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I I .‘u f} . l I“. ‘ " TI. :‘1‘r m. I; '3‘“? ‘I’Ir‘r I 1:4 . lw'ul“ ‘II‘h1III‘H I I "I I I U‘ "II, .II . .I II,“ I 5}“. :IIEI‘IL'IIIILIK "‘t-II I I‘II ‘I! E? q I D‘IJII‘.(‘::‘ '§‘.V‘m...§1I I .jt‘z'E'I‘SI‘Hl &VJ'Y1‘5J$£.‘-‘th"kWJj if)! Ickfitfl J This is to certify that the thesis entitled POST RICE PRODUCTION SYSTEMS. ANALYSIS presented by Sarathchandra Gemunu Ilangantileke has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph.D. degree m Agricultural Engineering Technology WZW k Major professor Date November 3, 1978 0-7 639 JIIIIIII IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII 3 1293 POST RICE PRODUCTION SYSTEMS ANALYSIS BY Sarathchandra Gemunu Ilangantileke A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Agricultural Engineering 1978 ABSTRACT POST RICE PRODUCTION SYSTEMS ANALYSIS BY Sarathchandra Gemunu Ilangantileke A systems analysis was made of the in-field post rice production operations in Sri Lanka. Grain losses and tech— nology were investigated and evaluated in relation to climate and labor availability. Field measurement for the two harvesting seasons, the Yala and Maha, were made in selected Sri Lankan farmers' fields. The field measurement data were analyzed and equations were developed for use in formulating a systems model. The model was then used to simulate the response of selected rice varieties to differ- ent alternative technological practices. Grain losses in the harvesting operations were in- fluenced by the timeliness of the operations. Delayed cutting beyond the optimum date (28 to 32 days after 50 percent heading), increased the possibilities of grain loss before and after cutting. Losses due to birds and rodents increased with delayed harvesting. Preharvest shattering losses increased with maturity and delayed harvesting. Sarathchandra Gemunu Ilangantileke Varieties quite resistant to lodging were observed to lodge more when left on the field beyond the maturity period. Lodged plants were then subject to excessive rodent damage. Delays in the harvesting operation were influenced by rain and labor availability. The attachment of the grain kernels to the panicle began to weaken at maturity and continued beyond. All handling losses increased beyond maturity. Threshing opera- tions utilizing tractors, buffalos, and mechanical threshers caused more transport losses than the pedal thresher. Both premature and delayed harvesting increased the percentage of broken grain at threshing. Cutting at the optimum date of 28 to 32 days after 50 percent heading reduced the per- centage of broken grains to a minimum. The pedal threshing system caused the lowest proportion of broken grain for all selected varieties investigated. The systems analysis of the post production operations identified weaknesses in the various technological packages. The simulation model provided a means studying the influence of climate and labor availability on the post production operations. Variety and post production losses as influenced by labor and weather were simulated. The pedal thresher was identified as the most appro- priate technology for minimizing grain losses. The optimum time for harvesting was between 28 and 32 days after 50 Sarathchandra Gemunu Ilangantileke percent heading. Further research in storing stalk paddy for delayed off-field threshing and a systems analysis of all off-field post production operations is recommended. Approved flflgé x W Approved To my late Parents ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I gratefully acknowledge the support of many individ— uals and organizations who contributed to this study. I particularly wish to express my appreciation to: Dr. Merle L. Esmay, my major professor, for his guidance, unfailing courtesy and patient encouragement during this work. Dr. Allan Phillips, of the East-West Resource Systems Institute, for his continuous support in setting up and conducting this study. Dr. Donald Penner, Dr. Robert Wilkinson and Dr. Ajit Srivastava, the other members of the Guidance Committee, for their advice. The East-West Center Resource Systems Institute in Hawaii, for its Doctoral Internship and generous financial support to conduct and complete this study. The staff of the EWC-RSI for their valuable assistance during my internship. The University of Sri Lanka and the UNDP for making my studies in the USA a possibility. iii Messrs. Gunasinghe, Serasinghe, Rupasena, Dissanayake, Wanigatunga, Weerasena and Silva for their untiring help in collecting the field data. Ms. Karen Smith, of the EWC, for her friendship and assistance in typing and editing a continually changing manuscript. Ms. Nancy Gisse for typing the final draft on very short notice. Finally my wife Nirmali and Son Ranjula, my gratitude for their unending patience and understanding during my prolonged periods of absence from home. iv LIST OF TABLES TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF FIGURES. . . . . . . . . . Chapter I. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . Problem Overview . . . . Objectives . . . . . . . II. EXISTING POST PRODUCTION SRI LANKA. . . . . . . . Harvesting . . . . . . . Bundling . . . Storage. . . . . Rough Rice/Milled Trading Practices. Transport. . . . . . . . Threshing. . . . . . . Winnowing. . . . . . . Drying . . . . . . . . M a) b) C) d) e) f) 9) Rice Historical Preview. The Paddy Marketing Its Objectives. . Purchasing of Rough Rough Rice Milling. Milling of Raw Rice Parboiled Milling . l) Parboiling . . 2) Milling of Parboiled, Rough Rice . . . . Trading Practices . ovement and OPERATIONS IN Page ix 12 13 16 19 21 22 23 23 26 27 28 30 32 32 35 36 Chapter III. LITERATURE REVIEW OF THE IN-FIELD POST PRODUCTION SYSTEM. . . . . . . . . . . 3.1 Field Losses Before Cutting —- Pre-Harvest Losses. . . . . a) Shattering Losses. . . . . b) Lodging. . . . . . . . . . c) Bird and Rodent Damage . . 3.2 Harvesting-Cutting Losses . . . a) Cutting by Sickle. . . . . b) Panicle Harvesting . . . . 3.3 Time of Harvest . . . . . . . . 3.4 Laying and Bundling . . . . . . 3.5 Field Transportation. . . . . . 3.6 Threshing . . . . . . . . . . . IV. ASSESSING POST PRODUCTION FIELD LOSSES . METHODOLOGY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1 Variety and Farm Selection. . 4.2 Field Measurements for the Yala Season of 1977. . . . . . . . 4.3 Preharvest. . . . . . . . . . . 4.4 Harvesting. . . . . . . . . . . 4.5 Field Handling. . . . . . . . . 4.6 Transporting. . . . . . . . . . 4.7 Threshing . . . . . . . . . . . 4.8 Field Measurements for the Maha 1977-78 . . . . . . . . . . . 4.9 Statistical Analysis. . . . . . vi Page 38 39 39 47 52 57 58 60 62 69 71 75 84 85 85 85 86 87 87 88 88 89 89 Chapter Page RESULTS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 4.10 Lodging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 4.11 Grain Moisture Content. . . . . . . 92 4.12 Sunchecked Grain. . . . . . . . . . 96 4.13 Losses Before Cutting . . . . . . . 101 4.14 Losses At Cutting . . . . . . . . . 102 4.15 Bundling Losses . . . . . . . . . . 105 4.16 Grain Losses at Transport . . . . . 108 4.17 Bird and Rodent Losses. . . . . . . 111 4.18 Percentage of Broken Grains . . . . 114 DISCUSSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 V. THE IN-FIELD POST PRODUCTION SUBSYSTEM MODEL DEVELOPMENT 0 C O O O O O O O O O C O C O O l 2 9 5.1 Theory and Derivation of Equations for the Model . . . . . . . . . . 129 5.2 The Overall Model . . . . . . . . . 131 5.3 The Cutting Model . . . . . . . . . 133 5.4 The Labor Model . . . . . . . . . . 137 5.5 The Rain Model. . . . . . . . . . . 139 5.6 The Bundling and Transport Model. . 149 5.7 Threshing Models. . . . . . . . . . 155 a) Pedal Threshing. . . . . . . . 155 b) Buffalo Threshing. . . . . . . 159 c) Tractor Threshing. . . . . . . 160 d) Mechanical Threshing . . . . . 161 VI. SIMULATION RESULTS AND DISCUSSION. . . . . . 165 6.1 Inputs to the Model . . . . . . . . 165 6.2 Model Output. . . . . . . . . . . . 167 vii Chapter Page VII. RECOMMENDATIONS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 VIII. CONCLUSIONS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210 APPENDICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218 viii Table 1.1 LIST OF TABLES Total Production, Total Imports, Losses in Production at 20 Percent and Import Requirements from 1970 to 1974 . . . . . . . Labor Requirements for Paddy Production in Man Days per Acre in Pre-HYV and Post-HYV Times. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Distribution and Types of Rice Mills in Sri Lanka up to 1978 . . . . . . . . . . . . Harvesting Schedule for Variety BG. 94-1 . . . Characteristics of the Selected Varieties. . Grain Moisture of Varieties Under Test . Harvesting Schedule for Harvest on 16th Day. . Harvesting Schedule for Harvest on 20th Day After 50 Percent Heading . . . . . . . . . . Harvesting Schedule for Harvest on 24th Day. . Harvesting Schedule for Harvest on 28th Day. . Harvesting Schedule for Harvest on 32nd Day. . Harvesting Schedule for Harvest on 36th Day. . Harvesting Schedule for Harvest on 40th Day. . ix Page 10 31 87 90 93 168 171 174 178 181 185 188 Figure LIST OF FIGURES 1.1 Total Production, Total Imports, Losses at 20 Percent, and Possible Savings from 1970 to 1974. . . . . . . The Post Production System . . Cutting the Paddy Stalk. . . . . Windrowing of the Cut Stalk. . Forming Bundles of Cut Stalk for Transportation . . . . . . . . Transporting the Cut Stalk . . . on Imports Method of Carrying the Bundle on the Head. Use of Tractor and Trailer for Transport . Stacks of Cut Stalk After Transportation . Threshing by Means of Buffalos . Tractor Threshing. . . . . . . . Diagram Illustrating the Goviya Plant. . . Schematic Diagram of the Rough/Milled Rice Post Harvest Movement in Sri Lanka . The In-Field Post Production Subsystem . Parts of a Spikelet (IRRI 1965). Decrease in Moisture Content of the Grain After Maturity (From Wanders 1974) Effects of Delayed Harvesting on Shattering Loss for Variety D52-37. . . . Page . . 4 . . 6 . . 11 . . 11 . . 14 . . 14 . . 15 . . 15 . . 18 . . 18 . . 20 . . 33 . . 36 . 40 . . 43 . . 43 . . 46 Figure Page 3.5 The Influence of Different Factors Contributing to Shattering Losses. . . . . . 48 3.6 Changes in Index of Lodging after Heading (From Sugimoto 1965) . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 3.7 Relationship Between Breaking Strength of Stem and Potassium Content of Culm (From Kono and Takahashi 1961). . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 3.8 Losses Due to Lodging as Influenced by Environmental and Managerial Functions . . . 54 3.9 Percentage of Sunchecks with Delayed Harvesting (From Wanders 1974). . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 3.10 Factors Influencing Grain Loss During the Cutting Operation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 3.11 Factors Influencing Losses in the Laying and Bundling Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 3.12 Factors Influencing the Losses of Grain During Transport. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 3.13 Factors Influencing Losses at Threshing. . . . 83 4.1 Variations in Average Grain Moisture Content With Harvest Dates 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O 97 4.2 Variation in Sunchecked Grain at Different Harvest Dates. 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 100 4.3 Losses Before Cutting as Influenced by Harvest Dates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 4.4 Losses at Cutting as Influenced by Harvest Dates. 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O I O O 106 4.5 Bundling Losses as Influenced by Harvest Dates. 0 I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 109 4.6 Transport Losses as Influenced by Harvest Dates. 0 0 O 0 O O O O O O O O I O O O O O 0 112 4.7 Bird and Rodent Losses as Influenced by Harvest Dates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 xi Figure 4.8 4.9 Page Percentage Broken Grains at Threshing - variety BG. 34-8 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O 118 Percentage Broken Grains at Threshing - Variety BG. 11-11. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 Percentage Broken Grains at Threshing - Variety BG. 90-2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 Percentage Broken Grains at Threshing - variety H-4. 0 O O O C O O O O O O O O O O O 124 Percentage Broken Grains at Threshing - Variety BG. 94-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 Cutting Sequence of the Overall Model. . . . . 132 Cutting Sequence for Individual Post Production Medel. O C O I O C O I O O O C O O O O O O O 133 The Post Production Farm Level Model . . . . . 134 The Cutting Model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 Actual and Predicted Rainfall Probabilities from Regression, Season I. . . . . . . . . . 142 Actual and Predicted Rainfall Probabilities from Regression, Season II . . . . . . . . . 143 Rain Subroutine to Simulate Occurrence of Rain (R=l) or NO Rain (R=O) o o o o o o o o o o o 145 Bundling, Transport and Pedal Threshing as Affected by Rain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 Bundling and Transport Model . . . . . . . . . 153 Bundling, Transport and Pedal Threshing Model. 158 A Common Flow Chart for the Four Threshing Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162 Areas Harvested Per Working Day, Cutting on 16th Day after 50 Percent Heading. . . . . . 169 Available Labor for the Harvesting Operations, Cutting on 16th Day. . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 xii Figure Page 6.3 Losses in the Post Production Operations When Harvested at 16 days after Heading (kg) 0 o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 170 6.4 Areas Harvested Per Working Day, Cutting on 20th Day After 50 Percent Heading. . . . . . 172 6.5 Available Labor for the Harvesting Operations, Cutting on the 20th Day. . . . . . . . . . . 172 6.6 Losses in the Post Production Operations When Harvested at 20 Days after 50 Percent Heading (kg) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173 6.7 Areas Harvested Per Working Day, Cutting on 24th Day after 50 Percent Heading. . . . . . 175 6.8 Available Labor for the Harvesting Operations, Cutting on 24th Day. . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 6.9 Losses in Post Production When Harvested at 24 Days after 50 Percent Heading (kg). . . . 177 6.10 Areas Harvested Per Working Day, Cutting on 28th Day after 50 Percent Heading. . . . . . 179 6.11 Available Labor for the Harvesting Operations, Cutting on 28th Day. . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 6.12 Losses in the Post Production Operations When Harvested at 28 Days after 50 Percent Heading. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . O 180 6.13 Areas Harvested Per Working Day, Cutting on 32nd Day after 50 Percent Heading. . . . . . 182 6.14 Available Labor for the Harvesting Operations, Cutting on 32nd Day. . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 6.15 Losses in the Post Production Operations When Harvested at 32 Days after 50 Percent Heading (kg) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 6.16 Areas Harvested Per Working Day, Cutting on 36th Day after 50 Percent Heading. . . . . . 186 6.17 Available Labor for the Harvesting Operations, Cutting on 36th Day. . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 xiii Figure 6.18 Losses in the Post Production Operations When Harvested at 36 Days after 50 Percent Heading (kg) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.19 Areas Harvested Per Working Day, Cutting on 40th Day after 50 Percent Heading. . . . 6.20 Labor Availability for the Harvesting Operations, Cutting on 40th Day. . . . . . 6.21 Losses in Post Production Operations, Harvesting at 40 Days after 50 Percent Heading (kg) 0 o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 6.22 Simulated Percent Broken Grains and Percent Moisture Content for Different Harvest Dates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . O 6.23 Simulated Percent Sunchecks and Grain Losses Due to Birds and Rodents at Different Harvest Dates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.24 Simulated Handling Losses for Different Harvest Dates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . O 6.25 Simulated Total Labor Used at Different Harvest Dates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.26 Simulated Losses at Transport in (kg) at Different Harvest Dates. . . . . . . . . . 6.27 Simulated Total Grain Loss in the In-Field Post Production Operation. . . . . . . . . xiv Page 187 189 189 191 192 193 195 195 197 198 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Problem Overview. Rice is an important staple in many Asian countries. Increased demand for food and agricultural products, pressed by high population growth, have led many Asian countries to focus national policies toward increased pro- duction and self-sufficiency. The drive toward self- sufficiency and increased production in recent years has resulted in the improvement of rice production technolo- gies, which have contributed to higher yields in South and Southeast Asian countries. Higher yielding fertilizer responsive varieties, along with better crop protection, water control and other improved cultural practices, have accounted for the yield increases. Along with the high yields has been an increase in the magnitude of losses throughout the post production handling operations. Due to differing technological practices, these post production losses vary between nations, regions and fields of cultiva- tion. The extensive literature estimate losses from 8 to 30 percent of the total production.l/ ;/ See works of Ashan and Hague (1975), Efferson (1974), Wimberly (1974) and Bhole (1970). Improved varieties and production technologies adopted by a majority of Sri Lankan farmers in recent years have, as in other countries, increased rice production. Sri Lankan estimated losses in the post production system are, however, as high as 25 to 30 percent, (Wimberly, 1974). Table 1.1 and Figure 1.1 show estimates of production losses at 20 percent. This projects to a total rice loss for Sri Lanka in 1974 of 313,000 tons in the post production system. If these losses could have been reduced by only one-third, most of the 115,000 tons of imported rice could have been saved, thereby bringing about savings in foreign reserves. The Mahaveli Ganga Development project envisions in- tensive production of 360,000 ha of land of which only 53,000 ha are now even single cropped, (Cook, 1976). The introduction of irrigation facilities for existing as well as new agricultural land will make double cropping of rice possible. Double cropping combined with high yielding varieties and improved technological and cultural practices should provide significant increases in rice production. The existing inefficient post production practices can, however, provide a major bottleneck in the increased pro- duction plan. It is essential that detailed planning for cropping schedules, production inputs and labor availability also consider harvesting schedules, as well as the avail- ability of drying and storage facilities. The first harvest of 1978 brought about major storage and milling capacity Table 1.1 Total Production, Total Imports, Losses in Production at 20 percent and Import Requirement from 1970 to 1974. Year* Production* Rice Imports* Losses Import (1000 m.t.) (Paddy at 20% Requirement equivalent (1000 m.t.) 1000 m.t.) 1970 1581.1 690.0 316.22 373.78 1971 1365.6 424.0 273.12 150.88 1972 1284.1 428.8 256.82 172.98 1973 1284.1 489.7 256.82 232.86 1974 1567.8 428.3 313.40 114.90 *Source: Department of Census and Statistics, Sri Lanka problems due to the unforseen rice production increases, brought about by the completion of Stage I of the Mahaveli scheme. The use of temporary storage bins and tarpaulin covers during monsoonal conditions led to a substantial loss of that production. A detailed examination of the post production technological operations was shown to be useful for future increased efficiency. Appropriate post production methods and technologi- cal practices are as important as the rice production phase. The harvesting, handling, threshing, processing, storage and marketing operations determine the quality and quantity of rice that is ultimately available for consumption. Improper post production operations will cause losses in quantity as well as sub-standard rice quality for the consumer. The evaluation of post production losses is WEIGHT IN 1000 m. t. 1500 1000 500 10 \L 1 TOTAL PRODUCTION TOTAL IMPORTS ‘ 70 Figure 1.1 SAvwes GIMMPORTSI ‘ y 71 72 73 74 Total Production, Total Imports, Losses at 20 Percent, and possible savings on imports from 1970 to 1974. (Source, Department of Census & Statistics, Sri Lanka) critical for determining the appropriate technologies for the interdependent post production operations. Independent evaluations of the separate operations in the system have not proven sufficient. Therefore an emphasis must be placed on the study of all post production operations as a system. This research was designed to formulate a detailed systems analysis of the post rice production operations. The post production system was divided into two subsystems; a) The in-field subsystem and b) the off-field subsystem. Both are shown in Figure 1.2. This study concentrates mainly on the in—field subsystem with special emphasis on the preharvest, harvest, handling, transport and threshing operations. Objectives: 1) Identify existing technology weaknesses which increase losses both in quantity and quality of available grain. 