:‘JF’IV'O" 0-:“l' ay. ' f A E513" - . ‘ M .xg‘, 9v .. . "VW‘. ‘--':~:,\;‘ _ I"; I. . I: r.--" w... - ‘.‘HJ-f- “.w-I -._, IfiIw-IgIA .'.-I.Il";.u I‘,III..._--"' I . 25,641.“. ..'.' J Our " 3‘. 1531‘ '--‘I \ v.:. n - I‘ 3:), ,.. I... _.‘L"‘A‘ LI"":HI-‘ 4“; ' "I u"' a." - .I :' ' :-;-;,-."“* '“' . r-*-7.:-7-‘-'i’;: 3 .-J. . ,. ¢—-L... »WE*3 . .,.- . . . \--- ‘ :H‘L'IM... f. .. U17 I I. ”9.3-. “‘ fi’v‘Infli ‘:"‘:v ' )',1}~‘_‘"" -' UL' - J.‘ J"c: ’ . in; 1"7‘.U)“‘ . -'! -<’V ' o . . ".- u. 4 A -. . - ‘;|“ ‘ 2’} I.,'..I~-~I: .u‘u . fr” . r: . Mink " ‘- — .L. I If: m. 5' --‘ .>.o..- |" 3 - I FL;- . I'm; ._,.' 310463 5028 . ' gr : This is to certify that the dissertation entitled A DESCRIPTION OF THE LEARNING STYLE PREFERENCES 0F HOSPITALITY INDUSTRY EXECUTIVES AND MANAGERS presented by Peter J. Stevens has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph. D. degree in Administration and Higher Education Date JulgLIB, 1981 MS U i: an Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution 0-12771 MSU LlBRARlES RETURNING MATERIALS: PTace in book drop to remove this checkout from your record. FINES will be charged if book is returned after the date stamped below. A DESCRIPTION OF THE LEARNING STYLE PREFERENCES OF HOSPITALITY INDUSTRY EXECUTIVES AND MANAGERS By Peter J. Stevens A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Administration and Higher Education 1981 I 5... , I 6 // ‘2 ABSTRACT A DESCRIPTION OF THE LEARNING STYLE PREFERENCES OF HOSPITALITY INDUSTRY EXECUTIVES AND MANAGERS By Peter J. Stevens A rapidly increasing number of business leaders are con- cluding that future success in a dynamic and constantly changing environment will more and more depend on the abilities of manage- ment to comprehend that environment and to adapt company responses to optimize their posture toward that environment. The key to developing these essential management abilities is believed to be continuing management education. Business investment in management education already amounts to billions of dollars annually. The effectiveness of such programs, including their cost effectiveness, is being severely limited by lack of knowledge about how business managers and executives learn. Current consensus suggests that adults prefer and need a Humanist Approach (referred to in the literature as "andragogy") where a Behaviorist Approach (referred to in the literature as "pedagogy") is more appropriate and effective with children. Further, it is suggested that the older a person becomes, the more andragogy is preferred and needed. Peter J. Stevens Given the importance of fundamental values in determining attitudes and behavior, and given findings by Massey and Rokeach regarding the fundamental values held by different age groups of adult Americans, and given that learning style preference is an attitude and actual learning is a behavior, this research tested the suggestion that the older an adult becomes, the more he or she prefers a Humanist Approach. This tenet of adult learning theory seemed to conflict with logical inference from the findings of the value research of Massey and Rokeach. The Learning Preference Survey_was developed and tested, and then administered to hospitality industry managers and execu- tives attending the National Restaurant Association Restaurant and Hotel/Motel Show May 16-20, 1981 in Chicago. Managers and execu- tives from the hospitality industry were chosen both because of the author's background and interest in that industry and because that industry has lagged behind most others in innovation and change. Given both its people intensity and its extraordinary need to change and adapt, the hospitality industry seems in even greater need than others of increased management and executive education effectiveness. Managers, owners, and executives of hotel/motel and food- service concerns provided information regarding their age, ethnic origin, gender, and level of schooling; and indicated the level of their agreement/disagreement with statements designed to test preference for a Behaviorist Approach or a Humanist Approach to learning. Data obtained from four hundred and eighty-four Peter J. Stevens managers, owners, and executives were analyzed, using multivariate analysis of variance technique (SPSS Subprogram MANOVA) and the S-method (Scheffé post hoc analysis). Though the researcher's primary interest was differences with respect to learning style preference among age groups, also tested were differences by gender, ethnic origin, and level of schooling. The researcher found that for hospitality industry managers, owners, and executives: l. The Behaviorist Approach to learning is more preferred by "Traditionalists" (those born prior to 1937) and "In-Betweens" (those born between l937 and l947) than by "Rejectionists" (those born after l947). 2. There is no significant difference in preference with respect to the Humanist Approach among age groups. 3. The Humanist Approach was more preferred by women than by men. 4. There is no significant difference in preference with respect to the Behaviorist Approach between women and men. 5. The Behaviorist Approach is more preferred by those with at least some college than by those with no college. 6. There is no significant difference in preference with respect to the Humanist Approach among groups with different levels of schooling. Given these findings, the author concludes with suggestions for changes in continuing education programs for hospitality industry managers and executives. C0pyright by PETER JAY STEVENS 1981 LIST OF LIST OF Chapter I. II. III. TABLE OF CONTENTS TABLES FIGURES THE PROBLEM . Introduction . Purpose of This Study Importance of the Study. Generalizability . Research Questions and Hypotheses Research Questions . . Research Hypotheses . Definition of Important Terms . Terms Related to Age Group Terms Related to Learning Preferences REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE Learning Theory . . Adult Continuing Education . Future Environment . Business Investment in Continuing Education Correlation Between Age and Values . . Roles of Values in Determining Attitudes and Behavior . . . . Summary RESEARCH DESIGN AND PROCEDURES Introduction Research Design Research Procedures . . Development of the Learning Preference Survey. Administration of the Learning Preference Survey . Summary ii Page iv —‘ mVNU'IUT-DOON-dd Chapter IV. ANALYSIS OF THE RESULTS . Data Collection Summary Data Data Analysis Summary V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS . Summary . Conclusions . . . . . . . . . Recommendations for Further Research APPENDICES . A. LEARNING PREFERENCE SURVEY . B. FACE VALIDITY TEST SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY Table 11. 12. LIST OF TABLES Composite of Rank Orders of Values by Age Categories . . . Comparison of the Values of Hotel Managers and Adults in General Summary of Data Collection Numbers of Observations and Cell Frequencies Cell Means for Behaviorist Approach to Learning Cell Means for Humanist Approach to Learning Cell Means for Behaviorist Approach to Learning Cell Means for Humanist Approach to Learning Scheffé Post Hoc Analysis S-Method Tests of Significance Between Levels of Schooling with Respect to the Behaviorist Approach Correlation Matrix for Statements with Represented Variables Correlation Matrix for Statements with Unintended Variables . . . . . . . . . iv Page 29 35 50 52 53 54 55 56 59 66 69 71 LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page l. A Comparison of Assumptions of Teacher-Directed (Pedagogical) Learning and Self-Directed (Andragogical) Learning . . . . . . . . . l4 2. A Comparison of the Processes of Teacher-Directed (Pedagogical) Learning and Self-Directed (Andragogical) Learning . . . . . . . . . 15 3. The Value Survey . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 4. What You Are is Where You Were When . . . (When You Were About Ten) . . . . . . . . . . 31 5. Model of Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 6. Variable Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM Introduction A rapidly increasing number of business leaders are conclud- ing that future success in a dynamic and constantly changing environ- ment will more and more depend on the.abilities of management to comprehend that environment and to adapt responses--policies, plans, strategies and techniques-~to optimize company posture. Responding to this conclusion, many firms are investing in the continuing edu- cation of key personnel. How much, with whom, for whom, with what media, and for what educational programs investments should be made, however, seems at present to be not well understood. Three of these questions are essentially quantitative and answerable using ROI (return on investment) analysis. Two--what media and what programs-- are more complex and deserving of additional consideration. Purposes of This Study This study was undertaken to determine whether differences in learning style preference exist for different management age groups. Additionally, the researcher sought to provide to hospi- tality industry executives a learning system preference profile of managers in their industry. Finally, this research effort was used to ascertain whether further more lengthy and complex research into the relationship between childhood value programming and later adult learning system preference, and into the relationship between expressed learning style preference and actual learning outcomes when the preferred style is employed, were warranted. Importance of the Study This study seems important for at least four reasons. Although many philosophers, psychologists and educators have devoted vast amounts of time, energy and money studying how animals and children learn, little has been invested in studying how adults learn. Given the difficulties in generalizing to adult populations the findings with animal and child subjects, and given the trend in American age demographics--where a growing proportion of the popu- lation will be adults--more must be understood about how adults learn. Further, of the physical, financial and human resources employed by organizations, clearly and by far the least effectively and efficiently used is the human resource (33,42,52,73,81,ll7,119, 131,168). Findings may contribute toward increasing productivity. A third reason for considering the study important is that effective continuing education of business executives and managers seems to hold promise for improving organizational homeostatic response capabilities which are seen as essential, given the grow- ing complexity of, and rapidity of change in, the world. Finally, effectively designed and Operating systems for the continuing education of personnel, in addition to increasing productivity and improving the quality of decision making, may increase job satisfaction and motivation, reduce job dissatisfaction, help personnel self-actualize, lengthen tenure, reduce turnover and absenteeism, and provide a recruiting advantage for an organization versus its competitors. Generalizability Results from this study of hospitality industry managers and executives should only be generalized to the population of adult Americans, or even to the population of American business managers and executives with caution. There is substantial evidence to sug- gest that important differences in fundamental values exist between managers and executives who select the hospitality industry for employment and those who choose other industries (184,185). The hospitality industry managers and executives who par- ticipated in this study were all attendees of the Sixty-Second Annual National Restaurant Association Restaurant and Hotel/Motel Show May 16-20, 1981 at McCormick Place in Chicago. Attendees, passing the researcher's booth in the exhibit area and identified as managers, owners, or executives of hotel/motel or foodservice companies by inspection of their name badges, were asked to complete the Learning Preference Survey. About eighty percent of those asked completed the Survey, Most who declined seemed to do so because of immediate time pressures; they were due at another location. One never knows whether a sample chosen is representative of some larger population, even if it is a random sample (65, p. 243). Though this sample was not randomly drawn either from Show attendees or from hospitality industry managers and executives-- a technique which could have increased confidence about generaliz- ing--the researcher has reason to believe that the sample may be "representative" of the population of hospitality industry managers and executives (92). The reader is invited to decide, given the research pro- cedures described later and the demographics of the sample, whether results can be generalized to some population relevant to him or her. Research Questions and Hypotheses Since, given a particular situation as a stimulus, a person's fundamental values will act as an intervening variable in determining affective and behavioral response, one would expect that persons holding differing values would prefer to learn--and, in fact, learn--in different ways. Further, ceteris paribus, those holding similar values would be expected to prefer to learn--and, in fact, learn--in similar ways. Since most values programming is accomplished during child- hood and adolescence, and since held fundamental values seem quite resistant to change in adults, and since most people are subjected to and influenced by essentially the same value programming media at a given point in time, much can be understood about the attitudes and behaviors exhibited by groups of like-aged people by analyzing major media characteristics at the time those people were about ten years old (124,170,171). Dr. Morris Massey, Associate Dean of the College of Business at the University of Colorado, suggests, for example, that vast differences in value programming when they were children explain much of the clear differences in attitudes and behavior now between "Traditionalists" (persons born prior to 1937) and "Rejec- tionists" (persons born after 1947). "In-Betweens" (persons born between 1937 and 1947), according to Massey, seem ambivalent between the values of their older and younger counterparts, and exhibit some of the attitudes and behaviors of each (124). If Massey's assertions are correct that (a) the three groups differ with respect to values and (b) members of each group tend to hold the values that he suggests, their learning style preferences should (a) differ from group to group and (b) within groups be con- sistent with the values which he suggests they hold. Research Questions Answers to three major questions were sought with this study: 1. Do hospitality industry managers and executives differ among age groups with respect to learning style preference? 