terms of
realizable goals given the limi-
tation of their race. Economic
returns and achievement are im—
portant in their career choice.

There is a relationship between
occupational aspirations and
knowledge of occupational models.
Same-sex parents and occupational
role models are key influencers.

Past vocational theories may have
limited utility for the problems
of such special groups as minori—
ties, women and the handicapped.

Because of within group diversity,
black and other racial minorities

should not be treated as one homo-
genous group.

Although often stated humorously, there is a measure of

truth to the statement that once blacks and other racial minori—

ties could only aspire to be teachers, preachers or social

workers with any chance of success. Today, however, with the

41

advent of the civil rights legislation of the sixties, non-
whites have increasingly selected careers heretofore illegally
closed to them. But while many of their choices are certain-
ly different from teaching or preaching, they continue to re—
flect a pattern of the "helping-social" careers, perhaps be-
cause they are still perceived as having been most helpful in
the continuing drive to achieve social and economic justice.

Few have opted for careers in natural resources.

Information Dissemination Theories

 

Because the current pattern of minority career selection
does not necessarily reflect the impact of the equal employ-
ment opportunity legislation in many non-traditional careers,
another element needs to be considered—-the process of infor-
mation dissemination.

Since information and its dissemination play such a vital
role in a complex society, there is a rich research tradition
in a variety of disciplines which address the diffusion or
dissemination of innovations (information) into a society, group
or culture.

In 1972 Zaltman characterized the process of diffusion
as the (1) acceptance, (2) over time, (3) of some specific item--
and idea or practice, (4) by individuals, groups, or other adop—
ting units, linked (5) to specific channels of communications,
(6) to a social structure, and (7) to a given system of values

or culture.1

— #—

lGerald Zaltman, Philip Kotler and Ira Kaufman, Creating
Social Change (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc.,
fin} . .1

 

 

42

The assumption is that increased selection of non-tradi—
tional careers in natural resources by racial minorities is
such an innovation. It is then hypothesized that given accu—
rate, timely and pertinent career information, blacks and
other racial minorities may aspire for, and pursue such careers.
According to Berry, Picou, Campbell and others, the normal
career development model may be inappropriate at best in pre—
dicting or explaining career choices of minority groups. New

and more relevant models are needed.

The Bicultural American
In their review of related literature, Greenberg and Devin
referred to past research which emphasized that the poor lived

1

in a subculture. The behaviors, attitudes and feelings of the

poor differ from those of the rest of society.2

And since race
is an important factor of subculture, several models have been
advanced for describing and analyzing their culture.

Yet Valentine states that such "deficit, difference and
culture of poverty models" are inaccurate. As a result of on—
going field investigations he proposed a bicultural educational
model which recognized that many blacks and other racial minori-
ties are simultaneously committed to both a minority culture

and a mainstream culture. The two are not mutually exclusive

as generally assumed:

L

lBradley Greenberg and Brenda Devin, "Mass Communication
Among the Urban Poor," Esblic Opinion Quartegly, 34 (Summer,
1970), pp. 224—235.

28cc for example Kerner Commission Report or Oscar Lewis,
"The Culture of Poverty," Sgicntific Americsn, 215 (October,
1960), pp. 19-25. "

 

 

43

. . . the collective behavior and social
life of the Black Community is bicultural in
the sense that each Afro-American ethnic seg-
ment draws upon both a distinctive reper-
toire of standardized Afro-American group be—
havior and, simultaneously, patterns derived
from the mainstream cultured system of Euro-
American derivation. Socialization into both
systems begins at an early age, continues
throughout life and is generally of equal
importance in most individual lives. 1

Even the ghetto homes are not excluded from the encultura-
tion experience according to Valentine. From earliest child-
hood, their members are exposed to many mainstream themes,
values and role models.

McCullogh, author of a special chapter in Minorities in_

 

she Youth Conservation Corps, also thinks that biculturalism

 

is one way of understanding the behavior of blacks. He believes

blacks share much more of the mainstream culture than whites

do of black culture. Yet blacks maintain much closer ties

with their minority culture. This culture is an important

factor in forming a black's perspective of the white majority

and the many mainstream activities.2
"The black adolescent," for example, "has to incorporate

some concept of his black culture into his search for identity

and his vocational choice process. And even though he has pride

in his blackness (partially the result of the black awareness

_-'_- -

1Charles A. Valentine, "Deficit, Difference and Bicultural
Models of Afro-American Behavior," Esrvard Educational Review,
41 (1971), p. 143.

 

2William Moris, Jerome Johnston, Albert Jaramillo and
Wayne McCullogh, Minorities in the Youth Conservation Corps:
A Study of Cultural Groups in the 1974 YCC Program (Ann Arbor:
Ihétitfite fbr Social Research] 1974), pp. 39-51.

44
movement of the sixties) at some point in time, the black
adolescent comes to realize that the larger society may still
restrict the places he can go comfortably, the activities and
organizations he may participate in or belong too, and, un-
fortunately, even the occupation he might wish to select for
his life's work."

Because of this situation, Valentine speculates that a
good deal of the mainstream cultural content learned by bicul-
tural racial minorities remain only latent. "The structural
conditions of poverty, discrimination and the legacy of segre-
gation, prevent the minority group member from truly achieving
the many mainstream middle-class values, aspirations and role
models." Ironically, enculturation provide great familiarity
with mainstream patterns but limited opportunity to actively
practice these patterns.1

Summary and Implications of
Information Dissemination Theories

Because there was a need for new models to understand and
predict vocational choice of racial minorities; and because the
selection of non-traditional careers by racial minorities may
be considered an innovation, the researcher selected the infor-
mation diffusion/dissemination model as an experimental vehicle.

Accordingly, the most pertinent results of this review may

be summarized as:

—;

1Valentine, "Deficit, Difference and Bicultural Models of
Afro-American Behavior," Harvard Educational Review, p. 144.

 

45

(1) If given accurate, timely and appropriate
career information, then black and other
racial minorities may aspire to and pur-
sue careers in natural resources.

(2) The process of biculturation hinders the
development of an isolated racial subcul-
ture. Most racial minorities are simul-
taneously acculturated to both ethnic and
mainstream culture.

(3) Although mainstream and ethnic cultures
are juxtaposed, the institutional condi-
tions (i.e., poverty and discrimination)
of society may prevent minorities from
truly achieving the many mainstream middle
class values, aspirations and role models.
Through this review of pertinent literature from natural
resources, career decision-making and information dissemination,
the researcher has attempted to synthesize key elements from
the many divergent theories in order to understand and measure

the crucial factors that need to be considered when developing

successful minority recruitment and retention models.

Chapter III
MODELS AND HYPOTHESES

Career development is a lifetime process which begins
early in an individual's life. Family background and life
experiences, particularly those during the pre~teen and early
teen years, have much to do with attitude formation and sub-
sequent decisions about career choices. Secondly, educational
experiences--primary, secondary, and college-—also exert a
measureable influence on this process. Finally, the labor
force experiences, both before and after the occupation entry,
affect future vocational choice.l

Given these antecedents, expectations of significant
others and related factors, the individual is still required
to process the information and reach a decision. In conjunc-
tion or in order to explain these two processess--antecedent
factors and related experiences--career decision making models
have been conceptualized around early childhood experiences,
developmental stages, extension of personality, self-concept
and status attainment. Yet, according to Osipow, the career
decision making process itself, despite which model is uti-

lized involves six basic elements: (1) self-assessment;

1Joseph A. Mihalka, Youth and Work, p. 5.

 

46

47

(2) obtaining information; (3) processing information; (4)
planning; (5) decision making; and (6) coping with crisis and
change.1
Crites assigned the differences apparent in the several
theories to the individual's frame of reference and his assump—
tions about human behavior. He also acknowledged that the
vocational choice process may not be continuous--mid-adolescence
is particularly traumatic of early career goals and there may
be other periods. And because maturity and a variety of ex-
periences—-both positive and negative--determine how reali—
stic the final choice is, the irreversibility of any career
choice is also suspect.2
Moreover, the six elements of career decision making dis-
cussed by Osipowanxanot unlike the seven vocational choice
dimensions highlighted by Crites. Both typologies, however,
include the important concept of career information which is
the major focus of this study.

Information Diffusion--
Dissemination Model

A theoretical framework that can systematically describe
these diverse components is the general communications model.
Communication is the process by which messages are transferred

from a source to a receiver by certain channels: a Source (S)

1Osipow, Theories of Career Development, p. 160.

 

2Crites, yscational Psychology, p. 155.

 

48

sends a Message (M) via certain Channels (C) to the ssceiving

 

 

Individual (R).

 

Source Messa e hannels Receiver
———————{:> g ——--—-——-—-‘.:>C -———————:>

A more specific communication model for our purpose, how-
ever, is the revised diffusion model developed by Rogers and

Shoemaker in Communication of Innovations (when minority stu-

 

dents, for example, select careers in certain non—traditional
areas like natural resources, this study assumes that it is
an innovation).

Their diffusion model consists of the antecedents-~re-

ceiver and social system variables, the innovation-decision

 

process--knowledge, persuasion and decision; and the ultimate

consequences of the process--confirmation of either the adop-

 

tion or rejection of the decision.

The basic elements of this model are:

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

(Antecedents) (Process) (Consequences)
Communication
. \/ .
Receiver Variables \V \y' s \V q, l ,
.3 Knowledge‘ Persuasion‘ Decisiosl Confirmation
Social System
yeriables __y
1

Figure l. The Innovation-Decision Process

_ —

1E. M. Rogers and F. F. Shoemaker, Qemmunication of Inno:
yations: A Cross:§ultural Approach (New York: Free Press, 1971),
p. 102

 

 

49
The above model formed the systematic framework for this
study. Yet, the major focus was on the process elements of

knowledgs, persuasion and decision, although, appropriate data

 

 

were collected for antecedent and consequence variables. In
essence, the basic task was to understand how graduates of
programs in natural resources obtained and processed informa-
tion prior to deciding on a career in natural resources.

According to the basic communication model, the know-
ledge element may be considered in terms of source of career
information, timeliness of information, channels of informa-
tion, content of message and attitudes of receiver. Consid—
eration of the persuasion and decision element, however,
requires a more complex model.

In 1975, Woelfel suggested "A Theory of Occupational
Choice" which may be appropriate.1 He used status attainment
research in conjunction with paired-pair comparison of var-
ious careers on the basis of key variables (expectations of
significant others, education expectations, socio—economic
status, etc.) to develop his stratng. He viewed career
choice as a product of the perceived dissimilarity among ca—
reers on the basis of these variables. Occupational choice
or at least direction of job choice, consequently, may be
viewed as an attempt to balance the various competing factors
influencing the final selection.

Briefly, Woelfel's theory relies on the fundamental pro—

cess of human perception: when an individual identifies an

lJoseph Woelfel, "A Theory of Occupational Choice,"
mimeographed paper. Michigan State University.

50

object, he differentiates it from other objects by a single
or in most cases, several attributes such as color, mass,
shape and so forth.1 Objects which are most similar, conse-
quently, differ very little between any set of attributes.
He also uses the example of two persons who may differ
in sex, age or height, and so on. When this difference or
dissimilarity is measured and the measurements aggregated,

the overall difference between two individuals is apparent.

 

 

 

 

 

Sex Age Height Grade in School
John 1 18 72" 12th
Mary 0 15 65" 9th
Figure 2. Measurement of Individual Differences

For example, if the above measurements are aggregated,
John and Mary are of different sex (nominal scale), 3 years
apart in age, 7 inches different in height (interval) and 3
classes apart in school (ordinal). Likewise, occupations are
distinguishable from one another: potential to earn money,
status—prestige, opportunity to work with people, chance to
correct current (social) problems, chance to help solve environ-
mental problems or educational requirements.

Specifically, Woelfel's research has concentrated on
measuring such distances in other than the usual categorized
or nominal level; a higher scale--ratio or interval-—will, of

course, allow more complex statistical analysis. But just

“—

 

lIbid., p. 8.

how does a researcher measure respondent's opinions of the
distance (difference) between paired comparisons, when the
distance is not an abstract measure but a perceived distance?
Woelfel reasoned that the best approach was to measure or ex-
press their judgments or perceptions as a ratiO‘ of some stan-
dard unit provided by the researcher:

If s and y are 2 units apart, how
far apart are a and s?1

Or using an example from this study:

If Postman and Bank Teller are 100 units
apart, then how far apart in the chance
to earn good money are high school teach-
ers and city park and recreation super-
intendents?

In this study respondents were asked to indicate per-
ceived differences between 12 pairs of careers on the basis
of six job factors, resulting in a matrix of 72 cells. (See
Section III of the Survey Instrument in Appendix E and Fig-
ure 3).2

Because this direct paired distance estimate requires
a highly complex set of judgments, Woelfel cautioned that
it is unreliable as a measure of individual perceptions;
however, when a large number of individuals respond to a
paired-comparison question, the central—limit theorem assures

a normal distribution around a sample mean (typical test-

retest reliability correlations range in the 70's).3

_—

lIbid., p. 12.

2Since the researcher was primarily concerned with per-
ceived difference between non-natural resource and natural
resource careers, and limiting overall questionnaire length,
the entire matrix-~294 possible cells was not completed.

3Ibid., p. 14.

52

OCCUPATIONS

High School Teacher
Lawyer
Civil Engineer

City Park-Recreation
Superintendent

Forester
Fish-Wildlife Biologist

County Extension Agent

 

PAIRED COMPARISON

HST LWY ENG PRS FOR FWB EXT

6 6 6 6 6 6

6 6 6 6 6

6 6 6 6 6
6 6 6 6 6
6 6 6 6 6
6 6 6 6 6

 

Figure 3. Total Possible Cells of Matrix

Although Woelfel's theory is more complex than this

brief summary, one may at least appreciate the contribution

of this theory to the measurement of perceived dissimilari-

ties of careers.

Moreover, this technique
(1) no restrictions are placed
report any positive real value
scale is unbounded at the high
entire range); (2) the unit of
(i.e., the unit is provided by
ditional, "If

x
. . 1
scale unit 18 -

has several key advantages:
upon the reSpondent, who may
whatever for any pair (the
end and continuous across its
measure is always the same

the investigator in the con—

and y are u units apart," and thus every

u units); (3) the condition of zero distance

represents identity between concepts and is hence a true

zero (this is a ratio scale, which allows the full range of

standard arithmetic operations); and (4) since the unit of

 

53

measure is provided by the experimenter, it is possible to
maintain the same unit of measure from one measurement to
another, both across samples and across time periods. These
four characteristics taken together provide the capacity
for comparative and time—series analyses at very high levels
of precision.1
Thus,defl1compared to the nominal or ordinal scale,
the ratio scale, is much stronger and can show the more sub-
tle differences among careers on a variety of dimensions.
The end product of this technique, according to Woelfel, is
a "matrix of perceived dissimilarities" of careers which re—
present the structure of the occupational system as it is
perceived in the aggregate by the members of the culture from
which the sample was drawn.2
The research model, consequently, combines major elements
from Woelfel's Theory of Occupational Choice and Rogers' and

Shoemaker's Innovation Decision model. The variables of the

model are: knowledgs_of career (occupational) information,

 

source(s) of career information, Timeliness of career informa—

 

tion, channel(s) of career information, content of career in-

 

formation and attitudes of the receivers.

 

lIbid., p. 13.

2Woelfel, "A Theory of Occupational Choice," p. 14.

54

 

SOURCE
CHANNELS (METHODS)
Career
Information TIMELINESS
Diffusion
(CID) CONTENT

ATTITUDES

 

 

   
 

  
  
 

KNOWLEDGE OF CAREERS--
MATRIX OF PERCEIVED
DISSIMILARITES

Figure 4. Career Information Diffusion
specification of Variables

Since the occupational matrix not only represents per-
ceived dissimilarities of careers but is also one measure of
the knowledge of careers by the members of the culture from
which the sample was drawn, the occupational matrix will be
used as a measure of the knowledge variable.

In 1971 Rogers and Shoemaker classified knowledge in
three types: awareness that an innovation exists, how-to—
knowledge and principles knowledge. In terms of career devel—
opment, especially where selection of a non-traditional career
is treated as an innovation, the primary concern will be
"awareness knowledge," which at least allows the individual
to differentiate between the major attributes of various

careers.l Knowledge of careers, therefore, will operationally

‘

1Rogers and Shoemaker, 99mmunication of Innovations: A_
gross-Cultural Approacs, p. 106.

 

55

be defined as the matrix of perceived dissimilarities among
the selected careers--tne perceived difference between tradi—
tional careers and careers in natural resources.

In the past, source of innovations have been evaluated
by degree to which pairs of individuals who interact are simi-
lar in certain attributes such as beliefs, values, education

or social stature.l

Moreover, innovations can only occur where
there is some level of source—receiver difference. Source of
career information, therefore, is operationally defined as in-
dividuals or institutions that originate a message-—interact
with the receiver in terms of presenting career information.
Accordingly, the respondent must rate the perceived influence
of different sources of career information on their selected
area of college study and subsequent career--the Who of the

CID process.

Channels of information dissemination are usually class-
ified as interpersonal and mediated. But according to Rogers
and Shoemaker, mass media channels such as television and radio
usually create initial knowledge of the innovation, while in—
terpersonal channels influence the final adoption of the inno-
vation.