2) Establish optimum harvesting times for selected varieties to minimize handling and processing losses. 3) Identify the most appropriate alternative tech— nology for minimization of losses. In order to achieve the mentioned objectives, the following methodology is envisaged. Eoummm :oHuoscoum umom one N.H madman 583300 5.830er 5 $30.. == 5396 cozozcotn. Ben. mczmxemS. 52935 820805 60d 29:.— :0 mot 26m .._I toamcmc. All___ 95...). 1.1 = 85:85.. 52985 8:88... tom .22“. s @5520 rII==Iv 9.35 = @385 =T toawcmc. |_l roamed: Em: 9.595. 1.==.l new @565: =TEm>EI = beams. Enos. cone—605 «won... a) Formulate a detailed systems model to analyze the post production process with emphasis on the in— field subsystem. b) Make field measurements for assessment of losses related to the technological operations. c) Utilize data from field measurements to construct a systems model to predict the loss response of selected rice varieties to different alternative technological practices. The results of the study would be used to help dissemi— nate appropriate post production technology information to producers, as well as help formulate the basis for a future systems analysis of the off-field post production subsystems. Chapter II describes the existing post production opera- tions in Sri Lanka. Chapter III is a literature review of the in-field post production subsystem. Chapter IV de- scribes the methodology and the results in assessing post production field losses. Chapter V describes the in-field post production subsystem model development. Chapter VI de- scribes the results and discussion of the simulation, while Chapters VII and VIII are recommendations and conclusions respectively. CHAPTER II EXISTING POST PRODUCTION OPERATIONS IN SRI LANKA Rice is cultivated in all climatic zones, namely the wet, intermediate and the dry zones. The zone demarkations are governed mainly by climate and geographic features. The dry zone may either be subject to the Northeast monsoon of the Maha season or both the Northeast and Southwest mon- soon of the Yala season annually. The wet zone has the benefit of both monsoonal seasons, resulting in a constant annual rainfall. Seasonal fluctuations in weather may de- termine the outcome of monsoonal patterns in the interme- diate zone. The intermediate zone which lies between the wet and dry zone may therefore exhibit characteristics of either zone within a period of one year. Specific varieties suited for each climatic zone have been developed by plant breeders. Irrigation facilities in some areas have brought about more uniformity in varieties, but as yet a majority of farmers grow varieties best suited to their climatic conditions. Cultural practices vary between climatic zones because of different sowing and transplanting times used for the numerous varieties. Post production practices in the three zones are basically similar. Few exceptions may be seen in the wet zone where harvesting and stacking is performed early so as to overcome the uncertainties of weather. Traditional methods are used in all post production opera- tions of rice in Sri Lanka. Use of mechanical or improved technology is limited and mainly applied to the off-field subsystem in post production. Harvesting The stalk is commonly harvested in Sri Lanka with a hand sickle. Grist (1975) stated that this method was used in many Asian countries, including India, Burma and Vietnam. Machine harvesting is limited and confined to large commer- cial farms. Harvesting consists of grasping a number of stalks in one hand and cutting near the base with the sickle held in the other hand. Esmay, Soemangat, Eriyatno and Phillips (1977) reported that the stalks were generally cut from 10 to 15 cm above the ground level and laid on the stubble in small bundles adjacent to the cutting path. Weeraratne, Perera and Yogendran (1977) indicated that these bunches were then left in the field from 8 to 24 hours before collection, Figure 2.1. Hand sickle harvesting is simple, but labor intensive. The demand for labor during harvesting is the highest among all of the operations for rice production. Amerasinghe (1972), (see Table 2.1) stated that 13.07 man days are required for the second highest labor input, which is the preparation of bunds and cleaning channels. High labor demand during peak harvesting periods could cause labor 10 Amhmav oaocwmmuwfifi "mOHSOm .He\ohma acmmmm man: we» now cmumasofimo. vv.mm vm.Hm mh.w m~.m mm.mm mo.HH wo.mm mo.am Adaoe va.a Hm.o iii iii -.o mo.o ~m.o m>.o uuommcmue nod Sim «TN 35 25 24 85 Ed :4 388m dwm can 9330533 m 1. M om.e me.m mm.o mm.o mq.a m~.H ~m.e me.m meanmmuse wane Hm.o ~w.o it. ..u It. In- Hm.o me.o Hooam mcflnmmuna T.m”w mo :oflumummmum m m 8 ho.ma Hm.aa mo.H hm.~ mm.m ma.m mm.h h~.w :ofluomaaou ss can mcfiumm>umm 4 ‘ mm.o Hm.o iii iii iii Iii mm.o Hm.o Mosuo va d mv.m NH.¢ w~.o H>.o Ha.o Hm.o m~.~ ow.~ onwaaw>oq yaw a 8283 18 rd Hm.m vm.v mm.o mh.o mm.o Hm.o b~.~ mp.~ mcflcmson pom Au. nun oc.m va.m ~>.o mm.a m~.H oo.H vo.m mm.m mcflzooon umH ADV .muw no.m mn.m mm.H ah.a hm.~ Hm.a hm.m mv.m mamccmno qua ago lawman a mpcon M mo :ofiumummmum Amy >>= >>m >>m >>m >>m >wm >>m >w: umom mum umom mum umom mum umom mum mama Hoonmq nooomq Hoonmq onefimmmo :mz Hmuoe mmcmnoxm con“: mawsmm «moses >>miumom new >>miwum :« muod you mama cm: :fl noduoopoum hoped “0w mucmsoufloqmm usonmq .H.m wanes ll xamum #50 mo OGASOH©CMS .N.N mhsmwh gamum Rowan we» mafluuso H N whomflm 12 shortages that would increase delayed harvest and pre and post harvest losses through exposing the paddy to unfavor- able weather conditions. The labor distribution throughout rice production varies with the region and land ownership. Small land owners may use family labor and/or exchange labor. The use of high yielding varieties have brought about some change in labor employment practices. Amerasinghe (1972) reported that more family and hired labor and less exchange labor were now employed whereas large land owners used hired or contract labor entirely. Proper water management is important during the har- vesting operation. Fields should be drained 7 to 10 days before the expected harvest date. This is when the upper- most kernels on most tillers are in the hard dough stage and turning from green to yellow. VoTong and Ross (1964) reported that field drainage hastened maturity and im- proved harvesting conditions. Effective water management is generally possible under irrigated conditions, but under rainfed cultivation uncertain weather may cause difficulties. Bundling The cut bunches of stalk paddy are commonly left to dry in the field overnight. Experienced harvesters win- drow the bunches for easier collection, Figure 2.2. 13 Some 15 to 20 small hand bunches of cut stalk paddy are normally tied with one twine. The stalks are grouped into a buncle in such a way that the panicles remain in the center, while the cut ends of the stalk face outwards. This prevents excessive grain loss during transport. Bundling varies according to the type of labor used. Bundles may be made smaller for women and children. In a few areas a mat may be tied around the bundle to collect falling grain during transport. This practice is limited mainly to very small holdings. The bundles are transported immediately to the threshing floor, Figures 2.3 and 2.4. Transport Threshing floor ownership may vary according to the size and location of the farm. Farmers may have a common threshing floor or may possess their own. Bundles are normally head carried, Figure 2.5. The distance varies from field to field depending on the threshing floor loca- tion. A tarpaulin sheet may be used in larger fields to construct various temporary threshing floors. The trans- porting distance is then reduced. Farmers not possessing their own threshing floor may have to transport the bundles a considerable distance. Bullock carts can be used to transport bundles. A tractor and trailer may also be used if available, Figure 2.6. Head carrying is then eliminated. Cart linings to prevent the l4 xamum uoo map uCADHommcmHB .v.m musmwm coaumunommomua now meum #50 mo mwaocsm mcHEHom .m.N ouoofim 15 How HOHHMHB cam Houomnfi mo om: .m.m onsmflm one: ecu so oawssm can mqflxuumu mo ponuoz .m.m musmflh \. .3 a. . uuommcmue . JVA _ I... , ,. .,\ T :7 16 loss of grain have been observed in certain cases, but they are not a common practice. The bundles may be temporarily stacked on the field bunds during unfavorable rainy con- ditions when transport is hindered. Threshing The transported bundles are normally stacked on the threshing floor. During bad weather farmers may make large stacks about 10 feet in height and 5 feet in diameter. Stack size varies with the experience of the people con- structing them, Figure 2.7. Stacks are made as water tight as possible to preserve the panicles for periods of up to two years.3/ The moisture condition of the stalk and grain at stacking time determines the storability of the paddy. The stack function is two-fold: 1) for storage of the stalk until favorable weather arrives, and 2) for holding until threshing can be done. Availability of labor, animals, machines or tractors for threshing as well as social obliga- tions affects the time of threshing. Stacks provide more flexibility for the farmers to thresh at their own conven- ience. Threshing floor availability depends on the farm size and the economic condition of the farmer. Small farmers may just place a jute or tarpaulin sheet over hard ground 2] This was found to be the experience of many farmers who adopt the practice of stacking. 17 to serve as a threshing floor. In some cases threshing may be done directly on the rough, hard ground. Mud or cement plastered threshing floors are better, but more expensive and are generally owned by farmers having a higher economic status. Five methods of threshing are used in Sri Lanka. a) Manual treading b) Animal treading c) Tractor threshing d) Pedal threshing e) Mechanical threshing Manual treading is practiced in a limited way in areas of the wet zone where farm sizes are extremely small. This method involves spreading the stalk paddy on a hard surface and then walking and trampling on them until the kernels are detached. For animal treading, Figure 2.8, the stalks are laid two or three sheaves deep in a circular pattern on a threshing floor. Paired buffalos are then driven slowly around to trample out the grain. This is probably the most traditional practice in Sri Lanka, and used in the dry, intermediate and wet zones. Many farmers who do not own buffalos rent them. The usual payment is a bushel of paddy rice per pair of buffalos per day. Four wheeled tractor threshing is used some. It is more costly than the use of buffalos, but is more 18 I f. -.‘\ - vy‘ - J, ._ ~‘ . ~ -' r. , .,.7 . Figure 2.7. Stacks of Cut Stalk After Transportation K“ ' 1.“" ' ._ -k‘c-l Figure 2.8. Threshing by Means of Buffalos l9 convenient and increases the threshing rate. The tractor is run continuously in a circular path over stalk paddy laid on a threshing floor, Figure 2.9 Mechanical threshing is rare and restricted to large farms and research stations. The pedal thresher though not commonly used at present is manufactured locally and may have a potential for the future, particularly for small farmers in the wet zone. Winnowing Rough rice is winnowed traditionally with a flat round tray of rotan, edged with an inch high lip.§/ The paddy is tossed and shaken with a twist of the wrist to move the empty husks, light kernels and chaff to the edge of the tray opposite the worker. The chaff and empties are thrown over the edge of the tray. The tray is then held above the head and shaken gently while the grain falls to the ground. The remaining chaff and dust is carried away by the wind. The traditional method is simple, but needs considerable experi- ence to performn Mechanical fans are being introduced. A bicycle peddling mechanism with a fan attached in place of the wheel has been used. The pedals are turned by hand. This is a simple technique manufactured by local blacksmiths. Fans are also attached to the PTO of two-wheeled and 4-wheeled é/ Rough rice is defined as unhusked rice. 20 Figure 2.9. Tractor Threshing 21 tractors. Cleaning is fast and efficient, but is not an energy efficient operation. This method is, however, used on the larger holdings of paddy land, especially in the dry zone . Drying A majority of farmers dry their crops on the field be- fore harvest. If the weather is favorable the crops are left in the field until uniform drying is achieved. Ohja (1974) reported that field drying, however, was very slow and often took about two to three weeks after maturity. Often the crop is left until the grain and stalk turns golden yellow, with a moisture content of about 15 percent. Field drying exposes the grain to alternate drying and wetting cycles during rainy weather and during day or night temperature and humidity variations. Farmers normally prolong harvesting until all panicle kernels have attained maturity. Delayed harvest and field drying aids grain re- moval with traditional threshing methods, but also increases losses. After harvest the cut stalk paddy is left on the field or bunds for further drying, usually for a period of 8 to 24 hours. Some farmers may harvest at a higher moisture content and allow the stalk paddy to lie on the stubble longer. In either case the grain is exposed to wet weather and cycling moisture conditions. 22 The threshed grain is dried on various types of sun drying floors as is done in many Asian countries. Mats, cemented floors, roadways and household yards are some of the common places for sun drying. The kernels are spread evenly about 5 to 8 cm in thickness, on the drying yard and intermittently stirred by human labor until the grain is dried. At night or when rain or heavy dew occurs, the grain paddy is heaped and covered, then spread out again when conditions are favorable. Storage The farmers are usually in need of money so dispose of their crops at the earliest opportunity. Farmers store suf- ficient quantities of paddy to provide food from one season to another as well as provide seed for the next cultivation. Weeraratne, et al. (1977) indicated that about 30 to 50 per- cent’of the total production was retained. Farm storage is therefore restricted to small storage structures often con- structed adjacent to the farm house. Storage structures are oval in shape with a wide circular opening at the top. They are made of split bamboo sticks, plastered with clay and lime and supported by wood or stone pillars. Bag and bulk storage of paddy in small quantities may be practiced in farm households, but is temporary prior to disposal at the market. Village level storage structures, often at Paddy 23 Marketing Board (PMB) purchasing points, are larger and located centrally to best serve all farmers in the area. As bagged storage capacity is small, the paddy is trans- ported to the regional PMB warehouse at the earliest con— venience. At present PMB storage capacity is not adequate. The Paddy Marketing Board has about 275 warehouses with a capacity of about 350,000 tons. Most of the storages have roofs made of corrugated asbestos or galvanized iron sheets. A few have brick walls, while the others have walls made of galvanized iron or asbestos sheets, or a combination of brick walls and sheets. Most storage is in bags and due to poor structures the grain is exposed to damage by moisture, rodents, insects and birds. During peak harvests such as the Maha harvest of March to April, 1978, temporary tarpau- lin covers and imported prefabricated silos were used to provide bare minimum storage. PMB storage is confined to large godowns or warehouses providing flat or sack storage. Bulk storage is limited, but could be a possibility in the future. Rough Rice/Milled Rice Movement and Trading Practices a) Historical Preview. Prior to World War II rice trading was in the hands of the private sector. Imported rice to meet the needs of the country was very cheap. Domestic production was below 25 percent of the country's total requirement. Rice shortages 24 for the consumers of Sri Lanka were envisioned by 1942. The World War II disruption of shipping and allied services from the principal exporting countries of Thailand and Burma created further rice shortages. A rice rationing scheme was then introduced. Simultaneously, an Internal Purchasing Scheme (IPS) was launched by the government to maximize local paddy rice production. The IPS which began as a strict government authority during a war emergency was not discontinued. The post war functions of the scheme were subsequently transferred to the Department of Agricultural Marketing, which discontinued the requisition of paddy rice from the farmers and instead in- corporated a price support scheme. The farmers were assured a floor price if the paddy rice was sold to the government. Rice mills and storages were imported and constructed by the government in the early fifties to process the purchased paddy rice. The marketing department transferred its rice handling responsibilities to the Department of Agrarian Services in the mid nineteen fifties, and confined its activities to the purchase of perishable farm products,such as vegetables and fruits. The transfer of responsibilities brought the mills, stores and other facilities under the authority of the Agrarian Services. The price support scheme was continued and in 1961 a guaranteed price was legalized by an Act of Parliament. 