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ABSTRACT
AN EXPLORATORY STUDY TO IDENTIFY THE TEACHING
BEHAVIORS THAT ARE USED MOST FREQUENTLY AND

ARE MOST CRUCIAL IN TEACHING CULTURALLY
DISADVANTAGED CHILDREN

By Vera Orriss Scott

Statement of the Problem

 

 

The current study is related to larger studies
which are being conducted by the Learning Systems Institute,
Michigan State University, under the direction of Judith E.
Henderson and Ted W. Ward. The current study has little
potential for identifying the "good" teaching practices more
characteristic of either the non~inner city or the inner city
teacher since the descriptions of classroom incidents used

were those for which prior studies, the Clinic School Project

 

and Teachingin_the Inner City, in the series had shown the

 

teacher behaviors to be acceptable to both "good" inner
city and non-inner city teachers.

This study was specifically designed to identify
which of the already identified teaching behaviors occur
most frequently and are judged to be most crucial in teaching
culturally disadvantaged.

The behavioral descriptions were conSidered in terms
of: (1) frequency of similar occurrences, (2) cruciality
of the situation, (3) cruciality of the decision, (4)
desirable alternatives to the decision, and (5) apprOpriate-

ness of the situation as described.

Procedure

 

Thirty teachers from the Flint Community Schools
were selected on the basis of competency. Fifteen of the
teachers were from non—inner city schools (Referent Group A)
and fifteen were from inner city schools (Referent Group B).
The referent groups were asked to respond to 286 protocols.
One hundred twenty-four were behavioral descriptions from the

Clinic School Project, and 162 were from the Teaching in the

 

22222.9i31 study. Responses were made in terms of: (l)
estimates of the varying frequencies of similar occurrences
in their own classrooms, (2) judgment of cruciality of the
situation, (3) judgment of cruciality of the decision, (4)
suggestions about desirable alternative actions, and (5)
judgments of apprOpriateness of the situations and decisions
as the referent groups judged good teaching.

The next step in the procedure was concerned with a
means of identifying which behaviors were peculiar to inner
city and which were also common to non—inner city environments.

The answers to the questions asked on the protocols
were coded and charted. Modal tables were constructed to
provide a basis for inspecting and comparing the responses of
the two referent groups. Tables were used to represent the
frequency of occurrence of situation, lists of serial numbers
of descriptions (divided by source of description), and
characteristics of each behavioral description by teacher
function. Similar tables were made to provide a basis for
inspection of the judgments of cruciality of the situation

and decision, desirable alternatives, and appropriateness of

the behavioral descriptions.

Hypotheses

Two major hypotheses were investigated.

Hypothesis I: Some teaching behaviors are used
more frequently and are more crucial to teaching culturally
disadvantaged (inner city) children.

Hypothesis II: Most teaching behaviors considered
to be good in non-inner city are considered to be good in
inner city, but some teaching behaviors are unique to only

one or the other of the environments.

Findings

Inspection of the response distributions of the two
referent groups suggested in response to the question of
frequency that many more situations were found to be
happening daily in inner city schools than happened weekly
in non-inner city schools. Examination of the content and
characteristics by teacher function indicated that a large
portion of teacher activity in the inner city was given to
managerial and psychological functions. The managerial tasks
represented most frequently in the data were: (I) extensive
use of established cues and established procedures, and (2)
limited opportunity for freedom of pupil movement and choice.

The teacher provided information more frequently
than she was seeking it and expected a structured response
as opposed to expecting free and diversified response.

The analysis of the data suggested that competent

inner city teachers are sympathetic and perceptive to their

judged "good" by only one of the groups of judges.

Differences in teacher behaviors between inner city
and non-inner city teachers appear to be not so much a
matter of kind of activity but rather a matter of intensity
or dynamism that is evidenced by the wider range of behaviors
which are related to the wider range of situations. Further,
the frequency of occurrence of "crucial" situations seems
related, perhaps causally, to the apparent dynamism of the
inner city teaching situations.

Concluding recommendations were based on various
uses for the findings of the study for pre-service and
in-service teacher preparation and as bases for generating

hypotheses for further study.

AN EXPLORATORY STUDY TO IDENTIFY THE TEACHING BEHAVIORS
THAT ARE USED MOST FREQUENTLY AND ARE MOST CRUCIAL
IN TEACHING CULTURALLY DISADVANTAGED CHILDREN

By

Vera Orriss Scott

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

College of Education
1967

9AA/VA
9/27/"7

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The writer would like to express her grateful
appreciation to Dr. Calhoun Collier, her major professor,
for wise counsel and encouragement.

To the members of the doctoral guidance committee,
Dr. w. Vernon Hicks, Dr. Charles A. Blackman, and
Dr. Orden C. Smucken,for their helpful suggestions.

To Dr. Ted W. Ward, project advisor. and to
Judith E. Henderson for their understanding and assistance
with the treatment of the data.

To the teachers from the Flint Community Schools
who were so generous with their time in the collection
of the data.

And especially to her husband, Gordon, for his

interest in and patience with the study.

11

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACMOWLEDGIVIENTS O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0

LIST OF TABLES O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0

Chapter
I.

II.

III.

INTRODUCTION 0 O O O O O O O O O O 0 O O

The Problem

Population of the Study
Obtaining the Data
Assumptions and Hypotheses
Implications of the Findings
Organization of the Study

REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE . . . . . . . .

Observations to Determine Effective
Teaching

Studies of Role Behavior

Research Relating to Classroom
Language

Interaction Analysis in the Classroom

Verbal Behavior and Superior Teachers

Observation as Teacher Preparation

Teaching Strategies

Patterns of Communication in the
Classroom

Cognitive Processes in Elementary
Children

Summary

PATTERN OF DEVELOPMENT, THE SCOPE AND

PROCEDURE 0 C O I O O O O O 0 O O O O O

Rationale for the Study

Basis for Hypotheses

Sources of Behavioral Descriptions of
Teaching Acts

Sampling Procedure

Collecting the Data

Procedure for Data Analysis

111

Page

ii

13
18

22
28

37
39
AZ

“5

#8
54

56

56
59

60
66
69
72

Chapter

IV. PRESENTATION

V.

Hypothesis
Hypothesis
Hypothesis
Hypothesis
Hypothesis

AND ANALYSIS OF THE DATA

I-A
I-B
I-C
II-A
II-B

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

Statement 0

Derived Model of an Inner City Teacher
Hypotheses for Further Research

Summary and

BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . .

APPENDIX
APPENDIX
APPENDIX
APPENDIX
APPENDIX
APPENDIX
APPENDIX
APPENDIX

mmwmuowb

f Differences

Recommendations

iv

Page
'75

76

99
111

118
118
124

124
152

157
141
A—l
B-l
C-l
D-l
E—1
F-l
G-l
H-l

LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

3.1 Scores on S.R.A. Achievement Tests for Non-
Inner City Schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

3.2 Scores on S.H.A. Achievement Tests for
Inner City Schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

4.1 Referent Group A and Referent Group B
Judges'Hesponses Constitute a Unimodal
Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

4.2 Referent Group A Judges Responses Constitute
a Bimodal Distribution and Referent Group B
Judges'Responses Constitute a Unimodal
Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

4.3 Referent Group B Judges Responses Constitute
a Bimodal Distribution and Referent Group A
JudgegiResponses Constitute a Unimodal
Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

4.4 Referent Group A and Referent Group B Judges'
Responses Constitute a Bimodal Distribution. 79

4.5 Referent Group A Judges and Referent Group B
Judges Constitute the Same Distribution of
Responses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80

4.5a Tables 4.2, 4.3 and 4.4 Combined . . . . . . 81

4.6 Count of Bimodal Distributions of Responses
of the Inner City and Non-Inner City Judges
to the Question of Frequency of Occurrence. 84

4.7 Situation Descriptions (by Serial Number and
Divided by Source) for Which the Responses
of Both Referent Group Judges Constitute
Unimodal Distributions in Terms of Situation
Frequency. 0 e e o o o o o o o e e e e e e e 86

4.8 Situation Descriptions (by Serial Number and
Divided by Source) for Which the Responses of
Referent Group A Constitute Bimodal Distribu-
tions and Referent Group B Constitute Unimodal
Distributions in Terms of Situation Frequency. 57

Table

4.9

4.10

4.11

4.12

4.13

4.11»

4.15

4.16

4.17

4.18

Situation Descriptions (by Serial Number and
Divided by Source) for Which the Responses

of Referent Group B Constitute Bimodal
Distributions and the Responses of Referent

Group A Constitute Unimodal Distributions

in Terms of Situation Frequency . . . . . . 88

Situation Descriptions (by Serial Number and
Divided by Source) Showing Distributions of
Bimodal Responses Unique to Each Group . . 89

Situation Descriptions (by Serial Number and
Divided by Source) for Which the Response
Distributions Are the Same for Referent

Group A and Referent Group B in Terms of
Situation Frequency 0 e o e e e e e e e e e 90

Serial Numbers of Distribution of Teaching
Situations (Divided by Source) That Are

Unique to Referent GrOup A and to Referent

Group B in Terms of Situation Frequency . . 93

Distribution of Behavioral Descriptions
According to Classification of Teaching
Function 0 e e e e o e e e e e e e e e e o 96

Characteristics of Teaching Acts as

Described Through the Classification Pro-

cedures According to Judgments of Situation
Frequency 0 a o e o e e e e e o e e e e e e 97

Distribution of Responses of Referent Group
A and Referent Group B Judges to the
Question of Cruciality of the Situation . . 101

List of Described Situations (by Serial

Number and Divided by Source) of Both

Referent Group Judgments in Terms of

Cruciality of the Situation . . . . . . . . 103

Characteristics of Teaching Acts as Described
Through the Classification Procedures

According to Judgments of Cruciality of the
Situation 0 e e e e e e e e e e o e e o e e 105

Distributions of Responses of Referent Group

A and Referent Group B Judges to the Question
of Cruciality of the Decision . . . . . . . 108

vi

Table

4.19

4.20

4.21

4.22

4.23

4.24

4.25

4.26

List of Descriptions (by Serial Number and
Divided by Source) of Both Referent Groups
to the Question of Cruciality of the Decision.

Desirable Alternatives to the DecisiOHSMade
in Response to the Described Situations . . .

List of Descriptions (by Serial Number and
Divided by Source) of Both Referent Groups
Responses to the Question of Desirable
Alternatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Characteristics of Teaching Acts as Described

Through the Classification Procedures According

to Judgments of Desirable Alternatives . . . .

Count of Goodness of the Teacher Decisions
as Judged by the Two Referent Groups . . . . .

List (by Serial Number and Divided by Source)
of Good Teacher Decision Descriptions That Are
Peculiar to Each Referent Group . . . . . . .

Goodness Unique to Each Referent Group
Classified by Teacher Function . . . . . . . .

Situation Descriptions (By Serial Number and
Divided by Source of Unimodal Distributions
of Response to Situation Frequently Shown to
Be Significant by Fisher Exact Probability

TGSt . e o o e no. 0 e e e e e o e e e e o o 0

vii

Page

110

113

115

117

119

121

122

H-Z

CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION

Since World War II. the rapid rise in urbani-
zation, the growth of large suburban areas, the population
explosion, together with the high rate of mobility of the
people in our nation have caused many severe problems in
education. One of the most crucial problems is that of
providing appropriate learning eXperiences for the inner-
city children usually referred to as "culturally disadvan-
taged or culturally deprived."1 As the more affluent in
our society move to the suburbs, an increasingly large per-
centage of the city population is coming from homes lacking
in those aspects of our middle-class culture such as
education, formal language, newspapers, books--which help
prepare children to achieve with success in the learning
experiences commonly offered in our schools. Reissman says,
"One child in every two in the great cities will be disadvan-

taged by 1970."2

 

1The terms culturally disadvantaged, culturally
deprived, or inner-city children in this study refer to the
members of low socio-economic groups who have limited access
to education. See Frank Reissman, The Culturally Deprived
Child (New York: Harper and Row, 1962), pp. 3-4.

2"The Disadvantaged Child and Language Arts,"

State 2: Michigan Curriculum Committee for Language Arts,

Bulletin No. 368 (Lansing: The Department of Education,
1964), p. l.

2

Recently, the Federal government, as well as many
foundations, has apprOpriated large sums of money to provide
for improvements in the educational Opportunities of
children from low socio-economic areas. Academic people
and teachers are showing an enormous interest in this
problem.

Although much effort has been expended on studying
the disadvantaged child in relation to his culture, little
attention has been given to studying the teacher in the
classroom to find ways to provide more appropriate learning
experiences for these children.

A study by the New Jersey Education Association
says:

At present, teachers generally know only that

disadvantaged children miss important background

and enrichment experiences and that they generally
learn less readily than their age mates. It is
necessary to define and analyze more of the factors
in why this is so, what specifically is lacking, and
how these omissions in the child's experiences can
be overcome.

Principals, supervisors, and consultants serving
in disadvantaged area schools have observed beginning
teachers--and experienced teachers who are working with
these children for the first time--undergo the trauma of
failure. Many teachers leave the profession because of

these experiences. Others transfer to higher socio-economic

schools in the city or leave to teach in suburban areas.

 

5The Disadvantaged Child: A Program for Action
(Trenton: New Jersey Education Association, 1964), p. 20.

 

 

3

The previous records of these teachers indicate that they
have the potential to become good teachers or have achieved
success in previous teaching assignments.

The selecting and holding of effective teachers
in schools where there are large numbers of culturally-
disadvantaged children has become a nation-wide problem,
particularly in the inner-city areas of the larger urban
communities of the United States.

Robert Watson says:

The only thing that can improve American edu-
cation is a concerted investment in individuals and
not in proliferation of programs, projects and
administrative innovations.

Muriel Crosby reports in her recently published
book:

The increased birthrate and failure of communities
to create conditions which can attract and hold young
peeple in the profession of teaching is a national
problem.

As more and more culturally deprived children
entered the elementary schools in the inner-city,
the values held by middle income teachers clashed
with those of such children and their families.
Successful teachers, earnestly committed to making
school integration work, experienced the trauma of
failure in teaching children from deprived environ-
ments.

The New Jersey Education Association publication,
The Disadvantaged Child: A Program for Action, notes:

New Jersey colleges, which prepare teachers,
should develop special programs for the identification

 

“Robert A. Watson, "People Not Projects Will

Improve Education," American School Board Journal, I
(November, 1963), p. 9.

5Muriel Crosby, An Adventure i3 Human Relations
(Chicago: Follett Publishing Company, 1965), pp. 17-18:

 

 

l4.

and training of te chers who will succeed with
the disadvantaged.

School districts which have a concentration
of disadvantaged children should have special
programs to recruit teachers who have special
preparation and potential for effective teaching
of the disadvantaged and to prepare them for the
particular conditions which they will meet.7

Reissman believes:

. . . there is an awful lot of good teaching
potential in people that needs to be nurtured. A
teacher may have lots of potential, but not know

how to use it and in particular not know whag is
required in teaching disadvantaged children.

In reporting on the progress of the Higher Horizons
Program, Jacob Landers states, "The teacher is the key
figure in the total process of educational change."9

Schueller also believes:

It is the fate of the disadvantaged child to
have limits of his horizon dependent largely upon
Just one agency, the public school: hence, the key
role that only the teacher can fill, the importance
of the day-by~day contact of child and teacher, and
the fashioning of this contact into learning experi-
ences directed to the optimum of the child. 0

From these quotations, taken from writings of
people who are well-known for their work with culturally-

deprived children, it would seem that there is no lack

 

6The Disadvantaged Child: A Program {gr Action,
22. cit., p. 22. ,

7Ibid.. p. 25.

8Frank Reissman, The Culturally Dgprived Child
(New York: Harper and Row, 1962), p. 95.

9Jacob Landers, Higher Horizons: Progress Rgport

(New York: Board of Education of the City of New York,
January, 1963), p. 20.

loHerbert Schueller, "The Teacher of the Disadvan-

tagidg" The Journal 9; Teacher Education, XVI (June, 1965),
p. 70

‘4

5

of awareness of the need for more adequate descriptive
data concerning the teaching of the culturally-disadvan-
taged. Improvement in teaching in these inner-city
schools is dependent upon knowing more about what happens
in classrooms where children are having the appropriate
learning experiences which enable them to meet with

success in their school experiences.

The Problem

Are the teaching behaviors used by teachers who
have shown particular aptitude with the culturally deprived
common to all good teaching regardless of the socio-economic
backgrounds of the children? Are some teaching behaviors
used more frequently by teachers of the culturally-disadvan-
taged? Is it more crucial to use some teaching behaviors
in the inner-city schools than in the higher socio-economic
area schools? Are some teaching behaviors that are considered
to be appropriate to good teaching by competent elementary
teachers in culturally deprived communities deemed inappro-
priate by teachers in other community environments? Are
teachers in culturally deprived area schools more limited
in the number of possible decisions that can be made suc-
cessfully in teaching situations than are teachers in cul-
turally-advantaged areas? Answers to these questions are
important to the design of effective teacher education and
in-service education programs in preparing teachers to work
in inner-city schools or communities where there is a high

percentage of disadvantaged youth.

6
The study presented here, of frequency and
cruciality of certain teaching behaviors of teachers
who have shown particular aptitude in working with the
culturally disadvantaged, is one phase of a larger research
project now being conducted by the Learning Systems Insti-
tute of Michigan State University. It is entitled the

Teaching lg the Inner City: Identification 93 Educational

 

 

Practices 9: Competent Elementary Teachers 9: Culturally

 

Disadvantaged Youth.11 The behavioral descriptions from
this study together with descriptions from the Clinic

12
School Project have been used extensively for this research.

39911.122292 9.1.". the 9.19.2311
Thirty teachers from the elementary schools in Flint,
Nichigan,were selected for this investigation. Each of
these teachers was given a rating of excellent by the

principal of the school13

and was rated as a "successful"
classroom teacher by the general elementary consultant
serving his school. Fifteen teachers were selected from

the faculties of Dort, Doyle, Oak, and Kennedy schools.

These schools are inner city schools identified for the

 

1Ted Ward and Paul Donahue, Identification of
Educational Practices of Competent Elementary Teachers of
Culturalfiy_Disadvantaged Youth (East Lansing: Learning
Systems Institute, Michigan_ State University, 1966).
12Leland W. Dean and Ted Ward, The Clinic School
Prgject (East Lansing: Learning Systems Institute,

Dichigan State University, 1965).

 

 

 

13See Appendix A for the form used in evaluating
teachers in the Flint Community Schools.

7

Better TomorrOW'ggg.U£pan Child Program14 and for the
Titlg.l Federal Program. Fifteen teachers were selected
from the faculties of the higher socio-economic area
schools, Anderson, Cummings, Brownell, and Freeman.

Other methods for identifying successful teachers
were studied and discarded since research at this time
has not been productive in identifying criteria upon which
most leading educators would agree.

Fattu says:

At present, overall administrative opinion is
probably the most widely used measure of teacher
competence. Available studies suggest that teachers
within a school or local area could be rated reliable
by administrative personnel. More than a half-
century of research effort has not yielded meaningful,
measurable criteria of teacher effectiveness around
which a majority of the nation's educators can rally.15

Doel Wolfe states:

Given enough time, students, measurements, and
statistical analysis, we might determine the qualitative
improvement in the stream of students who pass through
classes of different teachers. But this approach is
impracticable: any realistic effort to identify the
outstanding teachers gust depend upon the Judgment of
qualified observers.l

Ryans notes:

The number of possible investigations of teachers
is limited only by the insight and creative imagination

 

1“This program is a Mott Foundation sponsored plan
for providing additional teachers, school services, and
instructional services for thirteen inner-city schools
identified as having special needs. (See Appendix B.)

15Nicholas A. Fattu, "Teacher Effectiveness,"
Journal 2: National Education Association, L (October,
1961): PP. 55‘56-

16Doel Wolfe, "The Great Teachers," Science,
CXXXXI (December 11, l96u), p. 14.

8

of research workers in the area.17

Teachers judged superior or poor by their school
principals do not differ in score on T_egcher' s
Characteristics Schedule keys previously validated

against different ciéteria by amounts greater than
expected by chance.

 

Obtaining the Data

 

Behavioral descriptions used for this research
were the described teaching situations selected from the

Clinic-School Study and the Identification of Educational

 

 

 

Practices 9: Competent Elementary Teachers of Culturally

 

Disadvantaged Youth Study which had been judged good teaching

 

practices by at least 80% of the twenty-six educators
involved in the Inner City research.
The thirty teachers, identified earlier, were asked
to read each protocol and answer the following questions:
I. Common: Yes or No .

Meaning of common-~How frequently does this
situation occur in your classroom? y__

 

# or rank 1. About once an hour
2. About once a day
3. About once a week
a. About once a month
5. About once a year

II. Cruciality — situation

Meaning of cruciality-~Does this situation, as
described, represent an important moment in
teaching as you see it?

# l. Definitely important
2. Relatively important
3. Relatively unimportant

 

 

17David G. Hyans, Characteristics of Teachers

v—v—4-

(Washington, D. C.: American Council on Education, 1960), p. 399.

18David G. Ryans, "Some Validity Extensions Data from
Empirically Derived Predictors of Teachers Behavior," Edu-
cational and Psychological Peas u:ement§, XVIII (D1arch,1958),
p- 337.

 

9
III. Cruciality - decision

Meaning of cruciality--A. Do you think this
teacher’s decision was a good choice? #

1. Yes, definitely!
20 Yes
3. No

B. Were there other desirable things she could
have done? #

1 0 Many
2. Several
3. None

C. Was it highly important that she do something
fairly similar to what is reported here?

#___.___
1. Yes, definitely!
2. Yes
30 NO
Personal experiences of the writer in working with
teachers assigned to work with culturally disadvantaged
children provided the motivation for this exploratory study.
Several hypotheses were developed as a result of the

investigator’s observations of children in inner-city

classrooms.

Assumptigns and Hypotheses
The hypotheses that were developed for this study
were based on at least two assumptions. It was assumed:
(1) that administrators and consultants are able to
identify teachers who are successful in working with
children, and (2) that teachers who work with culturally
disadvantaged children have some common educational

practices that contribute to their success.

10

The following hypotheses, based on the assumptions,
were formulated.

Hypothesis I-A: Some "good" teaching practices are
used more frequently with disadvantaged children than with
advantaged children.

Hypothesis I-B: Some "good" teaching practices
are more crucial to success in working with children from
disadvantaged communities than those in advantaged
communities.

Hypothesis I-C: Teachers of children in disadvan-
taged communities are more limited in the range of
decisions that can be made successfully than are teachers
of children from advantaged communities.

Hypothesis II-A: Some teaching practices that are
believed to be "good" in teaching the children in the
disadvantaged area schools are not considered to be "good"
in advantaged area schools.

Hypothesis II-B: Some teaching practices that are
considered to be "good" teaching practices in teaching
advantaged area schools are not considered "good" in

disadvantaged area schools.

Implications of the Findings

 

 

Should the hypotheses in this study prove to be
correct, the teaching incidents that have been rated as
used most frequently, and that are most crucial to meeting
with success in working with culturally disadvantaged

children, should be used for further study in helping to

ll

prepare teachers to work in inner-city schools and communi—
ties with many children who are culturally deprived. They
should give more direction in providing more effective in-

service programs for teachers working in these environments.

Organization pf the Study

 

 

Chapter I has attempted to develop a rationale for
the study, to introduce the study design, and to describe
the study population. Chapter II will review the litera-
ture related to the study. Chapter III will describe more
fully the deveIOpment, the scope, and limitations of the
study. An analysis of the data will be presented in
Chapter IV. The conclusions drawn from the data, the
implications for preparing teachers for working with
inner-city children, and hypotheses generated for further

research will be contained in the final chapter.

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

The periodic shifts in the problems that are of
concern to theorists and research workers in education have
resulted in various approaches to the study of teachers
and learners in the classroom.

The first of these studies was concerned with
the listing of teacher traits by supervisors and admin-
istrators and sometimes pupils. Next,came the identification
of words or phrases that teachers used which seemed to
bear on the behavior and quality of learning. The increase
in understanding of child growth and development brought
a wave of research dealing with the creative process
and attempted to give some guidelines to classroom pro-
cedures. The socio-metric analysis stage followed, when
individuals were seen as members of a social group in
the learning situation. Researchers then studied classes
of pupils as groups and analyzed the interaction of the
participants in the social milieu with particular atten-

19

tion to both teacher and learner in the education process.

 

19John Withall, "Research Tools: Observing and
Recording Behavior," Review of Educational Research,
XXX (December, 1960), pp. #96:h97.

12

13
A recent emphasis in educational research is in the
renewal of interest in the behavioral study of class-
room teaching.

Certain characteristics of current studies
distinguish them from work done in preceding periods.
One prominent feature of contemporary research is the
stress given to systematic observation of the classroom
activities of students and teachers. Such pioneering
works as those carried out by Hughes, Flanders, Smith,
and others make it no longer necessary to urge the
importance of the classroom as the site of fruitful
research into the nature and conduct of the teaching
process.

This chapter will review the particular research
on instruction which uses data obtained in the class-
room, either by direct observation or by recordings,
to examine what the teacher is, does, and says in the

acts of teaching.

Observations pg Determine Effective Teaching
Research involving systematic observation in
classroom behavior can take several directions. The
earliest purpose of this technique was used in an attempt
to identify effective teachers.20

The first comprehensive study was reported in

 

20Donald M. Medley and Harold E. Mitzel, "Measuring
Classroom Behavior by Systematic Observation," Handbook

2; Research 2p Teachin , ed. N. L. Gage (Chicago: Rand
MoNally COO. 1963;, p. 2&8;

1h

1929 by A. S. Barr in a monograph entitled, Characteristic
Differences in the Teaching Performance pf Good and Poor
Teachers in_Social Studies. This research has continued
to be of considerable interest since it assembled what
was probably the greatest variety of behavior data ever
gathered that bear on the problem of distinguishing
between effective and ineffective teachers.21

In Barr's study, provisions for individual
differences, types of appraisal of pupil response,
characteristic actions, and types of teaching posture
were noted. Typical of a pioneering study, the methods
used in recording the data were inefficient. From the
published results, it is difficult to tell which of the
data were useful and which were not. Data in this study
were not inter-correlated or otherwise related to one
another to determine whether some of them might be combined
into scales homogeneous enough to be called dimensions.

Barr found no teachers' behaviors that distin-
guished one group from the other. He concluded from this
study that there were critical factors and contributing
factors in teacher effectiveness and that there was an
appropriateness aspect to teacher activities that must be

taken into consideration in teacher evaluation. Behavioral

data might be used as a basis for inferences drawn about

 

211bid., p. 258.

15
the personal and professional prerequisites to effec-
tiveness.22

Barr believes teaching techniques are not time-
less or universally applicable regardless of context,
but rather an on-going process defined by purposes,
persons, and situations. "Possibly tests that probe the
teacher's comprehension of the teaching process in all
its many ramifications is an essential of teacher effec-
tiveness. Research in this direction might prove profit-
able."23

In 1953, under the direction of Donald M. Medley
and Harold E. Mitzel, the Research Office of the Division
of Teacher Education of New York City, began a longitu-
dinal study of the teacher education program in the four
municipal colleges (City, Hunter, Brooklyn,and Queens)
for the purpose of examining the relationships between
some measures of teacher effectiveness and some teacher
variables.

Five measures of effectiveness and three dimen-
sions in the classroom behavior were obtained on forty-
nine beginning teachers in the New York City public
elementary schools and analyzed with statistical controls

on differences between schools and classes within schools,

 

22A. s. Barr et al., Wisconsin Studies of the
Measurement and Prediction of Teacher Effectiveness
(Wisconsin: Dembar Publications, 1961), p. lu6.

23Ib1d., p. 149.

16
taken from grades two, three, four, five, and six
scattered among nineteen schools in the boroughs of
Manhattan, Brooklyn, the Bronx, and Queens.

A total of 588 half-hour visits were made by
six observers visiting the forty-nine teachers twice
each week.

Items which seemed to belong together were grouped
into fourteen keys which were found to have a reliability
of at least 60. A factor analysis identified three
orthogonal factors accounting for most of the observed
differences: (1) emotional climate; having to do with
the relative amount of hostility observed, (2) verbal
climate; having to do with relative emphasis on verbal
and traditional school room activities, and (3) social
structures: having to do with relative degree of pupil
initiated activity.

The instrument used for the study was The Obser-
vation Schedule and Record (OScAR), a technique for
objectively observing and recording classroom behaviors
constructed by modifying and combining the methods
proposed by Cornellzu and Withall.25 Three changes were

made: (1) the first redefined the scales of the Cornell

 

zuF. G. Cornell, c. M. Lindvall, and J. L. Saube,
éngxploratory Measure of Individuals of Schools and
ClassroomvaUrbanax Bureau of Educational Research,
University of Illinois, September, 1952).

 

 

25J. G. Withall, "The Development of a Technique
for the Measurement of Socio-Emotional Climate in Class-
rooms," Journal 2; Experimental Education, XVII (l9h9),
pp. 347-351.

17
and Withall studies in somewhat simpler terms in order
to minimize the amount of training of the observer for
its use, (2) a single observer was used in place of two
observers, and (3) the observers sole concern was to see
and hear as much of what was going on as he could and to
record as much of it as the structure of the OSCAR permitted
without attempting to evaluate what he saw.26

The five measures of effectiveness were found to
center around two distinct aspects of teacher capabilities.
One set seemed to relate to the teacher's ability to
teach reading, reflected by teacher ratings, and the
other to his ability to establish good rapport with pupils
as reflected by supervisors' ratings.

An attempt was made to find out what kinds of
classroom behaviors were associated with each type of
effectiveness. Neither measured gains in reading nor
gains in group problem solving skills were found to be
related to recorded classroom behavior of teachers and
pupils. Pupil-teacher rapport was found to be allied to
emotional climate and, probably, to verbal emphasis in
classroom behavior. The teachers who had the friendliest
classrooms received the highest effectiveness ratings by

their supervisors. Teachers who rated themselves most

effective in teaching fundamental skills tended to allow

 

26Donald M. Medley and Harold E. Mitzel, "A
Technique for Measuring Classroom Behavior," Journal of
Educational Psychology, IL, No. 2 (1958), p. 85.

18
their pupils less opportunity to work in small autonomous
groups.27

The purpose of this study was to secure quantitative
objective information about happenings in ordinary class-
rooms and typical learning situations. Medley and Mitzel
believed the findings of this inquiry should prove to be
useful in such practical problems as in how to select
students likely to become successful teachers, how to
screen out those who cannot get along with children, and
what ought to be the content of teacher preparation--
problems that can be solved in no other way than by
studying teachers' classroom behavior.

It was concluded that relatively untrained
observers, using an instrument such as the OScAR, can
develop reliable information about differences in class-
room behavior of different teachers: that the OScAR
technique is sensitive to only three of many dimensions
that probably exist; and that observations made by instru-
ments of this type can contribute to the solution of many

problems having to do with the nature of effective teaching.

Studies gbeole Behavior
Hugh V. Perkins conducted a study to develop a
procedure based on reliable and valid instruments for

measuring student behavior, learning activity, teacher

 

27Haro1d E. Mitzel and Donald N. Medley, "Some
Behavioral Correlates of Teacher Effectiveness," The
Journal gprducational Psychology L (December 1959)
—-Ep . 2 _5_. I. o D 9

19

behavior, and teacher role variables presumed to be
related to a difference in achievement. His efforts
were directed toward determining whether the classroom
behavior of underachieving pupils differs from that of
achievers.28

Using adaptations of observation studies by
Ned A. Flanders,29 Surang Kowatrakul,30 and Pauline Sears,31
Perkins developed hypotheses based on the following

assumptions:

1. An individual responds to a situation in
accordance with the way he perceives it.

2. Areas, events, and activities that have
special significance for an individual are
those that facilitate or threaten his
maintenance and enhancement of self.

3. Behaviors that are reenforced tend to be
repeated.

The kinds of behavior that are the focus of this

study deal with types of on-going class activities, such

 

28Hugh V. Perkins, "Classroom Behavior and Under-
achievement," American Education Research Journal, II
(1965): PP. l-lZo

29Ned A. Flanders, Teacher Influence, Pupil Attitudes
and Achievement, U. S. Office of Education Cooperative
Research Project No. 397 (Minneapolis: University of
Minnesota, 1960).

 

30Surang Kowatrakul, "Some Behavior of Elementary
School Children Related to Classroom Activities and Sub-
ject Areas," Journal Lf Educational Psychology, L (1959),
pp. 121-128.

31Pauline S. Sears, The Effect Lf Classroom Conditions

 

Ln the Strength Lf Achievement Motive and Work Output Lf
Elementary School Children, U. S. Office of Education
COOperative Research Project No. 873 (1963).

32Perkins, op. cit., p. 3.

20

as large group discussions, seat work, small group or
committee work: and with students'behavior, such as high
activity or involvement, withdrawal, and intent of work
of non-academic type, in the context of these activities.
One observation was developed for teacher behavior and
another for student behavior.

The population sample consisted of seventy-two
fifth grade pupils and their teachers. By using a
regression equation for each student using Intelligence
Quotient and grade point average, pupils were identified
as either underachievers or achievers. Thirty-six under-
achievers were then paired with thirty-six achievers in
terms of the "Reading Comprehension" and "Reading
Vocabulary" sections of the California Achievement Test.
Using an electrically powered recorder, two-man teams
catagorized the behavior of teachers and pupils in two-
minute units. A total of 2,1h0 two-minute samples were
observed.33 To obtain a measure of inter-observer
reliability, each of the four observers was paired with
every other observer and the number of seconds for each
category during the same observation was compared. A
mean product-moment coefficient of 94 was obtained for
the Teacher Categories and a mean coefficient of 97 for

the Student Categories.

