m. 3:5»? I)»: i! 1.} L?5.: 3 Eamfifi ...,..m 5.4%» w. _ .33 4 v4. 3' ATP. a . r . :. ...:.._..._.:._ :vn... ft 33..) 2 3.153.... :31 I. 511:? 7 — ._mm._..a.flm. if». 1 .3553: , .3 1 7:1, . $141 .. . 611.. an": .7. :n LIBRA RY Mwfl $3123 Ufiifli’l‘fi‘f f mm- A _ «a w willllllllllllll\lllllll ' This is to certify that the ‘ ‘5 thesis entitled AN EVALUATIVE STUDY OF THE EFFECTS OF VIDEOTAPE REPLAY OF INTERPERSONAL CLASS EXERCISES ON STUDENTS ENROLLED IN AN INTRODUCTORY SPEECH COURSE IN A COMMUNITY COLLEGE presented by William C. Albright has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph.D. degree in Philosophy Cw / O x/LL‘Z,41/l a' r professor Date April 272 1976 0-7639 Q1 7/ ("l 01 ”)4 ABSTRACT AN EVALUATIVE STUDY OF THE EFFECTS OF VIDEOTAPE REPLAY OF INTERPERSONAL CLASS EXERCISES ON STUDENTS ENROLLED IN AN INTRODUCTORY SPEECH COURSE AT A COMMUNITY COLLEGE By William Clarence Albright This study had two major Objectives. The first was to evaluate what effect, if any, the use of a delayed videotape replay procedure had on an introductory Speech class at a community college as measured by the Omnibus Personality Inventory (OPI). The second, and equally important Objective, was to determine the personality characteristics of the students involved in the study. The population of the study consisted of 147 day students at Jackson Community College, Jackson, Michigan; eighty-eight of these were men, and the remaining fifty-nine were women. These students were members of four introductory speech and two fresh- man English Composition classes. A Student Questionnaire was used in conjunction with the CPI. The statistical analysis of the CPI was conducted using the t-test for a difference between two independent means and the t-test for a William Clarence Albright difference between related means. A one-factor analysis of variance was utilized to compare scales from the CPI for the four introductory speech classes. The positive responses on the Student Questionnaire were analyzed using the chi-square test. In all of the analyses an alpha level of . 05 was used to determine statistical significance. Major Findings Attitudes, values, and interests, as measured by the Omnibus Personality Inventory, did not change or appear to be modified by the use of the delayed videotape replay technique with the treatment group over the fifteen week semester. The same may also be said about sub-groups within the treatment group: no significant differences on the CPI scales between freshmen and SOphomores or males and females were found with one exception, the Masculinity- Femininity Scale. Community college students in this study reveal attitudes, values, and interests that reflect a general lack of extremes. They manifest strong goal orientations and generally appear to pursue learning as a means to an end and seldom for the intrinsic satisfac- tion gained from the acquisition of knowledge. There was no evidence Of significant change in attitudes, values, or interests on the scales of the CPI in the treatment group over the fifteen week semester. However, student responses on the William Clarence Albright Student Questionnaire indicated a positive attitude toward the use Of delayed videotape replay and the students indicated various emotional reactions to their self-confrontation during playback. It was suggested that we need to know much more about the personality characteristics Of students attending community colleges and how they differ from their contemporaries at four-year institu- tions if we are to be effective in our educational planning. Much research has been devoted to videotape replay techniques and procedures in focused and immediate feedback Situations. This study attempted to evaluate a non-stressed, non-focused, delayed feedback procedure. There is a continued need for research in different types and combinations of videotape replay. AN EVALUATIVE STUDY OF THE EFFECTS OF VIDEOTAPE REPLAY OF INTERPERSONAL CLASS EXERCISES ON STUDENTS ENROLLED IN AN INTRODUCTORY SPEECH COURSE AT A COMMUNITY COLLEGE By William Clarence Albright A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree Of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Administration and Higher Education 1976 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The encouragement and help of several individuals made this study possible. I wish to express my very special thanks to my doctoral committee chairman, Dr. William Sweetland, who guided this dissertation through its various stages, and provided support and encouragement throughout my entire doctoral program. My gratitude is also extended to Dr. Vandel Johnson, who very graciously took over my committee when Dr. Sweetland left on medical leave. To my doctoral committee members, Dr. Max Raines and Dr. Ben Bohnhorst, my thanks for their advice and support throughout my doctoral program. Their words of encourage- ment were especially appreciated by a student who had been away from that role for several years. The administration, faculty, and students of Jackson Community College deserve my thanks for their cooperation during the data gathering phase of this study. Several staff members Should be cited for their assistance: Mr. Donald Clark, Of the English-Speech Department, Mr. Bernard Riggs, of the Mathematics Department, Mrs. Eleanor Baker, of the library staff, and Mr. Jim Norman, Visual Aids Technician. ii This endeavor would not have been possible without the sacrifices and encouragement of my family. To my wonderful wife, Anne, I give my thanks for her moral support and secretarial skills. To my sons, Michael and Matthew, go my thanks for their under- standing and patience. TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF TABLES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi Chapter I. THE PROBLEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Treatment Procedure: How the Videotape wasUsed... 9 Purpose of the Study. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Importance of the Problem. . . . . . . . . . . 12 Need for Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l3 Generalizability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Delimitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Assumptions of the Study. . . . . . . . . . . . 18 Research Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 Hypotheses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 II. REVIEW OF THE RELATED LITERATURE . . . 22 The Use Of Videotape Replay in Group Work . 26 The Use Of Videotape in Education. . . . 34 The Use of Videotape Replay in the Acquisition OfSpeechSkills............... 38 Summary....................41 III. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY. . . . . . . . . . . 43 Research Setting and Identification of Population. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 Hypotheses to be Tested. . . . . . . . . . . . 45 Instrumentation. . . . . . . . . . . . 52 Reliability and Internal Consistency. . . . . . 54 iv —— Chapter Definitions Omnibus Personality Inventory-Form F. of the Fourteen Scales of the Procedures for Treatment of the Data . . Summary. . IV. DATA ANALYSIS . . Hypothesis Hypothesis Hypothesis Hypothesis Hypothesis Hypothesis Hypothesis Hypothesis Hypothesis Hypothesis Hypothesis Hypothesis Hypothesis mKJOWI-PUQNH \O 10 . . 11 12 . 13 Demographic Data . Summary Of Analysis . V. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS . Overview. List Of Conclusions General Conclusions. . . . . . Recommendations for the Future . Summary. . BIBLIOGRAPHY . . APPENDICES APPENDIX A. Student Questionnaire. . . . . . . . . . B. Student Comments — Treatment Group . . Page 56 59 63 66 66 7O 72 73 75 77 78 79 83 84 85 86 87 88 91 . 101 .101 . .102 .115 .119 .120 . 122 . 127 . 128 T able LIST OF TABLES Results of Data Collection: Pre—test, Omnibus Personality Inventory. . . Results of Data Collection: Post—test, Omnibus Personality Inventory. . . Results of Data Collection: Student Questionnaire . Estimates of Reliability for the OPI Scales . Criteria for Determining Intellectual Disposition Category (IDC) (Based on Standard Scores) . Computed Group IDCS (Pre-test) Computed Group IDCS (Post-test) . Results of t-Tests for Related Measures Comparing Pre-test and Post-test Mean Scores on All Scales of the Omnibus Personality Inventory for Groups A, B, D, E, and F. . The Results of t-Tests for a Difference Between Two Independent Means Comparing the Mean Scores of the Males and Females on the Masculinity-Femininity Scale on the Pre—test and Post-test of the Omnibus Personality Inventory . vi Page 51 51 52 55 68 69 69 71 72 T able 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. l8. 19. The Results of t-Tests for a Difference Between Two Independent Means Comparing the Mean Scores of the SOPhomore and Freshman Students in the Treatment Group on the Fourteen Scales of the Omnibus Personality Inventory. The Results of t-Tests for a Difference Between Two Independent Means Comparing the Post- test Mean Scores of the Male Students and Female Students in the Treatment Group on Thirteen Scales of the Omnibus Personality Inventory. (Masculinity—Femininity Scale Excluded) . . . . ANOVA for the Impulse Expression Scale of the Omnibus Personality Inventory between Groups A, B, C, and D . ANOVA for the Social Extroversion Scale of the Omnibus Personality Inventory between Groups A, B, C, and D . ANOVA for the Practical Outlook Scale of the Omnibus Personality Inventory between Groups A, B, C, and D . Responses to Student Questionnaire . Chi—square Test of Positive Responses to Question One on the Student Questionnaire . Chi—square Test of Positive Responses to Question Two on the Student Questionnaire. Chi-square Test of Positive Responses to Question Three on the Student Questionnaire. Chi-square Test Of Positive Responses to Question Four on the Student Questionnaire Page 74 76 77 78 79 81 83 84 85 86 T able 20. 21. Chi-square Test of Positive Responses to Question Five on the Student Questionnaire. . Age, Grade Level, and Sex of Students in the Study . . viii Page 87 90 CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM Introduction In recent years a minor revolution has been occurring in the teaching of introductory speech classes at both the community colleges and four year schools. This revolution is centered around the approach and content of the introductory speech course. Many first college courses in speech, while giving lip-service to "communication theory, " ”interpersonal communications, " and simply "communication, " continue to employ textbooks and class activities that are oriented toward and, in many cases, emphasize only public speaking, with little attention to these other areas. Such emphasis results in a large proportion Of class time being spent in oral performance. This usual approach is considered inadequate for several reasons. One of the reasons there is a need for change is that higher education is constantly under close scrutiny by a skeptical sector of the public. Departments within the college or university are expected continuously to adapt and innovate and strengthen their 1 2 offerings. Present speech curricula are too often based on an out- moded speech model that is not relevant to the students' present needs nor does it give them adequate preparation in fundamentals needed for the future. 2 indicated in the mid—50's Specifically, Barnes1 and Hargis that there were intellectual Shortcomings in the basic course in speech as it then existed in most colleges and universities. Fifteen years later, Gruner, Gibson, Brooks, and Petrie3 confirmed Barnes' earlier Observations. Public speaking, with emphasis on performance and all Of its precepts regarding eye contact, gestures, platform movement, and the like is not relevant, they say, to communication patterns of contemporary America. For example, dyadic and small group interaction expose students to content and skills that may be utilized in several modes Of communication. Those who support traditional public speaking courses contend that a transfer of learning occurs to other forms of communication. Becker makes an interesting observation related to this point: 1Harry G. Barnes, "Teaching the Fundamentals Of Speech at the College Level, " The Speech Teacher, LII (November 1954), 248—251. 2Donald Hargis, "The First Course in Speech, " The Speech Teacher, V (January 1956), 26-33. 3James W. Gibson, Charles R. Gruner, William D. Brooks, and Charles R. Petrie, Jr. , "The First College Course in Speech: A Survey of U.S. Colleges and Universities, " The Speech Teacher, XIX (January 1970), 20. "As a matter of fact, experimental studies to date, especially among college students, provide little evidence that students in Speech . courses improve much more"4 in communication than those not taking a Speech course. Part of the problem in introductory speech courses is that we attempt to teach both performance and principles in a single course and, as a result, many times fail to develop in the student either a full comprehension of verbal behavior or an oral proficiency. Another explanation Of why students' communication effective— ness is not significantly increased may come from the false assump- tion that effectiveness is acquired primarily through communication skills and techniques. Thayer points out that communication effectiveness is determined taxonomically by (l) the cornrnunicator‘s understanding of the communication process, (2) then by the communicator's attitude and orientations, and (3) then by the techniques and Skills the communicator employs. 5 Even if a student acquires a thorough understanding and comprehension of the process of human communication, and appropriate and adequate attitudes toward this process, still the development Of skills and techniques 4Samuel L. Becker, "Research on Speech Pedagogy, ” in Dimensions of Rhetorical Scholarship, ed. by Roger E. Nebergall (Norman, Okla. : The Department Of Speech, University Of Oklahoma, 1963), p. 311. 5Lee Thayer, Communication and Communication Systems (Homeward, Illinois: Richard D. Irwin, 1968), pp. 8—9. 4 may, nevertheless, be minimized. The use of relatively inexpensive and versatile videotape has opened broad new areas for innovation and experimentation in education as well as many other fields. Videotape as a technology of instruction Offers several unique qualities: impact of visual stimuli that is'copiously repeatable, instantaneous feedback, and an added dimension of motivation of the student by his involvement in the process. Combining these qualities of videotape with the student as receiver, participant, and producer Offers new Opportunities and experiences for teachers and learners. How may videotape be used in an introductory Speech course? There are several ways and this study will evaluate one of them, but first let us examine three criteria that need to be met in a first course in speech. A first course in speech should address itself directly to the elements that connect all Speech communication behavior together. Emphasis should be placed on the idea that, regardless of the situation, oral communication consists of individuals interacting with one another by means Of a set Of messages and channel linkages. 6 Second, the basic course Should include very little formal individual performance, but it should also not consist of a series of 6)Brent D. Peterson, Gerald M. Goldhaber and Wayne Pace, Communications Probes Instructional Supplement (Chicago, Illinois: Science Research Associates, Inc. , 1974), p. 13. , lectures. Instead, the classroom should be used primarily to engage in active two-way communication. Berlo states it very well: "The student should not be forced, nor even permitted, to passively absorb (sic) information which is placed before him. He should be actively involved in giving as well as receiving information, and should have part of the re5pons ibility for managing the nature of communication within the classroom. "7 And third, we can no longer ignore the findings of behavioral scientists in our teaching of the basic course. Their interest in understanding, explaining, and predicting human behavior is directly related to the teaching of speech. Ability in self-correction and the understanding Of one's self are essential ingredients Of any study Of speech. The researcher accepts the notion Of Henderson and Lanier that "Teaching is manipulating the variables of instruction to produce intended changes in learner behavior. "9 It is imperative that we 7David K. Berlo, "Revision of the Undergraduate Curriculum, " memorandum to the faculty, Department of Communication, Michigan State University, May 1969, as reported in Peterson, Goldhaber and Pace, p. 14. 8Robert K. Merton, "The Mosaic of the. Behavioral Sciences, " in The Behavioral Sciences Today, ed. by Bernald Berelson (New York: Harper Torchbooks, 1964), pp. 270—271. 9Judith E. Henderson and Perry E. Lanier, M. S. U. Experi- mental Teacher Preparation Program for Elementary Teachers. (East Lansing, Michigan: College of Education, Michigan State University, March 1972), p. 33. 6 understand the variables of instruction that affect our students and. whether the results that are produced relate to our stated objectives in a particular learning Situation in the way we anticipate. The Specific problem confronted in this research is the identifi- cation of the effects of delayed videotape replay of interpersonal class exercises in selected Speech classes at Jackson Community College. While we are concerned with all three of the criteria mentioned earlier, we are especially interested in the third one. The use of videotape presents the student with the Opportunity to see himself in a unique way not readily available by other means. The student actually sees himself interacting with other students and the instructor. He is able to note the reactions of his peers to both his verbal and nonverbal behavior. Videotape Offers tremendous potential for learning through self— discovery. Videotape, because of its easy acceptance in this elec- tronic age and its playback features, can be used in large or small groups and in a multitude of ways. As shown in Chapter II, video- tape is being used in programs ranging from behavior modification, to speech therapy, to teacher training, to analysis Of one's public speaking skills. Videotape and replay provides a means of self- confrontation and permits students to view and review the overt and covert arrangements and the verbal and nonverbal communication processes within the classroom and the course being taught. 7 The Objectives for Speech 231, 10 the introductory Speech class at Jackson Community College, stress the importance of students being made aware Of their own personality characteristics when they adversely affect their interaction with others in order that they may modify them. The present study utilizes a delayed videotape procedure which gives the student many chances to observe himself and his peers interacting in interpersonal class exercises and other classroom activities. It is expected that positive changes in behavior will occur as a result of students viewing themselves and others interacting in the classroom. The delayed videotape procedure being evaluated was designed in an attempt to identify a better means to reveal students' behavior to themselves. Within this design certain limitations were also imposed. As indicated earlier, videotape has shown great promise in many areas, but economy is always a concern for educators. This concern was a major consideration in constructing the treatment procedures. This concern for economy encompassed three areas that we generally expect to be present: the necessary equipment, the necessary personnel to Operate the equipment, and the expertise of the classroom teacher. These will be discussed in more detail in the description of the treatment procedures. 10Speech 231 Syllabus (Jackson, Michigan: Jackson Community College English-Speech Department, September, 1974), p. 1. 