25 The government concentrated on making the country self- sufficient in rice in the post Independence period from 1948. The provision of irrigation facilities increased the area of cultivated land and intensified research activities were carried out to breed highly productive rice varieties. These efforts brought about the impact of high yielding varieties beginning in 1966. The Agrarian Services Depart- ment then found its resources for collecting, storing and milling heavily strained. The arrangements until then were made by the government to organize purchases through its agents, viz. the cooperative societies, to store and mill purchased rice. The milled rice was then supplied to the Food Commissioner who in turn distributed it through a ration program to the people of the country. The recognized need to maximize production resulted in the supply of agricultural credit, fertilizer subsidy, improved varieties and technical knowhow to the farmers through the Agrarian Services Department. Its activities were further expanded through the implementation of the Paddy Lands Act, for the supply and distribution of ferti- lizer and the purchase of a variety of other grains such as pulses and commercial crops. The magnitude of these opera- tions led the government in 1970 to recognize the need for a separate agency to take complete responsibility for paddy rice purchase, storage and processing throughout the nation. The Paddy Marketing Board created in 1979 was made 26 responsible for the post harvest movement of rough and milled rice throughout the country. b) The Paddy Marketing Board -- Its Objectives. A new act of Parliament in March 1971 established the state sponsored corporation to handle the purchase, storage and processing of paddy rice. The RPDC Training Manual (1977) stated the PMB objectives as follows: i) Carry out the business of purchasing, hulling, milling, processing, supplying and distribution of rough and milled rice. ii) Carry out any other business incidental or con- ducive to the attainment of the first objective. iii) Perform duties which, in the opinion of the board are necessary to facilitate the proper carrying out of the business. The Act, for the purpose of purchasing paddy by PMB, authorized purchases by Institutions ranging from coopera- tive societies to individuals. The scope of the PMB activities covered all 22 districts in the country. Paddy purchasing authority was given to 368 Multi—Purpose Cooperative Unions and Agricultural Productive Committees (APCS) with 4,000 purchasing centers throughout the country. Wimberly (1975) reported that the PMB, following the pur- chase of rough rice, was responsible for the transport, storage through its 275 locations, and processing by the 27 20 PMB mills and 500 authorized commercial mills. c) Purchasing of Rough Rice. The PMB changed the purchase of rough rice from volume to weight basis in 1972. The change was phased in for three years and completed in 1975. Pereira and Samuel (1976) re- ported that finances for purchasing rough rice was supplied to purchasing cooperatives as a loan by the state banks. The rough rice was purchased by the following PMB enforced standards: i) Impurities must not be greater than 1% by weight. ii) Chaff content must be less then 9% by volume. iii) Rough rice must be well dried. 15% on a wet basis is considered dry, but 14% is preferred. iv) Rough rice must be free from insect and fungal damage. Purchasing agents are paid a commission for handling and transport costs. Rough rice is transported to the PMB stores by truck and tractor trailers in jute sacks. Rough rice is again inspected, tested, graded and packed into either 110 or 140 lb net weight bags, then stored in the PMB storage facilities. Private traders may purchase 20 to 30 percent of the farmer's production in addition to the PMB purchases. The private trader purchase price is generally lower than the 28 guaranteed PMB price. Farmers are compelled to sell to private traders because they may have to repay loans taken for cultivation or goods bought from the trader. Also it is easier to obtain "cash in hand" from private traders compared to the bureaucratic red tape of PMB. Storage, handling and processing facilities of the private traders, however, are generally poor and result in a low quality product at the market. Rough rice may also be purchased by the Department of Agriculture for seed. These purchases are restricted to certified seed farms that belong to the larger and more progressive farmers. The seed is stored in the Department seed stores located in the 22 districts. It is then distri- buted through the extension offices which cater to the farmers needs. Seed purchases and handling are less, thus losses are lower in comparison to the rough rice bought for the retail market. A higher price is paid for seed than that for market rough rice. The higher price provides an incentive for the production of better quality seed. d) Rough Rice Milling. Rice may reach the consumer through the ration program, the open market or the PMB retail outlets. Rationed rice is generally not polished to any specification, since 85 per- cent of the PMB purchased rough rice is milled by private registered millers. The private millers in Sri Lanka have 29 not invested in modern rice milling machinery and continue to operate the steel huller types. Practically all the rice issued through rationing is repolished in private mills. Studies by the Rice Processing Development Center in Sri Lanka revealed that 96 percent of the households (laborers, merchants, pensioners) regardless of affluence reprocessed their rationed rice at a miller or by home pounding. Consumer preference for rice varies by district throughout Sri Lanka. Small rounded grains, commonly referred to as "sambafl,have a better market value than other varieties. The newly introduced "basmathi" rice from Pakistan brings a premium of the market. A majority of all consumers prefer parboiled rice although those in the southern section of the country have a distinct prefer- ence for raw rice. Some consumers prefer brown grained rice instead of the common white rice. The varied consumer preference makes it more difficult for the PMB to satisfy the demands placed on the rationed rice. The PMB purchased a mixed variety of rough rice from farmers who prefer to cultivate different high yielding varieties. The mixed consumer preferences as well as mixed cultivation practices placed a heavy strain on the existing milling capacity. Weeraratne, et a1. (1977) reported that in 1978 there were about 1,826 mills in operation, divided into the following categories: 30 i) 20 owned by the PMB. ii) 18 owned by cooperative societies. iii) 847 owned by private quota millers (quotas regulated by the PMB). iv) 941 owned by private individuals for customer milling and polishing. The distribution and types of rice mills operated above are presented in Table 2.2. e) Milling of Raw Rice. The Agrarian Services Department issued raw rough rice milling quotas to steel huller mills. The head rice re- covery, however, was low. The PMB, as a policy decision, did issue rough rice for raw milling to mills using steel hullers. A 6 to 7 percent increase in rice and a 12 to 16 percent head rice recovery was obtained by mills using rubber roll shellers. The policy decision in turn encour- aged the private millers to modernize their existing mills. Prior to 1970, pre-cleaning facilities were limited to a few mills where cleaning was done with either manual or mechanically oscillating, single, inclined seives. Raw rice was polished mainly by steel hullers and occasionally with a horizontal abrasive stone polisher. The stone polisher achieved a 3 to 5 percent degree of polish for a single pass. A further decision taken by the PMB insisted that all mills operating quotas for raw milling should possess rough 31 .Ahhaav cmupcmmo» paw muwmnwm .mcumumuwmz ”mousom .mHHwE moon» CH pmowuomum mum nuon mm pmaflon Ham new 3mm mm pmfiMfimmm~o no: mm3 mcflaawe uweoumso ecu mannaflm>m .uouomm mum>fium on» mo mHHwE Hem one m~w.a m~¢ Aaemv hmv mmm.a m va Hmuoa mHHflE Hem Hem Hum I a Hmsouwso wum>fium mHHwE bvm was mme «av m mmv muosq mum>fium maafie ma o NH 0 I ma macaw m>flumummoou pumom on oH OH OH N m manumxnms socma umaawnm agendas owes umaamnm pwawon mcflaaflz “wads: chcsu HHOH Hmuoe “mm 3mm ammum amen: umnnsm sn 66:30 mafia: mbma o» a: mxcmq sum aw mafia: mofim mo monks paw cOwusawnumfio one .N.N OHQMB 32 rice pre-cleaners and vertical cone polishers. Rough rice cleaners reduced the presence of sand, stone and other impurities, while the vertical cone polisher increased head rice recovery by 10 to 12 percent over the steel huller. f) Parboiled Milling. l. Parboiling. Many methods are used in the parboiling of rice. Farmers used small earthenware pots to parboil their domes— tic needs of rice. This is a very common practice and could be seen in many small village homes. In large scale proces- sing mills parboiling methods varied, but three methods common to many were: i) The cold soaking process. ii) The "goviya" process. iii) The hot soaking process. The rough rice in the cold soaking process is soaked in cold water for a period of 36 to 48 hours, depending on variety, and steamed for 30 minutes thereafter. The soaking tanks are normally made of cement or concrete and have a capacity of 3 to 4-1/2 tons. The steaming tanks are of mild steel with perforated bottoms to facilitate steaming. The steel tank has a capacity of l to 1-1/2 tons, depending on its dimensions. A rough rice and water mixture is heated in a chamber from 700 to 80°C in the "goviya" process, Figure 2.10. The 33 A.Hm um .mcumumumm3 “monsomv unmam www>ow mnu mcquHumDHHH EmHmMflD oa.m musmfim 283 9.9286 92:83. ism so Sup—Ea became: _ r coop 33% 88.2.8 63 3 88 Bow . Ema; \ U amen K \_ N w r s ._.Z<4n_ (>500 34 mixture is soaked for 4 to 5 hours after which the hot water is drained off to the false bottom serving as a steaming level. The soaked paddy is then steamed for 15 to 30 minutes by heating the water below the perforated sheet. The plant is a rectangular steel tank of 2m x 1.5m x 1.3m, mounted on a fireplace adjacent to the drying floor. The capacity of this tank is l-l/2 tons. The water is heated up to 80°C in the hot soaking pro- cess and the rough rice is stirred into it. The resulting temperature drop to about 70°C is maintained from three to four hours until the rough rice is soaked. The hot water is drained off and the rough rice steamed for a further 15 to 30 minutes. Mechanical drying is limited and practiced with obso- lete machinery. Parboiled rough rice is sun dried. The rough rice is spread over a drying floor and allowed to dry under the sun for about three hours. At regular intervals the rough rice is stirred by manual labor so that grains dry uniformly. The rough rice is collected and allowed to temper, either heaped and covered in the sun or heaped in the shade. After two hours of tempering, the rough rice is spread on the floor to dry for three hours. The sun dried, parboiled rough rice is then milled. 35 2. Milling of Parboiled Rough Rice. Steel hullers are widely used for milling parboiled rough rice. They are easy to operate and have a low initial and maintenance cost. Parboiled rough rice is milled in a batch of two or three steel hullers, hulling and polishing the grain at the same time. In some mills the parboiled rough rice is passed through rubber roll shellers where 40 to 60 percent of the shells are removed. The remaining shells are removed and the grain is polished when rice is passed through a steel huller for the second time. 9) Trading Practices. The major portion of rice processed by and for the PMB is bought by the Food Commissioner for issue on the ration, while the rest is sold at off-ration PMB sales centers. The Food Commissioner in turn issues rice to cooperative stores and their authorized agents who distribute the rice on the ration, Figure 2.11. Deficiencies of rice for distribution on the ration is supplemented with imported rice. In 1974 the government imported 428,300 tons of rice (rough rice equivalent) to be issued on the ration, Table 1.1. Difficulties associated with low milling capacity was experienced with the Maha harvest of 1977-78. The increased rough rice production and low milling capacity led the government to offer the consumers an option of either taking milled rice or a rough rice equivalent on the ration. Many 36 mxcma fium :H ucmsm>oz ummbnmm umom coax pmaaflz\nmsom mnu mo EmHmMflo oaumfiwnom HH.N musmflm _ 2:2 505:0 —1 35:5 _1 22m poem oucBfiiJ— toospoi ozmoEoo _1 bl 2:2 Eoscéoz 23E 7 sauna scam—1. 3 5:53: o::.=o...a< .0 .Eoo _) _ [lotillinil .|»III; EoEtaooo _ «LocofiflEEoo noon _ 352w topaz. 2:: 20:0 0325 5E5... 0 5w . mmzawzoo . x : conO mecca ao-oo 2280 um~tos.=< 6.2: .5209... .250 33m cozwm :0 min. 1: 3:2 0.21 H .2335 _) min .3 masseuse I 0"; mmODDOmm meo.=§\mtopa..._. 3a>ta >9 masseuse ms... 2. __A masseuse I'll Ill- illlili'. II . . 37 consumers preferred the latter because they could process the rough rice at home to their satisfaction rather than receive sub-standard milled rice on the ration. A small quantity of milled rice is distributed on the off—ration market to tourist establishments, government canteens and similar institutions. Rough rice processed by private non-quota mills is sold as rice in the open market. The rough rice retained and processed by farmers is either used as rice for their consumption or sold to the consumer through open markets. Farmers who exhaust their own stocks before the next harvest are forced to purchase their rice from open markets. The post production processes in Sri Lanka are complex. The movement of rough rice/milled rice from harvest to the consumer involves varying handling and processing operations. The efficiency in managing these operations determine the quality of the final grain product reaching the consumer. The factors influencing the efficiency of the total post production system are numerous and discussed in the next chapter. CHAPTER III LITERATURE REVIEW OF THE IN-FIELD POST PRODUCTION SYSTEM A major factor contributing to the economic nonviabil- ity of farmers and farming areas in developing countries is their inability to handle and store products efficiently. Living standards of rural communities depend not only on the range and quantities of the food grown, but also on the facilities for efficient handling, drying, storage and marketing of those products. An increase in rice produc- tion resulting from the use of improved technology and high yielding varieties has been observed, yet traditional post production practices limit the maximum production capacity of the farming areas. Maranan and Duff (1978) reported that while much effort had been made to minimize post pro- duction losses in processing and marketing of rice, under— standing the effects of post production technologies in- fluencing losses in rice quality and quantity on the farm level system was as important. Factors contributing to losses on the field and off the field are numerous and vary with economical, technical and environmental conditions. The complex interdependencies influencing the final quality and quantity of grain in the in-field post production sub- system are described in Chapter III. The production practices of the farm level subsystem begins at land preparation and terminates at either farm 38 39 storage or the market sales point. The technology adopted by the farmers, their families and hired labor are tradition- al and subject to grain losses. The magnitude of losses varies within farms and farming areas, depending on the experience and handling techniques of the farmers. In Sri Lanka, similar post production operations are practiced throughout the country and are therefore subject to similar influences affecting grain loss. Post production operations on the farm level subsystem with possible alternative tech- niques are illustrated in Figure 3.1. 3.1. Field Losses Before Cutting -- Preharvest Losses. Field losses from flowering to harvesting are included in the preharvest operations. Losses may result from shattering, lodging, insects, rodents, birds and disease. Although insects and disease play an important role in determining the final production output, this study, while recognizing their impact, on the final system will not delve into a discussion. However, the influence of bird and rodent damage is important and will be discussed. a) Shattering Losses. Premature shedding or separation of the grain from the panicle is known as shattering. During natural shattering or threshing the Spikelet is separated from the junction of the lower sterile lemma and the rudimentary glumes, Figure 40 Emumhmnsm coauospoum umom pamflmch one H.m.mmeHm thnmzcc S Aplculi \ \ ,4 §\ - \4 a / ‘3; L375; *— Palea Lemma 1;; '3 :' Nerves i Stigma t." Sterile Lemmas Ovary Rudimentary Glumes /"‘ RaCh'I'a Pedicel Figune 3.2 Parts of a Spikelet (IRRI, 1965) GRAIN MOISTURE UNRIPE GRAIN C O o o x 5 24" I50 22‘ 20« ~40 18' 16‘ -3O 14~ 12" -20 10‘ s‘ A..c 8d ~O v .10 6d) .- - ‘\\\uz’~\~ s " 0 q, q? ‘1’ date q, Figure 3. 3 Decrease in moisture content of the grain after maturity (Fran Wanders 1974) 44 Te-Tzu and Bardenas (1965) reported that character- istics such as grain shedding, grain weight, grain dormancy, etc. have a marked variability when grown under different environments. Battacharyya and Chatterjee (1977) observed that grain ripening in the cool season (July to December) were heavier than those that matured in the summer. Ramaiah and Rao (1953) reported that when varieties prone to shat- tering were grown off the appropriate season, they tended to shatter more. Some varieties shattered more when har- vested in summer while others shattered more in autumn and at higher altitudes. Bhalerano (1930) reported that farmers were said to believe in soil condition, quantity of humus, water stagnation at harvest and rapid drying after maturity, as some environmental factors contributing to shattering. Again the influence of climatic factors such as wind and rain provide environmental stresses resulting in shattering. Crops that are subject to a hot sun by day and dew at night, accompanied by wind or rain, may be subject to higher shat- tering. Beachell, et a1. (1964) reported that if crops lodged on the field, shattering losses other than by handling was not a problem, but varieties prone to shatter- ing which resisted lodging could shatter grains during heavy winds and rains. Shattering due to handling is low in the preharvest operation. Farmers generally keep away from the fields close to maturity. Grains would shatter during spraying or 45 weeding operations in the fields. However, such operations are not performed at the time of maturity unless emergencies occur. Grains shatter if plants are disturbed by bird and animal movement. High wind velocities bring plants and panicles in contact with each other resulting in abrasion and then grain shedding. Wanders (1974) reported that losses from shattering on standing plants increased from 25 to 75 kg/ha, or from 1 to 5.25 percent after a 16 day delay period, Figure 3.4. Numerous methods have been used to test the ease of shattering in different varieties of rice. Grain has been collected in cloth sacks during the process of transporta- tion and drying. Hanumantha Rao (1935) used a 1 kg cylinder and rolled it over panicles placed on an inclined board. The percentage of dropped grain was calculated from the dropped grain. Ito,et a1. (1968) reported that grain shedding characters were calculated from the strength re- quired to detach grain from its pedicel by using an unbonded gauge type transducer and an automatic null balancing recorder. Forty-eight cultivated varieties of paddy rice were used, taking three panicles of each, at about 50 days after heading. The degree of grain shedding was classified into six classes, varying from 2309 to 759. Singh and Burkhardt (1974) reported that the spikelet attachment strengths of different varieties measured with an Ingstron Testing machine varied from 241.89 to 33.99. The (XI SHATTERING LOSS 46 GRAIN MOISTURE [9‘] W3. 23 15 14 1o 10 1° 1 r I o Shattering At Cutting \I I 9’ 8 I ‘0 2 r Shattering Before Cutting O f I I I O 4 8 1 2 16 DAYS DELAY from Wanders (1974) as reported by Esmay M. et. al. Figure 3.4 Effect of Delay in Harvesting on Shattering Loss by Plants in the Field and at Cutting Time for Variety D52-37 47 differences in attachment strengths were attributed to genetic characters. Similar results were obtained by Burmistrova, et al. (1956) where the strengths varied from 2229 to 62.39. Te-Tzu and Bardenas (1965) classified shattering into tight (few or no grains removed), intermediate (25 to 50 percent grains removed), and shattering (greater than 50 percent grains rempved). This method was used for large scale evaluation studies. A panicle at the hard dough stage was grabbed with the palm of the hand and a gentle rolling pressure applied. The percentage of shattered grain indicated the shattering character. Figure 3.5 illustrates the interactions between differ- ent factors affecting the shattering qualities of the rice plants. b) Lodging. A prime factor contributing to the reduction in the percentage of ripened grain is lodging. Lodging of rice crops before harvest is a serious problem for rice harvest- ers throughout the world. Lodging may be a result of environmental conditions or specific to grown varieties. The use of nitrogen responsive varieties with high nitrogen fertilizer applications and improved cultural practices have increased yields in certain varieties, while in some the use of high doses of nitrogen have increased their 48 mommoq mcflnmuumsm l cu ocfiusnfluuzoo muouomm uanOMMAQ mo mononamcH one m.m musowm I‘ 330.. 