 

33High V. Perkins, "A Procedure for Assessing
Classroom Behavior of Students and Teachers," American
Educational Research Journal, I (1964), p. 251.

21
A summary of the conclusions of Perkins' study

follows:

1. Compared with achievers, underachievers
spend more classroom time working in
another academic area, engaged in non-
academic work, and withdrawing. With-
drawal was particularly frequent.

2. No significant difference was found in
achievers and underachievers in the
preportion of classroom time spent in
academic work—oriented behavior. The
two groups spent about equal amounts of
time listening and watching, reading or
writing, being highly active and involved.
However, achievers engaged in (statistically)
significantly more social, work oriented
interaction with peers than did under—
achievers.

}. No consistent sex-typed behavior in class—
room learning situations were observed.

4. Factor analyses of student~behavior learning
activity, teacher behavior, teacher-role,
and achievement variables indicate that
student academic, work-oriented behavior
and teacher behavior and roles facilitative
of learning are associated with increased
academic achievement, whereas criticism
by the teacher and withdrawal by the student
are associated with decreased academic
achievement.5

The findings that underachievers and achievers
differ significantly in three combined categories, namely:
(1) intent on work in another curricular area, (2) intent
on work.in nonacademic type, and (3) withdrawal, seem to
indicate a kind of withdrawal syndrome which is consistent
'with the less formal observation of underachievers.35

This.syndrome appears to be related to teaching

 

34sermons, 92. cit., (1965), p. 11.
35Perkins, QR. cit., (1965), p. 11.

22

that is predominantly in the lecture and criticize

categories.

Research Relating to Classroom Language

 

 

Arno Bellack and Joel R. Davitz, in collaboration
with Herbert M. Kleebard and Ronald T. Hynan, are
primarily concerned with research on linguistic behavior of
teachers and students in the classroom. They reason that
few classroom activities can be carried out without verbal
interaction. They began with the basic assumption that
the verbal activities involved are reciprocal affairs
involving both teacher and student. Analysis of the
language of the classroom offers the most promising way
of studying the communication of meaning, the principal
function of language.56 This is consistent with
Wittgenstein's notion that the meaning of a work is its
use in the language.57 They also use Wittgenstein's
description of various kinds of verbal activity as
"language games" as a basis for treating teaching as a
game in the sense that it is a form of rule-governed
‘behavior. Much of the study, therefore, is concerned

‘with.delineating the ground rules of teaching and with

<iescribing the respective roles that the teacher and

 

A 36Arno A. Bellack, Joel R. Davitz, and others,
The language of the Classroom: Meanings Communicated in
1 ‘School Teaching, U. S. Office of Education Cooperative
esearch Project No. 497 (New York: Teacher's College,

Columbia University, 1965), p. l.

 

 

57Ludwig Wittgenstein, Philosophical Investigations
(New York: MacMillan Co., 1953), p. 20.

23

student players play when engaged in the game of teaching.

Fifteen tenth and twelfth grade classes in American
democracy, drawn from seven high schools in the New York
Metropolitan area, comprised the final sample for the study.
The teacher in each of these classes was asked to teach
a four-day unit on international trade, basing his lessons
on the first four chapters of the pamphlet, International
Economic Problems, by James D. Colderwood. All of the
sixty class sessions were recorded on tape from which
typescripts were later prepared. Estimates of verbal
intelligence were obtained for all the students involved
and pre and post tests of knowledge of international trade
were administered.

Since language was the central focus of the study,
a key methodological concern was that of devising the unit
of language behavior which would serve as the basis for
the analysis. The teachers were asked to prepare lesson
plans in any manner that they deemed to be appropriate.
Tape recordings were made of four sessions for each of the
classes. Transcriptions of these recordings served as the
basis for analyzing the verbal interaction of teachers and
pupils. On the basis of studying these samples, Bellack
conceived of four basic verbal maneuvers which describe
what the teachers and pupils do pedagogically when engaged
in the game of teaching. These maneuvers were called

pedagogical moves, a term in keeping with the game

24
38

metaphor. Further analysis of the tape recordings and
transcripts of classroom discussions indicated that all
the verbal behavior by both teachers and pupils could

be classified in terms of these four major categories:
(1) structuring, (2) soliciting, (3) responding, and
(4) reacting.39 These verbal actions were classified
in terms of the pedagogical functions they performed in
classroom discourse.

Since they designated "the communication of
meaning" as the primary function of language, they sought
to determine what a teacher or student was saying and
what he was doing pedagogically in saying it, and the
emotional meaning conveyed by the language.

As they proceeded with their analysis of the data
in terms of pedagogical moves, certain cyclical patterns
in classroom discourse became evident. They designated
these as teachingcycles.”O The teaching cycle begins
with either a structuring or a soliciting move, both of
which are initiating maneuvers. In contrast, responding
or reacting moves are reflexive in nature, they are

occasioned or solicited by a proceeding move and, therefore,

cannot begin a cycle. For example, a cycle might begin

 

38Arno Bellack and Joel R. Davitz et al., The
Mggage Lf the Classroom: Meaning Communication inH igh
School Teaching, U. S. Office of Education COOperative
Research Project No. 1497 (New York: Teacher's College,
Columbia University, 1963), p. 78.

39Ib1de . pp. 6‘70
“01bid., p. ha.

25
with a structuring move by the teacher in which he focuses
attention on the topic to be discussed, continue with a
question related to the topic, and end with responding
moves by one or more students. Frequently,a cycle begins
with a soliciting move by the teacher in the form of a
question, continues with a responding move by the student
addressed, and ends with an evaluative reaction by the
teacher. This concept of teaching cycles in classroom
discourse made it possible to trace recurrent sequences
in the verbal exchange among teachers and students and,
thus,to describe the ebb and flow of the teaching process
as it developed over time.”1

Using the concepts of teaching cycles and
pedogogical moves, Bellack and his associates were able
to describe classroom discourse in terms of one of the
dimensions of meaning from the viewpoint of the pedogogical
significance of what teachers and students communicate.

A second dimension of meaning with which the
investigators were concerned was the content of what was
being said. Two basic subdivisions were identified:

(1) substantive meanings: that is,the subject matter
under discussion (international trade), and (2) instruc-
tional meanings: the routine managerial statements such
as those concerned with assignments and procedures. The
substantive and the instructional meanings were their

associated logical meanings.

 

411bid., p. 80.

 

26

Thus, if a pupil replied to a teacher's question
by giving a definition of tariffs, the pedogogical meaning
is recorded as responding to the substantive meaning as
tariffs, and the logical process as defining. The
student is designated as the speaker, and the length of
his utterance in terms of lines of transcript is also
recorded. Each pedogogical move was coded as follows:

1. Speaker

2. Type of pedogogical move

3. Substantive meaning

4. Substantive - logical meaning

5. Number of typescript lines in (3) and (4)

6. Instructional meaning

7. Instructional logical meaning

8. Number of typescript lines in (6) and (7).”2

The third dimension of meaning with which this
research was concerned was emotional meaning; that is,
the feeling tone conveyed by the language used. For this
purpose, student judges were asked to listen to five-
minute segments of classes in progress and to rate them,
using semantic differential scales. The three dimensions
of emotional meaning which were studied were valence (fair-
unfair, positive-negative, good-bad), strength (hard-soft,
heavy-light, strong-weak), and activity (alive-dead, hot-

cold, fast-slow).

 

42
Arno A. Bellack, The Language g: the Classroom:

Meanings Communicated in High School Teaching. Paper
read at American Educational Research Association, Chicago

 

 

 

27

A brief summarization of the findings of the

study follows:

1.

2.

3.

5.

6.

7.

Regardless of the unit considered, teachers
are considerably more active than pupils
in amount of verbal activity.

The pedogogical roles of the classroom are
clearly delineated for teachers and pupils.
Teachers are responsible for structuring
the lesson, soliciting the responses from
students, reacting to student's responses,
and to some extent summarizing aspects of
the discourse. In general, the student's
primary task is to respond to teacher's
solicitation.

Teachers tend to be remarkably stable over
class sessions in their pattern of discourse,
so that one can reasonably speak of a teacher’s
pedogogical style as an internally consistent
and temporarily stable dimension of behavior.

Approximately seventy-five percent of the
discourse was specifically concerned with
substantive meanings. But of all the
categories of analysis, classes varied most
widely in the substantive meanings expressed.
This finding was not anticipated in view

of the fact that the major restriction imposed
on the teachers by the research procedure was
the specification of the particular sub-
stantive meanings to be covered.

By far the largest proportion of the discourse
involved empirical meanings. Most of the
experimental unit was devoted to stating

facts and explaining principles and problems
of international trade, while considerably
less of the discourse was concerned either
with defining terms or with expressing and

justifying personal opinions about economic
issues.

Approximately twenty-five percent of the dis-
course involved instructional meanings, and

almost all of these were expressed by teachers
rather than pupils.

Paralleling the instructional category, the
analysis of instructional-logical meanings
indicated that the most frequent statement in
this area involved teachers stating facts,

usually about procedures, assignments, and other
instructional matters.

28
8. Teachers can be characterized by relatively
stable aspects of emotional style, and there
is some evidence that the dimensions of
activity and strength in this emotional
style are related to outcome measures.
These findings cannot be generalized beyond
the present sample of classes, but this
research has achieved a potentially useful
technique for further investigation of
the emotional aspects of meaning expressed
in the classroom.
It has been suggested that an analysis of these
common elements that underlie teaching may be used as
a basis for a descriptive model of what actually occurs
in classrooms. The model of teaching as reflected by
this study makes it possible to focus future research
specifically on the consequences of teacher-pupil inter-

action found during the investigation.”4

Interaction Analysis in the Classroom

Believing that the most crucial aspect of teaching
is the interaction between teacher and children, Marie
Hughes' and her associates'research undertook to define
and describe good teaching and the process by which it
could be determined with reliability.”5

Hughes and her associates look upon the classroom
interactive situation as a superior-subordinate relation-
ship. Since the teacher behavior in the classroom that is

most pervasive and continuous is the verbal action,

 

“31bid., pp. 15-17.

uuArno A. Bellack, The Language gf_the Classroom,

220 Cite, p. 1450

 

usMarie M. Hughes, "Teaching Is Interaction,"
iLementary School Journal, LVIII (May , 1958), p. 458.

29
indispensible data for description and analysis of

teaching are verbatim records of what the teacher says
and does and the response made by a child or group,
including children's initiatory actions directed toward
the teacher.)+6 They considered the student-teacher
relationship to be of a reciprocal character.

The data of the study were secured from forty-
one elementary teachers, seven men and thirty-four women,
and from eighteen buildings in eight school districts.

The data were obtained by two observers working
at one time in the classroom with the teacher's cooperation
and knowledge of the exact time the observers would arrive
to record. In general, the records were taken several
days apart and were thirty minutes in duration for each
visit.

Thus, a continuous sequential record of certain
events occurring over a period of time was secured. These
events were the verbal and non-verbal behavior of the teacher
and the response of the child or group to whom the behavior
was addressed.

Hughes and her associates developed a system of
categorization based upon two assumptions: (1) the
teacher's influence in the classroom is directed toward
{some conscious end which is intended to instruct or to aid

tale student in his learning, and (2) the child or group in

 

46Marie M. Hughes, "What is Teaching," Educational

Leadership, XIX (January 1, 1962), p. 251.

 

50

direct interaction with the teacher has influence that

is guided by a search for competence, a search for his
own identity and his defenses or protection of himself.47
These two concepts were identified as Teacher Power and
Teacher Responsiveness to students' actions.

This categorization of the collection of units of
teaching events was made according to the "function" each
event performed for the child or group. The function was
inferred from the context in which it occurred and placed
in one of seven broad categories:

1. Controlling—-goal setting, directing the
children to the precise thing to which they
ive attention, regulating who will do what.
(This was not limited to discipline.)

2. Imposition—-acts where the teacher projects
himself into the situation, the expression
of evaluation, moralizing.

5. Facilitating-~management functions, such as,
statements that designate time, change of
schedule, and so forth, information seeking
acts that are non-evaluative.

4. Development of Content--acts that develop,
elaborate, and add to the subject or problem
under consideration.

5. Personal Response——meeting the individual
requests of children, listening to their
personal interests and experiences unrelated
to the content under consideration.

6 and 7. Positive and Negative Functions——praise
and reproof categories. '

This information made it possible to describe what

teachers actually do in classrooms.

¥

47Marie H. Hughes e§_§l,, The Assessment gf_the
ualit of Teaching: A Research Report, U.S. Office of
EducatioE_C60perative Research Project No. 255 (Salt Lake
City: The University of Utah, 1959).

 

 

31

According to this study, the most prevalent series
of teaching acts were in question and answer testsor
recitation situations.

Seventy-four percent of all records had twenty
percent or less teaching acts falling in the category
of exploration, amplification, utilization of children's
questions or remarks, evaluation and stimulation. This
category was the one described as development of content.

Control of the class was exercised in varied
activities, but particularly in terms of EEEE to give
attention to and Egg was to do what; also, the how of
doing was prescribed and enforced.

Management of the classroom for learning is the
teacher’s responsibility, therefore, control functions
are necessary. However, it was suggested that the power
component the teacher holds may be reduced with changes in
verbal behavior.

It was suggested that responsiveness on the part
of the teacher to children's remarks, questions, and
personal experience would lead them to greater involvement
in content and stimulate use of higher mental processes.

Hughes and her associates concluded that patterns
of teacher action could be identified and more effective
patterns could be distinguished from less effective patterns.
It was found that the functions performed were separate
and definable and,thus,provided a means for the empirical

description of teacher behavior.

 

 

 

52

Ned A. Flanders has developed a sophisticated
technique for observing classroom behavior, unique in the
fact that it preserves a certain amount of information
regarding the sequence of behavior, the inter-play between
verbal acts of the teacher and the reaction of different
types of students. An important part of his research has
been the development, refinement, and validation of a
usable system for describing and assessing teacher influence-—
interaction analysis. Much of Flanders' work has centered
on the degree of directness used by the teacher in the
learning situation. His system of observation arose from
earlier research on teacher—pupil behavior that was based
on the work of H. H. Anderson and similar studies by
R. Lippett, R. K. White, and Kurt Lewin. The general
conclusions of this body of research indicates the following:

1. The dominating and integrative contacts of
the teacher net a pattern that spreads through-
out the classroom, and when either type of
contact predominates, domination stimulates
further domination and integration stimulates
further integration.

2. When a teacher establishes a higher prOportion
of integrative contacts, pupils show more
spontaneity and initiative, voluntary social
contributions, and contributions to problem
solving.

5. When a teacher establishes a higher proportion
of dominative contacts, the pupils are more
easily distracted from school work and show

greater compliance to, as well as rejection of,
teacher domination.48

48Ned A. Flanders, "Two Approaches to the Teaching
Process," National Education Association Journal, LI
(May, 1962), p. 44.

33

Using these findings as a base, Flanders set out
to explore two questions which had been left unanswered
in earlier research: (1) Since both integrative and
dominative types of statements are used by all teachers,
what are the consequences of these different types of
statements when used under different conditions? (2) What
is typical balance of integrative and dominative acts
found in a classroom?

The hypotheses of Flander's study were concerned
with the effect of direct and indirect teacher influence
and various conditions of goal perception on student
achievement. The two conditions of student goal per-
ception and goal ambiguity were tested in two subject
areas--geometry and social studies.49

In Flander's system of interaction analysis the
teacher actions are classified as either direct or indirect
teacher influence and the student perception as either
clear or ambiguous.

He used a system of ten categories, four relating
to indirect teacher influence, three to direct teacher

influence, two for any student statements, and one for

silence or confusion.

 

49Ned A. Flanders, Teacher Influence, Pupil Attitudes
and Achievement, U.S. Office of Education Cooperative
Research Project No. 397 (Minneapolis: University of
Minnesota, 1960), p. 33.

54

Categories for Interaction Analysis

f"

)0

1. Accepts feeling: Accepts and
clarifies feeling tone of
student in a non-threatening
manner.

2. Praises or encourages
Teacher Talk--
Indirect Influences 3. Accepts or uses ideas of
students

4. Asks questions

1. Lectures

Teacher Talk-- 2. Gives directions
Direct—Influence

 

5. Criticizes or justifies
authority

1. Student talk - response
Student Talk

 

2. Student talk - initiation

Trained observers are essential to the process of
interaction analysis. They must fully understand the
descriptions of the above categories and the rules for
the system of recording.

At the end of three second intervals the observer
decides which category best represents the "communication
behavior" during that three seconds and writes down the
number of that category while observing the next three
second period. This system is sometimes referred to as
‘the "Minnesota“ system. The procedures are concerned with

‘Nerbal action only, primarily because it can be observed

\

5OIbid., p. 51.

 

35
with a higher degree of reliability than can non-verbal.

After the recording data have been obtained, the
sequence of events in a classroom is entered into a ten-
row by ten-column table called a matrix for analysis.

After the observer has tabulated the matrix, he
is then able to develop a description of classroom inter-
action.

The total percentages of teacher and student talk
can be found. The observer can focus on the relative
number of indirect and direct teacher statements and the
kind of emphasis given to motivation and control in the
classroom can be determined.

It provides the teacher with more information,
systematically arranged, about his spontaneous behavior
than.heretofore,was possible. For example, statements
that a teacher makes as an immediate response to students
are isolated and can be compared with teacher statements

that trigger pupil participation.51

Using a laboratory situation during which teacherh
role played both direct and indirect teacher influence for
the first year of the study, four treatments were created:
(1) .direct influence with goal clarity, (2) direct influence
with goal ambiguity, (3) indirect influence with goal clarity,

and.(4) indirect influence with goal ambiguity. The second

—_

51Ned A. Flanders, "Analyzing Teacher Behavior as
Rar1; of the Teaching-Learning Process," Educational Leader-

£2112. XIX (December, 1961), pp. 173-174,

36
year the research project involved a field study that
tested the same relationships as those tested in the
simulated situation in the laboratory.

Analysis of the data indicated no significant
difference between the first and second year studies.
Results indicated that all students learn more working
with more indirect teachers, a situation which may
maximize the opportunity of the student to respond. They
also found that indirect teachers act most indirectly
when goals are being clarified and when new content
material is being introduced, and they act most directly
after goals have been clarified and work is in progress.52
In addition,they also found that teacher flexibility was
more predictive of teacher success than was the concept
of direct-indirect influence. Students showed increased
learning when teachers were effective in adjusting their
teaching to match the different situations. They frequently
clarified learning goals by asking questions and building
understanding in terms of student responses. They incorpor-
ated students' points of view in their explanations.

Teachers in low scoring classrooms more often
employed a directive pattern in all situations with very
little variation or "sense of timing" in making use of

their authority.53

 

52F1anders, pp. gi_t_., (1960), p. 107.

53Ned A. Flanders, "Two Approaches to the Teaching
Process," National Education Association Journal, LI (May,
1962), pp. 43-45.

37

The "Minnesota" system lends itself as a practical
research tool for assessing the teacher's function in
various patterns of verbal classroom interaction. Flanders,
collaborating with Edmund Amidon, has researched and
recommended its use as a teacher-training device. They
feel that interaction analysis can provide classroom
teachers with knowledge of their influence on children and
the learning situation. In their opinion, this knowledge
can become an effective feedback system andnthereby;serve

as an impetus for behavioral change.5u

Verbal Behavior and Superior Teachers

Edmund Amidon and Michael Giammatteo conducted
a study to determine if certain patterns of verbal behavior
were characteristic of superior teachers.55

Their research involved 153 elementary sch061
teachers from eleven suburban districts in Pennsylvania.
Administrators and supervisors were asked to identify
superior teachers. The top three from those identified
in each district were observed as superior or "master"
teachers. This procedure gave a sample of thirty-three
teachers. An average group was then made up by selecting
120 teachers at random from the eleven districts.

The trained observer categorized the verbal

behavior of the teachers and students using the system

 

54Ned A. Flanders, pp. cit., (December, 1961), p. 178.

55Edmund Amidon and Michael Giammatteo, "The Verbal
Behavior of Superior Teachers, " The Elementary School
Journal, LXV (February, 1965), pp. 283-285.

 

38
of interaction analysis and the ten categories developed
by Flanders. Language arts periods varying in length
from thirty-five to forty-five minutes were used for
these observations.

A profile of the verbal patterns of superior
teachers was prepared and data on the 120 other teachers
were compiled by grade and reported as normative data.

The interaction patterns of the randomly sampled group
and the superior group were then compared.

The results of this study indicate that verbal
patterns of superior teachers differ substantially from
those of average teachers. Superior teachers talked
about forty percent of their total class time as compared
with the normative group‘s fifty-two percent. Superior
teachers were more accepting of pupil initiated ideas,
tended to give extra encouragement to these ideas, and
made a greater effort to build on these ideas than the
average teachers did. The superior teachers' questions
were broader in nature than those of the normative group
and their lectures were interrupted more by questions from
their students. Teacher domination was less evident in
the superior teachers' classrooms: more indirect verbal
behavior was used, and less direction-giving and criticism
was evidenced than was shown in the normative group of
teachers' classrooms. There was about twelve percent more

pupil participation in the classes of the superior teachers.

39
These conclusions agree with Flanders'study in
which he relates pupil achievement to teacher's pattern

of verbal behavior.56

Observation gg Teacher Preparation

The purpose of Morton D. Waimon's and Henry J.
Hermanowicz's research study was to provide prospective
teachers with a system for analyzing classroom behavior
and to have an experience in the use of that system.

The basic framework for the system is derived
largely from Neal Miller's conception of learning as
comprising drive, cue, response, and reward. The
investigators regard teaching as the obverse of learning:
hence, their system focuses on the teacher's attempts to
induce learning "by develOping a predisposition (drive),
helping students acquire drive, comprehend, or use subject
matter (cue and response), and giving evaluative reactions
to pupils' responses (reward)."5'7

Waimon and Hermanowicz developed three major
categories and a number of sub-categories to describe
the verbal behavior by teachers:

1. Procedural statements in which teachers set
goals, gain attention, etc.

2. Substantive statements which have to do with
subject matter.

 

56Edmund J. Amidon and Ned A. Flanders, "The Effect
of Direct and Indirect Teacher Influence on Dependent Prone
Students Learning Geometry," Journal 9: Educational
Psychology, LII (December, 1981), p . 2881291.

57Neal E. Miller, "Scientific Principles for Maximum
Learning from Motion-Pictures," A.V. Communication Review,
V (January. 1957). p- 63.

 

4O

3. Rating statements which are the teacher‘s
evaluations of the student responses.

In addition to the teacher categories, two categories
of pupil responses were identified: (1) adequacy, based
on a judgment as to whether the response fulfills the
expectation of the teacher, and (2) magnitude, limited
to substantive responses based on whether the response
requires knowledge, comprehension or reasoning.

Waimon and Hermanowicz also identified larger
verbal units which they called teaching episodes. These.
are defined as verbal units which begin with Activating,
Cuing, or Informing, Initiatory moves, and end with one
of the reflexive moves. Essentially each episode represents
an effort on the part of the teacher to elicit an appro-
priate response. After these episodes are identified,
they are classified in terms of the difficulty that is
encountered in eliciting that response, ranging from no
difficulty, type A: some difficulty, type B: and great
difficulty, type C.

The twenty-eight students involved in the study
were given pre and post tests in the following five areas
using five different instruments in an attempt to assess

the effect of their training in the observation of teaching:59

58Morton D. Waimon and Henry J. Hermanowicz, A
(Zonceptual System for Progpective Teachers 23 Study Teaching
LBehavior. Paper read at American Educational Research

.Association Conference, Chicago (February, 1965), pp. 18-19.

59Ibid., pp. 9-10.

41

1. Critical thinking —- Watson Glaser
Critical Thinking Appraisal

2. Knowledge of curriculum research pro-
cedures and methodo%ogy -- Patton Barnes
Cognetive Inventory 0

3. Meanings assigned by students to concepts
emphasized in utilizing the conceptual
system -- a version of the semantic
differential developed by Osgood, Suci,
and Tannenbaum.

4. Attitudes toward curriculum research --
Patton Barnes Attitude Inventory

5. Attitudes toward teaching -- The Minnesota
Teacher Attitude Inventory.

No significant changes were found in terms of
critical thinking, curriculum research methodology, or
attitudes toward curriculum research. However, in rating
twenty concepts selected by the investigators as important
to their analysis system, the subjects, using a semantic
differential scale, differed significantly in the meanings
they attached to the concepts. Significant differences
were also noted on the post-test scores of the Minnesota
Teacher Attitude Inventory. In none of the five areas
was change related to reliability in using the system.
Further reactions from the students were obtained through
the use of several items from the Purdue Rating Scale of
Instruction. The moat frequent response indicated a high
value attached to direct observation of classroom behavior

as opposed to the analysis of typescripts.

 

60An instrument developed by Earl Patton and used
by Fred P. Barnes at the University of Illinois as an
inventory of curriculum research knowledge.

 

 

 

 

 

42

Teaching,Strategies

 

B. Othanel Smith, Milton Meux, Jerrold Coombs,
and Graham Nuthall in a recent project have broadened
their earlier research into classroom behavior. This
study is involved with the larger maneuvers in teaching,
having to do with the control of the subject matter in
instruction. They refer to these maneuvers as strategies.
The venture and the move, two units, not used in their
earlier research, are used to help to identify and to
clarify the concept of teaching strategies. Data are
drawn from transcripts of tape recordings of seventeen
high school class sessions. The sample includes ninth,
tenth, eleventh, and twelfth grade classes in English,
mathematics, science, and social studies.

Smith believes teaching is a system of actions
involving an agent, a situation, an end-in-view and two
sets of factors in a situation--one set over which the
agent has no control (for example, physical character-
istics of the pupils or size of the classroom) and one
set which the agent can modify with respect to the end-
in—view (for example, ways of asking questions or length
of assignments).

The set of factors which the agent can control
constitutes the means by which the end-in—view can be
reached. Two factors are involved in the types of means:
(1) subject matter and instructional materials, and

(2) the ways of manipulating and maneuvering the types

43
of factors in (l). The first of these they call material
means and the second,procedural means. Their investigation
is concerned with first the procedural means.

The two aspects of the procedural means are
identified as large—scale maneuvers, which they call
strategies, and smaller movements which they call logical
operations. By logical operations they refer to the forms
which verbal behavior takes as the teacher shapes the
subject matter in the course of instruction.

Classroom discourse has been studied in an effort
to ascertain its logical structure. Smith's and his
associates' hypothesis is that the quality of instruction
will improve if the performance of the logical operations
involved is improved. They reason that classroom discourse
should be approached through logic since most of the
questions that teachers and students handle in class are
concerned with logical operations.

Their analysis of the logical Operations, as they
were carried on in the classroom, showed that the per-
formance by both teachers and students was of low quality
. when judged by logical standards. Smith reports:

It is clear from our analysis that neither the
logic of discussion nor the logic of the subject
matter of instruction is understood by teachers
save at a common sense level. As a result, teachers
and students are repeatedly falling into logical
and linguistic traps without knowing how to extricate

themselves from their predicament, and often, in fact,
without even knowing they are in such traps."6

 

61Othanel Smith, "Teaching: What It Is and What to
Do About It," American School Board Journal, CXLVII
(July, 1963), p. 10.

44

The first unit of discourse to be identified is
the venture. A venture is defined as "a segment of dis-
course consisting of a set of utterances dealing with
a single topic and having a single overarching content
objective." Usually five or six such units of discourse
may be found in each lesson.

Smith and his associates are presently involved in
a study of the larger maneuvers in teaching having to do
with the subject matter of instruction. As mentioned
earlier, these maneuvers are referred to as strategies.
They are concerned with attaining certain outcomes and
are, therefore, directly related to objectives. Among the
general objectives toward which a strategy may be directed
are the following: (1) to induce students to engage in
an exchange of ideas, (2) to ensure that certain learnings
will be acquired in as brief a time as possible, (3) to
minimize the number of wrong responses as a student attempts
to learn a concept or principle, and (4) to ensure the
attainment of certain content objectives.62

A tentative report on this study concerns the
initial results of their work in attempting to analyze
classroom discourse into strategies. The report describes
the breakdown of classroom discourse into units of instruc-

tions called ventures. The nine types of ventures classified

 

62
B. Othanel Smith, "Conceptual Analysis of Instruc-
tional Behavior," Journal of Teacher Education, XIV

(September, 1963), pp. 297:298.

45
by the investigators as to their "cognitive import," that
is, their central meaning or theme are: "casual, conceptual,
evaluative, informatory, interpretive, procedural reason,
rule, and system."63 The report then indicates how the
categories were analyzed into verbal moves that turn out
to be elements of strategies. When combined into patterns,
these moves constitute what they refer to as "strategies
of instruction."

In this preliminary stage of their research, Smith
and his associates have developed a framework and set of
concepts which may be used to describe and analyze the
classroom discourse associated with achieving content
objectives.

An analysis of this venture into its constituent
moves has provided a model so constructed that teachers
can be prepared to reproduce it in experimental teaching
sessions without loss of strategic elements. Further
research may be directed toward establishing relationships
between certain kinds of strategies and certain kinds of

64
measurable outcomes.

Patterns 2: Communication la the Classroom
Philip W. Jackson's major contribution to the field

of instruction is his study designed to provide some basis

63B. Othanel Smith, pp. cit., (July, 1963), p. 11.

64B. Othanel Smith et al., A Tentative Report 92 the
Strategies 2: Teaching, U.S. Office of Education Cooperative
Reziarch Project No. 1640 (Urbana: University of Illinois,
19 ).

46

for describing and analyzing patterns of communication
in the classroom.

In a recent study, reported on at the American
Education Research Association Conference in Chicago
in February, 1965, Jackson grouped or categorized the
various communications that take place between teachers
and pupils. He identified three types of verbal
communication between teachers and pupils:

1. Instructional messages-~communications
intended to attain educational objectives.

2. Group management messages-~communications
having to do with setting procedures and
rules.

3. Classroom control messages--communications
having to do with maintaining discipline
and keeping order. 5

In addition to the type of communication, two

other dimensions of the activity were identified:

(1) the recipient of the teacher's message (whether

a boy, girl, or a group), and (2) the initiator of the
message (whether a boy, girl, or the teacher). In

addition the type of activity in which the class was
engaged (e.g":recitation, group work, etc.) was recorded

as well as when shifts took place from one type of activity
to another.

The population sample for this study was drawn

from a private elementary school and included one first

 

65Philip W. Jackson, Teacher-Pupil Communication in
the Elementary Classroom: AA Observational Study. Paper——
read at American Education Research Association, Chicago
(February, 1965), p. 11.

 

 

47

grade class, one second grade, and two fourth grade classes.
The data were collected over a two-month period. Each
classroom was visited at least fifteen times for periods
ranging from a few minutes to a whole day by observers
who recorded data directly.

Over this period, an entry was made each time
there was a verbal exchange between the teacher and pupils
in the class. Confirming the impression gained by activity,
Jackson's study shows that the rate of verbal communication
is remarkably high. Communication rates ranged from 3.08
communications per minute for the second grade class to
3.66 for the first grade class. Jackson's analysis also
shows that the rate of communications during any given
class activity was very much the same from class to class.
The proportion of time devoted to seatwork as apposed to
activities involving the class as a whole accounted for
the differences in the overall rate of communication. Where
a large amount of the class time was devoted to seatwork,
classes tended to have lower overall rates. Taking the
rates for the whole class activity, the four classes were
remarkably similar in the average rate of communications
per minute. Communications that lasted for one minute
accounted for only a small percentage of the total time.
Typically,these classes were characterized by short and
frequent communication between teachers and pupils.

Although Jackson‘s research was conducted in a

private school with a reputation for being democratic, he

48
observed that classes tended to be "teacher-dominated" in
terms of the initiator of verbal communication. In the
most "pupil dominated" class, 55.2% of the communications
were initiated by the teacher. In the most "teacher-
dominated" class, the percentage was 80.7. In the two
fourth grade classes, teacher-initiation accounted for
67.2% and 65.2% of the verbal communication.

In terms of the type of communication, Jackson
found that the range for instructional communications was
50.4% to 69.1%: for management, it was 20.0% to 33.5% and
for control, the range was 10.9% to 16.6%. Management and
control together account for at least 30% of all communications
in each of the four classes.‘ In the first grade class,
the percentage of instructional communications was only
50.4.

In summary, this study indicates that teachers and
pupils engage in a series of rapid-fire verbal inter-
changes (about 200 an hour). About one-half to one-third
of these communications are other than instructional in
character. From the similarity in communication rates in
the four classes, it can be hypothesized that this pace is
characteristic of teaching in the elementary schools

generally rather than a peculiarity of a limited number of

classes.

Cognitive Processes l2 Elementary Children

Hilda Taba and her associates, Samuel Levine and
Freeman T. Elsey are well-known in the field of instruction

from their study of cognitive processes in elementary school

49
children. They are interested in assessing the role of
curriculum organization and teacher training in the
development of thinking processes.

They began with the notion that thinking is "an
active transaction between the individual and the demands
of his environment, which is neither fully controlled by
environmental stimulation nor wholly independent of some

mediating intervention."66

They developed a concept of
thinking and instruments by which cognitive processes
could be measured, analyzed, and observed.