2. Are there other major factors which are related to differences among hospitality industry managers and executives with respect to learning style preferences? 3. Can any found differences with respect to learning style preference among age groups be explained on the basis of these other factors? Research Hypotheses From these research questions regarding the learning style preferences of hospitality industry managers and executives nine research hypotheses were drawn and examined. The last hypothesis was formulated to test the construct validity of the Learning Preference Survey. 1. 10. There is significant difference among age groups with respect to learning style preference. There is significant difference among age groups with respect to preference for the Behaviorist Approach. Further, it is hypothesized that Traditionalists more prefer the Behaviorist Approach than do In- Betweens who in turn more prefer the Behaviorist Approach than do Rejectionists. There is significant difference among age groups with respect to preference for the Humanist Approach. Further, it is hypothesized that Rejectionists more prefer the Humanist Approach than do In- Betweens who in turn more prefer the Humanist Approach than do Traditionlists. There is significant difference between males and females with respect to learning style preference. There is no interaction between age group and gender with respect to learning style preference. There is significant difference among ethnic groups with respect to learning style preference. There is no interaction between age group and ethnic group with respect to learning style preference. There is significant difference among groups with different levels of schooling with respect to learning style preference. There is no interaction between age group and level of schooling with respect to learning style preference. There is significant correlation between statements in the Survey and the dependent variable that they represent. Definition of Important Terms Terms Related to Age Group "In-Betweens" refers in this study to persons born between 1937 and 1947 inclusive. Massey suggests that different attitudes and behaviors are exhibited by this group because it value programmed at a different time, subject to different major programming media and media content, from others (124). "Rejectionists" refers in this study to persons born after 1947. Massey suggests that different attitudes and behaviors are exhibited by this group because it value programmed at a later time, subject to major programming media and media content not experienced by its predecessors. Massey would not include persons born after 1962 in this group. Since, however, the population studied only included adults, this distinction was ignored (124). "Traditionalists" refers in this study to persons born before 1937. Massey suggests that this group exhibits different attitudes and behaviors from younger groups because it value pro- grammed earlier, subject to different dominant values and to media not nearly as influential during later periods. Further, this group had locked in to fundamental values before certain highly influential media--television, for example--existed. Massey ignores persons born prior to 1910 when characterizing this group. Since, however, the population studied included only employed persons, those past mandatory retirement age were (for purposes of thj§_study) ignored (124). Terms Related to Learning Preference "Behaviorist School" represents principles of learning consistent with the theories of, for example, Guthrie, Hull, Pavlov, Thorndike and Tolman. Learning occurs because of the rewards or, to a lesser extent, punishments which follow a response to a stimu- lus. Repetition and practice are seen as important to lock in the relationship between response and the reward/punishment which follows. The importance of understanding and insight, and the value of prior learning, when faced with a novel stimulus, are considered minimal at best (60,80). "Humanist Approach" refers to the principles of learning espoused by Carl Rogers. The potential for learning is natural in humans, and learning is most likely to occur when the content/skill is seen as personally relevant (intrinsic reward). Learning is best facilitated when intrinsic threats (such as a challenge to values or self-image) and extrinsic threats (punishment) are minimized. Learning is best facilitated when self-initiated and evaluated rather than being initiated and evaluated by others, and when both intellect and feelings are involved. Finally, the most useful learning is that which yields insight and understanding into the learning process itself, since subsequent learning can then be more easily and effectively self-initiated (169). "Learning" is that which occurs when a stimulus situation together with memory content combine in such a way that performance changes pre-to-post stimulus. Learning occurrence is inferred from the change in performance (100). "Learning Preference SurveyJ'the testing instrument developed by the researcher for use in this study, poses twenty-four statements regarding characteristics of a learning situation to which subjects are asked to respond by indicating on a five-point Likert-type scale the degree of their agreement or disagreement. In addition, subjects are asked to provide certain personal demographic information. Terms Related to Educational Strategy "Andragogy," derived from the Greek, means "the art and science of helping adults learn" (35, p. 4). The assumptions and processes of this learner-centered approach are outlined in Figure l and Figure 2 on pages 14 and 15. "Pedagogy," derived from the Greek, refers to "the art and science of teaching children" (35, p. 4). The assumptions and processes of this teacher-directed approach are outlined in Figure l and Figure 2 on pages 14 and 15. A Note Regarding the Population "Hospitality industry managers and executives" refers to persons with organizational responsibility for directing supervisors of production and service personnel, for strategic planning, and/or for control of at least unit—level human, financial and/or physical resources in institutional or commercial lodging and/or foodservice operations. The term "executive" is generally applied to those with corporate-wide responsibility; "manager" (when a distinction is made) is generally applied to those with regional multi-unit or single-unit responsibility. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE It has been suggested that there is considerable learning theory, but that there is substantial difficulty applying that theory to the development of adult continuing education. It has further been suggested that, because of an anticipated dynamic and increasingly more complex environment and the belief that the continuing education of key personnel is vital to affecting appro- priate organizational homeostatic response vis-a-vis such an environment, business is beginning to invest substantial time, effort and money in such education. Finally, it is because of the alleged correlation between age and values and the role of values in determining attitudes and behavior that the researcher has con- cluded that a study into the relationship, if any, between age and learning preference is important. With later research one might attempt to determine the direct relationship between values and the quantity and quality of important actual learning. Literature, therefore, has been reviewed in six areas. In the order in which they will be discussed, they are: (1) learning theory, (2) adult continuing education, (3) the future environment, (4) business investment in continuing education, (5) correlation 10 11 between age and values, and (6) the role of values in determining attitudes and behavior. LearningITheoryI Modern learning theory has evolved from philosophy (episte— mology) and then psychology (80). Modern learning theorists, it would seem, can be classified into three main groups: (1) the associationists, including behaviorists and functionalists (Guthrie, Hull, Pavlov, Skinner, Thorndike, Tolman, et al.); (2) the rational- ists, including those in the gestalt and information-processing schools (Piaget, Tolman, et al.); and (3) the humanists (Dewey, Maslow, Rogers, et a1.) (60,80,169,206). Hilgard and Bower suggest six questions which modern learning theorists attempt to answer: (1) What are the limits of learning? (2) What is the role of practice in learning? (3) How important are drives, incentives, rewards and punishments? (4) What is the place of understanding and insight? (5) Does learning one thing help one to learn another? (6) What happens when one remembers or forgets? (73). Each of the theorists mentioned does deal with most of these questions at length. With but one exception, however, each deals only with learning by children and/or animals and none asks how these prefer or like to learn. They speak only to how children and/or animals do in fact learn (60,61,62,80). In contrast, Rogers-~whose principles have resulted primarily from formal and informal survey research rather than the experimental research con- ducted by the associationists and rationalists previously mentioned-- 12 discusses not only how both children and college students learn, but to some extent how they like or prefer to learn (see the previous discussion on page 8) (169). Where learning theory was for centuries the province of philosophers before psychologists and educational researchers began to deal with questions about how children and laboratory animals acquire knowledge, skills and attitudes, the development of an adult learning theory--occurring over the last three decades--has involved all three groups simultaneously (l4,25,35,40,48,7l,97,99,lOO,lOl, 102,103,111,ll3,l14,126,l78,193,194,200,207,208,220,221,227). This develOpment, relative to earlier learning theory, has been charac- terized much more by logical inference and by observation in uncon- trolled real-world situations than by systematic experimentation in laboratory settings and planned manipulation of stimulus situations (14,25,35,40,48,7l,97,99,lOO,lOl,102,103,lll,113,1l4,126,l78,193. 194,200,207,208,220,221,227). Two major tenets of adult learning theory seem to have emerged for educators, adult education administrators, and involved theorists. (1) Differences between child learning and adult learn- ing are a matter of degree, not of kind (103,111,l48,178,194,207,220, 221). The adult is largely the product of, and an extension of, what he was as a child. (2) Pedagogy is less effective with adults than with children, and its effectiveness continues to decline as the adult learner continues to age. As pedagogy becomes less and less effective, andragogy becomes more and more effective (111,113, 120,126,207.208,220,227). 13 The first tenet allows adult learning theorists to use the centuries of earlier learning theory as a base, rather than begin- ning anew. If adult and child learning theory do not differ in kind, but only in degree, adult learning theory can be developed with and from the work of the associationists, the rationalists, and the humanists. This is what the adult learning theorists have been doing. Pedagogy, in fact, evolves from behaviorism while andragogy clearly is based upon humanism or humanist psychology (l4,35,40,48, 99,100,101,102,103,l26,148,193,208,220,221). The words are derived from Greek. "Pedagogy” means "the art and science of teaching children" (35, p. 4). "Andragogy is . . . the art and science of helping adults learn" (35, p. 4). Malcolm Knowles, the best known American pr0ponent of andragogy, goes as far as to suggest that the "pedagogy of adult education" is a semantic contradiction (101,102). A comparison of the assumptions (Figure l) and processes (Figure 2) of teacher-directed (pedagogical) learning and self- directed (andragogical) learning follows on pages 14 and 15. It should be noted that if with this study research hypotheses 2 and/or 3 (see page 6) were supported, the second major tenet of existing adult learning theory ought at least to be re—examined. There seems to this researcher to be a major conflict between the assumptions (see Figure 1) regarding the motivation of adult learners made by proponents of andragogy, and the findings of Massey (see Figure 4 later in this chapter on page 31) regarding the fundamental values held by older Americans. 