55322.0 T 23:22.0 .2330 f + i 05.931 # 225.2 350 a 90:0 —\‘ » I, l I Ens—3.3:“... . 3330 32:23on I ‘ Boo _ i 32...; — ‘ 22322 :2... _.L 9 as; g T 3230 82202 I ‘ I 3.2.300 :00 TI + - , Sec V 3.53: 2.2250 , a i 2.333. :3: 230 3:32. :3: 230 49 susceptibility to lodging. The rice crop usually lodges before maturity and at times before flowering. Lodging limits the use of harvesting machinery and increases the labor costs during the harvesting process. Beachell and Jennings (1964) report that studies made at the Inter- national Rice Research Institute have shown yield reductions of up to 75 percent when rice lodged 30 days before maturity. The lower internodes of varieties susceptible to lodging are longer than average. Tsunoda (1964) reported that the varieties adapted to low fertilization tend to have thinly elongated stems which were apt to bend or lie horizontally, while the culm and the leaf sheath were liable to lodge at ripening. Low nitrogen responsive varieties become leafy with heavy nitrogen application. Tanaka (1964) reported that mutual shading caused by the leafy growth reduced the light intensity at the base of the plant and accelerated the elongation of lower internodes. The culm gets thinner and the plant gets top heavy resulting in lodging. Mutual shading may also occur with closer plant spacing and an increased planting density. The resulting elongated internodes will again succumb to lodging. Sugimoto (1965) reported that certain morphological characters effected the lodging of rice and its lodging index. The weakening of the internodes closer to the ground surface, or less than 15 cms above the ground surface were observed. In many studies it was shown that elongation took 50 place at the fourth node. These internodes were longer and narrower when compared with sound rice plants. The bending moments and breaking strengths of the third and fourth nodes increased after heading and reached a peak at the dough stage, decreasing again at maturity, Figure 3.6. The lodging index given as, Bending moment/breaking strength X 100 (where the bending moment = the total length above the fourth node X fresh weight above node 4) increased gradually after the heading stage. In Japanese rice plants a lodging index of 200 was reported to be the danger limit. In tested Malaysian rice varieties a lodging index of 200 was reached at the time of heading or at the dough stage. These varieties had a greater possibility of lodging after heading. Due to changes in culm quality, withering, loss of moisture and gradual senescence, Matsuo (1952) reported that plants were most liable to lodge as they approached maturity. Internodes are low in inorganic substances, but high in cell wall building material and starches. About a week after heading, the stored starch begins to migrate from the lower stem area to the upper parts, including the panicles. Translocation of nutrients to the grain takes place during maturity and weakens the lower internodes of the plant. Kono and Takahashi (1961) reported that potassium deficiency was seen to decrease the accumulation of starch and cell wall substances essential for the strength of the stem. A 51 cm 170-0- Total length above N4 or N3IAI 140'"- '/‘\-’ A 110+ av” ,’*“ 209“ Fresh weight above N4 or Ms IBI 16di- A / \\ \ / ‘ / \‘ / ‘0 (' / ( / g-cm 3000" Moment IA 1 8) 2500‘ I I 2000‘ 15001 9 Breaking strength I 1200« “""‘\ [K 1000- Y 800" V % 300‘ Index of lodging I 200‘ 100" l i l 1 l A l H D M H O M Pe Bi Fun -— - -e- - --- non-fertilized ——*— lertilized i-l Heading D Dough ripe stage I Motoring atage Figure 3.6 Changes in Index of Lodging after Heading (From Sugimoto 1965) 52 close correlation between the potassium content of the base and the breaking strength of the stem is illustrated in Figure 3.7. Tanaka (1964) reported seasonal variations in lodging where the peta variety was inclined to lodge less heavily before flowering in the dry season. The lodging of peta during the rainy season was related to the remarkable elongation of the lower internodes before the panicle initiation stage of the plant. The incidence of lodging in combination with the higher frequency of rainy days during the harvest time results in higher harvesting risks. The degree of seed dormancy varies from zero to 6 months and is related to variety and climate. Wanders (1974) reported the risk of sprouting at harvest in lodged, poorly drained fields was high and resulted in greater grain losses. Figure 3.8 illustrates factors affecting lodging either individually or in interaction. Losses in grain due to lodging contributes to the losses in the total post pro- duction system. c) Bird and Rodent Damage. Vertebrate pests damage rice continuously from planting to harvest by destroying large areas of rice farms and sub- stantial proportions of the harvested grain. Birds and rodents are the most serious vertebrate pests in many 53 g.cm. T X 1100‘- X X X x XX X “ X I 1000- 3 Z x X LU E 9004» (D 0 .2. E 800‘ LIJ a: C0 700" X 600 i 4 t : : : 1 l 2 3 4 5 6 %KO Potassium contents of culm Figure 3.7 Relationship Between Breaking Strength of Stem and Potassium Content of Culm (From Kono and Takahashi, 1961) 54 95.305 doggone... can afigflwfi .3 08:83:." no 0508.. 0... mac mommoq m .m 853.”. 50.0; _ II 3.32.... 0.2.3.. 3.3 93 03.2. 50:53 .0 30.... fl 033393h _\ 0...; cocoa—00m 32> 2:5 0:0 333m T 8.35580 22.. 30:39.35 .v 05.... 3.5.6: W \ 330.. 3.23.. 3.0an — 00600.n— .\\\7‘—fl \ 3.2.0.. 2.23 .5... II 30.32.. .3330 /; 593.6 9.7.3.0 — cocoa... .23 e303. 9:35 ; . co..oo..oo< 3a....3u. . .3an33. _ 2:0 .m 2.0.23. — / 20.3) 2.0.0... 8.30 55 countries, which include Central and South America, Africa and Asia. Funomilayo and Akande (1977) reported that total preharvest and postharvest losses caused by vertebrate pests on rice were estimated to be 40 percent in Southwestern Nigeria. Bird and rodent damage from grain-filling to ripening is important because it contributes to the losses in the preharvest phase of the subsystem. Rice probably suffers more damage by pests than other tropical crops. In Venezuela, migratory birds were reported by Grist (1975) to be the greatest cause of losses in rough rice by pests. The Pans Manual (1974) states that in Africa over 50 species of birds were responsible for damaging planted paddy. Birds may cause damage either by picking fallen grains or by attacking the panicle from flowering to grain ripening. Blackbirds are a serious pest in California, where large flocks pick up broadcast grain before irrigation. Some birds, such as the weaver birds, were observed by Funomilayo and Akande (1977) damaging rice during the flowering and fruiting periods in Nigeria. Birds puncture and suck the milk in the developing grains. Grains damaged at this stage remain empty and are blown away during the cleaning operation after cutting. Grain damage by birds is very common and can be very severe in certain areas. Birds will eat the rice at maturity and drop the rejected hull onto the ground. Large areas of rice 56 can be destroyed at this stage, depending on the incidence of birds and the stage of maturity of the rice plant. Grains of rice may be dropped while birds attempt to eat them. At maturity and thereafter, a majority of grains drop due to the impact of the birds alighting on rice stems and mature panicles. Shattering due to bird infestation is another contributing factor towards losses at preharvest. Rats attack the plant at all stages of its growth and are very destructive to both rough and milled rice. The value of crop damage by rats before harvest in the Philip- pines was estimated at P 40,000,000 in 1958, (Training Manual IRRI, 1970). Prakash (1974) reported that in paddy fields of Uttar Pradesh and Madras in India, 7.1 to 21.5 percent and 5.2 to 65.3 percent of plant tillers respec- tively were destroyed by rodents, reducing the yield of rough rice to 59.5 percent and the yield of straw to 45 per- cent. Rodents dig up and eat the freshly sown rice. At the seedling stage rats feed on the heart of the stem while the grain is eaten from the filling stage until harvest by felling the plant 5 to 15 cm above the ground level. Rats cut the stem with a clean bite and chop the stem into small pieces. They may consume the inner tissues and, depending on the stage of maturity, attack the grain on the ground. Rats may live in burrows under lodged plants and feed on the grain within their reach. Lodging therefore increases the incidence of grain damage by rats. 57 3.2. Harvesting -- CuttingyLosses. Harvesting is essentially by hand in Asian and African rice producing countries. Mechanical harvesting is prac- ticed in a limited manner whereas in some countries where labor availability is low mechanical harvesting has in- creased in popularity. A period in plant development where substantial losses in grain occur is that between the attainment of maturity and the ripening of grain before harvest. Grain losses at cutting are influenced by the method of cutting, time of harvest, environmental conditions, availability of labor, etc. The condition of the harvested grain determines the subsequent quality and quantity of grain at storage and processing operations. The traditional sickle is used for cutting paddy straw in many countries. In India, Korea, Sri Lanka and Taiwan harvesting is essentially by sickle, while in the Philip- pines and Indonesia sickle harvesting is performed along with panicle harvest. Collier, et al. (1973), Herrera (1975) and Esmay, et al. (1977) report that a traditional practice in many parts of Indonesia, the Philippines and some of Malaysia is to clip the panicle from the rest of the straw with a sharp knife. Pillai (1958) reported that due to a dearth of labor and a lack of transport facilities from the field to the threshing floor, certain cultivators of Orissa state cut panicles off the harvested sheaves which were left to dry in the field. The panicles were then 58 stacked and threshed at a more convenient time. Koga (1977) reported that about 15 percent of the harvesting operations in Japan up to 1975 were by hand, and of the 85 percent harvested by machine, 40 percent were with small combine harvesters. a) Cutting by Sickle. Hand sickles are used to cut stalk with grain about 10 to 25 cm above the soil surface. The sickle varies in shape and blade angle in different countries, having either a smooth or serrated self-sharpening edge. Grist (1975) states that although the shape of the blades differ their function is essentially the same. The plant is cut either by a slicing action with the smooth edge or a tearing action with the rough, serrated edge. Khan (1976) reports that the serrated sickle combines a slicing and sawing action and restricts sliding of the plant on the blade edge, helping to retain the plant on the blade for adequate cutting. The failure of the plant structure due to compression, tension and shear results in a tearing action caused by the slicing effect. Esmay, et a1. (1977) reported the findings of Chancellor (1958) and Burmistrova, et a1. (1963) where the energy required for cutting varied with the moisture content, plant variety and the diameter of the plant straw. Burmistrova, et a1. (1963) further showed that the shear resistance per unit cross sectional area of the stem 59 decreased with the distance of the cut section from the base of the cut plant and that the resistance to cutting was inversely proportional to the plant moisture content. Esmay, et al. (1977) stated that Rajput and Bhole (1973) were reported to have found similar results where the cutting force per unit cross sectional area was found to increase nonlinearly with the increase in distance from the base of the plant. Maturity of the plant accompanied by the de— crease in moisture content and increased buildup of ligni— fied cell wall material may have caused the variations in the cutting forces observed. Curfs (1974) reported that the capacity for harvesting, defined as the weight of rough rice harvested per man hour, varied with the environment in which the crop was grown. Specific varieties grown under irrigated conditions showed an Optimum harvesting capacity of 40 to 60 kg of rough rice per hour, at 30 to 35 days after 50 percent heading, in con- trast to the upland condition where the capacity decreased from 33 to 22 kg/hr with delayed harvesting. The reason for the decrease in capacity was probably due to the straw of varieties grown in upland conditions senescing quicker and causing difficulties in sickle harvesting. Esmay, et a1. (1977) reported that an average skilled person could harvest standing paddy at a rate of 0.01 ha per hour or 40 to 50 kg of stalk per hour and that saturated soils at harvest re- duced the cutting rate, while lodging decreased the rate by 60 50 percent. The rate of harvest can vary depending on the availability of labor, number of persons, their experience, physical condition of the knife blade and the time at which the harvest is performed. The rate of harvest in the morn- ing may be higher than that in the afternoon when harsh environmental conditions cause fatigue and decrease the efficiency of the harvesters. b) Panicle Harvesting. Grist (1975) and Contado and Jaime (1975) observed that the traditional method of panicle harvesting is used in many countries. A small knife two to six inches long is fixed crosswise on a short wooden block and referred to as "pisau penaui" in Malaysia, "yatab" in the Philippines, and "ani- ani" in Indonesia. The knife is concealed on the harvesters palm. Using the knife, the finger is bent around the stem of the plant. The panicle is then drawn onto the blade, severing it from the stalk about 20 cm below the panicle. When a few panicles have been cut and retained on the cut- ting hand, they are placed on the other hand to accumulate into a larger bunch. The bunches are then placed in a basket to be transported off the field. The harvesters in the village are mostly women from within the villagers and from neighboring villages. This method of harvesting utilizes a large number of persons to cut and carry the paddy. Collier, Wiradi and Soentoro (1973) 61 reported that in some instances as many as 500 persons may be employed per hectare. Esmay, et al. (1977) stated that a skilled person is able to harvest 10 to 15 kg of panicle stalk per hour. The traditional practice is for farmers to pay the harvesters with a share of the crop. The shares are seven, eight or nine for the owner, to one for the harvester; the division being made by bundles and not by weight. These methods of harvesting seem to be undergoing sig- nificant changes. A contributory factor is the pressure of population on land. Individual land sizes are becoming smaller as lands are being divided and subdivided from generation to generation. Farmers, therefore, find their shares getting smaller and smaller. However, farmers are still quite powerless in controlling the division of shares. Sickle harvesting, however, has been adopted in many areas, especially due to the introduction of high yielding varieties. Grist (1975) indicated that the advantage of the ani- ani method was the high degree of selection leading to the exclusion of immature grains and impurities, while obtaining a maximum crop from badly lodged plants. Losses, however, have been reported by Esmay, et a1. (1977) to be from 5 to 10 percent of the total yield. With the adoption of im- proved varieties, the losses at harvesting due to shattering may increase further. The use of the sickle for harvesting may reduce the potential losses in the new high yielding 62 varieties, but the social implications arising from the change in harvesting methods are important factors to be considered in effecting such a change. Losses in the cutting operations described above are influenced by the movement of people on the field. A higher rate of cutting or an increase in the number of people performing the operation will lead to more handling losses, influenced by the maturity of the crop. Losses may increase in the late afternoon when harvesters, in trying to complete a given section, increase the harvesting capacity at the expense of high cutting losses arising from increased handling and a faster harvesting rate. 3.3. Time of Harvest. Perhaps the most important factor contributing to the losses both in quantity and quality of grain at harvest is the time at which the cutting operation is done. The time of harvest influences shattering losses for different handling operations, losses due to birds and rodents and losses at the final processing stage. Farmers tend to keep the standing crop on the field until complete maturity so that field drying is complete at the time of harvest. This practice eliminates the need for drying facilities and eases the threshing operation, where dried grain separates easily from the panicles. The diffi- culty in determining the optimum time for harvest is 63 enhanced by the uneven maturity of the standing crop, which makes it difficult for farmers to decide whether cutting should be done when all panicles mature or whether a certain percentage of the panicles attain maturity. Delayed harvesting results in the shattering of grain before harvest. It also leads to losses due to bird and rodent damages. De- layed harvesting and attempted field drying has adverse effects on the final grain quality where the percentage of cracked grain or "sunchecks" increase with a decrease in grain moisture. Arora, Henderson and Burkhardt (1973) observed that internal skin cracks develop before harvest in rice kernels in the field. Periodic wetting and drying causes grains to crack if paddy is not harvested before grains are fully mature. Grain at maturity usually contains about 24 percent moisture and by the end of a hot day the moisture content could be reduced to as much as 14 percent, to rise again at night with dew. Interruptions in drying during the day could be brought about by rain. Grist (1975) and Smith and Macrea Jr. (1951) reported that the periodic alternate loss and absorption of moisture by grain causes the development of internal cracks in the grain. The absorption and de- sorption of the rice grain with regards to moisture is instrumental in causing the grain to crack or "suncheck". The effect of sunchecking is seen in the milled quality of the rice. Burmistrova, et al. (1956) reported that the 64 factors affecting cracked grains other than harvesting machines were 1) fluctuations in moisture regimes during growth, 2) water temperature, 3) variation of air tempera- ture and humidity during harvest and drying, and 4) the length of windrow drying. Coyard (1950) indicated that dew had little effect on broken grains; however, a marked dif- ference was observed on overripe harvesting stages. Langfield (1957) reported that in both long and short grained varieties, increased breakages of rice grain re— sulted from delayed harvesting and a decreasing moisture content. Wanders (1974) reported the increase in the per- centage of sunchecks from 10 to 98 percent within a period of five weeks from maturity, Figure 3.9. Losses in grain at different stages of delay have been studied by many researchers. Ruiz (1965) observed that losses at a week before maturity was 0.77 percent, at maturity 3.35 percent, one week after maturity 5.63 percent, two weeks after maturity 8.64 percent, three weeks after maturity 40.70 percent and four weeks after maturity 60.46 percent. Wikramanayake and Wimberly (1975) showed an in- crease of 635 to 725 kg of paddy per acre, harvesting the crop at 28 to 22 percent moisture over harvesting at 14 percent. Harvesting earlier resulted in less yield and poor quality where most grains were shriveled and chalky. Har— vesting too late resulted in grain loss due to shattering and bird and rodent damage. 