8 The major question we are confronting is whether the delayed videotape technique used will have any measurable effects on the personality characteristics of the students in the treatment group over a fifteen week period. Therefore, the positive or negative changes in personality characteristics which occur or do not occur over a period of a semester will be evaluated to try to help ascertain the effectiveness of the manifestation of the Speech 231 Objectives relating to personality change. The Omnibus Personality Inventory (OPI) will be used in this attempt to identify any personality modifications that may occur as a result of the delayed videotape procedure over a fifteen week semester. The OPI purports to be able to provide a meaningful differentiating description of students and to provide a means for assessing changes in human behavior in a variety of learning contexts. In addition to the OPI a student questionnaire will be used. The questionnaire will have short open ended questions and is an attempt to elicit less standardized, more intimate, anecdotal reSponses from the students that will reveal some Of their perceived changes in attitudes relative to interacting with others. An additional oral question will ask the students in the treatment group their reactions to the delayed videotape procedure. The results Of this question— naire will be found in Appendix B. 9 Treatment Procedure: How the Videotape was Used The delayed videotape procedure was designed, as mentioned earlier, with economy as a prime consideration. The equipment employed could be considered the minimum necessary for video- taping. The expertise Of those using the equipment could also be considered minimal. This approach may be justified for two reasons: many schools have limited facilities and budgets; and this, in fact, is the framework within which the present study has to be conducted. The videotaping will take place approximately twice a week in the Speech 231 classroom. This classroom is used for all four of the day speech classes at Jackson Community College. The class— room is thirty—five feet in length and twenty—five feet wide. There is a narrow floor to ceiling window in the back right corner; the door is in the front right corner; a small table and chair serve as the instructor's station in the front of the room; tables are joined and arranged in a Square "U” with the open end facing the instructor; there are twenty-five chairs surrounding the outside of the tables; there is an additional small table in the center of the room. The room is brightly illuminated by fluorescent ceiling lights. A Sony AVC-3210 will be used to videotape in black and white. The recorder—player is a Sony AV-3650. The recorder—player is used in conjunction with a Sony eighteen inch monitor. 10 The camera is mounted on a tripod which, in turn, is on a dolly and thus is easily movable. The videotape technician will Operate the camera from three positions; to the left of the instructor's table, to the right of the instructor's table, and from the back of the room. He will focus on groups interacting or on individuals depending on the particular exercise. When the entire class is involved in an exercise a pass- around micrOphone will be used; when a small group exercise is being filmed a stationary microphone will be utilized. The length of the videotaping will vary depending on the various exercises. The tapes will be played back the following week on two different days to make it convenient for the students to view them. No critique will be conducted in the regular class sessions or at the playbacks. Students will not be cued to look for anything Specific during their viewings. This approach is, therefore, distinct from other approaches for using videotape which have already been established as successful. In particular, the approach of this study is to be distinguished from Kagan's IPR approach. (See references in Chapter II, p. 25 ff). This procedure Should enable us tO evaluate the effect of delayed Videotape replay using a nonstressed, nonfocused, and implicit paradigm. The instructor needs no special training; the videotape technician Will only need minimal instructions. NO special lighting or other l 1 equipment will be needed. Tapes will not be edited. Tapes, when necessary, will be reused. If this procedure proves effective, we will then have a method to modify behavior in many students with a minimal cost for equipment and manpower. Purpose Of the Study The purpose in conducting this research is, in general, to provide data as a basis for improving the learning environment of introductory speech classes at Jackson Community College. The first Objective of this project is to determine and evaluate the effectiveness Of a delayed videotape technique designed to help students become aware of their own complex of behavior and personality characteristics and to enable them to modify these characteristics. The second objective iS to demonstrate a viable approach for faculty who desire similar Objectives in their own courses. A third objective is to provide evaluation of the approach currently employed in the introductory Speech course at Jackson Community College. A fourth objective is to identify personality characteristics of students enrolled in introductory speech classes at Jackson Community College and to evaluate what kinds of change, if any, have occurred in each class. These results will be examined for any differences that may appear according to age or sex. Within this objective the English classes included in the study will also be evaluated and compared to the Speech classes. Importance of the Problem The speech instructors at Jackson Community College are con— cerned with examining methods of instruction which will enhance their ability to achieve the course objectives in their introductory speech course. It is not enough to simply be aware of, or to employ, new equip- ment or techniques in instruction; it is highly desirable that their effectiveness also be carefully evaluated. If this is not done, time and energy may be poorly utilized. This study presents a responsible evaluation at a minimal cost while avoiding some very expensive methods that are often the result of innovation in education. Demands on the community colleges are constantly increasing. More and more occupations require education beyond the high school level. Unprecedented numbers of communitjr colleges have been established in part to meet these requirements. The complex nature of our present society requires more highly trained individuals than ever before. A definite need exists for more detailed understanding of effective teaching procedures, both in the educational and economic l3 sense, that may assist instructors, counselors, and curriculum developers in their efforts to serve students and society Need for Research. According to Sproull, 11 much of the past research has been limited to identifying the characteristics and traits of community college students rather than providing data which could suggest specific programs and services to help these students successfully complete education and training beyond high school. He points out that most studies have concentrated on comparing community college students with university students and that some research indicates as much student variation within community colleges as between two-year and four-year colleges. Sproull's conclusions are that very little research has been of a theoretical nature whereby hypotheses of student behavior in the community college have been derived and tested. 12 Alvin Toffler has stated that, "the student-consumer is forced to fight to make the education industry responsive to his demand for diversity.”13 Chickering believes that those who drop out may do so because 11Kenneth Hugh Sproull, "The Relationship Between High School Self-Concept of Academic Ability and Subsequent Academic Achieve— ment at the Community College" (unpublished Ph. D. dissertation, Michigan State University, 1966). p. 5. 12Ibid. p. 5. 13Alvin Toff/er, Future Shock (New York: Random House, 1970), p. 241. 14 of the need for an improved environment within which to grow and change. 14 Cormnunity College faculty and administrators must be con— cerned with the creation of an environment where growth and change can occur. The two-year college serves a population that may generally be defined as nontraditional in composition. This population is composed of students who are oriented toward practical rather than intellectual pursuits. A study by Cross reveals that two— year college students score lower on measures of autonomy and nonauthoritarianism and are less likely to be venturesome and flexible in their thinking than those attending four-year institutions. 15 Not enough consideration has been given by individual two—year institutions to structuring the role dimension for their students based upon their observed characteristics. The community college is a relatively new type of institution with a heterogeneous student body with varied needs. Little research has focused on identifying the specific student population characteristics of individual institutions or classes within the institution that would enhance the chances of faculty and administration producing the best possible environment for learning. This would appear to partially justify the present study. 14Arthur W. Chickering, "The Best Colleges Have the Least Effect," Saturday Review, January 16, 1971, pp. 48-50, 54. 15Patricia K. Cross, The Junior College Student—A Research Description (Princeton, N.J. : Educational Testing Service, 1968), p. 51. 15 Generalizability. The results of this study may also make a contribution to general knowledge which may have effects beyond the immediate setting of the study. The students in this study are attending introductory speech and English classes at a community college. To the extent that the institution may be typical of other similar colleges, the findings could be applicable and appropriate for them as well. Beyond this, if the treatment proves to be effective for this study‘s particular population of students, it may also, therefore, promise to be applicable at other grade levels as well. Delimitation. The findings of this research are technically limited to the population of this study which consists of 147 students from Jackson Community College, Jackson, Michigan, who took part during the Winter Semester, January 6, 1975 to May 1, 1975. Definitions Student: a subject in the evaluation. Students will be divided into six groups - three control and one which will receive the delayed videotape replay treatment, plus two English classes. All students will be enrolled at Jackson Community College and are members of the classes being evaluated. The six classes have a total enrollment of 147 students. 16 Group: refers to a single class of students attending Jackson Community College and included in this study. Treatment: refers to the delayed videotape replay of inter- personal class exercises which will have taken place in a selected group. These replays will occur twice a week at a specified place and time and students in this group will be required to attend them as part of the course requirement. No:formal critique or evaluation by students or second party will be permitted during the viewing of the tape nor in subsequent classes. These viewings will occur approximately twice a week for thirteen of the fifteen weeks in the semester. Omnibus Personality Inventory (OPI) Form F will be utilized in this study. This inventory is composed Of 385 questions from which 14 scales are derived. Below are the fourteen scales arranged according to their order on the profile sheet: Thinking Introversion (TI) Impulse Expression (IE) Theoretical Orientation (TO) Personal Integration (PI) Estheticism (Es) Anxiety Level (AL) Complexity (CO) Altruism (Am) Autonomy (Au) Practical Outlook (PO) Religious Orientation (RO) Masculinity-Femininity (MF) 17 Social Extroversion (SE) Re5ponse Bias (RB)16 Intellectual Disposition Categories (IDCs) is a way of classifying or locating persons at certain points on a ”continuum" of intellectual disposition. Specifically, the subjects are placed in one of eight Intellectual Disposition Categories. The categorization makes use of six scales, four of which serve as primary criteria and two as secondary or supplementary criteria. The first four are Thinking Introversion, Theoretical Orientation, Estheticism, and Complexity; the other two are Autonomy and Religious Orientation. IDCS are computed using standard scores converted from the raw scores of the Omnibus Personality Inventory. 17 Feedback occurs when recorded interpersonal class exercises are played back to students and instructor (8) for a new Opportunity to experience and become aware of oneself and others from another stance or viewpoint as one experiences anew what has transpired in a previous interpersonal encounter. 18 Feedback, for the purposes of this study, will be considered as an uncontrolled variable since no student or instructor critiques will be conducted. 1()Paul Heist and George Yonge, Omnibus Personality Inventory, Form F, Manual (New York: The PsychOlOgical Corporation, 1968), p. 1. 17Ibid. p. 23. 18Milton M. Berger, M.D. , ed. , Videotape Techniques in Psychiatric Training and Treatment (New York: Brunner/Marzel, 1970), p. 277. 18 Delayed Videotape Replay is the use of videotape after a time Span between the recording of the interpersonal class exercises and the viewing by the students and the instructor(s) Of the videotape. This may also be defined as delayed feedback. Instant Videotape Replay refers to the immediate use of video- tape at any moment if such a request is made by instructor or student. Self-Image Confrontation is a term used to indicate the momentary reaction of an individual as he sees himself behaving in the playback experience. Student Questionnaire is an instrument composed of five questions related to five scales of the Omnibus Personality Inventory and presents the students with an Opportunity to respond in their own words whether they perceive any change in their own specific 19 pe rs onality characte ristic s . Assumptions of the Study The first assumption of this study is that while there are Obvious dangers in isolating and focusing on small units Of behavior because the results may not appear to be impressive or Of great consequence, it may also be argued that any new information, even about the most 19See Appendix A. 19 conunonplace behaviors and attitudes of students may be extremely important in teaching. A second assumption is that it is desirable for teachers as well as students to develop a systematic habit of observing, acting and evaluating on a conscious level. Too often instructors operate by ”hunch" rather than factual evidence. This in no way is meant to negate the importance of the affective domain. Patience, love, and empathy for students should presumably always be considered highly desirable traits for instructors. A third assumption is that knowledge about personality characteristics and how they may be effected in students in a community college setting will provide a dimension for better under— standing them that has not received adequate attention in the past. The fourth assumption of this study is that the subjects involved will be truthful and accurate in their responses on the Omnibus Personality Inventory and the Student Questionnaire. The fact that we are dealing with self— report instruments in order to obtain information about complex personality characteristics will not detract from the data gathered. —-m~w— ’7. 7. asap: 7 20 Research Questions Evaluation in many teaching strategies should consider many aspects of student growth. The specific purpose of this study is to determine whether there is a significant difference between a group receiving the delayed videotape replay treatment and control groups relative to change in selected attitudes, values, and interests as indicated by the responses on the Omnibus Personality Inventory and the Student Questionnaire. It is also intended that this study will attempt to identify the personality characteristics and any subsequent modification of personality characteristics at the end of the evaluation period as revealed by the Omnibus Personality Inventory and the Student Questionnaire. A further goal of this research is to identify specific correlations among the fourteen personality scales and combinations of these scales from the Omnibus Personality Inventory for all groups included in this study. Hypotheses The thirteen hypotheses for this study will be found listed in Chapters III and IV. 21 This chapter has been devoted to an overview of the present study. The problem, the treatment procedure, the purpose of the study, the importance of the problem, the need for research, definitions of important terms, and finally the research questions were presented in Chapter I. In Chapter II, the pertinent literature is reviewed. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF THE RELATED LITERATURE Three broad areas of the related literature will be examined in Chapter II: the use of videotape replay in group work, in education, and in the acquisition of speech skills. Attention will be given to studies dealing with self—confrontation, interpersonal process recall with individuals and groups, therapeutic procedures, delayed feed- back, modeling, repetitive self—observation, behavior therapy over time, and Speaking ability. These studies generally reflect a structured approach to the many different ways videotape may be used and suggest a need for additional research to evaluate different types and combinations Of playback. While the use of videotape in education is accepted as being generally positive in outcome, some research indicates that caution must be employed in its utilization. Meredith W. Watts, Jr. , in his study, "Behavior Modeling and Self-Devaluation with Video Self-Confrontation, " conducted at Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama, indicated that . Evidence was found for the hypothesis that subject undervaluing of both cognitive and physical performance 22 23 tends to be greater where a critic is not available to provide and- reinforce a model of the appropriate behavior. Therefore training critics to provide an intellectual context for self-evaluation appears to be an important component of a program that h0pes to preserve the individual's self-concept while simultaiieously producing appropriate modifications of behavior. In a study by Hartson and Kunce conducted with students from a large state university and students active in a YMCA program at the same university, data obtained from three independent sources (subjects' test scores, videotape ratings, and videotape judgments) support the premise that videotape replay and interpersonal process recall (IPR) are useful techniques in facilitating specified changes. Members of the IPR groups showed Significantly higher changes in self-disclosure and in categorized therapeutic, verbal inter— changes in group discussions. The above study focused on ” . . . groups with specific goals and small logical steps to reach these goals. The behaviors deemed desirable as an outgrowth of group work were defined as self- introspection, self-disclosure, and adequate responding. “3 lMeredith W. Watts, Jr. , "Behavior Modeling and Self De— valuation with Video Self-Confrontation, Journal of Educational Psychology, 64 (April, 1973), 215. 2David J. Hartson and Joseph T. Kunce, "Videotape Replay and Recall in Group Work, " Journal of Counseling Psychology, 20 (October, 1973), 439. 3 Ibid. , p. 437. 24 Another interesting facet of the Hartson and Kunce study revealed that "the two group methods had a differential effect according to p0pu1ation. High-self—esteem, socially active subjects showed no difference between methods. The self-confrontation of IPR was beneficial to the low—self-esteem, socially inactive subjects, while the direct confrontation of the T group method seemed to have an adverse effect. Further studies using video- tape in group work are needed to explore this differential effect. " The present research represents a further study in this area. Other studies have indicated that videotape self—confrontation can promote behavioral change in such diverse subjects as counseling students, Walz and Johnston, 1963; schizophrenics, Stroller, 1967; and teacher trainees, McDonald and Allen, 1967. 5 Any discussion of interpersonal process recall stimulated by the use Of videotape must include reference to one of the pioneers in this field, Dr. Norman Kagan Of Michigan State University. Dr. Kagan's work on Interpersonal Process Recall has been one of the largest sustained programs of research development and practical implementation in the College of Education at Michigan State University. A great variety of studies have been conducted as part of this project. These have included the training of 4Ib'Id., p. 437. 