14 ASSUMPTIONS About Pedagogical Andragogical Concept of Dependent Increasingly self- the learner Role of learner's experience Readiness to learn Orientation to learning Motivation personality To be built on more than used Varies with levels of maturation Subject-centered External rewards and punishments directed organism A rich resource for learning Develops from life tasks and problems Task or problem- centered Internal incentives, curiosity Figure l.--A Comparison of Assumptions of Teacher-Directed (Pedagogical) Learning and Self-Directed (Andragogical) Learning (SOURCE: Norene F. Daly, Andragogy: Implica- tions for Secondary and Adult Education Programs (p. 5) as adapted from the Institute for Continuing Education, Adult Educators "Expansion" Workshops Handbook. 15 PROCESS ELEMENTS Elements Climate Planning Diagnosis of needs Setting goals Designing a learning plan Learning activities Evaluation Pedagogical Formal authority- oriented, competitive, judgmental Primarily by teacher Primarily by teacher Primarily by teacher Content units, course syllabus, logical sequence Transmittal techniques, assigned readings Primarily by teacher Andragogical Informal, mutually respectful, consen- sual, collaborative, supportive By participative decision-making By mutual assessment By mutual negotiation Learning projects, learning content sequenced in terms of readiness Inquiry projects, independent study, experimental techniques By mutual assess- ment of self- collected evidence Figure 2.--A Comparison of the Processes of Teacher-Directed (Pedagogical) Learning and Self-Directed (Andragogical) Learning (SOURCE: Norene F. Daly, Andragogy: Implica- tions for Secondary and Adult Education Programs (p.T6) as adapted from the Institute for Continuing Education, Adult Educators "Expansion" Workshops Handbook. 16 Gagné enumerates both the elements of the learning event and the categories of human performance established by learning. The elements are: (l) the learner, (2) the stimulus situation, (3) learner memory content, and (4) the response or performance. The categories are: (a) interaction by use of symbols, (b) com- municating with others, (c) cognitive strategies, (d) motor skills, and (e) attitudes. With respect to the second element, the stimulus situation, Gagné notes that it can be either an internal or an external process (60). In responding to the Learning Preference Survey subjects (element #l) were asked to indicate preference toward character- istics of two learning styles (element #Z/external). The Survey directions to subjects did not specify, and thereby guide their thinking toward, particular types of outcomes (element #4/categories a, b, c, or d), though the wording of the preface to the directions (see Appendix A), the researcher believes, was likely to bias respondents against focusing upon motor skills (category d). Adult Continuing Education Programs to provide continuing education for adults, it would seem, are bound to grow in number and scope both because of declining enrollments in colleges and universities by "traditional" students (202) and because of the perceived need for adults to learn new knowledge and skills to adjust to changes in the world (l04). The former contributes to the need to supply; the latter to the need to demand such education. 17 The "Lifelong Learning Act" became law in October of 1976 as part of the Education Amendments of l976, and located Federal leadership in the hands of the Office of the Assistant Secretary for Education (22). In the Act's preamble the scope is delimited, where it is stated that Lifelong learning includes, but is not limited to, adult basic education, continuing education, independent study, agricultural education, business education and labor educa- tion, occupational education, preretirement and education for older and retired people, remedial education, special educational programs for groups or for individuals with special needs, and also educational activities designed to upgrade occupational and professional skills, to assist business, public agencies, and other organizations in the use or innovation and research results, and to serve family needs and personal development (22, pp. 3-4). Despite its breadth, the Act is likely to affect most those with the least education, the poor and disadvantaged. This would be somewhat of a break with the past. All taxpayers now support an educational system, including postsecondary, that by and large serves the affluent and well-educated classes (l54). In anticipation of the Act and its long-range impact, it had been suggested that more vocational training be introduced into the public schools (210) and that coordination of efforts and a survey of employment needs be conducted and continually audited (66). The Marshall Plan under the U.S. Department of Labor is an attempt to follow these suggestions (23), and is a reversal of trend. The Federal government had turned over responsibility for training the disadvantaged to cities and counties to improve services in 1974 (214). l8 The benefits of continuing education both to society and to individuals were demonstrated in a 1974 study which suggested increased productivity capability and personal income resulted (228). Suggestions to organizations regarding how much, with whom, for whom, with what media, and for what educational programs they should invest have been many. These include: training only those who need it (87); training wherever the opportunity presents itself (6); training on-the-job by doing (156,189); training by managers rather than professionals (ll); assessing the qualifications of trainers carefully (good managers do not necessarily make good teachers) to see that they can teach (18); in a fun (136,202), or different atmosphere (166) from the regular work setting. More comprehensive research with resulting recommendations to organizations desiring to provide education and/or training to their personnel has also recently been conducted. Recommendations include obtaining commitment from top management which is prerequi- site to success, conducting a needs analysis and pilot program before conducting an organization-wide program (142), and continu- ally evaluating programs and revising them (127). Though these research efforts may be more comprehensive than those mentioned previously, neither is particularly enlightening. Leslie This and Gordon Lippitt attempted in 1966 to provide an overview of learning theory and its implications for training directors. That their article was reprinted thirteen years later, without revision, in the thirty-second anniversary issue of l9 Training and Development Journal (206) may speak to the paucity of such work in recent years. Craig Eric Schneier made a similar effort which included some more recent developments (181). Though his survey of learning theory was both easily readable and logically organized, his conclusions, rather than following from the theory, were that what training directors should apply depended, for the most part, upon budget constraints and the particular skills of trainers. Neither This and Lippitt nor Schneier considered the characteristics of learners in their recommendations. A recent College Board survey found that adults find "printed materials, formal courses, work-experience programs and direct observation of workers as being more acceptable than less traditional and more technologically sophisticated methods involving such things as computers and mass-media techniques" (134, p. 8). Despite this finding, however, more and more is being invested in film, video cassette, computer simulation and role-playing (2,11,12, l7,30,31,41,129,145,155,199,201). Programs at Agway, Incorporated in Syracuse, New York (7), for supervisors and managers of Contra Costa County in California (49), and at the North Carolina National Bank (10) remain consistent with the College Board findings. It should be noted here that those findings relate preferences toward learning situation characteristics, not actual learning. Some trainers and training consultants seem quite clearly to advocate methods based almost solely upon one school or learning theory approach, without particular regard to the personal attri- butes of trainees. At one end of a continuum are those who advocate 20 training programs based upon principles of the Behaviorist School, such as Gellerman (64), Hilliard (84), Leber (110), Ross (175), Smith (191), Weiss (223) and Wener (224). At the other end of the spectrum are those who conduct or advocate training programs based upon principles of the Humanist Approach, such as Brymer (18), Ertelt (95), Miller (132), Milling (133) and Shoen (188). The attempt to apply learning theory to instructional practice, in the context of adult continuing education, must be done only with careful reservation. As previously mentioned, most learning theory has been developed by research psychologists employ- ing experiments with animals and children. Generalizing from their results to adult populations must be done, if at all, with caution. Also, pure science may not be relevant to existing practical prob- lems. One must determine whether the questions asked by pure and applied researchers are related. Finally, a theory of instruction and a theory of learning differ both in content and goals. Much, if not most, learning takes place without instruction, if not in spite of it. The goal, then, is not to create learning, but to improve, enhance, or direct it. The goal here must be to translate from the descriptive and analytical (learning theory) to the pre- scriptive (theory of instruction). Future Environment At the same time that planners and policymakers around the nation are being informed and warned about "future shock" and the emerging "age of discontinuity," an increasing number of adults in America are experiencing "shock" and "discontinuity" in their daily lives. Rapid and often 21 unpredictable social and economic occurrences (along with the simple fact of aging) are forcing Americans to seek change--in job, in lifestyle, in where they live, and in their values. Many people find this imperative to change makes demands that are beyond their ability to cope. These are Americans in transition--many of them in career transition--and their number is legion (134, p. 7). A recent College Board survey determined that more than forty million Americans say that they are, or expect to be, in a career transition (134, p. 7). Among important challenges seen by the College Board is that of determining better definitions of social and demographic conditions which influence adult learning (134, p. 9). Nanus and Coffey had expressed some five years earlier in 1973 similar concerns to those of Moon. Addressing themselves to a business audience, rather than Moon's leaders in education, they said Modern business operates in the most dynamic and fluid environment ever known to man. Within the last decade, not only has rapid technological obsolescence become the norm in business, but some of the most fundamental values of business and society appear to be in a state of flux . . . (140, p. 28). Today's most distinguished hospitality industry leaders, asked to rank with Delphi Technique the most important roles that future industry executives must play to ensure success by their organizations, rated "training personnel in a manner that has a positive effect on productivity and morale" highest (104. pp. 38-39). Koppel concludes that "indications are that tomorrow's manager must have greater diversity of preparation, and--perhaps even more significant-~a greater depth of understanding in numerous areas of expertise" (104, p. 39). 