65 .ebma whoocmz Eoum. mCHumo>umm commamo sues mxomnocsm mo omnucmouom m.m musmwh Emu «\N (m (cm {ON {or {up {w (e. «(5 «(sac .05. -ON .om “filo .Auv \ / -3 \ ,oo 0 Ton x\ Tom Tom 00.. Z.o§ .0 2mm v... 2.5.22 _ ozcv. .0 9550 59.25 5.5 I- 1!.II cozmtooo -. 9.2.5 3 2mm , 3.2m 2: 7 $39 2.28.0520 mafia .. 3.2:; 22:28 322.5 oocou 9550 / , .3. 5623.. .o 9:; a 2mm. 95.50 to. 3.5m ocficom a 9.3520 9.33 to. 9590 9.. 0. éflw 65.235 I 50 .0 28:86.2 71 condition of the ground surface and environmental factors are of prime importance, Figure 3.11. The duration of field drying may affect the quality of the rice grain at milling. Dobelmann (1961) studied the effect of drying methods (before threshing) on the milling yield and quality of milled rice. The paddy was cut, bundled and stacked at different nightly intervals. The grain was dried and the milling quality determined. Con- siderable losses in milling recovery was seen with delayed stacking up to nine days. A 15 percent increase in broken grain was seen after a delay of one night. Highly signifi— cant differences in percentage of cracked grain was noticed between stalks dried in the shade and the sun. The percent- age of broken grain was much lower when stalks were dried in the shade. Coyard (1950) reported that occasional wetting did not harm the quality of rice if the stalk was dried in the shade. However, if the stalk was dried in the sun and experienced occasional wetting, the percentage of broken grain increased considerably. 3.5. Field Transportation. The bundled stalks after being field dried are trans- ported to the threshing floor. The transporting distance varies depending on the location of the threshing floor. The usual practice is to carry the bundle on the head, but farmers not owning threshing floors may have to transport 72 :oflumummo mcflaocsm 0cm ocflwmq onu ca mommoq mcfiocmoamcH muouomm Ha.m wusmflm 22:3:5 .225a3.Iliv.EEzs. 28:80:23 one. .0 62.5.80 $2.03 38“. .30 52E8c £233: so...“ 9590 . SEED 20.... .o (l psiim mwmmO. 023028 a Gz.><.. E 282950 .2:o:22.»:w . 2282.53 €02.52 Alla a ELI; Thumctozagm 39.9. .0 GE... a 0.00 73 the cut stalk considerable distances in bullock carts. However, the stalk is initially head carried to the bullock carts. Curfs (1974) reported the use of racks and two-wheeled tractor trailers in addition to the use of manual transpor- tation. The transportation capacity as measured by Curfs (1974) in kg of rough rice/lOOm/hr, varied from about 50.9 kg at 20 days after 50 percent heading to about 67.8 kg at 55 days. The irrigated crops showed a higher transportation capacity as the crop dried with delayed harvesting. The upland crops, however, did not show a marked difference in transportation when measured at the respective dates. Transport of stalk with a rack carried by two people did not increase the capacity when compared with manual transporta- tion. The use of the trailer, however, made transportation about two times faster than manual transportation. Jacobi (1974) showed that on an average 45 man hour/ha are needed to transport bundles manually over a distance of 250 meters or greater. Curfs (1974) indicated that in general, trans— portation of a rice crop (over 100m) took about the same time as the harvesting operation. Losses in transportation are influenced by many fac- tors, Figure 3.12. Curfs (1974), who studied losses in grain due to transportation as a percentage over a total yield, indicated an increase in grain loss with delayed harvesting. Shattering characteristics of different 74 uuommcmue mcwnso camnw mo mommoq map mcfiocmSHmcH muouomm NH.m madman . tonnes... .o gum 4 29:5 .0 0532 TI. _ In}--- . rooms... .6 ©0522 _ a; u I! i!!! I: is}. ill 528» 3023580 1 $80.. Eodwzi-D (ll 11-11111 ll:l.|(-|ll-1 III if. 15-..: 225$ A m 0.6.5.8350 05.2.25 9 it x l.— .motm... .o 260 75 varieties influenced by the stage of maturity at which the harvest is performed are perhaps the major factors con- tributing to the grain loss. The terrain of the farm area influences grain loss in that movement through rough terrain results in a greater movement of panicles within the bundles at transport. The movement of panicles simulate a threshing process resulting in detached grains. The highest losses in the total handling operation is from the transportation process although in some farming areas bundles are wrapped in mats to prevent grain from falling. This practice, however, is limited to very small land areas where family labor is involved in transportation. The use of the pedal thresher in the field reduces the dis- tance to which bundles have to be transported and therefore reduces the losses in transportation. 3.6. Threshing. Threshing methods vary between and within countries. Threshing is an act whereby the grain with its adhering husks or glumes is separated from the stalk by use of manual or mechanical forces. Khan (1976) reported that separation is achieved by three methods: 1) rubbing action, 2) impact, and 3) stripping. Rubbing occurs when the paddy is threshed by men, animals and tractors. The impact method is most popular and could either be an action of beating sheaves on a stationary object or holding the straw stationary while 76 the grain is removed by impact of the panicle on the rota- ting spikes or wire loops of a mechanical threshing drum. Stripping is where the grain is separated from the plant while on the field. Some stripping occurs with impact threshing in conventional threshers while actual field stripping has been tried out by centrifugal threshers and strippers without much success commercially. Manual threshing by trampling; beating on tubs, threshing boards or racks; and flail threshing is common in many rice producing countries. Threshing by foot is per- formed by spreading the stalk on a hard surface either in or off the field and providing rubbing forces by walking on the stalk until the grains are loosened. In manual treading preference is given to slightly damp awnless paddy as the stalks would be less injurious to the feet. Foot threshing, however, is extremely slow and, as reported by Esmay, et al. (1977), may have a capacity of about 30 to 40 kg/hr. Grist (1975) reports that flailing and beating is still practiced in many countries. In Malaysia stalks are beaten on a rack and the grain collected underneath. The racks are portable and moved around the field during the threshing operation. Sheaves may also be beaten in wooden tubs on or adjacent to paddy fields. Inside the tubs, usually about the size of half a barrel, rests a ladder with rungs about 10 cm apart. The sheaves are beaten two or three times against the ladder and the removed grain is collected in the 77 tub. A screen is placed around the tub to prevent grain from scattering. The only mechanical equipment used for manually powered threshing is the pedal thresher which originated in Japan during the early stages of mechanization. This thresher is popular in Taiwan where a team of 5 to 7 men work each machine. The crew moves in a circle;while one or two men are threshing the others collect and bring new paddy bundles. The cylinder rotates at about 300 rpm and the inertia of the cylinder keeps the drum rotating as the men take turns pedaling the machines. Studies at IRRI indicated an output of 30 to 70 kg of paddy per hour,while in Taiwan, 60 to 65 man hours per hectare were required for pedal threshing with a capacity of 50 to 80 kg/hr, (Khan, 1976. The advantage of the pedal thresher is that it could be used on the field and thereby reduce potential losses during the transport of cut stalk to the threshing floor. In some countries of which Sri Lanka is one, animal threshing is very common. Sheaves are brought to the threshing floor where they are stacked or sundried. At threshing the sheaves are laid two or three deep around a stake with the panicles towards the stake. Buffalos are driven slowly around the stake to trample out the grain. Grain damage is usually high due to the sharp impact forces of the animal hooves. Contamination due to urine and dung are also undesirable outcomes of this method. Jacobi 78 (1974) reported that 80 to 110 man hours/ha were necessary to perform this operation. The use of tractor wheels for threshing has been practiced in some countries and is popular in Sri Lanka for custom threshing. The sheaves are arranged similar to that for animal threshing and the tractor is run over the sheaves for several hours depending on the harvested area. A threshing capacity of 640 kg/hr has been observed by Khan (1976) in Sri Lanka when two threshing floors were alternately worked with one tractor. The weight of the tractor wheels increase the percentage of broken grains although the capacity is higher than buffalo threshing. Mechanically powered threshing machines are gaining popularity in many countries. Toquero, et al. (1977) reports that in the Philippines farmers appeared to prefer the mechanical thresher due to its high degree of avail- ability (timeliness) and the ease of monitoring the thresh- ing and distribution of the final product. In contrast to the traditional method which offered considerable opportu- nity for pilferage by those performing the threshing operation, mechanized threshing effectively consolidated control of the threshing operation. Mechanical power threshing is in limited use in Sri Lanka. However, from a sample investigation made during the course of this study, many farmers were encouraged by the idea of having mechani- cal threshers on a custom basis so as to perform timely 79 threshing operations. In areas of high rice production, the limited availability of tractors or buffalos hindered the timely performance of the threshing operation. In certain instances farmers have to stack the cut stalk for weeks before threshing operations could begin. The farmers therefore showed willingness to utilize mechanical threshers on a custom basis in preference to experiencing delays arising from the lack of tractors and buffalos at threshing. Threshing machines to be used in this context, however, should be of intermediate capacity, be portable, non-labor saving and have adequate support facilities for repairs, etc. Mechanically powered threshers may be equipped with one of the following types of cylinder and concave arrange- ment: 1) rasp bar with concave, 2) spike tooth with concave, 3) wire 100p with concave, and 4) wire loop with- out concave. Threshing machines may be the "hold on" type where the stalk is held over the rotating drum. A single cylinder machine is commonly of the "hold on" type and is basically a modification of the pedal thresher with the addition of a driving system powered by a small engine. Three types of "hold on" machines are in common use. 1) The engine driven modified pedal thresher as in Taiwan. The machines have no cleaning and grain separating mechanisms. The output of these machines is fairly low, but the 80 advantage is that they are simple and could be manufactured in most Asian countries. 2) Japanese power threshers are equipped with a wire loop threshing drum and a regular cleaning and winnowing mechanism. Since they are of the "hold on" type they have a low capacity and a relatively high labor use. 3) Self-feeding automatic threshers are similar to the nonautomatic threshers except that they are equipped with gripping mechanisms which help feed the held stalk in a continuous layer into the threshing drum. The threshing output in this machine is high. In all methods the paddy stalk should be cut long so the stalk could be held and fed into the threshing machine. The "throw in" type machines are of two types: 1) the through-flow, and 2) the axial-flow type. In the "throw in" type the paddy stalk may be cut short, since the paddy plants are fed completely into the machine. The through- flow machines are equipped with a cylinder and concave while some may have a separating and cleaning mechanism. The axial-flow thresher, developed at IRRI, combines threshing with air and screen cleaning devices. Khan (1976) states that the capacity is rated at l t/hr and because of its simplicity has had few operation and maintenance problems. Numerous threshing machines have been manufactured under different name brands, but all basically have similar loop, drum and concave arrangements. Threshing losses are influenced by the variety, the 81 method of threshing, the duration of field drying and the maturity of the crop at harvest. The threshing methods determine the percentage of cracked grain remaining after the threshing process. The duration of field drying and maturity of the crop at harvest determines the final milling output and percentage of head rice recovery. Tractor and buffalo threshing gives rise to a high percentage of cracked grains. The paddy grain is subject to high forces arising from the weight of the tractor wheel and the hooves of the animals. Damages to grains may further be affected by the maturity at time of harvest. If the crop is left until the over-ripe stage, grain may be- come brittle and break during the threshing process. If grains are immature they tend to get crushed by the forces acting on them. Crops harvested at the optimum time may withstand the forces exerted by the tractor wheels and hooves of the animals. Gupta (1963) reported that damages to grain by mechani- cal threshing could be due to improper concave and drum adjustment and drum speeds. Grains may be crushed and broken at the time of threshing. Similarly, invisible damage may occur on the grain which could be determined only by removing the husks by hand. Wanders (1974) re- ported that the percentage of unhusked grains broken inside increased from 25 to 49 percent from normal harvest time to late harvest respectively in variety D52-37 and 15 to 26 82 percent respectively in variety Taichung N.-l. In studies made by Curfs (1974) where the immature grain percentage decreased with maturity, broken grains and cracked kernels decreased from about 2.23 percent in variety TOX 7 to about 1.48 percent at 30 to 35 days after 50 percent heading and increased thereafter to 2.31 percent. Unthreshed grain is a result of improper setting of drums and concaves. Percentage of unthreshed grain may be a function of the maturity at time of cutting, the variety being threshed and in the case of pedal and "hold on" power threshers, the length of stalk at the time of cutting. Figure 3.13 exemplifies the factors influencing losses at the threshing operation. 83 mcflzmwusa um mommoq mcflocwsamcH muouomh >...m=m<> L.— . bww>mm Doc: ~.s\s.ms no.0 a.mm cam o.m a.mm wens em m.m\v.mm us- a.mm we. ~.e m.e~ m muem.om m.oa\m.mm III mm.h~ It: II: v.m~ mvlv Naom.0m In: an: mm.m~ at: *all ~.v~ mm Huvm.om ¢.ma\o.mm m.hH mo.wa hmH m.m m.m~ welc HHIHH.om . w w .u3 magnum 0 EU .mfiEOE. “RYE. mowm mafiumuumnm :Hmum mo .02 ucmflm3 camcoa cowumuno wumflum> cmxoum comm coo... maoecmm £u30uo mmflumfluw> Umuomamm mnu mo moHumflnmuomumnv .N.v wands 91 RESULTS 4.10. Lodging. Lodging characteristics of all varieties Were studied throughout the data collection period. Although a quanti- tative survey was not made, the fields were observed for lodging, beginning at 50% heading. BG. 34-8 was found to lodge about 25 days after 50% heading. However, lodging of BG. 34-8 fields were not uni- form resulting in areas of lodged stalks amongst standing stalks up to 40 days beyond 50% heading. Lodging in these fields may have been due to the influence of climatic factors such as rain and wind. Excessive grain damage was observed on lodged plants in water-logged fields. BG. ll-ll had a higher resistance to lodging in the observed fields, but at maturity (about 28 days after 50% heading) and beyond, climatic factors caused a majority of the plants to lodge. Complete lodging was observed in fields where farmers delayed harvesting beyond 40 days after 50% heading. Grain spoilage resulting from lodged stalk in standing water was low, since lodged BG. ll-ll plants were not exposed to monsoonal rains that result in logged fields. H-4 lodged at heading or immediately thereafter. As a varietal characteristic, H-4 responds to heavy nitrogen fertilizer application and has tall stems which makes it susceptible to lodging. Fields under observation had plants that were completely lodged at the inception of data 92 collection. Areas of excessive rodent damage were observed in many of the fields. The lodged plants provided a perfect cover for the common field mouse which feeds on mature grains of the fallen panicles. The fields under observa- tion were not exposed to monsoonal rain showers and grain spoilage due to water logging was not observed. Monsoonal rains resulting in water-logged fields would have submerged the entire crop leading to high grain spoilage. Lodging was not observed in fields cultivated with BG. 94-1 and BG. 90-2. These varieties exhibited a resistance to lodging even beyond full maturity of grains and stems. Shorter and thicker stems of these two varieties increased their resistance to lodging in spite of their high response to nitrogen fertilizer. 4.11. Grain Moisture Content. Grain moisture was observed on all varieties at 8.00 a.m. and 2.00 p.m. on scheduled harvest dates. Table 4.3. illustrates the variation in moisture content at 8.00 a.m. and 2.00 p.m. on scheduled harvest dates for varieties BG. 34-8, BG. ll-ll, BG. 90-2 and H-4 respectively. The dif- ference in moisture contents measured at 8.00 a.m. and 2.00 p.m. varied with varieties and was influenced by environ- mental conditions. The moisture content of the rice grain decreased as the plant reached physiological maturity, (Wanders, 1974). 93 uh.vn «n.ou an.un ov.«~ mu.o~ mo.uu oo.o« ma.m~ co.o~ un.u~ ov.n~ oo.vn on.nn ap.m~ .N. «aoa.on oo.v~ ov.on uh.mu ov.N~ vo.a~ no.- oh.nu oa.m~ ~n.v~ n«.vn on.v~ on.m~ ov.n~ oo.nn .«. ~n¢a.0n it- nun oa.vu ov.nu ocuna nu.o~ ~u.v« om.ma on.u~ on.n« oh.o« oa.v~ o>.vn ou.m~ .n. ouvn.ca I-.. it! vo.n.— mafia 2...” main 2...: No.5“ '96." ov.m~ nnéu oa.v~ on.vu o~.mu a: olvn.0n no.n« vh.o~ uv.aa va.o~ mm.m~ va.v~ a...” o~.v~ mu.o~ on.v~ 09.9w oo.v« oo.n~ co.w~ .u. n~o-.on oo.nn oa.- aa.a~ on.- oa.c~ o~.m~ on.u~ om.m~ «h.au nn.v~ hm.u« nu.m~ hn.n« oc.u~ .u. «Ha«~.on ou.v~ oo.m~ ov.oa oc.¢~ uo.oa o.o~ mn.aa ¢.o~ vw.a~ oo.- mm.~u ov.m~ oo.o~ oc.u~ .u. Havm.un on.m~ oo.u~ No.5a oo.m~ on.w« ou.c~ am.u~ c~.u~ vn.a~ oa.- ow.- oo.m~ oo.o~ oo.o~ .u. u;va.on vh 4..." moi“ on.o~ oo.u~ 23a." mn.vn «Rafi aminw naéw ma.n~ oo.o~ oo.ou 0.... III N In: .8 so.hu mn.- munon oc.w~ o~.o~ cu.n~ nn.o~ op.- oo.o~ ou.v~ co.o~ co.m« no: nun a such v: oouM11nooun can" ooze oo.~ oonw oc.« acne can” co.» can" oouo oo.u ooun av on huodua> ocuouoz wouut axon once uovca uuuuouu¢> no easy-«o: :«uuo .n.v cunts 94 Moisture loss increased during the daytime when climatic conditions cause an increased evaporation loss of moisture to the environment. Cooling of the air at night accom- panied by an increase in the relative humidity caused mois- ture to be readsorbed resulting in a higher grain moisture content during the early daytime hours. Similar cyclic absorption and desorption properties of the rice grain from drying during daylight hours to rewetting at night were observed by Grist (1975); Smith and Macrea Jr. (1951) and Curfs (1974). Polynomial regression analysis of the average daily moisture content for different harvest dates resulted in the formulation of prediction equations for the five rice varieties. BG. 34-8 The field data was fitted to a second order polynomial regression line (equation 4.1), using GAV, the average grain moisture content as the dependent variable against the independent harvest date variable, N. _ 2 Y-a0+alx+a2X (4.1) The resulting prediction equation (4.2), GAV=42.49l-1.4136*N+0.18666*10-1*N2 (4.2) had a r2 value=0.9109 indicating that 91 percent of the variation in GAV was explained by the regression on the har- vest date variable. The regression coefficients al and a2 were both significant at the 0.05 probability level. 