5Meredith W. Watts, p. 212. 25 psychotherapists, physicians, prison wardens, and teachers. The research has ranged from the physiology of emotion to the use of video feedback with college students and married couples. This body of work has commanded worldwide fame and respect. Kagan introduced the method called Interpersonal Process Recall (IPR) stimulated by videotape in 1963. The heart of his system is the use of immediate videotape replay with remote control start-stOp action and an interrogator who assists another individual to concentrate on and recall his feelings and thoughts. 6 Schauble found the IPR method a Significant vehicle for accelerating client growth in counseling. 7 In contrast, Hurley failed to find significant differences resulting from the use of IPR methods in group work. 8 Continuing interest has been shown in IPR methods, although its usefulness has not been fully substantiated. 6Norman Kagan, D.R. Krathwohl, and R. Miller, "Stimulated Recall in Therapy Using Video-tape. " Journal Of Counseling Psychology, 10 (Fall, 1963), 237-243. 7P.S. Schauble, "The Acceleration of Client Progress in Counseling and Psychotherapy through Interpersonal Process Recall" (unpublished Ph. D. dissertation, Michigan State University, 1970), passim. 85. Hurley, "Self-disclosure in Counseling Groups as Influenced by Structural Confrontation and Interpersonal Process Recall" (unpublished doctoral dissertation, Michigan State University, 1967), pas Sim. 26 The Use of Videotape Replay in Group Work The Hartson and Kunce9 study referred to earlier investigated the efficacy of IPR methods in group work. The researchers pr0posed that. Kagan‘s technique could be modified for use in group work as well as individual therapy. Specifically, the hypothesis tested was that IPR methods, in contrast to traditional T group methods, would be more effective in facilitating communication within groups. These groups were designed with specific goals in mind and small logical steps to reach these goals. The behaviors deemed desirable as an outgrowth of group work were defined as self-introspection, self-disclosure, and adequate responding. This view of therapeutic procedure is consistent with that advanced by Odiorne, 10 who proposes that group work Should be comprised of small logical steps that lead to designated terminal behavior. The Hartson and Kunce study concludes that there is some evidence for the usefulness of IPR as a therapeutic intervention method in group work. The differential outcomes according to type of client and method used also suggest that further research should address itself to the appropriateness of specific procedures or 9Hartson and Kunce, p. 437. 10 G.S. Odiorne, ”The Trouble with Sensitivity Training, " Training Directors Journal, 6 (January, 1963), 14-17. 27 techniques according to a subject‘s needs and personality. 11 The problems related to teaching people how to interact effectively in interpersonal stiuationsare as complex as they are numerous. A study conducted by Michael J. O'Connell evaluates the effectiveness of diverse ways of teaching an interpersonal inquiry technique. Using five experimental groups and a video- tape technique, the impact of delayed feedback, immediate feed— back, and perceptual cues was separated. When subjects were exposed to delayed feedback plus perceptual cues, they learned at a significantly higher level than when receiving immediate feedback.12 It is generally agreed by researchers that immediate feedback improves performance. There is also much evidence that suggests that subjects can learn effectively by modeling displayed behavior. 13 With the advent Of videotape techniques this approach has become easily available to those who wish to use it. In the field 11Hartson and Kunce, p. 440. 12Michael O'Connell, "Immediate Feedback, Delayed Feedback, and Perceptual Cues and Inquiry During Verbal Interactions, " Journal of Counseling Psychology, 21 (October, 1974), 536. 13A. Bandura and R. Walters. Social Learning and Personality DevelOpment. (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1963), passim. 28 of psychiatric training and treatment this technique has received a great amount of attention. Berger utilizes some of the aspects of feedback with some features of modeling. 14 O'Connell set out to discover whether subjects who receive delayed feedback plus perceptual cues learn as effectively as subjects who receive only immediate feedback. He also wanted to determine if subjects who receive delayed feedback alone learn less effectively than subjects who receive immediate feedback. Also, whether subjects who receive perceptual cues alone learn as well as subjects who receive immediate feedback? And whether subjects who receive perceptual cues alone learn more effectively than subjects that receive delayed feedback alone? 15 O'Connell found that the crucial experimental group was the delayed feedback perceptual cue group. This group performed significantly better than the immediate feedback group. The reason for this group's learning so effectively with delayed feedback is that the subjects effectively used perceptual cues to establish the apprOpriate response-feedback. One group received only perceptual cues under modeling conditions in which the subjects merely saw and listened to appropriate re3ponses performed on a 14Milton Berger, M. D. (ed.) Videotape Techniques in Psychiatric Trainingand Treatment (New York: Brunner/Mazel, Inc., 1970), pp. 18-35. lsO'Connell, p. 536. 29 modeling film. This pure perceptual cue group did as well as the delayed feedback perceptual cue group. 16 The results of O'Connell's study indicate that immediacy of feedback is only one way of making learning more effective. Other methods are modeling and video-delay techniques. There is also evidence that indicates that direct instruction will establish a reSponse set. That is, simply telling the subjects what constitutes a correct response. The results of O‘Connell's study have practical implications insofar as they indicate that a combination of modeling and rein- forcement procedures might be superior to a reinforcement procedure alone in helping students learn new reSponseS. Self-observation through the use of videotape feedback has been used increasingly as a treatment modality in therapy. Studies indicate that improved behavioral changes in psychiatric patients may occur as a result of the use Of videotape techniques. Boyd and Sisney, 17 and Moore, Chernell, and West18 have 16Ibid., p. 538. 17H. Boyd and V. Sisney, "Immediate Self-image Confronta- tion and Changes in Self-concept, " Journal Of Consulting Psychology, 12 (February, 167), 291-294. 18F. Moore, E. Chernell, and M. West, "Television as a Therapeutic Tool, " Archives of General Psychiatpy, 12 (March, 1965), 217-220. 30 documented the role of television and videotape and its effectiveness. Allen E. Ivey has worked with a type of media therapy which emphasizes a systematic video program in behavior change for psychiatric patients. 19 Patients engage in short videotaped interactions with a consultant-facilitator. These interactions are then viewed, and the patient with consultant help identifies specific behavior that he would like to change. It was found that further practice in these behaviors resulted in helping them to become part of the patient's behavioral repertoire. 20 Berger's Videotape Techniques in Psychiatric Training and 21 Treatment summarizes the extensive literature on the uses of this medium for therapeutic growth and change. Berger points out that . it was not until the recent development of video facilities for immediate and later replay confrontations with one‘s own self-image, alone or in interaction with others that the depth of exploration, understanding, and self-knowledge possible to achieve now marked another milestone in psychotherapeutic approaches. The margins 19Allen E. Ivey, "Media Therapy: Educational Change Planning for Psychiatric Patients, " Journal of Consulting Psychology, 20 (July, 1973), 338-343. ZOIbid. , p. 338. 21M. Berger. Videotape Techniques in Psychiatric Trainirpv2 and Treatment (New York: Brunner/Mazel, Inc. , 1970, passim. 31 of our knowledge of self-image(s) and self-concept(s) will be expanded profoundly by videotape confrontations. 22 Geertsma and Reivich23 in their first report on repetitive self-observation by videotape playback in 1965 indicated that repeated playbacks ”occasioned changes in self-concept and induced 824 the same intense affective reactions. " In an article in 196 authors report that they applied a systematic feedback technique to sixty—four hospitalized psychiatric inpatients at the University of Kansas Medical Center and elicited a wide variety of responses. Reivich and Geertsma found that initial videotape self- observation evoked anxiety in 77 percent of their patients and also caused temporary disorganization in a few. Subsequent exposure induced less anxiety. 25 Sixty-eight percent of the patients indicated on a questionnaire that they felt the experience was an enjoyable one while 23 percent expressed mixed or guarded attitudes. Of the twenty-six patients who repeated the experience twice only Six reported unfavorable responses on either occasion. There ZZIbid. p. 338. 23R. H. Geertsma and R. S. Reivich, "Repetitive Self Obser- vation by Videotape Playback, " Journal of Mental and Nervous Disease, 141 (Winter, 1965), 29—41. 24R. S. Reivich and R. H. Geertsma, "Experiences with Videotape Self Observation by Psychiatric In-Patients, " Journal Of Kansas Medical Society, LXIX (Winter, 1968), 39—44. 251nm. p. 43. 32 appeared to be no patient evidence of sustained negative effect. 26 In their study Reivich and Geertsma also revealed that 44 percent of their patients openly diSparaged some aspect of their experience. Both men and women were about equal in this regard. Half of the patients involved in the study were favorably inclined toward the way they looked on the monitor although half of these had Specific points on which they were critical such as facial features, weight or baldness. It was found that a person's reaction to his appearance is Significantly related to his total affective response tO the self-viewing experience. 27 Self-confrontation appears to have captured the imagination of the majority of those who use it even when contrary evidence is presented relative to its effectiveness. There appears tO be some concern over whether self-confrontation actually "helps, " at leaS': in the way that help is ordinarily defined by psycho- therapists and counselors. A review of self-confrontation literature in psychotherapy concludes with this Observation: DeSpite the appealing claims Of psychotherapists who have used playback treatment methods, no cogent, rigorously designed studies have been done which Show a clear-cut measurable relationship between a form Of self-confrontation and positive personality change. The typical approach has been to use self—confrontation 26Ibid. 27Ibid. 33 in Sundry ways over a nonspecified period of time and then to render a subjective opinion as to the therapeutic consequences. The underlying theoretical rationale is usually nebulous or not mentioned at all, and little attention is given to the myriad of confounding influences on client change such as the therapist variable and general Inode of treatment; the reliability and validity of evaluative criteria; the role of organismic variables in the subjects used; the effects of the self-COnfrontatiOn methods on therapists' behavior, and so forth. Holzman also notes that general optimism over the use of self-confrontation Should be tempered with caution: NO one has advised against using the technique, although there are occasional reports of transitory disturbances in patients following the use Of one of these methods, and some authors have discussed contraindications for certain patients. Subjects often diSplay stress as a direct result of self- confrontation. Kagan and Krathwohl state, "The beginning students may have been rather brutally surprised at their video image and . 30 the counselor's comments on It. ” Very often researchers, in reporting about studies employing Videotape replay, make a point of informing their readers that 28K.G. Bailey and W.T. Sowder, Jr. , "Audiotape and Video- tape Self—confrontation in Psychotherapy, " Psychological Bulletin, 74 (April, 1970), 133. 29P.S. Holzman, "On Hearing and Seeing Oneself," Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 148 (Spring, 1969), 198. 3ON. Kagan and D. R. Krathwohl, Studies in Human Interaction: Intergpersonal Process Recall Stimulated by Videotape. Final Report, OE7-32—0410—270 (East Lansing, Michigan: Michigan State University, December, 1967), p. 26. 34 subjects have not been too much bothered by the experience . and then recommendations are presented for future users of the technique in order that they might better cope with subjects' stress reactions to playback or other specific uses of videotape. The general consensus seems to be that self-confrontation without any stress reducing adjuncts produces an initial reaction of distress described as disturbance, fear, or anxiety. 31 Investigators who describe the actual process of self- confrontation on videotape almost always comment on the intense focus on self. Subjects often react to regional accents, voice characteristics, body movements and so on. Attention to physical manifestations certainly is part of the self—confrontation exper- ience. There appears to be general agreement that first exposure to playback without preparation may cause intense self-focus, but other interventions can modify this effect. It is not clear, however, whether the interventions modify the self-focus, modify the reports of self—focus, or utilize self—focus in some other manner. The Use of Videotape in Education While the medical field, specifically the psychiatric domain, has made considerable use of videotape replay both for training 31Holzman, p. 198. m: 1:51am :7 35 and treatment, another field has also utilized this technological aid. That field is teacher education. Students and teachers at every level and in almost every discipline have seen videotapes of themselves: in agriculture;32 in drama;33 in engineering;34 37 in language;35 in interpersonal communication;36 in mathematics; in counseling;38 in religion;39 as well as in other educational fields. 32L.E. Hedges, "The Feasibility of Using Videotape Techni— ques in Preservice Teacher Education in Agriculture" (an unpub— lished doctoral dissertation, Ohio State University, 1970), passim. 33 C. Weber, "Student Actors See Own Performances, " Educa— tional Screen and Audio Visual Guide, 46 (January, 1969), 28-29. 34A. Perlberg, "Videotaping and Microteaching Techniques to Improve Engineering Instruction, " Journal of Engineering Education, 60 (March, 1970), 741—744. 35 . . . H. Calabro, ”Micro—teaching and the Foreign Language Teacher, " Audiovisual Instruction, 14 (January, 1969), 62-63. 36A. Solomon, S. Perry, and R. Devine, Interpersonal Com- munication: A Cross—disciplinary Approach (Springfield, Illinois: Charles C. Thomas, 1970), passim. 37M.D. Gall, 3.39.3- The Relationship Between Personality and Teaching Behavior Before and After Inservice Microteaching Training. Report, Bureau No. BR 6—2931 (Berkeley, Calif.: Far West Laboratory for Educational Research and Development, 1971), passim. 38 A.E. Ivey e_t a_l. "Microcounseling and Attending Behavior: An Approach to Prepracticum Counselor Training, " Journal of Counseling Psycholgy: Monograph Supplement, 1968, 15 (5), Part 2, 1—12. 39 . . . . . . E.F. HemrIck, “ModIfIcatIon of Teacher BehaVIor In Religious Education Through the Use of Videotape Feedback" (Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Notre Dame, 1971). 36 Those studies that report success in obtaining desired changes in subjects generally seem to have an additional component along with the videotape replay. This component very often is goal setting or focus or both. When these additional components are present there appears to be a good chance of change of even complex behaviors. Weiss found that subjects receiving both videotape- focused feedback and encounter-group experience were viewed as having undergone a more meaningful experience than those with group experience alone.40 It appears from the literature that changes in behavior may or may not persist over time. In the case of alcoholics, a twelve month follOW-up of video-playback treated alcoholics showed no differences in social functioning or drinking behavior compared with a control group. 41 More positive results were obtained by Borg who found that improvements in precisely specified behaviors produced by a mini—course utilizing microteaching were still observed three years later. Part of his procedure included . giving the teacher a precise operational definition and examples of each skill, developing with the teacher a detailed lesson plan that provides points at which 40M. H. Weiss, "The Effects of Videotape Focused Feedback in F‘acilitative Genuineness in Interracial Encounters.” Dissertation Abstracts International, 1972, 32 (2-B), 1228-1229. 4 1H.H. Schaefer, M.B. Sobell, and L.C. Sobell, "Twelve- month Follow-up of Hospitalized Alcoholics Given Self-confronta- tion Experience by Videotape, " Behavior Therapy, 3 (March, 1972), 283-285. 37 each skill is to be used, and conducting several rehearsals in which the teacher sees a videotape replay and gets prompt feedback on his performance. 42 Self-confrontation may result in negative performance under certain conditions. Behavior may even become disrupted. Danet points out that, A variety of data supported the contention that intro- duction of videotape playback in the rigid, structured manner employed for experimental purposes served to disrupt the group's functioning. Further, the evidence suggested that the disruption was greater when playback was introduced early in a group‘s history as Opp%%ed to after it had established itself as a cohesive unit. Self-confrontation may be of real benefit for some teachers, but others may not benefit and possibly even be harmed by it. From what we have read we conclude that teachers who generally feel comfortable with themselves and are satisfied with their performances prior to confrontation are much more likely to benefit since they are Open to change and have the capacity for it. The more information a subject has about the changes expected, the' more likely he is to change. 44 42W.R. Borg, "The Minicourse as a Vehicle for Changing Teacher Behavior: A Three-year Follow-up, " Journal of Educa- tional Psychology, 63 (December, 1972), 578. 43B. N. Danet, "Self-confrontation by Videotape in Group Psychotherapy, " Dissertation Abstracts International, 1968, 28 (7-B), 3058. 44J. R. P. French, Jr. , J. J. Sherwood, and D. I. Bradford, "Change in Self Identity in a Management Training Conference," Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 2 (May, 1966), 210-218. 38 The changing of teacher attitudes may occur through a process of 45 evaluation. It is probably true that if goals are defined with sufficient precision, the method or means to achieve it need not always be specified since individuals are often able to do that for themselves. Salomon and McDonald suggest that when no guidance is given, . reactions to self-Viewing of one's teaching per- formance on videotape are determined largely by the viewer‘s predispositions . . . self-viewing on video- tape will not lead to any desirable attitudinal and behavioral changes unless it serves as feedback, that is, information about the amount of departure from desired performance. The importance placed on the need for focus in a specific videotape replay situation may be valid. When a person sees his videotape alone it is possible that low dissonance feedback actually, in a sense, rewards existing behavior so that behavior does not change. Reinforcement created by focus may result in the selection of certain behaviors for repetition over others and thus result in behavior change . The Use of Videotape Replay in the Acquisition of Speech Skills While it is difficult to assess the extent to which videotape 45D.E. Edgar and R. L. Warren, "Power and Autonomy in Teacher Socialization, " Sociology of Education, 42 (April, 1969), 386-399. 