22 That the environment for business is continually changing and that presently pervasive techniques for organizing and motivat- ing employees, along with reducing the costs of excessive turnover, are not likely to be effective in the future is echoed in many corners (20,57,88,91,105,131,l41). As a means of directing that inevitable change it has even been suggested that rural residents might be trained so that industry might be induced to move to those rural locations, thus solving some of the problems of urban density and locally intense use of natural resources (217). The age demographics of American society are changing drama- tically, and are likely to do so for at least the remainder of the century (190). The age demographics of American business employees is, of course, also changing (78,164). Given the "post-war baby boom" and the lower birth rate begun in the 19705, society and industry will experience the effects of a disproportionate number of those who Massey calls "Rejectionists" for some time to come. This group of now-twenty-to-thirty-four year olds--holding, and likely to continue to hold, values very different from their elders--will by 1990 be reaching what has typically been middle- management age and by the year 2000 be reaching what has typically been top-management age. One might expect this to cause business strategy (by 1990) and policy (by 2000) to be quite different from now. Lifestyles are also changing (134,190). Americans are having fewer and later children; shorter and fewer marriages; more divorces; more relocations and employment changes; more leisure 23 time and discretionary income; more multiple-income families (190). To achieve a "quality society" will require, according to O'Toole, that work and learning be combined much as it is in Japan (146). Finally, it is suggested, business will in the future need to continue to educate its employees for the purpose of having credibility and stature with its customers and consumers in general (123,179). It is clear that the need to provide continuing educa- tion for managers and executives is increasing, and that that need is widely perceived. Business Investment in Continuing Education Many businesses, associations representing businesses, and other organizations are already investing heavily in the continuing education of executives, managers and other employees. Business firms now spend more than $2 billion annually on educational efforts, with most of the effort directed toward developing new techniques and in-house instructional programs (117). Among public agencies and departments are the New Hampshire Board of Education, using mobile units to reach foodservice employees (2); the United States Government, fulfilling its respon- sibility under the Government Employees Training Act of 1958 (58); and the University of Iowa Residence Halls, regularly orienting six hundred new employees at the beginning of each school year (17). Each of the five major hospitality and foodservice industry associations--American Dietetics Association, American Hotel and Motel Association, Club Management Association, National Institute 24 for the Foodservice Industry, and the National Restaurant Associa- tion-~provides extensive nationwide educational programs for managers/supervisors and/or students preparing for such roles (13, 50,77,196). Among individual companies making substantial commitments to the education and training of their employees are Batchelder Company and Lackman's Foodservice (72); Burger King with its Burger King University and Church's with its Master Merchant Program (16); Dairy Queen who sends corporate executives into units to do mana- gers' jobs (36); Daka Corporation (212); Dunfey Family Corporation (47); Elias Brothers Restaurants with sophisticated slide-tape programs (128). Other hospitality industry firms include Fairview General Hospital (108); Hilton International with a new European Training Center in Switzerland joining its Career Development Institute in Montreal (16); McDonald's with Hamburger University (16); Wendy's (16); and the Sciara Pallazzino Restaurant (20). Non-hospitality-industry companies making even larger commitments include Equitable General Insurance Company for assistant managers (83); Gould, Incorporated, who has built and staffed its own manage- ment education center to which it brings its executives from across the country (229); IBM (125); and AT&T, who spends some $700 million annually, a sum more than the budget of any college or university (117). Many companies are offering courses for their executives and managers for which college credit may be received. Among them are Bank of America; California Edison Company; Digital Equipment 25 Corporation; Fluor Engineers & Constructors; General Electric Company; General Motors Corporation; Holiday Inns of America, Incorporated; John Hancock Mutual Life Insurance Company; Knight- Ridder Newspapers; Lockheed Missiles & Space; Picker Corporation; Sheraton Corporation; Trans World Airlines Incorporated; and Xerox (29). "The trend toward granting credit developed after a 1973 report financed by the Carnegie Corporation and educational testing groups laid out for the first time just how much high-level educa- tion was being provided by noncollege organizations" (29). With this level of present commitment on the part of business and government, and the almost-certain substantial increase in such commitment forthcoming, there would seem to be ample reason for attempting to learn more about the needs and wants--personal characteristics and preferences--of those who are the intended recipients of such commitments. Correlation Between Age and Values Studying projections for future age-demographic, social and economic environments suggests ample reasons for these commit- ments toward continuing education. For government, service to the people in the future means service to an older population, one coping with the stress which rapid ecological, social and economic change produces. For colleges and universities, survival may require enrolling adults to fill classrooms left idle by the decline in the number of traditional students. Business perceives that future success will increasingly depend upon the development of 26 personnel who can effectively manage organization homeostasis in a rapidly and radically changing environment. Both content knowl- edge and appropriate skills become obsolete more and more quickly. If investments in educating adult learners are to provide adequate returns, are in fact to affect substantial appropriate learning, it seems that a more develOped theory of adult learning-- or, at least, a much better understanding of what of existing learning theory can reasonably be generalized to adult learners-- is necessary. Differences in the physiology of older adults which are likely to affect learning (115), and in the relative effective- ness of instructional media with younger adults' learning (106), are but two sources of evidence that blanket generalization cannot be justified. Of even greater significance than the differences found by Long and Ulmer, Lewin, Warren and Witkin, and Domino, cited in the previous paragraph, may be findings of substantial differences in fundamental values between age groups. A literature review in two areas, therefore, follows. First, found correlations between age and values are studied. Then, the role of values in affecting attitudes and behavior is explored. Two individuals dominate current academic and general understanding of the nature of human values: Milton Rokeach, Professor Emeritus at Michigan State University and Professor of Sociology and Psychology at Washington State University; and Morris Massey, Professor of Management and Associate Dean of the College of Business at the University of Colorado. 27 Rokeach developed the Value Survey in 1967 (173) which con- tains a list of eighteen terminal and eighteen instrumental values (see Figure 3). Rokeach surveyed a random sample of American adults in 1968 and again in 1971, ascertaining both what values adult Americans held and how those values changed over a three-year period. His 1968 findings are presented in Table l as rank orders of values by age categories (171). Three features of the data presented in Table 1 should be noted. First, the placement of subjects into age categories occurred in 1968. Those, for example, represented as being in their twenties were born between 1938 and 1947, and are now between the ages of thirty-three and forty-three. Second, though data were collected for subjects then in their teens, sampling was such that comparisons with the adult groups cannot be justified. Those findings are, therefore, not included in Table 1. Third, Rokeach found signifi- cant differences in values between age groups. It should also be mentioned that in comparing results of the 1968 and 1971 surveys, Rokeach found that values are quite resistant to change among American adults over time, especially among those over thirty (170,171,172). Massey, during his enthusiastically attended lectures before business and college audiences (Dow U.S.A. in 1976 and Central Michigan University in 1978) consistently echoed both of these Rokeach findings (124). The lecturer suggests that people proceed inevitably through three stages of values acquisition-- imprinting, modeling and socialization. He further contends that 28 TERMINAL VALUES A COMFORTABLE LIFE (a prosperous life) AN EXCITING LIFE (a stimulating, active life) A SENSE 0F ACCOMPLISHMENT (lasting contribution) A WORLD AT PEACE (free of war and conflict) A WORLD OF BEAUTY (beauty of nature and the arts) EQUALITY (brotherhood, equal opportunity for all) FAMILY SECURITY (taking care of loved ones) FREEDOM (independence, free choice) HAPPINESS (contentedness) INNER HARMONY (freedom from inner conflict) MATURE LOVE (sexual and spiritual intimacy) NATIONAL SECURITY (protection from attack) PLEASURE (an enjoyable, leisurely life) SALVATION (saved, eternal life) SELF-RESPECT (self-esteem) SOCIAL RECOGNITION (respect, admiration) TRUE FRIENDSHIP (close companionship) WISDOM (a mature understanding of life) INSTRUMENTAL VALUES AMBITIOUS (hardworking, aspiring) BROAD-MINDED (open-minded) CAPABLE (competent, effective) CHEERFUL (lighthearted, joyful) CLEAN (neat, tidy) COURAGEOUS (standing up for your beliefs) FORGIVING (willing to pardon others) HELPFUL (working for the welfare of others) HONEST (sincere, truthful) IMAGINATIVE (daring, creative) INDEPENDENT (self-reliant, self-sufficient) INTELLECTUAL (intelligent, reflective) LOGICAL (consistent, rational) LOVING (affectionate, tender) OBEDIENT (dutiful, respectful) POLITE (courteous, well-mannered) RESPONSIBLE (dependable, reliable) SELF-CONTROLLED (restrained, self-disciplined) Figure 3.--The Value Survey (SOURCE: Rokeach, 1974, pp. 226-227). TABLE 1.--Composite of Rank Orders of Values by Age Categories. 29 205 30s 405 505 605 70s Terminal Values a comfortable life 9 12 8 11 6 6 * an exciting life 18 16 18 18 18 18 * a sense of accomplishment 8 8 9 9 ll 12 a world at peace 1 2 l l l 1 * a world of beauty 15 15 15 15 15 14 equality 6 7 10 12 13 7 family security 2 1 2 2 2 2 freedom 3 3 3 3 3 4 * happiness 4 6 4 6 7 9 inner harmony 14 9 13 13 12 13 mature love 13 13 l4 14 16 17 * national security 11 14 ll 10 4 10 * pleasure 16 18 l7 l7 17 15 * salvation 10 11 7 4 10 3 * self-respect 7 4 5 5 5 5 social recognition 17 17 16 16 l4 l6 true friendship 12 10 12 8 9 8 * wisdom 5 5 6 7 8 ll * Instrumental Values ambitious 4 3 2 3 2 3 broadminded 6 6 5 2 4 4 capable 13 10 9 10 10 10 * cheerful 14 13 12 9 8 9 * clean 7 12 8 8 5 6 * courageous 8 4 6 6 9 6 forgiving 3 5 4 5 3 2 * helpful 9 7 7 7 7 5 * honest l l 1 l l l imaginative 18 18 18 18 18 18 independent 12 11 l3 l4 13 11 intellectual 15 15 15 15 l6 l6 logical 17 16 l7 17 17 17 loving 5 9 11 ll 14 14 * obedient 16 17 16 16 15 15 polite 11 14 14 13 12 13 * responsible 2 2 3 4 6 8 * self-controlled 10 8 10 12 ll 12 SOURCE: Rokeach, 1973, pp. 76-77. *Indicates significant differences found at at least a = .05. 30 by about age ten, during the modeling period, approximately ninety percent of one's "gut-level" values are "locked in." Persons have then internalized what is right, wrong, good, bad, normal and not normal. If these values are to be altered, says Dr. Massey, an adult must experience a "significant emotional event" (124). Figure 4 displays in outline form what Massey suggests are distinct differences between two age groups as the result of value programming accomplished when each was about ten years old. Labels for the three oldest groups were discussed earlier (see page 7) under "Definition of Important Terms." Attempts to compare char- acteristics by Massey and Rokeach (see Figures 3 and 4) are foiled by two factors. First, those in Massey's "Rejectionists” category were not included in the 1968 Rokeach population of adult Americans. Second, the terminology used by the two is different. James L. Hayes, President of the American Management Association, notes that new business school graduates are very different from his generation--executives in their fifties (78). Hayes' observations regarding the differences between the two groups are quite consistent with Massey's characterizations of "Traditionalists" and "Rejectionists." John Horton, in "The Youngest Workers Care the Least," suggests that a study of three thousand workers in fifty-three companies indicates that younger workers are less committed to the organization, less willing to follow the rules, less intimidated by authority, and less motivated by promise of financial gain (85). These findings are also con- sistent with Massey's. TRADITIONALISTS IN-BETWEENS 31 REJECTIONISTS SYNTHESIZERS 19205 19305 19405 19505 19605 19705 group, team- oriented rules-oriented spectators respect for authority formality, propriety puritanical hypocritical motivated by money problem solvers respect social order like stability things-oriented me-oriented no rules-oriented non-spectators participate, negotiate informality, adaptation sensual honest and direct motivated by fun cause joiners deal with individuals experiment, try the new experience- oriented Figure 4.--What You Are is Where You Were When . . . (When You Were About Ten) (Adaptation from Lecture by Morris Massey, Central Michigan University, 1978). 