Operationally, channels are defined as the means by which
a message gets from a source to a receiver, but in this study,
channels were renamed methods for receiving or supplying

career information. The respondent, therefore, was asked to

*—

1Ibid., pp. 210-211.

56
rate the perceived importance of different methods in supply-
ing career information prior to their initial enrollment in
college and following enrollment in college--the How of the
CID process.

Since the acceptance of innovations is often predicated
on the readiness of the target group, readiness for the accept-
ance of an innovation may be viewed as a temporal quality.l
Moreover, timing of the initial dissemination of career infor-
mation and frequency of exposure (reinforcement) to additional
information influences the acceptance of the innovation.

Timeliness is thus defined or measured as the respondent's
age when initially exposed to information about the area in
which they are currently employed. Timeliness of career infor-
mation, will be evaluated in terms of age at first knowledge
of: (1) educational and other requirements; (2) entry job
and upgrading opportunities; (3) pay and fringe benefits;

(4) possible location of work; and (5) working conditions-—the
When of the CID process.

The purpose of communicating, of course, is the message.
Content of career messages is defined as useful information
about such occupational factors as: (1) working conditions;

(2) possible location of work; (3) pay and fringe benefits;
(4) entry job and upgrading opportunites; and (5) educational
and other requirements.

Respondents were asked to indicate the amount of infor-
mation received about each of the above career factors prior

to their initial enrollment in college and again, following

_A

lIbid., pp. 24—25.

57

their initial enrollment--the What of the CID process.

The final variable is the attitudes of the receiver about
the innovation. Often, attitudes are the residual factors in-
fluencing acceptance or rejection. For this reason, attitudes
were considered as the psychological and social factors influ-
encing an individual's choice of occupation of career——the
Why of the CID process.

To increase the reliability of the elicited responses
for each respondent a rating scale rather than a simple rank-
ordering technique was used. Haynes used a similar technique:
he employed a one to 99 point response scale, to elicit the
perceived importance of fifteen psychological or social fac-
tors in influencing the respondents choice of occupation.1

The fifteen factors are similar to those developed by
Porter in 1961 and used most recently by Haynes in 1977. The
factors were designed to measure a given psychological need.
They are listed in randomized order on the instrument.2

Respondents were asked to rate each psychological or
social factor as follows: (1) a scale value of one indicated
that the factor was of little importance in the selection of
their present occupation or career; (2) a value of 50 indi-
cated that the factor was not considered or made no differ—

ence in the selection of their present career; and (3) a

lWorth E. Haynes, "Leadership Development and Goals Achieve—
ment through Occupations of Alcorn State University Agricultu-
ral Education Graduates," (Ph. d. Dissertation, Iowa State
University, 1977).

2This researcher used the same randomized order as Haynes.

58

value of 99 indicated that the factor was very important in

the selection of their present career.

Study Hypotheses

 

In order to frame the study to achieve the research ob—

jectives, two major questions were posed:

(l)

(2)

Does career information diffusion differ by year
of college graduation, racial background and pre—
sent job category?

Does the perceived dissimilarities between tradi—
tional careers (law, teaching, engineering) and
non—traditional careers (park and recreation
superintendent, forester, fish-wildlife biologist,
extension agent) held by natural resource graduates
differ by year of college graduation, racial back-

ground and present job category?

Using the information diffussion model and these two

major questions, six specific null hypotheses were formulated

to guide the investigation and to help suggest a strategy for

increasing the number of minorities in natural resources. The

specific hypotheses are:

(1)

(2)

There is no difference in source of career infor-
mation among graduates of natural resource pro—
grams when analyzed by racial background;

There is no difference in methods of career infor-
mation dissemination among graduates when analyzed

by racial background.

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

59

There is no difference in timeliness when receiv-
ing career information among graduates when ana-
lyzed by racial background;

There is no difference in content of career infor-
mation among graduates when analyzed by racial
background;

There is no difference iriattitudes (career ex-
pectations) among graduates when analyzed by racial
background; and

There is no difference in perceived knowledge of
careers among graduates of natural resource pro-

grams when analyzed by racial background.

Chapter IV

RESEARCH METHODS AND PROCEDURES

Selection of Sample

 

In 1975, over 40 colleges and universities sent repre-
sentatives to the Tuskegee, Alabama "Workshop on Entry of
Minorities into Natural Resource Careers". From these 40
plus institutions, ten were selected to develop the sample
population.

A disproportional stratified sample was employed; the
strata, of course, were the ten schools. Since the mere fact
of having a representative at the workshop indicated a basic
concern, other criteria for selecting sample institutions
were: possibility of finding minority students and geogra—
phic location (See Appendix A for a more detailed description).

Most of these institutions have had a long and varied
history in the preparation of students for entry into natural
resources and/or agricultural fields. Nine of the institu-
tions are either 1862 of 1890 land—grant colleges or univer—
sities, and represent nine states and most geographic divisions

of the country:

60

61

Table 2. Geographic Location of Institutions

 

 

Institution Location

Alcorn State University Lorman, Mississippi
Florida A & M University Tallahassee, Florida
Lincoln University Jefferson City, Missouri
Michigan State University East Lansing, Michigan
N.C. A&T State University Greensboro, North Carolina
N.C. State University Raleigh, North Carolina
Purdue University W. Lafayette, Indiana
Suny-College of Environmen—

tal Science and Forestry Syracuse, New York
Tuskegee Institute Tuskegee, Alabama
University of California- Berkeley, California

Berkeley

 

 

 

And because elements of career information dissemination
may change rapidly over time, two experimental cohorts were se-
lected for comparison--1965 and 1975 graduates. Some of the
significant factors influencing each group's career choices
probably varied after a few years. The attitudes of the class
of 1965, for example, were largely formulated during their pre-
teen developmental years in the fifties prior to the activism
and massive changes of the sixties. And assuming a normal
progression from high school to college, the fundamental atti-
tudes of the class of 1965 were largely in place ten to twelve
years prior to their college graduation. On the other hand,
the basic attitudes of the class of 1975 were probably shaped
during the period between 1965-67. It is anticipated that
each cohort will be able to recall those factors which may
have left an indelible imprint on their attitudes about the

land, natural resources and occupational preference.

62

For these reasons the universe of the study is the 1965
and 1975 graduates of programs in natural resources or closely
related disciplines. Yet, at the same time, it must be remem-
bered that Crites suggested that early vocational choice is
not irreversible nor is it a continuous process.

Once the institutions to be sampled were selected, the
next step was to contact the representatives listed in the
published proceeding of the workshop. The initial letter (See
Appendix B) to these individuals discussed the scope and ob-
jectives of the study, requested their cooperation and listed
the requirements of such cooperative efforts. In most cases
they readily agreed and returned the enclosed postcard. How-
ever, in two instances where these individuals had scheduling
or time conflicts, one of their co-workers was recommended.

Through this contact person, the respective universities
were asked to supply the names and addresses of their 1965
and 1975 graduates with appropriate majors. In some cases
this information was available as computer print—outs. In
other instances it was obtained from the alumni affairs office.
At a couple of schools, it had to be compiled from departmen-
tal records and/or other sources.

During the months of April, May and June, the research
coordinator traveled to eight of the ten universities. The
principal investigator visited the remaining university (the
data from Michigan State University were collected initially).

The purpose of these visits was designed not only to collect

63

the names and addresses of the graduates, but also to further
discuss the specifics of the study, respond to any questions

by the university cooperators, and otherwise allay any concerns
about the research and its possible use.

Of the ten institutions included in the sample, five are
predominantly white, four are predominantly black and one is
mixed. They represent a diversity of educational environments,
geographic regions and prOgram offerings. Finally, it was
assumed that a large percentage of the cohorts would be pur-
suing careers in natural resources or closely related careers.1

The career category of "closely related" was selected to
encompass those programs, perhaps not as traditional as some
but, nevertheless, one which the student through careful course
selection, work experiences or transfer opportunities might be
exposed to such careers. The number of graduates, moreover,
varied from school to school depending on size and program
emphasis.2 Following a review of the available lists of grad—
uates, a strategy was developed: to have a disproportionate
sample reflective of both strata (schools) and cohort (year
of graduation). A sample size of 20 for 1965 and 30 for 1975

was selected--a potential sample of 500.

lCorrectly assumed because 70.9 percent were so employed.

2In a few cases, for example, to provide an adequate pool
of minority graduates the 1965 cohort might consist of 1965-70
graduates while the 1975 cohort might consist of 1971-75 grad-
uates. This practice was true at no more than 4 or 5 schools.

64

This sample was an ideal equal or exceeded in several
strata and cohort but not in all. In fact, some schools did
not come close to having this number; some almost had this
number exactly, while some had a considerably larger number.

Because of these numbers, a two step strategy evolved
to improve sampling efficiency.l Where the total number of
graduates exceeded the selected sample size, a random sample
was obtained using a table of random numbers; but where the
total number did not exceed this selected number, a 100% sam-
ple or survey ensued. In other words, one objective was to
have a similar number of minority and non-minority graduates
for comparison purposes.

For the 1965 cohorts, the sample ranged from a 100%
survey to a 25% sample; for the 1975 cohorts, the sample ranged
from a 100% survey to a 9.9% sample. Since school size often
determined whether a survey or sample was utilized, the final

sample size was:

Table 3. Overall Sample Size

 

 

 

 

 

Total Total Adjusted
Number Questionnaires Total Return
YEAR Graduates Mailed Questionnaire* Rate
1965 376 (20.9%) 170 (30.5%) 141 63 (44.6%)
1975 1,420 (79.1%) 387 (69.5%) 311 160 (51.4%)
TOTAL 1,796 (100%) 557 (100%) 452 223 (49.3%)

 

*Total number of mailed questionnaires adjusted because (1)
non-deliverable--questionnaire returned, and (2) non—confirma-
tion—~accuracy of address not determined by telephone follow-up.

;

1Also at the predominantly white institutions, the coopera-
tors were asked to identify all minority graduates.

65

Qesign and Administration of Questionnaire

Content and Pretesting of Instrument

A twelve page survey instrument was developed to collect
information about each of the variables or factors identified
in the research model. To ensure clarity of understanding and
appropriateness of the questions the instrument was pretested
with two graduate classes at Michigan State University. Approx-
imately 30 questionnaires were disseminated to students en-
rolled in "Community Resource Development" and "Recreation Re-
sources Law” during the 1978 Spring quarter. In addition,
copies of the pretest questionnaire were submitted to each of
the cooperating universities for their review and comments.

And to ensure the protection of the rights of the sample,
copies of the study proposal, cover letter and the question-
naire were submitted along with an attachment describing any
possible impacts of the research on human subjects to the
"University Committee on Research Involving Human Subjects”
for their review. No unusual impacts were anticipated.1

After the comments and suggestions from the pretest were
reviewed and analyzed, the appropriate revisions were made in
the instrument (See Appendix E). Organized in four sections,
the final questionnaire was eleven pages long. Section I of
this instrument obtained general information about career

decision making of the respondent. Section IV collected family,

—-

1The one to 99 response scale used to measure psychologi-
cal and social attitudes about careers was added following this
pretesting of the instrument.

66

educational and employment background data. Section II mea-
sured the five independent variables of the model, while Sec-
tion III elicited data about the perceived dissimilarity of

occupations.

Survey Administration

Prior to the inital mailing, an effort was made to con-
firm the accuracy of the addresses by telephoning the long
distance directory assistance operator. If such a listing was
established, then at least a preliminary confirmation might be
assumed. For the small schools this process was completed for
all graduates; but for the larger schools, only the final sam-
ple was included.

Initially, following the acquisition of a telephone num-
ber, a pre-survey telephone call was contemplated to positively
confirm if the address was accurate, and also to determine if
the listee was indeed the graduate of the respective institu-
tion. Such a plan for a positive confirmation, however, was
revised because of the time constraint, lack of a work study
student during the summer and the decision to complete the
first questionnaire mailing during the last week of August,
1978.

It was further assumed that since there might be legiti-
mate reasons for no telephone listing: the given address might
be the student's parents (phone listed in parents name); ad—

dressee had moved, or no phone-—the survey should precede.

67

All questionnaires were mailed first class so that if
non-deliverable because of expired forwarding address, the
questionnaire would be returned. But even if the given ad-
dress was the parents, it was anticipated that some forward—
ing of mail would occur. The first mailing started on August
25th and was concluded by the Blst.

During the first week of September, graduates completed
and returned 29 surveys; 19 were returned as non-deliverable.
During the next week, they completed and returned 51 instru-
ments; 28 were returned as non-deliverable. The first scheduled
follow-up letter was mailed during the third week; by then,
the weekly return had declined to 11 (See Appendix F). By
September 25, the fourth week, a total of 104 questionnaires
had been returned; a total of 49 were returned as non-deliv-
erable.

The second scheduled follonup letter (letter with ano—
ther questionnaire) was mailed during week seven. And because
of the unusually large number of non—respondents, another
follow-up strategy was implemented during week eight (See

Table 4 for return rates).

The Telephone Followeup

 

During weeks eight, nine and ten, two students were em-
ployed to telephone the non-respondents. After the eighth
week, however, all the telephoning was completed by one stu-
dent, a senior in the Resource Development curriculum. Both

students were given orientation materials to read, provided

68

Table 4. Schedule of Survey Strategy and Response

 

 

Completed Non

Strategy Date Instruments Deliverable
lst mailing — - - Aug. 25-30

Week 1 29 19

Week 2 51 28
lst follow-up - — Week 3 11 1
(letter)

Week 4 13 1

Week 5 18 1

Week 6 8 0
2nd follow-up - — Week 7 5 1
(letter and
questionnaire)

Week 8 9 2
Telephone - - - {Week 9 22 4
follow—up Week 10 17 0

Week 11 15 0

Week 12 13 0

Week 13 10 0

Week 14 __2 _0_
TOTALS December 1 223 57

 

 

 

Source; Personal records of research assistant of return rates.

69

a question-answer session and required to complete several

practice calls.

Table 5. Orientation Provided Telephone Interviewers

 

Study Material:

Study Prospectus
Survey Instrument

Conversation Guide to Questionnaire Telephone Follow-up
Question and Answer Session
Tractice Telephoning: Associates unknown to the inter-

viewers were asked to role play
a variety of respondents.

 

 

 

Both students were judged very capable and related well
to the respondents over the telephone. Only two truly nega-
tive telephone conversations ensued but were tactfully han-
dled. All telephoning was completed Monday thru Friday
between 6 and 10 p.m. in the respective time zones for a total
of eleven days.

The "Conversation Guide to Questionnaire Telephone Follow—
up" was adapted for this study to elicit compliance if a ques-
tionnaire had been received or to determine correct mailing
address if a questionnaire had not been received.1

Of the 345 non-respondents, 190 (55.1%) had telephone

numbers obtainable from directory assistance: of this 190,

1The Conversation Guide was adapted for this study from
a similar guide appearing in the Appendix of a study by Kevin
Szcodronski, Trends and Characteristics of Michigan Snowmobile
Owners (M.S. Thesis, MichiganIState university, 1978).

 

7O

eighty—two or (23.8%) were at the home of the graduate; thirty—
five (10.1%) were at the homes of the respondent's parents:

while seventy—two (20.9%) were either the wrong number--wrong
residence, unanswered after several call—backs, or disconnected--
not in service.(See Table 6).

When the telephone number was not in service, moreover,
and no new listing was obtainable, the assumption was made
that the prospective respondent had either moved, changed their
name or did not presently have a phone. Accordingly, the total
sample size was adjusted downward (Refer back to Table 3 on
page 65).

There was the one exception to this procedure——the Lin—
coln University sample. Except for this sample, all graduates
were mailed at least two questionnaires and a follow-up letter
before the first telephone contact. But because the names
and addresses from Lincoln University were received later than
those from the other universities and because there was a
smaller number of graduates, the Lincoln sample was initially
contacted by telephone (See Appendix I for Conversation Guide
used for Lincoln University Sample). Essentially, they were
asked to participate in the study——all Lincoln graduates agreed

to participate.

Analysis of Data

 

Coding and Keypunching

Although the survey instrument was precoded, the review

of initial responses revealed seven questions that needed to

71

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Table 6. Results of Telephone Follow-up
INSTITUTIONS NON RESPONDENTS HOME OF GRADUATE
with- mail
out with unpub- will another
tele- tele- lished has will not question-
phone phone number sent send send naire
ALCORN 20 22 — — - _ 5
BERKELEY 9 l4 - - 2 1 1
FAMU 15 14 — - - — 5
LINCOLNl 2 13 - - - - 10
MSU 12 24 2 1 8 l 2
NC A&T2 36 15 — 2 4 - 6
NCSU 21 24 - - 4 2 6
PURDUE 5 l9 - l - - 4
SUNY 9 26 3 l 4 1 4
TUSKEGEE
INSTITUTE 2 0 19 l - l - 6
TOTAL 149 190 6 5 23 5 49
l

the first questionnaire mailing.

2

The Lincoln University sample was telephoned prior to

One of the respondents from NC A&T elected to respond
to additional question by telephone.

 

72

Table 6 (cont'd.).