The fundamental assumption was that thought
consists of specific, describable processes which are
subject to training. Therefore, the study sought to
create categories for analyzing thought which described
learnable, and,therefore,teachable, processes of thought.

The study proposed to explore thinking from two
different points of view: their basic elements and the
ways of mastering them. Specific processes in three
cognitive tasks were identified: (1) concept formation,
(2) the making of inferences and the induction of
generalizations from interpretations of specific data, and
(3) the application of the generalization to explain new
phenomena and to predict the consequences of certain events

and conditions.

In Spite of differences in operation, the three

 

66Hilda Taba, Samuel Levine, and Freeman F. Elsey,
Thinking AA Elementary School Children, U.S. Office of Edu-

cation Cooperative Research Project No. 1574 (San Francisco:
San Francisco State College), p. 21.

50

cognitive tasks are seen as having certain things in
common. They all involve a series of steps. These steps
may be seen as a kind of hierarchy of abstraction and
complexity, and each of the operations involves different
levels of intuitive as well as conscious awareness of
the principles governing the operations.

Two more specific objectives were: (1) to develOp
a method of classifying thought processes for analyzing
thinking as it occurs in the classroom setting and which
could lead to the improvement of instructional strategies
for the development of thinking, and (2) to determine the
order of learning tasks and to pace each step appropriately.

The assumption was made that given an adequate
analysis of the learning processes involved in certain
important cognitive tasks and teaching strategies which
effectively implement the principles of sequence, of
active mental organization, and of active rotation of
assimilation and accommodation, it should be possible for
all students to achieve higher levels of cognitive
operation.67

The twenty classrooms of students involved in
the study offered optional conditions in that they followed

a social studies curriculum which centered on a series

of basic ideas and was organized for an inductive discovery

 

67Hilda Taba and Freeman F. Elsey, "Teaching
Strategies and Thought Processes," Teachers Collegquecord.
LXV (March, 1964), p. 528. '

 

- ".v

"°o-,

'O-‘

 

..-'.

51
and development of these ideas. The curriculum outline
also included a planned sequence of learning experiences
designed to enhance the development of generalizations
and their application to solving problems.

The population for this study included grades two
through six, with a total of 481 students involved
representing a range in I.Q. of 88 to 121 and a broad range
as to socio—economic status.

The design for the study provided for ten days of
special training of teachers in analysis of thought
processes and in devising effective strategies for their
development.

Two instruments were developed for the purpose
of measuring and analyzing aspects of cognitive skills.

The first is the Social Studies Inference Test which is
designed to test students' ability to draw inferences from
new data. Four sub areas were identified: (1) dis-
crimination, (2) inference, (5) overgeneralization and
caution, and (4) error.68

The second instrument is a coding system designed
to analyze tape recordings of the class sessions. Four
discussions were taped in each of twenty class sessions.
The first was of the discussion involving grouping and
classification: two involved interputation of data; the

fourth involved predicting consequences Thought units

 

68Hilda Taba, Thinking 22 Elementary School
Children, Unpublished manuscript (1964), p. 4.

 

 

 

52
(defined as "a remark or series of remarks expressing a
more or less complete idea, serving a specific function,
and classificable according to a level of thought") in the

typescripts of the class sessions were subjected to the

following three-fold analysis.69

1. Designation--describing the source of the
thought unit, whether it emanated from the
teacher or the student and whether the person
was giving or seeking information.

2. Function--describing how the thought unit
functioned in the contest of the discussion.
Two large groups of function ratings were
distinguished: (a) questions or statements
made by the teacher or students which were
psychological or managerial in their function
and unrelated to the logic of the content,
and (b) statements made by the teacher or the
students which functioned to give direction
to discussions, but which at the same time
could be rated according to the logic of
content.

3. Levels of thought were coded for each of
three cognitive tasks, scaled according to
difficulty and abstractness.

One of the major purposes for devising the coding
system is to provide for the tracing of patterns in the
development of cognitive skills as it actually occurs in
the classroom. Taba and her associates feel that this
multidimensional analysis of classroom transactions has

70

several advantages. By describing the teacher's acts
in terms of their explicit functions with the assessment
of the logical quality of student responses, it is possible

to evaluate the impact of the teacher's behavior in terms

 

691bid., p. 7.

7OTabas, Teacher's College, 9p. cit., p. 529.

53
of its productivity. A further advantage lies in the fact

that this scheme permits studying the cumulative impact
of certain patterns or combinations of acts as well as
to describe the impact of teaching exclusively in terms
of frequency of specific acts.

Finally, the scheme permits the examination of
the effect of teaching strategies in terms of a measurable
change in a specified outcome and,thus,frees the study of
teaching from the necessity of inferring the effect from
the assumed consequences of the frequencies of certain types
of teaching behavior.

The results of the analysis are in terms of changes
in the measures of cognitive skill and are also descriptive
of teaching strategies that were employed to bring about
these changes.

Analysis of the typescripts of the classroom
discussions revealed that teacher behavior has a decided
influence on the thinking of students. The level of thought
attained seems to be determined by the complete pattern of
transactions: (1) the timing of the acts, (2) the particular
combination of focusing, extending and lifting, (3) the
length of time spent on a particular focus, such as exploring
specific descriptive information before examining causes or
attempting an eXplanation, (4) the distance between the
mental operations of the students at the moment from the
level required by the teacher, and (5) the points at which

the teacher seeks information from the students and gives it.

54

These combinations, not merely frequencies alone, constitute
the teaching strategies.71

Reorganization of the analysis is needed. Modern
computer technology should be used to detect the complex
patterns of thinking in relation to teaching strategies.
Taba believes both the studies of thinking and of teaching
have employed too simple a paradigm of the essential nature
of either, not to mention the impact of one or the other.

Taba and her associates also feel their present
findings suggest that teachers need not only more intensified
preparation, but sharper materials are also necessary to
help teachers to acquire the kind of cognitive maps they
need to guide the development of thinking. This kind of
instruction is vastly more effective when addressed, not to
general improvement of teaching but, to specific strategies
for specific purposes. "Teachers, like children, require
time and practice for assimulating new modes of thinking
about teaching and learning if they are to alter their
current conception of their roles and their habits of

teaching."72

Summary
In the studies reviewed here, it seems apparent

that the investigators believe that some understanding of

the process of teaching can be gained through observation

 

71Taba and Elzey, pp. cit., p. 533.

72Taba, 9p. cit., p. 18.

O,

55

of what goes on in a classroom. This shared perspective
does not preclude wide differences in such matters as which
behaviors will be observed, what students and teachers will
be observed in what kind of setting, or What procedure will
be used in making the observations. Some investigators
used direct observations in the classroom, others used

tape recordings, typescripts, or kinescopes. The scope

of the studies varies, but most investigators choose to focus
their observations on a set of behaviors which represent a
given perspective. Thus, one set of observations has
focused on classroom climate, others have selected inter-
action analysis, critical thinking, communication patterns,
and many more.

Speaking at the Association for Supervision and
Curriculum Conference, held in San Francisco in March, 1966,
Karl Openshaw pointed up the need to analyse the research
on teacher behavior that has been done by others. In
studying the research on instruction, direction can be given
to further study of teaching in an effort to build on and
hopefully to gain greater insight into what are good teach-
ing practices.

It is the hope of this investigator that the study,
which will not be described, will add in some small way to

this body of knowledge.

CHAPTER III
PATTERN OF DEVELOPMENT, THE SCOPE AND PROCEDURE

Interest in the behaviors of teachers who work
in inner city schools where there are many disadvantaged
children developed during the investigator's seven years
of experience as a general elementary consultant in the
Flint Community Schools.

As more and more schools in our cities are con-
fronted with the problems that come with changing
neighborhoods, we are faced with the urgent need to supply
teachers for these classrooms who can meet with success in
working with children in such a school setting.

In order to prepare teachers for working in schools
where there are large numbers of culturally disadvantaged
children, it is necessary to know as much as possible
about what happens in the inner city classrooms where

teachers are apparently meeting with success.

Rationale for the Study

 

The high rate of turnover in teachers for the
inner city schools has become a serious problem in main-
taining an effective educational program for children
coming from homes and neighborhood environments where

they do not have the kinds of experiences that prepare

56

57

them for successful experiences in our schools. This is
true in most urban industrial cities in the United States.

As the need to study this problem facing many
large cities in the United States was recognized, a three—
day conference was held in Washington, D. C., on May 21—25,
1962, under the auspices of the Instructional Programs
Branch of the United States Office of Education. The theme
of the conference was Teaching Children and Youth Who Are
Culturally Deprived.75

The conference brought together acknowledged leaders
of programs expressly designed to aid the children from
culturally disadvantaged areas to develop the skills
necessary to help them to develop up to their potential.
Each of the reports given at this conference refers to
special qualities in teaching or to a need to give specialized
preparation to teachers who teach in culturally dis-
advantaged areas.

Frank Reissman, in discussing the slowness, one—
track learning, and physical learning that characterizes
the cognitive style of disadvantaged children, states,

"The teacher will have to receive special training in how
to respond to these styles."

Dr. Kathleen M. Cooney, principal of the Doolittle
School in Chicago, believes the greatest responsibility

of the school is to see to it that pupils are given access

 

75Programs for the Educationally Disadvantaged,
U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare (Washington:
Office of Education, May 21—23, 1962).

58
to share in more of the social values.

In every contact with his pupils, the teacher is
either sharing or withholding social values. The
classroom represents an institution created by
school personnel, who determines its policies and
practices. Whether the classroom is democratic or 74
not depends upon the procedures followed in that room.

Muriel Crosby of the Wilmington, Delaware Public

Schools, stresses the need for inservice education for
teachers to help them to "understand something of the
relationship between the achievement of goals in education

for human understanding and achievements of academic goals."75

Jacob Landers, Coordinator of the Higher Horizons

Program in New York City, asks if "we should not restudy
the basic principles of methodology and psychology insofar
as they relate to the education of the disadvantaged."76

Other examples could be cited and each would

indicate that people who have been involved in trying to
bring about improvement in the kinds of educational experiences
for culturally disadvantaged children recognize the need

to look at what is happening in classrooms and to modify

the programs to provide a more adequate teaching-learning
experience.

The above examples point up the need for teacher

education institutions to encourage research on the teacher

of the culturally deprived as she works with pupils in the

 

741bid., p. 10.

75Ibid., p. 33.

76Ibid., p. 53.

59

classroom. Administrative personnel who are responsible
for recruitment and retention of teachers for inner city
schools, should encourage and cooperate with teacher

preparation institutions for this purpose.

Basis for Hypotheses

 

Several hypotheses formulated from observations
made.by this investigator in working with beginning
teachers in disadvantaged areas were given direction from
a research project to study teaching behavior in the inner
city schools being conducted by Henderson and her associates
at the Learning Systems Institute at Michigan State

University, entitled the Teaching £3 the Inner City:

 

 

Identification pi Education Practices g£_Competent

 

 

 

Elementary Teachers pf Culturally Disadvantaged Youth.

 

 

Hypotheses

 

Hypotheses I-A and I-B: Most teaching behaviors
which are judged to be good77 in working with advantaged
area children are also judged to be good in working with
disadvantaged area children.

Hypothesis I-A: Some good teaching practices are
used more frequently with disadvantaged children than with
advantaged children.

Hypothesis I-B: Some good teaching practices are
more crucial to success in working with children from

disadvantaged communities than with children from

 

77Good is defined to mean appropriate for the
teaching situation according to teachers who have been
identified as competent.

6O
advantaged communities. For this hypothesis the data will
be examined in two parts, cruciality of situation and
cruciality of decision.

Hypothesis I-C: Teachers of children from dis-
advantaged communities are more limited in the range of
desirable decisions that can be made in response to given
teaching situations than are teachers of children from
advantaged communities.

Hypothesis II-A: Some teaching behaviors which
are believed to be good in teaching the children in dis-
advantaged areas are not considered to be good by teachers
of children in advantaged communities.

Hypothesis II-B: Some teaching behaviors which are
considered to be good in teaching advantaged children are
not considered good by the teachers of disadvantaged
children.

The direction for these hypotheses came from the
response to frequency of occurrence of the observations in

both the Inner City and Clinic School studies.

Sources p£_Behavioral Descriptions pi Teachinqucts

The Clinic-School study and the Teaching 22 the

 

 

Inner City, research studies of teaching behavior conducted

 

by the Learning Systems Institute, Michigan State University,
originated by Ted W. Ward, and now coordinated by Judith
Henderson, incorporated the descriptions of teaching

behavior that facilitated the collection of data for this

study.
The primary purpose of the Clinic-School Project

61
was to develop a "definitive knowledge base for the practice
of teaching." The two major objectives of this study were:
(1) to clarify, explain, and conceptualize the decision
making process employed in teaching, and (2) to establish
a system for modifying the decision-making process in such
a way as to incorporate knowledge about human learning.78
The project was intended to assist in bridging
the gap between research and educational practice by
establishing clinical procedures and relationships in
which practitioners and trainees are "participants in
a constant refinement in their methodology, based upon
their collective experiences and their interactions with
data from basic research."79
Descriptions from over 250 "focused observations"
were used to build a teaching model. Ward describes
the "focused observations" as follows:
The observer uses the moment of teacher action
as the focal point between the environmental data,
and the teacher perceptions, aspirations, objectives,
knowledge, and beliefs which affect the decision.
Thus, the decision moment is a focus . . . there is
something to look for, something to describe, gad
something to discuss with the person observed.
The persons observing and the persons observed
were either interns, student teachers, supervising, or

intern consultants. An Observation Report81 was used by

 

789p,_plp,, Clinic School Manual, p. l.

7992. cit., Clinic School Manual, p. 1.

80Ted W. Ward, "Professional Integration and Clinical
Research," The Sppervisor: Agent for Change Ag Teaching
A.S.C.D., N.E.A. (1966), p. 69.

81See Appendix C

62

the observer in making the focused observations.

The 250 "focused observations" were then examined
by extern consultants and selections for the prototype
manual were made using as criteria: (1) understandability
of the description, (2) frequency of the situation, and
(3) appropriateness of the decision.

The key elements of this clinical research were:
(1) location of the data gathering in real instructional
settings, (2) behavioral description of the teacher's
activities within particular settings and in the course
of striving for various learning objectives, (3) compar-
isons of data from several instructional settings in order
to identify common elements in sets of instructional
behaviors, and (4) examination of behavioral descriptions
in the light of given bodies of outside research.

Derived descriptions were classified as to their
purpose and compiled in the Clinic School Manual.83 This
research has two purposes: (1) to derive instructional
materials for pre-clinical teacher education courses, and
(2) to provide descriptive data on the models of teaching
which operate in the various clinical centers.’

The Inner City study, attempted to collect some

descriptive documentation of teaching behavior in inner city

 

82Ted W. Ward, 9p. cit., p. 73.

83See Appendix D for samples of derived descriptions
and classifications.

84See Appendix E for a copy of this form.

63

schools in order to answer the question . . . is there
or isn't there a difference in competent teaching in the
inner city? Practical descriptive research techniques
were utilized in the study's design. The two main objectives
of the study were: (1) "to describe instructional behavior
of elementary teachers who have shown particular aptitude
with the culturally deprived child, and (2) to identify
behaviors 'peculiar' to competent elementary teaching in
the culturally deprived environment."85

A highly selected list of competent elementary
teachers in the most stereotype inner city schools was
prepared by the research bureaus and supervisory depart-
ments of three Michigan cities--Detroit, Flint, and Grand
Rapids. Fourteen teachers were drawn from this list
(Detroit, seven; Grand Rapids, four; Flint, three) for
the data gathering and judgment making. The teachers
represented the following grade levels: kindergarten,
two; first, two; second, one; third, three; fourth, four;
fifth, O: and sixth, two.

These teachers met project staff persons and were
given a description of the study that was proposed and the
purpose was explained:

I. They were to be visited by a trained observer
for two consecutive school days.

2. The trained observers would record ten to
twelve teaching incidents randomly chosen
during each of these days.

 

t55Judith E. Henderson, Teachigg in_th§'lnpg£ City
(East Lansing: College of Education, Michigan State
University, 1967), p. 2.

64
5. At the close of each school day, the observer
and teacher met together and, with the use of
a tape recorder, the reactions of the teachers
to the teaching incidents were recorded, guided
by a set of questions and a form prepared for
this purpose.

Fourteen observers, trained in the use of the
"Focused Observation," individually made two full—day
observations of two of the selected teachers. Each
observer made ten to twelve observations each day, making
approximately two observations an hour.

The form used to record these data asked the
trained observer to describe a moment of observable
behavior which he witnessed in a given teacher's class-
room activity. The description included three parts:

(1) situation--a brief (one to five sentences) description
of the relevant elements present in the immediate environ-
ment, (2) the action--describing the particular teacher
act within or moving immediately from the described
situation, and (5) the consequence--a brief description of
the observable consequences that immediately followed and
seemed related to the teacher act and its impact on the
situation.

The observational procedure included the self-
reported data from the teacher observed as described above.
This tape-recorded self—report is a record of the responses

the teacher made to dictated questions asked by the trained

observer.87 The teacher was asked to verify what was seen

 

86See Appendix E for a copy of these questions.

87See Appendix F.

 

65

and reported by the observer and to make any relevant
additions he felt were important.

The pooled descriptions of teaching behaviors
from the fourteen classrooms were reviewed by each teacher
in the Inner City referent group and also by a second
referent group made up of twelve intern-consultants who
had participated in the Clinic School study. A significant
agreement level was calculated and required of the two
referent groups concerning the following questions in order
to qualify a description for inclusion in the model being
compiled:

1. Is the description adequate to provide a
useful mental picture of the situation?

2. Is the teacher action (or non-action)
appropriate as you see "good teaching?"

The teaching model for the Clinic School Project
was reviewed by the Inner City referent group judges and
the same criteria.were used to identify descriptions which
would qualify it for the inner city teaching model. A total
of 286 descriptions were accepted as "good teaching" in

common for both referent group judges.

Figure 1 represents the Clinic School and Inner

City studies.

 

 

A A - represents the Clinic School
study.
C B - represents the Teaching in

 

the Inner City.

C - represents the descriptions
judged to be "good" by both
referent groups.

 

 

 

 

 

 

Figure l

-"’

66
The current study uses only the described teaching
situations found in C. Therefore the descriptions already
known to be exclusively descriptions of inner city teaching
and those known to be exclusively descriptive of non-inner
city are not in the current study.

The 286 descriptions88

of teaching behavior used

for this research are the ones in which there was a "group
consensus" which demanded that twelve or more of the fourteen
Inner City referent group members and ten or more of the
twelve Clinic School group members judge a description as
"good" or "representative" of good teaching. This number
represented the critical value for a significance level less
than .05 as determined by a binomial distribution where the
parameters n=l4, p=.5, and n=l2, p=.5.

The following figure illustrates the functions of

the analysis:

A - represents the 250 behavioral
descriptions in the Clinic
School study.

B - represents the 241 descriptions
in the Inner City study.

 

 

2’ 124D C - represents the behavioral
’ 4 ___________ \ descriptions that were judged
\ 28/ F-C \ as "good” or ”representative"
\ 162E 2%1 of "good" teaching practice
\ \ / by both the Inner City and
x / Clinic School referent groups.

 

 

 

 

D - represents the 124 descriptions
from the Clinic School study.

 

E - represents the 162 descriptions
from the Inner City study.

 

88
teaching.

See Appendix G for behavioral descriptions of

6'7
The C data alone is drawn from the A and B sources.’
The A source contributed 124 and the B data contributed 162

descriptions. The current study used 286 descriptions.

Sampling Procedure

 

The study involves thirty elementary teachers in
Flint, Michigan. Fifteen of these teachers are from advan-

taged area schools, Referent Group A, for this study. These

 

teachers were selected from schools ranking among the top
schools in academic achievement according to SRA achievement
tests administered to all sixth grade pupils in Flint City in
1965 and 1966. Eight teach in the ungraded primary; two,
fourth; two, fifth; and three, sixth. These schools are
located in the more desirable residential areas of the city.
Fifteen teachers were selected from four disadvantaged

area schools located in the inner city, Referent Groupg, in

 

this study. Academic achievement on the SEA tests in these
four inner city schools was in the lowest rank from among
the forty-two elementary schools. Eight teach in ungraded
primary; two, fourth; three, fifth; and two, sixth. These
schools were identified as disadvantaged area schools for a
special program provided for by the Mott Foundation, called

The Better Tomorrow for the Urban Child. They are now a part

 

of the Title I program, a special Federal program for schools

with many children from homes where parents have a low income.
Tables 3.1 and 5.2 show the SEA scores for the two

sets of schools. The national norms for sixth grade pupils

is 6.1.

68

TABLE 3.1

SCORES ON S.R.A. ACHIEVEMENT TESTS FOR
NON-INNER CITY SCHOOLS

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Language Arithmetic Reading Composite
Schools 1965—1966 1965-1966 1965-1966 1965-1966
A 7.3 7.2 6.4 6.6 7.4 7.5 6.8 7.0
B 6.5 7.1 6.1 5.9 7.1 6.8 6.5 6.3
C 7.1 6.4 6.7 6.2 6.5 7.0 6.3 6.6
D 6.4 6.4 6.1 6.0 6.4 6.6 6.2 6.3
TABLE 3.2
CORES FOR S.R.A. ACHIEVEMENT TESTS FOR
INNER CITY SCHOOLS
Language Arithmetic Reading Composite
Schools 1965-1966 1965-1966 1965-1966 1965-1966
E 4.5 4.5 4.7 4.6 4.5 4.4 4.5 4.5
F 4.4 4.4 4.6 4.7 4.6 4.3 4.5 4.4
G 4.8 4.4 5.1 4.7 3.8 3.7 4.3 4.3
H 4.9 5.2 5.3 5.2 5.5 4.9 5.2 4.7

 

 

 

 

 

Principals and general elementary consultants
serving these eight schools were asked to identify teachers
who were considered to be exceptionally competent teachers
using as criteria the Flint Community School rating scales

89

and evaluation forms. Only teachers who received a

 

C59See Appendix B.

09
rating of excellent were asked to participate in this

research.

Collecting the Data

 

Each teacher was asked to respond to each of the
286 behavioral descriptions of focused observations that
had already been judged to be good teaching practices by
both the group of Clinic School judges and the group of
Inner City judges from the collection of protocols in the

Clinic School study (124 descriptions), Epaching in the

M

 

Inner City (162 descriptions).

 

Following is a sample of a protocol, the questions
asked and the judgments to be made about the teaching
situation and the action decision that the observed teacher

made as a result of this situation.

Situation:

 

The teacher is reading a poem about a beetle. In the
poem the beetle lived in a matchbox and to illustrate
the beetle's house, the teacher shows a matchbox. While
reading the poem, one of the children keeps asking if
the teacher's beetle lives in the box.

I. Does this situation ever occur in your
classroom? yes / no (circle)

If yes, please check:

1. About once an hour

 

2. About once a day

 

3. About once a week

 

4. About once a month

 

5. About once a year

 

70

II. Does this situation,

as described, represent

an important moment in teaching as you see
it? yes / no (circle)

If yes, please check:

 

 

 

Decision:

1. Definitely important
2. Relatively important

3. Relatively Egimportant

The teacher stops the poem long enough to explain that
the poem is a boy's story about his beetle. She brought
the box for them to see, so they could imagine what the

little boy's beetle lived in.

III. A. Do you think this teacher's decision was

a good choice?

1.

 

2.

 

3.

 

B. Were there other
could have done?

1.

 

2.

 

3.

 

Yes, definitely!
Yes
No

desirable things she

Many
Several

None

C. Was it highly important that she do some-
thing fairly similar to what is described?

1.

 

2.

 

30

 

During the third week of
took a copy of the collection of

protocols to the home of each of

Yes, definitely!

Yes

No

July, 1966, the investigator

the 286 one-page type-written

the thirty teachers who had

71
been selected for participation in the study. The following
information was given verbatim to each participant:

This collection of teaching situations represents
observations made by trained observers of situations
that actually happened in classrooms. The decision
that is described is the action or nonaction made

by the teacher in response to the described situation.
Please look at page one. Read the situation. You

are to read the first question. Does this situation
ever occur in your classroom? Then circle "yes" or "no."
If your answer is "yes," respond to the frequency
(Number I) by checking the appropriate description.
Next read the decision and answer the three questions.

A. Do you think this teacher's decision was a
good choice? (If you feel strongly that this
was a good choice, put a check mark before
the "yes." If you do not think it was a good
choice, put a check before the "no."

B. Were there other desirable things she could
have done? (If you think there were many
good alternatives, put a check mark before
"many." If you think there were several,
place the check mark before "several." If
you think there was no good alternative,
place a check mark before the "no."

C. Was it highly important that she do something
fairly similar to what is described? (Place
a check before the "Yes, definitely" if you
feel it was an extremely good decision. If
you feel it was all right, but not extremely
important, place a check before the "yes."
If you think it was not a good decision,
place a check mark before the "no."

The following printed directions accompanied the
set of protocols and were read aloud to each participant.

Answer the questions as though you were teaching the
children in the school to which you are assigned.

If you are in doubt about the answer, check the one
you think is best instead of leaving it blank.

Answer to the situation rather than to the specific
subject described.

Do not read the decision until after you have completed
the answers to the questions on situation.

72

Do not try to do them all at one sitting; several
sittings will be less tiring and more accurate.

Thank you for helping me. Good luck!
The work was to be completed in three weeks, if
possible. Due to illnesses in the families of several of
the participants, the final set of protocols was not returned

until October, 1966.

Procedure for Data Analysis

 

The number of judges in the referent groups is
small and the sampling procedures failed to control completely
for such extraneous variables as referent group biases. In
the light of the limitations due to sampling procedures
and the small nis encountered in several parts of the study,
simple descriptive analysis will be used.

The judgments of the individual members of the
referent groups were compiled for each description into two
sets of charts, one representing the responses of Referent
Group A (Non-Inner City) and one, Referent Group B (Inner
City). The charts were divided into five parts showing
the various aspects of the study that were to be examined:
(1) situation frequency, (2) cruciality of the situation,
(3) cruciality of the decision, (4) "goodness" or
appropriateness of the situation, and (5) alternatives.

The mode for each description was computed and charts
were compiled to record the mode for each description. From
these charts, tables were drawn to show the descriptions that

were peculiar to each referent group for each of the parts of

 

73
the study listed above. The tables show appropriate rankings
for each referent group divided by the source of the des-

criptions, Teaching in the Inner City and Clinic School

 

 

studies. For Situation Freqpenqy a five-point scale was

 

used in answer to the question: Does this situation ever

occur in your classroom? For Cruciality g: Situation,

 

 

a four-point ranking was shown answering the question:
Does this situation, as described, represent an important

moment as you see it? For Cruciality 93 Decision, a three-

 

point ranking was shown answering the question; Was it
highly important that she do something fairly similar to
what is described? A three-point ranking was used for
the Alternatives answering the question: Were there other
desirable things she could have done? A three-point scale
was used for the question of apprOpriateness of the teaching,
answering the question: Do you think this teacher's decision
was a good choice?

Modal tables were developed from the original charts
and modal charts. Tables listing the serial numbers of
each description by rank, divided by the source of the
description for each referent group were compiled so that
the content of the descriptions that fell in each rank could
be examined.

From the tables listing the serial numbers of the
descriptions, tables were compiled to show the characteristics
of the teaching acts. A procedure developed by Ward and

Henderson90 at the Learning Systems Institute, Michigan

 

90Judith E. Henderson and Ted W. Ward, on. cit., pp. 15-16.

74
State University was used for developing these tables.
Models of teacher behavior were constructed, one
representing the inner city and one the non-inner city.
The term "model" is a familiar term in educational theorizing.

91

Using Maccia's definition png; here is a "mgdgl 2:
whatever is being represented" . . . in this instance it
is a model of teacher behaviors as represented by Referent
Group A and Referent Group B.

In summary, the tables thus compiled will provide
a representation of the data in such a way that it can
be inspected, comparisons can be made and conclusions drawn

to determine if the stated hypotheses are supported by the

data.

 

l
9 Elizabeth Steiner Maccia, "The Conceptions of

Model in Educational Theorizing," Occasional Paper 62-114
Cooperative Research Project 1632, U.S. Department of
Health, Education and Welfare (Columbus, Ohio: Ohio State
University Research Foundation, 1963), p. 47.

 

CHAPTER IV
PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA

Chapter IV presents an analysis of the data. The
sampling procedure used to derive the original descriptions
was structured rather than randomized. Thus statistical
procedures which assume random representation of teaching
situations cannot be used. The current study uses instead
a sorting and category-describing analysis, largely non-
Statistical.

The data are arranged in sets of tables: (1) the
modal responses of Referent Group A (non—inner city) and
Referent Group B (inner city) judges to the frequency of
similar occurrences to described situations that happen in
their classrooms, of the cruciality of the situation and of
the decision, the number of possible "good" alternatives,
and the appropriateness of the described situations, and
(2) the characteristics of the teaching acts as described
through classification procedures according to judgments of
frequency of situation, of cruciality of situation and
decision, number of possible alternatives, and appropriate-
ness of the described teaching situations.

Hypotheses I-A through I—C, as a whole, proposed that

there would be differences in frequency of occurrence, of

75

 

76
cruciality of situation and decision, and of number of
possible alternatives to the described teaching behaviors
as judged by Referent Group A and Referent Group B in
response to the 286 described teaching situations and

decisions that were made in response to the situations.92

Examination pf Hyppthesis I-A

 

 

Hypothesis I-A: Some good teaching practices are
used more frequently with disadVantaged children than with

advantaged children.

Modal Responses to Situation Frequency

The first steps in the analysis are the identifica—
tion of each group's modal responses to the question of
frequency of occurrence for each description. These results
are shown in tables 4.1 through 4.5.

-It was reasonable to expect unimodal responses,
since the teachers for each set of judges were chosen on a
common basis from schools and communities with like char-
acteristics. Results of the tabulation show ninety-six
situations in which the responses of Referent Group A judges
constitute a bimodal distribution and twenty-eight situations
in which Referent Group B judges constitute a bimodal distribu-
tion. Since there is less homogeneity within the sets than was
expected, separate tables are presented to show the frequency

of occurrence of situations for which responses constitute

92See pages 65—66, Chapter III for sourCes of
descriptions.

 

 

 

77
differing types of distributions.

If this Hypothesis is to besnpported, Referent
Group B responses must show a significantly greater fre-
quency of occurrence of situations similar to those
described than are shown by the responses of Referent Group
A.

Table 4.1 shows the frequency of occurrence of
situation in which the responses of both sets of judges
constitute unimodal distributions. Table 4.2 shows the
frequency of occurrence of situation in which Referent
Group A judges'responses constitute a bimodal distribution
and Referent Group B judges responses constitute a uni-
modal distribution. Table 4.3 shows the frequency of
occurrence of situation in which Referent Group B judges
responses constitute bimodal distributions and Referent
Group A Judges responses constitute unimodal distributions.
Table 4.4 shows the frequency of occurrence of situation
where both sets of judges' responses constitute bimodal
distributions. Table 4.5 shows the frequency of occurrence
of situation where both set of judges' responses constitute
the same distribution.

In bimodal responses the higher number of responses
was recorded; in case of a tie, the average between the two
most frequently occurring was recorded.

Sources of descriptions in the tables refer to the

descriptions of teaching situations taken from the Teaching

 

lg the Inner City (inner city) and the Clinic School (non-

inner city) studies.

78

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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:Hsa m cpSpHpmsoo
o o o o o o acbmz momsoammm.mmwpsh m
o o o m: mm om mHamcw macho pschommm use
d H m Hm p mH mHSDQOE soHpSQHprHQ Hmpos
N: 6N 0H HH m m sass»: uam a ouspapmsoo
mm 0H mm H o H zHHmQ momsoamcm.mcw65h
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m.: mHm¢B
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m: 0H mm m o m aHHcQ macaw psmachom use
m o m N o N mHHsom < @5090 psoacncm
H.: mHm¢9
Hapoa swans“ moHun_ Hence :mHuc moHun aozmssmwm moanme
Hoogom apHo Hoosom szo no
OHsHHo :aossH OHsHHo IncgsH mmHuHe
escapawaomon,ho moonswm
mHue mans

m macho psohohom

 

< macaw psoHcaom

 

 

 

 

ZOHB<DBHM mma mo Mozmmmbooo mo Nozmodmmm mo ZOHBmMDd

mm& 08 mmonbh ANBHU mHZZHV m mDomo BZMMHmmm Q24 mmoQDh
AHBHU mMZZHIzozv d mbomu Bzmmmmmm mo mmzommmm mo MZOHBDmHmBmHQ

m.: moaomma H.e magmas

79

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

mH s m «H s 6 Hence

0 o o o o o Hcpmz

N H H m m m mHammM sOHpanapmHn Homes

0 N m a o : thpsoz IHm a mapHpmsoo

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3.: mHm<B

3H m m 3H m 5 Hence soHpspHapmHQ Hmoos
1H2: m muSpHpmsoo

o o o o o o Hoboz mmmSOQmmm.moprb ¢

m m N 3 m H hHHmmw macaw pgmhomom Una

p m m o m m aHanna: soHpanapmHQ Hmpos

m H N m H N achoz :Hm m ouspHpmsoo

o o o H o H hHHmm momsoamom.mmw65h

o o o o o o aHasom m @5090 pamacmom

Na: mHm<H
H.308 #mHun NoHn s H.309. :NHnu Nan: hosmsdoam mmHan.
Hoonom tho Hoosom apHo mo
OHSHHU JaossH OHSHHU lamssH moHuHB
msoHanHoMoMJmo mcoaaom
ann anm
m nacho psoaouom < nacho psoaouom

 

 

 

 

onaasaHm was so mozmmmsooo mo aozmoommm mo onammpa
was on mmoooe Aaaao mwzsz m gnome azmmmmmm 62¢ masons
AaaHo mmzanzozv 4 msomo azammamm mo mmzommmm mo monaamHmamHo

eoszwpnooucm.s monomma H.¢ mmqm<a.