32 Cameron S. Hawkins of the Toronto office of Laventhol and Horwath, Certified Public Accountants, in "The Young Executive in Industry: Implications for the Coming Decade," suggests that there are differences in traits and attitudes among workers in different age groups, and that changing age demographics make this fact significant. Hawkins believes that implications for career tracking and how business organizations will be managed in the future are great (77). The implications for business, or for any part of society for that matter, would not be great, of course, unless differences in values result in differences in behavior. Further, for purposes of this study the implications would not be great unless differences in values--found to exist between age groups--were likely to result in differences in learning style preference. Role of Values in Determining Attitudes and Behavior This researcher hypothesized that persons in one age group would prefer learning in a different manner from persons in another. Persons born before 1937 would want an educational situation more consistent with a Behaviorist orientation than would persons born after 1947. Conversely, the latter group would prefer a Humanist approach more than the former. The opportunity of a learning situation reflecting a Behaviorist orientation (external stimulus) for a "Traditionalist" (organism) would elicit a favorable or positive attitude (affective response). Given the same external stimulus, a "Rejectionist” 33 would have a negative affective response. Opposite affective responses were hypothesized for each of the two groups when the external stimulus was a learning situation consistent with a Humanistic approach. external . affective behavioral . or + stimulus ganism response response learning attitude . situation learner + + _ + learning Figure 5.--Model of Behavior. Though with this study it cannot be shown that it was this difference (values) in learners which caused there to be a differ- ence in affective responses (preference indication toward learning style approach or orientation), the findings of Massey, Rokeach and others suggest that such an inference is plausible. Further, what Hand (75), Long and Ulmer (115), and Peck (3) found--or, to some extent, did not find--regarding the physiology and psychology of aging, and their effect on learning, does not contradict or mitigate against the plausibility of such inference. It was beyond the scape of this study to demonstrate the link between the affective and behavioral responses. Many, however, have demonstrated the importance of wanting to learn and of enjoying learning to academic success (38,60,61,62,80,82,112,l15,169,177). The role of values in determining attitudes and behavior has been widely discussed. The original and primary use by Rokeach 34 of his Value Survey (173) was to act as a predictor of attitudes and behavior. For example, it was used to predict how positions by politicians would be received by various constituencies and how certain groups would tend to vote on candidates and ballot questions. Findings accurately predicted outcomes in the national elections of 1968 (172). Massey suggests that Cadillacs and Buicks should be target- marketed to "Traditionalists" while the Porsche should be target- marketed to "Rejectionists." This is because the former value things; the latter experiences. The Porsche is designed such that the driver "feels the road." "Traditionalists" do not want to feel the road, according to Massey (see Figure 4 on page 31). The same kind of relationship can be seen in the purchasing patterns of the two groups for musical sound systems. The older group buys furni- ture; the latter buys components, without cabinetry but with compli- cated and tangled wiring, which produces vibrations which cannot only be heard, but felt (124). Actual purchase patterns bear out what would be predicted from held values. Attempting to determine what differentiated successful hotel managers from adults in general, Michael C. Shaner surveyed such a group, using the Value Survey, and compared data with the Rokeach national sample. Those who have attitudes conducive to successfully managing hotels, and behave such as to achieve success in the hospi- tality industry, do in fact differ as to values. Differences in value rankings are shown in Table 2. It should here be noted that if Shaner's study (184,185) were replicated with students contemplating 35 TABLE 2.--Comparison of the Values of Hotel Managers and Adults in General. Terminal Instrumental Values HM AG Values HM AG a comfortable life 8 12 ambitious 2 3 an exciting life 10 18 broadminded 5 5 sense of accomplishment 1 ll capable 4 9 * a world at peace 13 l cheerful 15 13 a world of beauty 16 15 clean 13 10 equality 12 4 courageous 10 6 family security 2 2 forgiving l4 4 * freedom 6 3 helpful 12 7 * happiness 5 6 honest 1 l inner harmony 7 12 imaginative ll 18 * mature love 9 14 independent 6 12 * national security 18 8 intellectual 8 15 * pleasure 15 16 logical 9 16 * salvation 17 9 loving l7 8 * self-respect 3 5 obedient 18 17 social recognition 14 17 polite 16 14 true friendship 11 10 responsible 3 2 wisdom 4 7 self-controlled 7 11 SOURCE: Michael C. Shaner, 1978, p. 69. *Added here to highlight striking differences. 36 careers in the hospitality industry, their responses might offer valuable assistance in career counseling. Since their values as college students have become quite resistant to change, one could identify whether their values matched well with those of successful hoteliers. The numbers who bemoan unsuccessful attempts to understand the behavior of the new, young executives are legion (1,9,13,41,46, 53,70,79,88,107,109,l35,139,144,164,168). The common complaint is that these new, young workers just do not behave the way they are supposed to, the way those who are trying to figure them out think that they should. Sara Fritz, Associate Editor of U.S. News and World Report, in a recent major article, "New Breed of Workers," reflects some of the dilemna (59): Unlike their parents, contemporary workers do not view their jobs as a simple contract: A day's work for a day's pay. . . . They want nothing less than 8 hours of meaning- ful, skillfully guided, personally satisfying work for 8 hours pay. And that's not easy for most companies to provide (p. 35). They have always known prosperity. . . . Older workers, many of whom remember the Great Depression, often seem to be more obedient, respectful and diligent than their offspring (p. 35). A young factory worker wants a day off to go fishing. When the request is denied by the boss, he goes anyway. The punishment: Two more days off without pay. . Two days off for this guy is a reward, not a punishment p 37 If we do not cope with this in the next decade, our industrial society is in serious trouble (p.35). 37 Many, then, are coming to realize that the reason that young workers behave differently and have different attitudes from those of top executives is that they have different values from those twenty years their senior. This very same "generation gap" was a major topic for discussion just a few years ago, but in the context of parents and their teen-aged children. Summary Literature relevant to this study of adult learning prefer- ences has been reviewed in six areas: (1) learning theory, (2) adult continuing education, (3) future environment, (4) business invest- ment in continuing education, (5) correlation between age and values, and (6) the role of values in determining attitudes and behavior. The importance of knowing more about how adults learn is supported by this review. Though much about how animals and children learn has been studied and reported, much less experimental or con- trolled research has been conducted to find how adults learn. A future environment in which the greatest constant is change--rapid change rendering new knowledge and technology obsolete again and again during the course of one's career--is causing, and will likely continue to cause, business to substantially increase its investment in the continuing education of its human resources. There is substantial evidence to suggest that adults cannot be treated as anything close to a homogeneous group with respect to how they will learn. Differences in values held by persons in different age groups have been demonstrated, as has been the 38 role of values in determining both attitudes and behavior (learning is behavior). CHAPTER III RESEARCH DESIGN AND PROCEDURES Introduction This research was conducted primarily to determine whether three age groups of hospitality industry executives and managers differed with respect to learning style preference. Given that factors other than age group might be related to such differences in learning style preference, relationships with gender, ethnic origin, and level of schooling were also examined. Since no suit- able existing instrument for testing learning style preference was available, the researcher developed the Learning Preference Survey (see Appendix A). Research Design The study had no treatment and one observation. Partici- pants were administered the Learning Preference Survey (see Appendix A). The Sgrygy_includes twenty-four statements to which participants responded, indicating the degree to which they agreed/ disagreed on a five-point Likert-type scale. Twelve statements are constructs for one dependent variable, "Behaviorist Approach" to learning (statements 1, 3, 4, 6, 8, 9, 15, 17, 19, 21, 22, 23); twelve statements are constructs for the other dependent variable, "Humanist Approach" to learning (statements 2, 5, 7, 10, ll, 12, 39 40 13, 14, 16, 18, 20, 24). Point scores were assigned to each response such that: strongly agree tend to agree neutral or unsure tend to disagree strongly disagree II II II II II m-wa—I Mean scores on each of the two dependent variables were computed fbr each participant. Before responding to the twenty-four statements, partici- pants were asked with the §grygy_to answer questions regarding (1) gender, given two levels; (2) ethnic origin, given four levels; (3) level of schooling completed, given five levels; (4) year of birth; and (5) the number of years spent outside of the United States before reaching the age of twenty-one. The fourth question was used to place participants into one of the three age groups. The fifth was used to exclude some participants, those who had spent a substantial number (six or more) of their intense value programming years in a different cultural setting. Mean scores on each of the dependent variables were computed for each level of the independent variables--gender, ethnic origin, and level of schooling completed--for each of the three levels of the primary independent variable, i.e., age group. Created, then, was the following variable matrix for each of the dependent variables (see Figure 6), a two-way crossed design with unequal numbers of observations in the cells. 41 Age Group Traditionalist In-Between Rejectionist Gender Male Female Ethnic Origin White American Black American Spanish American Other Schooling Completed >4 years college 4 years college <4 years college 4 years high school <4 years high school Figure 6.--Variable Matrix. 42 The following research hypotheses were examined: Hypothesis 1 There is significant difference among age groups with respect to learning style preference. Hypothesis 2 There is significant difference among age groups with respect to preference for the Behaviorist Approach. Further, it is hypothesized that Traditionalists more prefer the Behaviorist Approach than do In-Betweens who in turn more prefer the Behaviorist Approach than do Rejectionists. Hypothesis 3 There is significant difference among age groups with respect to preference for the Humanist Approach. Further, it is hypothesized that Rejectionists more prefer the Humanist Approach than do In-Betweens who in turn more prefer the Humanist Approach than do Traditionalists. Hypothesis 4 There is significant difference between males and females with respect to learning style preference. Hypothesis 5 There is no interaction between age group and gender with respect to learning style preference. Hypothesis 6 There is significant difference among ethnic groups with respect to learning style preference. Hypothesis 7 There is no interaction between age group and ethnic group with respect to learning style preference. 43 Hypothesis 8 There is significant difference among groups with different levels of schooling with respect to learning style preference. Hypothesis 9 There is no interaction between age group and level of schooling with respect to learning style preference. Hypothesis 10 There is significant correlation between statements in the Survey and the dependent variable that they repre- sent. Research hypotheses 1-9 were tested using multivariate analysis of variance, SPSS Subprogram MANOVA (27,216). This tech- nique was chosen because of the ability of the tests used to attend to the data as a whole rather than to each set of comparisons of means separately. Analysis of each of the measures separately results in redundancy, such that statistical error rates may be multiplied manifold. The multivariate model retains the multiple scores as a set of interrelated traits (27,65,216). SPSS Subprogram MANOVA provided multivariate analysis of variance for both dependent variables--Behaviorist Approach and Humanist Approach--for (1) the interaction effect between two of the independent variables, and then (2) for each of the independent variables while controlling for any effect of the other. Subprogram MANOVA then provided univariate analysis of variance for each dependent variable in the same order and fashion. The researcher was able thereby to test for the effect of each independent variable on learning style preference, for the interaction effect between 44 age group and each of the other independent variables on learning style preference, and for each effect and interaction on each dependent variable. MANOVA provided four criteria for tests of significance: Wilks Lambda, Hotelling's trace criterion, Roy's largest root criterion, and Pillai's criterion. Each of the four gives a single probability statement to retain or not retain the null hypothesis of no treatment effects (27). All hypotheses were tested at the a = .05 level. Where significant differences were found, the direction of those differences was determined by inspection. Where there were more than two levels, determining between which levels differences were significant required an additional multiple comparison pro- cedure. The two most useful procedures are the S-method and the T-method, developed by Scheffé and Tukey, respectively (65). The Scheffé was chosen because, unlike the Tukey, it does not require equal cell sizes and has great sensitivity when complex combina- tions of sample means are being estimated (65, p. 395). It was expected that the numbers of cases in the thirty-three cells (see Figure 6, page 41) would be far from equal, and they were. Research Procedures Development of the Learning Preference Survey The development of a valid testing instrument to measure learner preference toward the two theoretical approaches, behavior- ism and humanism, was attempted in five steps. Four preceded administration; one followed. 