 

HOME OF PARENTS OF NON-RESPONDENTS

CANNOT CONTACT

 

 

 

can- obtained new not

will have not address & mailed wrong rings, in
or- for- con- another num— but no ser-
ward warded tact questionnaire her answer vice
- — - 4 7 3 3

- 1 2 2 2 - 3

_ — l 4 1 3 —

- _ 1 - l l -

1 1 2 2 l 4 1

_ _ - - 2 - -

_ - - - 4 5 3

l - 3 — 1 4 2

— l 2 2 2 6 2

- - 1 1 3 4 4

2 3 12 18 24 30 18

 

 

 

73

be re-coded: in section I the responses to ”present job" and
"career area"; in section III any perceived difference units
above 3 digits; in section IV "home state," "parents occupav
tions," "total length of work experience prior to college"
and "specific type of work experience after enrolling in col-
1ege." Therefore each questionnaire, was not only checked for
accuracy and completeness, but also had the above questions re-
coded, prior to keypunching. All keypunching was done in«
house by two undergraduate students who had considerable
experience with other past and ongoing departmental studies.
Generally all returned questionnaires were checked, recoded
and key punched on data cards within two or three days
Preliminary data analysis was completed at the Michigan
State University computational center. The file was then
transferred to tape and additional analysis completed at N.C.
Agricultural and Technical State University computational

facilities.

Computation Strategy

The Statistical Package for the Social Services (SPSS)
was selected to manage and process the data collected with the
mailed questionnaire. Subsequent Data analysis consisted of
three steps: (1) a descriptive analysis of respondent char—
acteristics; (2) an analysis of difference in MEAN scores of
the independent and dependent variables by the respondent
characteristics of age (graduating class), race and status
(job category); and, (3) stepwise discriminant analysis by

race of prior to college variables.

74

Step I of the analysis concentrated on the responses to
questions from sections I and IV of the instrument. With the
primary measurement level in these two sections nominal and
ordinal, SPSS subprograms used were frequency, condescriptive
and crosstabs. This analysis revealed general family, educa-
tional and employment background information about the respon-
dents.

For Step II of the analysis respondents were grouped in
six categories: 1965 graduates, 1975 graduates, minority re—
spondents (non-white), majority respondents (white), current
professionals in natural resource and related careers, and
graduates of programs in natural resources who are no longer
employed in this profession. The resulting groups appeared

as follows:

Table 7. Respondents Grouped for Analysis

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

GROUPS TEST FACTORS

1965 Graduates 1975 Graduates
64 (28.7%) 159 (71.3%) AGE
Member of Minority Member of Majority

Race Race
59 (26.5%) 160 (71.7%) RACEl
Not Employed in a Employed in a
Natural Resource Natural Resource
Profession Profession
65 (29.1%) 158 (70.9%) JOB STATUS

 

 

 

 

lFour respondents did not answer the question.

75

Once the respondents were grouped for analysis, the next
procedure was to obtain a mean value for each independent var—
iable. Since each independent variable was composed of sev-
eral factors, a mean rating (value) was obtained for each
factor. Moreover, mean rating measures were obtained for both
"prior to college" and "after college" experiences for source,
method and content variables where "1" is the highest rating
and "5" is the lowest rating (See pages 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 and
13 of Survey Instrument).

The timeliness variable consisted of six factors; each
assessed as age at receipt of useful career information about
six specific job characteristics. The resulting mean, of
course, was mean age at receipt of such career information as:
educational and other requirements, entry job and upgrading
opportunities, possible location of work, working conditions
and expected tasks (See Table 8).

Table 8. Timeliness: Age at
Receipt of Useful Career Information

 

 

 

 

J OB FACTORS MEAN MEDIAN VALID
AGE? - AGE ‘CASES‘
Educational and
Other Requirements 18.5 18.2 213
Entry Job and Up-
grading Opportunites 18.8. 20.3 208
Pay and Fringe Benefits 20.2 21,2 207
Possible Work Location 19.9 20.9 206
Working Conditions 20.1 20.9 206
Expected Tasks 20.9 21.4 205

 

 

76

The second part of this variable measured the frequency
of receiving additional information (reinforcing) after first

receipt. No mean frequencies were obtained (See Table 9).

Table 9. Timeliness: Adjustedl Frequency for Percentage of
Respondents Receiving Yearly Reinforcing Information

 

 

 

 

 

 

JOB FACTORS MORE 2 LESS NEV- VALID
THAN 4 to ONCE THAN ER CASES
TIMES 4 ONCE
Educational & Other 30.2% 33.7% 15.8% 11.9% 8.4% 202
Requirements
Entry Job & Upgrad- 16.9% 27.7% 22.6% 11.8% 21.0% 195
ing Opportunities
may & Fringe 12.8% 22.6% 20.0% 23.1% 21.5% 195
Benefits
possible Work 19.6% 29.6% 17.9% 12.8% 19.9% 196
Location
Working Conditions 20.1% 22.7% 22.7% 16.5% 18.0% 194
Expected Tasks 26.5% 24.5% 15.8% 18.4% 14.8% 195
Other 11.8% 17.6% 8.8% 11.8% 50.0% 34
The remaining independent variable, attitudes, was handled
differently. Respondents were asked to indicate the importance

to thirteen job characteristics on a scale of 1 to 99 (See Table
10). Each of the thirteen items, according to Porter and Haynes

was designed to measure a given psychological need.2

 

lAdjusted to reflect only Valid cases.

2In Porter's and Hayne's studies, they used fifteen items
for the purpose of this study, however, it was decided that
thirteen items would be adequate.

77

Table 10. Attitudes: Importance of Job Factors1

 

 

 

 

 

JOB FACTORS NON -WHITE WHITE
MEAN MEAN

Self-Fulfillment 77.92 85.35
Security 78.80 66.66
Prestige 52.34 45.33
Opportunity to Help Others 79.42 62.41
Opportunity to Set Goals 74.41 65.38
Opportunity Personal Growth--

Development 85.88 79.54
Opportunity to Determine Methods--

Procedures 71.95 66.39
Opportunity to DevelOp Close

Friendships 57.37 51.52
Promotions Based on

Capabilities 73.03 66.63
Administrators Discuss

Subordinates Problems 54.32 49.54
Cooperation Between

Departments 61.00 51.97
Adequate Appreciation and

Recognition 72.92 68.36
Administrators Appreciate

Subordinate Work 66.10 62.02

 

1203 Valid Cases With No Missing

Variables

 

78

Section III of the questionnaire elicited data about
the perceived dissimilarity of occupations by graduates. The
objective of this strategy was to measure the perceived dis-
similarity of occupations through paired-pair comparisons
using the ratio scale.

This perceived dissimilarity, according to the research
of Woelfel, was assumed to be reflective of the individual's
group knowledge of the specific career. Consequently, a group's
perceived knowledge of careers could be reprsented as a mean
distance matrix (See Table 11).

In order to evaluate the mean difference in scores (step
II) by the six groups for the dependent and independent var-
iables, the SPSS BREAKDOWN and CROSSTABS procedures were uti-

lized. The variables of SOURCE, METHODS, ATTITUDES, CONTENT

 

and KNOWLEDGE were broken down by year of graduation, race and

 

job category (non-natural resource versus natural resource).
Breakdowns were also obtained for the first part of the
timeliness variable, however, where the data were grouped in
categories, the second part of the timeliness variable, cross-
tabs by year of graduation, race, and job category were ob-
tained. Finally, a stepwise discriminant analysis (Step III)

of prior to college variables by race was performed.

Table 11.

79

Total Mean Distance Matrix (Knowledge Variable)

"Perceived Differences Between Criterion Occupations

and Natural Resource Occupations"

 

’Natural Resource OccupaEIons

 

City Park &

 

 

 

 

 

Perceived Criterion Recreation

Differences Occupations Superintendent Forester

F Non-white White Non-White ‘White

Opportunity High Schpol L

to Earn Teachgr 90.83 72.33 82.54 65.28

Good Money Lawyer 224.06 281.39 225.59 319.41
Engineer3 183.95 161.92 187.27 179.84

Status High School

Prestige Teacher 98.61 84.70 97.22 77.82
Lawyer 195.53 198.43 201.02 228.37
Engineer 118.52 100.54 99.87 86.86

Opportunity High School

to Work Teacher 46.33 52.19 106.61 103.80

With People Lawyer 74.18 70.32 122.76 123.26
Engineer 97.04 124.99 67.23 82.54

Opportunity High School 86.98 98.19 77.06 103.89

to Correct Teacher

Current Lawyer 115.69 119.11 158.65 127.43

Problems Engineer 114.09 83.25 93.84 78.89

Opportunity High School

to Help En— Teacher 98.39 112.42 161.96 166.96

vironment Lawyer 126.32 148.50 154.14 161.41
Engineer 86.98 79.14 92.86 92.32

Educational High School

Require- Teacher 59.35 69.46 63.74 64.40

ments Lawyer 216.14 197.43 171.63 175.96
Engineer 119.16 94.25 109.34 76.36

1

187 Valid Cases with No Missing Variables

2194 Valid Cases with No Missing Variables

3196 Valid Cases with no Missing Variables

 

80

Table 11 (cont'd.).

 

Natural Resource Occupations

 

 

 

T1 sh-
Perceived Criterion Wildlife Extension
Differences Occupations Biologist Agent
Non-White White NonAWhite ‘White
Opportunity High School
to Earn Teacher 103.05 73.75 80.09 66.46
Good Money Lawyer 202.43 284.15 227.73 306.01
Engineer 158.82 160.85 186.91 170.10
Status High School 103.11 87.92 91.81 75.34
Prestige Teacher
Lawyer 164.90 201.05 187.12 227.24
Engineer 91.66 80.25 119.32 96.86
Opportunity High School
to Work Teacher 107.26 121.04 48.93 46.23
With People Lawyer 136.43 128.22 69.90 64.13
Engineer 74.20 81.14 99.73 132.46
Opportunity High School
to Correct Teacher 85.76 103.99 72.43 97.01
Current Lawyer 162.35 130.54 115.73 118.22
Problems Engineer 79.39 82.54 91.70 98.04
Opportunity High School
to Help En- Teacher 166.11 169.95 134.93 146.31
vironment Lawyer 159.27 164.59 138.78 152.70
Engineer 90.20 100.04 98.48 97.75
Educational High School
Require— Teacher 87.13 86.90 56.59 62.92
ments Lawyer 128.94 147.70 182.80 179.40
Engineer 94.36 78.25 113.00 91.53

 

 

 

 

Chapter V

FINDINGS

The Respondents

 

Part I of the survey instrument ascertained general de-
scriptive information about the respondents' career decision
making. For example, although respondents were performing a
variety of roles--from administrative and policy making to
purchasing and sales-~the top three roles were providing pro-
duction-technical services (sixty-nine, 30.9 percent), manage-
ment services (thirty-seven, 16.7 percent) and high School or
college teaching (twenty-two, 9.9 percent).

Non-natural resource jobs were held by sixty—five respon-
dents (29.1 percent) while sixty (26.9) percent were employed
in forestry, eighteen (8.1 percent) in fisheries-wildlife, and
nineteen (16.6 percent) in park and recreation resources;
twenty-four held other natural resource jobs.

When asked to indicate the important factor in learning
about their first job, respondents indicated direct contact
with employer (46.2 percent); friends and relatives (26.9 per-
cent) and university assistance other than placement office
(17.5 percent). But when present jobs differed from their
first jobs, only twenty—nine percent had contacted employers

directly; friends and relatives remained important (15.2 percent)

81

82

but many were contacted by employer (12.1 percent) or learned
by other means (15.7 percent).

In many instances, especially in a tight employment market,
graduates often accept positions bearing little relation to
their major field of study. However in this sample only fifty
(22.4 percent) followed this course; 106 (47.5 percent) were
employed in same field, sixty-two (27.8 percent) in related
fields.

Respondents ranged in age from 22 to 52 years with a mean

age of 29.0 and armaihnnof 26.4 (See Table 12).

Table 12. Age Distribution of Respondents

 

 

 

 

 

 

Range Frequency Percent1
22 — 26 114 51.6%
27 - 31 40 18.1
32 - 36 47 21.3
37 — 52 20 9.0

1

Percentage adjusted to 221 Valid Cases

Males outnumbered females 9 to l: 198 (90.0 percent to
22 (10.0 percent). Moreover, over 60.0 percent (134) of all
respondents were married.

To gain a further understanding of the background of
the sample, respondents were asked to indicate place of resi-
dence for four periods of their lives: 1—6 years, 7-12 years,
13—18 years and present home (See Table 13). Fewer now live

in a large metro city than at age 1-6 years-—l6.2 to 12.2

Table 13.

Residential History of Respondents

83

 

 

 

PLACED LIVED 1-6 7§I2 13-18 Present
years years years

Large Metro City 16.2% 16.7% 16.7% 12.2%
Medium Size City 18.9% 20.3% 22.5% 23.4%
Smaller City 23.0% 22.5% 23.0% 23.4%
Township or

Village 18.9% 18.9% 18.5% 19.4%
In the Country 10.8% 10.4% 9.0% 16.7%
Farm or Ranch 12.2% 11.3% 10.4% 5.0%

 

 

 

Percentage adjusted to 222 Valid Cases

percent. More now live in the country—-10.8 to 16.7 percent,
while less now live on a farm or ranch--12.2 to 5.0 percent.

The majority of the respondents' fathers were employed
in professional-technical positions (33.9 percent), craftsmen-
foremen (17.4 percent) or manager-official (12.9 percent).

For mothers, however, 44.7 percent were homemakers, 19.4 per-
cent were employed in professional-technical positions, and
16.6 percent in clerical positions (See Table 14).

The overwhelming majority of respondents graduated from
public high schools (84.7 percent), with the largest number
(27.9 percent) graduating from classes of over 400 (See Table
15).

Since the investigators were interested in learning about
work experiences and possible influence on career decision
making, two specific questions were asked to ascertain prior

college experiences and paid work experiences after enrolling

84

 

 

 

Table 14. Occupations of Parents

Categories Fathers Mothers
Prof. — Tech. 74 (33.9%) 42 (19.4%)
Mgt. - Off. - Pro. 28 (12.8%) 10 ( 4.6%)
Clerical 5 ( 2.3%) 36 (16.6%)
Sales 14 ( 6.4%) 7 ( 3.2%)
Craftsman - Foreman 38 (17.4%) 2 ( .9%)
Operatives 14 ( 6.4%) 8 ( 3.7%)
Service Work 12 ( 5.5%) 11 ( 5.1%)
Laborers 8 ( 3.7%) 1 ( .5%)
Farmer 17 ( 7.8%) 97 (44.7%)
(Homemaker)

Military 4 ( 1.8%)

All other occupations 4 ( 1.8%)

 

 

Table 15. Size of High School Graduating Class

 

 

 

Adjusted1
Category Frequency Percent
Less than 49 20 9.1%
50 — 99 28 12.8%
100 — 199 43 19.6%
200 - 299 35 16.0%
300 - 399 32 14.6%
Over 400 61 27.9%

 

lPercentage Adjusted to 219 Valid Cases

 

 

85

in college. For the different categories, the overwhelming
majority of respondents indicated no work experiences in na-
tural recources (See Table 16). A sizeable number, however,
(74.0 percent) still indicated lack of work experiences after
enrolling in college—-at least lack of paid work experience

(See Table 17) .

Table 16. Length of Work Experience
Prior to College Enrollment

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

E‘ Less ‘Length of Experience
kinds of Work than 1-3 4-6 7-9 10+
Experience None 1 yr. years years years years OEher
Home Farm 82.1% .9% 1.8% 3.2% - 11.5% .5%
Hired Farm 82.3% 6.4% 5.0% 3.6% 1.4% .5% .9%
YCC 98.2% .9% .9% - - - -
Park and Re-
creation Work 83.3% 10.0% 5.4% .5% - .5% .5%
Construction
Work 80.2% 8.8% 10.1% .5% - - .5%
Grocery Store 82.4% 5.9% 9.0% 2.3% - .5% -
Other 53.7% 12.7% 23.9% 6.6% 1.9% 1.4% .9%
Table 17. Percentage of Respondents with Paid Work
Experience In Natural Reources After
Enrolling in College
CATEGORY NUMBER PERCENT
None 103 47.0%
Forestry 45 20.5%
Fisheries-Wildlife 6 2.7%
Parks—Recreation 15 6.8%
Agriculture 14 ‘6.4%

§ 36 16.4%

 

86

Results of Crosstab Analysis

One objective of the sampling strategy was to produce
a sample with both minority (non-white) and majority (white)
graduates. The cross tabulation analysis of respondent cate-
gories demonstrates the success of this strategy.

When crosstabs were produced by Job Category by Race,
Home State (grouped in regions) by Race and Job Category by
Home State, the larger values of chi square 42.76 (5 d.f.),
79.98 (3 d.f.), and 43.40 (15 d.f.) respectively, illustrated
the strong regional concentration of minorities (blacks) in
the Southeast and close orientation with agricultural pro—
grams. This result was not unexpected, however. On the other
hand, when crosstabs for graduating class by race and job
category by graduating class were run, the much lower chi squares,
6.7 (l d.f.) and 3.6 (5 d.f.) indicates a certain level of in—
dependence. 2

What the results demonstrate is that the final sample has
an acceptable distribution by overall job category, by gradu-
ating class and graduating class by race. Furthermore, it
also tend to reconfirm the existence of the original problem—-
the lack of racial minorities in natural resource careers.