46G. Salomon and F. J. McDonald, Pretest and Postest Reac— tions to Self-viewing One's Teaching Performance on Video Tape, " Journal of Educational Psychology, 4 (August, 1970), 285. 39 feedback is used at the college level, one point seems to be evident, and that is that the instructors of the introductory courses who have reported using the videotape replay in their teaching have generally given whole-hearted endorsement to this procedure. It should be pointed out that, "The basic course in the vast majority of reporting schools continues to take a public speaking or funda- H47 mentals approach . These beginning courses usually concentrate on the acquisition of Speech skill. It seems, however, there have been very few experimental studies which have attempted to test the impact of videotape feedback on acquired speech skill. One study by Bradley concerned itself with the effect of videotape replay on "the student's speaking ability at the end of the course, " as well as its effect on other dependent variables. 48 Bradley found no significant differences on resultant speech skills. Diehl, Breen, and Larson found no significant differences on frequency of nonfluency demonstrated by beginning speech students after videotape playback of one class of Speech, with or 4”James W. Gibson, C.R. Gruner, W.D. Brooks, and C.R. Petrie, Jr. , "The First Course in Speech: A Survey of U. 5. Colleges and Universities," Speech Teacher, 19 (January, 1970), 20. 48B. E. Bradley, "An Experimental Study of the Effectiveness of the Video-Recorder in Teaching a Basic Speech Course," Speech Teacher, 19 (September, 1970), 161-167. 40 49 without instructor criticism. Churchill Roberts has reported that videotape playback failed to make a statistically Significant difference "in change of either self-confidence or personal adjustment. "50 The significance of feedback to the acquisition of behavioral skills is Supported by Bilodeau and Bilodeau's analysis of experi- mentation dealing with this concept: Studies of feedback or knowledge of results (KR) show it to be the strongest, most important variable con- trolling performance and learning. It has been shown repeatedly, as well as recently, that there is no improvement without KR, progressive improvement with it, and deterioration after its withdrawal . No other independent variable offers the wide range of possibilities for getting man to repeat, or change his R(esponse)s immediately or slowly, by small or large amounts. A study by Mulac revealed that video feedback caused a mean- ingful increase in student acquisition of Speech skill. Students receiving videotape replay demonstrated significantly greater skill in oral communication at the end of the course than students 49E.R. Diehl, M. P. Breen, and C.U. Larson, "The Effects of Teacher Comment and Television Videotape Playback on the Frequency of Nonfluency in Beginning Speech Students, " Speech Teacher, 21 (October, 1972), 22-38. 50Churchill Roberts, "The Effects of Self-Confrontation, Role Playing and Response Feedback on the Level of Self-Esteem, " Speech Teacher, 21 (November, 1972), 18. 51E.A. Bilodeau and I. M. Bilodeau, "Motor-skills Learning, " Annual Review of Psychology, 22, 1961, p. 250. 41 receiving audiotape or no electronic replay. Videotape students improved an average of 40 percent over their counterparts in overall speaking ability. 52 Summary There appears to be strong indications throughout the literature reviewed that those who utilize videotape confrontation in their work generally agree that through this experience insight can be heightened; people can learn more of what is unknown about them- selves but which is known to others; attitudes, roles and behavioral patterns can often be modified by increasing the variety and depth of information subjects can obtain about themselves in relationship with environment; and finally, self-image and concepts can be clarified and frequently altered as individuals move toward a clearer sense of their own identity. It should not be concluded, however, that the literature reveals a completely positive attitude toward the use of videotape in self-confrontation situations. Those using self-confrontation procedures have good reasons for their optimism, but there are also good reasons for skepticism. It seems obvious that self-confrontation through the use of videotape or other means has the potential for both help and harm. 52Anthony Mulac, "Effects of Three Feedback Conditions Employing Videotape and Audiotape on Acquired Speech Skill, " Speech Monographs, 41, (August, 1974), 214. 42 Video playback serves as a unique source of information about those aspects of the self which are perceived by others, but not by the self. Negative information which others may be hesitant or could not communicate in an acceptable manner may be revealed and, therefore, is a definite asset of this technique. Individuals who do not have the capacity to change are vulnerable in self-confrontation situations and can be damaged. Much of the literature reviewed dealt with focused and immediate feedback using videotape replay. Many of the researchers indicate a need for research in different types and combinations of playback: for situations which are more or less stressful; for focus which may vary from nonexistent to strong; and for outcomes which are implicit and explicit. The present study attempts to evaluate the effect of videotape replay using a nonstressed, nonfocused, and implicit paradigm. The advantages of using self-confrontation techniques appear to be very promising if the practitioners are aware of the discrepancies that occur in experiencing, observing, and obtaining goals, and, more importantly, take them into consideration when employing this technique. The research methodology for this study will be discussed in Chapter III. *4 ll L t 1 CHAPTER III RESEARCH ME THODOLOGY The research procedures of this study will be discussed under four general headings: (1) Research Setting and Identification of the Population; (2) Hypotheses to be Tested; (3) Instrumentation; and (4) Procedures for Treatment of the Data. Research Settirg and Identification of Population The Setting The student body of Jackson Community College comes primarily from an urban Setting. The boundaries of the college are contiguous with those of Jackson County, which is classified as a standard metropolitan statistical area (SMSA) as of the 1970 census. Bureau of Census figures cited Jackson County as having a 54. 9 percent urban population, compared with a state average of 73. 9 percent; approximately 6. 2 percent were Negro as compared with a state average of 12 percent. The county population density of 205 persons per square .mile is relatively light when contrasted with the over 900 per square mile in some counties in the 43 44 metropolitan Detroit area. Approximately 44 percent of Jackson County's labor force was classed as white collar. Thirty-six percent of the labor force fell under the category of manufacturing. Averaging these results reveals that 80 percent of Jackson County's labor force is classed as manufacturing or white collar. The state average in these two categories is 80. 8 percent. Thirty-two percent of Jackson County families have an income between $10, 000 and $15, 000 as compared to the state average of 30. 5 percent for . the same classification. The number of families considered at low income level for the state is 7. 3 percent while Jackson County has a 6. 6 percent in this category. The above statistics reveal a lack of extremes and suggest a stable social and economic environment. The Jackson CornInunity College campus is located six miles south of the city of Jackson and is approximately in the center of Jackson County which has a population of 143, 274. 2 The college serves twelve public school districts and one parochial school district. They are Columbia Central, Concord, East Jackson, Grass Lake, Hanover-Horton, Jackson, Michigan Center, Napoleon, 1U. S. Department of Commerce, County and City Data Book, 1972, A Statistical Abstract Supplement (Washington, D. C.: Bureau of the Census, 1972), pp. 222, 224, 236, and 237. 2Ibid., p. 234. 45 Northwest, Springport, Vandercook Lake, Western, and Lumen Christi. Identification of the Population The total population of this study consists of 88 male and 59 female students who were classified as full-time students at Jackson Community College during the 1975 Winter Semester. This total of 147 students was composed of 54 sophomores and 93 freshmen. Hypotheses to be Tested The basic concern of this thesis is to evaluate some of the effects of delayed videotape replay of interpersonal class exercises on an introductory speech class in a community college setting. This study makes several assumptions in Chapter I. The first assumption of this study is that while there are obvious dangers in isolating and focusing on small units of behavior because the results may not appear to be impressive or of great consequence, it may also be argued that any new information, even about the most commonplace behaviors and attitudes of students may be extremely important in teaching. We believe it is often the very small and subtle nuances that occur in the classroom that often have the greatest impact on students. A second assumption pertains to the belief that it is very 46 desirable for teachers as well as students to develop a systematic habit of observing,acting, and evaluating on a conscious level. Too often instructors operate by "hunch” rather than factual evidence. This in no way is meant to negate the importance of the affective domain. Patience, love, and empathy for students should always be considered highly desirable traits for instructors. Unfortu- nately, these kinds of behavior are not only difficult to identify, but even more difficult to deve10p in adults. A third assumption is that knowledge about personality characteristics and how they may be effected in students in a community college setting will provide a dimension for better understanding them that has not received adequate attention in the past. The fourth assumption of this study is that the subjects involved will be truthful and accurate in their responses on the Omnibus Personality Inventory and the Student Questionnaire. The fact that we are dealing with self-reportinstruments in order to obtain information about complex personality characteristics should not detract from the data gathered. Because data is relatively easy to obtain or because of the belief that people are not willing to share their true feelings, much valuable information fails to receive the attention it deserves. In agreement with these assumptions the research has shown 47 us that intellectual interests clearly differentiate high school graduates who do not enter college, those who enter community colleges, and those who attend four-year colleges. Community college students have a more practical orientation to college and to life than do their more intellectually disposed peers in four- year colleges. They are interested in applied college curricula, and they expect their future satisfactions to come from business and financial success. Their contemporaries at four-year colleges are somewhat more likely to value humanitarian pursuits. 3 As a result of the above mentioned attitudes, as well as other factors, community college students generally score lower on measures of autonomy and nonauthoritarianism; they are more likely to be cautious and controlled, less likely to be venturesome and flexible in their thinking. Overall, a research picture emerges of young people who are not sufficiently sure of themselves to venture into new and untried fields, and they appear to seek more certain pathways to success and financial security. What the research has not revealed to any great extent is very much information on the personality characteristics of community 3Patricia K. Cross, The Junior College Student—-A Research Description (Princeton, N.J.: Educational Testing Service, 1968), pp. 50-52. 4Ibid. Cal'- pa" ,K' '2'. IV". = '_—"" —' ‘— ., a. : .. ‘- " . .- 48 college students. Information is needed about students' values, their feelings about themselves, and their relationship with others. If we accept these ideas, it follows that educators in the community college need to understand what kinds of instruction will be effective in aiding the students to better understand themselves. The personality characteristics and student attitudes will be reported using the Omnibus Personality Inventory and a Student Questionnaire. Accordingly, the following research hypotheses are stated: Hypothesis 1: All student groups involved in this study will have mean scores on the Thinking Introversion, Theoretical Orientation, Estheticism, and Complexity Scales as well as the Autonomy and Religious Orientation Scales from the Omnibus Personality Inventory that will result in computed Intellectual Disposition Categories which will indicate that the students within the groups manifest strong goal orientations, but generally pursue learning as a means to an end and seldom for the intrinsic satis— faction gained from the acquisition of knowledge. Hypothesis 2: All student groups' post-test meanscores on the Omnibus Personality Inventory will not be significantly different than their pre-test mean scores on the same instrument. Hypothesis 3: In all groups tested female students' mean scores on the Masculinity-Femininity Scale of the Omnibus Personality Inventory will be significantly lower than the male students' mean scores on both the pre—test and post-test. Hypothesis 4: There will not be a significant difference in any of the mean scores for the fourteen scales of the Omnibus Personality Inventory post-test between the freshmen and sophomores in the treatment group. Hypothesis 5: There will not be a significant difference in any of the mean scores for the thirteen scales of the Omnibus Personality Inventory post-test (excluding the Masculinity— Femininity Scale) between the male students and female students in the treatment group. 49 Hypothesis 6: The treatment group will not have a sig- ' nificantly different mean score on the Impulse Expression Scale of the Omnibus Personality Inventory post-test than the three other introductory speech groups on the same post-test. Hypothesis 7: The treatment group will not have a sig- nificantly different mean score on the Social Extroversion Scale of the Omnibus Personality Inventory post-test than the three other introductory speech groups on the same post-test. Hypothesis 8: The treatment group will not have a sig- nificantly different mean score on the Practical Outlook Scale of the Omnibus Personality Inventory than the three other introductory speech groups on the same post-test. Hypothesis 9: There will be no significant difference in the number of positive responses by students in the treatment group to question one on the Student Questionnaire relative to the other groups' responses to the same question. Question One: As a result of this course I now have greater interest in being with people and becoming involved in social activities. Hypothesis 10: There will be no significant difference in the number of positive reSponses by students in the treatment group to question two on the Student Questionnaire relative to the other groups' responses to the same question. Question Two: As a result of this course I am now more inclined to express my feelings and attitudes and act upon them. Hypothesis 11: There will be no significant difference in the number of positive responses by students in the treatmentgroup to question three on the Student Questionnaire relative to the other groups' responses to the same question. Question Three: As a result of this course I now feel that I better understand people and they have a better understanding of me. Hypothesis 12: There will be no significant difference in the number of positive responses by students in the treatment group to question four on the Student Questionnaire relative to the other groups' responses to the same question. Question Four: As a result of this course I now have less anxiety when interacting in groups of people. Hypothesis 13: There will be no significant difference in the number of positive responses by students in the treatment group to question five on the Student Questionnaire relative to the other 50 group's responses to the same question. Question Five: As a result of this course I now feel that I am more competent in making decisions about relevant social problems. Data Collection Procedures Step One Permission and cooperation for the study was obtained from the college's English-Speech Department chairman. The researcher, an instructor in Speech, also discussed in detail plans for the study with the other participating speech instructor. The first instrument, the Omnibus Personality Inventory, was administered to the four speech classes meeting during the day and two second semester freshman composition classes. This was accomplished within the first week of the semester for all classes. Step Two Any student who had missed the administering of the instrument due to absence from class was asked to attend a special one hour make—up period. All those who had been absent complied with the request of the two instructors involved in the study. Results of the first data collection procedure may be seen in Table 1: 51 Table 1. Results of Data Collection: Pre-test, Omnibus Personality Inventory. Speech Composition All Students Students Students Identified Population 94 5 3 l4 7 Number and Percentage of Usable Replies: Males 53 35 88 Females fl _1__8_ __52 Total 94 Q00%) 53 (100%) 147 (100%) At the end of the fifteen week semester the same procedure was repeated. In addition to the administering of the Omnibus Personality Inventory at the class session prior to the last class meeting. a Student Questionnaire was administered during the last class session of the semester to each group in the study. Results of data collection at the end of the fifteen week semester for the Omnibus Personality Inventory are indicated in Table 2: Table 2. Results of Data Collection: Post-test, Omnibus Personality Inventory Speech Composition All Students Students Students Identified Population 84 51 135 Number and Percentage of Usable Replies: Males 48 34 82 Females 16 ll ___5_3 Total 84 (100%) 51 (100%) 135 (100%) 52 Results of data collection at the end of the fifteen week semester for the Student Questionnaire were as follows: Table 3. Results of Data Collection: Student Questionnaire Speech Composition All Students Students Students Identified Population 84 5 l 1 35 Number and Percentage of Usable Replies: Males 48 34 82 Females :16 ll 2 Total 84 (100%) 51 (100%) 135 (100%) Instrumentation Omnibus Pers onality Inventory The Omnibus Personality Inventory-Form F (OPI) was designed primarily for use in research on college students. It is composed of 385 items using a standard true-false format and results in fifteen scores on as many scales. The OPI has gone through a long process of test development and several earlier forms. ”It is, therefore, an instrument of considerable technical refinement, and one which, despite its recent date (1968) is to a large degree an older, established inventory. " 5Paul McReynolds, Professor of Psychology, University of Nevada, in The Seventh Mental Measurements Yearbook, ed. by Oscar Krisen Buros (Highland Park, N. J. : The Gryphon Press, 1972), p. 280. 53 The construction of the OPI differs from many inventories in that it is not based on a single or overall personality theory. The Center for Study of Higher Education at the University of California at Berkeley devised the OPI to fill specific measurement needs in their research programs. McReynolds points out that a test which focuses on a given domain for a specific population, while being restrictive in some instances, will be a more adequate instrument than one which attempts to cover the entire spectrum if the instrument is us ed with the population for which it was designed. 