45 The first step was the construction of a bank of statements satisfying two criteria: Each statement needed to reflect some aspect or tenet of one of the learning theories, but not the other. Each statement needed to be expressed both in terminology and con- text such that it would be understandable and relevant to a business executive or manager. The second step was the testing of the "face" validity of the instrument, i.e., did in fact each statement clearly represent the dependent variable intended? A specially designed form of the Sgyygy_(see Appendix B) was administered to recognized experts in the field of learning theory. Participants were Stephen L. Yelon, Professor of Counseling Personnel Services and Educational Psychology and of Learning and Evaluation Services at Michigan State University, and Carl M. Johnson and Kevin G. Love, Professors of Psychology at Central Michigan University. Each was asked to respond twice to the statements in their original form with about two weeks elapsing between tests. On this "test-retest“ of reliability each was entirely consistent in his responses. New and revised statements were also presented on the second occasion to replace those for which concensus had not been achieved on the first testing. The third step was field testing of the revised instrument. This was done to determine whether business people, rather than learning theory experts, understood and were able to respond properly to the instrument. Both management and supervisory per- sonnel at the Board of Water and Light in Lansing, Michigan graciously cooperated with the researcher at this stage. 46 Twenty-eight respondents completed the Sgyygy_and commented both in writing and verbally regarding statements which they either did not like or found confusing. Choosing supervisors and managers, rather than the managers and executives who would participate in the later study, was decided upon to increase the researcher's confidence that the Syyygy_in its final form would be easily understood. Management at the Board of Water and Light requested results from the study, and will receive them. The fourth step was another revision. Some words, the order of phrases within statements, and the order of statements were changed to improve readability and logical sequence. The changes were approved by the learning theory experts. The fifth and final step, occurring after administration of the Sgyyey, was a test of the correlation between statements and dependent variables. Pearson-Product-Moment Correlation (SPSS Subprogram PEARSON CORR) was used (65,216). Administration of the Learning_ Preference Survey_ An exhibit booth was rented and furnished for the Sixty- Second Annual National Restaurant Association Restaurant-Hotel- Motel Show held May 16-20, 1981 at McCormick Place, Chicago, Illinois. The booth was one of more than 1,100 in an exhibit area of more than eight acres. Visiting the exhibit area were more than 100,000 hospitality industry professionals from all fifty states and many foreign countries. 47 The booth, assigned to and identified as "Central Michigan University," was located on the center aisle of the main floor. Furnishings included a table and four chairs, and a counter partially fronting the booth and separating it from the aisle. A staff of three, working two at a time, was hired and trained by the researcher. With the help of two "point of sale" promotional signs located at each front corner of the booth, the staff solicited par- ticipation in the study from persons in the aisle who could be identified as managers, owners, or executives on the basis of their name badges. These "credit card-type" badges were imprinted with the individual's name, title, company, and address. Each subject was handed a Sgyygy_and a pencil and escorted to a chair at the table. Some preferred to stand and were accommo- dated at the counter. All data were gathered at the booth with the completion of each test instrument requiring an average of five-to- six minutes. Some persons who completed the Sgyygy_were not mana- gers, owners, or executives. In some cases these persons volunteered and in a few they were solicited on the basis of an incorrect quick reading of their name badges. Given the time to verify while they were completing the Sgyygy, these invalid forms were segregated without the participants' knowledge merely by not stamping them with an identification number. No one was discouraged from completing a Sgyygy, Surveys completed by individuals verified to be managers, owners, or executives were stamped using a sequential numbering machine. Each subject was thereby assigned a four-digit identifi- cation number. Participants cannot be identified by name. 48 Summary The research design and procedures described were formu- lated to effectively and efficiently obtain answers to the three major research questions stated in Chapter I. It was also important that concerns with respect to validity be addressed. There were three major concerns: (1) the survey instrument itself; (2) sampl- ing technique; and (3) choice of statistical techniques for analysis of the data. The Learning Preference Survey was developed because no existing instrument, appropriate for answering the questions pro- posed in this study, could be found. Both its reliability and content validity are supported by the testing of the learning theory experts and the field testing of supervisors and managers. Construct validity was tested (Hypothesis 10) using Pearson-Product-Moment Correlation Analysis (SPSS Subprogram PEARSON CORR). Results of that analysis are reported in Chapter IV. Major concerns regarding generalizability and external validity result from the employed sampling technique. Given that participants were not randomly selected from the population (see discussion under "Generalizability" in Chapter I), the researcher cautions the reader to generalize only where practical and neces- sary, and where one has reason to believe that the p0pulation in question has significant demographic characteristics matching those participating in this study. Those participating in the study are analyzed with respect to learning style preference 49 as a representative sample of §9m3_larger population, i.e., one with the same demographic characteristics. Finally, multivariate analysis of variance technique was used (SPSS Subprogram MANOVA) because of the need to treat two dependent variables simultaneously, analyzing differences between and among levels of independent variables with respect to both and each of the dependent variables. This technique attends to the data as a whole rather than to each set of comparisons of means separately. Where required, locating between which levels of an independent variable significant difference existed was accomplished with the S-method. Both MANOVA and the S-method are robust with respect to unequal cell sizes. Results obtained, using this design and these procedures, are reported in Chapter IV. The researcher acknowledges that current hospitality industry demographics are such that: (1) a higher percentage of males occupy management positions in the commercial sector, while females dominate such positions in institutional (e.g., schools and hospitals) foodservice; and that (2) a higher percentage of females have completed four-or-more years of college than males (92). Further, men with managerial or administrative responsibility in the hospitality industry have higher average salaries than women (92). Believing that none of these differences would severely impact upon the independent variables tested, the researcher did not test for what some might consider potential confounding vari- ables. CHAPTER IV ANALYSIS OF THE RESULTS Analysis of the data collected and results from this study of learning style preference among hospitality industry managers and executives are reported in this chapter. Data Collection Five hundred and seventy-three attendees of the NRA Show completed the Learning Preference Survey at the Central Michigan University booth. Sixty-seven of those were excluded from analysis because they were not verified as being managers, owners, or execu- tives. An additional twenty-two were excluded because each had spent six or more years living outside of the United States before reaching the age of twenty-one. Two participants refused to indi- cate their ethnic origins. Four hundred and eighty-four cases, then, were analyzed except when computing interaction effect between age and ethnic origin and the effect of ethnic origin itself. There the number of cases was four hundred and eighty-two. TABLE 3.--Summary of Data Collection. Cases read = 573 Cases rejected = _3gy Cases accepted = 484 Cases rejected in part = 2 Cases accepted for all analyses := 482' 50 51 The numbers of accepted observations and the resulting cell frequencies are expressed in Table 4. The variable matrix in Table 4 corresponds to the two-way crossed design with unequal numbers of observations in the cells expressed in the previous chapter (Figure 6) in the "Research Design" section. So also do Tables 5 and 6. Summary Data Calculated mean scores for each of the dependent variables for the entire sample and for each cell, resulting from analysis by SPSS Subprogram MANOVA follow. Table 5 shows results for the Behaviorist Approach and Table 6 shows results for the Humanist Approach. The reader is reminded that lower scores indicate greater preference, since: strongly agree tend to agree neutral or unsure tend to disagree strongly disagree II II II II 11 01-5de Because such small numbers of subjects fit some of the cells (see Table 4), data were also analyzed with ethnic origin compressed to two levels from its original four, and schooling completed compressed to four levels from its original five. The resulting matrices of cell means for Behaviorist Approach and Humanist Approach are expressed in Tables 7 and 8. 52 TABLE 4.--Numbers of Observations and Cell Frequencies (n=484).* Age Group Traditionalist In-Between Rejectionist (n=83) (n=137) (n=264) we Male (n=346) 59 105 182 Female (n=l38) 24 32 82 Ethnic Origin White American (n=457) 76 132 249 Black American (n=9) 1 3 5 Spanish American (n=5) 1 0 4 Other (n=ll) 5 2 4 Schooling Completed >4 years college (n=4) 3 l O 4 years college (n=51) 12 18 21 <4 years college (n=157) 28 37 92 4 years high school (n=131) 12 29 90 <4 years high school (n=14l) 28 52 61 *n = 482 when computing age by ethnic group because observations 10 0276 and ID 0069 did not respond to the question about ethnic origin. 53 TABLE 5.--Cell Means for Behaviorist Approach to Learning. Age Group Traditionalist In-Between Rejectionist my Male 2.13508 2.29372 2.45872 Female 2.36975 2.34366 2.46698 Ethnic Origin White American 2.20088 2.31758 2.47705 Black American 1.90900 1.97233 2.33780 Spanish American 2.45500 2.24250 Other 2.24260 2.00000 2.25025 Schooling Completed >4 years college 1.90167 2.50000 4 years college 2.34158 2.14350 2.23738 <4 years college 2.12036 2.17214 2.39192 4 years high school 2.17358 2.31421 2.61882 <4 years high school 2.27096 2.44758 2.41054 Mean for the entire sample 2.37285; n = 484 54 TABLE 6.--Cell Means for Humanist Approach to Learning. Age Group Traditionalist In-Between Rejectionist Less: Male 2.01627 .99847 .02929 Female 1.93621 .99547 .89228 Ethnic Origin White American 1.99688 .99980 .99457 Black American 1.50000 .79533 .08320 Spanish American 1.50000 .75000 Other 2.13320 .16700 .81650 SchoolinggCompleted >4 years college 1.66667 .66700 4 years college 2.22917 .05839 .85595 <4 years college 2.01593 .95846 .99839 4 years high school 1.85975 .01231 .99901 <4 years high school 1.96129 .00300 .99605 Mean for entire sample = 1.99095; n = 484. 55 TABLE 7.--Cell Means for Behaviorist Approach to Learning. Age Group Traditionalist In-Between Rejectionist Gender Male .13508 .29372 .45872 Female .36975 .34366 .46698 Ethnic Origin White American .20088 .31758 .47705 Other .22529 .98340 .28154 Schooling Completed :4 years col lege 2.25360 .16226 .23738 <4 years college 2.12036 .17214 .39192 4 years high school 2.17358 .31421 .61882 <4 years high school 2.27096 .44758 .41054 Mean for the entire sample 2.37285; 56 TABLE 8.