8O

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

    

so Hm no Hopoa
o o o Hmbcz QOHpanapmHQ
NH 3 m aHaaoa oamm on» opsoHpm
msssHoo mH m p HHQusoz taco momsoammm
use: pmcH mm mswm 3N :H OH thmmz .mmNUSh m @5090
p: d :: HHHdQ psmammmm dammmcwpsh
o o o aHaaom a macho psmammcm
was mqmme
H38 sNHun NoHun Hopoa :NHun «3....» $33on $33
Hooson apHo Hoonom aoHo co
OHSHHU IncssH OHQHHQ :HmssH meuHe
mHue mHne
m macaw pamaohmm < macho pscammmm

 

 

 

 

onadfieHm Mme mo mozmmmbooo mo Nozmsdmmm mo onBmmDG
mus OB mmUQDh AMBHU mNZZHV m msomc Bzmmmmmm 924 mmoQDh
AMBHU mHZZHIzozv ¢ mDomo Bzmmmmmm mo mmzommmm m0 MZOHBDmHmBmHQ

pofiflHpnoollm.3 mUDOmmB H.d mmqm<H

81

 

 

 

 

 

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0 o o o o o o o o o o o o o Hopoz
N H m o H N o Ho m m 6N m H 0N aHaaoH
mH N m H N m m Hm o m o : m mH aHspeoz
N: H H 6N H N 6H mH H H m o N m aHaooz
mm o o 6H 0 o mN N o o o o H H aHHan
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m:nn owns o:us own: ,
Hoozom oHnHHo apHo nonsH Hoosom onHHo apHo nonnH
msOHanHomon no mooasom
mHus mHis
m nacho usonouom < @5090 psoaomom

 

 

 

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onB¢§BHm mma ho mozmmmscoo mo onBmMDG Ema OB mmunbh
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AHBHO MHZZHIZOZV 4 mDomc BZMMHmmm mo mmzommmm mo ZOHBDmHMBMHQ

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om.: mamas

82

Referent Group B (inner city) judges rated situations
occurring more frequently in each distribution table except
Table 4.3 where the number is very small involving only
fourteen of the 286 behavioral descriptions. As a whole,
the descriptions of similar situations were judged by Referent
Group B as occurring more nearly daily while the frequency
judgments of Referent Group A were closer to weekly to
monthly. This is true of judgments made for described
teaching situations more like their own, the Teaching 12

the Inner City study. It was reasonable to expect this

 

for the descriptions which originated in the inner city

classrooms, but it is also true for the Clinic-School

 

descriptions. This supports Hypothesis I—A that teaching
situations occur more frequently in the experience of the
inner city teacher.

In seeking reasons for the higher frequency of
occurrence of the described teaching situations the following
explanations may be considered: (1) the richer background
of experience that the non-inner city children can refer
to may enable them to carry on a more sustained learning
activity with less change of situation than would be true
of the inner city children, (2) teachers in the inner city
schools must provide for many kinds of learning experiences
relating to the same topic to provide enough reenforce-
ment for the pupils to master the skill or to gain an
understanding of the concept, (3) attention spans of pupils

may be shorter in disadvantaged area schools, so a greater

83

number of activities must be provided in planning for
effective learning experiences, (4) the need for a more
structured classroom climate in the inner city schools may
inhibit the more sustained kind of activity which would
allow for study in depth rather than for the need for a
rapid change from one activity to another, and (5) there
may have been a greater variety of teaching situations
encountered in the inner city due to the need for various
teaching approaches made necessary by the less well-
defined problem field encountered in the inner city class-
rooms. To become an excellent teacher in these classrooms
may rest largely on more individualistic approaches in response
to situations.

The much larger number of non-inner city judges'
responses which constitute bimodal distributions (96) in
comparison with the number of the inner city judges'response

distributions (28) is shown in Table b.6.

8Q
TABLE “.6
COUNT OF BIMODAL DISTRIBUTIONS OF RESPONSE OF THE

INNER-CITY AND NON-INNER-CITY JUDGES TO THE
QUESTION OF FREQUENCY OF OCCURRENCE

 

 

 

 

 

Referent Group A Referent Group B
11:15 11:15
Sources of Descriptions
Inner- Clinic Inner- Clinic
City School Total City School Total
Hourly—Weekly % 8 % 3 g g
Hourly-Monthly O O O O O O
Hourly-Yearly 7 l 8 3 2 5
Daily-Monthly l O l O O O
Daily-Yearly 3 1 3 3 4 7
Weekly-Yearly
N T 20 25 45 2 3 5
ionthly-Never
We 11 13 24 4 2 6
ekly-Never 9 2 11 4 O 4
Daily-Never 2 O 2 O O O
Hourly-Never
Total 54 #2 96 17 ll 28

 

 

 

It was expected that the individuals of the two
Referent Groups would make judgments about the descriptions
more like others in their own group than like the members of
the other group. The much larger number of bimodal dis-
tributions of response constituted by Referent Group A judges
indicates they are much less in common agreement than the
Referent Group B judges.

The difference in number of bimodal distributions
for both groups indicates not only that Referent Group A
is different from Referent Group B, but that Referent Group
A is not a homogeneous group. It may be that there is a
greater difference in inter-school and inter-classroom
characteristics in the non-inner-city schools, which may

be representative of a much broader range of socio-economic

85
levels, (lower-class, low middle-class, middle—class,
high middle-class and high-class). Another explanation
may be that inner city teachers are more in tune with
the needs of their pupils.
It is interesting to note the distribution of

responses of Referent Group A judges to the Clinic-School

 

descriptions, which should be more like the situations
in their own classrooms. There appears to be as little
common agreement about these teaching situations as there

is about the situations from the Teaching in the Inner

 

City study. Of the ninety-six bimodal distributions of
response constituted by Referent Group A judges, fifty-four
were from 162 teaching descriptions from the Inner City
study or 33.3%; while forty-two were from 124 situations
described in the Clinic-School study or 33.8%.

The bimodal distributions of response of Referent
Group B judges are slightly higher for the Inner City
descriptions than for the Clinic-School descriptions,
seventeen of the 162 Inner City descriptions or 10.5%
as compared with eleven of the 124 Clinic-School descriptions
or 8.8%

Content of Responses to Situation Frequency

A more meaningful way to look at the data would
be to examine the content of the situations that were occurring
more frequently. Tables 4.7 through 4.11 show by serial
number (divided by source of description) the situation
descriptions for the various response distributions. (See

Appendix G for content of the 286 behavioral descriptions).

86

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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87

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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87a

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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coanucoounm.z mqm<y

 

88

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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< nacho panachwm

 

 

 

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mom mombom Hm QHQH>HQ Dz< mNmZDz Hdemm va mZOHBmHmommn ZOHB<DBHM

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89

 

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89a

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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91

Examination of the content of the descriptions
shows the situations that happen more frequently in the
inner city schools often relate to managerial or psychological
teacher functions. A large number of the bimodal distribu-
tions also indicate that it is in these two areas that
there is not common "agreement" (measure of central
tendency differs) among teachers especially in the non-
inner city schools.

The next part of this chapter that examines the
characteristics of the teaching acts as described through
the classification procedures will give a better over-
view of the specific areas of teacher function where there
is greater frequency of occurrence of situation for both
Inner City and Non-Inner City groups.

Serial numbers of situation frequency that are
unique to each referent group were compiled to provide the
necessary information to classify each description by teacher
function.

Table 4.12 lists the serial numbers for the de-
scriptions of situations that were judged to occur more
frequently in each of the referent groups classrooms. Only
eight of the described situations from the total 162 de-
scriptions from the Inner City study were judged by Referent
Group A to occur more frequently in non-inner city schools.
Eighty of the 162 descriptions from the same study were
judged by Referent Group B to occur more frequently in

inner city classrooms. Three of the 124 described situations

92
from the Clinic School study were judged to occur more
frequently in non-inner city classrooms while seventy-nine
of the 124 descriptions from the Clinic School study

were judged by Referent Group B to occur more frequently

in the inner city classrooms.

93

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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omm.mmm.dmm
.mmm.Hmm.omm.msm
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94
The response distributions, as shown in Table
4.7, for frequency of occurrence of the described
situation, were analyzed for statistical significance.
Hypothesis I-A was supported at a significant level.

(See Table in Appendix H).

Situations of Frequency by Teacher Function

 

 

Another way to look at the data on situation
frequency of the descriptions taken from the Teaching in
the Inner City study (numbers 1 through 162 only in Table
4.12) was obtained through the use of the classifications
of the descriptions developed at the Learning Systems

Institute at Michigan State University for the Inner City

 

study by a set of judges under the direction of Ted. W. Ward
and Judith E. Henderson. A new set of classification
questions was developed based upon the pioneering works
of Bellack, Hughes, Taba and others. Responding to the
set of questions, the judges categorized each description
of the Teaching in the Inge; City study into characteristic
behavior according to teacher function. The complete
listing of these various functions appears in the following
tables. Since no classification for the Clinic School
descriptions is available at this time, the tables represent
only those 162 descriptions used in this research which
are a part of the Inner City study.

Table 4.13 illustrates the distribution of behavioral

descriptions according to classification of teacher functions

95
for the 162 descriptions from Teaching ig_the Inner City

that are represented in this study. Table 4.14 illustrates
the characteristics of the teaching acts as described
through the classification procedures according to

referent group judgments of situation frequency. The

raw numbers are given as well as the percentages, since

in some cases the gig are so small that the percentages
alone would be misleading. These tables represent only
those behavioral descriptions which are a part of the

situations described in the Teaching ;g the Inner City
BtUdye

96

 

 

 

 

 

 

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1:02 on HoHaaoon

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no m Sum 90 & ram mo & 3mm mo R sum
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MH.: mqmdfi

97

 

 

 
  

 

  
  

 

 

 

 

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mnpomnon Hloomesaz .o

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noxonn oohomno Ho

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98

Since the sampling procedure involved only
fifteen teachers from each geographic area, it is not
possibletn generalize about inner city teaching to any
great extent from this data. It can be assumed that
tendencies which would provide hypotheses for further
research are shown in Table 4.14.

From the study as a whole, the descriptions in

Table 4.13 show: (1) a predominance of Academic Functions

 

behaviors, and (2) a minimum of Social Functions. In
between, are the Managerial Functions and Psychological
Functions with a somewhat higher predominance of Psychological
Functions than managerial Functions.

Table 4.14 shows additional tendencies derived from
the total 162 described teaching situations which were
judged in terms of situation frequency. From the eighty
descriptions constituting that part of the Inner City
study which were judged to occur more frequently in inner
city schools, it is shown that Managerial Functions account
for the highest percentage of teaching acts (70%) with
Psychological Functions (52%) and Academic Functions (40%)
following in that order. A minimum of emphasis is indicated
for Social Functions (31%). The teacher: (1) provides
information more frequently than she seeks information,
(2) expects a structured response more commonly than she
expects free and diversified response, (3) emphasizes content
that is intensifying or extending at the same level rather
than moving ahead, and (4) the teacher directs to specific

tasks more often than she provides freedom for a student to

99
accept, modify, or reject a task.

The non-inner city model contains only eight
descriptions that are not in the model shared by both
referent groups. It may be important that the teacher
expects a free and diversified response in three of the
eight situations which are peculiar to the non-inner city
model. Because of the smallness of the Qfs, it would add
nothing of value to this study to try to analyse this part

of the data further.

Hypothesis I-B

 

Hypothesis I-B: Some "good" teaching practices are
more crucial to working with children from disadvantaged
communities than those in advantaged communities.

The cruciality of the teaching behaviors will be
examined in two parts: (1) cruciality of situation,
and (2) cruciality of decision. For the first part the
teacher judges were asked to respond to the question:

Does this situation, as described, represent an important
teaching moment as you see it? The questions were to be
answered ygg or £2, If answered in the affirmative, three
degrees of importance were listed: (1) definitely
important, (2) relatively important, and (5) relatively

unimportant.

Cruciality of the Situation
The teacher judges reSponded to the 162 described

teaching situations which were derived from the Inner City

100
study and 124 teaching situations derived from the Clinic-
School study (descriptions of teaching situations more
representative of non-inner city classrooms).

The data were obtained by computing the two most
common adjacent responses. In case of a tie, it was
resolved to the right (downward).

If part one of Hypothesis I-B is to be supported,
Referent Group B judges'distributions must show a larger

number of distributions of response in the definitely

 

important to the relatively important rank than would

 

 

 

those of Referent Group A.

Both sets of judges "agreed" (measure of central
tendency was the same) on 231 of the 286 description (81%)
on cruciality of the teaching situation. The distribution
for the remaining fifty-five (19%) situation descriptions
is shown in Table 4.15 by referent group and divided by

the source of the descriptions.

101

TABLE 4.15

DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONSES OF REFERENT GROUP A AND REFERENT
GROUP B JUDGES TO THE QUESTION OF CRUCIALITY OF THE

SITUATION.

SITUATIONS WHERE REFERENT GROUPS

"AGREED"ARE EXCLUDED FROM THIS TABLE

 

 

Referent Group A

Referent Group B

 

 

n=l5 n=15
Sources of Description
Rank Inner— Clinic Total Inner- Clinic Total
City School City School
11:4le n =1]. 11:14:“: n :11

Definitely Important

to 5 0 5 26 10 36
Relatively Important
Relatively Important

to 5 0 5 15 1 16
Relatively Unimportant
Relatively Unimportant -

to 3 0 3 0 0 0
Not Important
---------------------- db——-————_—————_—_—-——)--———————-———————a
Definitely Important

to l 0 l 0 0 0
Relatively Unimportant
Definitely Important

to 3 5 8 0 0 0
Not Important
Relatively Important

to 27 6 33 3 O 3
Not Important

Total 44 11 55 44 ll 55

 

 

 

a
Dotted line separates unimodal from bimodal dis-

tributions.

102
Part one of Hypothesis I-B is supported in that
Referent Group B ranks thirty-six of the fifty-five teaching
situations in Table 4.15 as definitely important to

relatively impgrtant. Twenty-six situations were repre-

 

sentative of the Inner City study and ten were descriptions
representative of the Clinic School study. Table 4.15 shows
a large number of bimodal response distributions constituted
by Referent Group A, forty-two, as compared to three for
Referent Group B.

The larger number of situations that are ranked
higher in cruciality by the inner city referent group may
indicate that: (l) more action must take place in inner
city classrooms to hold the interest of the pupils and to
maintain constructive classroom control, (2) consequences
of ignoring situations in non-inner city classrooms may not
be so disrupting to the on-going activities, so they may not
be identified by non-inner city teachers as crucial, and
(3) teachers in non-inner city schools may not feel the
need to capitalize on situations that arise to same degree
that inner city teachers do.

Content gt Respongeg t9 Cruciality
Qt Situations

 

 

Table 4.16 lists the serial numbers for the behavioral
descriptions in which the distributions of response con-
stituted by the two referent groups in which the measure of
central tendency was not the same for both referent groups.
Content of these described situations may be examined by

referring to Appendix G.

103

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104

Classifications of Cruciality of Situations
by Teacher Function

Eore descriptive analysis of these data is
illustrated in Table 4.17 which classifies the teaching
acts by teacher function. Both the number of teaching
situations and the percentageeme Shown, since the smallness
of some of the gig would be deceptive otherwise. This
table represents only those descriptions from the Teaching

lg the Inner City since classification by functions of

 

teacher are not available for the Clinic School study.

 

105

 

 

 

 

 

   

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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106
In the situations judged to have the same degree
of cruciality by both referent groups, the highest

cruciality is indicated for ggademip Functions with a

 

percentage of 95% of the total for this classification.
Social Function accounts for h7% (small n's in this

classification) while Psychological Function and Managerial

 

 

Function both have 65%. Both referent groups ranked "teacher
providing information," "expecting structured pupil response,"
and "action concerned with making an idea, concept, or
procedure more concrete" high.in cruciality. Importance

was placed on the situations classified as intensifying

or extending at the same level and directing children to
specific tasks.

Psychological Functions and Social Functions ranked

 

equally high in the situations judged to be more crucial in
the inner city. Academic Function ranked lowest and
Managerial Functions in between. The smallness of the nl§_
prevents the making of generalizations from this data, but

it may be important to note that supportive functions rank

 

 

highest under Psychological Functions. Under Kanagerial

 

Function less situation cruciality is indicated for Manip:
ulatinpp the physical environment with more importance
indicated for unanticipated pupil behavior and

order. Inner City judges also rank Teacher providing

 

information situations and Recalling and reviewing as important.
The very small n's in the non-inner city precludes

any attempt at analysis, but it supports the idea expressed

107
in Hypothesis I-B that many good teaching practices are
more crucial in disadvantaged classrooms than are crucial

in advantaged classrooms.

Cruciality of the Decision
Part two of Hypothesis I-B states that more
decisions made by the teacher in response to the situation
are more crucial in disadvantaged area classrooms than in
advantaged classrooms. If this part of Hypothesis I-B
is to betmpported, more decisions in response to the

described situations must be judged as yes, definitely to

 

yes by Referent Group B than are to be in this rank by
Referent Group A.

Both referent groups "agreed" (measure of central
tendency was same) for 221 of the decisions. The sixty-
five decisions in which the two referent group distributions
constituted unlike responses represented 23% of the total
number in the study.

Table b.18 shows the distribution of responses
of Referent Group A and Referent Group B judges to the
question: Was it highly important that kw ‘do something
fairly similar to what is described? This table does not
show response distributions in which the measure of central

tendency was the same.

108
TABLE 4.18

DISTRIBUTIONS OF RESPONSES OF BEFEBENT GROUP A
AND REFERENT GROUP B JUDGES TO THE
QUESTION OF CBUCIALITY
OF THE DECISION

 

 

 

Referent Group A BefereuzGroup B
11:15 11:15
SourCBS’Uf Descripfion
Inner- Clinic Inner- Clinic
Rank City School City School

n=39 11:26 Total n=39 n=26 Total

 

Yes, definitely!
to

Yes 20 17 37 16 6 22
Yes - No 15 5 20 23 20 43
Yes, definitely!
to 4 4 8 O O O
No
Total 39 26 65 39 26 65

 

 

 

Part Two of Hypothesis B was not supported by these
data. Distributions of response for Referent Group A
judgments show thirty-seven descriptions of decision ranked
as Yes, definitely pp Yes in importance while Referent
Group B judged only twenty-two to be in this rank. Referent
Group B distributions constitute forty-three bimodal
responses while Referent Group A distributions constitute
twenty-eight bimodal responses. The high number of bimodal
responses in relation to the smallness of the number of
unlike distributions of response indicates there is lack
of agreementamong the members of both groups as to the

cruciality of the decisions in response to the decisions

H-

109

from the set in Table 4.18.

Content of Responses to Decision Cruciality

Referent Group B judges indicated from their
responses to the question of cruciality of the decision
that the decision made was not as important as the situation
for both the descriptions from the Inner City and Clinic
School studies. A possible explanation might be that
the inner city teacher must be more flexible in decision
making in order to maintain constructive classroom control
and to meet the individual needs of children with limited
experiences. Referent Group A may not be as challenged
and,therefore,may not see the need to be more flexible
in decision making.

Table 4.19 lists the serial numbers of the
described decisions so that the content of the decisions

can be examined. See Appendix C for content descriptions.

110

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o A ~ g
a

a A a F

a n
n
a

A H H

a a n A n
H H . , .

. . n a

a a A

a 4 a

li'l'l""|'t'l‘l"|.'|"21"!

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a a A H
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111

The smallness of the n's in the rank, Yes, definitely

 

.tg'Yes in Table 4.19 (Non-Inner City, 20; Inner City, 16)

for the Teaching in the Inner City source indicates that

 

 

it would not add measurably to the study to prepare a table
showing the classification of these data by teacher functions.
A survey of the classification charts provides the following
breakdown of the decisions considered to be crucial that
are peculiar to each referent group: Non—Inner City (Referent
Group A); Academic Function, 2; Social Function, 4; Managerial
Function, 8; Psychological Function, 5. Inner City (Referent
Group B); Academic Function, 4; Social Function, 2; Managerial
Function, 4; Psychological Function, 6.

In summary, Hypothesis I-B was only partially supported
by the data. The Inner City judges ranked more of the

descriptions on cruciality of situation as crucial than did

 

the Non-Inner City judges, but the Non-Inner City judges

ranked more of the descriptions on cruciality of decision

 

as crucial than did the Inner City judges. The next part

of the study examines the data on possible alternatives.

Hypothesis I-C

 

Hypothesis I-C: Teachers of children from
disadvantaged communities are more limited in the range
of desirable decisions that can be made in response to a
given teaching situation than are teachers of children from
advantaged communities.

The two referent groups were asked to answer the

112

question: Were there other desirable things she could
have done? This question relates to the described situation
and the decision made by the teacher in response to it.
The Judges'choices for answers were: (1) many, (2) several,
and (3) none.

If Hypothesis I-C is to be supported a larger
number of answers must be in the mapy to several rank for
Referent Group B judgeStdistributions of responses than

are judged to be in this rank by Referent Group A.

Desirable Alternatives

Table 4.20 shows the distributions of responses
for the number of desirable alternatives. Computation for
finding the mode was made by taking the two most common
adjacent responses for eacn description. Ties were resolved
by examining all of the responses for the description
and reSolving the tie in the direction indicated. This
tables does not include the descriptions where both referent

groups "agreed" (central tendency was the same).

115
TABLE‘4.2O

DESIRABLE ALTERNATIVES TO THE DECISIONS
MADE IN RESPONSE TO THE
DESCRIBED SITUATIONS

 

 

Referent Group A

Referent Group B

 

 

n-lS n-lS
Sources of Descriptions
Inner- Clinic Inner- Clinic
Rank City School City School
Data n-52 Data n=28 Total Data n=52 Data n=28 Total
Many 22 10 32 30 18 48
to
Several
Several
to 50 18 48 22 10 32
None
Many
to O O O O O 0
None
Total 52 28 80 52 28 80

 

 

 

Since Referent Group B judges' distributions of

response indicate forty-eight in the EEEZLEE several rank

as compared with thirty-two for Referent Group A, Hypothesis

I-C is not supported by these data.

alternatives indicated by Referent Group B:

Possible explanations for the greater number of

(l) a greater

variety of experiences may be needed with inner city children

in order to achieve success in learning the skill or under—

standing the concept, (2) the lack of experiences, due to

the children's environment, may make it necessary for the

teacher of inner city children to provide experiences in

'J \.

 

114
the classroom that non-inner city children would have in
their out-of-school environment, and (3) teachers of inner
city children may have to become more resourceful in pro-
viding a wider variety of decisions in reSponse to a
situation because of the many situations that arise that
are not anticipated.

Referent Group B judges are consistent in their
reasoning in judging more decisions as having many t_ several
desirable alternatives, since they had judged fewer decisions
to be as crucial as did Referent Group A. This lends support
to the possible explanations discussed earlier relating to
the greater variety of experiences which must be provided
in inner city classrooms and the need for teachers in
inner city schools to be more resourceful.

Content of Responses on
Desirable Alternatives

Table 4.21 lists the serial numbers of the descrip-
tions for which the referent groups'responses constitute
different distributions of response. This table does not
include serial numbers for descriptions where both referent
groups constituted the same distribution of response. See

Appendix G for content of the descriptions.

115

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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116
Table 4.21 also provides the information necessary
to identify the descriptions that are peculiar to each
referent group for classifying the teacher acts by functions.

Classification Q: Desirable Alternatives
by_Teacher Function

 

 

 

The Inner City referent group judges indicated there
were many desirable alternatives to thirty of Inner City
descriptions and Non-Inner City judges rank twenty-two as
having many desirable alternatives. Table 4.22 shows the
characteristics of the teaching acts by teacher function for
the descriptions that are peculiar to each group and the

descriptions that are common to both referent groups.

117

 

  

 

 

 

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118
The smallness of the ELE makes it impossible to
make generalizations about the various teacher functions.
It is interesting to note that the highest percentages of

teacher function in the descriptions are Managerial Function

 

for both referent groups. For both referent groups a high
percentage of these managerial functions are in dealing

with unanticipated pupil behavior and regaining order with

a higher number of pig for the Inner City. The Inner City
judges indicate there are a higher percentage of alternatives
when the teacher is seeking information and evaluating while
the Non-Inner City judges indicate a higher percentage of
alternatives when the teacher is providing information.

These statements show tendencies that may be productive in

generating hypotheses for further research.

Hypothesis II-A and II-B

 

Are teaching behaviors that are apprOpriate in non-
inner schools equally appropriate or ”good" in inner city
schools?

To obtain some data on this topic the two referent
groups were asked to respond to the question: Do you think
this teacher's decision was a good one?

Hypothesis II-A: Some teaching practices that
are believed to be "good" in teaching children in dis-
advantaged area schools are not considered "good'in
teaching children in advantaged area schools.

Hypothesis II-B: Some teaching practices that are

believed to be ”good" in teaching in advantaged area

119
schools are not considered to be "good" in disadvantaged
area schools.

Using the data from this study, these hypotheses
were tested by inspecting and comparing to see if Referent
Group A rejected certain descriptions that Referent Group B
accepted, and if Referent Group B rejected certain de-
scriptions that Referent Group A accepted.

The total number of "yes" and "no" responses for
each referent group was compared to see if percentages of
acceptance differed to a marked degree. Table 4.25 shows
the overall percentage of responses to the question of
"goodness" of the descriptions of teaching decisions was
approximately the same for both groups. Out of a possible
4,290 judgments to be made, Referent Group A (Non-Inner
City) judges made 507 "no" responses and Referent Group B

(Inner City) judges made 532 ”no" responses.

TABLE 4.23

COUNT OF "GOODNESS" OF THE TEACHER DECISIONS AS
JUDGED BY THE TWO REFERENT GROUPS

 

 

Referent Group A Referent Group B
n=15 n=15
Judgments n=4290 Judgments n=4290

 

"Yes” responses 5783 5758
"No” responses 507 552

Total 4290 4290
% of "Yes" responses 88.14% 87.91%

% of "No" responses 11.86% 12.09%

 

120

The Judgments of the individual members were compiled
for each description. The definition of "group consensus"
demanded that thirteen or more of the referent group Judge
a given description as "good" or "representative." This
number represented the critical value for a significance
level less than .05 as determined by a binomial distribution
where the parameters n=15, p=.5.

Inspection, listing, and comparison identified those
behaviors that were common to both models and factored out
those that were peculiar to each group. Two hundred forty-
six behaviors were found to be in common, nineteen were
found to be considered as "good" or "representative" by the
Non-Inner City Judges that were rejected by the Inner City
judges. Twenty-one were considered as "good" or "repre-
sentative" by the Inner City Judges that were reJected by
the Non-Inner City Judges.

Table 4.24 lists by serial numbers, divided by the
source of the descriptions, the decisions that were Judged

to be "good" that are peculiar to each referent group.

121
TABLE 4.24

LIST OF "GOOD" TEACHER DECISION DESCRIPTIONS
THAT ARE PECULIAR TO EACH REFERENT GROUP

 

 

 

.Referent Group A Referent Group B
Sources of Description

Inner City Clinic School Inner City Clinic School
1, 7, 9, l7, 3, 4, ll. 27, 165
18, 20, 23, 56, 46, 47,
58, 59, 519 529 569 573
55, 61, 64, 78, 110, 120,
65, 75, 87, 125, 126, 150,
96, 103, 146 152, 142, 155,

156
Total - 19. Total - 21

 

 

 

 

The high percentage of agreement on the "goodness"
of the teaching decisions for the two referent groups
(Table 4.25) was expected since the 286 descriptions
were judged to be good by the two sets of judges from the

parent studies (Teaching in the Inner City and Clinic School).

 

 

 

The smallness of §;§_in Table 4.24 that identify
the "good" decisions that are peculiar to each referent
group does not support Hypothesis II-A and II-B to a
meaningful degree.

By looking at the characteristics of these descriptions
by teacher function some tendencies may be indicated that
would generate hypotheses for further study. '

By examining the characteristics by teacher function,
more information is available about the descriptions that are
unique to each referent group. .A complete table of charac-

teristics was not prepared due to the small n's. Table 4.25

122

shows the descriptions that were found to be unique to

each referent gn1m>c1assified by major teacher functions.

TABLE 4. 25

"GOODNESS" UNIQUE TO EACH REFERENT GROUP CLASSIFIED
BY TEACHER FUNCTION (CLASSIFICATIONS ARE
FOR INNER CITY DESCRIPTIONS ONLY)

 

 

 

Function Lcademic Social Managerial Psychological
Referent # 3 5 7
Group A
Referent 7 2 l 10
Group B
Total 11 5 6 17

 

 

 

 

 

0f the forty descriptions that were Judged unique,
thirty-nine were a part of the Inner City study or 24%
of the total of 162 descriptions. This could indicate
that the descriptions in the Clinic School model are less
controversial as a whole than the descriptions recorded
in inner city schools.

It is interesting to note that eight of the
descriptions unique to the Inner City group were in

Academic and the largest number (10) in Psychological

 

with only one in Managerial. For the Non-Inner City group
the highest number is in Psychological. 0f the ten

representing Psychological unique to the Inner City, five
were stimulation (maintaining or creating interest) three,

giving support (agreement, approval) and one each in

123
therapeutic and negative. For the seven unique to Non-
Inner City three were stimulation, three, support, and
one, therapeutic. It might be implied from this break-
down of the data, that similar psychological problems
occur in both advantaged and disadvantaged areas, but
teachers deal with them differently. Eleven of the unique

thirty-nine descriptions are in Academic Function, four in

 

Referent Group A and seven, Referent Group B. All of these
are functions of teacher directed activities such as
providing concrete information, reviewing, intensifying,

or directing to a task. Again the lack of agreement on these
academic functions may indicate that teachers respond to

or present academic functions differently in different areas
of the city.

In summary, Hypothesis II was not supported
sufficiently by the data. Inspection of these data as a
Whole show that competent teachers in both the inner and
non-inner city agree to a large extent on teaching behaviors
that are appropriate. However, the overall results of the
analysis of these data add support to the notion that
differences do exist between teaching behaviors of the com-
petent inner city and non-inner city teachers. Some of these
differences and implications drawn from them will be discussed

in the last chapter.

CHAPTER V

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

Essential to the comparative nature of this study
is the recognition that there are differences between
teaching behaviors for Referent Group A and Referent Group B.
The first part of Chapter V presents statements of dif-
ference as supported by the findings in the study.

The second part of the chapter cites useful
implications for further research which can be assumed
from the analysis of the data.

The third part is a brief summary of the study
and recommendations for improving the research designs

on teacher behavior in inner city schools.

Statements 23 Differences

 

The data for this study of teacher behaviors were
inspected and comparisons were made in terms of: (l) fre-
quency of occurrence of the situation, (2) cruciality of
the situation, (3) cruciality of the decision, (4) desir-
able alternatives to the decision, and (5) appropriateness
of the decision.

It was expected that individual members of the
referent groups would make Judgments more like others in

their own group than like those of the other referent group.

th

f

125

Conclusions From Judgments in Terms of
Frequency of the Situation

‘ Many situations that happen about once a week in
non—inner city classrooms happen about once a day in inner
eity classrooms. (Tables 4.1 through 4.5). Of the 286
descriptions, 159 were identified by the Inner City judges
as happening more frequently in their classrooms, while
Non-Inner City judges identified only eleven that were more
common to their classrooms in terms of frequency of occurrence.

Conclusion: Inner city teachers tend to experience a larger

 

 

 

variety of situations more often than non-inner city teachers.

 

Situations which stimulate managerial teaching acts
are judged to occur daily by Referent Group B and weekly
by Referent Group A. These situations precede such teaching
acts as regaining order, enforcing broken regulations, or
establishing routines. (Tables 4.7 through 4.11). More
situations requiring structured classroom controls with
emphasis upon orderliness, specific direction to task, and
well controlled physical environment occur in inner city
than in non—inner city classrooms. (Tables 4.14).

Conclusion: A_greater portion 2f teacher activity i§_given

 

 

 

tg_managerial tasks in the inner city classrooms than 's

 

 

given to such tasks in non-inner city classrooms.

 

 

Many more unanticipated pupil behaviors are encountered
in the inner city classrooms than occur in non-inner city
classrooms. (Table 4.14).

Conclusion: Inner city teachers react to a_greater number

 

 

2f unexpected situations than d2_teachers in non—inner city.

 

 

126

Situations which elicit psychological teacher acts
in the inner city are primarily stimulating (motivating,
reenforcing) and supporting (giving praise, showing approval,
encouraging) behaviors. Frequent changes of activity are
used to combat fatigue and discouragement. More opportunity
was provided to release tensions and inspire self-confidence
of pupils. (Table “.14).
Conclusion: More situations which require teachers pg attend

pg psychological needs 2; children arise ;p_inner city than

lg

non-inner city classrooms.

More situations requiring review, recall, and drill
occur in inner city classrooms. Situations often require
teachers to direct pupils to specific academic tasks.
(Table 4.1h).

Conclusion: More learning activities and time related 22
pgpetipion, recall, and rggigp are experienced ip_;ppgp¢

city schools than ip.non-inner city schools. Less time lg

 

used ;p_introducing new subJect matter g£_moving ahead.