95 BG. 11-11 Equation (4.3), l 2 GAV=18.710+0.51263*N-0.13181*10- 2 *N (4.3) had a r of 0.8247. Regression coefficients al and a were 2 both significant at the 0.05 probability level. BG. 90-2 A prediction equation for variety BG. 90-2 is seen in equation (4.4) and was given as, 1*N2 (4.4) GAV=21.328+0.32307*N-0.1046l*10- where r2=0.697l, indicating that 69 percent of the variation in GAV was explained by variable N (harvest dates). Regres- sion coefficients al and a2 were not significant at 0.05, but were significant at 0.5 and 0.3 levels respectively. The fluctuations in grain moisture at various stages of maturity, influenced by the climatic conditions,such as rain and relative humidity, may have resulted in scattered data points, lowering the r2 and providing a lower level of probability for its regression coefficients. The overall equation was, however significant at F (<1=0.Ol). H:4 The predictive equation for GAV was given in equation (4.5) as, GAV=37.924-0.87339*N+0.11099*lO-1*N2 (4.5) and had an r2 value of 0.5704. The coefficients al and a2 96 were not significant at t(<1=0.05), but were significant at the 0.3 and 0.4 levels respectively. The overall equation, however, was significant at F(<1=0.025). BG. 94-1 The predictive equation for GAV was given as, l 2 GAV=46.982-l.7116*N+0.26031*10- *N (4.6) and had a r2 of 0.9561. The coefficients al and a2 were significant at t(<1=0.01). The variation in average grain moisture content with the harvest dates as well as their respective regression equations are illustrated in Figure 4.1. 4.12. Sunchecked Grain. The percentage of sunchecked grains was calculated on five samples having 10 grains each, on every harvest date beyond 50% heading. The husks of each grain was removed and examined for sunchecks. A complete fissure along the width of the grain was taken as evidence of sunchecking. The number of sunchecked grains in each sample was used to calculate the percentage of sunchecks. The incidence of sunchecking was seen to increase with the maturity of the grain and rice plant. The results were similar to those observed by Wanders (1974), Grist (1975), Langfield (1957), Smith and Macrea Jr. (1951) and Coyard (1950). %AVERAGE GRAIN MOISTURE CONTENT 97 30 25 // I I ._——‘1—-——— ———--—1 15 H4- GAVz37924-o.87339-I11+o.11099- 1p"-N2 1O 86.11—11— GAV=18.71+b.51263-N---0.13181-10’“*Nz 1 BG.34- 8- GAv=42 .4911 .4136'N+ Jess-104111112 1 86.90-2- GAV=21. 32 11.032307-14-01046-1011-142 BG.94-1- canvas 93% 711mm 26031-10- ' N2 I 1 1 1 1 1 ' 1 1 1 16 20 24 28 32 36 DAYS AFTER 50% HEADING 40 Figure 4.1 Variations in Average Grain Moisture Contents with Harvest Dates 98 Linear regression analysis techniques were used to generate predictive equations to fit the observed field data. Percentage sunchecks (SNC), the dependent variable was used against the independent harvest date variable, (N). Equation (4.7) represents the model of the predictive equation, Y=a+bX (4.7) where Y= the predicted percentage of sunchecks, SNC X= the harvest date, N. b= the regression coefficient and slope of the equa- ion a= a constant of regression and the intercept of the equation (4.7). BG. 34-8 The predictive equation for variety BG. 34-8 was given in equation (4.8) as, SNC=-35.467+2.3*N (4.8) and had a r2 value of 0.8419 and a regression coefficient b, significant at t((1=.01). BG. 11-11 Equation (4.9). SNC=-27.357+3.1607*N (4.9) is the predictive equation for BG. 11-11 and had an r2 value of 0.9326 explaining that 93 percent of the variation in SNC was influenced by the independent harvest date variable, (N). The regression coefficient b was significant at t(cx=0.01). 99 BG. 90-2 The prediction equation for percentage of sunchecked grains for different harvest dates N, for variety BG. 90-2 was given as, SNC=-31.214+2.2679*N (4.10) and had a r2 value of 0.8975 and a regression coefficient b, significant at t(cx=0.01). The equation (4.11) illustrated the variation of SNC with N for variety H-4. SNC=-73.857+3.3786*N (4.11) had a r2 value of 0.8936 and a regression coefficient sig- nificant at t( 18 [+4 ----1 [ DATA CUTTING TRANSPORT : AND BUNDLING 0 THRESHING 1 THRESHING 2 THRESHING 3 THRESHING 4 o\o o 0m 0 0 0 69 FIGURE 5.3 THE POST PRODUCTION FARM LEVEL MODEL 135 than 4 and if there was no rain, R=0, on the cutting day. If labor was less than 4, harvesting was postponed to the next day. Similarly, if there was rain and R=l, cutting was postponed to the next day. The cutting operation commenced only after the conditions, LABH>4 and R=0, were satisfied, Figure 5.4. Pre-harvest losses were those losses occurring on un- harvested land prior to complete harvesting in kg/ha. Pre- harvest grain losses PHV, were calculated using one of the prediction equations 4.14 to 4.18, depending on the variety under test. TPHV was the grain loss in kg for the total unharvested land area and computed with equation (5.1). TPHV=PHV* (RLAND-DH) (5 . l) where DH was the area harvested in ha. The total grain loss PHVT in kg for the unharvested area, influenced by delays in harvesting, rain and labor factors, was, 3' PHVT= Z TPHV n=1 or PHVT=PHVT+TPHV (5 . 2) The percentage of sunchecks, SNC, was calculated using one of the equations 4.8 to 4.12, depending on the variety under test. Bird and rodent losses, BRD, were calculated using one of the predictive equations 4.38 to 4.42, depending on the 136 52:8 .8 .. 5.225: :2 235235.... 42:0: 42602 UZ—hhzu uFr wwmmOA Pmu>x<—wm¢ mh¢<=.»3_-= v.m mz:c_u Mummc; uz~hmw>¢<= omhmm>x<= x<: Oh ¢szBxL uh<;:u;kxu mfikummmraxuhmgs .7:HR9< C U scum mmfluaaanmnoum Hamucumm cmuoacmna can Hmsuoa m.m musmfim mme—DZ xwmg '3 CD ‘3 c: “2 C) ‘2 C) “2 c: ‘2 c: ”: C> GAV AH? All-IIBVBOHd TlVdNIVH A'IIVCI 143 HH Gounom .GOHmmoummm Eoum mofluwaanmnonm Hammcwmm wouoflpmum can Hmsuoc m.m gunman cobE:Zxoo>> NF :2 m. m A o m 1.. m as _ _ _ r . r m _ L . Hcommmm. _ O In. Volvo mu. 0 \mo No M o a i 00 M 001w v0 W can. 00 m m % mom r No ...A.. wd >>>> lilaogn: crotch 2% >5 OI. ad III... A>>>>av Sou—on >5 L02, 0 a: on . 90.0.2.3 . a O _. 144 The probability of rain (R=l) and no rain (R=0) was simulated using the model illustrated in Figure 5.7 and Appendix A4. Weather is an important factor in the cutting operation. Cutting will not take place if it rains on the proposed cutting date. Cutting was postponed to the next day or repeatedly postponed until R=0 in the harvesting model. The subroutine was called at the start of all cut- ting operations. If labor and weather conditions were satisfied the cutting operation was performed starting in the morning of an eight hour work day. The cutting rate RH of 0.013 ha/hr/labor unit was calculated by observing the area cut by seven men in two hours. It was assumed in the model that the cutting rate remained uniform throughout the operation. RRH was the cutting rate by the total labor force LABH. A lodging factor RLODG of 0.0, 0.25 and 0.50 was used respec- tively for varieties that do not lodge, lodge partially and lodge completely. A lodging coefficient RLDG was computed from the equation, RLDG=1.0-RLODG (5.11) and was used to reduce the cutting rate. For example, if the plants lodged partially, the factor was 0.25 and RLDG from (5.11) was 0.75. The cutting rate was taken as, RRH=RH*LABH*.75 (5.12) RRH=RH*LABH*.50 if RLODG=.5 RRH=RH*LABH*1.0 if RLODG=0.0 145 INITIALIZE RAIN CALCULATE YESTERDAY? . YES CALCULATE PWD GENERATE RANDOM NUMBER(R) l ROB:0F N0 RAIN PR=l-PWD PR=1-PWW R80 '0 (RETURN > ' R81 FIGURE 5.7 RAIN SUBROUTINE T0 SIMULATE OCCURRENCE OF RAIN (R-l) OR NO RAIN (R80) 146 The area H in HA that remained to be cut at a time T was given by H(T)=H(0) - 0(RRH*RLDG)dt (5.13) or for time increments of DT H=H-RRH*DT*RLDG DH was the total area in HA harvested at time T and given by T DH (T)=DH(O)+ I RRH*RLDG*dt (5.14) 0 or for time increments of DT DH=DH+RRH * DT * RLDG Cutting losses PSV were losses at the time of cutting in kg/ha. PSV was calculated using equations 4.20 to 4.24, depending on the variety under study. TPSV was the grain loss in kg for the harvested area DH at time t and computed with equation (5.15). TPSV=PSV*RRH*DT*RLDG (5 . 15) The total grain loss PSVT in kg for the harvested area at time T was T PSVT=£El TPSV (5.16) or PSVT=PSVT+TPSV 147 A work day was assumed to have eight hours. If the cutting time exceeded the 8th hour, the cutting operation was incomplete and was continued the next day. If H=0.0, before T=8, then cutting was complete on day N and the cut sheaves were allowed to dry on the field until the next day, (N=N+l). If H>0 and T>8, the cutting operation was incom- plete and the operation was carried on to the N+1 day pro— vided that R=0. If N+1 was a rainy day, ie R=1, the stalks cut during day N were transported and stacked. All avail- able labor generated by the labor model, in addition to family labor, was used in the transport of cut sheaves. If the total area DH, cut during N was not bundled and transported at N+1 and R=0 at N+2, the unharvested area was cut. If the harvest was incomplete the cycle was repeated until the harvest was completed. If R=1 at N+2, bundling and transporting was continued until the area DH was trans- ported. After completing the harvest operation the stalks were left for drying on the field. If N+3 was a rainy day, then the remaining stalk was bundled and transported. If bundling and transport was incomplete at N+3 and R=0 at N+4 , bundling, transporting and pedal threshing were performed at N+4 if the pedal thresher was used for threshing. If R=1 at N+4, the remaining stalk was bundled and transported. The transported stalk was threshed from N+5 onwards, Figure 5.8. 148 BUNDLING TRANSPORT Figure 5.8 Bundling, Transport and Pedal Threshing as Affected by Rain 149 5.6. The Bundling and Transport Model. Any sheaves left on the field beyond a day after the cutting operation were assumed to be bundled and transported even if R=1. The cut sheaves were transported and stored even though R=1, to avoid spoilage of cut bundles on the field. The RAIN subroutine predicted the possibility of cutting the unharvested area if R=0.0. Labor was simulated using the LABOR subroutine and used to bundle and transport the cut stalk simultaneously. No limitations were placed on labor availability for the opera- tion. Labor generated by LABOR was used by the model, supplemented with input family labor, LABF. Priority was given to remove the cut sheaves left behind on the field and therefore any labor available was used for these operations. LAB was the total labor available for the bundling and transport operation. LAB=LM+LABF (5 . 1 8) Two-thirds of the available labor was used for the transport operation, while the balance being used for the bundling operation, LABT=(2/3)*LAB (5.18) where LABT is the labor for transport LABB=LAB-LABT (5.19) where LABB is the labor for bundling The transport rate TR in ha/hr was based on the time taken to carry a known area of harvested stalk to a known distance. On an average an equivalent area of about 25 150 square meters of stalk was carried on a single trip to the threshing floor. TR=0.009 ha/hr was calculated using equation (5.20) from observed data, (Appendix A5). TR was assumed to be uniform throughout the transport operation. TR=S/D*(1/2)*B (5.20) where S= average speed of labor unit, m/hr. U II average distance to threshing floor, m. 00 II average area in a bundle of cut stalk head carried by a farmer, ha. Equation (5.20) was divided by 2 to calculate the average number of trips from the field to the threshing floor. The rate of bundle removal used as the transport rate, was the area of cut stalk transported from the field to the thresh- ing floor, at a given time, t. TRR, ha/hr was the transport rate utilizing the total labor LABT for the transport operation, given by, TRR=TR*LABT (5.21) The bundling rate BR, ha/hr, calculated from field observations, (Appendix A6), was the area of cut sheaves, bundled per hour by a single labor unit. BRR in ha/hr was the bundling rate by the total labor, LABB for the bundling operation, equation (5.22). BRR=BR*LABB Since both operations were performed simultaneously, if TRR>BRR, at every time increment DT, labor for transport remained idle until bundles were made to be transported. A check was necessary to reduce TRR and increase BRR in the 151 event that TRR>BRR. The following statements were used to make this check. 100 CONTINUE TRR=TR*LABT BRR=BR*LABB IF(TRR.GT.BRR) LABT=LABT-1 IF(TRR.GT.BRR) LABB=LABB+1 IF(TRR.GT.BRR) GO TO 100 A was the area in ha of sheaves left to be bundled at time T and given in equation (5.23) as T A(T)=A(0) - fBRRdt (5.23) - 0 or for the increments of DT A=A-BRR*DT The area bundled at a time increment of DT was given as BN, in equation (5.24) BN=BRR*DT (5.24) The total area bundled BND in ha, at a given time T was calculated by (5.25) T BND(T)=BND(O)+f BRRdt (5.25) O or for time increments of DT BND=BND+BRR*DT Bundling losses BNDL, are losses at the time of bun- dling kg/ha. BNDL was calculated using equations 4.26 to 4.30 depending on the variety under study. TBNDL was the 152 grain loss in kg for the area bundled at time t and computed from (5.26) TBNDL=BNDL*BN (5.26) The total grain loss in kg for the total bundled area at time T was computed from, BNDLT= TBNDL (5.27) t=1 or BNDLT=BNDLT+TBNDL The area remaining to be transported AT in ha, at time T is a function of the area bundled BN, the transport rate, TRR at T, and the area to be transported at T-l, equation (5.28). AT(T)=AT(O)+ l:(BRR-TRR)dt (5.28) or for time increments of DT AT=AT+(BRR-TRR)*DT The area transported ATR in ha, for a time T was re- presented by equation (5.29) T ATR(T)=ATR(O)+J£ TRRdt (5.29) and for a time increment of DT ATR=ATR+TRR*DT Losses due to transport TRL in kg/ha were calculated by equations 4.32 to 4.36 depending on the variety under test. TTRL was the grain loss in kg for the transported area at time t, equation (5.30) .1553 M PRINT CALCULATE HARVEST AREA TO BUNDLE INCOMPLETE AREA BUNDLEO AREA TO TRANSPORT AREA TRANSPORTEO FIND AREA TO BUNDLE CALCULATE NEW LABOR FOR TRANSPORT AND CALCULATE TRANSPORT AND BUNDLING PRINT (2) LABOR VARIABLES _ 73$ BUNDLE AND TRANSPORT I Figure 5.9 Bundling and Transport Model 154 TTRL=TRL*TRR*DT (5 . 30) The total grain loss in kg for the total transported area at time T is T TRLT=Z TTRL (5 . 31) =l or TRLT=TRLT+TTRL When A, the area to be bundled, was reduced to 0.0, bundling was completed and BN=0.0. The bundling rate, BRR=0.0 and the labor for bundling, LABB joined the labor for transport, LABT so as to increase the transporting labor, LABBT, Figure 5.9. The transporting rate, TRR was increased and is given by, TRR=TR*LABBT (5 . 32) As BRR=0.0,_BN=0.0, the area to be transported AT started decreasing with the increased TRR. From (5.28) ie . AT=AT+ (O . O-TRR) DT When AT reaches 0.0, bundling and transport was com- pleted and the model was ready to commence the threshing operation. If T>8, A>0.0 and AT>0.0, bundling and transport was not completed within the 8 hour working day. The operation was carried on to the next day (N+1). If T>8, A<0.0 and AT>0.0, bundling of the stalk was completed but transport was not. Stalk was transported on N+1 subsequent days until AT=0.0. If T<8, A<0.0 and AT<0.0, bundling and transport 155 had been accomplished within the eight hour working day. 5.7. Threshing Models. Four methods of threshing were used in the overall model, a) pedal, b) buffalo, c) tractor and d) machine. Of these, tractor, buffalo and mechanical threshing were per- formed after all the cut stalk had been transported to the threshing floor, whereas pedal threshing was performed on the field or, depending on weather conditions, on the threshing floor, Figure 5.8. a) Pedal Threshing Pedal threshing was performed on the field if R=0.0. Bundling, transport and pedal threshing were done simulta- neously. Bundling and transport operation was first per- formed as in equations (5.23), (5.24), (5.25), (5.28), (5.29) and (5.33). The area to be pedal threshed APT in ha was equal to the amount transported ATR in ha. Grain loss from bundling and transport was calculated in the threshing model, using equations (5.26), (5.27), (5.30) and (5.31). The area transported ST, at time increment DT added on to APT, the area to be threshed, for every DT (5.33), until AT=0.0. When AT=0.0, transportation ST=TRR*DT (5.33) was completed and TRR=0.0. Therefore, ST=0.0. 156 The area remaining to be pedal threshed, APT, was a function of the area transported, ST, the threshing rate, TRTP at T and the area that was to be pedal threshed at T-l, equation (5.34). T APT (T)=APT(0)+’[0 (TRR-TRTP)dt (5.34) or for the time increment DT APT=APT+ (TRR-TRTP) *DT The rate of pedal threshing TPT in ha/hr was calculated from field observations, Appendix A7. Three units of labor were assumed to be used to operate the machine on a rotating principle, i.e. a man picks a bundle, walks up to the thresher, threshes the bundle and moves out. A second man, meanwhile, has picked another bundle and threshes it after the first man moved out. The third man performs a similar task, after which the first man is ready to thresh a fresh bundle of stalk. LABPT, the labor units for pedal threshing, varies and was used as an input variable. TRTP, the total rate of pedal threshing for labor units performing the operation, was given as, TRTP=TPT*LABPT (5 . 