Respondent Characteristics and
Ihformation‘niffusio§__

 

 

One research design strategy was to permit analysis of
the differences in "career information diffusion” between

respondents when grouped on the basis of year of graduation.

87

(1965 graduate vs. 1975 graduate) race (minority or majority),
and job category (non—natural resource employment vs. natural
resource employment).

Because of the number of individual factors that were
grouped to form the independent variables (five to thirteen
factors each), breakdown analysis was selected to investigate
the central tendencies of each variable. Breakdown treats
the individual factors as independent variables and the test
group (year of graduation, race or job category) as the de-
pendent variables.

The following assumptions are necessary for breakdown
analysis:

1. Despite the level of measurement of the factors

(independent variables), they must be classified
in a limited number of discrete groups; and
2. Whether the dependent variables are continuous
or discrete, they must be a variable for which
a mean represents a meaningful measure of central
tendency.1

A one way analysis of variance was performed on the
data (Statistics 1) to testifthe means of the subsamples were
statistically significant (F. ratio @ .05 level of signifi-
cance) . This test also produced eta and eta-squared statistics which
show how dissimilar the means on the dependent variable are
within the categories of the independent variable. The higher

the value of eta, the greater this dissimilarity.

 

lNorman H. Nie et al., Statistical Package for the Social
Science, 2nd. ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1975),
pp. 249-250.

88

Eta-squared is interpreted as the proportion of variance
in the dependent variable explained or accounted by the inde-
pendent variables (correlation ratio). Given the level of
measurement of these factors, this test and the associated

statistics were deemed appropriate.
Breakdown by Year of Graduation

Sixty—four (28.7%) of the respondents were classified as
1965 graduates, while 159 (71.3%) were classified as 1975 gra-

duates.

Spurces of Career Information

 

Respondents were asked to rate the importance of infor-
mation source factors both prior to college and after enroll-
ing in college. Since the rating scale ranged from a high of
l and a low of 5, all rating scores of 3.9 or less (moderate
influence to most influential) were considered important.

0f prior to college factors, only two were indicated as
important by a large number of valid cases: participation in
recreation and leisure activities--mean rating of 2.89 (214
valid cases) and respondents' family-~mean rating of 3.30
(215 valid cases). The category ”other" was also rated im-
portant—-mean rating of 3.03 but with only 74 cases. Yet,
when respondents were grouped to determine if significant
differences (at .05 level) existed between rating of 1965 and
1975 graduates, (source factors prior to college), no difference
was found between these three factors. Differences, however,

did exist between their rating of importance for junior high

89

courses, although the mean rate for 1965 grads (4.74) and 1975
grads (4.35) was not considered important.

After enrolling in college, respondents rated seven
of fourteen source factors of moderate importance or higher.

When grouped by year of graduation, however, only three
factors—~work experience, employer and recreation leisure
participation--had significant differences in rating.

As a source of career information, work experience in
addition to the employer were more valuable for 1965 graduates
(mean rating of 2.67 and 3.00 respectively). Recreation/leisure
participation (mean of 3.66) provided more information for 1975
graduates.

Methods of Obtaining_
Career Information

 

 

Prior to college, graduates rated four of thirteen me—
thods of moderate importance or higher: conversations with
relatives and friends (mean of 3.39), books (3.64), employment
in area (3.88), and magazines (3.98). The"other". category also
received a mean rating of (3.09).

Major differences existed between rating by 1965 and
1975 graduates: books and magazines were rated higher in
importance (3.46 and 3.85 respectively) by the 1975 graduates.
At the .07 level of significance, the 1965 graduates rated
the ”other" category higher (2.50).

After enrolling in college, methods of obtaining career
information increased from four to eight, however, only two

ratings were significantly different between groups. Again,

90

1975 graduates rated magazines higher than 1965 graduates--
3.78 to 4.18; audio-visual media--films, slides and tapes--

also rated high with this group, i.e., a mean of 3.95.

Timeliness of Career Information

 

Timeliness or age at receipt of useful career informa-
tion (about various job factors) by respondents ranged from
a mean age of 18.5 years for information and other require—
ments to a mean of 20.9 for expected tasks. Tests of differ-
ence in mean ages revealed that 1975 graduates learned about
education and other requirements of the job at a significant-
ly earlier age: 17.9 compared to 19.8 years, a difference of

over 2 years.1

Similarly, 1975 graduates had a 2 year head
start in learning about the possible location of work-~19.2
compared to 21.5 years.

The majority of respondents received additional infor-
mation about these job factors, 2 to 4 times per year (33.7%
of respondents); moreover, 30.2% received additional infor—
mation more than four times. In terms of frequency differ-

ences between 1965 and 1975 graduates, the education and other

requirements category (x2 = 12.16) was solely significant.

gentent of Career Informatiog_

 

Prior to college, respondents rated content of career
information for 3 of 5 job factors as adequate. Respondents,
however, received very little information about entry job-

upgrading opportunities and pay and fringe benefits. For

1This difference should be interpreted cautiously because
it could partly be attributed to better recall by 1975 graduates;
however, it is also a factor of improved career counseling, me—
dia coverage, etc.

91

these variables no significant difference existed between 1965
and 1975 respondents.

College enrollment provided respondents adequate to more
than adequate information for all five job factors. Again,
there were no significant differences among groups for these
five factors; however, the category other (X2 = 9.7) was dif-

ferent between 1965 and 1975 graduates.

Sareer'Expectations

 

Respondents also were asked to rate the importance of
thirteen career factors on a scale of 1 to 99. When the means
of such ratings were broken down by year of college graduation

no significant difference (.05 level) was found among means.
Breakdown by Race

Fifty-nine respondents (26.5 percent) were members of
minority groups: 1 American Indian, 52 blacks, 2 Mexican-
Americans and 4 Oriental—Asian Americans. All were classi—
fied as a single minority group to facilitate analysis, the
majority group (whites) numbered 160 or 71.7 percent.

eifferences in Source ofCareee
Ipformation by Race

 

Although "families" and "recreation-leisure participation"
are still important career source factors, "Breakdowns by Race"
indicated significant differences between minority and majority
mean ratings (See Table 18). Prior to college, there were
seven factors with differences between means by race. Of these

seven factors, minorities tended to rate them higher. Leisure

92

 

 

 

 

 

 

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93

participation as source of career information was the only
factor rated higher by majority respondents (2.62 to 3.83).
But of the remaining six factors, only three—~senior high
course (3.08), high school teacher (3.31) and junior high
course (3.61)—-were considered at least of moderate impor-
tance.

After college enrollment, sources of career information
shifted. Minorities rated enrollment in graduate school (3.75)
significantly higher (See Table 19). Other minority ratings
with significant group differences were: college administra-
tor (4.22) and clergyman (4.29), although in terms of overall
importance ratingseemed of little influence.

pifferences in Methods of Receivieg_
Information by Race

 

 

Prior to college, nine methods of career information
dissemination were rated differently by race; minorities tended
to rate all nine higher (See Table 20). Only one, however, was
rated of moderate importance: books (3.15). But lectures (3.87)
and demonstrations (3.89) were of some importance. After en-
rolling in college, seven of the nine factors still received
different ratings. Again, minorities tended to rate them
of higher importance (See Table 21). Although books (2.96)
and demonstrations (3.31) were moderate or higher, other fac-
tors of lesser importance were films, slides, tapes (3.64)

and newspapers (3.98).

94

 

 

 

 

 

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.mH magma

95

 

 

 

 

 

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96

 

 

 

 

 

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97

pifferences in Timelinees by Racev

 

The age of first receipt of useful career information
about the six job factors did not differ significantly between
races (See Table 22). Similarly, crosstabulation of career
factors by race revealed no significant difference between

these groups (See Table 23).

Differences in Content by Race

 

Prior to college none of the five listed factors showed
any significant difference (.05 level) between grOups. Only
the other category (X2 = 9.32) showed any difference. But
after college enrollment, specific career information about edu-
cational requirements and entry job--upgrading opportunities
increased (X2 of 11.18 and 14.24 respectively). As shown in
Table 24, this trend represented a marked departure from prior

college experiences.

Career Expectation

 

The analysis by race of responses to the career expecta-
tion section indicated nine of thirteen factors were rated
differently. Although mean scores of minorities were the high—
est for all these factors (See Table 25), the most dramatic
difference was registered in response to the factor: opportu-
nity to help other people—-a difference of 22.6 units. On
the other hand, whites and non-whites had similar responses
for (l) feeling of self—fulfillment, (2) opportunity to par-
ticipate in determining methods and procedures, (3) opportunity
to develop close friendships, and (4) feeling that administra-

tors are willing to discuss subordinate's problems.

98

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103
Breakdown by Job Category

Another comparison was to determine if graduates not em-
ployed in a natural resource or related profession and gradu-
ates who were so employed had similar ratings. Sixty-five
(29.1%) were grouped in the former category while 158 or 70.9

percent were in the latter.

Sources of Career Information

 

Interestingly, the two differences of any significance
prior to college were not ones identified by year of gradua-
tion or racial breakdown: family-—3.16 and senior high course--
3.77. Those employed in natural resources rated family as
the greater source of career information, yet those not em-
ployed in natural resources rated senior high courses as a
more important source.

After initial college enrollment, all source factors
rated high were again different from the prior group compari—
sons. But this time, the natural resource employees rated
all significant source factors higher: college teacher (2.67),
recreation-leisure. participation (3.07), family (3.22) and

friends (3.48).

Methods of Obtaining Caree£_Informatioe

 

Each of the analyses of difference breakdowns revealed
books as a moderately important source for all the groups: 1975
graduates, minority graduates and now, present natural resource

professionals (3.53).

104

After enrolling in college, five of the thirteen methods
of receiving career information were rated higher (.05 level)
by present natural resource professionals than graduates not
so employed: employment (2.88), conversations with friends
(3.27), books (3.33), magazines (3.77) and films, slides, and

tapes (3.92).

Timeliness of Career Information

 

Recalling that only two timeliness factors had different
mean rates by year of graduation, this prior to college time—
liness breakdown by job category showed five factors with
that distinction. There is a significant difference in ages
at receipt of career information: graduates presently employed
in natural resources and selected professions learn about edu-
cational requirements of the job at a mean age of 17.9 years
compared to 20.0 years for those not employed in natural re-
sources; useful information about pay and fringe benefits at
age 19.6 vs. 21.6; possible location of work—-19.0 vs. 21.9
years; working conditions--19.4 vs. 21.9 years; and finally,
the expected tasks——20.1 vs. 23.0 years. Overwhelmingly, pre-
sent employees in natural resources seemed to have had a much
earlier exposure to the various job factors.

After enrolling in college however, the number of fac-
tors with significant differences between mean rates declined

to one: expected tasks (X2 — 7.09).

105

Content of Career Information

 

Specific career information about education and other

requirements of the job were rated differently by the grouping.

2

It received an x measure of 12.80 (.01 sig level); no fac-

tor was significant after college enrollment.

Bifferences in Career Expectatione
gy JOb Category

 

 

Current natural resource professionals felt self—fulfill—
ment in the job was more important (mean of 85.60) than non-
natural resource professionals (79.39). Moreover, this factor
appeared to be rated of higher importance by all respondents

when broken down by job category.

gereer Knowledge and Information Diffusioe

Career knowledge, measured as perceived difference be-
tween a criterion career and selected natural resource careers
was also examined in terms of the major respondent categories.
Each criterion career (high school teacher, lawyer, civil en-
gineer) was compared to four natural resource careers (city
park and recreation superintendent, forester, fish-wildlife
biologist and extension agent) on the basis of several factors:
differences in chance to earn good money, status--prestige,
change to work with people, chance to correct current problems,

chance to help environment, and in educational requirements.
Differences in Career Knowledge

Year of Graduation and Race

 

Breakdown of the variable by year of graduation, for ex-

ample, yielded no significance difference in means between

106

1965 and 1975 graduates in their perceptions of the difference
between high school teachers, lawyers and civil engineers and
the selected natural resource professions.

In general, moreover, the breakdown of knowledge vari-
able by race as measured by perceived differences between
careers did not differ too drastically from the year of grad-
uation breakdown. But there were eight differences. While
minority groups assigned a greater perceived distance between
the money a high school teacher and fish wildlife biologist
earns; the white majority assigned a higher perceived distance
between the income of a lawyer and an extension agent. Finally,
minority groups felt that more education was required for a
civil engineer than either for a park recreation superinten-
dent or a forester. The non—whites'perceived differences were
significantly greater than the whites (See Table 1, 2 and 3,

Appendix J).

gob Category

 

Perhaps the greatest perceived differences between cri-
terion and natural resources careers were between respondents
not employed in this field or a related career and those who
were; the only criterion career where no difference by cate-
gory was noted was high school teachers. Non—natural resource
workers consistently rated civil engineers and lawyers as
more different: (1) on the basis of status--prestige, civil
engineers were rated different from both park and recreation

superintendents and extension agents, (2) in terms of edu-

cational requirements, the perceived differences were between

107

civil engineer and all but one of the comparison careers--
the fish-wildlife biologist.

Lawyers rated highest in terms of perceived differences.
They received thirteen significant difference ratings: (1) in
terms of earning potential lawyers differed from foresters
and fish and wildlife biologists; (2) but for status-prestige
and opportunity to help the environment, they differed from
all compared careers, and (3) the perceived education require-
ment for lawyer exceeded those for park and recreation super-

intendent and extension agent.

Implications for Model Developmeet

 

Breakdowns of the five independent variables and single
dependent variable indicate significant differences within the
test categories--i.e., year of college graduation, race and
job category (See Table 26). But since the third research
objective was to develop testable model(s) for increasing the
number of non-white students that do select careers in natural
resources, another data analysis procedure was warranted to
indicate more precise differences between non-whites and whites.

Stepwise discriminant analysis, consequently, was per-
formed on prior to college measures of source, method, content,
attitude and knowledge variables.1 The mathematical objective
of discriminant analysis is to weigh and linearly combine the

discriminating variables in some fashion so that the groups are

M

1The breakdown analysis of the timeliness variable was
accepted as adequate because there were only six factors.

108

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109

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110

forced to be as statistically distinct as possible.1 Speci-
fically, the stepwise procedure begins by selecting the single
best discriminating factor (Minimum D squared), then se-
lectseeChsubsequent variable based on its ability to improve
the discrimination criterion in combination with the first
variable. When factors no longer contribute to further dis-
crimination, the stepwise procedure stOps and further analysis
using only the selected variables begins.2

While no single factor will perfectly differentiate be-
tween non-white and white on the four career information dif-
fusion variables, several can be mathematically combined to
produce discriminant functions of the form (Di = dilzl +

diZ Z2"'+di Zp) where Di is the score on discriminant function

P
i, the d's are weighing coefficients, and the 2's are the
standardized values of p discriminating factors used in the
analysis. When these functions are analyzed, the coefficient
represents the relative contribution of associated factors,
while the sign denotes the direction of this contribution-—
positive or negative. Finally, the percentage of cases correct—
ly classified when only the discriminant factors are known

shows the accuracy of this linear equation and enables the

researchers to suggest specific strategies for model develop-

ment.

 

lWilliam R. Klecka, Chapter 23 in Statistical Package
for the Social Sciences (New York: McGraw—Hill Book Company,
1975).

21bid.

lll

Discriminant Analysis of Source Variable

Five of twelve source factors statistically discrimi-
nate between non—white and white respondents: senior high
class, recreation-leisure participation, senior high prin-
cipal, clergyman and friends (See Table 27). The resulting
discriminant function is positive (0.849) for the non-white
group and negative (—0.290) for the white.

The classification results (success of discriminant
function Di = dilzl + dizzz "° + dipzp predicting group mem-
bership when only the factor scores are known) are 58.5 per-
cent for non-whites and 77.3 percent for whites. Overall,
72.4 percent of grouped cases can be correctly classified.

Once the discriminant equation is obtained, it can be
used to predict an "expected rating score" on each identi-
fied discriminant factor for non-whites and whites.1 These
expected rating scores can then be used to suggest specific
career information diffusion-dissemination strategies.

From analyzing Table 27, the following career informa-
tion strategy is suggested:

(1) Increase the non—traditional career knowledge base of
the formal institutional sources which non—
whites have relied in the past; and

(2) Increase the utilization of such informal sources
as leisure time participation and knowledgeable
friends or associates.

1In some instances this expected rating score differs
from the previous group means, partly because the grouped

classification rate is not 100 percent successful and also
because the discriminant analysis involves a weighting and

j . o a .- I a O
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112

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113

Discriminant Analysis of Method Variable

Five of twelve methods of obtaining career information
prior to initial enrollment in college were identified as
statistically distinct between non-whites and whites: demon-
strations, television programs, magazines, books, and news-
papers (See Table 28). The two discriminant functions are
negative (—0.604) for non-whites and positive (0.207) for
whites.

The two functions, moreover, are 61.2 percent success-
ful in predicting group membership of non-whites and 65.2 per-
cent for whites. Overall, only 64.2% of cases are correctly
classified.

The analysis of the expected rating scores show that
while non-whites do list many methods of receiving career in-
formation, evidently they are not as effective in transmitting
information about non-traditional careers.

A suggested strategy is to increase the effectiveness
of career information diffusion channels (methods) for this

group.
Discriminant Analysis of Content Variable

Two of five content factors are statistically distinct
between non-whites and whites: amount of career information re-
CGiVed prior to college about entry job and amount of infor-
mation about work location (See Table 29). The discriminant

functions are (0.430) for non-whites and (-0.161) for whites.