 

Only a small number of social functions are found
in the descriptions. Situations of a social nature which
occur most frequently in inner city classrooms are unplanned.
Non-inner city teachers experience more situations that are
planned to provide social opportunity. (Tables “.7 through
4.11).
Conclusion: The inner city teachers provide few ppe-planned
activities 32 encourage appropriate social behaviors; rather,

they take advantage 9: situationsthat spontaneously arise

127

to teach social learning. Non-inner city teachers spend

 

 

more time on planned social experiences.

 

 

The findings from this study agree, as a whole,

with the results reported in the parent project, Teaching
95

'32 the Inner City on frequency of occurrence of the

 

situations.
Conclusions From Judgments in Terms of
Cruciality of the Situation
Referent Group B judged more situations as crucial
to their school setting than did Referent Group A. Thirty-

six situations are identified as definitely important to

 

relatively important by Referent Group B as compared

to five in this rank by Referent Group A. (Table 4.15).

 

 

 

Conclusion: Inner city teachers tend pp identify more

situations g§_crucial §p_their teaching than dp_the non-

 

inner city teachers.

 

Situations that are judged to be high in importance
in the inner city schools related to providing or seeking
social information or giving Opportunity or instruction
to use social information. Importance was placed on teacher
actions having to do with giving praise and encouragement
(supportive functions). More teacher actions that served
a stimulative or therapeutic function were identified as
highly important by the Inner City judges than by the Non-
Inner City judges. (Table 4.17).

 

95Henderson, pp, cit., pp. 19-20.

128

Conclusion: Teachers ip_the inner city consider situations

 

 

which indicated pupil fatigue, restlessness, listlessness,

 

 

 

and/or discouragement as more crucial than teachers i3

 

 

 

non-inner city schools.

 

Both Referent Groups "agreed" (measure of central
tendency was the same) on 231 of the total 286 descriptions
on the question of cruciality of the situation (Table h.15).
Referent Group A constituted thirty-one bimodal response
distributions as compared with three for Referent Group B
which indicates much less agreement on situations which
are crucial among the Non-Inner City Judges.

Conqlusion: Inner city teachers and non-inner glpy teachers
agree more often than they disagree pp the cruciality pg
teachingpsituationsj but there lg less agreement among Non-

Inner City Judges than there i§ among Inner City Judges.

 

Conclusions From Judgments in Terms of
Cruciality of the Decision

Inner City Judges tend to Judge decisions made in
response to the situation as less crucial than the situation
itself, while Non-Inner City Judges place a higher importance
on the decisions than they do on the situations. (Table h.18).
Conclusion: Inner city teachers regard the decision made

py the teacher lp_response pp_the situation gg being less

 

crucial than the non-inner city teachers.9

 

9“It should be noted that this finding differs from
the cruciality of situation Judgment where the inner city
teachers Judged the situation to be more crucial than the
non-inner city teachers.

129
Responses from both referent groups constituted a
large number of bimodal distributions of judgments con-
cerning the cruciality of decision. (Table 4.18).

Conclusion: There tends to be more agreement between

 

 

 

certain sub-sets pf teachers from one referent group to the

 

 

other than there i§_agreement within either referent group

 

 

pp_the question pf crucialityp£_the decision.

 

 

 

Referent Group A distributions of response indicate.
decisions relating to managerial or psychological problems
as high in cruciality in non—inner city. For Referent
Group B, behaviors relating to psychological taSks are
most common, followed closely by problems relating to
managerial and academic functions. (Table 4.19).

Conclusion: Both inner city and non-inner city teachers

 

 

recognize the cruciality pf decisions relating_pp managerial

 

 

 

pp psychological problems, but inner city teachers tended

 

 

§p_identify more academic decisions §§_crucial than did

 

non-inner city teachers.

 

Conclusions From Desirable Alternatives
to the Decision

For the responses in which the two referent groups
constituted different distributions in terms of desirable
alternatives, forty-eight were unique to Referent Group B

and thirty-two were unique to Referent Group A. (Table 4.20).

 

 

Conclusion: Inner City teachers tend pp_provide many

 

desirable alternatives pp'g larger number pf decisions than

 

 

do teachers in non—inner city.

 

 

xv

 

150

It should be noted that this finding is consistent
with the judgments made by the referent groups on the
question of cruciality of the decision. Inner city teachers
indicated that there were other desirable decisions that
could have been made to more situations that did non-inner
city teachers.

More desirable alternatives are indicated for
managerial functions such as regaining order or enforcing
broken regulations by Referent Group B than are shown for
Referent Group A. For the non—inner city teachers, a
larger number of desirable alternatives are indicated for
managerial tasks having to do with providing information.
(Table 4.22).

Conclusion: Inner city teachers tend £2.d1321§Z g wider

 

 

variepy pf behaviors that are related :2 managerial functions

 

 

than QQDnon-inner city teachers.

 

The academic function showing the greatest number
of desirable alternatives by Inner City judges is in
giving opportunity to use information, next in importance
is seeking and providing information in the academic area.
(Table 4.22)

Conclusion: Inner city teachers provide 3 variety pf

 

 

opportunities for pupils §p_use information.

 

 

The Inner City judges suggest more desirable
alternatives in ways for evaluating than do Non-Inner City
judges. In the content area, decisions ranking high in

desirable alternatives by Referent Group B are in behaviors

151
having to do with recall, review, and intensifying while
Referent Group A response distributions indicate many
desirable alternatives in moving ahead or introducing new
subject matter. (Table 4.19).

Conclusion: They spend more time g3 review and drill while

 

 

non-inner city teachers tend pp_provide more opportunities
fp£_pupils ppoove ahead into new learning experiences.

In psychological functions of the teachers, Referent
Group A judges indicate there are more alternatives in
stimulating behaviors while Referent Group B judges show
supportive functions as highest in number of desirable
alternatives. (Table 4.19).

Conclusion: Inner city teachers give more diverse attention

 

'22 encouragingi reassuring, and giving approval to their
pupils, while non-inner city teachers spend more time 33

spurrinngupils pp_pp_increased activity.

 

 

Conclusions From Judgments in Terms of
ApprOpriateness of the Teacher Behavior

Most response distributions to the question of
appropriateness of the teacher behaviors were common to both
referent groups (246 of the 286 descriptions). Twenty-one
decisions were considered as appropriate by Referent Group B
that were rejected by Referent Group A. Nineteen decisions
were judged as appropriate by Referent Group A that were
rejected by Referent Group B. (Table 4.24).

Conclusion: Most teaching behaviors that are considered

 

 

g§_appropriate for good teaching ip the non—inner city are

 

ppnsidered equally apprOpriate in inner city classrooms.

 

 

132
Eight descriptions unique to the Inner City judges

on appropriateness of teacher behaviors were in Academic

 

functions and the largest number (ten) were in Psychological

 

functions. For the Non-Inner City judges the highest

number was in Psychological functions. (Table 4.25).

 

Conclusion: Teachers in the inner city gppear to use

 

 

 

some techniques ip academic functions that would not pg

95

 

 

considered suitable in non-inner city schools.

 

 

Derived Model pf_§p Inner City Teacher

 

 

If these data are representative of teaching in
the inner city, and the classification has presented a
valid picture, the competent inner city teacher of today
can be described in the following ways:

1. Managerial Skills: Is proficient in dealing

 

with rapidly changing situations that arise in
his classroom. The high frequency of occurrence
of the teaching situations indicates more action
takes place in inner city classrooms. Much

of this action is related to managerial functions.
To maintain constructive classroom control, he
uses many established cues and established
procedures in providing a highly structured

program in his classroom. He recognizes the

 

95The smallness of n's of descriptions unique to
each referent group limits conclusions that can be drawn
from the findings.

3.

135
cruciality of situations and is skillful in
"taking advantage of situations" in helping
to develop appropriate attitudes toward school
and learning. He is adept at managing unan-
ticipated pupil behaviors and has access to
many desirable alternatives in response to
situations that arise in his classroom.

Psyphological Skills: Is perceptive of and

 

capable in meeting psychological needs of his
pupils. He recognizes fatigue or discouragement
and provides opportunities to alleviate stresses.
He uses positive approaches in working with
children, is generous with praise and gives
encouragement often. He uses a wide variety

of ideas and devices to stimulate the children
to want to learn. Many changes of activity are
provided to accommodate the short attention

span of the inner city child.

Academic Skills: Is skillful in modifying

 

learning eXperiences in the content areas. The
inner city teacher uses repetition, frequently
varying the learning experience through use of
many different visual and auditory aids. Role
playing is used in helping to make learning
experiences more meaningful. A variety of
instructional techniques is used to introduce

new concepts and to provide drill. Opportunities

154
are provided to give pupils practice in
using the subject matter they have learned.
Content of the descriptions suggests the
teacher provides individual help in the content
areas as needed by the pupils.

4. Social Skills: Is alert to immediate oppor—

 

tunities-that enable children to develop social
skills. He responds to situations that arise
in the classroom to help his pupils to acquire
and practice social skills. Plans for social
growth are more closely tied to the on-going
activities in the classroom than to any formal
planning for them.

5. Overall Qualities and Skills: Is flexible in

 

decision making. He sees the importance of
situations and is able to respond to them in
a wide variety of ways. He relates the degree
of cruciality of situation and necessary
decision making to the problems that he is

presently experiencing in his classroom.

Hypotheses for Further Research
Since much of the intent of the study was for the
purpose of generating hypotheses for additional research,
a list of questions that might be investigated in future
studies is provided.
If, as the data suggests, there is a large proportion

of teacher activity devoted to non-academic tasks in the

155
inner city schools, are techniques needed to increase the
time spent on academic tasks and to reduce the time spent
on managerial tasks? Can academic learning experiences
used in non-inner city classrooms be modified in such a way
that they could be used effectively with children in inner
city classrooms? What pre-service and in—service prepara-
tion could be given to teachers to help them to be more
creative in finding desirable ways to guide learning so
that a larger part of pupil and teacher time could be spent
on academic functions?

If children in inner city need a greater variety
of activities, what can research do about programming for
variety not only for the overall daily schedule but also
within each subject area? For example, would a wide variety
of independent activities, such as listening post lessons,
viewing filmstrips and slides in a carrel set up for this
purpose, boardwork, game activities, etc., be more effective
in sustaining interest in academic work for longer periods
of time, than does the traditional workbook and paper and
pencil activity.

If fatigue causing listlessness, restlessness, and
discouragement comes sooner to the inner city child, what
can research discover about the best time of the day to present
the most challenging learning tasks? Could individualized
instruction be provided in such a way that each child's day
could be so arranged that learning experiences were timed
to be presented as the child is best able to give attention

to the task?

136

What differences would be found in the inner city
pupil behaviors if teachers planned more activities for
personal and inter-personal social learning? Would role
playing and discussion of social problems give pupils an
opportunity to "act out" in a more appropriate setting, thus,
releasing tensions and giving children an opportunity to
gain a better understanding of themselves and their problems?

If, as the data implies, a large number of teaching
behaviors that are used more commonly in inner city schools
relate to psychological problems, should more time be given
during the preparation of teachers to more classroom
experiences (both in observation and student teaching) in
inner city schools combined with opportunities to discuss
problems with a school psychologist? If learning is most
effective when need is high, would students preparing to
teach in the inner city schools get a more sympathetic
understanding of the psychological needs of the culturally
disadvantaged child in this realistic setting?

If, as the data suggests, perception of cruciality
is a function of what is presently being experienced by the
teacher, should continuous in-service be provided for the
first two or three years of teaching in the inner city
schools? Could a master teacher give support by providing
demonstration lessons, explaining the selection and use of
a wide variety of instructional materials, and giving an
opportunity for the teachers to "talk out" problems and,
thus, provide the security needed to encourage them to

remain in inner city schools?

137

Summary and Recommendations

 

In this study the investigator undertook to ascertain
the teaching behaviors that are used most frequently and
are most crucial in teaching culturally disadvantaged
children. The hypotheses formulated were concerned with:
(1) frequency of the occurrence of teaching situations
in inner city schools, (2) the cruciality of the situations
and of the decisions made in response to the described
situations, (3) the number of desirable alternatives to
the described decisions, and (4) the appropriateness of
the teacher behaviors in terms of good teaching as Judged
by competent teachers.

Protocols of behavioral descriptions, 124 derived
from the Clinic School PrgJect96 and 168 derived from the

Teaching la the Inner City study,97

were developed. Capies
of each of the 286 behavioral descriptions, typewritten and
on a single sheet of paper, were given to individual members
of two fifteen member sets of Judges. One set of Judges
represented the inner city and one,the non-inner city
teacher.

The first part of each protocol contained a described
teaching situation and questions to determine the frequency

and the cruciality of the described situation in the

individual member's classroom. The second part of the

 

96Ward, pp. cit., See Appendix E-l for sample
protocol.

97Henderson, pp. cit., See Appendix F-l for sample
protocol.

138
protocol described the decision made by the observed
teacher in response to the situation. Questions of the
appropriateness, the cruciality of the decision, and the
number of desirable alternatives to the decision were asked.

Using information recorded on the protocols,
several measures were taken to classify the data for analysis
purposes: (1) charts were made to show the numerical
representations of the responses of each of the Judges to
the 286 protocols (one set for Referent Group A and one
for Referent Group B), (2) modal tables were developed
to show the response distributions to each description
by rank, (3) tables showing lists of descriptions, by
serial number and divided by source of the description,
were compiled, and (4) characteristics of teaching acts
were classified.

According to the analysis of the data, highly
significant differences were found in frequency of occurrence
of the described situations between the inner city and
non-inner city environments. A much higher frequency of
occurrence of situation was shown for the inner city
schools. Differences between the two models were not
as clear cut in examining the data in terms of cruciality
of the situation and cruciality of the decision made in
response to the situation. The Inner City Judges indicated
more (numerically) situations were crucial than did the
Non-Inner City Judges. The Non-Inner City group Judged

more (numerically) decisions as crucial than did the

 

139
Inner City judges. 0n the question of number of desirable
alternatives, the Inner City judges identified a larger
number of decisions as having many desirable alternatives
than did the Non-Inner City judges. The distributions of
response for appropriateness of the teaching behaviors showed
a high percentage of agreement (same central tendency). A
few descriptions were judged to be unique to each referent
group (21 for Inner City, 19 for Non-Inner City).

As a whole, the study supports the notion that there
are differences in teacher behaviors in inner city as compared
to non-inner city teachers. The difference is not so much in
the kind of activity but rather a matter of intensity or
dynanism that is evidenced by the wider range of behaviors
which are related to the greater variety of situations which
occur. Further, the frequency of "crucial" situations seems
related, perhaps causally, to the apparent dynamism of the
inner city teaching situation.

This exploratory study demonstrates the need for further
research on the teaching behaviors common to competent inner
city teachers. Teacher preparation institutions and administra-
tive personnel who are responsible for assigning teachers
to inner city schools need to know more about the teaching
strengths necessary to become a competent teacher of

culturally disadvantaged children.

Teachers preparing to teach children in the inner city
schools should have opportunities to learn more about the child
and his environment, his style of learning, and the behaviors
that are used most effectively by competent teachers in this

school setting.

140

Improvements could be made in the design of this
study. Focused observations might be more representative
of teaching behaviors if made over a longer period of time.
Different ways of visiting could be planned: by hours, days,
months, years, and the results pooled to give a more
complete overview of teaching in the inner city. Protocols
of observations from both inner and non-inner city class-
rooms could be arranged in random order before being given
to teacher Judges for reactions to the situations and
decisions. A more careful matching of teacher Judges by
age, preparation, experience in teaching, grade level
taught, etc., might provide a more representative model
to represent the inner and non-inner city teacher.

Selection of teacher Judges from the inner city
schools in many cities,reacting to an expanded set of
behavioral descriptions, could supply adequate data that
could be subJected to significance tests. Perhaps this
would result in a more scientific study.

If the way to attain upward mobility in our
society for the culturally disadvantaged is through
education, as many researchers believe, everyone who
has a responsibility for the school experiences of inner
city children should become as knowledgeable as possible

about ways to provide for their educational needs.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BIBLIOGRAPHY
BOOKS

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and Prediction of Teacher Effectiveness, A Sum ry
of Investigations. Madison: Dembar Publications,
Inc., 19610

Bellack, Arno (ed.). Theory and Research lg Teaching.
New York: Bureau of Publications, Teacher's College.
Columbia University, 1963.

Chandler, B. J., Stiles, Lindley J., and Kituse, John I.
(Edited by). Education 1p Urban Society. New York:
Dodd, Mead & Co., 1962.

 

Crosby, Muriel. An Adventure in Human Relations. Chicago:
Follett Publishing Co., 1935.

Gage, N. L. (ed.). Handbook 2: Research pp Teaching.
American Educational Research Association. Chicago:
Rand McNally Co., 1963.

Reissman, Frank. The Culturally Deprived Child. New York:
Harper and Row, —1962.

Ryans, David G. Characteristics of Teachers. Washington,
D. C.: American Council on Education, 1960.

Smith, G. Milton. A Simplified Guide to Statistics for
Psychology and —Education. Chicago: Winston Inc., 1964.

Wittgenstein, L. Philosophical Investiggpgons. New York:
MacMillan Co., 1953.

ARTICLES

Amidon, Edmund J., and Flanders, Ned A. "The Effects of

Direct and Indirect Teacher Influence on Dependent
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Educational Psychology, LII (December, 1961):

141

142

Amidon, Edmund, and Giammatteo, Michael. "The Verbal
Behavior of Superior Teachers," The Elementary School
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Barr, A. S. "The Measurement and Prediction of Teaching
Efficiency: A Summary of Investigations," Journal
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Fattu, Nicholas A. "Teacher Effectiveness," Journal of
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Flanders, Ned A. "Analysing Teacher Behavior as Part of
the Teaching-Learning Process," Educational Leader-
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Flanders, Ned A., Anderson, Paul J., and Amidon, Edmund J.
"Measuring Dependence Proneness in the Classroom,"
Educational and Psychological Measurement, XXI, No. 3

(1961).

Flanders, Ned A. "Two Approaches to the Teaching Process,"
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Hughes, Marie M. "Teaching Is Interaction," Elementary
School Journal, LVIII (May, 1958).

Hughes, Marie. "What Is Teaching: One Viewpoint," Edu-
cational Leadership, XIX (January, 1964).

 

Medley, Donald M., and Mitzel, Harold E. "A Technique
for Measuring Classroom Behavior," Journal Lf Educational
Psychology, XXXXIX, No. 2 (April, 195

 

Medley, Donald M., and Mitzel, Harold E. "Measuring Pupil
Reaction with a Pupil Reaction Inventory," Elementary
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Michael, William B. "Teacher Personnel: A Brief Evaluation
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Miller, Neal E. "Scientific Principles for Maximum Learning
from Motion-Pictures," A.V. Communications Review, V
(January. 1957).

Mitzel, Harold E., and Medley, Donald M. "Some Behavioral
Correlates of Teacher Effectiveness," The Journal Lf
Educational Psychology, L (December, 1959).

Perkins, Hugh V. "A Procedure for Assessing the Classroom
Behavior of Students and Teachers," American Educational
Research Journal, I (November, 1964).

Ob

143

Perkins, Hugh V. "Classroom Behavior and Underachieve-
ment," American Educational Research Journal, II
(January, 1965).

Reissman, Frank. "Teaching the Culturally Deprived,"
N.E.A. Journal, LII, No. 4 (April, 1963).

Rivlan, Harry N. "A New Pattern for Urban Teacher Edu-
cation," Journal Lf Teacher Education, XVII (Summer,

1966).

Ryans, David G. "Some validity Extensions Data from
Empirically Derived Predictors of Teacher Behavior,"
Educational and Psychological Measurement, XVIII
11958)-

Scheuller, Herbert. "The Teacher of the Disadvantaged,"
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Scriven, Michael. "The Philosophy of Science in Educational
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(December, 1960).—

Smith, Othanel. "Teaching: What It Is and What to Do
About It," American School Board Journal, CXLVII
(July. 1963).

watson, Robert A. "People Not ProJects Will Improve
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Withall, John. "Research Tools: Observing and Recording
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(December,l 1960), 356-509.

Withall, J. G. "The Development of a Technique for the
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337-351-

Wolfe, Doel. "The Great Teachers," Science, CXXXXVI
(December, 1964).

REPORTS

Cornell, F. C., Lindvall, C. M., and Saube, J. L. An
Exploratory Measure Lf Individualities Lf Schools
and Classrooms. Urbana: Bureau of Educational Research,
University of Illinois, 1952.

Henderson, Judith E., and Ward, Ted W. Teaching in the
Inner City. East Lansing: Learning Systems Institute,
Michigan State University, 1966.

144

Hughes, Marie. Development 2: the Means for the Assess-
ment 2; the Qpality 2; Teaching in Elementary Schools.
(Project No. 353, Cooperative Program of the Office
of Education, U.S. Department of Health, Education,
and Welfare). University of Utah, 1959.

Sears, Pauline S. The Epfect 92 Classroom Conditions 2n
the Strength 9£_Achievement Motive and Work Output
32 Elementapy_School Children. (U.S. Office of Edu-
cation Cooperative Research Project No. 873), 1963.

Smith B. Othanel, gt 3;. A_Tentative Report 9n the
Strategies 2: Teaching. Urbana: University of
Illinois (U.S. Office of Education Cooperative
Research Project No. 16h0), 1964.

Taba, Hilda, Levine, S., and Elsey, F. F. Thinking in
Elementary School Children. San Francisco: San
Francisco State College (U.S. Office of Education
Cooperative Research Project No. 1574), 1969.

OTHER SOURCES

Bellack, Arno A. The Language g: the Classroom: Meanings
Communicated in High School Teaching. Paper read at
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February, 1965.

Bellack, Arno A., and Davitz, J. R., 23 3;. The Language
22 the Classroom: Meanings Communicated in High
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(U.S. Office of Education Cooperative Research Project
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Landers, Jacob. Higher Horizons: Progress Report. New York:
New York Board of Education, Jgnuary, 1963.

145

Michigan Department of Education. "The Disadvantaged Child
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19 O.

Waimon, Morton D.. and Hermanowicz, Henry J. A Conceptual
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Leagning Systems Institute, Michigan State University,
196

APPENDICES

APPENDIX A

Excerpts from A Proposal
£2; Ag Elementary Program
32 Help Make a Better
Tomorrow for the Urban
Child.

 

APPENDIX A

A PROPOSAL FOR AN ELEMENTARY PROGRAM TO HELP MAKE A
BETTER TOMORROW FOR THE URBAN CHILD

Through the generosity of the Mott Program, the Personalized
Curriculum Program is helping to rehabilitate disadvantaged
pupils at the secondary level. We must continue to help
these youths become socially and economically competent
citizens. However, the underlying causes of most failures
and dropouts are rooted in the early years of the children's
lives.

As a people committed to the ideals of democracy, a program
must be developed to make real our belief that every
individual must have the opportunity to become all that he
can be. This means teaching at the point 9: need. The
needs are different and greater among most urban children.

The staff believes the following plan would help these
children become completely functioning citizens of a free
society. We propose the project begin in the thirteen
elementary schools located primarily in the mid-city area.
These are: Clark, Dewey, Dort, Doyle, Fairview, Jefferson,
Lincoln, Martin, Mary St., Oak, Parkland, Roosevelt and
Stewart.

The staff has studied the various programs of this type

in the Greater Cities Project and has selected services
and facilities for this prOposal which seem to promise the
greatest potential for helping these children.

I. AREAS 9}: NEED

A. A pre-kindergarten school program that would
give these children a better start in language
and social development. Many of fimm1have almost
no vocabulary at age 4. Parent education would
be part of the program.

B. Adequate professional staff members who under-
stand the needs of these children and are willing
to develop the skills and techniques to work
with them.

C.

H.

I.

A-2

Extra clerical help to prepare materials for
teachers. These children need different
materials from those published.

Increased health and family living services should
be provided.

A greatly increased in-service education program
to prepare staff in these scnools for service.

The city-wide Reading Center will serve the
severely handicapped readers from these schools.
Help schools who are not eligible for Remedial
Teaching Program.

DevelOpment of special teaching materials by the
curriculum staff to serve the needs of these
youngsters.

Furnishing of instructional equipment and materials
for classroom use in these schools as needed.

Enrichment services to augment the basic curriculum.

II. GOALS

The goals which the staff hopes to achieve through this
prOposal are:

A.
B.

C.

D.

E.

G.

H.

I.

Improvement of the total instructional program.
Greater stability of staff in the selected schools.

Desirable attitudes toward children in these
schools.

Improvement of teaching through greater under-
standing of child growth and development and the
problems of these areas.

Greater motivation for learning among these children.

Improvement of self-image and performance of these
children.

Recognition of the special strengths and positive
contributions of all citizens.

Development of personal identity and the ability
of children to make wise choices and decisions
about how they want to live, to work, and to play.

Preparation for successful later school experiences
that will insure economic and social competence.

Encouragement of parent participation in and
contribution to this program.

A-3

K. Strengthening of the community school philosophy
through improved family, social and civic life.

APP NDIX B

Teacher Evaluation Forms

APPENDIX B

FLINT PUBLIC SCHOOLS
TEACHER EVALUATION REPORT

(Summary on each non-tenure teacher due in office of Staff
Personnel Services not later than February 15 of each school

year)

 

Name of Teacher School Assignment

The Teacher

 

I.

II.

Personal Adequacy
a. Strengths b.

 

Social Adequacy
a. Strengths b.

 

Thg Teaching Situation

 

I.

II.

III.

School Type of
Year Contract

Weaknesses

 

Weaknesses

 

Adequacy of Instructional Practices

a. Strengths b.

 

Professional Adequacy
a. Strengths b.

 

Adequacy of Teaching Conditions
a. Favorable aspects b.

B-l

Weaknesses

 

Weaknesses

 

Unfavorable appects

 

B—Z

Definite §£§§§.lfl which the teacher shows outstanding
strength and ppomise:

 

Definite areas 1p which the teacher must show improvement:

Professional Assistance given:

I have observed this teacher for semesters. The
following number of classroom observations were made:

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

first semester second semester

third semester fourth semester

fifth semester sixth semester

I rate the performance of as:

Excellent
Good
Fair
Inadequate

 

Poor

 

III.

B-3
Adequacy of Teaching Conditions

1. Does teacher have a provisional or permanent
teaching certificate valid for present assign-
ment? . If not, what type of certificate
does teacher have? . 2. Are class sizes
within accepted standards? . 3. Number
of class preparations per day . 4. Room
assignment: Floating Permanent
5. Are room facilities adequate for good teaching

. 6. What extracurricular assign-

ments does teacher have? .

 

 

 

 

 

 

Definite areas in which teacher shows strength:

Definite areas in which teacher must show improve-
ment:

Signed
Date Position

 

 

Guides for Evaluators:

Teachers with an evaluation annalsal of Excellent or
Good will be issued Probationary 2 contracts or placed
on Tenure, whichever is appropriate. Teachers with

a rating of Fair will be placed on Probationary 2 or
Probationary 3 contracts, whichever is appropriate.
Areas of unsatisfactory service will be documented
according to the accompanying procedure. Contracts

of teachers rated Inadequate or Poor will not be renewed
unless there are extenuating circumstances, such as
illness, teaching out of field of preparation, or
personality conflicts.

 

 

Not all items on the Evaluation Checklist are of equal
importance. Therefore, it is impossible to indicate
the exact number of checks necessary in each column

to achieve a particular rating. The following, however,
may serve as a guide to evaluators:

Excellent: A great majority of ratings on Teacher
Evaluation Checklist are "excellent" with
many "good" ratings and no "inadequate"
ratings in items of major importance.

B—4

Good: The great majority of ratings on Teacher
Evaluation Checklist are distributed
between "good" and "excellent" with
very few less important items rated
below "good."

Fair: The ratings on Teacher Evaluation Check-
list are quite evenly distributed between
"inadequate," "fair," and "good" with
only one or two lesser items evaluated
as "poor."

Inadequate: A majority of ratings on Teacher Evaluation
Checklist are distributed between "inadequate,"
"fair," and "good" with very few "poor"
ratings.

Poor: The majority of ratings on Teacher Evalua-
tion Checklist are distributed between
"poor" and "inadequate."

if 1. .I 1.111].

B-5

Flint Public Schools
Teacher Evaluation Checklist

 

 

Name of Teacher School Assignment School Year
This teacher is completing the semester in above school,
and the semester with the Flint Schools.

 

KEY g‘p RATING:

1. Excellent; 2. Good; 3. Fair; 4. Inadequate; 5. Poor
(Space left blank means insufficient data to judge.)

The Teacher

 

 

 

 

l 2 3’4 5 l 2 3 4 5
I. Personal Adequacy............... II. Social Adequacy ..........
10 Health & Vitalityoooooooooooo lo Rapport With

parents................
2. Personal appearance .........

2. Rapport with

30 V0103 quality.ooooooooooooooo coworkers..............
“0 Initiativeoooooooooooocococoo 3. Interest in

. community and/
5- Sincerity.................... or school

aCt1V1tieSooooooooooooo
6. FriendlineSS.................

4. Participates

7. Flexibility.,...,............ in community
and/or school
80 Mental alertness 000000000000 aCt1V1tieSooo.ooooooooo
90 EmOtional Stability.......... 5. PraCtice Of
accepted
10. P0188 ooooooooooooooooooooooo SOCial Stan-

dardS..................
ll. PunCtuallty.oooooo00000000000

12. Sense of humor ..............

13‘ EnthUS1asm...................

C O

O O U
a a I
o 4 O
0 O “
C l R
o O I

.0 Q

B-6

The Teaching Situation

 

123E5

 

I. Adequacy of Instructional
PraeticeSOOOOOO0.00.0000...0.00.0.0

1.

Provisions for
1nd1v1dual differenceSoooooooooo

Motivation of pupils
for learning.-00.000000000000000

Lesson planning.................

Variation of
teaChing procedureoooooooooooooo

Constructive control
or pupils...OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO

Pupil-teacher planning
and evaluation..................

Evidence of pupil
aChievemento00000000000000.0000.

Learning atmosphere.............

Provision for total
growth of pupils................

 

1231?;

Professional
Adequacyooooooooooooooo

l.

2.

Ethical
attitudes.......o.o.

Sympathetic
understanding
of children.........

Awareness

of prin-

ciples of

child

growth and
development.........

Adaptability
to sugges-
tionSOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO

Mastery of
subject
matter-00.00.0000...

Continuing
grOWthOOOOOOOOOOOOO.

Use of

written and

spoken
English.............

I V‘ O
O " I
I I C
O O C

- O O
O F "
O (I I
C O I
I ‘ D

I C O O I I

APPENDIX C

Focused Observation Form

APPENDIX C

(FOCUSED OBSERVATION FORM VII)

 

 

 

 

 

 

Observer: Grade:

Teacher Observed: Age Range of Pupils:
School: Teaching Activity:

City: Date: Time:

 

 

This form records a lO-lS minute segment of teaching activity
and describes one bit of teacher decision-making behavior.
The particular decision on this page may be important
relatively unimportant, but it reflects a sample element

in one teacher's style.

1. Observer: On the basis of what you have been seeing
and hearing, briefly describe what is happening in
the classroom.

2. Observer: Describe a decision that the teacher made
during this brief observation. (To conthumaor pg ignore
may be considered decisions.)

C-l

C-2

Observer: Do not let the teacher read this side of the

3.

form until after your tape-recorded session.

Observer: What happened as a result of the decision
which you have described?

 

TAPE RECORDED INTERVIEW WITH TEACHER

 

Observer: Turn on recorder.

7.

State: "This is observation # .

State: "To complete this description that you
have just read, I need to ask several
questions."

Why did you make this decision?

What else should I know about the situation and the
children in order to get a better picture of what
was going on?

Would you describe for me exactly what happened as a
result of your decision?

Does the entire situation, as we have discussed it,
illustrate something specific that you believe about
teaching?

State: "End of observation # .

APPENDIX D

Classifications from Clinic-School Manual

1.

APPENDIX D

CLASSIFICATIONS
Planning
1.1 Planning for learners
1.2 Planning with learners
1.3 Adapting plans

1.31 Modifying expectations about the group
1.32 Modifying expectations about the
individuals
1.33 Taking advantage of immediate situations
1.34 Modifying procedure during implementation
1.4 Organizing learning activities

Selecting and Utilizing Materials
2.1 Organizing materials required for planned lesson
2.2 Improvising materials as situation demands

Motivating (stimulating learning)
3.1 Motivating of group learning
3.2 Motivating of individual learner

Telling
4.1 Giving directions to. . .
4.11 the individual
4.12 the group
4.2 Providing needed information for. . .
4.21 the individual
4.22 the group

Helping Learners Find Meaning Through. . .

5.1 concrete illustranams or experiences
5.2 other associations

5.3 critical thinking

5.4 creative thinking

5.5 review

Developing A Secure Classroom Environment
6.1 Building self-confidence in learners
6.11 Enhancing self concept
6.2 Establishing accepting environment
6.3 Reducing emotional tension
6.4 Respecting concerns of the pupil group

D-l

8.

9.

10.