6 The major thrust of the OPI is in the areas of attitudes, values, and interests relevant to academic activity and the functioning of late adolescents in an educational context. ”The OPI, like all inventories, is marked by certain strong points and certain weak points. In this instance the former grea'tly outweigh the latter, provided the instrument is used for the purpose for which it was constructed. This purpose is research on problems of adaptation of young people to the college environment. "7 The manual for the OPI states that, ”The major purpose of the inventory is to provide a meaningful differentiating description of students as a means of assessing change rather than a device 6Ibid. , p. 281. 71bid. 54 or instrument for testing a specific theory of personality. "8 Reliability and Internal Consistency Since it is incorrect to refer to the reliability of a scale or inventory, the results of three different approaches to the estimation of the reliability of the OPI are presented. These three estimates are based on different samples. Mean scores and standard deviations are presented with the respective reliability coefficients so that atypical aspects of a given sample can be taken into account when evaluating the various statistics. Table 4 presents coefficients devised by the Kuder—Richardson Formula 21 and the corrected split-half method, and are estimates of the internal consistency of the OPI measures, whereas the jigs}- _r_‘_e_t£_s_t values reflect the tendency of individuals to maintain their relative positions when tested a second time. The Kuder-Richardson Formula 21 figures, ranging from . 67 to . 89, were computed for the total standardization sample than would be obtained on less heterogeneous samples. 9 Test-retest values are also presented in Table 4 for two different groups . 8Paul Heist and George Yonge. Omnibus Personality Inventory, Form-F, Manual (New York: The Psychological Corporation, 1968), p. 3. 91bid., p. 49. 55 0a £38.80 CBOHmucmfiudoam >0 0300.200 «83.29200 :mnuuflmmv .HN Saguoh somvnmsonmuumvsm so vomdmo .oaflnmm ozugqun muaovdum :m no.“ 9303 .33 was mean“ 200300 was? mcofimuumwcmgwm amen. o?» of Googon Hm>u35 083 megs 0.0 0.2 m.0 KKNH 00. N0 0.0a N.0 0.0a 00 N. 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HF NQm Nunez :5 F332 N: NQm Ncwog HQm Haemz NHB Om smog 0:.“ Gm 532 03.” 3.8m SpuZV :0uzv A000n7: Amwmnuzv mmmfioO 020 um Gmfimmmaouommb mommfloo 092:. «a H5803 ommdoO ch nmowozoO pm as smanmlo um segmouh mHmHHHMuHmmH WOZMHmHmZOO A05 3 .m £8300 8. 00.00300 030 .40 :0 ”.008 00.800 03 3 000 .30: 030 0.). 08000.“ 5038 .< 8300 8. 00 090 .00 .08 .3. £0 000000 0.00830 03 «0 0m0u0>0 05 00003 .09 0.80030 0 08.800000 ofiuumZOHHUMmHQ - 0 w uuuuuu 40 3303 ...... mm 3300 0 0 ...... 00 3309 ...... 300m m 0 mm .5300. ...... mm 30403 000.0 0 m 00 0.50.0 00 0>on0 uuuuuu .300 m 0 00 0>0£0 0m 0>0£0 uuuuuu wmu0m 0 m 00 0>090 00 0>00.0 00 0>00.0 400m m N 00 0>00.0 00 9690 0m 0>on0 00.00 N 3 0m 0>0n.0 00 0>0£0 0m 0>on.0 00 0>op0 "0n: 0» «£0030 £30.00 ”00: 0» 800.30 £3000 .008 uo£ 000 m £8300 8. .008 0.0 m 8300 8. ”00. "00. “0.40 . 0 0308.00 0008 00 0:0 04 8. 0:08.00 :0 a 0m £0 04. OH. 00 4H. OH 0 HH. .0000+00+O.H.+HH Q ZED400 0 220400 m 7220400 0. 7220400 » A00000w 0u00£0um £0 0000mv A00: 03000000 £030.00000Q 403002084 w£a£a8n0u0Q 00“ 00.00300 .m H4003. IDCs were computed for both the pre-test and post-test on the 69 Omnibus Personality Inventory. All scores are standard scores. Table 6 and 7 contain results. TABLE 6. Computed Group IDCS (Pre-test) OPI Groups: Scales A B C D E F TI 45. 58 44. 95 45. 00 45. 35 46. 08 T0 45.41 46.85 46. 72 48.03 49.72 Es 49.04 47.80 No 50.84 48.32 46.88 CO 48.41 50.95 Pre-test 49.68 51.00 49.92 Au 47. 79 50. 80 50. 20 48. 42 48. 96 R0 49.83 51.00 49.88 51.35 52.32 Computed IDCS 0 6 6 6 6 TABLE 7. Computed Group IDCS (Post-test) OPI Groups: Scales A B C D E F TI 44.00 45.17 44.22 44.45 44. 73 46.84 TO 44. 33 44.29 44.81 46.08 47.23 49.80 Es 49. 61 48.88 48.90 50.25 48.19 47.96 CO 49.61 50.70 51.13 49.08 ‘ 51.88 51.92 Au 46.28 50.05 51.13 50.66 48.73 50.48 R0 50.00 51.64 47.63 49.62 52.73 51.60 Computed IDCS 6 6 6 6 6 6 The data indicates an Intellectual Disposition Category of 6 for all groups on both the pre-test and post—test of the Omnibus Personality Inventory . in Hypothesis 1. An IDC of 6 supports the contentions made 70 Hypothesis 2: All student groups' post-test mean scales on the Omnibus Personality Inventory will not be significantly different than their pre-test mean scores on the same instrument. Table 8 reveals that there was one significant difference for Group D at the . 05 level for one of the fourteen scales of the Omnibus Personality Inventory when comparing the means of the pre-test and post-test using the t-test for related measures. Since Group C did not receive a pre-test a t-test could not be made. 71 TABLE 8. Results of t-Tests for Related Measures Comparing Pre-test and Post-test Mean Scores on All Scales of the Omnibus Personality Inventory for Groups A, B, D, E, and F. OPI Groups Scales A B C D E F TI 1.174 1. 000 No . 434 . 923 . 723 T0 . 510 1. 307 Pre-test . 393 . 922 . 723 Es .523 .300 .341 .331 .007 Co .999 .701 .177 .414 .708 Au .918 .761 .257 .343 .762 R0 1.172 2.024 .040 1.144 .833 SE .427 1.842 .333 .233 .092 IE 1.507 .350 .572 .524 .437 P1 .811 1.627 .180 .983 .057 AL .186 1.467 .393 .571 .115 Am 1.144 1.291 .356 .886 .771 PO 1.943 2.028 2.172* 1.418 .439 MF .478 1.019 .674 .065 .537 RB .996 1.881 .501 1.306 .925 t05 2.021 2.038 2.015 2.011 .013 df 4O 32 46 50 48 Two-tailed analysis *Significant at the . 05 level Hypothesis two is supported in sixty-nine cases out of seventy tested. This encompasses five of the six groups in the study. 72 Hypothesis 3: In all groups tested the female students' mean scores on the Masculinity-Femininity Scale of the Omnibus Personality Inventory will be significantly lower than the male students' mean scores on both the pre-test and post-test. Table 9 shows the results of t-tests for a difference between two independent means comparing the mean scores of all males and females in each group in the study on the Masculinity-Femininity Scale. A one-tailed analysis indicates that there was a significant difference at the . 05 level in groups A, B, C, D, and E on the pre- test and in groups B, C, D, E, and F on the post-test. TABLE 9. The results of t-Tests for a Difference Between Two Independent Means Comparing the Mean Scores of the Males and Females on the Masculinity-Femininity Scale on the Pre-test and Post-test of the Omnibus Personality Inventory. Groups t05 Pre-test-t Post-test-t A 1.717 2.376 1.729 1.514%< B l. 729 2.438 1.753 2. 337 C No Pre-test l. 725 2. 587 D 1.714 4.332 1. 717 3. 957 E 1.706 4.365 1.711 3.397 F 1.714 1.658* 1.714 2.568 One -tai1ed analysis *Not significant at the . 05 level No significant difference for Group A is indicated at the . 05 level for the post-test on the Masculinity-Femininity Scale of the Omnibus Personality Inventory. The same is true for Group F 73 on the pre -test. Eypothesis 4: There will not be a significant difference in any of the mean scores for the fourteen scales of the Omnibus Personality Inventory post-test between the freshman and soPhomores in the treatment group. Table 10 indicates that there was no significant difference on any of the fourteen scales of the treatment group between the mean scores of the freshman students and sophomore students when mean scores were compared using a t-test for a difference between two independent means at the . 05 level with a two-tailed analysis. 74 TABLE 10. The Results 10f t-Tests for a Difference Between Two Independent lvleans Comparing the Mean Scores of the SoPhomore and Freshman Students in the Treatment Group on the Fourteen Scales of the Omnibus Personality Inventory. OPI Treatment Group Scales Group A TI . 000 TO . 668 Es . 271 C0 . 398 Au . 963 R0 . 762 SE . 246 IE . 257 P1 . 652 AL . 325 Am 1. 335 PO . 658 MF . 172 RB . 403 t05 2. 093 df 19 Two-tailed analysis No significant difference indicated at the . 05 level 75 Hypothesis 5: There will not be a significant difference in any of the mean scores for the thirteen scales of the Omnibus Personality Inventory post-test (excluding the Masculinity-Femininity Scale) between the male students and female students in the treatment group. Table 11 presents the results of t-tests for a difference between two independent means when comparing the post—test mean scores between the female students and male students on thirteen scales of the Omnibus Personality Inventory. No significant difference was indicated at the . 05 level for any of the thirteen scales tested using a two-tailed analysis . 76 TABLE 11. The Results of t-Tests .for a Difference Between Two Independent Means Comparing the Post-test Mean Scores of the Male Students and Female Students in the Treatment Group on Thirteen Scales of the Omnibus Personality Inventory. (Masculinity-Femininity Scale Excluded) OPI Treatment Group Scales Group A TI . 597 TO . 699 Es . 016 C0 . 906 Au . 436 R0 . 307 SE . 825 IE . 369 P1 1. 004 AL 1. 254 Am . 602 PO . O96 RB . 534 df 19 Two—tailed analysis No significant difference indicated at the . 05 level 77 Hypothesis 6: The treatment group will not have a significantly different mean score on the Impulse Expression Scale of the Omnibus Personality Inventory post-test when compared to the three other introductory speech groups on the same post-test. A one-factor ANOVA test was used to determine if there was a significant difference between the four introductory speech classes on the Impulse Expression Scale of the Omnibus Personality Inventory on the post-test. The ANOVA test results are presented in Table 12. TABLE 12. ANOVA for the Impulse Expression Scale of the Omnibus Personality Inventory between Groups A, B, C, and D. Source 35 df 'ms F ' F05 Total 6766 67 - - - Between Groups 186 3 36 . 350 < 2. 75 Within Groups 6580 64 102. 81 - - Since the F value, . 350, is less than the critical value of F, which is 2. 75, there is no significant difference at the . 05 level between Groups A, B, C, and D on the Impulse Expression of the Omnibus Pe rs onality Inventory . 78 Hypothesis 7: The treatment group will not have a significantly different mean score on the Social Extroversion Scale of the Omnibus Personality Inventory post-test when compared to the three other introductory speech groups on the same post-test. A one-factor ANOVA test was used to determine if there was a significant difference between the four introductory Speech classes on the Social Extroversion Scale of the Omnibus Personality Inventory on the post-test. The ANOVA test results are presented in Table 13. TABLE 13. ANOVA for the Social Extroversion Scale of the Omnibus Personality Inventory between Groups A, B, C, and D. Source ss df ms F F05 Total 4350 67 - .. - Between Groups 486 3 162 2. 68 < 2. 75 Within Groups 3864 64 60. 38 - - Since the F value, 2. 68, is less than the critical value of F, 2. 75, there is no significant difference at the . 05 level between Groups A, B, C, and D on the Social Extroversion Scale of the Omnibus Personality Inventory. 79 Hypothesis 8: The treatment group will not have a significantly different mean score on the Practical Outlook Scale of the Omnibus Personality Inventory when compared to the three other introductory speech groups on the same postitest. A one-factor ANOVA test was used to determine if there was a significant difference between the four introductory speech classes on the Practical Outlook Scale of the Omnibus Personality Inventory on the post—test. The ANOVA test results are presented in Table 14. TABLE 14. ANOVA for the Practical Outlook Scale of the Omnibus Personality Inventory between Groups A, B, C, and D. Source ss df ms F F05 Total 3933 67 — - - Between Groups 208 3 69. 33 1.19 < 2. 75 Within Groups 3725 64 58. 20 - - Since the F value, 1.19, is less than the critical value of F, which is 2. 75, there is no significant difference at the . 05 level between Groups A, B, C, and D on the Practical Outlook Scale of the Omnibus Personality Inventory. 80 Student responses to five questions on the Student Questionnaire are shown in Table 20. These responses are analyzed using a chi— square test in relation to Hypotheses nine, ten, eleven, twelve and thirteen. The complete questionnaire is presented in Appendix A. All students were also asked to add a personal comment about each question. The comments from the treatment group are shown in Appendix B. In addition, the treatment group was asked to respond to this oral question presented by the instructor: "Please give us your impression of the use of the videotape and your reactions both negative and positive. ” These comments are also included as a part of Appendix B. The five questions posed in the Student Questionnaire are related to five scales of the Omnibus Personality Inventory insofar as they deal with the stated concerns of those scales. Following are the specific scales relative to the hypothesis: Hypothesis 9 Social Extroversion Scale Hypothesis 10 - Impulse Expression Scale Hypothesis 11 Fe rsonal Integration Scale Hypothe sis 12 Anxiety Level Scale Hypothesis l3 Altruism Scale The results from the Student Questionnaire and the indications from the scales will be discussed at the conclusion of this chapter. 81 N 4.4 o4 mN 24 N Z 2 cm H .3080 m m 04 0N Q 40 mmdouw £4 w£400030u£4 N o 44 NN 0 £044? 30402.40 0004 0>044 30£ 4 4 m w 4.4 0 .003500 044» 40 04.9003 0 04 N 4. 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N4 4N < N M4 04 mN n4 004043.000 0 ON 0 0N M 404000 £4 00>4o>£4 w£48000n o 04 . 4.4 0N n4 0£0 0400044 4.4043 w£40n £4 0 «0 m4 NN 0 0.00.4005. 300003m 0>0£4 30£ 4 o 44 0 04 0 00.300 04.440 40 0.4.9003 0 04 o 0 m4 4N < 074 0M£0£0 000309444 074 00% 445030 £4 @5030 08004 0340500400000 3005.974 0340540400000 00.0055 00. 000£0n400m .m4 040.44. 82 N 44 N4 mN ,4 N 4. >4 0N m 080430.24 4.04000 39,0409 0.9030 0 2 m E 0 822.80 05me S. 3800 m N4 0 NN 0 -800 0.38 50 4 0.044“ 4004 Rod 4 o w o 4.4 m 009.900 0444» 40 04.900.“ 0 0< N 04 m 4N < OZ 0wq0£0 0£0H0n4n4< 074 00% 445090 :4 @30H0 05004 00400304000000 0098374 4.0.053 2 0300. 83 Hypothes is 9: There will be no significant difference in the number of positive responses by students in the treatment group to question one on the Student Questionnaire relative to the other groups' responses to the same question. Question One: As a result of this course I now have greater interest in being with people and becoming involved in social activities. In Table 16 the positive responses are compared to the total responses to question one from the Student Questionnaire. TABLE 16. Chi—Square Test of Positive Responses to Question One on the Student Questionnaire Groups Positive Reaponses Total Percent Successes A 13 21 61. 905 B 6 17 35. 294 C 13 22 59. 091 D 14- 24 58. 333 E 6 26 23. 077 F 10 25 40. 000 Chi-squared for these data : 11. 7753 Corresponding normal deviate : 1. 85291 The probability of this value of chi-square being exceeded by chance alone is . 032 \ Significant difference is indicated at the . 05 level. 84 Hypothesis 10: There will be no significant difference in the number of positive responses by students in the treatment group to question two on the Student Questionnaire relative to the other groups' responses to the same question. Question Two: As a result of this course I am now more inclined to express my feelings and attitudes and act upon them. In Table 17 the positive responses are compared to the total responses to question two from the Student Questionnaire. TABLE 17. Chi-Square Test of Positive Responses to Question Two on the Student Questionnaire. Groups Positive Responses Total Percent Successes A 12 21 57. 143 B 11 17 64 706 C 12 22 54 545 D 13 24 54. 167 E 15 26 57. 692 F 10 25 40. 000 Chi—squared for these data 2 2. 98656 Corresponding normal deviate : —. 556003 The probability of this value of chi—square being exceeded by chance alone is . 711 No significant difference is indicated at the . 05 level. 85 Hypothesis 1 1: There will be no significant difference in the number of positive responses by students in the treatment group to question three on the Student Questionnaire relative to the other groups' responses to the same question. Question Three: As a result of this course I now feel that I better understand people and they have a better understanding of me. In Table 18 the positive responses are compared to the total responses to question three from the Student Questionnaire. TABLE 18. Chi—Square Test of Positive Responses to Question Three on the Student Questionnaire Groups Positive Responses Total Percent Successes A 1 1 21 52. 381 B 8 17 47. 059 C 17 22 77. 273 D 15 24 62. 500 E 8 26 30. 769 F 6 25 24. 000 Chi-squared for these data : 18. 5984 Corresponding normal deviate : 3. 09891 The probability of this value of chi—square being exceeded by chance alone is . 001 Significant difference is indicated at the . 05 level. 86 Hypothesis 1 2: There will be no significant difference in the number of positive responses by students in thetreatment group to question four on the Student Questionnaire relative to the other gr0ups' responses to the same question. Question Four: As a result of this course I now have less anxiety when interacting in groups of people. In Table 19 the positive responses are compared to the total responses to question four from the Student Questionnaire. TABLE 19. Chi-Square Test of Positive Responses to Question Four on the Student Questionnaire Groups Positive Responses Total Percent Successes A 12 21 57. 143 B 8 17 47. 059 C 11 22 50. 000 D 16 '24 66. 667 E 13 26 50. 000 F 10 25 40. 000 Chi-squared for these data = 3. 97433 Corre5ponding normal deviate : -. 180664 The probability of this value of chi—square being exceeded by chance alone is . 572 No significant difference is indicated at the . 05 level. 87 Hypothesis 13: There will be no significant difference in the number of positive reSponses by students in the treatment group to question five on the Student Questionnaire relative to the other groups' reSponses to the same question. Question Five: As a result of this course I now feel that I am more competent in making decisions about relevant social problems In Table 20 the positive responses are compared to the total responses to question five fron'i the Student Questionnaire. TABLE 20. Chi-Square Test of Positive Responses to Question Five on the Student Questionnaire Groups Positive Responses Total Percent Successes A 5 21 23. 810 B 9 17 ‘ 52.941 C 7 22 31. 818 D 5 24 20. 833 E 17 26 65. 385 F 12 25 48. 000 Chi-squared for these data : 15. 2928 Corresponding normal deviate : 2. 53043 The probability of this value of chi—square being exceeded by chance alone is . 006 Significant difference is indicated at the . 05 level. 88 Demographic Data On page 90, Table 21 reveals the age, grade level, and sex of the students involved in the study. The four introductory Speech classes had an average age of 19. 99 at the end of the semester the study was completed. By comparing this average with the average age of each group at the end of the study very little difference was found between the group averages to the four-group average: Group A-ZO. 48; Group B-18. 94; Group C-20. 09 when one extreme is excluded; Group D-ZO. 25. Since there was such a small difference between each group and the average of the four groups a decision was made to not attempt to identify any differences that may have existed on the various scales of the Omnibus Personality Inventory between specific age groups. A The average age of the two English composition classes is 18. 89. The average age of students in Group E is 18. 58 and in Group F, 19. 2 when one extreme is excluded. Again, very small differences indicated when compared to the average of the two groups. Attrition for the six groups also appears not to be significant enough for further consideration: Group A-3; Group B-4; Group C-Z; Group D-l; Group E-Z; and Group F-O. In the four introductory speech classes the freshman and sophomore students at the end of the semester were rather evenly 89 divided with the exception of Group B. Group A had 10 freshmen and 11 sophomores at the end of the semester; Group B, 12 fresh- men and 5 soPhomores; Group C, 12 freshmen and 10 soPhomores; and Group D, 11 freshmen and 13 sophomores. The English classes were made up almost entirely of freshmen: Group E, 24 freshmen and 2 SOphomores; Group F, 21 freshmen and 4 sophomores. In all but one of the groups, Group D, the males outnumbered the females at the end of the semester the study was conducted. The breakdown: Group A, 15 males and 6 females; Group B, 10 males and 7 females; Group C, 12 males and 10 females; Group D, 1 male and 13 females; Group E, 16 males and 10 females; Group F, 18 males and 7 females. 