114

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116

The discriminant functions successfully predict actual
group membership fornon-whites in only 30.4 percent of the
cases while it is more successful for whites (78.7 percent).
Overall only 65.5 percent of the cases are correctly Class-
ified. Two suggestions which may help explain the low class-
ification rate for non-whites is the apparent similarity in
the scores of the two groups and the diversity of non-white
responses (perhaps, indicating a sizeable range in the amount
of career information about entry job and work location re-
ceived prior to college). Almost 70 percent of the non-whites
responded like the white majority responded to this question.

Discriminant Analysis of Career
Attitudes (Expectations)

Five of thirteen career expectation factors show a sta-
tistically significant difference between non-whites and whites:
opportunity to help others, self-fulfillment, security, Oppor-
tunity for personal growth—development andfeelingthataflhinistrators
appreciate subordinates' work (See Table 30). The resultant
discriminant function for non—whites is (-0.872) and for
whites (0.357).

This discriminant function successfully classifies 69.5
percent of the non-white cases and 75.7 percent of the white
cases-—an overall rate of 73.9 percent.

Analysis of the expected rating scores for attitude fac-
tors reveal a specific strategy for increasing the quality

and quantity of career information about non-traditional

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118

occupations. Because non-whites are distinguished from white
respondents in their desire for a career which provides oppor-
tunities to help others, security and personal growth develop—
ment, future information should emphasize these aspects of

relevant natural resource. careers.
Discriminant Analysis of Knowledge Variable

The final discriminant analysis addressed the differences
in knowledge (perceived dissimalarities) between non-whites
and whites. While Breakdown analysis had revealed some
difference at .05 level of significance (See Table 31), this
analysis revealed those differences where the two groups were
most distinguishable. Eight of a possible 72 comparisons can
be used to separate the two groups.

From Table 31, two differences are associated With money,
three with chance to correct current problems, two with oppor-
tunity to work with people and two with educational require-
ments. The non—traditional career registering the most dif-
ferences was forester with four difference measures. (Fish—
wildlife Biologist and ExtenSion Agent had similar number of
differences--two and three respectively.

The results of the discriminant analyses of the inde-
pendent variables are summarized on Table 32. These career
information dissemination factors provide the greatest dis-
crimination between non-white and white respondents in this
sample and logically should be emphasized in the development

of recruitment retention models.

119

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Table 32. Summary of Discriminant Analysis
(Independent Variables)

_" tandErdized Most Distinct
Coefficients Group Discrimination
(Contribution (non-white) (white)

yeriables 6 Direction) Factors

-.547 Senior high class X
.547 Recreation-leisure
Participation X
SOURCE
—.409 Senior high Principal X
—.280 Clergyman X
.229 Friends X
.561 Demonstrations X
.379 Television Programs X
METHOD .408 Magazines X
-.978 Books X
.584 Newspapers X
—1.151 Information about
entry job X
CONTENT
1.076 Information about
work location X
-.698 Opportunity to help
others X
.924 Self-fulfillment X
ATTITUDE -.653 Security X
-.418 Opportunity for Personal
Growth and Development x
.266 Appreciation of subor-
1 dinates & their work X g_

 

 

 

Chapter VI

MINORITY CAREERS IN NATURAL RESOURCES--

HOW DOES IT HAPPEN?

The Recruitment-Retention Model

 

There are many different actors and levels of respon-
sibility in recruiting students to colleges and universi-
ties. A model which addresses the recruitment of non-white
students has been suggested by Chuck Dooley of the U.S. For-
est Service (see Figure 5). This model has four sections:
Actors, Identification of Students, Attraction of Ethnic

Minorities and Encouragement of their Enrollment in Natural

Resources:

1. Junior and senior high counselors and tea-
chers have the primary responsibility for
identifying minority students.

2. Minority organizations can also help iden—
tify students and provide moral and fi-
nancial support.

3. Community leaders can both help identify
students and encourage students to enroll.

4. Alumni of respective colleges can give
overviews of the total college environment
while graduates of natural resource depart-
ments can personally speak as to what de-
partments and professors are like.

5. Professionals employed in the field have
very important responsibilities to be
sensitive to minority students and help
them see how they might play a role in
natural resources management.

123

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124

6. Faculty, staff and students have the ulti-
mate responsibility to contact prospective
students—~by mail, telephone or personally--
and to encourage enrollment in natural re-
sources or related programs.

7. Mass media is most helpful in initially
attracting students and providing sources
of supplementary information.

8. Finally, according to Dooley, the public
agencies' role in recruiting minority
students is one of enrichment and sup-
port. Moreover, they can (a) provide
opportunities for ethnic minorities
to see a larger spectrum of the diver-
sity of skills required in resource
management and development; (b) show how
management decisions benefit or negative-
ly affect the lives of people; (c) show
how natural resource professions are
relevant to every day problems ("the Big
Picture"), (d) and finally, they should
see that mass media materials and other
publications are accurate and do not
perpetuate myths or half truths about
careers.

But once the students have been identified, recruited
and enrolled in the respective university what happens then?
Coleman suggests that successful recruiting of minority stu-
dents for non-traditional programs at large, predominately
white colleges and universities goes beyond just identifying
and recruiting the student—sthe successful program should
recruit as well as retain (educate and graduate) ethnic mi-

1

nority students. He has successfully coordinated the de-

velopment of such a model for minority students in the College
of Osteophatic Medicine--a non-traditional career for minority

students--at Michigan State University.

‘— *-

lDon E. Coleman, A Study Related to the Development and
Implementation of a Program to Recruit, Counsel, and Retain
Ethnic Minority Students in the Osteopathic Profession.Final
Progress Report 1974-1977 (East Lansing, Michigan: Michigan
State University, 1977), pp. 24-26.

125

Entitled a Minority Comprehensive Support Program or
"A Program to Recruit, Counsel and Retain Ethnic Minority Stu—
dents in the Osteopathic Profession," it has enabled the Col-
lege to double its percentage of ethnic minorities from about
10 percent between 1969—1973 to about 20 percent between 1975—
1978.1

Although Osteopathic Medicine and Natural Resource Ca-
reers are vastly dissimilar, they do share the common distinc-
tion of not being traditional choices of ethnic minority
students. Consequently special efforts are required to increase

their representation in both careers.2

And by broadening the
model from just the recruitment aspect, it allows the inves-
tigators to consider the problems of attracting minorities to
professions in natural resources--the few that do graduate from
these programs and those that possess job skills which are
transferable from one industry to another. One objective of
this chapter, therefore, is to adapt the Coleman model to the
need of forestry and other natural resource departments to
increase their recruitment and retention of non-white students.
Perhaps of primary consideration, which Coleman articu-
lates in this report on the development and implementation of
the program at Michigan State is the initial and continuing
commitment of administration, faculty, staff and students (for
industry this commitment would include top and middle manage-

ment as well as other staff) to the rationale behind.

lIbid., pp. 23, 3o. 8 35.

2Ethnic minorities, however, probably have a more accu-
rate perception of the role and responsibilites of a physic1an
than they do of a forester or other natural resource professional.

'126

this approach.1 Vflurdevoteresources to such an endeavor?
Should it be just to demonstrate the presence of a highly
visible minority or two? No! The obvious reason, perhaps,
is that ultimately such efforts will produce a more equita-
ble and efficient use of human and other resources. Coleman
Infigimplied that without this commitment, any approach may be
doomed for failure.

Essentially, what is necessary is a firm commitment and
belief in the principle of "affirmative action: to rectify
past wrongs, to increase the presence and enhance the roles
that ethnic minorities play in nontraditional careers. Yet,
for many of the white majority this policy is viewed as "re-
verse discrimination.”

The latest challenge to affirmative action despite the
momentous overtones of the Bakke decision came in the-recent
Brian Weber appeal before the United States Supreme Court:
Weber, a white worker at Kaiser Aluminum in Gramency, Louisi-
ana contended that their voluntary affirmative action plan to
upgrade the roles of black workers discriminated against him
because he was white, a violation of the Civil Rights Act of
1964.

Tom Wicker, a columnist for the New Yorker Times in a
July 1 article writes that the court's ruling represented "A
Victory for Affirmative Action": "in eradicating racial dis-
crimination in employment, some consideration of color may be

permitted because it is necessary to achieve the desirable

lDon E. Coleman, pp. 101-106.

127

results."1

Weber argued successfully in the lower courts that the
remedy Congress intended for racial discrimination and em-
ployment was color-blind employment practices. Wicker, how—
ever, noted that the majority of the justices saw this not
as a remedy for the victims of an existing evil, but a pre-
scription for the elimination of future evil.2 The following
example was offered to illustrate the difference between a
"remedy and a prescription."

. . . Two workers, one white, one black, of equal
physical and mental ability enter the employment
of a company. After 10 years, because of racial
discrimination, the white worker has a high super-
visory position and twice the salary of the black
who remains at a low level job. At this point,
Congress orders color-blind employment practices.
The kind of discrimination of which the black

was a victim must therefore cease; but he remains
at his low level job and his low salary while the
white retains all his ill-gained advantages.

Wicker thus concludes that this would be no remedy for
the victim. Nor would it be much of a remedy if the only
option open to the black was to hire an attorney and file a
law suit. Accordingly, the Supreme Court ruled: "that had
Congress intended that nothing could or should be done to
provide a practical remedy for victims conceded to exist, it

would have said so."4

_ ,—

1Tom Wicker, "A Victory for Affirmative Action” Greens-
eoro Daily Negej July 1, 1979, A New York Times News SerV1ce.

 

2Ibid. 31bid.

41bid.

128

Although this court ruling does represent a victory for
affirmative action and gives legitimacy to efforts to increase
the number of minority students and professionals in non-tra—
ditional educational programs and professions such as natural
resources, a word of caution is in order because the court also
said such an affirmative action plan should remain in force
only until the number of blacks in the skilled jobs reaches
the proportion of blacks in the labor force from which Kaiser's
plants recruit.

Basic Elements of Model

The elements of a recruitment-retention model include:
Recruitment, Early Entrance Program, Academic support Program,
Counseling Program, Instructional Program, Special Service
Program and Program Evaluation (See Figure 6). Although most
colleges and universities do provide a variety of these ser-
vices, few have developed a systematic program (with all seven
components, funding, and staff) to specifically increase the
number of ethnic minorities in natural resources.1

Although the comprehensive minority recruitment and reten-
tion model should include the above seven components, the re—
sults of this research are most applicable in refining the
recruitment component or insuring that accurate, timely, and
appropriate career information about natural resource profes-

sions is disseminated to a large pool of ethnic minority

‘ ’-

lThe Tuskegee Pre—Forestry Program has had some success
with recruiting minority students, providing two years of
basic education, then transferring them for the last two years
to a four—year Forestry and/or Natural Resource Program.

II

III.

IV.

VI.

129

Recruitment (Sensing Matrix)—-to identify, attract and
recruit more ethnic minority students

A. Identification of Ethnic Minority Students

. Community Organizations and Leaders

. University Graduates and Natural Resource Professionals
. University Faculty, Staff, Students

com

Early Entrance Program--to provide overview of classroom
and college expectations

. College Curriculum

. College Testing

. College Evaluation

. College/University Support Service

. College/University Environment

. Academic Governance

”JUIUOW)’

Academic Support Program-—to monitor performance and pro-
vide assistance to students having difficulties

A. Academic Advisement

B. Tutoring

C. General Advisement

D. Financial Aids

Counseling Program--to assess student problems and inter-
vene, if necessary

. General Counseling

. Psychological Counseling

. Academic Counseling

. Vocational/Career Counseling

. General Advisement

NUDE)»

Instructional PrOgram—-to see that learning skills are
appropriateanuiinstructional programs relevant
A. Curriculum Modification
1. Re-tracking
2. Extended Program
3. Special Electives
B. Learning Skills
1. Reading Comprehension
2. Test-taking Skills
3. Test-taking Techniques
4. Learning Strategies
Special Services Program-—to acclimate new minority students
to the college and community
A. Academic Summer Program
. Summer Interships
. High School Career Day
. Cultural Environment Program

oow

Figure 6. A Model for Minority Recruitment and Retention in

Natural Resources.

130

VII. PrOgram Evaluation--to regularly monitor performance
(fine tune model)
A. Program Components
B. Student Achievement
C. Student/Program Evaluation

Figure 6 (cont'd.).

Source: Except for a few changes, this proposed model
is essentially the same one that was developed for the Mi-
nority Comprehensive Support Program in College and Osteo-
pathic Medicine at Michigan State University.

131

students and graduates. The primary goal of this first compo—
nent should be to develop a program to identify, attract,
and recruit more ethnic minority students to the natural re-
source professions. Accordingly, the researcher interviewd
several individuals to gain insights about a workable re—
cruitment component (See Appendix P).

As a result of these interviews, several criteria of a
recruitment component were gleaned:

1. Special financial support of the project
(three to five years).

2. Cooperation with other programs to identify
a sizeable pool of students, i.e multi-
discipline approach.

' I

3. Employment of a director or coordinator
of the project.

And from analyzing the results from this study other
considerations are suggested:

4. The pool of potential minority students should
include more than students with farm or vo—
cational agriculture backgrounds.

Also, the specific results of the Breakdown and Discrim-
inant Analyses may be applied in the following manner (See
Table 32):

(Know— 1. Since career information is readily avail-

1edge) able for such traditional careers as high
school teacher, civil engineer, lawyer
and others, efforts should be made to pre-
sent information on such non-traditional
natural resource careers as park-recreation
superintendent or fish and wildlife bio-
loqist or forester in terms of vocational
job factors. Such comparative information
should be developed and disseminated
through the recruitment component.

(Source) 2. Whites indicated that recreation-leisure
participation was important in supplying

(Methods) 6.

Time-
liness)

8.

132

career information while blacks placed
more importance on formal school settings.
Efforts should be made to increase the
amount and quality of non—formal career
information available to minority groups.

But since minorities relied more heavily

on the formal school system, efforts should
also be made to strengthen this source.
Accurate, timely and appropriate career in-
formation about natural resources should be
available to guidance counselors and
teachers serving this group.

Since families played an important role as
a source of career information for pre-
sent holders of natural resource jobs,
efforts should be made to involve more
minority parents in learning about re-
source management, i.e., increase par-
ticipation of minority groups in

resource planning, management and devel-
opment activities.

In terms of high school courses, efforts
should be made to broaden the diversity

of information presented about careers,

especially to urban students.

For 1975 graduates, books and magazines
played a larger role in providing career
information than for 1965 graduates. Con-
sequently, efforts should be made to
ensure that these books and magazines
accurately portray the natural resource
professions, and that they are available
to minority groups.

Although books and magazines along with
lectures and demonstrations are recog-
nized for supplying valuable career
information, more effort should be

devoted to involving the minority stu-
dent in career exploration activities that
are less passive, i.e., employment and
leisure time activities where he can

gain a first-hand glimpse of the field.

Although 1975 graduates learned about
career factors significantly earlier
than 1965 graduates, those not currently
employed in natural resources also
lagged behind by two to three years in

133

acquiring career information early in
their adolescence about various natural
resource job factorsa—educational re-
quirements, pay and fringe benefits,
entry job and upgrading opportunities,
possible location of work, working con-
ditions, and expected tasks. Such in—
formation should be available no later
than junior high school and should be
reinforced throughout high school.

(Career 9. Minorities stressed that the opportunity

Expecta— to help other people was significantly

tions) important in career selection. Efforts
consequently should be made to dissemi-
nate information on just how positions
in natural resources will benefit peo-
ple, especially categories of people
they can relate to.

Bemoving the Barriers-—The Sociel
‘Ehange Process

 

 

This study has focused on one specific aspect of the
problem, namely, that accurate, timely and pertinent career
information about natural resources is not available to ra—
cial minorities. Although such a narrow approach was neces-
sary for research purposes, it did not necessarily specify
or suggest an effective action stage for resource agencies.
For example, Coleman's recruitment and retention model fo-
cused primarily on the role of colleges and universities.
Therefore, how might a resource agency tackle the overall pro-
blem? Will concentration on the information dissemination
process along remove the barriers to entry?

At the 1975 Tuskegee Conference the barriers to entry
of minorities into natural resources were conceptualized as:
academic, financial, aspirational, geographic, physiological,

psychological and sociological. Moreover, it is apparent at

134

this point that this and prior studies were prerequisites to
an action stage, and while the recruitment-retention model
suggested for institutions warrant experimental use, it may
not be adequate for the needs of concerned resource agencies.
A broader perspective must be applied. The Social Action
Process is one such approach (See Figure 7).

Social Action is defined as "planned collaborative
change that is consciously evoked through the alteration of
the systemic attributes of society and subsystems through the
development of new systems and the alteration of old ones."1
Information and information diffusion are, of course, basic to
the social action (change) process. Yet, the process can be
approached from several perspectives, emphasizing different
aSpects. However, it has most often been approached or studied
from the perspective of the educator, particularly the adult
educator working with voluntary community based programs.