D-Z

Individual Differences

7.1 Allowing for variations among children

7.2 Designing instruction for differences among
children

7.3 Building and encouraging respect for
variations or differences

7.4 Coping with the occasional emotional upsets
of children

Behavior Control (discipline)
8.1 Encouraging certain behaviors
8.11 subtle procedures
8.12 overt procedures
8.2 Discouraging certain behaviors
8.21 subtle procedures
8.22 overt procedures

Evaluating
9.1 Establishing an indication of accomplishment
for the learner
9.2 Encouraging self—evaluation
9.3 Relating evaluation to future planning
9.4 Assessment of learners and learning

Management
10.1 Caring for physical comfort and health of
pupils
10.2 Caring for materials and properties
10.3 Caring for safety of pupils

APPENDIX E

Sample of Pages From
Clinic School Manual

APPENDIX E

USING CHILDRENS' QUESTIONS AND OBSERVATIONS
AS A BASIS FOR MOTIVATION

Hypothesis:

 

Active involvement in the search for knowledge stimulates the
learner to organize information into cognitive structures
which are meaningful and useful to him

Illustrative Situation:

 

Using large pictures of birds as visual aids, a teacher
is encouraging her students to make observations and
contribute information about birds. She asks leading
questions and allows all volunteers to speak in turn.
There is a question about the age of a bird, and one
child announces, "My mother said that blue jays take
and eat other birds' eggs."

Decision:
The teacher asks, "Do they? Perhaps we might look that
up. Tom's question on the age of birds is another area
we might investigate. Would you boys be interested in
finding the answers to these questions?"

Conseqpences:

 

The boys readily volunteer and more questions to find
answers for are suggested by the pupils. A "planning
period" ensues in which sources of information are
discussed.

Rationale:

 

The teacher believes it is important for students to be
their own discoverers. She feels there is value in
"finding-out-for-oneself" and believes that this will
encourage and eventually make the pupils autonomous and
"self-propelled" thinkers. She thinks that encouraging
children to question and to indulge in active research
and discovery promotes effective learning.

E-l

E—Z

Alternative Decision and Probable Consequence:

 

Another way the teacher could motivate this study is
by grouping various species of birds and giving them
names children can understand. Example: Seed—Eaters,
Garbage Collectors, etc. The titles, if presented
right, should make children want to know what birds
fit in these categories.

MAKING CONCEPTS MEANINGFUL

Hypothesis:

 

Meanings are communicated more fully and accurately if
the verbal explanation is accompanied by a concrete
example or experience.

Illustrated Situation:

 

The teacher is preparing the class for an experiment
that will demonstrate the properties of air. She
begins with her hands cupped together. The children
ask what she has and there are guesses-~small rocks,
snails, etc. . . . The teacher shows the children
and they say, "you don't have anything." She says
they are wrong; her hands are full ofair.

Decision:

She asks the children to take a deep breath and hold
it in their lungs.

Consequences:

 

The concept that air is "real" is understood and re-
inforced. The children are interested and respond
quickly to discussion that follows concerning the
characteristics of air. They are anxious to see the
experiments.

Rationale:

 

The teacher realizes the difficulty children are apt
to have comprehending the phenomenon of air. She feels
the discussion and demonstration will have more meaning
if they can feel the presence of air. She therefore

uses a practical and concrete experience to clarify
and reinforce her point.

E-3

Alternative Decisions and Probable Conseqpences:

 

l. The lesson could have started with the experiments.
The children might have had the same amount of eagerness.

2. The teacher could blow up a ballon and have the children
look at it and feel it to see what it contained.

APPENDIX F

Samples of Pages From
Teaching in the Inner Citx Kanual

 

APPENDIX F

UTILIZING LIEITED SPACE

Situation:

 

The sharing period in a small kindergarten classroom
has just ended. It is time for their art activities
to begin.

Action:

The teacher directs half of the children to the tables
to begin cutting and pasteing. The remainder stays
with her and works independently (easel painting,
modeling clay, and working with puzzles or games).

Consequences:

The children move quickly and efficiently. Confusion
is kept to a minimum, and much work is accomplished.

Rationale:

The teacher sees that the room is too small to provide
the space necessary for every child to work with large
matedals, e.g., easels, puzzles, etc. Therefore, she
plans for only half of the group to participate in
activities which require a large amount of space. The
others can work at activities in a smaller area, with
several children at one table. To be fair to every
student, the teacher rotates the pupils each day.

Generalization:

 

Limited classroom space requires careful planning
in order to avoid overcrowded conditions.

UnderlyingVHyoothesis:

F-l

 

F—Z

PLANNING FOR ALL LEARNERS

Situation:

The teacher explains to the class that the play they
will be reading has fewer characters than there are
members in the class. She says that following the
reading of the story, the group may dramatize the play.

Action:
The teacher suggests to the group that, while they
are reading the play, they think of additional
characters which could be added so that each child
might have a part.

Consequences:

 

The children seem eager to begin reading the play and
to plan its dramatization.

Rationale:

The teacher knows that all children enjoy taking part

in a group activity such as a play. Her past experience
tells her that all the children must be included in

the play activity in order that they all feel a sense

of belonging and importance. She also realizes that
there are some children in the group who have the
imaginative ability to create a cast and a play for

the class. By devising this play dramatization, the
teacher is including all the children and making an
opportunity for creative expression.

Generalization:

It is important to plan activities that will meet
the various needs of all the children in the group.

Underlying Hypothesis:

 

APPENDIX G

Behavioral Descriptions Derived From
Teaching in the Inner City (1 through 162)
and Clinic School Manual T163 through 286)

 

l.

2.

3.

#.

APPENDIX G

BEHAVIORAL DESCRIPTIONS

Situation:

A spelling lesson is about to begin. The children
take out spelling workbooks and find the page of
today's lesson. One boy cannot find his book.

Decision:

The teacher helps the child look. She asks if any-
one can remember seeing the boy's book. The book
is not found, so she asks the child to get paper to
use until the book is located.

Situation:

The teacher has been discussing arrangement of poetry
on the page. The class is not too responsive when
questioned. One boy finally offers, "You indent.”

Decision:

The teacher asks him to illustrate how it is done on
the blackboard.

Situation:

Three fifth graders from another classroom come in

with reports on current news that they have been

studying. They take turns giving reports. Occasionally
the "reporters" hesitate and have a little difficulty.
Decision:

When the "reporters" hesitate, the teacher asks questions:

relates to class' earlier experiences and points to maps
and globes.

Situation:

During arithmetic class, two boys are creating a dis-
turbance.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

2221—8122:

With no comment or distraction, the teacher moves one
boy to a space by himself, she continues classroom
instruction.

Situation:

The children are coming in from out-of-doors. They
have been out to play for recess.

Decision:

The teacher plays soft music as the children come in.
Situation:

The class is discussing pronunciation of street names.
They are circling vowels, marking as long or short and
pronouncing as long or short.

Decision:

The teacher uses the children's own street names to
illustrate and use as samples.

Situation:

The children are bustling about between subjects. One
girl quietly tells teacher that her milk is missing:
another boy's eraser is also missing.

Decision:

The teacher stops the class to find both items and
compensates for both losses. The boy returns the eraser
to the rightful owner,and the teacher promises to get
another carton of milk for the girl.

Situation:

The English class is Just beginning. The children have
their English books open to a chapter on introductions.

Decision:

The teacher introduces the lesson by having the children
role-play meeting people for the first time.

Situation:
The music consultant is moving about the class to

children with their hands up. Several children aren't
participating.

e
u
o
' n
r
.
.

p
ix

10.

11.

12.

13.

G-3
Decision:

The room teacher sits down in an empty student's
desk near the nonparticipating students, but does
not say anything to them. She Joins in the singing.

Situation:

The children are filling in blanks, studying words,
etc., in their spelling books. Library time is
approaching.

Decision:

The teacher decides to forget any attempt to begin

a new or comprehensive lesson, but rather to do the
next day’s spelling introduction-~something more easily
interrupted.

Situation:

The children are having "sharing time." The children
are contributing eagerly. One girl tells the class
that a little boy, one of her classmates, was shooting
a bean shooter at her.

Decision:

After the little girl mentioned the pea-shooting
incident, the teacher interrupts the "sharing time"

tto ask the children why pea shooters are dangerous.

Situation:

The teacher is discussing the spelling lesson with the
children. They are to fill in the missing letters for
three sets of spelling words. One little boy asks if

he can fill in blanks without using the spelling book.

Decision:

The teacher shows the children where they could find
all three groups of spelling words on one page. She
also tells the children that she would be happy if
they would try it without their books.

Situation:

The second reading group is working with the teacher at
the front of the room. The teacher writes the new
words on the board for the children to pronounce. The
children are given the word "stay." When it is written
on the board, the children cannot pronounce it.

1h.

15.

16.

17.

G-h
Decision:

The teacher writes the familiar word, "day," next to
the new word. After they pronounce this word, she
erases the "d" and replaces it with the letters "st."

Situation:

The children have Just returned from recess. They are
very restless. One of the children has brought a
coloring book to school. The book relates to a
subject that the children have been studying.

Decision:

The teacher draws the attention of the children to one
of the coloring books which a boy had brought to her
desk. She shows the childrsrpictures of an Eskimo
fishing and asks them,"How do Eskimos fish, and what
do they use?"

Situation:

The teacher is working with the second reading group.
The other children are working on a language lesson at
their seats. There are several noisy talkers in the
back of the room who are disturbing the reading group.

Decision:

The teacher leaves the reading group and speaks softly
to the children. She returns to the reading group.

Situation:

The children are working on the numbers that can be
added together to make 10. The children have been
asked to think of the numbers which will add to 10.
and they are contributing eagerly. One little girl
raises her hand and says that 3 and 2 equals 10. The
rest of the group begin to laugh.

Decision:

The teacher asks the group to help the little girl to
find her mistake. They add her numbers together and
realize that they still need five more to make ten.

Situation:

The children have put away their numbers work but are
having a little difficulty settling down for spelling.
The paper has been passed.

18.

19.

20.

21.

G-S

Decision:

The teacher puts the spelling lesson aside for a little
while.and the group begins to sing action songs. They
also play "Simon Says" until "Simon" (teacher) tells
the children to be seated again.

Situation:

The children have been asked to draw a picture about
the two stories they have heard this afternoon.
They are still seated on the floor around the teacher.

Decision:

To get the children back to their seats, the teacher
says, "Anyone wearing green may go to his seat and
get his crayons out."

Situation:

The children are working in their workbooks with the
teacher's help. One child arrives late.

Decision:

The child is greeted pleasantly and quietly by the
teacher--no questions are asked.

Situation:

The children are restless after sitting and working
for 20 minutes. Two children wander from tables--
others squirm.

Decision:

The children are asked by the teacher to stand next
to their chairs. When all is quiet, they do "Hokey
Pokey" all together. Then they sing another more
complicated action song.

Situation:

The children are doing number work in their books. They
are reading questions with the teacher aloud and finding
the answers. The teacher walks around tables to see

the children's work. Many children are not finding
correct answers.

Decision:

The teacher asks them to put down their pencils, look
at her, and listen while Egg explains directions. She
reminds them that they can do this work, for they have
done it before.

22.

23.

24.

25.

Situation:

The children are sitting on the floor in front of
the teacher who is reading a story from a book.

It appears to be a book that is read.from each day
or so. Most of the children are quiet and attentive.
One boy bothers the others and falls with his cap

in back of the group.

Decision:

After a short time, in a quiet, matter-of-fact voice,
the teacher tells the child to sit next to her.
She removes his cap and continues reading.

Situation:

The teacher has been supervising the children making
pinwheels. She shows each child how it must be pinned
so that it will work properly. While talking and
helping various children around her, she makes a mis-
take with the pinwheel she is working with.

Decision:

The teacher tells the children she made a mistake with
the pinwheel and shows them what is wrong and tells
them how to correct their pinwheels.

Situation:

The teacher is preparing for rest time by closing the
venetian blinds. One of the children asks her if she
may close the blinds.

Decision:

The child is told pleasantly that this is a Job for
adults.

Situation:

The teacher is reading a poem about a beetle. In the
poem the beetle lived in a matchbox and to illustrate
the beetle's house, the teacher shows a matchbox. While
reading the poem, one of the children keeps asking

if the teacher's beetle lives in the box.

Decision:

The teacher stops the poem long enough to explain that
the poem is a boy's story about his beetle. She brought
the box for them to see, so they could imagine what a
little boy's beetle lived in.

26.

27.

28.

29.

Situation:

During opening activities, two boys are disrupting
the group. The teacher is losing the attention
of many others because of the disturbance.

Decision:

The teacher takes the boys to another room to talk
to them and turns the class over to the helping
teacher.

Situation:

It is story time and several children have chosen
books they want to have read to them.

Decision:

The teacher lets the children select one of three groups.
Each group has a different story read by the teacher
or two helpers.

Situation:

The children have been learning about wind on an
educational T.V. Science Program. The teacher
illustrates how wind can work by having the children
make pinwheels. The project is so successful that
it is repeated.

Decision:

The teacher shows the children what effects color has
when moving and encourages them to color or make

designs with crayon on the paper used for making pin-

"heels.
Situation:

It is wash time and several of the children have gone
to the sink to clean their hands. One of the girls
asked to play Emmeline. This game is a dramatic
interpretation of Milne's poem, "Before Tea." The
poem illustrates the concern for "purfickly" clean
hands 0

Decision:

The teacher goes along with their request and chooses
those who want to participate to act as trees or
Emmeline. or recite together one of the lines in the
poem directed to Emmeline.

wrx

30.

31.

32.

33.

Situation:

The class is reading a story about a mother rabbit
and her 21 children.

Decision:

The teacher decides to use the class to dramatize
the story by having the story characters represented
by members of the class.

Situation:

The children are putting their coats on earlier than
usual. There is to be a longer wait than usual.

Decision:

The teacher decides to play a record about a child
who goes visiting a friend. Each day of the week,
he goes by a different method, i.e., run, walk, tip-
toe, etc. The children act out the boy who goes
visiting.

Situation:

The children have just returned from gym and are
removing their gym shoes.

Decision:

The teacher reminds the children to put their gym
shoes on their desks.

Situation:

various children are reporting on current news. One
of the children is the news "leader." Another child
is reporting on the heavy snowstorm somewhere in the
Midwest. The news leader does not understand where

the Midwest is located.

Decision:

A map of the U.S. is pulled down. The news leader
cannot find the Midwest using the pointer. The teacher
asks the class what "mid" is a short word for. Some-
one answers, middle. The teacher asks the news leader
to find the middle of the chalk board, and then the

news leader finds the correct Midwest area of the map
of the U.S. also.

31+.

35-

36.

37-

38.

G-9
Situation:

The children are taking turns reading from their
science papers on the solar system. The other
children follow silently with their own papers.

Decision:

The teacher waits patiently between the reading of
the papers for excess noise to subside, explaining
to the children why it is necessary to wait.

Situation:

A student is passing out paper for a science assignment.
There is excess noise during this time.

Decision:

The teacher says, "Do not give paper to the people
who are making noise, and they will have to do this
assignment later."

Situation:

The children are singing, "Battle Hymn of the Republic"
several times. The teacher is working with them on
timing and enunciation. Several girls are not singing.

Decision:

The teacher says to one child, "Are you going to help
us, Nancy?”

Situation:

The art consultant has been showing the children various
ways to make spring flowers. The teacher and the
children are excited about them and anxious to adapt
these new ideas for their own use. Most of the children
are attentive,but one boy shoots a paper wad with a
rubber band.

Decision:

The teacher casually walks over to the boy,and talks
quietly to him about what he has done.

Situation:

The children are busy cutting and pasteing table center-
pieces. Several children tell the teacher that they

are having difficulty making Shamrocks. She tells some
of them individually how to hold and cut the paper.
However, some are still having trouble.

39.

#0.

41.

42.

G-lO
Decision:

The teacher asks for attention. She illustrates on

:the board how to fold the paper, and shape the sham-

rocks. She also says the children can draw it first,
if they need to.

Situation:

The children are divided into squads. Each squad is
taking a turn marching, running, etc., to music. The
squad that is running is having a difficult time
keeping time with the music.

Decision:

When the squad sits down, the teacher asks two children
in that squad to go around the gym alone, demonstrating
how it should be done. She calls attention to how they
are keeping time with the music and "flying."

Situation:

The room is divided into two teams, odd and even numbers.
Many children are restless in the lines before the game
begins. Two boys on one team especially are causing

a disturbance.

Decision:

The teacher walks over to the boys and calmly moves

one tooa different position in his line. The child
asks why she moved him and she says it is a better place
for him, away from the other boy.

Situation:

A group of nine children is called back to a semicircular
reading group. Each child is given an opportunity to

say "very clearly" his own name ("I am . . ., I live

at . . ., My telephone number is . . .”). No pressure,

,but only encouragement is given children who have

difficulty.
Decision:

The teacher encourages applause whenever a child is
able to give the complete, correct information.

Situation:

Ten children are in a reading group. The teacher is
using sentence and phrase cards almost in a tachistoscopic
fashion. The first child reads the first sentence card

vvery well.

G-11

Decision:

The child is immediately praised by the teacher. ”He
looked carefully and said the whole sentence. I am
doing this because I don't like to hear you read one
word at a time." She then gives an example of word-
ccalling. The teacher decides to motivate further
good work by praising a child who does well and gives
a good example for the other children.

43. Situation:

The teacher is introducing a test for a variety of
skills, one of which is phonics. She has put four

long unfamiliar words on the board. She uses each of
the words in a sentence to increase vocabulary
meaningfully and asks the children to find the
corresponding word on the board. The children volunteer
to do this orally and do it successfully.

Decision:

With each success, the teacher comments that they can
do it because they know beginning sounds. She attempts
to show them that they can unlock long, unfamiliar
words by using a skill they have already learned, i.e.,
using beginning sounds to attack words.

44. Situation:

Eleven children are reading a chart about March wind
which they had developed in conjunction with a mural.
Each child is given an opportunity to read one or more
sentences. Sometimes the children have difficulty
with the words.

Decision:

In every instance in which there is an opportunity to
use a phonics clue, the teacher uses that clue to
help the child attack the word efficiently.

“‘50 Situation:

The children had done a creative radio program based

on "Little Miss Muffet." The children repeat the program
for the visitor. All of the children repeat the original
rhyme. The "performers" are the children who originally
suggested ways of "dealing with the spider."

Decision:

The teacher decides to give the children another
opportunity to express themselves before "an audience."

No child is left out, since everyone is included in
repeating the rhyme.

46.

47.

48.

“’9.

50.

G-12

Situation:

The teacher is about to start a reading group. The
children at their seats are talking rather noisily.
The children have been sitting for quite a while.

Decision:

The teacher asks all of the children to stand and do
a few exercises and to "get their visiting finished."

Situation:

The children in reading class are doing an exercise
on classification of words on individual papers.
Several are having difficulty finding which words
to eliminate by crossing out the word which did not
belong to a given group, i.e., apple, ride, cake,
dinner.

Decision:

The teacher decides to give the children a clue by
saying, "In this kind of work we ask ourselves a
question, "What can you do with ?"

Situation:

The children are using their workbooks and doing an
exercise in which they choose one of three sentences
which best explains the picture at the top of the page.
The teacher works with the children on two of the
exercises giving them meaningful clues.

Decision:

The teacher decides to give the children an opportunity
to try the rest of the exercises by themselves, saying,
"Try, even if you get it wrong."

Situation:

New reading groups are being announced. The children
are scattered around the room that belong in a particula
group.

Decision:

The teacher has the children exchange seats so they will
sit according to reading groups.

Situation:

The children have been placed in their reading groups.
The teacher is giving instructions to one group. A child
in another group is creating a disturbance.

51.

52.

53.

54.

G-13
Decision:

The teacher tells this child to stop creating the
disturbance and then goes back to giving instructions
to the other children.

Situation:

It is near the end of the morning session. The teacher
announces that she is going to read a story about

Paul Bunyan. Some of the students have to leave
shortly for their safety posts.

Decision:

Before she begins to read, she tells those students
who have to leave for their safety posts that they
can do so while she is reading. They are to watch the
clock and leave at the appropriate time.

Situation:

A sponge game-~thrown at a chalk board that has been
divided into various number quantities—~18 in process.
There is a discussion among the students as to how
much longer they'll be playing the game.

Decision:

The teacher explains that they will finish the game
when all of the girls have had a turn, because there
are more girls than boys, and some boys will have more
than one turn.

Situation:

The teacher is introducing a unit on Africa by showing
large colored pictures to the class. During the
discussion, one of the pictures that is not being
discussed falls to the floor from the top of a book-
case with much noise.

Decision:

The teacher ignores the fallen picture and continues
her discussion.

Situation:

The teacher breaks the work routine to start a directed
play time in a large play area in the room. They are
doing some exercises,and some children are working
rather lethargically.

55-

56.

57-

58-

G-l4

Decision:

The teacher stops and asks the children if they think
they will have strong muscles if they work that way.
She asks if they knew which president of the U.S.
wanted every American to be strong.

Situation:

Following the exercise period, the teacher reads a
story, "Play with Me," a story of how a little girl
makes friends with several animals. The children
then share ideas on how this could come about and how
they could make friends with others.

Decision:

The teacher decides to have the children use this
background as an opportunity for some role-playing
on making friends.

Situation:

The teacher is helping the children to read a story
in their books.

Decision:

The teacher asks pointed questions giving specific
pages to be read. In order "to check" comprehension

of all the children, she decides to ask them to ”frame"
the answers to her questions with their fingers.

Then groups of children read the answers aloud.

Situation:

The children are playing a picture game in which one
object in each row does not belong to the rest of the
group. Each game card is more difficult than the
preceding one. The children must state in complete
sentences what they see and give their reasons for
choosing the one to eliminate. At times, the children
have considerable difficulty in making the correct choice.

Decision:

The teacher stops them and gives them specific clues
so that their reasons for choices might be correct.

Situation:

The children have been resting, and the teacher is
preparing them for the next activity, which is reading,
using the SBA kits. The children must go to the front

of the room to pick up their individual SBA reading books.

'1

59.

60.

61.

62.

G-15
Decision:

The teacher has them do this by rows, one row at a time.
Situation:

The children are now reading silently in their SBA books.
The special reading teacher has come to the room and

has asked the room teacher if she can come in and talk
to one of the children.

Decision:

The room teacher allows the special reading teacher
to talk to the individual child.

Q

Situation:

The students are reading silently in their SBA books.
They appear extremely interested in this activity,
but the allowed time for reading is over.

Decision:

The teacher says, "All right, let's put our SBA books
up now. Put a check by the place where you are if
you didn't finish.

Situation:

The children are working on an arithmetic test on
paper at their desks. All of the children are working
quietly and individually at their desks except two
boys who are talking together.

Decision:

The teacher notices this situation and says, "Boys,
remember, this is a test."

Situation:

The teacher is discussing propositional phrases with
the children. These phrases pertain to people doing
things in the classroom, garden, etc.

Decision:

The teacher asks various children to act out the pre-
positional phrases involving one or more people.

I

63.

64.

65.

G-l6
We:

The teacher has had the children doing stretching
exercies. She puts up her hand with two fingers
raised. Row two sits down. Three fingers, row three
sits down. The children respond to her upraised hand
by sitting down quietly, smiling in response to the
teacher's smile.

Decision:

The teacher compliments the children by whispering
"very good, very good." She says that they are now
ready to have board work discussed.

Situation:

The teacher is seated with a reading group, listening

as they read. The children at their seats have finished
their work and have found things from the activity

table or scissors and paper work. Some of the children
have library books. When the group finishes their
story, the teacher brings the lesson to a close and
dismisses the group.

Decision:

The teacher stands and counts, "1, 2, 3." This is a
signal requesting all the children to return to their
seats and give their attention to the teacher.

Situation:

The last reading group is returning to their seats.
Some pupils are sitting in the front of the room on
the floor by the bookcase reading library books.

Decision:

The teacher gives directions to the children in very
quiet and established ways, e.g., she puts a finger on
lips and indicates by raised hand that the children should
all stand. She calls a word and a row passes to line up
for relief. She turns off the lights to quiet the
children in line, waits for the lines to get quiet, snaps
her fingers to attract attention, and counsels quietly
with two boys to settle a dispute. She decides the
children are ready to move into the hall to go to relief
and to gym. She counsels with individual children, often
expressing approval of those children who are orderly.
She smiles at the children frequently.

66.

67.

68.

69.

G-17

Situation:

The teacher finishes reading from a book. She talks
with the children about the story and what they learned
from it. A child from group one is asked to choose
someone from group two to be her partner to work on
some arithmetic computation. This continues until

all the children from group one have partners. Some
confusion results in the classroom.

Decision:

The teacher asks the children to "freeze." She gives
directions for procedure again, then says "Thaw."

Situation:

A helping teacher comes into the room to work with a
reading group that is using the SBA labs. The rest of
the pupils are doing reading-related seatwork (phonics
sheets-~er, ar).

Decision:

The room teacher helps individual children get started
on their phonics worksheets and reading workbooks.

She circulates among the children, giving assistance
when needed.

Situation:

The children from reading group III have returned from
reading with remedial reading teacher. The teacher
raises three fingers to indicate she wishes the group
to form a reading group in the front of the room.

One girl and a boy appear unhappy and unwilling to
participate in the reading lesson.

Decision:

The teacher asks the boy and girl to sit on either
side of her. She talks a little to each child and
proceeds with the reading lesson, ignoring the two
children except for putting her arm around their
shoulders and giving reassuring pats.

Situation:

The children have just returned from relief and have had
a short rest period. Reading group II is now meeting
with the teacher at the semicircular table in the back
of the room. The children are asked to read the title
and look at the pictures. After discussing the pictures,
they read silently to find out if what they think is
happening is really happening. When this part of the
lesson is over, the teacher says that now they can take
turns reading orally.

70.

71.

72.

G-18

Decision:

Before they begin, the teacher directs questions
involving comprehension.

Situation:

The teacher checks to see how the children are pro-
gressing with their seatwork. She discusses afternoon
activities which will include a visit by the art
teacher. The children tidy the room. Rows are called
for dismissal.

Decision:

Just before the children leave, the teacher reminds
them to bring materials for making a collage for the
afternoon art class.

Situation:

The children are completing board (spelling) work
activities. A slow learner, who was absent during
the morning, does not know how to do this work.

Decision:

As they finish, the teacher looks over their work and
helps them with corrections. The teacher shifts some
desks and chairs and arranges for the boy to sit by

a friend who understands the work. She asks this boy
to be his assistant and help him get started with his
work.

Situation:

The teacher passes out ditto sheets with math problems
involving regrouping and finding unknowns. She works
a sample problem on the board and explains that this
is the same lesson that the "student teacher" pairs
had worked on yesterday. Each child is to do his own
today. The teacher gives individual help as needed.

Decision:

The teacher checks to see if the teaching procedure
she used the previous day in pairing a good student
with a student who needs help was effective.

f\

 

 

73-

7a.

75.

76.

G-l9

massage:

The children are finishing arithmetic problems. Those
who have finished their problems have taken things
from the activity table or are reading books from the
library corner. Two boys are quarreling and cause
some confusion. It is nearly time for the art teacher
to come.

Decision:

The teacher counsels quietly with the boys, while she
simultaneously gets attention of the children and
directs them to their seats by calling the numbers 1,

2, 3.

Situation:

The art teacher is in the room. The room teacher assists
by passing out materials encouraging children to share
the cloth, beads, rice, etc., that the children have
brought from home.

Decision:

The room teacher arranges the children into working
groups so that there will be a variety of materials
for each child to choose from for his collage.
Situation:

Upon entering the room, the children go quietly to

a point near the piano and sit in a group on the floor.
They talk quietly while waiting.

Decision:

The teacher maintains a passive role, letting the
children chat freely with each other.

Situation:

The children and teacher are discussing several freshly
cut branches from trees and shrubs. The teacher is
developing concepts and vocabulary.

Decision:

During this time, the teacher, rather casually, inserts
comments directed toward individuals of a supportive
nature. "Leonard, you know so many words," etc. She
gives supportive attention (verbalized) to several
children during this brief period of sharing.

.0

O
p
l
I
' I
r.
I
e
\

77.

78.

79.

80.

G-ZO

Situation:

All of the children have been participating in the
sharing period where their attention is focused upon
the branches from fruit trees and shrubs which have
been brought in by the teacher. When the children
are dispursed to begin working on their trees, eight
remain with the teacher.

Decision:

The teacher makes plans with each child, allowing them
to carry out different activities which they are able
to do on their own.

Situation:

The work period has been underway for about 20 minutea
and the activities are diversified. Some of the children
are painting,and some are finishing their trees with

the help of an extern teacher. One small group of
children is in a corner having "tea" (pretendingh.and
they are chatting amiably.

Decision:

The room teacher joins the small group having "tea"
and initiates a conversation with them.

Situation:

The children have been involved in quiet activities.
It is mid-morning,and some of them appear tired.

Decision:

The teacher decides to involve the children in rhythms
and games. They play "Birds in Trees," do an elephant
walk, gallop to music, etc. There is much physical
activity. ‘

Situation:

The teacher is helping the children get organized for
an activity period in which they are to play WBirds
in Trees." One boy leaves the group and goes to a
table. There is no apparent reason for his decision
not to participate as he was not requested to leave
by the teacher and was not talking with any of his
classmates.

Decision:

The teacher sees him leave but chooses to ignore him
and continues with the other children.

81.

82.

83.

84.

85.

Situation:

The children were in various stages of readiness to
begin the activity period, but most of them were
constructively organized. Nilay was requested by
the teacher to leave the basket on the table. He
went to the table but forgot to leave the basket.

Decision:

The teacher gives full attention to Nilay and insists
that he comply with the instruction to leave the
basket on the table.

Situation:

The children and teacher are discussing a daffodil,
and the teacher asks if they know the beginning letter
for daffodil. They agree it is "d." The teacher

asks Duane to go to the line of letters and pick

out the "d." He does not know the letter, but

Theresa is able to pick out the letter "d."

Decision:

The teacher removes the capitol "d" from the line of
letters and brings it back to the group.

Situation:

During the period of preparation for the upcoming
activity period, Darnell is not giving his attention.
In fact, he stretches out on the floor, flat on his
back.

Decision:

The teacher asks Darnell to stand up, but goes right
on with her demonstration since his diversionary
tactics are interrupted,and he stands up.

Situation:

The children are seated on the floor near the piano.
It is time for their music activity.

Decision:

The teacher has the children sing a series of familiar
songs that they know from memory.

Situation:

The children have returned from relief. Upon returning

to the room, the children immediately lie down on the
floor and relax for a short time.

\

86.

87.

88.

89.

G-22

Decision:

When the rest period is over, the teacher calls out
the names of children one at a time. "Judy, you
may sit up now," etc., until all names are called.

Situation:

This is the transition period between actual instruction
and the carrying out of instructions at the work center

by the children. They are going to make trees and need

colored construction paper.

Decision:

The children receive their paper from the teacher and
are excused individually by her calling each one by
name and asking, "What color branches do you want on
your tree?" The child receives the material and goes
to the work center immediately.

Situation:

The students are seated in a group, ready to plan their
activities for their independent work period.

Decision:

The teacher provides materials and opportunity for the
children to participate in a wide variety of activities,
e.g., painting, cutting, pasting, coloring, bean bag
game, looking at books, playing with large and small
blocks, riding the hobby horse, playing with toys,
assembling the rig-a-jig, working with plastic parts,
playing in the playhouse corner, etc.

Situation:

It is time for the music activity and "instruments" are
introduced to only a few people who become the orchestra.

Decision:

The teacher adds more instruments and gradually involves
an increasing number of students.

Situation:

The rest period is nearing an end, Edward slithers across

the floor to join his friend. The teacher has made
a rule against excessive movement or talking at rest time.

90.

91.

92.

93-

Decision:

With a motion of her hand, the teacher signals him
to go back to his place for resting.

Situation:

A small girl enters the room with an older girl. She
interrupts the class which is in session. The girl,
a transfer from another school, is very quiet and
appears very insecure.

Decision:

The teacher puts her arm around the new pupil, "You
come from Colorado? My, you have come a long way.

I know you will like it at this school." The teacher
devotes full attention to the new child. She takes
several minutes to reassure the insecure child that
this is a good school,and she is certainly welcome

to her new room. She appoints another child in the
room to be her buddy.

Situation:

The teacher is checking a math paper with the child
who has just completed it.

Decision:

The teacher gives praise to the student, saying,
"Very good."

Situation:

The teacher's plans call for some of the class to work
independently while she checks and works with a group
who is experiencing difficulty with the concept of
carrying in addition. One girl cannot visualize or
verbalize what 5 + 6 would equal.

Decision:

The teacher has the youngster count out 5 books from
back of the room and take them to her desk, then take
6 more books and count how many she has altogether.

Situation:

The children enter 10 minutes before the final bell
rings. It is raining outside. Some of the children
go to the window. The children look outside and chat
next to the windows and around the room.

94.

95.

96.

97.

Decision:

The teacher maintains a passive role in this period
before school, letting the children move about the
room freely (within limits) and talk with their
friends.

Situation:

The children are introduced to their new spelling
lesson. The new words they are to record to take
home are in manuscript form (printed) in their
spelling books. The class has been learning the
cursive form of writing in recent weeks.

Decision:

The teacher "writes" the words on the board for the
children to use as a model for copying to take home.

Situation:

The group leaders are responsible for distributing
books in their aisles. The children collect and
distribute needed materials from the bookcase at the
side of the room. They are very orderly.

Decision:
The teacher observes without comment.
Situation:

There is a good deal of extrinsic noise filtering in
from the hall. The level of noise entering the room
varies with the hall traffic. At times it is quite
loud. Some visitors (observers) are expected. The
children do not seem to be distracted by the noise
as they do their seatwork.

Decision:

The teacher leaves the hall door open.