9O 4.4V .. 400454003 0m< ".4 “4.9090 .mm .. 400454003 0m< "0 @30H0 080.500 0G0 wc440540x0 0mm 0w0u0><0 s m: v 3 mm saw .136: s M: 4 3. mm 0532.060 0.18 s S 3 N E 3 6mm 3 S N 8 0m 05.5060 mm .m: m 2 2 2 S «N 6:0 3 4 4 2 N4 mm 05.05060 mm .8 o S 2 3 2 MN cam .18 .omv Z 2 3 E 3 0:35.060 mo .3 0 a. S m 2 S Em 0 2 s E 3 0505.060 so .3 m 6 m4 2 3 3 6:0. 0 3 3 S 3 0550060 04.8 < 336660 06 00000200 can a 0505060 00 020 0.04 mm4<4>4m4n4 mm14<4>4 mHMOEOmanm Z<4>444mm4~4r4 mHZHQDHm .40 MHmEDZ m40< mn4DO~40 $4.80 65 S. 35630 46 x60 6:6 .4954 606.5 .60... gm 0.40.2. 91 Summary of Analysis Hypothesis 1 was supported by the data. It was hypothesized that all of the groups in the study would have computed Intellectual Disposition Categories that would indicate that the students within the group manifest strong goal orientations, but generally pursue learning as a means to an end and seldom for the intrinsic satisfac- tion gained from the acquisition of knowledge. The system of Intellectual Disposition Categories is a way of classifying individuals at certain points on a continuum of intellectual disposition. There are eight Intellectual Disposition Categories. The categorization makes use of six scales from the Omnibus Personality Inventory. The six scales are Thinking Introversion, Theoretical Orientation, Estheticism, Complexity, Autonomy and Religious Orientation. This method of categorization is an attempt to systematize the classification of OPI profiles in terms of an intellectual-scholarly disposition and is more complex and multi- faceted in meaning than the various OPI measures taken singly. All of the groups had computed IDCs of 6 on their pre-tests and post-tests. An IDC of 6 supports the hypothesis. Hypothesis 2 was supported by the data. It was hypothesized that there would be no significant differences in the mean scores between the pre—test and the post-test mean scores on all fourteen scales of the five groups that were tested. Out of the seventy scales 92 tested, there was only one scale with a significant difference at the . 05 level. The Practical Orientation Scale of Group D had a significant difference between the mean scores at the . 05 level. It appears that very little change, as measured by the specific scales of the Omnibus Personality Inventory, occurred over the fifteen week period within the groups tested. A two-tailed analysis was utilized. Hypothesis 3 was supported by the data. It was hypothesized that female students‘ mean scores on the Masculinity—Femininity Scale of the Omnibus Personality Inventory would be significantly lower than the male students' mean score on the same scale for both the pre-test and the post-test. The Masculinity-Femininity Scale assesses some of the differences in attitudes and interests between college men and women. High scorers generally are males and deny interests in esthetic matters and they admit to few adjustment problems, feelings of anxiety, or personal inadequacies. They also tend to be somewhat less socially inclined than low scorers and more inter- ested in scientific matters. Females generally score lower, have stronger esthetic and social inclinations, and admit to greater sensitivity and emotionality. The results of t-tests for a difference between two independent means indicated significance at the . 05 level in four of the five 93 groups pre—tested on the Masculinity-Femininity Scale and five of the six groups post-tested on the same scale. A one-tailed analysis was used. Hypothesis 4 was supported by the data. It was hypothesized that there would not be a significant difference in any of the mean scores for the fourteen scales of the Omnibus Personality Inventory post-test between freshman and 30phomores in the treatment group. The treatment group was composed of ten freshmen and eleven soPhomores at the end of the study. The students were compared on all fourteen scales using the t-test for a difference between two independent means and no significant difference was indicated at the . 05 level. A two-tailed analysis was used. Hypothesis 5 was supported by the data. It was hypothesized that there would not be a significant difference between the mean scores of the male students and female students in the treatment group on thirteen of the fourteen scales of post-test of the Omnibus Personality Inventory. One scale, the Masculinity-Femininity Scale, was not included since it would be expected that a difference would exist on this scale between the male and female students. T-tests for a difference between two independent means pro- duced results that indicated no significant difference existed at the . 05 level for any of the thirteen scales. A two-tailed analysis 94 was used. Hypothesis 6 was supported by the data. It was hypothesized that there would not be a significant difference between the mean score on the Impulse Expression Scale of the Omnibus Personality Inventory of the treatment group when compared to the three other introductory speech groups' mean scores on the same post-test. A simple randomized design was used and a one-factor analysis of variance was performed. Since the groups under consideration were not equal, scores from three of the groups were randomly selected and excluded from the computations. The number of students equalled seventeen for each group in the analysis. The F value, . 350, was less than the critical value for F, 2;. 75, and therefore there was no significant difference at the . 05 level. Hypothesis 7 was supported by the data. It was hypothesized that there would not be a significant difference between the mean score on the Social Extroversion Scale of the Omnibus Personality Inventory of the treatment group when compared to the three other introductory speech groups' mean scores on the same post-test. The same method explained in Hypothesis 6 was employed. The result was an F value of 2. 68 which was less than the critical value of F, 2. 75, and therefore no significant difference exists at the . 05 level between Groups A, B, C, and D on the Social Extroversion Scale. 95 Hypothesis 8 was supported by the data. It was hypothesized that the treatment group would not-.have a significantly different mean score on the Practical Outlook Scale of the Omnibus Personality Inventory when compared to the three other introductory speech groups on the same post-test. The same procedure was followed as in Hypothesis 6 and 7. An F value was computed and found to be 1. 19. This was less than the critical value of F, 2. 75. There was no significant difference at the . 05 level between groups A, B, C, and D on the Practical Outlook Scale of the Omnibus Personality Inventory. Hypothesis 9 was not supported by the data. It was hypothesized that no significant difference would exist in the number of positive responses by students in the treatment group to question Cline of the Student Questionnaire relative to the other groups' responses to the same question. The statement: "As a result of this course I now have greater interest in being with people and becoming involved in social activities. " Positive reSponses were compared to total responses using a chi-square test. A significant difference was indicated at the . 05 level. This hypothesis is related to the Social Extroversion Scale of the Omnibus Personality Inventory. The Student Questionnaire was designed as an attempt to obtain the students' personal reaction to 96 the essence of the definition of the five scales of the Omnibus Personality Inventory. An analysis of the reSponses indicates that three of the four introductory speech classes had the highest percentage of positive responses to question one and that the treatment group had the greatest percentage, 61. 905. It is interesting to note, however, that the treatment group had a mean score on the post-test of the Social Extroversion Scale of the OPI of 45. 80, while the other groups had scores fairly similar: Group B-40. 94; Group C-49. 36; Group D-47. 29; Group E-46. 73; and Group F-45. 32. Hypothesis 10 was supported by the data. It was hypothesized that no signifitzant difference would exist in the number of positive responses by students in the treatment group to question two of the Student Questionnaire relative to the other groups' responses to the same question. The student was given the following statement: ”As a result of this course, I am more inclined to express my feelings and attitudes and act upon them. " When positive responses were compared to total responses using a chi-square test, no significant difference was indicated at the . 05 level. This hypothesis is related to the Impulse Expression Scale of the Omnibus Personality Inventory. An analysis of the responses indicates rather similar results among Groups A, B, C, and D. 97 The mean scores on the post-test of the Impulse Expression Scale of the Omnibus Personality Inventory are generally well above the published norms for the CPI. The mean scores for the groups are over one standard deviation above the norm: Group A-58.42; Group B-57. 76; Group C-60. 63; Group D-59. 50; Group E-57. 11; and Group F-56. 04. HypotheSis 11 was not supported by the data. It was hypothesized that no significant difference would exist in the number of positive responses by students in the treatment group to question three of the Student Questionnaire relative to the other groups' reSponses to the same question. The students were asked to respond to this statement: ”As a result of this course, I now feel that I better understand pe0ple and they have a better understanding of me. ” When positive reSponses were compared to total responses using a chi-square test, a significant difference was indicated at the . 05 level. This hypothesis is related to the Personal Integration Scale of the Omnibus Personality Inventory. An. analysis of the positive responses indicates the four introductory speech classes with a generally much higher per- centage of positive responses than the two English classes, Groups E and F. The Personal Integration Scale of the OPI mean scores for the 98 post-test reveal the following: Group A-48. 23; Group B-44. 19; Group C-50. 77; Group D-46. 20; Group E-48. 76; and Group F- 52. 24. These scores are all very close to the published norzm mean scale for this particular scale of 49. 9. Hypothesis 12 was supported by the data. It was hypothesized that there would be no significant difference in the number of positive reSponses by students in the treatment group to question four on the Student Questionnaire relative to the other groups‘ responses to the same question. The students were asked to respond to this statement: "As a result of this course, I now have less anxiety when interacting in groups of pe0p1e.” Positive responses were compared to total responses using a chi-square test which showed no significant difference at the . 05 level for the six groups. This hypothesis is related to the Anxiety Level Scale of the Omnibus Personality Inventory. A high score on this scale indicates a low anxiety level and vice versa for a low score. The post-test mean scores on the Anxiety Level Scale for the six groups with the exception of Group F are below, but fairly close, to the published norm mean of 50. 00. Group A had 48. 38; Group B-43. 94; Group C—49. 09; Group D—44. 54; Group E-48. 46; and Group F-52._88. 99 Hypothesis 13 was not supported by the data. It was hypothesized that there would be no significant difference in the number of positive responses by the students in the treatment group to question five on the Student Questionnaire relative to the other groups' responses to the same question. Students in the groups were asked to respond to the statement: ”As a result of. this course, I now feel I am more competent in making decisions about relevant social problems. Comparing positive reSponses to total reSponses using a chi- square test indicated a significant difference at the . 05 level. The Altruism Scale of the Omnibus Personality Inventory and Hypothesis 13 are related. Three of the introductory speech classes had a low percentage of positive responses while the two English classes had a relatively higher number of positive responses. Post-test scores on the Altruism Scale show that Group A had 46. 28; Group B-44. 35; Group C-48. 63; Group D-47. 50; Group E-46. 26; and Group F-48. 56. The published norm mean is 50. 00. All six groups fall below this. Chapter IV has been devoted to a presentation and discussion of the findings of this study. Thirteen hypotheses were examined. Eight of these were directly related to the Omnibus Personality Inventory and the remaining five to the Student Questionnaire and five scales of the OPI. Demographic information about the students 100 in the study was also presented. The final chapter will be composed of a summary of this research, a list of conclusions, and a discussion of implications and recommendations for educational practice. C HAPT ER V SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS Chapter V contains an overview of the study, a list of con— clusions, a summary of conclusions, and a discussion of implica— tions and recommendations with reference to the effects of the use of delayed videotape replay of interpersonal class exercises on an introductory speech class. Attention will also be given to the personality characteristics of the six groups involved in the study. Overview This study had two major objectives. The first was to evaluate what effect, if any, the use of a delayed videotape replay procedure had on an introductory speech class at Jackson Community College as measured by the Omnibus Personality Inventory. The second, and equally important objective, was to determine the personality characteristics of the students involved in the study. A Student Questionnaire and the Omnibus Personality Inventory were employed in an attempt to achieve both objectives. The population of the study consisted of four introductory Speech classes and two freshman 101 102 English Composition classes at Jackson Community College during the Winter Semester of 1975. Only four introductory speech classes were offered in the day program and all of them were a part of the study. A total of 147 students in six classes made up the population of the study at the beginning of the semester. Through attrition this number was reduced to 135 by the end of the semester and the study. The statistical analysis of the Omnibus Personality Inventory was conducted using two t-tests: the t-test for a difference between two independent means and the t-test for a difference between related means were utilized for four of the hypotheses. A one-factor analy- sis of variance was computed for three of the hypotheses. The five questions on the Student Questionnaire were analyzed using the chi- square test. In all of the analyses an alpha level of . 05 was used to determine statistical significance. One hypothesis concerned the Intellectual Disposition Categories (IDCS) of the students in the study. IDCs are computed through the use of a prepared table which takes into consideration six of the scales of the Omnibus Personality Inventory: Thinking Introversion, Theoretical Orientation, Estheticism, Complexity, Autonomy, and Religious Orientation. The IDC locates a person on a continuum of intellectual disposition. List of Conclusions Thirteen hypotheses were examined and tested. Hypothesis 1 dealt with determining Intellectual Disposition 103 Categories for all of the groups in the study. There were eight possible categories numbered one through eight. It was hypothesized that all of the groups would have a computed IDC of six on both the pre-tests and post-tests determined from the scores on six scales of the Omnibus Personality Inventory (OPI). Results from the OPI indicated that all groups did have a category of six on both the pre-tests and post—tests. It sh0uld be noted that mean scores for the various classes were used in computing the IDCs since we were interested in analyzing results for groups rather than individuals in this particular hypothesis. An IDC of six indicates that the students who fall into this classification may generally achieve good grades and manifest strong goal orientations and thrive on the competitive aspects of educational evaluation. These students are motivated, but pursue learning as a means to an end and seldom for the intrinsic satis- faction gained from the acquisition of knowledge alone. Since the students who scored this IDC of six represent a cross section of the day students at Jackson Community College: 82 males, 53 females; 90 freshmen, 45 SOphomores; and all were enrolled as day students at the college at the end of the study; we may conclude that the description of the Intellectual Disposition Category of six is fairly representative of the student population attending the day program at Jackson Community College. 104 Hypotheses 2, 3, 4, and 5 were concerned with determining if any changes occurred over the fifteen week semester on any of the fourteen scales of the Omnibus Personality Inventory. The four introductory speech classes were very similar in all respects: age, sex, and grade level. The students selected their own classes for their own reasons. The freshman composition classes, while made up of students similar in age and sex to the introductory Speech classes were, as one might surmise, predominantly freshmen. Hypothesis 2 asserted that there would be'no significant difference in the post-test and pre-test mean scores in any of the groups tested. Group C did not receive a pre—test and could not be included in this hypothesis. The results indicated that on all thirteen scales in Groups A, (the treatment group), B, D, E, and F there was no significant difference between mean scores at an alpha level of . 05 with one exception. That exception was found in Group D on the Practical Outlook Scale. The results of t-tests for related measures indicate no signifi- cant difference at an alpha level of . 05 for the other sixty-nine sets of mean scores. We conclude that very little change occurred in the groups in the selected attitudes, values, and interests measured by the Omnibus Personality Inventory over the fifteen week period of the study. It is also concluded that it is very doubtful any significant changes occurred in Group C for two reasons: the student 105 population of this group was very similar to the other groups in the study and the post-test mean scores were also very similar. Hypothesis 3 was concerned with determining if any significant difference at an alpha level of . 05 existed between the males and females on the Masculinity-Femininity Scale of the Omnibus Personality Inventory on both the pre-test and post-test. It was expected that there would be a significant difference since males usually score higher while females generally score lower on this particular scale. The .Masculinity-Femininity Scale is composed of fifty-six items that assess some of the differences in attitudes and interests between college men and women. High scorers, usually masculine, deny interests in esthetic matters, and they admit to few adjustment problems, feelings of anxiety, or personal inadequacies. They also tend to be somewhat less socially inclined than low scorers and more interested in scientific matters. Low scorers, usually feminine, besides having stronger esthetic and social inclinations admit to greater sensitivity and emotionality. Results of the post-tests and pre-tests in all groups show that four out of five of the pre-tests and five out of six of the post-tests on this particular scale showed significance at an alpha level of . 05. We conclude from these results that the student pOpulation in the study generally reflect attitudes and interests attributed to their specific sex. 106 Hypothesis 4 maintained that no significant difference existed between the freshmen and sophomores in the treatment group on the post-tests of any of the fourteen scales of the Omnibus Personality Inventory. Results from t-tests for a difference between two independent means revealed no significant difference at an alpha level of . 