(On the other hand, Kotler advocates consideration of
situations requiring action or social change as a marketing

2

problem. This means that the problem can be analyzed and

action steps initiated using basic marketing concepts. Since
both perspectives have merit, the final approach was to em-
ploy models developed from each perspective to suggest an

action stage suitable for resource agencies-~both models can

lEdgar J. Boone, "A Conceptual Analysis of Social Action."
Prepared for the Community Resource Development WorkshOp held
July 15-19, 1968, Division of Continuing Education and Depart-
ments of Adult Education, Sociology, and Economics, North
Carolina State University, p. 1.

2Philip J. Kotler, Marketing for Nonprofit Organizations
(Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1975)
o. 281.

 

135

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

T
Prior
Problem Formal-
Social
————_—_-..Statement Initiating Informal
Situations ..
Set Legitimizers
Evaluation Definition
.______.-_ Decision ’of Need

Planning Techniques

Action ,
Commitments Plan

. ..___.,Goals ____._. Means .__>
to Action of
Work
Mobilizing Action
Step Step
Resources —___...Launching _’ l / 3 \
Step Step
2 4

 

 

 

F

Final

 

Evaluation

 

 

Figure 7. The Social Action Process

Source: Adapted from a model conceptualized by Edgar J. Boone in
1968

136

contribute essential elements to developing an applied action
stage. While Boone's conceptual approach provides a more

basic orientation to the social change process employed in
adult education, Kotler's model is the more dynamic one em—
ploying the pragmatism of a business perspective (See Figure 8).

The final approach, consequently, was to combine the
two models, using the social change model as the overall frame-
work, but analyzing the research problem in terms of key con-
cepts taken from the social marketing model (See Figure 9).

The discussion which follows provides a perspective of
the social change parameters which should be considered in
developing a comprehensive program to address the research
problem. While the discussion incorporates the study findings,
it also attempts to move beyond the recommendation-conclusion
stage of most dissertations. It suggests general and speci-
fic steps that natural resource agencies may employ to in—
crease or alter the knowledge, attitudes, skills and aspira-

tions of racial minorities.

The Social System
In general the problems facing many minorities are asso—

ciated with the lower end of Maslow's Need Hierarchy——employ-
ment, adequate housing, education, health care, etc. Within
this context, acquiring necessary training or education and

a subsequent job is a prerequisite for moving beyond this
stage. Yet, a number of minorities realize that gaining con-
trol of productive resources and acquiring economic and poli-

tical clout requires more than simply receiving a regular

137

 

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I. Social Systems (Groups and Interest of Persons Involved)
Market Identification
A. Primary Target Market
B. Secondary Target Market
C. Tertiary Target Market
D. Miscellaneous Target Market

II. Problem Situation (Racial Minorities are Significantly.
below parity in the ownership, utilization, planning,
management and development of natural resources.

III. Problem Goal (Develop parity for racial minorities in
Natural Resources)

IV. Prior Social Situation (Atmosphere or environment)
A. The Environment of primary target market

BARRIERS

 

Environment Financial Aspirational Geoqraphic Physio- Socio-
logical logice;

 

Economic

Political

Technological

Cultural

 

Competition (

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

V. Initiating Sets (Anyone who rec0gnizes "problem")
A. Resource Agencies
1. Federal

2. State
3. Local
B. Universities with natural resource program
1. 1862
2. 1890

C. Minority and other professionals

Figure 9. Removing the barriers-—the social marketing/change
process.

139

VI. Legitimizers of Idea: (Individuals within social system)

A.

Formal

1. Junior High and Senior High teachers
2. Junior High and Senior High counselors
3. Minority teachers

Informal

1. Parents

2. Relatives and friends

3. Community leaders

4. Peer group

VII. Diffusing Sets (Action groups spread idea that something
can be done)

A.
B.
C.

D.

Community organizations

Minority mass media

Minority professionals in agriculture and natural
resources

Interpretation of minority heritage in natural resources
at park and outdoor recreation facilities

VIII. Definition of Need (Awareness that something can be done)
Why should racial minorities be involved in planning,
owning, using, managing and developing natural resources?

IX. Techniques Used (To create awareness)
Market Planning Variables

A.

B.

Figure

Product

1. Core product

2. Tangible product
Promotion

1. Advertising

2. Personal selling
3. Publicity

4. Sales promotion

Place

1. Channel types
2. Number

3. Size

4. Locations

5. Compatibility
Price

1. Money costs
2. Opportunity costs
3. Energy costs
4. Psychic costs

9 (cont'd.).

XI.

XII.

XIII.

XIV.

140

Goals for Individuals and Groups (Short and long term
goals)

A. Short term goal--Help develop (identify) pool of
qualified applicants. ("Piggy back" with other programs)
1. Primary market
2. Secondary market
3. Tertiary market
4. Miscellaneous market

B. Long term goals--provide accurate, timely, pertinent
information on natural resource careers

Means for individuals and groups
Merketing chanels

 

A. Mass and specialized media
B. Paid Agents--Se1ect appropriate ones
C. Voluntary groups and organizations
1. Community leaders
2. Community action organizations
3. Churches
4. Youth groups

Mobilizing Resources
Interagency task force to help allocate necessary:

A. Staff time

B. Physical facilities
C. Budgets
D. Skills

Launching (Appropriate promotional activities)

A. Clearing house for information-~How can minority person
gain necessary information?

Action steps

Develop program materials

Identify--Contact markets

Recruit volunteer or paid field staff

Initiate pilot programs

Increase use and consumption of products

(Provide opportunities to observe benefits of natural
resources)

FJD(3UJ>

Table 9 (cont'd.).

141

XV. Progress toward problem goal (Evaluation)

Inputs
Activities
People Involvement
Reactions
. KASA
1. Knowledge
2. Attitudes
3. Skills
4. Aspirations
F. Practice change
G. End results--Minorities approaching parity in natural
resource use, employment and development activities

MUOCUID‘

Figure 9 (cont'd.).

142

salary. Because of the largely negative land resource legacy
of minorities, positive attempts must focus on marketing the
concept (to a larger target audience) that natural resources
involvement (ownership, employment, policy making) is a cri-
tical link in economic production and development (GNP) and
ultimate social and political influence.

The target audience consists of four markets: the pri—
mary market composed of minority youth aged 13-18 years; the
secondary market of minority youth already in college (18-24
years); a tertiary market of minority professionals in re-
lated careers and a miscellaneous market cfif technical school
graduates and minorities currently employed with the agency
but in the lower job classifications.

It is important that the primary target audience be pre-
college youth because they are probably the most receptive to
exploring new career avenues. Moreover, both urban and rural
youth should be identified and provided the appropriate in-
formation for informed decision making about a prospective
career in natural resources. For urban residents, the approach
should emphasize environmental awareness and the interdepen-
dencies of the land and environment, especially ways in which
different policy decisions, seemingly affecting the natural re—
sources located in remote regions, influence the quality of
the urban environment.

But for rural youth, the approach might differ. For
example, their concepts about the land and associated careers
might be negative, especially if they have been shaped by first

hand experiences with wood crews in the pulp and paper industry

143

or tenant farming operations. This marketing strategy should,
consequently, attempt to remove negative or stereotypical
images of forestry or other related professions.

Finally, all minority youth in this age group should be
considered a primary target because with the complexity of
future resource problems, it is desirable that all youth achieve
a minimum understanding of the environment regardless of place
of residence.

In the past only students with farm and or vocational
agriculture backgrounds were considered as a prime target mar-
ket. Although every student cannot be expected to like or
enjoy all aspects of a particular natural resource career,
there are certainly many facets of such careers where unique
skills or interests can be focused.

The secondary market should consist of minority youth
already enrolled in college. Such majors as agriculture,
biology, horticulture, health, physical education and recre-
ation (HPER), etc. should be included in this secondary market.
Accordingly, efforts are necessary to review or update civil
service entry level positions such that these non-traditional
applicants can be employed and anticipate moving into mid-
level technical positions. After entry level work, for in-
stance, many may be receptive to pursuing graduate programs de-
signed to prepare them for a higher grade in a more specialized
area. Also, if opportunities exist in natural resource pro—
fessions for science majors, political science graduates, econ-
omists, writers, etc., then these opportunities must be iden-

tified and marketed to this target audience.

144

Tertiary markets may exist for minority professionals
with such specialities as research, geography, land use plan-
ning, law, public health or any career where the core training
and skills are transferable to natural resource positions. A
miscellaneous target market consists of minority students pur-
suing technical degrees, retired military personnel with ex-
tensive management or technical background and current employ-
ers working in low job classifications. If given the oppor-
tunity and necessary in service training, they may help

strengthen the program.

Problem Situation Analysis

Because racial minorities are below parity in the owner-
ship, utilization, planning, management and development of
natural resources, efforts should be made to ensure that more
involvement occurs at each stage. A social marketing perspec-
tive, moreover, might identify the problem as lack of minority
demand for careers in natural resource. This demand may range
from "negative," "non-existent" to "latent.” At the same

time, demand by majorities for such careers is "overfull."

Problem Goal
In order to increase representation of racial minorities,
negative demand must be disabused by a conversional marketing
strategy, non-existent demand must be created by simulational
marketing and latent demand must be developed by developmen—

tal marketing.

145

In contrast, the demand by the majority group should be
reduced by a de-marketing strategy. For example, in the 1974
Michigan State study by Dunleavy, of students in the Parks and
Recreation curriculum, many indicated a reason for selecting
such a major was for an opportunity to "get away from people,"

or in other words work with the environment rather than with

people.1

In reality, perhaps, only a small percentage do work
extensively in remote regions away from all public contact.
However, accurate and timely information may dispell such
preconceptions by majority students which may allow them to
select another alternative. Perhaps in marketing a school's
program, working and helping people can be emphasized while

less emphasis is placed on remote duty stations.2 This strategy
may achieve two results: reduce attractiveness for majority stu-
dents and increase attractiveness for minority youth. Since
students do select careers based on an initial perception of

job tasks, location, advancement opportunities, etc., accurate

and timely career information may help create a more realistic

view of the field.

Prior Social Situation
By analyzing the environment of the primary target market
each state or region could localize its outreach strategy.

For example, within a particular state, economic, political,

 

1Dunleavy, A Description of Personal Backgrounds, Exper-
iences and Attitudes of Park and Recreation Resource Undergrads
at Michigan State University, 1974‘

2This is not to lessen the importance of management of re-
mote natural resources, but to outline an approach that could
be considered as a factor in altering attitudes.

146

technological, cultural and competitiveness (demand for jobs)
factors influence what can be reasonably accomplished.

In addition, if barriers such as lack of financial re—
sources, aspirational, geographic, physiological, psychologi-
cal and sociological are accepted as valid, then the appro-

priate system should be tackled to help remove these barriers.

Initiating Sets

A chief initiating set for the social action process
should logically include the agency or organization concerned
about the problem. In this case it is suggested that resource
agencies at all levels of government be involved or at least
share responsibility. Obviously, since some agencies have
expressed more interest or concern, a logical first step,
for example, may be an interagency agreement to assist efforts
in increasing the pool of qualified minority students and
professionals who become knowledgeable of natural resource
careers.

Secondly, since many universities with natural resources
programs are concerned about the lack of minority enrollment,
special pilot efforts should be initiated in those states
where both 1862 and 1890 land grant institutions share joint
responsibilities for teaching, research and extension acti-
vities. Efforts should be made to link their approaches.

But this linkage should not be one sided. It should represent
a mutual sharing of resources and information--i.e., the inter—
change of faculty, joint seminars, and student interchanges

for exposure to unique course offering, etc.

147

Legitimizers of Idea

Historically, minority educators have played an enormous
role in instilling in youth the necessity for an education.
What they lacked in material resources, they compensated by
moral support and encouragement to black youth. Now, with
the advent of integration, blacks may have equal access to
the latest equipment and newest books but sorely miss the
moral support and encouragement given their older borthers
and sisters. Black teachers knew firsthand the challenges that
were facing even those students who were fortunate enough to
graduate. Yet, because black educators are more dispersed in
the integrated schools, formal channels of moral support,
at least from this sector, may not be forth coming.

Increased reliance must be placed on the parents, rela-
tives and friends, community leaders and even peer group mem-
bers who help shape the perceptions and aspirations of the

student.

Diffusion Sets

The groups that can effectively dissiminate the idea
that minority involvement in this arena is critical are the
traditional civil rights organizations such as National Asso-
ciation for Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), Congress
for Racial Equality (CORE), National Urban League and Opera-
tion Push and newer, rural oriented organizations such as
Emergency Land Fund and Rural America. National social and
fraternal organizations such as ELKS, sororities, fraternites,

and local and community organizations such as community action

148

agencies and black churches can also play an effective role.
And because of the time devoted to the consumption of mass
media by minorities, it certainly may have some impact in
creating job awareness.

Third, minority professionals in agriculture and the
few in natural resources can play an instrumental role in
counseling black youth, but more specifically serving as a
role model.

Finally, all public organizations such as parks:
national forests and historical facilities, must ensure
that the interpretation of the minority heritage at park and

outdoor recreation facilities receive the highest priority.

Definition of Need

What should be the strategy for convincing minority
groups that something can be done? Primarily it reverts back
to the often repeated statement that natural resources are
a basic factor of production along with labor, capital, and
managerial skills. Secondly, political and economic influ-
ence are certainly associated with their ownership and con-
trol. Efforts such as those by the Emergency Land Fund to
stem the tide of the increasing loss of land by blacks must
be increased and supported by public policy. For example,

1

Professor Earl O. Heady notes that during the evolution of

agricultural policy in the United States, there has never

lEarl O. Heady, "Systems Concept in Agriculture—-The
Small Farm System," Comments made at Lucas Memorial Sympo-
sium, September 24, 25, 1979. N.C. State and N.C. A&T State
Universities.

149

really been a policy of protecting or ensuing economic viabi-

lity of the small family farm. Since most minority farmers or
land owners are in this category, public policy has effective-
ly led to the dilution of this equity base.

Most recently, Solomon in a report to Office of Minority
Business Enterprise has proposed that federal lands in the
south be increasingly used to stimulate the growth of minority
farming or other resource based operations. For example, in-
creasing number of cattle grazing permits issued to adjacent
minority land owners may help expand their operations from more

than a marginal level.

Techniques: The Planning Variables
According to Kotler, a successful marketing strategy
usually has four planning variables: product, promotion, place

1 If natural resource careers are considered the

and price.
product, then achieving the objective requires skillful manipu-
lation of the other variables. But what is the essential or

core feature of a natural resource career? Since they span a
diversity of tasks and require a host of skills, just what is the

core product? Professor Colin R. W. Spedding2

has suggested
that in order to understand a career one must know:
(1) what it is

(2) what it does

lKotler, Merketing for Nonprofit Organizatione, p. 163.

 

2Colin R. W. Spedding, "Systems Concept in Agriculture--
The Small Farm System," Comments made at Lucas Memorial Sym—
posium; September 24-25, 1979. N.C. State and N.C. A&T State
Universities.

150

(3) who does what within it

(4) where and for what purposes

If these questions are answered satisfactorily, then, the
core product may be discernable; this is what should be market—
ed initially. But in addition to the core product, there are
also intangible products or other related factors associated
with a career. For example, Richard Boles has suggested that
the process of job factoring often discloses the many sub-
systems or components associated with the main job.1 In other
words, although individual skills and competencies when taken
as a whole constitute a specific career--they also help determine
the intangible product. The core and intangible product, con—
sequently, should be promoted and actively marketed. Again,
Kotler recommends a full and comprehensive approach relying
on advertising to create awareness<bf different types of ca-
reers in natural resourcesy,personal selling to clarify(speci-
fic career questions)and publicity to reinforce dnitial choices).
Publicity may help reduce the dissonance between career choice
and perceived aspirations of significant others.

Publicity, can also highlight the potential of these
jobs to assist the community and the attractiveness of such
a career to meet community needs in the future. Moreover,
direct comparisons should be made with the more traditional and
well known careers such as law, engineering and medicine. The
interrelationship of each discipline and policy making, impli-

mentation and impact should be stressed. But more specifically

.n.

 

lRichard Boles, what Color Is Your Parachutgj (Berkeley,
California, Ten Speed Press, 19787, p. 102.

 

151

information should be provided on specific differences: (1)
educational and other requirements, (2) entry job and upgrad-
ing opportunities, (3) pay and fringe benefits, (4) possible lo—
cation of work, (5) working conditions, and (6) expected tasks.

What location or channel is optimum for the marketing
of variables? Because of the heterogeneity of racial minori-
ties, all channels (public, private, mass media, individual
contacts, etc.) should be employed to disseminate information
on the need for minorities in natural resources.

Market analysis would help determine the optimum level
of resources committed to individual channels, but each state
which has a sizeable minority population should establish a
pilot project to reach the target audience. For example, if
informal channels (participation in recreation and leisure
activities) as indicated by white respondents are indeed
sources of key career information, then efforts should be ini—
tiated to ensure similar minority exposure. For example,
participation in outdoor recreation activities and subsequent
exposure and exploration of different careers in natural
resources may be facilitated by intensive summer programs.
Specific objectives of such a summer program might be three
fold:

1. Provide informal channel for exposure
to natural environment,

2. Provide opportunity to explore different
natural resource career options,

3. Learn which colleges or technical insti—
tutes offer such programs.

152

Price is the third marketing factor. In this case it
might represent the salary and benefits associated with a par-
ticular career. When comparing competing careers such as
forestry vs. law or park and recreation resources vs. engi-
neering, the opportunity costs may represent the salary and
ben8fit differential (What salary and fringe benefits are fore—
gone because of selection of a differentncareer?). An effec-
tive marketing strategy, however, should not exclude those
students who have expressed an initial interest in law, engi-
neering or even medicine. Because of the complexity of envir-
onmental problems, many specialized disciplines help shape
policies and program. For these students, emphasis should be
placed on marketing methods in which the application of such
specialized careers can help achieve more effective management
of the basic resources. Obviously, what must be stressed is
the interdisciplinary character of all systems and the resul-
tant conflicts in simultaneously achieving economic growth,
resource protection and enhancement of the public's health
and well being.