35) The area pedal threshed, ATT, for a time T was, ATT(T)=ATT(O)+‘fTTRTPdt O and for a time increment DT, ATR=ATR+TRTP *DT 157 If A=0.0, AT=0.0 and APT>0.0 when T>8, bundling and transport was completed, but pedal threshing was incomplete for the eight hour day. The stalks were threshed on the next day and the process repeated until APT=0.0. Threshing was then complete and so were the other operations, cutting bundling and transport, Figure 5.10. Pedal threshing may be continued following the bundling and transport operation. If rainy weather prevailed during the bundling and transport operations, pedal threshing was not performed on the field. After all the stalk was trans- ported the stalk threshing was done the next day provided that R=0.0. The area to be threshed, APT, was equal to the total area transported, ATR. As the transport operation was com- plete, TRR=0.0 making ST=0.0. The area to be threshed at a time T was therefore, T APT (T)=APT(O)-j; TRTPdt (5.37) or for time increment DT by Euler integration, APT=APT-TRTP*DT The area threshed at time T was, ATT (T)=ATT(0)+ITTRTPdt (5.38) O or for time increment DT ATT=ATT+TRTP * DT If APT<0.0 and T<8, threshing was completed within the eight hour day. It T>8 and APT>0.0, the stalk was threshed 158 RAIN? NO [flA T0 mg} l-——- BUNDLE TRANSPORT 7 AND THRESH FIND NEW TRANSPORT RATE AND FIND AREA TO TRANSPORT )T CALCULATE AREA BUNDLES H CALCULATE 1' DLING LOSSE TRANSPORT LOSSES L PRINT VARIABLES CALCULATE AREA TRANSPORTED TO THRESH (APT) THRESHED PRINT, HAVST BUND,TRANSPRT THRESH COMPLT FIGURE $.10 BUNDLING. TRANSPORT 8 PEDAL THRESHING MODEL 159 the next day, providing R=0.0. If R=1, the stalk was kept in stacks until a favorable day was available for threshing. When APT=0.0, cutting, bundling, transport and pedal threshing was complete. b) Buffalo Threshing The cut stalk was threshed by buffalos after being transported to the threshing floor. The area remaining to be threshed by buffalos, ABT in ha, was initially the area ATR transported in N days. Buffalos are usually available for threshing on a share basis between neighboring farmers, but in certain areas buffalos are hired on a fixed fee of Rs. 40 per working day. The rate of buffalo threshing TB in ha/hr/pair of buffalos was an average observed under field conditions, Appendix A8, and assumed to be uniform in the model. The number of pairs available for threshing varies depending on the area of land initially harvested. The number of pairs for threshing, NBRP, was used as an input variable in the model. The area to be threshed, ABT, for a given time, T, was represented in equation (5.39) as ABT(T)=ABT(0)-ITTRTBdt (5.39) 0 where TRTB=TB*NBPR NBPR being the pairs of buffalos available for threshing. or for time increment DT ABT=ABT-TRTB*DT 160 The area threshed by buffalos, ATTB in ha, at a given time, T, is T ATTB(T)=ATTB(0)+I TRTB*T (5.40) 0 or for time increment DT ATTB=ATTB+TRTB*DT The stalk is threshed if it does not rain, i.e. R=0.0, on the scheduled threshing date. If R=1, threshing is post- poned for the next suitable day. If ABT>0.0 and T>8, threshing was incomplete and was continued on N+1, provided that R=0.0. If ABT<0.0 and T<8, the operations, cutting, bundling, transport and threshing were complete, Figure 5.11. c) Tractor Threshing Tractor threshing was performed if R=0.0. One tractor was used for each threshing operation at a fee of Rs. 85 per working day. Tractors were usually rented from a tractor owner who may or may not have his own rice fields. The stacks of cut stalk were kept on the threshing floor until a tractor was available and the weather was favorable for threshing. The rate of tractor threshing TRAC in ha/hr was calcu- lated from field observations, Appendix A9, and assumed to be uniform in the model. Tractor threshing was performed after all the cut stalk was transported. The area remaining to be threshed on day N, taken as ATRT in ha, was initially equal to the total area transported, ATR. 161 The area to be threshed ATRT by a tractor at a given time T was, T ATRT(T)=ATRT(O)-I TRACdt (5.41) 0 or for time increment DT ATRT=ATRT-TRAC*DT The area threshed by tractor TATRT in ha, for a given time T was, TATRT(T)=TATRT(O)+frTRACdt (5.42) 0 and for increments of DT TATRT=TATRT+TRAC*DT If ATRT>0.0 and T>8, threshing was continued on N+1, on the condition that R=0.0. If R=1, threshing was repeat- edly postponed until R=0.0. When ATRT<0.0 and T<8, cutting bundling, transport and tractor threshing were completed, Figure 5.11 d) Mechanical Threshing Mechanical threshing was not common and seen mainly in commercial and research farms. The machine, if portable, may be taken to the field and used simultaneously with the bundling and transport operations, similar to the pedal threshing. The model assumed that the thresher was kept at a central location and the cut stalk transported to the threshing area before threshing. The area to be threshed AMT in ha was initially equal to the total area transported, ATR on day N. .1652 ‘ , S CALCULATE AREA TO YES AREA TO THRESH THRESH <0 NO , I v M 4, W15" J CALCULATE AREA TO THRESH) AT GIVEN TIME E D CALCULATE AREA THRESHED FIGURE 5.11 A COMMON FLOW CHART FOR THE FOUR THRESHING MODELS 163 The rate of mechanical threshing varied, depending on the capacity of the machine. Field observations made on an Iseki thresher were used in the model as the mechanical threshing rate TM in ha/hr. The threshing rate was assumed to be uniform throughout the operation. The area to be mechanically threshed, AMT for a given time T was, T AMT(T)=AMT(0)-f TMdt (5.43) 0 or for increments of DT, by Euler integration AMT=AMT-TM*DT The area threshed by machine at a time T was represen- ted by equation (5.44). T AMCHT(T)=AMCHT(O)+J{ TMdt (5.44) O or for time increments DT AMCHT=AMCHT+TM*DT An advantage of the mechanical thresher was that it could be operated if R=1, provided that a shelter was available if it rained. The model assumed that the thresher was housed in a farm shed and threshing was performed irre- spective of the weather conditions. If AMT>0.0 and T>8, threshing was incomplete and continued on N+1 irrespective of whether R=1 or R=0.0. When AMT<0.0 and T<8, cutting, bundling and threshing were completed on day Nj' Figure 5.11, (which, however, shows the influence of R on the threshing operation). 164 The in-field post production process is complete when cutting, bundling, transport and threshing operations are finished. A total grain loss count, TOTL made by summing up all losses in the post production system, equation (5.45). TOTL=PHVT+PSVT+BRDT+BNDLT+TRLT (5 . 4 5) After completing the in-field operations for the given land area, the model returned to cut a similar area at I=20 or I=i+4 until I=40, Figure 5.2 The percentage of broken grain was calculated at the beginning of every cutting operation using equations 4.44 to 4.63, depending on the variety tested. This value was used to determine the effects of harvest date and threshing method on the final output of rice. The average grain moisture percentage was calculated before each cutting, bundling and transport operation, using equations 4.2 to 4.6, depending on the variety tested. CHAPTER VI SIMULATION RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The simulation program was run on an IBM 370/158 computer, situated at the University of Hawaii, Manoa Campus, in Honolulu, Hawaii. The printout of the main program, sub- routine RAIN, subroutine LABOR and subroutine FNL are illus- trated in Appendices A10, A4, A2 and A2 respectively. 6.1 Inputs to the Model. The variable RLAND was the area of land in ha cultiva- ted with a known variety. The model simulated the cutting, bundling, transport and threshing operations involved in harvesting the given area RLAND. An area of 0.94 hectares was used as an input to test the model. BG. 11-11 was used as the variety cultivated on RLAND. BG. ll—ll was seen to lodge after maturity, influenced by climatic conditions (Chapter IV). However, since BG. 11-11 was resistant to lodging but did exhibit lodging in certain fields, a lodging factor RLODG=0.25 was used in the model. This signified that 25 percent of the cultivated plants in RLAND lodged at cutting and therefore affected the cutting operation. RLODG would vary depending on the variety cultivated. For instance, H-4, which is very susceptible to lodging, would be given a factor of .85 to .90, indicat- ing 85 to 90 percent lodging at time of cutting. 165 166 Family labor, LABF varied according to the farm famil- ies cultivating the land. Very often the wife and older children of a farmer join in the harvesting operations. The model is equipped to supplement the labor generated by subroutine LABOR, with the input LABF variable. The rates of cutting, bundling and threshing are variable inputs to the model. The rates, RH, BR, TRAC, TM, TPT and TB for cutting, bundling, tractor, machine, pedal and buffalo threshing respectively are based on observa- tions made on the field. These values could, however, be varied depending on the areas and time of operations. The transport rate is calculated by the input variables X, D and B as given in equation (5.20). The average dis- tance to the threshing floor D, could vary from one farm to another. Similarly, the speed of a man carrying the stalk could vary on the area and the labor used for transport. The area of stalk going into a bundle for head carrying B varies on the labor usage. Children tend to carry less than an adult and therefore B varies depending on the available labor. The number of pairs of buffalos used in buffalo threshing is an input variable and depends on the avail- ability of buffalos at threshing time as well as the land area to be harvested. A larger harvested land area would need additional pairs of buffalos to perform the operation faster. 167 6.2. Model Output. The cutting operation of BG 11-11 was simulated every four days beginning on the 16th day and ending on the 40th day after 50 percent heading. The results of the simulation using a pedal drum for threshing are as follows. Harvest on the 16th Day. A total of 11 days were used to complete all operations. Cutting, bundling and transport were performed on the first four days while the threshing Operation took 7 days to com- plete. Of the 7 days, two were rainy days on which the threshing operation was not performed. The resulting har- vesting schedule is given in Table 6.1. The percentage sunchecks increased from 23.21 percent on the first day (16th day) to 26.37 percent on the second day, at which time the cutting operation was completed. Figure 6.1 repre- sents the land area harvested, bundled, transported and threshed on each operation day. Figure 6.2 illustrates the available labor for each operation, while Figure 6.3 illustrates the losses in kg in the post production opera- tions when harvested on the 16th day after 50 percent head- ing. The average moisture content and the broken grain percentage on the 16th day after 50 percent heading were calculated as 23.54 and 25.38 percent respectively. 168 Table 6.1: Harvesting Schedule for Harvest on 16th Day Day 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Cutting and Field Drying * * Transport and Bundling of Cut Stalk (DH) Transport and Rain Rain Rain Rain Bundling * * Threshing * * * * * Transport and Threshing Harvest on the 20th Day. A total of 12 days were used to complete the harvesting operations. No operations were performed on the first four days due to rain. The stalk was harvested the 24th day and completed on the first hour of the 25th day using 8 labor units. The resulting harvesting schedule is given in Table 6.2. The percentage sunchecks increased from 35.86 on the 20th day to 51.66 on the 25th day when cutting was completed. Figure 6.4 represents the land area harvested, bundled, transported and threshed on each operation day. On the 7th day, the cut stalk was transported and threshed on the field. The remaining stalk was transported on the 8th day on which rain occurred, and then threshed from day 9 to 169 L0 E" 0.91 5. a) 08‘ ‘t E L 8' as E , . 0.7L 3 .E '8 _ cutting ” c: m., a 00 6‘ g. . Ft 3 7/7/ . a: 0 5 E E 1, threshing < . ‘ D ' — fl 8 u .-. T.- Q 4, 35.51 « HR as , fiIW¥ z m 1 z ////, a 1 2 3 4 6 7 8 9 10 11 Figure 6.1 Areas Harvested Per Working Day. Cutting on 16th Day after 50% Heading Transport 8 7— TR —-n pedal pedal H threshing threshing 4. ~————— .—————— TH TH TH TH TH AVAILABLE LABOR C m w (Rain -b Rmn E (U 2 8 1 9 10. 11 m: 5 6 7 DAYS Figure 6.2 Available Labor for the Harvesting Operations, Cutting on 16th Day 170 POST PRODUCTION LOSSES (kg) 10 20 30 40 50 17 :3 Bird and rodent losses ‘ lBundling losses TranSport losses [Total losses Figure 6.3 Losses in the Post Production Operations When Harvested at 16 Days after Heading (kg) 171 Table 6.2: Harvesting Schedule for Harvests on the 20th Day after 50 Percent Heading Day 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Cutting and Field Rain' Rain' Rain' Rain' * * Drying Transport and Bundling of Stalk (DH) Transport and Bundling * Transport and * Threshing Threshing , * * * * day 12. Figure 6.5 illustrates the available labor for each operation, while the grain losses of the post production operations are illustrated in Figure 6.6. The average moisture content and broken grain percentage on the 20th day after 50 percent heading were calculated as 23.69 and 21.35 percent respectively. Harvest on the 24th Day. All operations were completed in 7 days. The fifth day was a rainy day on which the harvested stalk remaining to be threshed were transported to the threshing floor. Table 6.3 172 1.0 0.91 0.89 0.79 0.6T m 0. 5. E :Ec14l 8 I 0.31 0.2T 0.1. cutting threshing transport and Field drying threshing threshing ......... 5 6 7 IT- .E .2 ill a: b «C .x 9 ._. Rain N 'Rain w Rain 5 Rain 12 Pd 0 p—l H Figure 6.4 Areas Harvested Per Working Day. Cutting on 20th Day After 50% Heading TranSport and h h' 15” t res Ing H .0 _.. “’li AVAILABLE LABOR . -i I 00 Rain no cn Jransport Pedal threshing TR TH TH TH TH Rain "‘ Rain ~ [Rain N Rain 5 6 7 9 10 11 12 DAYS Figure 6.5 Available Labor for the Harvesting Operations. Cutting on the 20th Day 173 POST PRODUCTION LOSSES (Kg) 10 2o 39 4o 5o 60 79 8o 90 100 ]Bird and rodent losses L 'Bundling losses L ITransport losses jTotal losses Figure 6.6 Losses in the Post Production Operations When Harvested at 20 days after 50% Heading (kg) 174 Table 6.3: Harvesting Schedule for Harvest on 24th Day Day 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Cuang and * Field [Myrna fhaquxt Bmxfling ofcmm StiuJDH) mr+mI~TSSCDO Traumort Bmxfling Transport fflmefifing {Hueaung * * illustrates the resulting harvesting schedule when the stalks were cut on the 24th day after 50 percent heading. The cutting operation was completed on the 7th hour of the first day using seven units of labor. The percentage sun- checks at the time of cutting was 48.5. The cut stalk was transported and threshed on the field from the 2nd to the 4th day. The remaining stalk was transported and threshed on the 6th and 7th day, Figure 6.7. The labor availability and distribution for different post production operations is illustrated in Figure 6.8. Grain losses in the harvest- ing operations when cutting begins on the 24th day after 175 .cutting threshing transport and threshing All operations completed threshing 67891011121314 DAYS Figure 6.7 Areas Harvested Per Working Day. . Cutting on 24th Day after 50% Heading. 15‘ Transport and threshing .: g —.—. E1015 TH TH g S ° g B 8 Pedal_ <= H TH TR threshing S 5‘ § TR TR 3 8 TR 3 TH TH 1< 1234567891011121314 DAYS Figure 6.8 Available Labor for the Harvesting Operations. Cutting on the 24th Day 176 50 percent heading is illustrated in Figure 6.9. The aver- age grain moisture and broken grain on the 24th day after 50 percent heading were calculated as 23.42 and 19.07 respectively. Harvesting on the 28th Day. Table 6.4 represents the harvesting schedule when the stalk is harvested 28 days after 50 percent heading. No rainy days were experienced, Figure 6.10. The cutting operation was completed on the 7th hour of the first day using 9 labor units. The cut stalks were transported and threshed on the field from the 2nd day to the 6th day. The transport and threshing operation was completed on the first one and a quarter hour of the 6th day. The percentage of sunchecks on the 28th day was calculated as 61.14 percent. Figure 6.11 illustrates the labor availability and distribu- tion during the six day harvesting operation. The grain losses associated with the different harvesting operations are illustrated in Figure 6.12. The average grain moisture and percentage of broken grains were calculated as 22.73 and 18.54 respectively. Harvesting on the 32nd Day. A total of nine working days were used to complete the harvesting operations, Table 6.5. The stalk was cut on the first day using seven labor units. The cutting operation 177 _ lmxc mcflomom mom nouma whoa um um ©oumm>umm song mcoflumnomo :ofluoooonm umom ca mommoq m.m ouooflm $32 .32 fl $32 2828; $32 9:655— 832 E82 can 88 fl ’ o: em a» s.» cm 3 S4 811 a a a a ow me am a 2 l e. 1 383 22522: SE 178 mfldfihfiSa games uyommcoya mfiBSm fifimfiue fie imam use no magnum Cam PHRWEBBH 9505 « camflh man 6538 OCDETLFl0+Jm VH ma NH HH ca m m h w m v m N H >ma who numm map so umo>umm Mom masconom mswumm>um= "v.m manna 179 HECTARES‘ All operations completed 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 DAYS Figure 6.10 Areas Harvested Per Working Day, Cutting on the 28th Day after 50% Heading Transport and threshing TH TH TH __ :3 [cutting U1 I TR AVAILABLE LABOR W w W 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 DAYS Figure 6.11 Available Labor for the Harvesting Operations. Cutting on the 28th Day 180 wagomom mom Houmm mmmo mm um woumm>nmm son: mcoflumuomo cofluoooonm umom may ca mommoq ma.w whomflm .632 Eopfl mama. €829: 33o. afiegmfi mmmmE Eons 95 atm— 832 @555— mmmme 3.2.2-8: (P I 1 ’ ‘ o: as as or or aim or as ow a.” 2 do ow 9 ow 8 2 13.533 22528.. 52 181 Table 6.5: Harvesting Schedule for Harvest on the 32nd Day Day 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Cuang Field * * qung flkaqumt R . F . lantuing * * ofcxm SUflkJDH) mr+miaTSB<30 Trmrfinmt ami .BJEUing Ekaqunt (Huegfing Thnaflfing was incomplete, but could not be performed on the next two days due to rain. The cut stalk (DH) was transported on the 2nd day and the transport operation completed on the 5th hour of the 3rd day on which rain occurred, Figure 6.13. The stalk remaining on the field was cut and the cutting operation completed on the first hour of the 4th day. The percentage sunchecks on the 32nd day was 73.79 and on the day cutting was completed, 83.27. The cut stalk was left on the field to dry overnight. Transport and field thresh- ing was performed from the 5th day and completed on the first one and three quarter hour on the 9th day. The labor 182 w Rain TR of DH field drying 4 5 \ ‘ Transport and threshing All Operations completed 6 DAYS 7891011121314 Figure 6.13 Areas Harvested Per Working Day. Cutting on the 32nd Day after 50% LABOR AVAILABILITY Figure Heading. 15 ‘ Transport and threshing g i t . 3: IT E 9 TH "E O” 102%" 2 § :5 , —~ 1% r: 3 <3 __T “1 n4 3 U h _TH "‘ B‘— 5‘ 3 B *h— TH H H 8 TR TR —_TR TR B C C _1m TR TR TR . - , I . 1234567891011121314 DAYS 6.14 Available Labor for the Harvesting Operations. Cutting on the 32nd Day. 183 availability and distribution is illustrated in Figure 6.14. The average grain moisture and percentage of broken grains due to pedal threshing were calculated as 21.62 and 19.76 percent respectively. Figure 6.15 illustrates the grain losses in the different harvesting operations when harvested on the 32nd day after 50 percent heading. Harvesting on the 36th Day. A total of six days were used to complete the differ- ent operations, Table 6.6. The stalk was cut and the operation completed on the 7th hour of the first operating day, Figure 6.16. Transport and field threshing was per- formed from the 2nd and completed on the first hour of the sixth day. The percentage of sunchecks on the 36th day was calculated as 86.43 percent. Figure 6.17 illustrates the labor availability and distribution during the harvesting operations. The grain losses for the different operations is illustrated in Figure 6.18. The average grain moisture percentage and percentage broken grains when harvested on the 36th day were calculated as 20.08 and 22.73 percent respectively. Harvesting on the 40th Day. Table 6.7 illustrates the harvesting schedule when the stalks were cut on the 40th day after 50 percent heading. Stalks were cut on the 40th day when the average grain 184 lmxv mcflcmom mom noumm whoa mm um poumo>uwm conz macaumnomo sowuooooum umom on» CH mommoq mH.m ouomflh $32 .28 $32 tang: j 832 952. am— mamemc ESE Em Ear 9.55 h “SEEAEV D D 1. I 1b b p :2 o3 c2 :3 cm— o2 o: 2: co cm 2. oo om ow om cm 3 .9: 833 22522: 58 185 OCDEILFIO+JO ¥ BEBE msflfimfisa can #HXWQREV @3656 now #HRWHmHu Ea 023m use no 9:855 can PHRHARHH mafihxu HAOfim can mfiuuso vH ma NH dd 0H m m b >oo .wmo anon can so mumo>um= How oasoonom mcwumo>umm no.m canoe TranSport and threshing 186 All Operations completed 567891011121314 DAYS Figure 6.16 Areas Harvested Per Working Day. Cutting on the 36th Day after 50% Heading 15‘ 104 TH Cutting 1 TH TH I 5‘ B Transportandthreshing TH t——t TH TR AVAILABLE LABOR TR TR TR 1234567891011121314 DAYS Figure 6.17 Available Labor for the Harvesting Operations. Cutting on the 36th Day 187 maflcmmm wom “mama whoa mm um ooumo>umm conz mGOHDMHomo cofluosooum umom may cw mommoq mH.m ouswflm $32 .38— 1 £58. tease: $32 9:655 _ 832 E88 Em EB _ momma. 95:6— mmmms #32285 F b P b p ‘ o: as as e: at: or 9: cm: a a E 8 s 3 mm a 3 .9: $33 225:8”: so“. 188 Table 6.7: Harvesting Schedule for Harvests on 40th Day. Day 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Cuang and Field * Rain Rain Rain RainRainRain" Ityhm; Ekanqxnt ami Bmfifling * ofcmm SUflkflHD Transport Bmkfling Tramfixut tflmeflfing ibmaflfing moisture content was 18.13 percent. Five units of labor were used in the cutting operation which was incomplete on the first day. Due to rain on the 2nd day, the cut stalk (DH) was transported using 6 labor units for transport and 5 labor units for the bundling operation. No operations were performed on the days 3 to 8 due to rain, Figure 6.19. The unharvested area was cut and the cutting operation completed on the 3rd hour of the 9th day. The cut stalk was field dried overnight. The cut stalk were transported and field threshed from day 10 and the operations were completed on the first hour of the 14th day. The percentage of 189 L0. at 9" C .2 2': .C s ° 5 'U E E 3' CD 0’ #2 C "3. E :2 .9: C C C C C C u- '5 '6 '5 '6 "a as 0:40;,a:,mz,a:,m: , 9 3 4567891011121314 DAYS Figure 6.14 Areas Harvested Per Working Day. Cutting on the 40th Day After 50% Heading. I 15 g ‘9 TranSport and threshing e t-fi c ._.t 9‘ 3 TH 810 ’— TH 5 1 on TH—J—TH E E“ B 5 TH B i =5 e B B .