05 on any of the fourteen scales. We conclude that grade level of the participants in the treatment group did not generally influence their responses on the Omnibus Personality Inventory. Hypothesis 5 asserted that male and female students in the treatment group would not have a significant difference in their post- test scores on all but the Masculinity-Femininity Scale of the Omnibus Personality Inventory. Results from applying t-tests for a difference between two independent means indicated no significant difference existed at an alpha level of . 05 for any of the thirteen scales. We conclude from these results that the sex of the students in the treatment group was not a major influence in their responses to the thirteen scales of the OPI. Hypothesis 6 contended that no significant difference existed between the mean scores of the four introductory speech groups on the post—test of Impulse Expression Scale of the Omnibus Personality Inventory. This scale assesses a general readiness to express impulses and to seek gratification either in conscious thought or in overt action. High scorers have an active imagination, value sensual 107 reactions and feelings; very high scorers have frequent feelings of rebellion and aggression. The results of a one-factor analysis of variance indicated no significant difference at an alpha level of . 05. Norms for the Impulse Expression Scale indicate a mean of 25. 6. Converted to a standard score this becomes 49. 5. One standard deviation below the mean to one standard deviation above the mean produces a range of 39. 5 to 59. 5. Group A had a’mean score of 58.42; Group B, 57. 76; Group C, 60. 63; and Group D, 59. 50. We conclude from these statistics that the four introductory speech classes were not significantly different on the Impulse Expression Scale. It should be noted that the mean scores stated above were the highest post-test scores of the fourteen scales in each of the four groups. This may be an indication that the students in these groups lean toward the general description of high scorers on the Impulse Expression Scale. Hypothesis 7 contended that no significant differences existed between the mean scores of the four introductory speech groups on the post-test of the Social Extroversion Scale of the Omnibus Personality Inventory. This scale reflects a preferred style of relating to people in a social context. High scorers diSplay a strong interest in being with pe0ple, and they seek social activities and gain satisfaction from them. The low scorer tends to withdraw from social contacts and responsibilities. The results of a one-factor 108 analysis of variance indicated no significant difference at an alpha level of 7. 05. Norms for the Social Extroversion Scale show a mean of 23. 4. Converted to a standard score this becomes 50. 4. One standard deviation below the mean to one standard deviation above produces a range of 40. 3 to 60. Group A had a mean score of 45. 80; Group B, 40. 94; Group C, 49. 36; and Group D, 47. 29. All of these scores are below the average of 50. 4. This may .not be significant enough to reach any definite conclusions about the four groups. These mean scores on the Social Extroversion Scale, while not the lowest mean scores in each of the groups, all fall into the bottom quartile. This does show a tendency in the direction of low scoring and may be an indication that these groups fit more into the description for low scorers on the Social Extroversion Scale rather than into the high scorer image. Hypothesis 8 maintained that the four introductory speech groups would not have a significant difference in their mean scores on the Practical Outlook Scale of the Omnibus Personality Inventory. The results of a one factor analysis of variance showed no significant difference at an alpha level of . 05. The Practical Outlook Scale of the OPI measures the interest in practical, applied activities and material possessions. A high score indicates that the criterion most often used to evaluate ideas and things is one of immediate utility. Authoritarianism, conservatism, and non-intellectual 109 interests are very frequent personality components of persons scoring above the average on this scale. A score of 49. 8 is the published mean for the Practical Outlook Scale. One standard deviation below the mean to one standard deviation above creates a range from 43.4 to 56. 2. Group A had a mean score of 55. 38; Group B, 53. 64; Group C, 50. 86; and Group D, 52. 54. All four groups had mean scores above the published mean of 49. 8. However, since none of the groups scored above 56. 2, which represents one standard deviation, there is not a clear enough indication to make a strong statement that the groups, statistically, scored significantly higher on this particular scale. The treatment group with a mean of 55. 38 did come close to being in the second standard deviation and the fact exists that all of the groups had higher mean scores than the published average for this scale. In Group A, the mean score on this scale was the second highest score of the fourteen scales; for Group B, it was also the second highest mean score of the fourteen scales; in Group C it was the fourth highest mean score of all the scales; in Group D the mean score for this scale was the second highest of all the fourteen scales. Considering all of the above data, the researcher concludes that the groups reflect an image more aligned with the description for high scores on this scale rather than the low score profile. Hypotheses 9, 10, ll, 12, and 13 analyzed the positive responses to five questions on the Student Questionnaire relative to negative 110 replies. Student comments were also requested and will be discussed later in this chapter. The comments from the treatment group are listed in Appendix B. Hypothesis 9 hypothesized that the number of positive reSponses to Question 1 on the Student Questionnaire by the treatment group would not be significantly different than the positive responses by the three other introductory speech groups. This hypothesis was not supported by the data. A chi-square test indicated a significant difference at an alpha level of . 05. The first statement on the Student Questionnaire was related to the Social Extroversion Scale of the Omnibus Personality Inventory. The statement: "As a result of this course I now have greater interest in being with people and becoming involved in social activities. " Three of the four introductory speech groups had a high percentage of positive responses to the above statement. The two English groups had relatively low positive responses to the same statement. It appears that a significant majority of the students in three of the Introductory Speech classes perceived a change in their social awareness. Hypothesis 10 was supported by the data. Students were asked to reSpond to this statement: "As a result of this course I am now more inclined to express my feelings and attitudes and act upon them. " A chi—square test comparing positive responses of all 1 11 groups showed no significant difference at an alpha level of . 05. This question reflected the Impulse Expression Scale profile. While the results of the chi-square test indicated no significant difference in positive responses among the groups, it should be pointed out that the post-test results on the Omnibus Personality Inventory are all well above the published mean norm for this scale. We conclude from this that the groups were very similar in their responses on both the OPI and Student Questionnaire. An additional point should be emphasized: the mean scores for the Impulse Expression Scale were the highest mean scores of all fourteen scales in all six groups. We conclude from these facts that all the groups in the study gen- erally reflect the characteristics for high scorers on this scale: a high score on this scale indicates an active imagination, a value placed on sensual reactions and feelings, and a general readiness to express impulses and to seek gratification either in conscious thought or in overt action. Hypothesis 11 was not supported by the data. A chi-square test comparing the positive responses by the six groups to question three on the Student Questionnaire resulted in a significant difference at an alpha level of . 05. The statement the students were asked to respond to was related to the Personal Integration Scale of the OPI and declared: "As a result of this course I now feel that I better understand pe0ple and they have a better understanding of me " 112 Examining the positive responses of the six groups shows that the four introductory speech groups had a much higher percentage of positive responses to this question than the two English classes. The treatment group had 52. 38 percent, Group B, 47. 05 percent, Group C, 77. 27 percent, and Group D, 62. 5 percent. In the two English classes, Group E had 30. 76 percent, and Group F had 24 percent. The treatment group does not appear to be very different from the other three introductory Speech groups. An examination of the mean scores on the Personal Integration Scale post-test of the OPI produces the following: Group A, 48. 23, Group B, 44.17, Group C, 50. 77, Group D, 46. 20, Group E, 48. 76, and Group F, 52. 24. The published norm mean for this scale is 49. 9. We conclude from the data that the treatment group members did not perceive themselves in a much different fashion than the three other introductory speech classes on either their reSponses to the OPI Personal Integration Scale nor to the third question on the Student Questionnaire. The Personal Integration Scale, as a measure, suggests that high scorers admit to few attitudes and behaviors that characterize socially alienated or emotionally disturbed persons; low scorers often intentionally avoid others and experience feelings of hostility and aggression along with feelings of isolation, loneliness, and rejection. The mean scores of the groups 113 are clustered around the published norm mean. Our conclusion is that the groups in the study represent rather stable behaviors with a noticeable lack of extremes. Hypothesis 12 was supported by the data. Utilizing a chi-square test, no significant difference at an alpha level of . 05 was found in the number of positive responses to question four on the Student Questionnaire among the six groups in the study. Question four was related to the Anxiety Level Scale of the OPI and asked the students to respond to this statement: "As a result of this course I now have less anxiety when interacting in groups of people. " High scorers on the Anxiety Level Scale deny that they have feelings or symptoms of anxiety and do not admit to being nervous or worried. Low scorers describe themselves as tense and high-strung and may experience some difficulty in adjusting to their social environment, and they tend to have a poor opinion of themselves. The published norm mean for this scale is 50. Group A had a mean of 48. 38; Group B, 43. 94; Group C, 49. 09; Group D, 44. 54; Group E, 48.46; and Group F, 52. 88. No extremes are indicated and none of the groups is more than one standard deviation above or below the mean. We conclude from the data that the groups in the study are very similar in their responses to question four on the Student Questionn- aire and the Anxiety Level Scale of the OPI. It is also evident that none of the groups indicate extreme scores in either direction on the Anxiety Level Scale. 114 Hypothesis 13 was not supported by the data. A significant difference at an alpha level of . 05 was found in the number of positive reSponses among the six groups to the fifth question on the Student Questionnaire. Students were asked to reSpond to this statement: "As a result of this course I now feel I am more com- petent in making decisions about relevant social problems. " The data from the Student Questionnaire reveals that one introductory speech class and the two English classes had the highest percent- ages of positive reSponses while the remaining three introductory Speech classes had a relatively low percentage of positive reSponses. It is difficult to make a definite statement from the data. We believe there is a good possibility the results were influenced by the course content rather than specific teaching approaches. The English classes received writing assignments related to contemporary problems in society. The Speech classes had even more diversified course material covering a wide range of topics. This may have had an effect on the students' perceptions of what they thought they should be learning in their Specific classes. It is impossible to arrive at an accurate conclusion interpreting the particular responses to this question. 115 Gene ral Conclusions Several conclusions can be substantiated by the findings of this study. The community college students in this study reveal attitudes, values, and interests that reflect a general lack of extremes. They manifest strong goal orientations and generally pursue learning as a means to an end and seldom for the intrinsic satisfaction gained from the acquisition of knowledge or the process of. inquiry. They generally place value on sensory reactions and feelings, have a general readiness to express impulses and to seek gratification either in conscious thought or in overt action. The Omnibus Personality Inventory (OPI) did not reveal any statistically significant differences in the attitudes, values, and interests in any of the groups in the study from the beginning to the end of the fifteen week semester. It is possible, however, that the OPI was not the best instrument to measure any subtle changes that actually did occur. Perhaps it was too insensitive to any relatively minute differences that we could reasonably expect to occur over a relatively short period. The treatment group, the group that was exposed to delayed videotape replay of its interpersonal class exercises, did not have significantly different scores from the other introductory speech groups on selected scales from the Omnibus Personality 116 Inventory. As pointed out in the preceding paragraph, the instrument may have been inadequate to identify any differences . Another point needs to be mentioned. The constraints placed on the actual treatment procedure in the interest of economy may have reduced the overall effectiveness of this approach to behavior modification. Let us review briefly some of those restrictions that may have influenced the overall effectiveness of the treatment pro- cedure. Only one camera was used thus eliminating many shots or angles that could have resulted in a tape more meaningful to the students. The tape was not edited and the length of the required viewings could well have been the cause of the boredom expressed by some students on the questionnaire. The use of color film and better lighting may also have had an effect on the students' reactions during the self-confrontation phase of the treatment procedure. And more important, no cues were given to the students and no critiques of the playback occurred. Although there is no statistical evidence of change in attitudes, values and interests in the treatment group, responses on the Student Questionnaire generally indicated a positive attitude toward the videotape replay experience and the process may have actually had other kinds of impact that were not measured. The oral statement, ”Please give us your impression of the use of the video— tape and your reactions both negative and positive, ” elicited four negative replies, while the other fourteen responses could be 117 considered positive. (See Appendix B). One student wrote, l'I was quite surprised to watch myself. I found that I listened rather well to the speakers . . . and that my nose is crooked. “ The concern expressed in the last part of that remark was echoed by others: they were conscious of their physical appearance. Mentioned earlier was the boredom involved in watch— ing a lengthy replay: "At first, " another treatment group member wrote, "it was interesting to see yourself on television, but as time went on it began to be boring. ” Other student responses to the playback included such feelings as association with self: "I was amazed at the way TV showed the way I looked while talking. My voice sounds different than the way I had imagined. I didn't feel it was as important to watch others on tape as it was to watch myself . . .";__f_e_a_1_‘: ”To tell the truth I was scared stiff, but I did it anyway and it helped me a little. But I still don‘t like to do it“; a_n_g£1:: "It went from being a novel experience to a total worthless one”; awareness: "I like to watch myself and see myself and how I really am"; ositive self—ima e: ”I thought it was kind of neat to see myself on TV . . . ”; and, finally, one of the most revealing comments for the researcher to consider: “It was a good experience, but I wanted to know what to look for. We Should have had more discussions about the tapes in class. " We conclude from these and other responses made by the students of the treatment group that the treatment procedure, while some— 118 times painful, was generally considered by many of them as being a useful and meaningful experience. Group means were compared throughout this study since the main focus had to do with overall changes in attitudes, values, and interest. We feel it is important to report what occurred among the individuals in the study. As with the group scores, there was a notable lack of extremes. There were no individual mean scores in the study which indicated any great change had occurred between the pre-test and post—test for the mean scores of the fourteen categories of the Omnibus Personality Inventory. In a few cases, and on certain scales, there were what could be considered large fluctua— tions, but there are very few cases where scores exceeded either one standard deviation above or below the norm mean. Finally, we conclude that very few individuals changed their attitudes, interests, or values, as measured by the OPI, over the fifteen week semester. However, there are other factors that must be taken into account: the questionable effectiveness of the OPI as a measuring instrument over a relatively short time; the limitations of the treatment procedure in the interest of economy; and the self- perceptions of the students involved as indicated on the Student Questionnaire. The last factor mentioned permits us a more positive reaction to the overall results of the study. 119 Recommendations for the Future Information provided by this study reaffirms other research describing personality characteristics of community college students. If educators consider the individual differences of students an important ingredient for future education planning, then it would seem that knowledge of student personality characteristics is extremely important. We believe more attention should be given to identifying these characteristics at the community college level than the present research indicates. The results and experiences gained from the conducting of this study suggest that the delayed videotape technique procedure could be made effective if students are told what to look for in the playback phase. O‘Connell, cited in Chapter 11, points out that immediacy of feedback is only one way in which to make a contingency clear and there are other effective methods such as modeling and video—delay techniques. 1 In his study he reported that The delayed feedback perceptual cue group and the immediate feedback group were significantly higher than the pure delayed feedback group and the pure perceptual cue group. In addition, the delayed feedback perceptual cue group performed at a significantly higher level than the immediate feedback group. 1Michael O'Connell, “Immediate Feedback, Delayed Feedback, and Perceptual Cues and Inquiry During Verbal Interactions, ” Journal of Counseling Psychology, 21 (October, 1974), 538. ZIbid. 