--Cell Means for Humanist Approach to Learning. Age Group Traditionalist In-Between Rejectionist Gender Male .01627 .99847 .02929 Female .93621 .99547 .89228 Ethnic Origin White American .99688 .99980 .99457 Other .95229 .94400 .89862 Schooling Completed 34 years College .11667 .03779 .85595 <4 years college .01593 .95846 .99839 4 years high school .85975 .01231 .99901 <4 years high school .96129 .00300 .99605 Mean for the entire sample 1.99095; 57 Data Analysis Hypothesis 1 There is significant difference among age groups-- Traditionalists, In-Betweens, and Rejectionists-- with respect to learning style preference (Behaviorist Approach and Humanist Approach, taken together). This hypothesis was formulated to obtain evidence regarding the first research question (Chapter I) which asked whether hospi- tality industry executives and managers in each age group differed with those in the other age groups with respect to learning style preference. This hypothesis was tested, using multivariate analysis of variance technique (SPSS Subprogram MANOVA), with the correspond- ing statistical null hypothesis: H01: There is no significant difference among age groups with respect to learning style preference. The null hypothesis was not retained at the .05 level. Significant difference was found among age groups with respect to learning style preference (F6 478 = 3.92449, p §_.OOO70). Hypothesis 2 There is significant difference among age groups with respect to preference for the Behaviorist Approach. This hypothesis was formulated to obtain more specific evi- dence regarding the first research question (see Chapter I), i.e., whether hospitality industry executives and managers in each age group differed with those in the other age groups with respect to their preference for the Behaviorist Approach. This hypothesis was 58 tested, using univariate analysis of variance technique (SPSS Sub- program MANOVA), with the corresponding statistical null hypothesis: H02: There is no significant difference among age groups with respect to preference for the Behaviorist Approach. The null hypothesis was not retained at the .05 level. Significant difference was found among age groups with respect to preference for the Behaviorist Approach (F2,478 = 10.61286, p‘: .00003). Further, the following directional hypothesis was tested using the S-method (Scheffé): Traditionalists more prefer the Behaviorist Approach than do In-Betweens who in turn more prefer the Behaviorist Approach than do Rejectionists. This directional hypothesis was not retained at the .05 level. Though the weighted sample means--Traditionalists (2.2029), In-Betweens (2.23054), and Rejectionists (2.4613)--are in the direction hypothesized, comparison with the standard percentile points of F-distributions for Fl,478,d = .05 = 3.84 indicates that there is no significant difference between Traditionalists and In-Betweens with respect to preference for the Behaviorist Approach (F = 2.2653 < F = 3.84). However, significant difference was found between In-Betweens and Rejectionists with respect to preference for the Behaviorist Approach (F = 9.1474 > F = 3.84). Since the difference in sample means for Traditionalists and Rejec- tionists is greater than for In-Betweens and Rejectionists, there is also significant difference between Traditionalists and 59 Rejectionists with respect to preference for the Behaviorist Approach (see Table 9). TABLE 9.--Scheffé Post Hoc Analysis. (m1 " 1112)2 1 1 Mean F + a: Squared Age Groups and Weighted Mean 1 2 Error F = Traditionalists (2.2029) .5426 .23954 2.2653 In-Betweens (2.2305) .0243 .23954 9.1474 Rejectionists (2.4613) That Traditionalists more prefer the Behaviorist Approach than Rejectionists, and that In-Betweens more prefer the Behaviorist Approach than Rejectionists is retained. That Traditionalists more prefer the Behaviorist Approach than do In-Betweens is not retained. Hypothesis 3 There is significant difference among age groups with respect to preference for the Humanist Approach. This hypothesis was formulated to obtain more specific evidence regarding the first research question (see Chapter I), i.e., whether hospitality industry executives and managers in each age group differ with those in the other age groups with respect to their preference for the Humanist Approach. This hypothesis 60 was tested, using univariate analysis of variance technique (SPSS Subprogram MANOVA), with the corresponding statistical null hypothesis: H03: There is no significant difference among age groups with respect to preference for the Humanist Approach. The null hypothesis was retained at the .05 level. Signif- icant difference was not found among age groups with respect to preference for the Humanist Approach (F2 478 = .02979, p §_.97065). Further, the following directional hypothesis was proposed: Rejectionists more prefer the Humanist Approach than do In-Betweens who in turn more prefer the Humanist Approach than do Traditionalists. This directional hypothesis was not tested because when its antecedent non-directional hypothesis was tested, significant differ- ence was not found among age groups with respect to preference for the Humanist Approach. Hypothesis 4 There is significant difference between males and females with respect to learning style preference. This hypothesis was formulated to obtain evidence (second research question, Chapter 1) regarding what one might intuitively believe would have an effect on learning style preference, thus mitigating against and confounding findings with respect to age groups. This hypothesis was tested, using multivariate analysis of variance technique (SPSS Subprogram MANOVA), with the correspond- ing statistical null hypothesis: 61 H04: There is no significant difference between males and females with respect to learning style preference. The null hypothesis was not retained at the .05 level. Significant difference was found between males and females with respect to learning style preference (F2,478 = 3.92266, p;g .02043). Though no hypotheses were proposed regarding the effect of gender on Behaviorist Approach and Humanist Approach, the finding of significant difference with multivariate analysis with respect to learning style preference, seems to warrant reporting those univariate findings. Significant difference was not found at the .05 level between males and females with respect to the Behaviorist Approach (Fl,478 = 1.37988, p 5 .24071), but was found with respect to the Humanist Approach (F1,478 = 4.47116, p §_.03499). Females more preferred (mean = 1.92356) the Humanist Approach than did males (mean = 2.01772). Hypothesis 5 There is no interaction between age group and gender with respect to learning style preference.. This hypothesis was formulated to test whether any found difference in learning style preference among age groups could be explained (third research question, Chapter I) on the basis of any effect of gender. This hypothesis was tested, using multivariate analysis of variance technique (SPSS Subprogram MANOVA), with the statistical null hypothesis: 62 H05: There is no interaction between age group and gender with respect to learning style preference. This null hypothesis was retained at the .05 level. Significant interaction between age group and gender was not found with respect to learning style preference (F6,478 = .72988, p.g .62561). Hypothesis 6 There is significant difference among ethnic groups with respect to learning style preference. This hypothesis was formulated to obtain evidence (second research question, Chapter 1) regarding what one might intuitively believe would have an effect on learning style preference, thus mitigating against and confounding findings with respect to age group. This hypothesis was tested, using multivariate analysis of variance technique (SPSS Subprogram MANOVA), with the corresponding statistical null hypothesis: H06: There is no significant difference among ethnic groups with respect to learning style preference. The null hypothesis was retained at the .05 level. Significant difference was not found among ethnic groups with respect to learning style preference (F6,478 = .82632, p §_.54955). Even when the data were compressed (see Tables 7 and 8) to compare White Americans with all others, no significant difference was found (F = 1.40897, p 5 .24541). 2,478 63 Hypothesis 7 There is no interaction between age group and ethnic group with respect to learning style preference. This hypothesis was formulated to test whether any found difference in learning style preference among age groups could be explained (third research question, Chapter I) on the basis of any effect of ethnic group. This hypothesis was tested, using multi- variate analysis of variance technique (SPSS Subprogram MANOVA), with the statistical null hypothesis: H 7: There is no interaction between age group and ethnic group with respect to learning style preference. This null hypothesis was retained at the .05 level. Significant interaction between age group and ethnic group was not found with respect to learning style preference (F10,478 = .55956, p §_.84747). Even when the data were compressed to compare White Americans with all others, significant interaction was not fOund (F6,478 = .28424, p §_.94454). Hypothesis 8 There is significant difference among groups with different levels of schooling with respect to learning style preference. This hypothesis was formulated to obtain evidence (second research question, Chapter I) regarding what one might intuitively believe would have an effect on learning style preference, thus mitigating against and confounding findings with respect to age group. This hypothesis was tested, using multivariate analysis of 64 variance technique (SPSS Subprogram MANOVA), with the corresponding statistical null hypothesis: H 8: There is no significant difference among groups with different levels of schooling with respect to learning style preference. The null hypothesis was not retained at the .05 level. Significant difference was found among groups with different levels of schooling with respect to learning style preference (F8,470 = 2.53160, p §_.00996). Though no hypotheses were proposed regarding the effect of levels of schooling on Behaviorist Approach and Humanist Approach, the finding of significant difference with multivariate analysis with respect to learning style preference seems to warrant report- ing those univariate findings. Significant difference was found for different levels of schooling for the Behaviorist Approach (F4 470 - 4.16385, p §_.00252), but not for the Humanist Approach (F .59763, p §_.66452). 4,470 A Scheffé was performed to determine between which pairs of the five levels of the independent variable significant differ- ences existed. Weighted mean scores for each of the levels obtained with respect to the Behaviorist Approach were: more than fbur years of college = 2.0513 four years of college = 2.2288 less than four years of college = 2.0797 four years of high school = 2.5106 less than fbur years of high school = 2.3965 Comparison with the standard percentile points of F-distributions fbr F1,478,a = .05 = 3.84 for contrasted pairs of levels of 65 schooling with respect to the Behaviorist Approach indicates that significant difference was found only between those with less than four years of college and those with four years of high school (see Table 10). Given that the highest level (more than four years of college) had only four cases, the first two levels were combined. The independent variable was compressed to four levels from its original five (see Table 7). A Scheffé was performed to determine between which pairs of the four levels of the independent variable significant differ- ences existed. Weighted mean scores for each of the levels obtained with respect to the Behaviorist Approach were: four or more years of college = 2.2159 less than fbur years of college = 2.0797 four years of high school = 2.5106 less than four years of high school = 2.3965 Significant differences were found for three of the six pairs of levels tested (see Table 10). Significant difference was found between those with four or more years of college and those with four years of high school; between those with four or more years of college and those with less than four years of high school; and between those with less than fbur years of college and those with four years of high school. Significant difference was not found between those with four or more years of college and those with less than four years of college; between those with less than four years of college and those with less than four years of high school; and between those 66 mach.m eN_mN. upem. redeem ence meme» ev ms Fooeem new; meme» 4 mwmm.m empmm. mmpm. Poo;Um gov; memo» ev m> mumppou memo» ev eoomc.e_ empmm. memm.m .oocem saw; meme» 4 ms cmePPOU mead» ev smomm.m em_mm. momN.F _ooeum em_e meme» ev ms swapped weed» 4M rmoem.ep empmw. omm¢.m Possum new; meme» 3 ms emep_oe need» em _N_o.~ empmm. oqmm. mmmppou meow» ev m> mamppou meow» wm AN mpamh mmmv mpw>m4 e cue: cmuwFQEoo mcwpoosum smeoe.mm mmomm. momm.m~ _oo;um ems; meme» 4 ms eme_Foe mead» ev “moo.m mmomm. mmme. Poo16m ;m_; meow» ev m> mam—Foo memo» «A move. mmomm. emoo. mmmFFou meow» «v m> mmmppou memo» en ooom. wmomm. mopp. mmmppou mcmma e m> mumppou memo» «A Am mpnmb mmmv mpm>m4 m sue: umpmpaeou mchoozum u d Loscm N H mcomwsmgsou umcmzcm cam: .m + .w AN... - as .sumosaa< pmwcow>mzom age so beeswax eyes meepooeem to mpeses eedseem deeeewceemem to dense coeeez-m--.oH usm F = 3.84). Those with at least some college (2.0762) prefer the Behaviorist Approach more than do those with no college (2.4510). Hypothesis 9 There is no interaction between age group and level of schooling with respect to learning style preference. This hypothesis was formulated to test whether any found difference in learning style preference among age groups could be explained (third research question, Chapter I) on the basis of any effect of level of schooling. This hypothesis was tested, using multivariate analysis of variance technique (SPSS Subprogram MANOVA), with the statistical null hypothesis: H09: There is no interaction between age group and level of schooling with respect to learning style preference. 