Situation:

School is just beginning for the day. The children
are sitting quietly at their desks. Some are reading

and others are sitting looking about the room. This
is not study time or lesson time.

Decision:

The teacher reads an announcement concerning an assembly
this afternoon.

 

98.

99-

100.

101.

102.

G-25
Situation:
The teacher asks a pupil to please remove the shavings

from the full pencil sharpener. The pupil empties
the well-packed shavings into the basket.

Decision:

The teacher asks the student who has emptied the contents
of the pencil sharpener if he thinks he ought to wash
his hands after completing the task.

Situation:

The room is buzzing with "busy noise." The teacher needs
the children's attention to give them some additional
directions.

Decision:

The teacher uses a very soft voice to get their attention,
talks to children, and gives verbal directions. The
children must listen rather carefully to hear her voice.

Situation:

The teacher is initiating a discussion with the children
by asking questions and presenting information.

Decision:

The teacher leaves her desk and moves to an empty
student's desk in the middle of the class. She sits
here as she continues to conduct the lesson.

Situation:

The teacher is sitting at a bench-type seat helping
a pupil who is having difficulty with math problems.

Decision:

The teacher maintains close physical contact with the
learner, while she helps him with his problems.

Situation:

The teacher has a room library. The books are arranged
on tables according to classification, "Indians,"
"Cowboys," "Science," "History," etc.

103.

104.

105.

106.

Decision:

The teacher has the children assume the responsibility
for keeping the books and materials in their proper
order and classification stacks.

Situation:

It has been raining severely before school with thunder
and lightening. Attendance is low. Many children
arrive late and soaked.

Decision:

The teacher says, "I will not mark you tardy today
because of the thunder storm."

Situation:

It is nearing time to go home. The children have put
materials away and have out whatever they might be
taking home.

Decision:

The teacher says, "Check your floor space, children.
This is your room. Leave it in good order."

Situation:

The class is working in reading groups. The teacher is
working with a group that is reading orally from their
book. The rest of the class is doing individual seat-
work. The teacher notices one child who has finished
reading his seatwork. He is a better reader than most
of the other students and this is not unusual.

Decision:

The teacher gets up and gives the boy who has finished
a book to read about President.Kennedy. She then
returns to the reading group.

Situation:

The students are building words (all, ball, call, etc.)
on the board. One after another, they go to the board
and add a word, working on consonant lesson. Attention
is beginning to wander.

Decision:

The teacher has the whole class work on the last word
hay e

107.

108.

109.

110.

Situation:

The teacher is ready to begin a social studies lesson
when she notices a "White Cane” note on the floor.
Two others were found in the basket last evening.
They were handed out yesterday,and the students were
asked to take them home to their parents.

Decision:

The teacher talks to the class about the fact that at
least three people did not take the "White Cane" note
home to their parents rather than ignoring the incident
and starting the lesson.

Situation:

The class is beginning a social studies lesson about
"the spread of Christianity." The students are going
to read a new chapter in their textbook.

Decision:

The teacher has the children discuss and define the
"words to master" at the end of the chapter before they
begin to read.

Situation:

The teacher is having the class individually define
a list of words on the board. The words are used in
a phonetics lesson. One child defines "haste" as a
piece of pottery.

Decision:

The teacher asks the class, "What is he thinking about?"
Situation:

About 2/3 of the class has been dismissed (i.e., Safety
Boys have gone to baseball game). Also, two teachers
are absent,and their children have been sent to this and
other classrooms. Twelve students are in the room.

Decision:

The teacher suspended regular class activities.and the
students helped make sample ballots since the millage
vote is coming up next month.

111.

112.

113.

114.

Situation:

Only 1/3 of the class is here this afternoon, since the
safety patrols are attending a ball game. They have
been making sample ballots in conjunction with an
approaching vote on a school bond issue. Some of the
children finish before others.

Decision:

The teacher has all of them stop making ballots and
gives them a map exercise to do. They are to identify
some islands and spell the names correctly.

Situation:

One of the reading groups has just finished a story.

The teacher has been emphasizing vocabulary development,
and the students have been discussing various definitions
of words, e.g., the different meanings of "hold."

Decision:

Using a dictionary, the teacher illustrates the different
meanings and how they can be found.

Situation:

The class is working on building words from 5 rhyming
ends of words (at, ack, ell, et, ill). Example: at,
bat, cat, fat, etc.

Decision:

The teacher has them work at the board rather than write
on their paper.

Situation:

The class has been divided into reading groups. One
group is doing paper work,and the other group is ready
to begin reading aloud. The teacher is seated with the
group who is about to continue reading a story they
started yesterday.

Decision:

The teacher asks some of the students to give an
introduction to the story, reviewing what happened in
the story yesterday.

115.

116.

117.

118.

G-29

Situation:

The teacher is asking the children to select the best
word for placement in a given sentence where a word
has been omitted. Several hands are raised for each
new sentence. Some of the children are beginning

to respond without raising their hands.

Decision:

The teacher stops talking and raises her hand until
the children stop responding without raising their
hands.

Situation:

The children are divided into reading groups. The
teacher is working with one of the groups. She chooses
new words from the new story and places them on the
board. The children have their books Open.

Decision:

The teacher points out things in the pictures that are
representative of the new vocabulary words.

Situation:

The teacher announces that she is going to read the
story that she began to read to the class the previous
week.

Decision:

The teacher asks the children if they remember any-
thing about the story, before she begins reading.

Situation:

The children have been working on "finding the average"
problems, individually, at their desks. The teacher
has been moving around the room, checking arithmetic
progress of individual students. Some of the children
are having difficulty with the task.

Decision:

The teacher asks for the attention of the class,
whether she has checked their work or not, in order

to explain some things about "finding the average.":

119.

120.

121.

122.

G-30

Situation:

The teacher is explaining to one reading group that the
story they are about to read is a play. It concerns

a character that thinks he knows everything-~a Mr.
Knowaall. The teacher points out that there are

more children in the reading group than there are
characters in the play.

Decision:

The teacher asks the children to be thinking of other
characters that could be added to the play, after
they have finished reading the play.

Situation:

The second reading group is in progress. The children
are reading, one at a time next to the teacher, while
the other children follow along in their books and
listen. One boy takes quite a long time to read his
part, having trouble sounding out words.

Decision:

When the boy finishes reading, the teacher says that
although he took quite a while to read, she likes
the way he tries to sound out his words.

Situation:

The children are working quietly and independently
at their desks on arithmetic problems. There is one
small group of students working at the blackboard

on "Sidewalk Division." They are causing some back-
ground noise. ‘

Decision:

The teacher comments on how nicely the boys and girls
are working at their desks, and suggests that perhaps
the group at the board could work just as nicely.

Situation:

The teacher is checking arithmetic problems with one
group of students. A couple of students in the other
section of the class are making noise by talking loudly.

Decision:

The teacher stops talking and looks directly at the
children making the noise, saying, "I'm waiting."

123.

124.

125.

126.

G-3l
Situation:

The teacher has finished checking arithmetic problems
with boys and girls in all groups and has told them
to return to their regular seats. The children do

as they have been asked. The teacher announces that
the class is now going to pass by rows to get drinks
out in the hall.

Decision:

The teacher selects one boy to choose the rows, one
at a time, that appear to be ready toget their drinks.
When the first row returns to the room, the teacher
announces that when the children return, they may
spend the next five minutes either in looking over
their spelling or talking with their friends. Also,
when this time is up, the children must be ready to
return to work.

Situation:

The teacher is working with the children on the use
of the index. One boy has been placed in a seat near
the teacher and slightly removed from the rest of

the class. He was placed here for misbehavior. He
has not been participating, although the teacher has
encouraged him to do so. Finally, the teacher asks
for a group response to a question, she also hears
this boy answer along with the rest of the class.

Decision:

She says, "Is that you, Kenneth? My, it's nice to
have you back with us again. Thank you."

Situation:

The teacher is helping the children to learn the
words, "panting and patting." Some of the children
are not enunciating the words clearly.

Decision:

The teacher asks the group to repeat each word while
she walks around the room listening for those who
are having difficulty.

Situation:

The children have finished one activity and the teacher
asks the children to clear their desks except for their
pencils. One of the boys said, "Ahhhh!" when he sees
the teacher open the cupboard door.

127.

128.

129.

130.

G-32
Decision:

The teacher turns from the cupboard, smiles at the
child, and says, ”Do you like that, Jimmy?"

Situation:

The children are beginning to work in their mathematic
workbooks. The teacher asks the children to turn to
page 47. Then she asks them to point to "the set"

at the top of the page.

Decision:

The teacher looks around at the group and says, "Good,
everybody did that just right!"

Situation:

The teacher asks one of the children to go to the clinic
to get a shot (for measles). The child blushes, appears
to have a frightened look on her face,and says she has
had a shot.

Decision:

The teacher chooses another girl to go with the child
to the clinic and stay with her until the first child
is ready to return to the classroom.

Situation:

The slowest reading group has just come into a circle
when one of the children notices a word on the black-
board that was left over from the former group. He
says, "I know what that word is."

Decision:

The teacher asks him to read the word.
Situation:

The slowest group is in the reading circle when the
bell rings. The time has arrived for the children to
go to the gym. The day's schedule has been running
behind and the group's lesson was brief.

Decision:

The teacher tells the group that they are to return to
the reading circle following their short rest after
their gym period.

 

 

tan

 

131.

132.

133.

134.

G-33

Situation:

There is an arithmetic assignment on the board. The
children are coming in quietly, sitting down, and
immediately goingto work. Each pupil seemingly has
an assigned seat. Seats are of the permanent type.
The teacher calls role and checks with the other
children regarding those absent. The children are
well dressed. There is work on the board to be
done.

Decision:

As the children do the board work, the teacher moves
among the children and helps them when called upon.

The teacher also stops at different desks and checks the
pupils' work.

Situation:

The teacher is presenting the process of long division.
The proper names of each Operation are introduced.
Emphasis is placed on the why of each operation.

Decision:

The teacher adds a zero and asks the children if this
is correct. It isn't, so she asks them to explain
why it isn't right. Several different children are
asked to explain. The clue is not given immediately
as to whether adding a zero is right or wrong.

Situation:

The teacher follows the seatwork with explanations on
the board about the lesson. She involves many pupils.
The lesson is limited to three kinds of silent letters.
The pupils are asked to identify other words from lists
in their texts which have the same silent letters.
Several students are going ahead with their written
seatwork and are not listening attentively.

Decision:

The teacher says, "Place all pencils'on the desk so that
we can all listen and be ready to help."

Situation:

The teacher has assigned reading work to approximately
2/3 of the class and is now working with the other one
third. She asks several leading questions and has the
children read the first page silently and then answer them.

135.

136.

137.

G-34
Decision:

The teacher then has the children take turns reading
aloud, encouraging the use of expression.

Situation:

The lesson is on long division. The teacher demonstrates
how to check the answers. Then she asks if there is

a shorter way. The children appear to know that they

can multiply and add the remainder. Familiarity with

the terminology is emphasized as well as the placing

 

F
of the decimal point. After review on the board, ‘ 1
the teacher asks pupils individually to give illustrations
from their homework. Some of the students say that
they didn't get their homework done.
Decision: ‘

The teacher does not reprimand the students who didn’t
do their homework. She simply asks another student
for an illustration.

Situation:

The teacher is teaching "silent letters." About half
of the class is at music. One pupil is noisy and

not really listening. One pupil says, ”All vowels
have at least two sounds." The teacher says, "Very
good.“ The boy who was noisy continues to be a
disturbance as he plays with a noise-maker.

Decision:

The teacher asks the boy who was being noisy if he had
something that the teacher could keep for him.

Situation:

The teacher has Wennifred Marshall's poem, "May," on
the board. She is helping the children discover some
of the unique characteristics of poetry, e.g., second
and third line rhyme. She also discusses some of the
words, i.e., lyrics, which might be new to the pupils.
The children who have been out to music return. They
are relatively quiet and go to their seats and work in
an orderly manner.

Decision:

The teacher continues with the discussion of poetry
and does not interrupt the lesson to speak to those who
have just returned.

 

138.

139.

140.

141.

G-35

Situation:

The lesson is about using verbs. After a brief dis-
cussion and review, the teacher gives an assignment

to the children and they begin working silently on
identifying action words. The teacher then circulates
among the students, observing their progress as they
work.

Decision:

The teacher compliments the children individually
on how well they follow directions. She praises them
for the way they have followed the written words.

Situation:

Four arithmetic problems are on the board. A pupil
is selected from several volunteers to work the
problem and show each operation on the board. He
explains as he progresses. One boy asks if he can
try the next one on the board. He is a rather slow
and immature child. The teacher lets the boy go to
the board but sees very soon that he is working

the problem incorrectly.

Decision:

The teacher immediately asks another child if he would
go to the board and help the boy in error.

Situation:

The children have just finished spelling class and it
is time for their break. They are free to stretch,
to go to the restrooms and get drinks.

Decision:

The teacher reminds the children to be considerate
of others in the building.

Situation:

The students have been having their daily arithmetic
lesson. They have discussed and reviewed the process
of long division. It is now time for the teacher to
give the next day's arithmetic assignment.

Decision:
The teacher asks the students to make up some long

division story problems of their own based on packaging
and to be ready to share them the next day.

142.'

143.

144.

G-36
Situation:

The students have been having a study period after
lunch. Some of them have been working on their
poetry assignments, while others have been doing
arithmetic, spelling, etc. It is not yet time for
the usual spelling lesson (a test today) but an
assembly is scheduled for 2:00.

Decision:

The teacher explains that since they are all going
to an assembly at 2:00, they will have to shorten
the period for work on their assignments and quickly
get ready for their spelling test.

Situation:

A class discussion is in progress. A student interrupts
the discussion to ask about a social studies trip

which was earlier announced Vas cancelled. Before

the discussion can continue, a student brings in a

box and is then seated. A pupil then stands up to
recite and spills coins onto the floor. Another pupil
goes to help pick up the coins.

Decision:

The teacher remains patient and waits pleasantly until
the pupil regains her composure and can speak to the
018.830

Situation:

The pupils are getting ready to play parts in the story
of "Jean's Hair." The pupils are excited and rather
noisy and the teacher reminds them that they will

have more time for the play if they quiet down. One
girl starts up to the front of the room while the
teacher is giving instructions,and the teacher asks
her kindly to return to her seat. The teacher then
finishes giving instructions,and the students go up

to take their places.

Decision:
The teacher goes over to the girl who started up to

her while she was giving instructions and asks her
what she wanted.

145.

146.

147.

148.

0-37

sum-lama:

The children have just returned from hearing four
members of a brass section of the Detroit Phil-
harmonic Orchestra. They have been complimented on
their good behavior in the auditorium. It is ten
minutes before it is time for school to be dismissed
for the day.

Decision:

The teacher tells the students they may work on any-
thing of interest to them, since it is too near
dismissal time to start any new work.

Situation:

The class is about to begin a spelling lesson. They
have their books and papers on their desks. A boy
walks in late.

Decision:
The teacher does not question the boy who walks in late.
Situation:

The teacher is reviewing a lesson on number combinations
using the numerals 10, ll, 12, etc. She says, "Ten

is the sum of two and ," etc. There are seven

or eight children in this class who repeatedly have
difficulty in math. They appear to need more review
although the others are ready to go on.

Decision:

The teacher continues to involve the whole class in
the review exercise.

Situation:

The teacher is working with a reading group and the
other groups are still working on the word beginnings,
i.e., an, can, pan. Some of the students finish their
written work before others.

Decision:

The teacher allows the students who finish their
written work to work together in the back corner.

1&9 .

150.

151.

152.

G-38

Situation:

The teacher is working with a group of slow readers
who weekly attend a remedial reading class. They
are having a review exercise on a story which they
have partially read. The students are having
difficulty recognizing and pronouncing words.

Decision:

The teacher provides the students with a variety of
cues, stressing initial consonants, rhyming words,
and vowel sounds.

Situation:

The class is divided into reading groups. One group
is working on vowel sounds. The other two groups
are answering questions on paper or coloring.

Decision:

The teacher asks the students who have been working
on vowels to respond to some true or false statements
on the story they read in the morning.

Situation:

School is about to begin. The children are all in
their seats,waiting to start the day.

Decision:

The teacher calls each child's name waiting to
hear his response to check the roll.

Situation:

One group of students is getting ready to go into their
reading group. The teacher is helping another group

of students get ready for their written assignment.
They do not have writing paper yet, however, the
teacher has found that if she lets them keep writing
paper in their desks or passes it out too soon, the
first thing they do is draw pictures on it. She
finishes giving directions for their task.

Decision:

The teacher passes out the paper they will need for
their written work.

K

O.

153.

154.

155.

156.

157.

G-39
Situation:
The teacher has just finished reading the class a
description of a robin. They will be studying more
about robins tomorrow.

Decision:

The teacher explains what they will be doing for
tomorrow's lesson.

Situation:

The teacher is working with a slow reading group. She
has asked them to rearrange some sentences she has
given them so that they will be in the order of their
occurrence in the story. The children appear to have
difficulty understanding the task they are to do.
Decision:

The teacher decides to have them do the assignment
together in a group, rather than independently.

Situation:

Following a reading lesson, the students have reassembled
as a total class to study science.

Decision:

The teacher uses cherry blossom branches to illustrate
how buds become flowers.

Situation:

School has just begun. The students have been given
an assignment in their workbook which deals with
animals.

Decision:

The teacher reads a story about animals to the class
prior to allowing the students to begin work in their
workbooks.

Situation:

It is the end of the school day,and the students are
preparing to leave.

Decision:

The teacher has the students perform various room clean-
up duties.

.II‘.
‘ l

158.

159.

160.

161.

162.

G-4O

Situation:

The students have just come back from lunch and the
class is about to begin.

Decision:

The teacher begins by reading a story to the students
that correlates with the reading lessons.

Situation:

The teacher has just finished working with a reading
group. The other two groups are either doing seat-
work or working in small groups in the back of the
room with phonics.

Decision:

The teacher takes the class to the library for free
reading.

Situation:

The class is putting their materials away and preparing
to go to lunch. The children appear to be excited.

Decision:

The teacher asks the children to sit in their seats
and settle down before they leave for lunch.

Situation:

The students are writing the words introduced in
yesterday's reading lesson. They often have a great
deal of difficulty remembering the basic vocabulary
words that are in the stories in their books.
Decision:

The teacher decides to have the students draw a picture
to illustrate the words on the board.

Situation:

The teacher is working with a reading group. The word
"stretch" is introduced into the lesson.

Decision:

The teacher asks a little girl to stand up and stretch.

 

 

 

163.

164.

165.

166.

. G-4l
Situation:

The teacher is about to meet with an individual
reading group. She is assigning work so that the
rest of the children will be working while she is
busy. She reminds them of their make-up work and
assignments that are due.

Decision:

The teacher reviews the plans for the entire morning
with the students.

Situation:

In the last couple of days, milk time has become
increasingly loud and confusing. It is about the
time now for the children to have their milk.

Decision:

The teacher says she would like them to take a few
minutes first to discuss their behavior at milk time.
She asks pertinent and leading questions and encourages
the children to discuss and formulate their own rules
and standards of conduct for milk time.

Situation:

A fifth grade science class is divided into groups

of five. Most of the groups have gathered the infor-
mation they need on the subject of insects. They are
now working on creative ways of presenting their
material to the rest of the pupils. The children

are sharing ideas, developing acharts,and organizing
skits.

Decision:

The teacher visits each committee and offers her assistance.
She checks to see that all individuals are included in

the planned reporting, helps them locate materials,

and encourages organization and evaluation.

Situation:

A fifth grade class is having a club meeting. They
are trying to find a way to earn money for a class
picnic. One child suggests a fudge sale,and most of
the children think this is a good idea.

167.

168.

169.

0-42

Decision:

The teacher intercedes at this point and reminds the
children that a fudge sale usually gives most of

the work to their mothers, since they are the ones
who must make the fudge. She compliments them on
their "sale" idea, but suggests that they think of
another item to sell that would be their project,
and not the work of their mothers.

Situation:

The children are about to read their social studies
text. The teacher is trying to increase their interest
by asking questions. Some of the children pose
questions in return and a discussion, somewhat un-
related to the text, arises.

Decision:

The teacher decides not to follow the text at this
time. She lets the children go into a discussion
about Japan and organize a unit around their dis-
cussion.

Situation:

In a combination room the teacher asks the 5th graders
to "look over" a given page while he works with the
6th grade. The 6th grade assignment consists of a
review of several arithmetic skills, such as reading
and writing numbers, finding unknown numbers, defining
terms, etc. The teacher asks questions about each
section and shows ways to do similar work on the board.
The 6th grade children respond very slowly, and most
of the 5th grade children are "just sitting."

Decision:

The teacher gives the 6th grade class a shortened
assignment, eliminating the problems they do not seem
to understand.

Situation:

A class of second graders is preparing to write a
friendly letter to their parents about water safety.
The teacher leads a discussion on safety rules and
why they are necessary. The pupils volunteer many
ideas for their letters and the teacher writes them,
in letter form, on the board. They discuss briefly
the format of a friendly letter and the children
begin to write their letters.

 

170.

171.

172.

G-43
Decision:

After a period of time, the teacher stops the class
and has them stand and stretch. She allows them to
talk and relax for a few minutes before resuming
their work.

Situation:

An arithmetic lesson begins concerning the concept

of place value. The teacher brings the children to

the front of the room in groups of tens and ones. 4“
She then uses concrete objects for counting (bundles

of tens and ones). The next step would be to represent

the number of children with the bundles and put them

in jars (one for.tens and one for ones), but some of

the students are confused at this point as to why the

numeral 3 has greater value than the numeral 4 in the

number 34.

Decision:

Before moving on to the next step, the teacher stops
and explains her statement in a slow and meaningful
manner o

Situation:

The teacher is introducing the weekly spelling lesson.
The children have their spelling books and are attentive.
They say the words, spell them, and notice similarities.
Two children suddenly appear at the door with some
unusual pets to show.

Decision:

The teacher interrupts the spelling lesson and allows
the pets to be shown.

Situation:

The teacher is working individually with the children
in reading, while the rest of the class works
independently at their seats on spelling, language,

and arithmetic. The children are working exceptionally
well. The teacher notes the time and tells the class
it is almost time for arithmetic. The children groan
softly, because they are involved with their individual
work and apparently do not want to stop.

173.

174.

175.

G-44
Decision:

The teacher asks for a decision from the group-~"If
you wish to continue working as nicely as you are now,
perhaps I can work with some of you individually who
particularly need help on your multiplication tables--
and that will be our arithmetic for the day."

Situation:

During "current events" a sixth grade class is dis-
cussing news articles they read the night before.
One of the students mentions having watched the
Governor's T.V. presentation on traffic accidents
called "Michigan Massacre.” Many of the students
had seen the program and the interest and need to
discuss it is evident.

Decision:

The teacher allows the discussion and takes this
opportunity to guide and encourage the pupils'
thinking about safe and courteous driving habits.

Situation:

The children are watching the teacher write letters
on the board. She is forming each letter three ways.
Only one way is correct. -The children have been
asked to identify the correct form. In writing the
group for the letter "f," she inadvertently writes
three incorrect forms-~the correct form is not

shown. The teacher notices her error.

Decision:

The teacher decides that instead of erasing one of
the letters and correcting it, she will leave it.

Situation:

The day's routine has been disrupted several times and
there is not sufficient time for the usual spelling
period. The children are accustomed to having their
trial test on this particular day of the week.

Decision:

The teacher announces that the test will be postponed
until the next day.

.l l Ii I. I'll .I

176.

177.

178.

179.

3-45

Situation:

The teacher introduces the daily arithmetic assignment.
The pupils are attentive and interested as they work
together with the teacher. She then gives the assign-
ment and they begin to work independently. After a
relatively short period of time, the pupils become
increasingly disinterested and restless.

Decision:

The teacher discovers that the children still don’t
understand the work. The teacher returns to the pro—
cedure of working together with the group.

Situation:

A sixth grade class is orally correcting a section in
an English workbook which pertains to clauses. It

is immediately after recess,and although the class is
quiet and attentive, they are somewhat unresponsive.

Decision:

The teacher asks several students to diagram the
sentences on the blackboard instead of reciting just
the individual clauses.

Situation:

The teacher is explaining about the stars that make
up the constellations. She is explaining by means of
a constellation globe. Some of the children who
apparently cannot see very well begin to complain

and tell the students in front of them to move, put
their heads down, etc.

Decision:

The teacher asks the class to come to the front of
the room and form a circle around the constellation
globe.

Situation:

It is Monday and the children are starting to read a
new story. The teacher is guiding their oral reading
and asking questions. Some of the students are having
difficulty with the words that were presented in
Friday's reading lesson.

Decision:

The teacher suggests that they should go back and
review some of the stories they had read before.

180.

181.

182.

183.

0-46

Situation:

The teacher (in a two-grade combination classroom)

has put math problems on the board for the second
graders to work while she is teaching the third grade.
A child comes to her while she is working with the
third grade and asks how to work a particular problem.
The teacher realizes that she has accidentally put

a problem on the board that involves carrying-~a
process the second graders have not yet been taught.

Decision:

The teacher immediately goes to the board and changes
the numbers so that carrying is not involved.

Situation:

The class has just finished reading a story aloud.
They are discussing it,and the teacher asks general
questions concerning the setting and characters in
the story. The class appears to have liked the story.
but only a few children contribute and the rest

act tired and listless.

Decision:

The teacher asks if any of the children would like to be
characters and act out parts of the story.

Situation:

The class is planning a mural. They look at a series
of pictures they have done in their economics workbooks
and discuss how they could use these pictures as the
basis for a mural. The teacher then selects three
interested students, who appear to have useful ideas,
to organize the drawing. They go to work and sketch

a rough pencil outline of the mural.

Decision:

The teacher asks the three children to choose others
to help with coloring and completing the mural.

Situation:

With the assistance of the teacher, a third grade class

is writing an experience story about the many recreational
facilities in Michigan. The teacher notes some confusion
on the part of the students concerning certain locations
in Michigan. '

184.

185.

186.

G-47
Decision:

The teacher pulls down a map of Michigan and directs
their attention to it.

Situation:

The children are quietly seated-~with their social
studies books on their desks. They are reading and
discussing. It is a very relaxed time--the children
are interested and many participate. ,

Decision:

The teacher enriches the text by talking about many

things that are not in the book. He decides to draw
a diagram of oil wells and oil pockets in the earth.
He does much explaining as he draws.

Situation:

The students have just come from a class with another
teacher and are very restless. The teacher is trying
to start a learning activity. The students just aren't
paying attention.

Decision:

In order to get the pupils all looking at the same
thing at the same time, the teacher directs their
attention to a particular map in their books. She
quiets the children by asking them questions about
information on the map in their book.

Situation:

The children are seated around the teacher and she

is preparing them for an art activity. She tells
them that Sunday is Mother's Day. They discuss

what this means,and then she asks how mothers help us.

Decision:

The teacher tries to motivate the children with her own
interest and enthusiasm. She reacts to their examples
and illustrations with responsive comments and facial
expressions. ‘

 

 

187.

188.

189.

G-48

We:

An English class is having a lesson on developing good
paragraph structure. The teacher gives each child

a duplicated sheet with 18 sentences to be organized
into 5 paragraphs. The exercise is done orally and,
as the children contribute their ideas, the teacher
makes encouraging comments. Only about four children
are raising their hands and responding, however.

Decision:

The teacher says, "Let's see if some other peOple
can contribute: we have too many letting a few do
all the work."

Situation:

Using large pictures of birds as visual aids, a teacher
is encouraging her students to make observations and
contribute information about birds. She asks leading
questions and allows all volunteers to speak in turn.
There is a question about the age of a bird, and one
child announces, "My mother said that blue jays take
and eat other birds' eggs."

Decision:

The teacher asks, "Do they? Perhaps we might look

that up. Tom's question on the age of birds is another
area we might investigate. Would you boys be interested
in finding the answers to these questions?"

Situation:

The children are doing an arithmetic exercise together.
The lesson involves beginning division and they are
grouping numbers. (How many groups of 3 in 12?", etc.)

Decision:

The teacher has six children at a time go to the board
and figure the responses while the rest of the children
work at their desks. The teacher and the children take
turns giving problems. All of the children are given
the opportunity to work at the board.

190.

191.

192.

193.

0-49

Situation:

A first grade class is involved in a writing lesson.

The teacher is showing how the capital letters 2, 3, and
§_all begin alike. While discussing B, the children
name words beginning with this letter. The pupils
practice the letter and the teacher walks among them

to observe those who might need assistance. After
everyone has made the letter correctly, they make

up words that begin with B. Then the group composes

a story using the capital B, plus other capitals they
have hado ‘

Decision:

The teacher gives the pupils practice in using this
new letter in speech, written words, and finally in
sentences.

Situation:

The science class has just begun and the teacher is
initiating a unit on birds.

Decision:

The teacher begins by asking the children questions
about things they have already learned and know about
birds.

Situation:

The teacher announces to the children that they will

be studying a new area in social studies-~their nearest
neighbor, Canada. She asks what they know about Canada,
and many of the children contribute an experience or
fact concerning Canada. The teacher listens and
encourages their comments.

Decision:

The teacher uses the children's present knowledge of
Canada to create interest and discussion for their new
unite

Situation:

The teacher is talking enthusiastically to her class about
books in preparation for their summer reading. She
distributes leaflets on the summer reading school and
gives a thorough explanation of the reading program. She
directs attention to a clever bulletin board she has
designed on books and summer reading. A short discussion
with a question-and-answer period follows.

194.

195.

196.

G-50
Decision:

The teacher tries to motivate the children with her
own interest and enthusiasm. She reacts to their
questions and comments with responsive comments and
facial expressions.

Situation:

The teacher is introducing a new song to the children.
She begins by discussing the meaning of the song lyrics.
She plays the melody while the children hum its tune

in order that they may learn it. The children grasp
the melody and lyrics so rapidly that the teacher is
able to teach three verses, instead of only the one
planned.

Decision:

The teacher says, "You have learned this song so well
and you seem to enjoy it so much, I wonder if any of
you would like to form a trio or quartet and sing it
for the rest of the group?"

Situation:

Having just returned from the library, a fifth grade
class is participating in a book discussion. They are
planning to compile a book list for their summer
reading. They begin by discussing the advantages

of summer reading and its effect upon their skill to
read next year. Then they suggest ideas of how they
will compile their list. One child brings up the fact
that they have forgotten one advantage of summer
reading and that is that they can earn a "summer
reading certificate."

Decision:

The teacher responds, "That's right Dan, we did forget
that, and I'm glad you brought it up."

Situation:

A class has just had a phonics lesson on two of the
sounds "ea" makes when it comes together in a word.

The teacher is now passing out the seatwork and the
children are writing their names on their papers. One
boy tells the teacher, as she gives him a paper, that
"ea" also makes another sound, and gives her the example
of the word "great."

 

197.

198.

199.

200.

G-51
Decision:

The teacher decides to call this to the attention
of the entire class. She praises the boy's "discovery"
and they discuss this "third" sound of "ea."

Situation:

The teacher is preparing to introduce a spelling lesson.
The children have been asked to put away their arith-
metic books. The teacher scans the room to see that
all the children are ready to listen. One child still
has his book out and is working problems.

Decision:

The teacher asks the child once again to put his
arithmetic away and listen to directions. She waits
until the child has done this before proceeding with
the spelling lesson.

Situation:

The teacher is introducing a new instructional game
to the students; it resembles Bingo and involves
matching letters of the alphabet. The children are
sitting at tables, listening attentively,and reacting
to the teacher's directions.

Decision:

Using carefully chosen words, the teacher gives step-
by-step directions that the children need for this
particular activity.

Situation:

The teacher introduces a spelling lesson to her second
grade. She explains the assignment and gives careful
directions for the first part of their written work.
The children begin and she circulates among them,
giv’in’g assistance where needed.

Decision:

When several children complete the first part, the
teacher gets the attention of the class and introduces
the second part of the lesson.

Situation:

A group of girls is about to go outside for gym. They
are going to play a new game,and the teacher is
explaining it.

201.

202.

203.

G-52
Decision:

The teacher draws a diagram of the game to be played
on the board.

Situation:

The art class begins with a brief discussion of spring
in Michigan. Paper, crayons, and rulers are passed out.
They begin by using their rulers to make a "frame" for
their pictures. The teacher gives much encouragement
for creative frames and "lovely" spring pictures. The
children work industriously and share the crayons well.
The teacher then observes several children using only
the bottom quarter of their papers. They appear

to be anxious for their drawing to be very realistic,
with exact sizes and shapes.

Decision:

The teacher stops the children for a moment and
announces that everyone should try to fill up his
paper with large and colorful items.

Situation:

 

A spelling class is having an independent study period.
The children are quiet and industrious as they do their
workbook assignment. Several students go individually
to the teacher for assistance and soon she has numerous
requests for help on the same question.

Decision:

The teacher stops the group's independent work and
has the children reason out the answer, guiding them
by leading questions and specific directions.

Situation:

The children are quietly beginning an arithmetic lesson
in the textbook. Instructions have been given. The
first question in the oral lesson has a misprint. The
children become excited and much of the order is lost.

Decision:

The teacher decides to substitute P.M. for the A.M.
misprint. She briefly tells the children about her
decision and why she chose it and goes on with the

lesson.

204.

205.

206.

207.

G-53
Situation:

The teacher is showing cards with capital and lower
case letters of the alphabet. The children are
identifying and describing distinguishing features
of the more difficult letters. Several children
mistake the letter "1" for the number 1.