120 O'Connell concludes that the most plausible explanation for these results was the possibility that subjects effectively used perceptual cues to establish the appropriate response—feedback contingency. It is suggested that in designing future studies involving delayed videotape procedures consideration be given to the use of short, cued tapes of interpersonal class exercises with varying time spans between the videotaping and the playback. We further suggest that oral or written critiques be utilized after the playback sessions to ascertain the viewers' self-perceptions of their interactions. Summar y As pressure continues on institutions of higher education to become more efficient, all promising avenues of teaching more students effectively, without correspondingly high costs, deserve to be examined. Much research has been conducted using videotape replay in focused and immediate feedback situations. There is need for research in different types and combinations of playback for groups as well as individuals. This study evaluated a non-stressed, non-focused, delayed feedback procedure. This specific procedure was instigated and then evaluated becauSe it appeared to the researcher to be the most economical method to get maximum self- 31bid. 121 confrontation by a large number of students. Although no significant differences were found using the Omnibus Personality Inventory as the measuring device, it should not be assumed there were no positive aspects as a result of the delayed videotape techniques employed. The Student Questionnaire did reveal that students were involved with the process and it is quite possible that With modifications of the procedure coupled with a different measuring device, even more positive results would be evident. With all the unique qualities videotape has to offer, with continued research to improve its educational effectiveness, and with the student acting as a receiver, participant, and producer, teachers and learners have vast new educational Opportunities awaiting them. BIBLIOGRA PHY BIB LI OGRAPHY Bailey, K. G. and Sowder, W. F., Jr. "Audiotape and Videotape Self-Confrontation in Psychotherapy. " Psychological Bulletin, 74 (April, 1970), 133. Bandura, A. and Walters, R. Social Learning and Personality Development. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1963. Barnes, HarryG. ”Teaching the Fundamentals of Speech at the College Level. " The Speech Teacher, LXI (November, 1954), 248—251. Becker, Samuel L. ”Research on Speech Pedagogy, " Dimensions of Rhetorical Scholarship. Edited by Roger E. Nebergall. Norman, Okla.: University of Oklahoma, 1963. Berlo, David K. "Revision of the Undergraduate Curriculum. ” Memorandum to the faculty, Department of Communication, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, May, 1969, as reported in Brent D. Peterson, G. M. Goldnaber, and Wayne Pace. Communications Probes Instructional Supplement. Chicago, Illinois: Science Research Associates, Inc., 1974. Berger, Milton M. , M. D. , ed. Videotape Technicuie in Psychiatric Training and Treatment. New York: Brunner/Marzel, 1970. Bilodeau, E. A. and Bilodeau, I. M. ”Motor—skill Learning." Annual Review of Psychology, 22, 1961. Blocker, Clyde E. ; Plummer, Robert H. ; and Richardson, Richard C. , Jr. The Two—Year College: A Social Synthesis. Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice—Hall, Inc. , 1965. Borg, W. R. “The Minicourse as a Vehicle for Changing Teacher Behavior: A Three-year Follow-up. " Journal of Educational Psychology, 63 (December, 1972), 578. 122 123 Boyd, H. and Sisney V. "Immediate Self-image Confrontation and Changes in Self—concept. " Journal of Consulting Psychology, 12 (February, 1967), 291—294. Bradley, Bert E. ”An Experimental Study of the Effectiveness of the Video—Recorder in Teaching a Basic Speech Course. " Speech Teacher, 19 (September, 1970), 161—167. Calabro, Hilda R. "Micro-teaching and the Foreign Language Teacher." Audiovisual Instruction, 14 (January, 1969), 62-63. Chickering, Arthur W. "The Best Colleges Have the Least Effect. " Saturday Review, January 16, 1971, pp. 48-50, 54. Cohen, Arthur M. , and Brawer, Florence B. Student Characteristics: Personality and Drop-Out Propensity. Washington, D. C. : American Association of Junior Colleges, 1970. Cross, Patrick K. The Junior College Studept—A Research Description. Princeton, N. J. : Educational Testing Service, 1968. _ Danet, B. N. "Self—confrontation by Videotape in Group Psycho- therapy.“ Dissertatiqn Abstracts International, 28 (7-B), 3058. Diehl, E. R.; Breen, M. P.; and Larson, C. U. "The Effects of Teacher Comment and Television Videotape Playback on the Frequency of Non—fluency in Beginning Speech Students. " Speech Teacher, 21 (October, 1972), 22-38. Edgar, D. E., and Warren, R. L. "Power and Autonomy in Teacher Socialization. " Sociology of Education, 42 (April, 1969), 386—399. French, D. S. , Jr. ; Sherwood, J. J.; and Bradford, D. 1. ”Change in Self Identity in a Management Training Conference. " Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 2 (May, 1966), 218. Gail, M. D. , £311. The Relationship Between Personality and Teaching Behavior Before and After Inservice Microteachipg Report, Bureau No. BR6-2931. Berkley, Calif.: Far West Laboratory for Educational Research and Development, 1971. 124 Gibson, James W. ; Gruner, C. R.; Brooks, W. D.; and Petrie, C. R. , Jr. "The First Course in Speech: A Survey of U.S. Colleges and Universities." Speech Teacher, 19 (Ja'nuary, 1970), 20. Hargis, Donald. ”The First Course in Speech. " The Speech Teacher, V (January, 1956), 26-33. Hartson, David J. and Kunce, Joseph T. ”Videotape Replay and Recall in Group Work. ” Journal of Counseling Psychology, 20 (October, 1973), 439. Hedges, L. E. "The Feasibility of Using Videotape Techniques in Preservice Teacher Education in Agriculture. " Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Ohio State University, 1970. Heist, Paul and Yonge, George. Omnibus Personality Inventory Form F: Manual. New York: The Psychological Corporation, 1968. Hemrick, E. F. ”Modification of Teacher Behavior in Religious Education Through the Use of Videotape Feedback. " Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Notre Dame, 1971. Henderson, Judith E. and Lanier, Perry E. M.S.U. Experimental Teacher Preparation Program for Elementary Teachers. East Lansing,Mich. : College of Education, Michigan State University, March, 1972, p. 33. Holzman, P. S. "On Hearing and Seeing Oneself." Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 148 (Spring, 1969), 198. Hurley, Sam. "Self—disclosure in Counseling Groups as Influenced by Structural Confrontation and Interpersonal Process. " Unpublished Ph. D. dissertation, Michigan State University, 1967. Ivey, Allen E. "Media Therapy: Educational Change Planning for Psychiatric Patients. " Journal of Corfiulting Psychology, 20 (July, 1973), 338-343. Ivey, Allen E. , gt a_l. "Microcounseling and Attending Behavior: An Approach to Prepracticum Counselor Training. " Journal of Counseling Psychology, 15 (September, 1968), Part 2, 1-12. 125 Kagan, Norman, and Krathwohl, D. R. Studies in Human Inter- action: Interpersonal Process Recall Stimulated by Videotape. Final Report, OE 7-32-0410-270. East Lansing, Michigan: Michigan State University, 1967. Kagan, Norman; Krathwohl, D. R. ; and Miller, R. ”Stimulated Recall in Therapy Using Video-tape. ” Journal of Counseling Psychology, 10 (Fall, 1963), 237-243. McReynolds, Paul. The Seventh Mental Measurements Yearbook. Edited by Oscar Krisen Buros. Highland Park, N. J. : The Gryphon Press, 1972. Merton, Robert K. ”The Mosaic of the Behavioral Sciences. ” The Behavioral Sciences Today. Edited by Bernald Berelson. New York: Harper Torchbooks, 1964. Moore, F. ; Chernell E.; and West, M. "Television as a Therapeutic Tool. ” Archives of General Psychiatry, 12 (March, 1965), 217—220. Mulac, Anthony. ”Effects of Three Feedback Conditions Employing Videotape and Audiotape on Acquired Speech Skill. " Speech Monographs. 41 (August, 1974), 214. O'Connell, Michael. "Immediate Feedback, Delayed Feedback, and Perceptual Cues and Inquiry During Verbal Interactions. " Journal of Counseling Psychology, 21 (October, 1974), 536. Odiorne, G. S. "The Trouble with Sensitivity Training. ” Training Directors Journal, 6 (January, 1963), 14-17. Perlberg, A. "Videotaping and Microteaching Techniques to Improve Engineering Instruction. " Journal of Engineering Education, 60 (March, 1970), 741-744. Peterson, Brent D. ; Goldhaber, G. M. ; and Pace, Wayne. Communications Probes Instructional Supplement. Chicago, Illinois: Science Research Associates, Inc. , 1974. Reivich, R. S., and Geertsma, R. H. ”Experiences with Videotape Self Observation by Psychiatric In-Patients. " Journal of Kansas Medical Society, LXIX (Winter, 1968), 39—44. 126 Roberts, Churchill. "The Effects of Self—Confrontation, Role Playing and Response Feedback on the Level of Self-Esteem. " Speech Teacher, 21 (November, 1972), 18. Salomon, G. , and McDonald, F. J. "Pretest and Post—test Reactions to Self—viewing One's Teaching Performance on Video Tape. “ Journal of Educatiopal Psychology, 61 (August, 1970), 285. Schafer, H. H. ; Sobell, M. B.; and Sobell, L. C. "Twelve—month Follow-up of Hospitalized Alcoholics Given Self—Confrontation Experience by Videotape. “ Behavior Therapy, 3 (March, 1972), 283—285. Schauble, P. S. ”The Acceleration of Client Progress in Counseling and Psychotherapy through Interpersonal Process Recall. “ Unpublished Ph. D. dissertation, Michigan State University, 1967. Sflech 231 Syllabus. Jackson, Michigan: Jackson Community College English—Speech Department, September, 1974. Sproull, Kenneth H. "The Relationship Between High School Self— Concept of Academic Ability and Subsequent Academic Achievement at the Community College. " Unpublished Ph. D. dissertation, Michigan State University, 1966. Thayer, Lee. Communication and Communication Systems. Homeward, Illinois: Richard D. Irwin, 1968. Toffler, Alvin. Future Shock. New York: Random House, 1970. U. S. Department of Commerce. County and City Data Book, 1972, A Statistical Abstract Supplement. Washington, D. C. : Bureau of the Census, 1972. Watts, Meredith W. , Jr. ”Behavior Modeling and Self Devaluation with Video Self—Confrontation. " Journal of Educational Psychology, 64 (April, 1973), 212-215. Weber, C. ”Student Actors See Own Performances. " Educational Screen and Audio Visual Guide, 46 (January, 1967), 28—29. Weiss, M. H. "The Effects of Videotape Focused Feedback in Facilitative Genuineness in Interracial Encounter. " Disserta- tion Abstracts International, 32, 2—13, 1972, 1228—1229. APPENDICES APPENDDC A STUDENT QUESTIONNAIRE 127 QUESTIONNAIRE Please Print Your Replies Name Class Date You have just completed a fifteen week college course. We are interested in knowing how you feel about certain attitudes and behavior that may or may not have changed during that fifteen week period as a result of your participation in this course. We would greatly appreciate your frank and thoughtful answers to the following questions. It needs to be emphasized that your answers will be kept confidential and will in no way affect your. grade. Thank you for your cooperation. 1. As a result of this course I now have a greater interest in being with peOple and becoming involved in social activities. Yes Comments: No apparent change No______ 2. AS a result of this course I am now more inclined to express my feelings and attitudes and act upon them. Yes Comments: No apparent change No______ 3. As a result of this course I now feel that I better understand people and they have a better understanding of me. Yes Comments: No apparent change No 4. As a result of this course I now have less anxiety when interacting in groups of people. Yes Comments: No apparent change No 5. As a result of this course I now feel that I am more competent in making decisions about relevant social problems. Yes Comments: No apparent change No APPENDIX B STUDENT COMMENTS TREATMENT GROUP 128 Responses by the students were edited for Spelling and syntax only to the extent necessary to improve overall clarity. STUDENT C OMMENTS: Question 1: As a result of this course I now have a greater interest in being with people and becoming involved in social activities. "I feel I have gained some personal confidence through interacting with people in this class. " "I enjoy being with people. I also met new friends in this class. " "Most classrooms are study places and often students don't even get to know each other. I've gotten to know everyone. I feel close to everyone.” "At first I thought I was getting better in Speech, but I wasn't. " "I find it getting easier to speak in front of an audience. “ "By getting to know some pe0ple in the class, you meet their friends and learn of their interests also. I found myself trying to help others in their research or preparation. It helped them plus I felt good about being able to help. " "I have always liked being with people, and this course has stimulated me to be this way. " "When 1 first entered this course I couldn't speak and look at people because I was too shy or afraid to go up to them and start talking. But now I can speak to strangers and pe0p1e I know without being too afraid. I also like to be with more peOple now than I did before. As for social activities, I don't know yet, but I would like to very much. " "I have learned to see myself as others see me through my non- verbal communication." "1 take part in a few new social activities. " "I don't think any course will give me a greater interest in being with people and becoming involved in social activities. It depends entirely on me and not on any course. ” .. .1 129 "I feel that I am not as afraid as I used to be in speaking with people. " Question 2: As a result of this class I am now more inclined to express my feelings and attitudes and act upon them. "I try to express my feelings but I am nervous about talking. " "I feel more like myself. The atmosphere is liberal. " "I at times feel less anxious about expressing my ideas. " "At first I was Shy about discussing my feelings. This course showed me how to bring my feelings out in the open. " "I've never really had a problem expressing my opinion, except that I rarely express true anger, and I don't want to. " "I think I know myself a little better and I learned how people communicate. I am more inclined to express my feelings and attitudes. " ".As I said before, I was too afraid to get involved in anything. but I guess I always expressed my feelings, but not as strong as I do now. " "There is no one in this class that would be interested in my feelings. " "I am more relaxed when I speak, but I don't express myself any— more than before. " Question 3: As a result of this course I n0w feel that I better under- stand people and they have a better understanding of me. "Yes, if I could talk to them without getting nervous. " "I now realize that other people like others to be interested in them. " "People still don't understand me as much as I understand them, but as I keep working on my speaking they may be able to figure me out. " "This is at least true of the people in this class. " 130 "At least (true) of the people in this class. " "I've met some great people in this class. " "The more practice at communication you have, the better you become. " "1 think I am more perceptive. " "I don't know because I can understand some peOple, but not all of them. I like to help people and listen to them and try to understand them, but sometimes I don't understand and I can't help them and I hope they understand me because I'm trying hard to make myself understood. " "I have learned to know feelings and emotions by the actions of others about me. " "I didn't take part in all the functions in class, so I can't really say if there is a change. " "I have gotten to know more people than ever before in any other class. " Question 4: As a result of this course I now have less anxiety when interacting in groups of people. "I never have had anxiety toward a group of people. " ”I feel the experiences that I have had speaking in this class will help reduce my nervousness when interacting in a group in the future. " "I’ve always felt comfortable working in groups. It was a good experience. " "I think this course has given me more confidence." "I still get excited when I'm around pe0ple because I don't know what they think about me and I worry about when they don't think about me." "I never had any anxiety that I knew of. " 131 "I now talk up more in groups." "I still get a little nervous, but it has become much easier. " "I don't like to get up in front of people and talk - I don't like voicing my Opinions and or talking about myself, but thisclass wasn't too bad. " Question 5: As a result of this course I now feel that I am more competent in making decisions about relevant social problems. "This class helps me to think about what to say. " "There has been no change in my competence for making decisions. " "I am really not worried about making decisions about social problems . " "I don't think so. " "I dislike making. decisions. ” "I don't think this class has effected that area at all." "Well, 1 am not that good yet, but when it comes time for me to make a decision . . . well, I think of what my instructor would do in the situation. " Additional Oral This question was asked orally by the instructor. Question: The student was asked to respond in his own words on the back of the one page questionnaire: "Please give us your impression of the use of the videotape and your reactions both negative and positive. " "At first the camera made me nervous, but after awhile I forgot about it. I think the tape showings were good. 1 got to know the people of the class better. " "At first it was interesting to see yourself on the television, but as time went on it began to be boring. " 132 "I was quite surprised to watch myself. I found that I listened rather well to the speakers . . . and that my nose is crooked. " I'The television was sort of frightening to me . . . especially to see myself for the first time on TV. It helps to look at the people, and the tape helped me to know when I Should speak up or lower my voice. It was exciting to see yourself on TV. If I had had more time to see all the replays, maybe I could be a movie star. They really did help me in my speaking and eye contact. " "I think the camera tended to make everyone nervous at first, but it really gave me a better idea as to how I looked and sounded to the class. I think it helped make me more effective. " "I think the camera bothered me a little. I didn't like having to come in and watch it either. " "I thought it was kind of .neat to see myself on TV, but I didn't see what good it was. " "The taping in this class was a good idea. You never really realize how you look until you are able to see yourself. As a result, we are better able to understand ourselves. " "I was amazed at the way the TV showed the way I looked while talking. My voice sounds different than the way I had imagined. I didn't feel it was as important to watch others on tape as it was to watch myself. I saw myself saying things that I never realized I was saying and now I try to watch out for those things the most of all. " "I don‘t have any bad feelings about the TV camera in class. It does give some insight as to how you are seen by others and your reactions to situations of various sorts. " "When the taping was going on I didn't like it. It made me nervous when I spoke. I didn't like to do my speeches when the movie camera was on. In the last group sessions it was required and so I did it. To tell the truth I was scared stiff, but I did it anyway and it helped me a little. But I still don't like to do it. " "The camera bothered me. It made me self—conscious. " 133 "I thought the videotape was a good way of watching my own presentations. I saw certain faults that 1 otherwise would not have seen. It serves as a non-biased critic . . . which serves a good purpose." "I like to watch and see myself and how I really am. I enjoyed watching other people, but it got boring after awhile. I would have liked to have had discussions about the film of what we did wrong in order to improve. " "I was interested in seeing myself and learning the difference between the way I thought that I presented myself, and the way that I actually presented myself. 1 was not real interested in watching someone give a speech or reacting twice. " "I thought the viewing was helpful to me when I was on the film. I could see how I acted and reacted. I thought it was helpful to almost everyone. Thirteen viewings seemed like a lot of time. Overall it was a good idea. " "The filming made me feel strange. It bothered me going to see the re-runs. It went from being a novel experience to a total worthless one. Seeing them several days later was foolish. You could still remember vividly things that had happened. The hours scheduled to see the re-runs did .not seem to fit into my schedule. " "It was a good experience, but I wanted to know what to look for. We should have had more discussions about the tapes in class. " "7111111111111111111.15