Each state or region (natural resource agencies and uni-
versities) should develop short and long range goals for each
of the target markets: primary, secondary, tertiary and mis-
cellaneous. For example, a key goal that needs to be accom-
plished initially is to identify minorities within each of
the suggested market categories.

If identification of a pool of interested and qualified
minorities is an appropriate short range goal, then a long

range goal to provide accurate, timely and pertinent career

.153

information to this pool is also warranted.

The specific means for individuals and groups to re-
ceive this information spans mass and specialized media, paid
agents (full time director of state projects), and voluntary
groups and organizations. For example, college alumni em-
ployed in particular target counties may serve to funnel much
of this information. They are a logical conduit for two-way,
personalized communication flows.

The mobilization of resources might start with an inter-
agency task force and memorandum of understanding on the pri-
ority of increasing the number of racial minorities involved
in the natural resource development process. Appropriate
time, physical facilities, budget and staff skills are re—
quired.

Projects should be launched with effective promotional
activities, closely coordinated with other ongoing systems.
The implementation teams should monitor the process and rate
of information diffusion. Within this context the state ac-
tion plan should be developed and tailored to the specific
needs and characteristics of each state. Some suggested ac-
tion steps are:

l. Employ project director

2. Develop program materials

3. Identify and contact minority individuals

4. Recruit or enlist volunteers

5. Design and initiate pilot programs within states

154

6. Increase use and consumption of renewable
resource product (provide opportunities
for ethnic minorities to observe speci-
fic benefits occurring to the minority
community)
Finally, evaluating the progress of goal achievement
is extremely important. Since each identified market should
have specific objectives: such factors as, inputs, activities,
people involvement, reactions, change in knowledge, attitudes,
skills and aspirations, practice change and end results should
be measured. Specifically, the end results are to increase
minority representation to parity in natural resources use,
employment and developmental activities.
The above perspective of the social change process as
an action stage to address the problem of too few minorities
in natural resources warrant consideration. Because without
a major investment of time, human and financial resources to
stimulate such approaches in different states, minorities may

never achieve parity and thus have greater impact on planning,

owning, managing and developing the nation's natural resources.

Chapter VII
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Because ethnic minorities are employed in professional
positions in natural resources substantially below their per-
centages in the general population, this dissertation repre—
sents a systematic effort to address the problem. Using the
information diffusion model of Rogers as the theoretical
framework, an interdisciplinary approach evolved which re-
quired a review of pertinent literature from natural resources,
vocational choice and information diffusion.

The virtual lack of minorities in decision-making posi-
tions goes beyond the notion of "equal opportunity" and "affir-
mative action." It involves the socio-political policy making
process: deciding what is produced, how it is produced, and
who benefits from the development of natural resources of
which a substantial mount is owned or controlled by the public
sector.

The review of literature has shown that:

1. There is limited minority professional em—
ployment in natural resources;

2. Although there is some evidence that they
have had a negative land and environmental
heritage, there is also a positive aspect,
particularly with the potential of land
ownership as an equity resource;

155

156

3. There may exist more barriers--social, psy-
chological, economic, geographic--than
opportunities for entrance;

4. Although blacks may have different occupa-
tional selection patterns, race is not a
major predictor of career choice when all
other factors are controlled;

5. There is a relationship between career as-
pirations and knowledge of occupations;

6. Past vocational theories may have limited
utility for problems of special groups:
minorities, women and the handicapped;

7. Racial minorities possess great intergroup
diversity and generalizations about career
aspirations may be misleading;

8. Accurate, timely and appropriate career
information, is a necessity before minorities
start considering careers in non-traditional
fields;

9. The process of biculturation ensures that
most minorities are simultaneously encul-
turated to both ethnic and mainstream
culture;

10. And finally, although mainstream and ethnic
cultures are juxtaposed, institutional con-
ditions prevent minorities from achieving
mainstream middle-class values, aspirations
and role models.

Summary of Empirical Findings

 

This study was intended to assess career information diffu-
sion and determine its impact on vocational choices of gradu-
ates. The diffusion model consists of the three stages: (1)
the receiver and social system variables, (2) the innovation—-
decision process and (3) the consequence of the process. Basic
to the innovation-~decision stage is the knowledge variable,

which, according to the basic communication model, may be

157

considered in terms of source of career information, timeli-
ness of information, methods of receiving, content of message
and attitudes of receiver.

Knowledge of careers was operationally defined as the
matrix of perceived dissimilarities among the selected careers--
the perceived difference between traditional careers and ca—
reers in natural resources. Source was defined as those indi-
viduals or institutions that originate a message--interact
with the receiver in terms of presenting career information.
Method was defined as the means by which a meassage gets from
a source to a receiver. Timeliness was measured as the re—
spondent's age when initially exposed to career information
about five occupational factors. Content was useful infor-
mation about these same five occupational factors. Finally,
attitude was considered the psychological and social factors
influenceing an individual's choice of occupation. Specific
information was sought to determine significant differences
in test groupings, particularly by race in terms of career
knowledge, source, methods, timeliness, content and attitudes:

l. The finding by race (significantly different

at .05 level) show that minorities ranked
senior high courses, high school teachers
and junior high courses as moderate or
higher in importance as a source of career
information. Only the majority means for
recreation-leisure participation was ranked
significantly higher.

2. Prior to college, minorities ranked books,

lectures and demonstrations as important
methods of receiving career information.

3. Age of first receipt of useful career in-

formation about six job factors did not
differ significantly between races.

158

4. Prior to college none of the five content
factors showed any difference by race.

5. Whites and non-whites had similar respon-
ses for: (a) feeling of self-fulfillment,
(b) opportunity to participate in deter-
mining methods and procedures, (c) oppor-
tunity to develop close friendships, and
(d) feeling that administrators are will-
ing to discuss subordinate's problems.

The most dramatic difference, however, was
registered in response to the factor:
opportunity to help other people--minori-
ties ranked this factor higher by 22.6 units.

hypotheses Testing‘

 

From the information diffusion research model, six null
hypotheses were formulated to guide the investigation. 'Hypo-
thesis I states: Ehere is no difference in sources of career
information among graduates of natural resources programs
when analyzed by racial background. Results of the stepwise
discriminant analysis does not support this hypothesis. When
the discriminant functions and weighting coefficients are
evaluated, two statistically distinct patterns are revealed.
Although non-whites have relied on such formal sources as
senior high classes, senior high principal and clergymen as
sources of career information, these sources have largely
exerted a negative influence. Whites, however, have relied
mainly on non-formal channels such as recreation-leisure
participation and friends. These two factors have had a pos-
itive effect on their source of career information about
natural resources (See Table 27).

Hypothesis II states: there is no difference in methods

of career information dissemination among graduates when

159

analyzed by racial background.‘ Again the discriminant func---~
tion and weighting coefficients reveal two statistically dis-
tinct patterns. While whites only seem to place more importance
on books, non—whites indicate demonstrations, television
programs, magazines and newspapers are positive factors (See
Table 28) .

Hypothesis III states: there is no difference in time-
liness of receiving career information among graduates when
analyzed by racial background. Breakdown analysis of this
variable and subsequent difference of means tests reveal no
significant differences between races on age of first receipt
of useful career information about six job factors. Hypothesis
III, therefore seems to be supported by this analysis.

Hypothesis IV: there is no difference in content of
career information among graduates when analyzed by racial
background. Only two of five factors reveal any difference
between groups in the discriminant analysis. These two fac-
tors——amount of information about entry job and amount of
information about work location--statistically separate non-
whites from whites. Work location information is important
and would seem to have a positive impact on whites, while
information about entry job is important to non-whites but
appears to have a negative effect in the discriminant funtion
(See Table 29).

Hypothesis V's focus is on career attitudes or expec-
tations: there is no difference in attitudes among graduates

when analyzed by racial background. Again the discriminant

160

analysis tend not to support hypothesis V. While non-whites
rate opportunity to help others, security and opportunity for
personal growth—development high, these factors have a nega-
tive weighting coefficient. Whites, however, tend to rate
self-fulfillment and the administration's appreciation of
work as high. Both these two factors have positive coeffi-
cients (See Table 30).

The final hypothesis states: There is no difference
in perceived knowledge of careers (traditional versus non-
traditional) among graduates of natural resources programs
when analyzed by racial background. Here the discriminant
analysis shows a statistically distinct pattern between non—
whites and whites (See Table 31). While this measure is only
a perceived difference and not an actual difference it does
measure certain vectOrs where minorities and whites differ.
For example, two measures of difference exist for the money
vector, three for chance to correct current problems, two
for chance to work with people and two for educational re-
quirements. Surprisingly, the greatest differences appear
to be between perceived differences of traditional careers
and the forester.

Summarizing, five of six hypotheses were not supported
by the research results. The data reveals statistically dis—
tinct patterns between non-whites and whites for sources,
methods, content, career attitudes and career knowledge
variables. No such difference is observed for the timeli-

ness variable.

161

Theoretical and Methodological
Limitations

 

This study has several limitations which should be read-
ily acknowledged including sample size, return rate, question-
naire length and measurement of knowledge variable. Many of
the addresses of graduates obtained from the cooperating
universities were inaccurate or incomplete. Subtracting the
names of graduates that could not be contacted (non-telephone
confirmation and/or undeliverable questionnaires) reduced the
overall sample size. Although the rate of return approached
50 percent, the rate for questionnaires that actually reached
the intended respondent may be somewhat higher--the researcher
suspects that many survey instruments never reached the in-
tended respondent nor were accounted for as undeliverable
(via returned mail). Moreover, it was initially recognized
that these findings, could not be generalized to all graduates
of natural resources or related programs, but could point to
areas where future research might be fruitful.

Although several comments were received on the returned
questionnaire about length (11 pages), the majority of the
questions were answered. Several of the respondents, however,
experienced difficulty answering questions because they had
never really considered such questions with respect to their
career choice before. The assumption was made that those
graduates who objected to the length--justified on basis of
subject and study sample--did not bother to return the in-

strument.

162

Several respondents also questioned the validity of the
technique for measuring the knowledge variable. Again this
was probably a comparison that they had never been asked
to make. Because this measuring technique is much more
sophisticated than the treatment it received in this study,
future research is certainly warranted, particularly for
natural resource graduates.l

Finally, a purist of any one discipline tapped to de-
velop this research model may object to this applied approach,
but the researcher felt it crucial that all pertinent infor-
mation from related subjects be considered because of the
complexity of the problem and the paucity of natural resources
literature.

Assessment of Research for
the Future

 

Although this research has its limitations, it is never-
theless, useful. It represents, perhaps, the first attempt
to systematically examine the problem of recruiting racial
minorities to natural resource careers. Consequently, future
research is certainly warranted to extend this dimension and to
more fully understand information diffusion/dissemination and
the career choice process.

Specific suggestions for future research are:

(l) Duplication of study with larger and more

diversified sample—~include graduates of
other programs;

lWoelfel has shown that when perceived difference in
careers is measured in the ratio scale instead of nominal
or ordinal, it can expand the analysis strategy to include
such sophisticated techniques as factor analysis and regression.

(2)

(3)

(4)

163

Testing and refining of suggested models
through applied research projects;

Development of a coordinated national
or regional effort in natural resources
similar to the nationwide Minority
Engineering Project; and

General research of attitudes, motiva-
tions and change strategies for in-
volving more minorities in using,
owning, developing, and managing
natural resources.

APPENDICES

APPENDIX A

FACTORS IN SELECTION OF COLLEGES

AND UNIVERSITIES

164

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APPENDIX B

INITIAL LETTER TO UNIVERSITY CONTACTS

166

MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY

 

I)I4PAR‘I'MEN'I‘ 0F PARK AND RECREATION RESOURCES EAST LANSING ° MICHIGAN ' 48824
NAIL’RAI. RESOURCES BUILDING

March 31, 1978

Dear

Ne recently had the opportunity to study the Proceedings of "A Workshop on
Entry of Minorities into Natural Resource Careers" held at Tuskegee, Alabama,
in February l975. Since that time we have developed and received funding
for a research project which addresses that issue.

The objectives of this researcn project, "Information Diffusion and Career
Decision Making of Graduates of Natural Resource Programs with Implications
for Recruitment of Minorities" are:

1. To assess information diffusion and career decision making
of graduates of Natural Resource and related programs;

2. To compare the influence of perceived dissimilarities of
Natural Resource careers and other occupations of minority
and non-minority graduates of Natural Resource programs on
career decision making; and,

3. To develop a testable model for the recruitment of black
and other racial minorities for educational programs and
professional positions in the Natural Resource Field.

We are in the process of developing contacts with several of the individuals
and their institutions who attended that workshop. The nature of that con-
tact would be to facilitate the devel0pment of a list of graduates of Natural
Resource and related programs to establish the sample. Data will be collected
by mailed questionnaire. We are simultaneously contacting representatives
from the following institutions:

SUNY - College of Environmental

Science & Forestry Syracuse, New York
Michigan State University East Lansing, Michigan
Purdue University West Lafayette, Indiana
Alcorn State University Lorman, Mississippi
Florida A & M University Tallahassee, Florida
Lincoln University Jefferson City, Missouri
North Carolina A & T State University Greensboro, North Carolina
North Carolina State University Raleigh, North Carolina
Tuskegee Institute Tuskegee, Alabama

University of California - Berkeley Berkeley, California

167

Page "2"

We are interested in obtaining the names and current mailing addresses of

l965 and 1975 graduates of Natural Resource and other related programs from
your university. All costs that you might incur such as payment of computer
costs will be fully reimbursed. We sincerely invite your cooperation in this
study since we are looking for a sample representing diverse backgrounds, i.e.,
geographical, size of institution, program emphasis. The Specific effort re:
quested of each contact or cooperator is as follows:

l. During the month of April obtain a complete listing of l965
and 1975 graduates (names and current mailing addresses) of
Natural Resource and related programs from your institution.

2. During the latter part of April and the months of May and
June meet with Mr. Clyde Chesney, the Research Coordinator
of this project who will make a personal visit to each campus.
The purpose of these trips will be to obtain this information
and to finalize the sample.

Please complete and return the enclosed self-addressed post card as soon as
possible. Thank you for your time and prompt consideration of this matter.

Sincerely,

Lewis w. Moncrief, Ph.D. Clyde E. Chesney

Associate Professor Doctoral Student-Dept. of Resource Devel.
Principal Investigator Research Coordinator

LwMzrd

Enclosures

APPENDIX C

UNIVERSITY CONTACTS WHO ASSISTED WITH
THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE SAMPLE

168

APPENDIX C

UNIVERSITY CONTACTS WHO ASSISTED WITH
THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE SAMPLE

Dr. Charles A. Fountain
N.C. A&T State University

Dept. of Landscape Architecture

312 N. Dudley Street
Greensboro, NC 27411
FTS #699—5111
(919) 379-7520

Dr. John Helms

Asst. Dept. Chairman
145 Mulford Hall
Univ. Calif.-Berkeley
Dept. of Forestry
Berkeley, Calif.
FTS #458—6000
(405) 642—5037

94720

Dr. Willie F. Jackson
Chairman, Dept. of Agriculture
Alcorn State University
Lorman, Ms. 29096

FTS #490-4211

(601) 877-3711

Dr. Fred H. Montague

Asst. Prof. & Dir. Office of
Student Services

Dept. of Forestry & Nat.
Resources

Purdue University

W. LaFayette, IN

FTS #331-7000

(317) 749-2433

47907

Dr. LeRoy c. Saylor

Dept. of Forestry-Genetics
N.C. State University

P. O. Box 5126

Raleigh, NC 27607

FTS #672-4020

(919) 727-2883

Mr. Nathaniel Sayler

Associate Professor Science
& Technology

Campus Box 67

Florida A & M University

Tallahassee, Fla. 32307

FTS #946-2011

(904) 599-3429

Mr. Earl Stephens
Coordinator, Forest Resources
Tuskegee Institute
Tuskegee Institute, A1.
FTS #229-1000

(205) 727-8452

36088

Dr. Edward D. Taylor
Lincoln University
900 Moreau Drive
Jefferson City, Mo.
FTS #758-7212

(314) 751-3797

65101

Dr. Alton W. Zanders

Affirmative Action Officer

SUNY-College of Environmental
Sciences & Forestry

Syracuse, NY 13210

FTS #950-5111

(315) 473-8679

APPENDIX D

COVER LETTER

169

MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY

 

DFPAR'I‘MENT OF PARK AND RECREATION RESOURCES EAST LANSING : MICHIGAN ~ 48824
NATURAL RESOURCES BUILDING

Dear Graduate:

Michigan State University is doing research related to graduates of Natural
Resource programs in various schools. The primary objective of this research
is to assess information diffusion and career decision making of graduates of
Natural Resource programs of ten selected colleges and universities.