Decision:

The teacher writes the name "Bill" on the board. The
children recognize their classmate's name and then
holding the "1" card under it, she explains that there
are two 1’s in his name. Then she writes the word
"one" and puts the numeral "1" next to it.

Situation:

The lesson is on teaching how to read or tell a story
well. The class is discussing a short mystery story
from their text. The teacher asks leading questions
which encourage class participation. The children
find words, phrases, and illustrations that add vivid
expression and description to the story.

Decision:

The teacher chooses individuals to read dialogue
excerpts with exaggerated expression.

Situation:

The teacher is preparing the class for an experiment
that will demonstrate the properties of air. She
begins with her hands cupped together. The children
ask what she has and there are guesses-~small rocks,
snails, etc. The teacher shows the children and they
say, "you don't have anything." She says they are
wrong: her hands are full of air.

Decision:

The teacher asks the children to take a deep breath
and hold it in their lungs to give another concrete
example.

Situation:

The teacher begins the music lesson by having the group
sing a familiar and popular song. The song calls for

a clapping accompaniment, which the children easily
provide with obvious enjoyment. During the singing of
many verses, the singing becomes softer, the words

harder to understand, but the beat remains constant. The

teacher then stOps and asks, "What do you like about this
song?"

208.

209.

210.

9-54
Decision:

The teacher uses this experience, with their comments
and reactions, to launch a lesson on beat and rhythm.

Situation:

The class has discussed syllabication and has already
completed their material in the workbook on this
subject. The evaluation that follows their work in
this area indicates that the material has not been
sufficiently understood or mastered.

Decision:

The teacher used the dictionary for additional instruction.
The students read and discuss the lessons in the front

of their dictionaries. The teacher then chooses words
found in the main part of the dictionary as examples

and the children orally go through the syllabication

process, also indicating accents and vowel sounds.
Situation:

This is a language lesson used to develop reading
readiness. The children are sitting around a large
bare flannel board. The objects and characters that
will be used by the children to retell the story are
placed on a smaller flannel board next to the large
one. The teacher informs the children that she is
going to tell a little tiny story.and they are to
think about what happens. She then tells the story
while the children sit and listen. When she finishes,
three children are allowed to retell the story and
"write" the story on the flannel board.

Decision:

The teacher decides to retell the story and to add
several items to the sequence, thereby making the
story more involved. She asks for volunteers to
try the longer story.

Situation:

The teacher is introducing the concept of comparisonp-
brighter, heavier, smallest, tallest, etc. She begins
by explaining verbally, and on the board, comparative
forms of words. Then they read aloud the directions
in their books and the teacher walks around and

checks answers as they work each problem together.

211.

212.

213.

214.

0-55

Decision:

The teacher selects objects from the immediate
environment and asks each child to compare items
in comparative terms.

Situation:

The teacher is conducting a lesson in phonics dealing
with the sounds of "ar, er, ir, or ur." The pupils
are taking part in the discussion by answering
questions and finding words with the different sounds.
Some of the children cannot hear the differences.

Decision:

The teacher has the children put their fingers up
to their throats and feel the difference in the sounds
as they pronounce the vowel-consonant blends.

Situation:

The teacher is telling the story "Tom Turkey," using
the flannel board. The purpose of "Tom Turkey" is to
teach the correct sounds of the vowels. The children
are very fascinated due to the teacher's enthusiasm
and interesting facial and vocal expressions.

Decision:

The teacher allows the children to participate when
she comes to a line they know.

Situation:

Students are giving individual reports on the various
planets,and the teacher is guiding the discussions

that follow. The student who reports on Uranus briefly
mentions the effect it had on the discovery of Neptune.
In the succeeding discussion, no one questions or
comments on this.

Decision:
The teacher makes the statement that Neptune was

"discovered" before it had been seen; that the dis-
covery was made by applying the laws of gravity.

Situation:

The teacher returns papers on which the pupils have
answered questions from their study of Asia. The
questions were based on films and oral discussions the
class had had earlier. Many of the children come from
limited backgrounds and are poor readers.

G-56

Decision:

The teacher leads a discussion of the questions they
have answered on their papers.

2150 Situation:

The class is in remedial reading and most of the
children are from deprived homes. Their vocabulary
and background ofoenriching experiences are very
limited. The teacher begins the lesson by writing
on the board the new words that they will find in
their next story.

Decision:

Each time she writes a new word, the teacher talks
about it with the children and is very careful to
associate it with ideas and things the children have
personally experienced.

216. Situation:

One child, when reading orally, consistently misses
the words want and went. The teacher says to the child,
"Michael, I wonder if this could be your problem--

you know the word when I write it on the board, but
you seem to be confused when you see it in the book."
(She writes the word want on the board). "In the book
they make the letter 'a' differently than I do when

I write it on the board and perhaps this is why you
get mixed up." She then proceeds to write want

on the board with both forms of the letter ‘a'.

The child and group discuss the differences and find
examples of the "different a" in their books.

Decision:

To stop this group for the assistance of one child
and to attempt to diagnose his problem.

217. Situation:

It is song and rhythm time and one of the children
suggests singing "Jack and Jill." The teacher asks

if he would like to sing it alone or with someone

else. He chooses four other children to sing the song.

Decision:

The teacher asks, "How many children has Bob selected
to sing with him?" One of the children answers and
another puts the numeral representing the number of
children chosen on the chalkboard.

218.

219.

220.

221.

G-57
Situation:

The lesson is on counting by tens. The teacher has
bundles of tens and ones and is letting the children
put the bundles in the ten's place and one's place
to "act out" demonstration of number concepts. They
are also writing on the board how many there are
altogether. One girl says it is wrong when they go
to 100 to leave 10 bundles in the ten's place.

Decision:

Rather than explaining it herself, the teacher encourages
the child to show the group what is wrong.

Situation:

The music teacher is introducing a new song about
Memorial Day. She begins asking the pupils what
Memorial Day is and what it means.

Decision:

The teacher decides to take time to ensure under-
standing of pertinent concepts before teaching the song.

Situation:

A film is being shown as part of a unit on Russia.
It is the second time the students have viewed the
film, as it was shown earlier to stimulate interest
in the unit. They are seeing it now as a study
activity and have been briefed on what to look for.
Interest is very high.

Decision:

The teacher stops the film when it reaches a significant
point. He then enriches and explains more about the
situation and often asks the students to note the
contrast between the U.S. and U.S.S.R.

Situation:

The children come in from recess upset about the
behavior of a particular boy from another room. He
is older and stronger and has been "picking on them"
on the playground.

222.

223.

224.

G-58

Decision:

The teacher decides to discuss the situation openly
with the children. She sympathizes with them but
at the same time offers possible reasons for his
rough behavior. She emphasizes that he is angered
when the children tease him. She explains that he
needs understanding and friends,and they should be
kind to him. If he still hurts them, they are to
talk to the person on playground duty.

Situation:

The class is quiet, attentive and responsive. The
teacher asks for observations of an illustration
in the arithmetic text. The students try to pick
out the new geometric concepts in the diagram, but
are not successful.

Decision:

The teacher has the students go back several pages

to a similar but less abstract illustration. He

asks them to use this as a basis for their observations
of geometric design.

Situation:

The class is listening to a singing record about
fables, which they have previously read. The class

is listening very quietly. The children's expressions
show that they are following the record closely.

The teacher is standing and 1istening,too. The

whole atmosphere is relaxing.

Decision:

The teacher stays completely in the background, making
no introductory remarks or comments, letting the class
guess what the stories are.

Situation:

The teacher gives a brief and effective introduction
on homonyms. The children enjoy and actively ‘
participate in the introduction. The teacher then
checks their understanding by asking questions and
letting the students respond orally. One of the
girls who is very anxious to contribute, gives the
wrong answer when called on.

225.

226.

227.

228.

Decision:

The teacher pauses and asks the child to think the
question through more carefully. She then repeats
the question, giving emphasis to the important words.

Situation:

The teacher is helping the children check spelling
seatwork. Various children are being called on to
give answer and each pupil is checking his own book.

Decision:

When one child has the wrong answer, the teacher, aware
that this child and possibly some others needs help

on this error, uses the blackboard to demonstrate and
review the applicable vowel rule.

Situation:

The arithmetic lesson is on the multiplication of
decimals. The teacher is at the board, explaining

the process of decimal placement. Some of the students
are restless and appear confused about the "new"
method.

Decision:

The teacher decides to repeat the process on the board,
using another sample problem.

Situation:

A low ability group is giving a report to the class

on the muscles of the human body. The rest of the .
children are listening and taking notes on information
the committee is presenting.

Decision:

Showing a great deal of enthusiasm, the teacher
encourages and guides the committee. (She has helped
them compile many supplemental materials--pictures,
charts, models, cut-outs, etc.)

Situation:

A small class is involved in an arithmetic lesson on
beginning multiplication. When the teacher asks for
an answer to a sample problem, he notices that one of
the students works the problem by counting on her
fingers.

229.

230.

231.

G-6O

Decision:

He asks the child how she solved the problem. He
writes it on the board as the pupil explains it in
order to show why the answer is correct. He praises
the child for being able to solve the problem,
reviews the multiplication process and, using an
example, shows how much easier it is than addition
("The only reason we do it this way is because

it is easier.").

Situation:

The class is settled and quiet. The lesson is an
introduction to the decimal fraction. The teacher
tells the class that they are about to learn "a new
way to work with fractions." The class shows some
concern about learning another fraction system.

Decision:

The teacher immediately assures the class that they
will find they can learn about decimals very easily.
She explains that "it is a system we use every day
when we talk about dollars and cents."

Situation:

Before going to the art room, the teacher tells the
children they will be working with clay, as they had
planned. (In conjunction with a classroom unit, each
child is going to make a farm animal.) When they
move to the art room, she hands out the clay in
individual wads..

Decision:

The teacher tells them that they may just handle and
work the clay for awhile, before starting on their
animal. She then walks around, encouraging and helping
the children as they begin their farm animals.

Situation:

The children are working with decimals and they question

' how to multiply them. The teacher is about to explain

when one child raises his hand and says he knows how

to do it. He goes to the board and works a problem,
but does it incorrectly. Some of the children begin to
laugh and tease the boy about his mistake.

Decision:

The teacher intercedes and compliments the boy for trying.

232.

233.

231‘".

235.

G-6l
Situation:

The teacher has written an arithmetic lesson on the
board. The children are copying the lesson and working
the problems. The teacher walks by the pupils and
observes their individual work, answering questions
when asked by individual pupils. The teacher suddenly
notices an error in her work on the board.

Decision:

Rather than ignore it, the teacher calls for the
attention of the entire class and asks if anyone can
find the mistake she made on the board.

Situation:

A fourth grade class has been discussing current
events. The students are now responding to some fill—
in questions the teacher has written on the board.
Individual pupils are coming to the board to complete
the statements by putting in the correct words. The
teacher calls on a boy who has raised his hand to
answer one of the questions. He is usually reticent
about contributing, and is quite shy. When he begins
to write in the correct response he hesitates, because
he cannot spell the word.

Decision:

The teacher immediately says, "That is a hard word to
spell, can someone help Bob with the correct spelling?"

Situation:

An advanced third grade reading group is receiving new
books. The teacher passes them out and asks if they
would like some time to browse and get acquainted with
their new book. They do,and after a few minutes,the
teacher asks for deductions from the title, pictures,
etc. Then they look over the table of contents and
eventually read and discuss the first two stories.

.Decision:

The teacher uses more than the usual amount of
"reading class" time to introduce the new book.

Situation:

The children are reading letters aloud that they have
received from pen pals in New York State. The teacher
decides that it is time to stop reading the letters.
The children ask to hear "one more letter" before they
stop. A particular girl in need of encouragement and
support shows how short her letter is and asks for
permission to read it.

236.

237.

238.

0-62

Decision:

The teacher permits the girls to read the "one last"
letter.

Situation:

The recess bell is ringing and the children and teacher
are returning to the room. Just as they enter, several
children yell, "Mrs. Johnson, Mrs. Johnson, Tommy's
been hit in the head with a stone,and it's bleeding

all over." The teacher starts to hurry out as Tom
comes in crying and holding his head. Some of the
children are very upset at seeing so much blood, others
are yelling, "Freddy did it, Mrs. Johnson," and still
others are asking, "What happened?" as several "eye
witnesses“ give the "gory details."

Decision:

The teacher immediately and effecitvely takes control.
Taking a towel from her desk and putting it on Tom's
head, she gives calm and explicit directions, "Children,
as you can see, Tom needs first aid. I'll take him

to the health room,and we should be back in just a

few minutes. You can help by going right to your seats
and waiting quietly and patiently for us. Janice

and Amy, I would like you to pass the milk and crackers
as usual."

Situation:

The teacher is weighing and measuring the children

for the permanent record file. While individuals

are being weighed by the teacher, the others are studying
their spelling words. Most study quietly. There is

some curiosity and tendency to react to the weighing

of heavy children and the measuring of short children.
This is stimulated by the teacher's use of a student

to write down the data.

Decision:

The teacher uses quiet but firm remarks and records
the measurements himself rather than orally relay
them to someone else.

Situation:

Five children are dramatizing the story of the Three
Billy Goats Gruff. One of the children, the narrator,
(who was originally very anxious to participate) is
vague on some parts. She is becoming flustered and
uneasy with the role she is playing. The other players
and audience are showing signs of restlessness.

239.

240.

241.

0-63

Decision:

The teacher says, ”Sandy, would you like to give
someone else a turn at narrating the story now?"

Situation:

The children (primary level) return to their room very
excited and "high" after their gym class. It is
customary for the children to rest at this time. They
go to their seats, but obviously can't seem to settle
down. There is much chatter and debate about the
activities in which they have just been engaged.

Decision:

The teacher decides to use a "listening activity" to
get the children calmed down. She asks them to listen
for sounds outdoors. If they hear sounds, they raise
their hand, but do not say anything until they are
through listening for things outdoors. Then they
listen for things indoors and later for happy things,
silly things, etc.

Situation:

The Stanford Achievement Tests are being administered
this week by the teacher. The children have moved
their desks so that individual work is insured. The
teacher has provided each child with the proper
materials and they are ready to begin. The children
are now listening to the teacher.

Decision:

Before reading the explicit testing directions, the
teacher elects to tell the students about the tests.

She explains why they are taking them and what they will
be used for. She does not overemphasize the importance
of the test, and yet urges them to do their best. She
tells them not to worry if there are some questions

they cannot answer or if they do not finish. She

then gives the directions in a very calm and clear
mannero

Situation:

After the children arrange materials on their desks for
a handwriting lesson, a discussion is based on the
selection of the correct form in each group of examples
which the teacher has placed on the board. Through
discussion of letters which are formed incorrectly, the
class pays more attention to the correct formation of
the letters. They are very critical and readily point
out the mistakes. When someone circles the wrong choice
on the board, the whole class helps him choose the right

one. At one point it is John's turn and he points out
the wrong letter.

242.

243.

244.

0-64

Decision:

The teacher immediately works this into the discussion
by asking if anyone would like to make a different
sekntion.

Situation:
The children are taking their weekly spelling test.

The teacher is pronouncing the words and using them
in sentences as the children write the words.

Decision:

The teacher does not stay at her desk or in front of
the room while pronouncing the words, but walks around
the room. She observes the children's work and
answers all questions. As she comments on their work,
she ignores no one.

Situation:

The children in the class have been very interested
in the millage campaign and are crestfallen over a
"no" vote. They usually have a routine language arts
session at this time. However, the teacher senses the
children's interest and concern.

Decision:

The teacher decides not to follow her morning plan.

She encourages discussion on the subject,and together
they organize a writing lesson dealing with the millage
affairo

Situation:

The children are writing individual creative stories
about "My Memorial Day." They are eager to write their
experiences on paper as quickly as possible,but some of
the children become frustrated because they cannot

spell all the words they want to use. The teacher moves
around helping individual children as much as possible,
but is unable to help all the children that need her
assistance.

Decision:

The teacher suggests that the children try sounding out
any difficult words which they want to use. She encourages
them to continue and not to be concerned if all the words
are not spelled correctly. She says she will make this
week's spelling list from the errors she finds when she
reads their stories. She explains that this way they can
learn the words,and then they will know them next time.

 

245.

246.

247.

248.

0-65
Situation:

The teacher is giving the class their reading assign-
ment. It includes one story to be read independently
and two pages to be completed in the workbook. The
children have some difficulty understanding the
directions for one page, so she repeats her explanation
and does an example on the board. With the exception
of one child, the class understands the assignment

and is ready to begin.

Decision:

The teacher has the group begin their silent reading.
She goes to the child and quietly once again explains
the task to be done.

Situation:

The children are at their seats getting ready to do a
section in their spelling books. The teacher is
reading the questions and encouraging the pupils to
answer the questions. As the students give the answers,
the teacher writes them on the blackboard,so that all
the children will know the correct response. A few
individuals are still having trouble with the written
lesson.

Decision:

The teacher decides to move around the room and help
the individuals that are having trouble.

Situation:

The teacher is explaining the procedure for a
standardized test. She is using the blackboard and
discussing the students' questions. Part of the pupils
are paying cloSe attention.but several slow learners
appear confused and in need of help.

Decision:

The teacher starts over again and repeats the instructions
more carefully and slowly. She then goes to the
children who are having difficulty and assists them

.individually.

Situation:

The class has been working on an arithmetic assign-
ment. Most of the students are still working, but

a few of the more able students finish substantially
sooner than the rest.

249.

250.

251.

G-66
Decision:

The teacher asks those students who have finished to
come quietly to the front of the room. She works with
them on the board,and they take turns writing numbers
such as 1,500,000, 1,005,000, etc.

Situation:

Initiating a language arts lesson, the teacher puts
three words on the board (bird, nest, fly). She
explains that each child is to write a very short
story, using these words in sentences. A few examples
are written on the board.

Decision:

Before allowing the children to begin, the teacher
decides to encourage many different ideas. She tells
them that just as we all look different, so do we
think and write differently. She tells them that she
is anxious to read all the different stories and once
again stresses the importance of using one's own ideas.

Situation:

The children (seated near the teacher in a reading group)
have just finished silent reading of a story. They

are about to discuss the story and take turns reading
parts of it aloud. All of the children but one are
ready to begin. He closes his book,and it is obvious
that he does not wish to participate.

Decision:

Instead of sitting where she would usually sit, the
teacher quietly gets a chair and sits next to the

boy. She gives him her book and asks if he will please
find the correct page. They then share her book.

Situation:

A kindergarten class is sitting quietly during their
share-and-tell time. A preschool child is visiting
for his "orientation day" but is very reticent about
staying. He refuses to sit with the rest of the group
and keeps saying he wants to go home.

Decision:
The teacher does not force the child into the sharing

activity. She talks quietly with him and then asks
him to help in getting out the rhythm instruments.

252.

253.

254.

G-67
Situation:

 

Science class is about to begin and all but three
children are at their tables. The children are not
aware of the nature of the lesson, although word clues
are on the board. They do not know it is to be an
experiment on "what a fire needs in order to burn."
The materials are all on a table in front of the room,
but they are covered with a cloth. Most of the class
is ready to begin, but some students are chatting and
several reading library books.

Decision:

The teacher remains perfectly quiet and keeps the
materials hidden until the children are attentive.

Situation:

The teacher is working with a group of children in
the reading circle while the rest of the class works
independently at their seats. As the teacher asks
the group to read the first two pages of the story
silently, she notices that two girls at their desks
are not working.

Decision:

The teacher leaves the reading group for a few minutes
and walks among the desks, stopping to comment to the
two girls.

Situation:

An art lesson is in progress and the teacher is giving
directions on drawing a flower. She talks about the
size, color, and background of their pictures and has
some flowers there to show them. They discuss drawing
real and imaginary flowers and the teacher has the
attention of all the pupils. Suddenly, however, a bee
comes into the room and is spotted by the children.
Their attention is diverted,and some of them are
frightened as it flies near them.

Decision:

The teacher lightly quips, "I think he knows about all
the flowers we're going to have in here, don't you?"
Then she assures them, "He won't bother you boys and
girls if you are quiet and sit very still. I will
take care of the bee."

 

255-

256.

257.

G-68
Situation:

The class is reading orally, and discussing their
magazine, Young Citizen. The teacher is leading the
discussion. Janet has been given a book of magic
tricks as a prize for selling a certain number of
packages of seeds. She is usually an attentive and
willing participant in group activities, but she is
reading the magic book during this class time.

Decision:

The teacher calls on her and asks a simple question
which she will be sure to answer correctly.

Situation:

During a lesson in spelling, a man cutting the lawn
passes the window. The teacher fears the man will not
see the small tree the class planted for Arbor Day.
She, therefore, asks one of the children to go out and
warn the man about their tree. As she looks out,

the child is running too close to the tractor,and the
man apparently does not see him. The children are
getting excited and laughing loudly

Decision:

The teacher decides she will have to go out herself.
She very calmly and quietly says, "Children, I must
go out and help Billy. Please remain in your seats
and keep the noise down. You may watch us through
the window,or look over your spelling words again.
I'll be right back."

Situation:

The children (primary) have pencils and papers on their
tables and are practicing writing the letter "e."

They are becoming restless and slow in responding

to directions.

Decision:

The teacher asks all the children to stop what they are
doing,and she waits for their attention. She then
selects several of the pupils' papers and praises the
good work. She encourages the children by saying that
she realizes it is difficult but wants them to watch
and then try again.

258.

259.

260.

0-69
Situation:

The children in the front of the room are reading to
the teacher. A few children at their seats are
talking, so the teacher quietly remarks that two
children are talking. These two stop talking, and
the teacher talks about how two people can make the
room so noisy. The children and teacher begin to
read again.and after a while she comments that these
two people still have their lips closed and that the
room is still quiet.

Decision:

The teacher remarks that these two children are now
being good helpers by keeping their lips closed and
that it is important for every child to help in room
behavior. She uses a calm voice and emphasizes that
quiet for study can be broken just by one or two
voices.

Situation:

The children (lst grade) are sitting in a group on

the floor in front of the teacher. She is using large
pictures for a reading readiness lesson. The children
notice details in each picture and then compare the
differences between two pictures. After a time,the
children begin to get restless.

Decision:

The teacher decides to take a "musical break." The
children get up and march around the room. Then they
take their books to the tables to do a page that requires
marking with a pencil.

Situation:

The teacher is conducting a short review of arithmetic.
The pupils are responding to questions she asks and
student participation and involvement is good. One
child, an underachiever, is not giving his full attention
to the review.

Decision:
The teacher asks Bill if he understands the problems

and then follows with a question for him to answer
about the work on the board.

iii

 

261.

262.

263.

264.

G-7O
Situation:

A class of fifth grade children is taking a spelling
test. As the teacher pronounces the words, she notices
that a child has a list of words under her test paper
and is cheating.

Decision:

The teacher stops her dictation, and speaks to the group
as a whole, "Boys and girls, I find it necessary to
remind you that honesty is always more important than
any mark you might receive on a test. Would you please
remove everything from your desks except your test
papers."

Situation:

It is a day on which a holiday party has been scheduled
for the afternoon. The pupils have been restless all
morning. During the reading class,one child is
disruptive during their discussion of the story.

Decision:

Instead of interrupting the class and disciplining the
child, the teacher casually walks over and stands

by the pupil while continuing the discussion.
Situation:

The teacher is teaching a finger play. Children sit

a in a circle on the floor. Some of the children act out

a play. The children are "all smiles" and seem to be
enjoying this very much. Actors seem a little shy in
front of the group. One child seems to be distracting
another little boy who would otherwise be paying
attention. Neither child is learning the finger play.

Decision:

The teacher motions for the disturbing child to come
sit at her side.

Situation:

A music lesson is being given. The teacher draws the
students in by asking questions about a particular song.
She keeps the spoken lesson fairly short,and then they
open their books and begin to sing. All of the students
are participating except one who is day dreaming.

265.

266.

267.

G-71
W:

The teacher begins to walk around the room,and when
she reaches the child who is not paying attention,
she opens his book and points to the line where the
class is singing.

Situation:

 

The teacher is reading a story to the children early

in the day's activities. The children are seated

on the floor facing the teacher. The teacher begins
reading the story in a soft tone of voice. The children,
if they wish to hear, have to sit still and listen
carefully. Several children are talking.

Decision:

Selecting a positive disciplinary approach, the teacher
says very quietly, "Can you hear me, Charles and
Phillip?"

Situation:

 

The children are busy doing various seatwork assignments.
The teacher is walking around the room helping those
children who have problems. Two girls are apparently
having a small conflict over a pencil, although they

are disrupting the class.

Decision:

The teacher goes to them and asks what the problem is.
One girl says her pencil is too short and she doesn't
have an eraser and needs to borrow one. The teacher

says she has a pencil she can use and gives it to her.

Situation:

A group of children is in a reading circle and is
taking turns reading orally. The teacher asks questions
to check for comprehension and to give the children an
opportunity to react to the story. The rest of the
pupils are having an independent work period and are
working productively, except for one child who is
teasing several of his neighbors. The teacher tries
looks of disapproval and eventually speaks to the boy,
in an effort to settle him down. He continues to be
disruptive, however, and is soon fighting with another
child.

Decision:

The teacher has the child leave the class group and
come sit next to her.

268.

269.

270.

271.

0-72
Situation:

At the end of a math lesson, a follow-up workbook

page is assigned. Clear directions are given with

an opportunity for the pupils to ask questions. The
class then begins working quietly at their seats while
the teacher helps individuals when needed. One pupil,
who has difficulty exercising self-control, is con-
tinuously talking to her neighbor. The teacher quietly
encourages her to settle down to work several times,
but to no avail.

Decision:

The teacher moves the child's desk and chair away from
the class.

Situation:

Standing in front of the class at the chalkboard, the
teacher explains to the class the seatwork lesson
written on the board. All but one child listens care-
fully. He rocks in his chair. The teacher directs the
class to use both sides of the paper and is very clear
in her directions. The children then get out their
pencils. The teacher quietly asks a few laggards to
get papers and all begin working. She then asks the
children in one reading group to come up for reading.
Two boys very excitedly run up to the teacher, one
accuses the other of having his crayon. The other
denies this.

Decision:

The teacher quietly, but firmly, leads the boys back
to their seats, and explains that if one wants to
borrow a crayon, he should ask for it.

Situation:

It is a beautiful spring day--one of the first of the
year. After recess many of the students are late for
class.

Decision:

As soon as the class is settled, the teacher carefully
and emphatically explains the rules concerning tardiness
and why they must be obeyed.

Situation:

The children are taking turns reading to the class the
stories they have written. One boy who is reading
his story begins to act silly and to read extremely fast.

 

272.

273.

274.

0-73

Decision:

The teacher stops the boy and reminds him of his fine
story. She explains that the rest of the children

will not be able to enjoy it unless they can understand
what he is saying. She reassures rather than reprimands,
saying that she knows he can do a better job of reading.

Situation:

The teacher and the children are discussing and planning
their field trip to a farm. The teacher asks a question,
and many of the children speak out at the same time.

Decision:

The teacher calmly tells the children that she knows
they are excited about their approaching trip, but

they must still remember to raise their hands and wait
to be called upon before speaking. "This will give all
of you a chance to be heard," she explains.

Situation:

The class is presenting a program for the parents. It
is a culminating activity for a unit they have done.
It has been rehearsed quite thoroughly, and each child
has a job to do. One girl suddenly begins to giggle
and tries to get her other classmates to join in. The
child has emotional problems and at times has become
somewhat hysterical. Despite "looks" and signals

from the teacher, she continues.

Decision:

The teacher walks over to the children, takes the
offending girl by the hand and leads her from the room.

Situation:

The children have just come in from the playground where
many of them broke a standing rule. They ran all the

way around the building--past the area where other classes
were going on. As soon as the children are settled in
their seats, the teacher asks why it happened. A dis-
cussion ensues concerning the rule and the reasons for

it. The teacher does not do much talking. She lets

the children respond.and their comments and contributions
indicate a high degree of thought and involvement.

Decision:

The teacher decides not to punish the children, but to
encourage them to think for themselves and to become
responsible for their own behavior.

275.

276.

277.

278.

0-74

Situation:

Each child has memorized a poem of at least eight lines.
The children are apprehensive, yet eager, to present
their memory selections. They have asked to do it
immediately, rather than do any of their daily lessons
first. The teacher sets up a tape recorder in the

rear of the classroom and calls for a volunteer to
recite a poem in front of the class.

Decision:

The teacher records the poem and plays it back immediately
for total class listening, appraisal and criticism.

Situation:

The teacher is passing out two sets of papers to her
first grade students. One set includes number and
writing papers they did in the fall.and the other set
includes papers they have done in the past several weeks
(it is now spring). She gives them time to examine
their papers and note the improvement they have made.
Then she explains that they may either keep all the
papers or select their best ones to put in a folder

to show their parents. They can decorate the cover

with their crayons. ‘

Decision:

 

The teacher lets the children and parents see examples
of past and present school work to note the improvement.

Situation:

The teacher is standing by the "Helping Hand" chart.
She has names of her students on cards shaped like
hands. Together they are discussing changes in class-
room job responsibility. The pupils are choosing the
job they would like for the coming week.

Decision:

As the teacher pins the "hands" for the week on the chart,
she stOps the activity to praise two children for the
responsible way in which they handled their "duty" last
week.

Situation:

The class is developing a program for the parents, to
show the progress that they have made in science and
social studies. They are having a practice session,and

it is obvious that parts of the program still need improve-
ment.

279.

280.

281.

G-75
Decision:

The teacher stops the practice and asks the children
how they think they might improve.

Situation:

The students have just finished practicing a program
they will present the next day. It is a culminating
activity for a unit they have just studied. The
teacher asks several leading questions concerning

the subject areas they have explored and the skills
they have learned. She encourages them to think how
they are demonstrated in their program. The students
respond and begin to share their different ideas.

Decision:

The teacher assumes a "listening" role and allows the
children to exchange their ideas freely.

Situation:

A sixth grade English class is reviewing their know-
ledge of verbs. The teacher begins by orally testing
their retention of previous instruction. Some of the
students ask questions about verbs,and another student
or the teacher offers an answer.

Decision:

The teacher has the students do a written exercise
on verbs. Upon completion, they check it orally
in class.

Situation:

The children are listening attentively to their math
teacher. He is explaining and demonstrating the use

of tables in their arithmetic books. He gives them all
the information he thinks is necessary for the success-
ful solution to their problems. He then gives them

a sample problem to solve but gets little response.

Decision:

He directs their attention to the measuring tables
once more and, using a slightly different approach,
explains the process again.

282.

283.

284.

285.

G-76
Situation:

Class groups are practicing their skits for the first
time. They are using puppets and doing one skit at

a time. The teacher and the rest of the children are
watching.

Decision:

At the completion of each skit, the teacher asks the
class if they have any comments concerning the plays,
either good or bad.

Situation:

The teacher is finishing a phonics lesson on double
consonant blends. She has the class review together
the chart of blends she has been using as a teaching aid.

Decision:

The teacher excuses the children individually for recess
on the basis of their each telling her the first two
letters of a word she gives them. If a student makes

a mistake she tells him and writes the correct word

on the board, but does not hold him back from recess.

Situation:

Division of fractions is being introduced to a sixth
grade. The teacher discusses the concepts involved
and uses the board for illustration. The children

are attentive as they read and discuss the directions
and material in their texts. While going over the
page of sample problems, the teacher suspects that
some of the students have forgotten material that was
taught several weeks earlier, and which is fundamental
to their present work.

Decision:

She asks all the students to work a problem. She has

chose who appear to be having the most difficulty to

go to the board and work their problem.
Situation:

The children and teacher discuss their plans for the
day. An assignment is then given and questions about
it are answered. As work on the assignment begins,
the teacher gives individual help where needed. The
classroom is becoming stuffy and over-heated.

G-77
Decision:

The teacher opens one window, walks about to check
drafts and readjusts the window.

286. Situation:

The teacher is teaching a new game called "Jet Pilots."
She divides the children into two groups and explains
the rules and directions. She has them walk through
'the game once for practice. They begin to play, but
several of the children do not stop running after
crossing the white line, as they are supposed to.

One child runs and slides across the floor.

Decision:

The teacher blows her whistle and stops the game.

Then she explains the danger of not stopping carefully
and has one child demonstrate how to stop safely on
the white line and then sit down carefully.

APPENDIX H

Significance Test For
Situation Frequency

H-l

Significance Tests for Situation Frequency

Referring to Table 4.7 for serial numbers of
unimodal distributions of responses of Referent Group A
and Referent Group B to frequency of occurrence of the
situation, the Fisher Exact Probability Testl was used to
determine the items that were statistically significant
in frequency of occurrence. Sixteen of the thirty-nine

items from the Inner City observation were found to be

 

significant. At the .05 level, eight items are expected
to be significant by chance alone. Twenty items of the

forty—four in the Clinic School observations were found

 

to be significant. At the 0.5 level, nine items are
expected to be significant by chance alone.
Conclusion:-—Behavioral situations occur with different
frequency in inner city and non-inner city schools.

Table 4.26 lists the serial numbers, divided by
source, which were factored out by the Fisher Exact
Probability Test. It will be noted that the notion that
many situations which occur weekly in non-inner city
schools occur daily in inner city schools is supported by
this test. I

It will also be noted that all behaviors identified
as significant by this table occur more frequently in inner

city schools than in non-inner city schools.

 

lSidney Siegel, Non Parametric Statistics, New York,
McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc. (1956)

 

 

 

 

 

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