— < U 5 5 TR ‘— B TR 3 HEcEEEFEHTRTRTR TR to '5 to to to «'6 '5 t—E—ng lmlm 1m 1m 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 DAYS Figure 6.20 Labor Availability for the Harvesting Operations. Cutting on the 40th Day (kg) 190 sunchecks on the 40th day was calculated as 99.07 percent. The labor availability and distribution is illustrated in Figure 6.20, while the grain losses for the different har- vesting operations are given in Figure 6.21. The percentage of broken grains on the 40th day was calculated as 27.45. Similar results were obtained in simulating the har- vesting operations using the tractor, machine and buffalo for threshing, (Appendices A11; A12 and A13). Figure 6.22 illustrates the simulated percentages of broken grain and average moisture content for the different harvest dates. Tractor and buffalo threshing had a higher percentage of broken grain than machine threshing and pedal threshing. A high force from the weight of the tractor and its wheels results in broken grains. Similarly, the weight and con- centrated forces exerted by the hooves of the buffalos results in increased broken grain. The low threshing forces exerted by the pedal thresher resulted in a lower percentage of cracked grains. The percentage of broken grains in all threshing methods decreased from the 16th day and was at a minimum on the 28th day after 50 percent heading. The percentage of broken grains increased from the 28th day, indicating a loss of head rice at milling when the stalk was harvested beyond the maturity period. The percentage of sunchecks increased with delays in harvesting, Figure 6.23. An increase in sunchecks gives rise to a higher breakage at milling. An increase in sunchecks will also cause the grain 191 Ange mafiommm wom “ovum mama ov um mcflumo>umm .mcoflumuomo cofluospoum umom ca mommoq H~.w whomwm :3 a .632 52¢ .38 832 teamcmtfi 83o. aczucamfl 332 E88 Em En; 832 9550— 3.32 52:21:;— -o-,8~i§-§ -8._ -31 -2: , 8 -Q - 8 , a. .3: £33 22582: 58 ‘70 BROKEN GRAINS AT THRESHING 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 192 40 (tractor) roken I rai 35 \ VX' 4’8r0ken (buffalo/6 Broken 30 grain Broken (machi e) [grain ’ (pedal) 25 20 MC% ‘Ih‘ 15 10 5 Variety 80.11-11 16 Figure 6.22 20 24 28 32 36 DAYS AFTER 50% HEADING 40 Simulated % Broken Grains and % Moisture Content at Different Harvesting Dates ‘70 AVERAGE GRAIN MOISTURE CONTENT % SUNCHECKS 100 90. 80. 70. 60. 50. 40. 30. 20 193 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 DAYS AFTER 50% HEADING Figure 6.23 % Sunchecks and Grain Losses Due to Birds and Rodents at Different Harvesting Dates GRAIN LOSSES DUE TO BIRDS AND RODENTSIKgI 194 to crack under the forces of threshing, thereby resulting in a higher percentage of broken grain. The lowest per- centage of cracked grains were at around the 28th day. This indicated that for a lower percentage of broken grain, the stalk should be harvested between the 24th and 30th day after 50 percent heading. Losses in grain in the cutting and bundling operations increased with the increase in maturity, Figure 6.24. With an increase in maturity grains tend to shatter easily and result in grain shedding at handling. Losses of grain due to birds and rodents as well as losses before cutting increased with maturity. Bird and rodent losses for the total area harvested on the 40th day was 88.58kg (sum of the 40th and 48th day). The model did not sum up bird and rodent losses if the harvest was repeatedly postponed due to rain. The repeatedly summed up loss values for an un- harvested area would result in inflated grain losses for bird and rodent damage. The total grain loss before cut- ting on the 40th day was 30.46kg (sum of the 40th and 48th day). The total labor use on the 20th, 24th and 36th day increased with the use of additional labor for bundling, transporting and field threshing simultaneously, Figure 6.25. The high labor use for the 32nd and 40th day is due to the additional labor utilized to transport the cut stalk DH, before the cutting operation was complete. 195 40 ii 5 30 . O 2 3 Z < I 20 i E m w m SilOt a... bundling 0- cutting H pre-harvest 0 I J 1 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 DAYS AFTER 50% HEADING Figure 6.24 Simulated Handling Losses for Different Harvest Dates 000 O0 N 0 U1 (3 TOTAL LABOR USED 0‘ C) J) O r/ 16 20 24 28 32 3640 DAYS AFTER 50% HEADING Figure 6.25 Simulated Total Labor Used at Different Harvest Dates 196 Figure 6.26 illustrates the losses due to transport of cut stalk from the field to the threshing floor for tractor, machine and buffalo threshing. Losses due to transport of stalk to the pedal thresher situated on the field is assumed in the model to be zero. The pedal thresher may be moved to areas where bundles are made, eliminating the need to transport these bundles. Losses from the transport of stalk to the threshing floor increased with an increase in maturity. Grain losses from transport using a pedal thresher on day 16 is explained by the transport of all cut stalk on day 3 and 4 when rain occurred, Figure 6.1. Field threshing was not performed in this harvesting period. Similarly, in Figure 6.4 out stalk was transported on the 8th day. Field threshing was performed on all the stalk harvested 28 days and 36 days after 50 percent heading. Transport losses were therefore zero. The high transport losses on harvest days 32 and 40 are due to the transport of cut stalk DH, on days when rain occurred before complet- ing the cutting operations, Figure 6.13 (days 2 and 3) and Figure 6.19 (day 2). The use of the pedal thresher on the field decreased the losses in grain in comparison to the need for stalk transport to facilitate tractor, buffalo and mechanical threshing. The total grain loss in the in-field post production operations is illustrated in Figure 6.27. Grain losses in the simulation of the in-field post production systems 197 100 T-tractor 90 .M-machine B-buffalo A 80 r P-pedal £33 T ,. B '_ . no: 70 ’1,“ n- «i 2 60» <( a: Z 50» 2’ .. P t; 40 . g.- < 30- / m H 8 20 . ,‘ .J 10 ' " 16 20 2 32 3'6 40 DAYS AFTER 50% HEADING Figure 6.26 Simulated Losses at Transport in (kg) 198 300 .. 280 r l 260 . 240 . / 220 » ' f 3200 ' i I .. 180» x / m 160 . /, = \ / 3 140 , :.~ / \\ ll pedal IN 4 <120' , / 100 . -oo' .. / machine'T ." 80- ./ ,4 60 40' 20» TOTAL GR ( 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 DAYS AFTER 50% HEADING Figure 6.27 Simulated Total Grain Loss in the In- Field Post Production Operation 199 utilizing the tractor, machine or buffalo had a higher total grain loss than the system using a pedal thresher. A high loss on the 36th day for the systems using a thresh- ing floor was due to delayed harvesting arising from the non— availability of labor and occurrence of rain on scheduled harvest dates, (Appendices A11; A12 and A13). The increase in losses in the system using the pedal thresher was in— fluenced by weather when the cut stalk had to be trans- ported. The model illustrated the influence of rain on all operations from cutting to threshing. Rain was seen to affect the total Operational procedure. Delays in harvest caused by rain increased the susceptibility of plants to bird and rodent damage as well as preharvest grain shatter- ing. Rain delayed the harvest of stalk at the optimum cutting time, influencing grain losses due to handling as well as the percentage of broken grains at milling. Rain increased the total time period required to harvest and thresh a given area of land. A total of 14 days were used to harvest and thresh 0.94 hectares, Figure 6.19. Seven of the 14 days had rain, therefore restricting harvesting operations on six days and delaying the cutting operation by seven days. The same area of land was cut, transported and pedal threshed in six days when no rain occurred, Figures 6.10 and 6.16. The complex interdependencies of weather, labor avail- ability, harvest operations and animal damage influencing 200 the losses in the grain were simulated using the in—field simulation model. Variations in the results could be obtained by changing the input variables and seed values of the random number generator (IMSL subroutine for IBM 370). CHAPTER VII RECOMMENDATIONS The following recommendations are made based upon this research on rice post production losses and technology. 1. The rice paddy fields should be harvested between the 28th and 32nd days after 50 percent of the heading has occurred. a) b) Shattering losses, cracked kernels and bird and rodent losses can be reduced by as much as 30 kg/ha by harvesting at this most optimum time. Harvesting rice between 28 and 32 days after 50 percent heading produces grain paddy with 20 to 25 percent moisture content (wet basis). This comparatively high moisture content minimizes the stalk paddy handling losses, but increases and complicates the drying problems associated with both the stalk and grain paddy. The stalk paddy must be threshed at this high moisture content and then dried immediately. Sickle cutting of the paddy stalk at the optimum harvesting time will continue to be the most viable means of cutting for some time. a) Labor is still available without too many con- straints or shortages. 201 202 b) There are no intermediate level machines available for cutting rice stalk. Mechanical harvesting can only be accomplished with binders or combine harvesters. Both are capital intensive and labor efficient (the combine moreso than the binder). 3. Field drying and handling of stalk paddy should be minimized. a) Both extend the exposure of the stalk paddy to b) additional losses by sunchecking, bird and rodent damage as well as shattering. Sun- checking may increase up to 99 percent, de- pending on variety. Bird and rodent losses as well as shattering losses may increase to 64 kg/ha and 22 kg/ha if left until 40 days after 50 percent heading. Transporting and stacking of cut stalk is not recommended as the moisture content when harvested at the optimum 20 to 25 percent is too high even after some field drying is per- formed. Stacking at this high moisture content leads to losses in quality and quantity of the final output. (Stacking losses were not studied directly in this research.) 203 The foot pedal drum thresher is strongly recom- mended over the other three methods studied, namely the buffalo treading, tractor treading and mechanical threshing. a) The pedal thresher can be moved to the field eliminating transport losses and reducing the handling losses only to the bundling operations. Bundling losses may be eliminated if the thresher is moved in the field, behind the collecting operation. b) The high moisture rice paddy can be immediately threshed on the field with a pedal drum thresher. c) Cracked paddy rice kernels can be reduced by up to 11 percent when harvested on the 28th day after 50 percent heading, when compared to the buffalo and tractor threshing methods. d) The foot pedal drum thresher is a simple, low-cost, fairly labor intensive technology appropriate for intermediate levels of mechanization. Simulation modeling should be utilized for planning rice development and expansion programs for pre- dicting loss reductions, technology requirements and labor needs. a) A systems analysis of the off field post pro- duction subsystem to determine the weakness 204 in drying, storage and marketing systems is recommended. b) The in-field model and the off-field model should be used together to determine the weak- nesses in the total post production system. 205 CHAPTER VIII CONCLUSIONS Based on the field measurements, analysis and syétems modeling of this research, the following conclusions are presented. 1. The average grain moisture content in all the selected varieties investigated began to decrease with the onset of maturity and continued beyond. Longer growth durations of 4 to 4-1/2 month varieties (H-4, BG. 11-11 and BG. 90-2) showed a slower rate of moisture decrease from 16 to 40 days after 50 percent heading than the shorter growth period, 3 to 3-1/2 month varieties (BG. 94-1 and BG. 34-8). The moisture content reduction was 26 to 19 percent and 24.8 to 15.5 percent respectively after the 36th day beyond 50 percent heading. 2. Delays in the cutting operation increased grain losses before cutting for all varieties. Loss rates varied from a high of 9 to 29 kg/ha to a low of 2.5 to 11.5 kg/ha for different varieties, from 16 days to 40 days after 50 percent heading. 3. Harvesting grain losses increased when cutting was delayed beyond maturity. Losses varied from a high of from 9 to 43 kg/ha to a low of 2 to 16 kg/ha, depending on variety, from 16 days to 40 days after 50 percent heading. 206 4. Handling losses during the bundling operation increased after maturity and beyond. Losses varied from a high of from 4.5 to 32 kg/ha to a low of 1.5 to 12.5 kg/ha, depending on variety, from 16 days to 40 days after 50 per- cent heading. 5. Grain losses at transport increased with maturity and had the largest grain losses in the handling operations. The losses varied from a high of 73 kg/ha for BG. 11-11 to a low of 32 kg/ha for H-4, both at 40 days after 50 percent heading. 6. Bird and rodent losses increased with maturity and a decrease in grain moisture. The losses varied from a high of 2.5 to 65.5 kg/ha to a low of 7 to 17 kg/ha from 16 to 40 days after 50 percent heading, depending on variety. Grain losses were not influenced by varietal characteristics alone. Losses were also influenced by bird and rodent population, as well as the presence of humans within the proximity of the fields. 7. The proportion of sunchecked kernels increased with delayed harvesting. The proportion of sunchecks varied from a high of 23 to 98 percent to a low of 6 to 61 percent on the 16th and 40th day and 24th and 60th day after 50 percent heading, respectively. Sunchecking was variety dependent. 8. The proportion of broken grain caused by all of the tested threshing methods for the selected varieties were lowest at around the 28th day after 50 percent heading. 207 9. In all varieties the pedal thresher had the lowest percentage of broken grains. BG. 34-8 had 6 percent brokens at 16 days when a pedal machine was used for threshing. The percentage of broken grains reduced to 3 percent on the 28th day and increased to 7 percent on the 40th day. Broken grains for tractor and buffalo threshing were 26 and 24 percent respectively at 16 days and reduced to 18 and 10.5 percent respectively at 28 days after 50 percent heading. Losses due to mechanical threshing reduced from 22.5 to 9 percent from 16 days to 28 days after 50 percent heading, and increased to 23 percent at 40 days. 10. The simulation model for the in-field post rice production operation illustrated the influence of environ- ment and labor on grain losses for selected varieties. Rain affected the total time required to perform all harvesting operations. In the simulation example, variety BG. ll-ll harvested on the 40th day after 50 percent heading had 7 rainy days and required 14 days to complete all harvesting and threshing operations on the sample 0.94 ha of land. The cutting operation simulated on the 16th day after 50 percent heading had no rainy days during the harvesting and thresh- ing operations of the 0.94 ha. The total operation was completed in 6 days. Stalk paddy cut on the 16th day had 4 rainy days and required 11 days to complete harvesting and threshing operations. 208 Rain affected the field threshing operations after the stalk paddy was cut. If rain occurred, the cut stalk paddy was, in all cases, transported off the field for threshing. The transport operation, therefore, caused more grain losses regardless of the type of threshing operation. 11. Simulated rain delay for completion of harvesting operations resulted in increased grain losses. Similar results were obtained in simulating the systems using the tractor, buffalo and machine for threshing. 12. An increase in labor use was simulated when the stalk paddy was harvested on the 32nd and 40th day after 50 percent heading. The additional labor requirement of 15 and 11 units respectively was utilized to transport the stalk paddy on rainy days where field threshing could not be performed. 13. The percentage of sunchecked grains in the simula- tion increased beyond maturity. The simulated average grain moisture content decreased with maturity. The percentage cracked grains using different threshing methods were lowest around the 28th day after 50 percent heading. The pedal threshing method had the least losses as compared to the tractor, buffalo and mechanical methods. 14. The total grain loss for the simulated system using the tractor, buffalo and machine increased from about 40 kg to 225 kg for the 16th and 40th day after 50 percent heading. Total grain losses for the pedal thresher were 209 lower except on the 32nd and 40th day when rain affected the cutting operation and the cut stalk had to be trans- ported. The total grain loss on the 32nd and 40th day was 169.8 kg and 231.4 kg respectively. 15. The systems analysis helped identify and empha- size the areas of weakness in the technology investigated. Shattering losses associated with delayed harvesting in- creased handling losses in the cutting, bundling and trans- port operations. 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APPENDICES APPENDIX A1 'SHAZAM" Statistical Program and Results for BG. 94-1 218 2219 OoOOO— 000.0” OOcoou OOMoho OOHoON Omhoom OOHQC- omcoON 000.00 0a nOoOsm 606.0. nomoNN nos-cc concoc omOoN— OO—oo— omcoow 66000“ m 00.00. 000000 cons-v oat-On OOONoO 0000.6 OOGM¢H COQoMN coo-ON 0 OOoOnC GOnOoD noncom flfioome noanoc handok coo—cc Acconw OOOoON n OOoomw OOOOoO ooomso coo-hm ocomoo commow COCO-o OOCoON OOOoO~ N OOoOMN GOOD-Q con¢o_ oooomw concoo OomOon noncon nonocw enact“ — moa4U 2) mm) 30* km 0(wa Oh aw—m(w mu FDQFDOoowhDZQ ZO~F(>1UWKC bm(J C21 OthJUZ— W>~u hfiflul cz< mw4c<~c<> o c» pom zc_oma pzw_u_uuw...... «c u cacu pU.um12 oer.“ «cu—xuox me e. c 4cm .oso~ c:< I c.« zoumau>. :(chm 220 0.000— 6000mm 00.00— oonohc nononN omhorw owmom— OOOoCN oooooc IDE~X O Q. 0 40m OQoDOC sake—— @mcoow ewe-— .0600. dOfiom— nNCkoc acccoN ONONow ZC_»<~>UC Oc<02O Z w!(2 WJ¢(—¢(> 20~h<1aCka<flb awhbd waC(—Q‘> k0 CNCIDZ m20~h<>¢wmao 02—“: "waC<—&¢> hDQZ— kc GWCID‘ "VZC—h<>cuwCD kc meIDZ O QoN 20~muw>e 1(NCIM 221 O — oooooo— ~ONOOoO 00500-0! 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C... 0.0 ..+z.44>cnuz. c. c» 0.0 .....<>ou..2u momos .XCoZICXIx... w.n.n .mxnx.u. .00N04<>C 2L.m:.s.3 .x.z.xc.mx.4<>o. AZu zo.puz:. 42k 00.... ~f~f.¢m©*¢O-O mmdudwa 0.00 N—eo .—00 0.00 0000 0000 sono $000 $000 coon r000 N000 .000 —0 >— 2(Ehn0k 225 .000 w0— 5.00 0.00 $.00 ..00 0.00 N.00 ..00 0.00 9000 0000 #000 0000 $000 0000 n000 N000 .000 2(flbfl0k 226 APPENDIX A5 Transport Rate Av. area of head carried bundle (B)= 24.87 m2 = 0.0025 ha Distance to the threshing floor (D): 216 m2 Av. Speed of transporter (X) = 2414 m/hr Transport rate per trip = X/D*8*B 0.014 ha/hr APPENDIX A6 Bundling Rate Av. area bundled/hr 1233.5 ftz/hr 2467 ft2/hr 0.5 acres/hr = 0.23 ha/hr APPENDIX A7 Pedal Threshing Rate Av. threshing time for 5 m2 plots 3.2 minutes 5 m2/3.2 minutes 1.52 mz/minute 91.20 mz/hr .009 ha/hr 227 APPENDIX A8 Buffalo Threshing Rate Av. time to thresh 5 mZ/pair of buffalos 15 minutes 5 m2/15 minutes Threshing rate/pair of buffalos 0.33 mz/minute 19.8 mZ/hr 0.002 ha/hr APPENDIX A9 Tractor Threshing Rate Av. time to thresh 0.25 acres = 1 hour Threshing rate = 0.25 acres/hr = 0.1 ha/hr Mechanical Threshing Rate 2 minutes Av. time to thresh 5 m2 with the machine Threshing rate/machine = 5 m2/2 minutes = 2.5 m2 minute = 150 mzhr = 0.015 ha/hr APPENDIX A10 Main Program With the Pedal Threshing Model and Results Pedal Threshing Model Card 113—269 228 229 COCO-\oCWQIP Im¢1h Chcwah himzch JOZC Ch.» m>¢1 h¢>¢1c oxo. \odi Op (2 (2“ Ch 4.. 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