You have been contacted because you graduated from a Natural Resource or re-
lated program. Please consider this invitation to participate in the study.
We want you to participate whether you are working in a Natural Resource
field or not.

Participation involves completing a questionnaire. Section I of the question-
naire requests general information about your career decision making. Section II
of the questionnaire requests that you indicate the importance or influence of
various aspects of career information dissemination on your present occupation:
source(s), method(s), timeliness, content and career expectations. Section III
of the questionnaire requests that you compare pairs of careers (occupations)

for a number of characteristics. Section IV of the questionnaire requests
general information about family background, educational and labor force ex-
periences. You may plan to spend about thirty minutes for completion of the
questionnaire.

In order to maintain confidentiality and anonymity, participants are assigned

a study number for the purpose of grouping subjects. Additionally, no names

of participants or agencies are elicited on any Of the data collection tools.
The study findings will be reported as grouped data. Please complete the
questionnaire and return the booklet in the enclosed stamped envelope addressed
to me in seven days or at your earliest convenience.

Your participation is of great importance in facilitating understanding of
career decision making of graduates of Natural Resource programs. Should you
have further questions concerning the study, please do not hesitate to con-
tact me at Michigan State University or the following telephone number:

(517) 353-0823

Sincerely yours,

Clxe Chesney g
oordinator

Research Project
CC:fp

Enclosures: Questionnaire booklet
Addressed, stamped envelope

APPENDIX E

SURVEY INSTRUMENT

MICHIGIN STATE, UMIVEK‘SIW
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Finmcial investment

 

 

 

 

 

 

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How far apart in educational requirements are

 

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(8-10)
(ll-13)
(14-16)

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(20-22)
(23-25)
(26.28)

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(35-37)
(38-40)

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THIS mm IS CINFII'BH'IAL
Sectim IV: Background mta

Please fill out the blanks below to oatplete the survey.

 

Age (5-6) Sex: 1. Male 2. Fenale (7)
not (b you describe yourself: (8)

1. American Irdian 4. Oriental or Asiat—lmriaan

2. Black or Afro-Anerican or Negro S. White or Anglo—finerican

3. taxman-Herman or diicam 6. Other (specify)
Eula state if citim of U.S.? (9-10)

 

(State where you were born and/or lived trust of your fife up to a 18?
mrital stats: 1. Married 2. Single 3. Divorced 4. Squarated (ll)
Pleafi irdicate tle kird of place you lived for eadi period of your life:

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

3 E 33
A g '3 A In >
6 E a 53
E3 E g .3
0 i u
5 5 E ii,u
g £8 0 a g“
as 09 8 $5 . °
0 as be no FE gg
8 3m Um 38 H g
a ”3 us ”a 33 33
o E so 0“
gm - 8 HO u 8 g -
g is g9 5% 3a 6
H 3 94 5H t: a
«v «v «v «v o H
(1) (2) (3) (4) (S) (6)
1 - 6 years old (12)
7 -12 years old (13)
13 -18 years old (14)
Present lute (15)
Father's occapatim (what he does, E where he works) (16-17)
(If retired or deceasd, use last oocupatim)
water's ooapatim (what she does, M where she works) (ls-l9)
(If retired or deceased, me last oocupatiax)
lbw many brothers ad sisters do ya: have? (20-21)
Fir-I what type of high school did you graduate? (22)
l. Rblic 2. Private (Parochial) 3. Private (other) 4. Other
(e.g. 6.3.0.)
How army stidaxts were in your graduating class in high school? (23)

l. Iessthan49

2. 50 to 99
3. 100 to 199

4. 200 to 299
5. 300 to 399
6. over 400

—————
_
———

 

m1
Y3: E91

Fan- c raid: work cm rm tam ' (24-26)
Fanarrandxunkelsotmashiredaployee (27-29)
Ymth Greervaticn (brpa (BO-32)
Park ad recreatim wu'k (5.3-35)
(tr-mica work (36-38)
(teary store uh (3H1)
Other (specify) (42-44)
Aftummnimmmllegedidyuiremiwawpaidmrkaqzeriminmmlresom

before yuar first full tine jd)? (45)

1. Yes 2. )b
If yes. please specify. (46-47)

 

tififiiiifilfiitfit

Myouforyulrtineadeffortinfillingoutthisqmstimire. Yuxusistamwillbevuylulflul
inurhrstadirgmaaaxtinfomatimdifhxsimadcareerwsimmkimofgrahntesofmmlm
program. Ifyuaflmkflmmofldrmportmtthimswdemidermtfailedmimtmm.
plaanwritathluninthespoebelad. Alsopleaseplacethisanpletedqmstiamireintluadlmad
amlqaaadmilittxday.

mmmmmm

 

APPENDIX F

FIRST FOLLOW-UP LETTER

171

MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY

 

DEPAR'I‘MI‘INT OF PARK AND RECREATION RESOURCES EAST LANSING ‘ MICHIGAN ' 48824
NATURAL RESOURCES BUILDING

Dear Graduate:

Did you forget us? If you have, please take about 30 minutes and complete
the questionnaire on "Information Diffusion and Career Decision Making of
Graduates of Natural Resource Programs...". The questionnaire and a stamped
envelope addressed to me was mailed about two weeks ago. Your response

is essential for the completion of the study!

Please accept my thanks for your consideration in this research endeavor.

Sincerely,

00 WWW
Clyd Chesney 73’.
Research Project Coordinator

Cszp

APPENDIX G

SECOND FOLLOW-UP LETTER

172

MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY

 

I)I{PAR'I'MENT OF PARK AND RECREATION RESOURCES EAST LANSING ' MICHIGAN ' 48824
NATURAL RESOURCES BUILDING

Dear Graduate:

Again we invite your participation in the study of "Career Decision Making"
being conducted by Michigan State University; the overall objective is to
assess information diffusion and career decision making of graduates of Nat-
ural Resource programs.

We have contacted about 600 graduates of 10 universities in 9 states: Ala-
bama, California, Florida, Indiana, Michigan, Mississippi, Missouri, New York,
and North Carolina. To adequately document and understand the information
dissemination variables influencing career selection, however, it is imper-
ative that we obtain your completed questionnaire. Along with your fellow
graduates in agriculture, forestry, parks & recreation, fish & wildlife, and
other related areas, won't you invest about 30 minutes in this endeavor?

Section I of the questionnaire requests general career decision making inform-
ation; section II requests you rank the importance or influence of information
dissemination variables; section III requests that you compare pairs of car-
eers on the basis of 6 criteria; while section IV requests general background
information.

Let me reiterate that your confidentiality and anonymity will be maintained
at all times. Moreover, if you are at all concerned about the results of
this survey, we will be happy to provide you with a summary of the findings.

Thank you for your time and we will be looking for your questionnaire in the.
mail.

Sincerely,

 

Research Project Coordinator

Enclosures: Questionnaire booklet
Addressed, stamped envelope

CC:rd

APPENDIX H

CONVERSATION GUIDE AND QUESTIONNAIRE

USED IN THE TELEPHONE FOLLOW-UP

173

CONVERSATION GUIDE and QUESTIONNAIRE Used in the Telephone Follow-Up of the
l978 Infonnation Diffusion and Career Dicision Making Survey.

Name of Natural Resource Graduate

 

Street Address

 

City a State

 

Telephone #

 

Identification #

 

 

 

 

Hello, is this the residence?
( ) Yes ( ) No ————i (If no, but home of parents or other
relative:

[PROCEED IU FAGE 2A I

If no, confinn the number dialed &
terminate the call)

 

 

 

 

 

 

w ( ) Wrong Number
( ) Wrong Residence
May I speak with ?
(Nat. Res. GradCT
( ) Yes ( ) No —————§(If no), Is there a convenient time
l' at which I can call back & Speak
with him/her?
[PROCEED TO PAGE Zj
( ) Yes
Time (If a time cannot be
(between 7-l0 set up, then ask to
p.m.) speak to someone who
may recall if
Day received a questionnaire
from Michigan State
Terminate University.

 

 

the call

 

ROCE'D GE 2

 

174

If Home of Graduate:

 

My name is and I'm calling
from Michigan State University in regards
to a Career Decision Making questionnaire
we sent you a while back. I'm calling to
find out if you have received it in the

 

mail yet.
( ) Yes ( ) No———+ We are doing a study of graduates of
Natural Resource and/or related Agri-
Have you had a chance to cultural programs in order to under-
complete and return it to stand how you obtained career infonm-
us yet? ation and how you decided on a career.
We sent questionnaires to graduates of
( ) Yes ( ) No several schools and our records show

that you should have received one in

,_g g the mail. If we send you another one

[Terfifinate the caIl_] will you be willing to complete and
return it to us?

 

Your response is important to us

for the successful completion of ( ) Yes ( ) No-——-—-—1~
the study. Will you be willing to
complete and return the question- Will you please give me your
naire within the next few days? present address so that we
can put a questionnaire in
( ) Yes ( ) No the mail for you tomorrow?

 

Do you still have Sproceed to

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

the questionnaire? Page 3
( ) Yes ( ) No
Thank you for your
time and we will be __g 1
looking for your [Terminatefithe callj
questionnaire in
the mail.
IL *Procee to
Will you please give me Page 3

 

 

 

your present address so
that we can put a question-
naire in the mail for you
tomorrow?

 

 

 

 

L———o{Terminate the calfl

175

If Home of Parents or Other Relatives:
(Respondént Has other address)

My name is and I'm calling from Michigan State University
in regards to a Career Decision Making Questionnaire we sent to this
address a while back. I'm calling to find out if you have received
it in the mail yet.

( ) Yes ( ) No -—-——7

Have you had a chance to
forward it to your son/
daughter (or other relative)
yet?

( ) Yes ( ) No

 

We are doing a study of graduates of Natural
Resource and/or related Agricultural programs
in order to understand how they obtained career
information and how they decided on a career.

We sent questionnaires to graduates of several
schools and' our records show that your son/
daughter (or other relative) should have received
one.

If you can give us his/her current address, we can
put another questionnaire in the mail for them
tomorrow.

( ) If parents or other relative
refuse to give address of
respondent, also

Terminate 4% call

 

 

 

 

Do you have their phone #?

lerminate the caIl

 

 

2A

175 3

While I have you on the phone, it will be useful to our study to get a limited
amount of information concerning your career decision making. Will you answer
a few short questions for me now?

 

( ) Yes ( ) No Teranate the Call
l. Are you now employed in a natural resource or related field? ( ) Yes ( ) No

2. What is your present job/or last job if unemployed?

 

 

Code appropriate aspect: (I) Forestry, (2) Fish & Wildlife, (3) Parks 8
Recreation, (4) Agriculture, (5) Other.

3. What sources of career information were most influential prior to your
enrollment in college?

 

After College:

 

 

4. What methods of obtaining career information were most important prior to
your enrollment in college?

 

 

After College:

 

 

5. What age did you first learn about the educational & other requirements of
this career?

 

6. What job factors were most important in selecting your career?

 

 

 

 

[PROCEED T0 PAggmfi]

177

In order to better understand career decision making of natural resource grad-
uates, we need to relate the information to background data. Will you please
answer the following questions?

10.
II.

12.

( ) Yes ( ) No

 

~TE'rmifi'ate the CalT’

 

What is your age?

 

What state were you born and/or lived most of your life up to age 18?

 

What is your fathers occupation?

 

What is your mothers occupation?

 

How many brothers & sisters do you have?

 

What kinds of work experience did you have prior to your initial enroll-
ment in college?

 

Length (how long)?

 

After enrolling in college did you receive any paid work eXperience in
natural resources before your first full time job? ( ) Yes ( ) No

 

 

Code type (I) Forestry, (2) Fisheries & Wildlife, (3) Parks & Recreation,
(4) Agriculture, (5) Other.

 

‘Termlnate the tall

Check the sex and race of the person talked to:

Male Female

American Indian Oriental or Asian American
Black White or Anglo-American
Mexican-American Other

Not sure

APPENDIX I

CONVERSATION GUIDE AND QUESTIONNAIRE

USED IN THE PRE-TELEPHONE CONTACT

178

CONVERSATION GUIDE and QUESTIONNAIRE Used in the Pre-telephone Contact of
Potential Respondents in the l978 Information Diffusion and Career Decision
Making Survey.

Name of Natural Resource Graduate

 

Street Address

 

City & State

 

Telephone #

 

Identification #

 

 

 

 

Hello, is this the residence?
( ) Yes ( ) No-——-——-—-p»(If no, but home of parents or other
relative:

[EWKREJHI‘RTTURETIHK]

If no, confinn the number dialed &
terminate the call)

( ) Wrong Number
«h' ( ) Wrong Residence
May I Speak with ?

(Nat. Res. Gradf)

 

 

( ) Yes ( ) No ———-———-§(If no), Is there a convenient time
at which I can call back & speak
with him/her? '

 

[PROCEED TO PAGE 27

 

 

( ) Yes
Time (If a time cannot be
(between 7-IO set up, then ask to
p.m.) Speak to someone who
may recall if
Day received a questTonnaTre
i y from Michigan State
' erminate University.

 

 

the Call

 

[jflfiflflflfiT‘RTTWRRITF]

179

If Home of Graduate:

 

My name is and I'm calling
from Michigan State University in regards
to a Career Decision Making questionnaire.~

 

We are doing a study of graduates of Natural Resources
and/or related Agricultural programs in order to under-
stand how you obtained career information and how you
decided on a career.

Your reSponse is important to us for the successful
completion of the study. Will you be willing to
complete and return the questionnaire within the
next few days?

( ) Yes ( ) No -——-—————9 IPROCEED IO PAGE 3)

Will you please give me your present address so that we
can put a questionnaire in the mail for you tomorrow?

 

 

{Terminate the CallJ

2A
180

If Home of Parents or Other Relatives:
(Respondent—has other address)

My name is and I'm calling from Michigan State University.

We are doing a study of graduates of Natural Resources and/or
related Agricultural programs in order to understand how they
obtained career information and how they decided on a career.

We plan to send questionnaires to graduates of several schools and
our records show that your son/daughter (or other relative) should

receive one. i

If you can give us his/her current address, we can put a question-
naire in the mail for them tomorrow.

( ) If parents or other relative
refuse to give address of
respondent, also

 

 

 

 

Llerminate thE'Call:]
Do you have their phone #?

 

[Terminate the CEI];]

 

181 3

While I have you on the phone, it will be useful to our study to get a limited
amount of information concerning your career decision making. Will you answer
a few short questions for me now?

 

( ) Yes ( ) No-———g[1Ermihate the CalT]
I. Are you now employed in a natural resource or related field? ( ) Yes ( ) No

2. What is your present job/or last job if unemployed?

 

 

Code appropriate aspect: (l) Forestry, (2) Fish & Wildlife, (3) Parks &
Recreation, (4) Agriculture, (5) Other.

3. What sources of career information were most influential prior to your
enrollment in college?

 

 

After College:

 

 

4. What methods of obtaining career information were most important prior to
your enrollment in college?

 

 

After College:

 

 

5. What age did you first learn about the educational & other requirements of
this career? .

 

 

6. What job factors were most important in selecting your career?

 

 

 

LEFRCEERIIMAEEMM

182

In order to better understand career decision making of natural resource grad-
uates, we need to relate the information to background data. Will you please
answer the following questions?

( ) Yes ( ) No

 

‘Términate tfié Call

7. What is your age?

 

8. What state were you born and/or lived most of your life up to age 18?

 

9. What is your fathers occupation?

 

What is your mothers occupation?

 

lO. How many brouthers & sisters do you have?

 

ll. What kinds of work experience did you have prior to your initial enroll-
ment in college?

 

Length (how Long)?

 

12. After enrolling in college did you receive any paid work experience in
natural resources before your first full time job? ( ) Yes ( ) No

 

 

Code type (1) Forestry, (2) Fisheries & Wildlife, (3) Parks & Recreation,
(4) Agriculture, (5) Other.

 

Terminate the Call

 

Check the sex and race of the person talked to:

Male Female

American Indian Oriental or Asian American
Black White or Anglo—American
Mexican-American Other

Not sure

APPENDIX J

BREAKDOWN TABLES FOR KNOWLEDGE

VARIABLE BY RACE

183

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h xHQmemd

184

 

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185

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186

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187

 

 

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188

 

 

 

 

 

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189

 

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APPENDIX K

RESOURCE PERSONS CONSULTED CONCERNING

DEVELOPMENT OF RECRUITMENT COMPONENT

194
APPENDIX K

RESOURCE PERSONS CONSULTED CONCERNING
DEVELOPMENT OF RECRUITMENT COMPONENT

The researcher interviewed the following individuals
to gain insights about a workable recruitment model:

Bernie Akin
Director of Personnel Management
USDA--Forest Service

Dr. Don Coleman

Former Project Director for

Minority Comprehensive Support Program
Assistant Dean, Graduate School
Michigan State University

Dr. William Gamble

Director of Minority Affairs

College of Engineering and '
Professor, Education and Counseling Service
Michigan State University

Beverly C. Homes

Staff Assistant to the
Deputy Chief for Research
USDA--Forest Service

Jetie Wilds, Jr.
Director of Civil Rights
USDA-—Forest Service

Keith Williams
Director of Upward Bound Program
Michigan State University

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