68 This null hypothesis was retained at the .05 level. Significant interaction between age group and level of schooling was not found with respect to learning style preference (F14,470 = 1.34644, p §_.l7344). When the data were compressed to four levels of schooling from the original five, significant interaction was not found (F12’470 = 1.22897, p §_.25764). Hypothesis 10 There is significant correlation between statements in the Survey and the dependent variable they represent. This hypothesis was formulated to assure that all state- ments--valid on their "face" according to learning theory experts-- were significantly and positively correlated with the dependent variable which they were designed to represent. This hypothesis was tested, using Pearson-Product-Moment Correlation Analysis (SPSS Subprogram PEARSON CORR), with the corresponding statistical null hypothesis: H010: There is no significant correlation between statements in the Survey and the dependent variable they represent. The null hypothesis was not retained at the .05 level. Significant positive correlation was found between each of the twenty-four statements and the dependent variable that it repre- sents. Table 11 displays the statements with their correlations (r) and the probability that r is not greater than zero (p). Correlations were also calculated, using Pearson-Product- Moment Correlation Analysis (SPSS Subprogram PEARSON CORR), to 69 TABLE ll.--Correlation Matrix for Statements with Represented Variables. Behaviorist Approach Humanist Approach Statement Statement Number r'= pg Number r'= pg 1 .5272 .001 2 .4179 .001 3 .3210 .001 5 .4357 .001 4 .4157 .001 7 .4424 .001 6 .5470 .001 10 .4976 .001 8 .4644 .001 11 .4374 .001 9 .3582 .001 12 .5707 .001 15 .4543 .001 13 .5182 .001 17 .6143 .001 14 .5041 .001 19 .5148 .001 16 .4694 .001 21 .5343 .001 18 .4356 .001 22 .6058 .001 20 .4259 .001 23 .5263 .001 24 .4658 .001 70 determine the correlation of each statement with the dependent variable that it was not designed to represent. Each of the state- ments was either negatively correlated or less positively correlated with the unintended dependent variable than with the dependent variable that it was designed to represent (see Table 12). Summary The researcher's primary purpose in this study was to deter- mine whether differences existed among age groups of hospitality industry managers and executives with respect to learning preference. Evidence gathered with this study indicates that the Behaviorist Approach to learning is more preferred by Traditionalists and In- Betweens than by Rejectionists. No difference, however, was found among age groups with respect to the Humanist Approach. A major concern regarding these differences with respect to learning preference among age groups was that the influence of other factors--gender, ethnic origin, and/or level of schooling-- might contribute substantially toward explaining any found differ- ences among age groups. No interaction, however, was found. Two other differences were found with respect to learning preference. The Humanist Approach was more preferred by women than by men, though no difference between genders was found for the Behaviorist Approach. The Behaviorist Approach was more preferred by those with at least some college than by those with no college, though no difference was found among groups with different levels of schooling with respect to the Humanist Approach. 71 TABLE 12.--Corre1ation Matrix for Statements with Unintended Variables. Humanist Approach Behaviorist Approach Statement Statement Number r= p:_ Number r‘= p_< 1 -.O497 .138 2 .0519 .128 3 .2724 .001 5 .0360 .215 4 .1640 .001 7 -.0065 .444 6 .0963 .018 10 .0551 .113 8 -.OO74 .435 11 -.1189 .005 9 -.O473 .150 12 .1022 .012 15 .3444 .001 13 .1632 .001 17 .0846 .032 14 .2091 .001 19 .1565 .001 16 .2660 .001 21 .1991 .001 18 .2343 .001 22 .1927 .001 20 .1952 .001 23 .2098 .001 24 .2844 .001 72 Finally, with respect to the testing instrument itself, each of the twenty—fbur statements in the Learning Preference Survey was found to be significantly and positively correlated with the dependent variable--Behaviorist Approach or Humanist Approach--that it was designed to represent. CHAPTER V SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS m A rapidly increasing number of business leaders are con- cluding that future success in a dynamic and constantly changing environment will more and more depend on the abilities of management to comprehend that environment and to adapt company responses to optimize their posture toward that environment. The key to develop- ing these essential management abilities is believed to be continu- ing management and executive education. Business investment in management education already amounts to billions of dollars annually. The effectiveness of such programs, including their cost effectiveness, is being severely limited by lack of knowledge about how business managers and executives learn. Most learning theory has been developed through experimental research with laboratory animals and young children. Generalizing results from that research to adult populations is, at best, risky. A theory of adult learning has been actively pursued during the past thirty years, but its development, relative to earlier learning theory, has been characterized much more by logical inference and by obser- vation in uncontrolled real-world situations than by systematic 73 74 experimentation in laboratory settings and planned manipulation of stimulus situations. Current consensus suggests that adults prefer and need a Humanist Approach (referred to in the literature as "andragogy") where a Behaviorist Approach (referred to in the literature as "pedagogy") is more appropriate and effective with children. Further, it is suggested that the older an adult becomes, the more andragogy (based upon humanistic psychology) is preferred and needed. Given the importance of fundamental values in determining attitudes and behavior, and given findings by Massey and Rokeach regarding the fundamental values held by different age groups of adult Americans, and given that learning style preference is an attitude and actual learning is a behavior, this research tested the suggestion that the older an adult becomes, the more he or she prefers a Humanist Approach. This tenet of adult learning theory seemed to conflict with logical inference from the findings of the value research of Massey and Rokeach. The Learning Preference Survey was developed and tested, and then administered to hospitality industry managers and execu- tives attending the Sixty-Second Annual National Restaurant Associa- tion Restaurant and Hotel/Motel Show May 16-20, 1981 in Chicago. Managers and executives from the hospitality industry were chosen both because of the author's background and interest in that industry and because that industry has lagged behind most others in innovation and change. Given both its pe0ple intensity and its extraordinary need to change and adapt, the hospitality industry 75 seems in even greater need than others of increased management and executive education effectiveness. The NRA Show, attended by more than 100,000 hospitality industry professionals, provided an excep- tional opportunity to conduct survey research efficiently. Managers, owners, and executives of hotel/motel and food- service concerns provided information regarding their age, gender, ethnic origin, and level of schooling; and indicated the level of their agreement/disagreement with statements designed to test prefer- ence for a Behaviorist Approach or a Humanist Approach to learning. Data obtained from four hundred and eighty-four managers, owners, and executives were analyzed, using multivariate analysis of variance technique (SPSS Subprogram MANOVA) and the S-method (Scheffé post hoc analysis). The researcher found that for hospitality industry mana- gers, owners, and executives: 1. The Behaviorist Approach to learning is more preferred by Traditionalists (those born prior to 1937) and In-Betweens (those born between 1937 and 1947) than by Rejectionists (those born after 1947). 2. There is no significant difference in preference with respect to the Humanist Approach among age groups. 3. The Humanist Approach was more preferred by women than by men. 4. There is no significant difference in preference with respect to the Behaviorist Approach between women and men. 5. The Behaviorist Approach is more preferred by those with at least some college than by those with no college. 6. There is no significant difference in preference with respect to the Humanist Approach among groups with different levels of schooling. 76 The researcher also found that mean scores for the total sample were lower for the Humanist Approach (1.99095) than for the Behaviorist Approach (2.37285) to learning. Coding of responses on a five-point Likert-type scale was such that lower scores indicated stronger agreement. However, the study was designed to compare preference with respect to each approach among groups (age, ethnic, and level of schooling), not whether hospitality industry managers and executives preferred one learning style approach to the other. It is for this reason that this difference was not reported in Chapter IV. Three aspects of this difference in mean scores should be noted: First, given that the "neutral" point on the Likert-type scale was three, both mean scores indicate agreement. Second, a theory of learning and a theory of instruction differ both in con- tent and goals. The findings of pure scientists may not be relevant to current practical problems. To operationalize this finding, one must translate from the descriptive and analytical (learning theory) to the prescriptive (theory of instruction), while considering that much, if not most, learning occurs without instruction, and that instruction usually occurs in practical and less than ideal settings. Third, the two approaches--Behaviorist and Humanist--though certainly providing substantial contrast, are not mutually exclusive. They should not be seen as opposite ends of the same continuum. 77 Conclusions This researcher's findings provide substantial reason to suggest changes in continuing education programs for hospitality industry managers and executives. Even having heeded his own caution about translating from learning theory to a theory of instruction, the researcher perceives a number of immediate implications. Many responsible for planning and implementing continuing education programs operate as though the population of hospitality industry managers and executives were homogeneous with respect to how they like to, and what motivates them to, learn. Some choose medium and message based on what they believe to be best for achiev- ing a particular type of objective, i.e., new knowledge, new skills, change in attitudes. Many, of course, choose medium and message based upon what the instructor likes to do, or finds easiest to do (lecture is most common), and what the instructor knows. A few also consider learner readiness, i.e., what the learners already know and what skills they have already mastered. Given the vital role that interest and motivation play with respect to what is learned and how well, choice of instructional strategy or learning situation should not be based solely upon desired outcomes. Hospitality industry managers and executives differ with respect to fundamental values, and, predictably therefore, differ with respect to learning style preference. Based upon this research, it is suggested that these differences among learners should also be considered in the design of educational programs. 78 Some planners and implementers of continuing education programs, of course, do not operate as though this population were homogeneous. They Operate, maybe on the basis of current adult learning theory literature, as though the papulation of hospitality managers and executives were heterogeneous and that learner need and want characteristics must be considered in learning situation design. Findings from this study, however, seem to contradict the current belief that adult learners more and more prefer and need an andragogical approach the older they get. This researcher found no difference among age groups with respect to preference for the Humanist Approach. Furthermore, the two older groups more preferred the Behaviorist Approach than did the youngest. Malcolm Knowles may be correct that the "pedagogy of adult education" is a semantic contradiction (101,102), but hospitality industry managers and executives seem to find no contradiction between being adults and agreeing with educators who employ pedagogical process elements (see Figure 2, page 15) in helping them learn. Pure learning theory suggests that the quality of education could be improved if instruction were designed for each individual learner. Probably most educators can accept this as true. In most cases, however, the financial cost of such personal attention is prohibitive. It generally is for elementary school children and it generally is for managers attending executive seminars. The "reasonable compromise" solution between treating all learners as alike and each learner as unique is to find reasonably homogeneous 79 learner groups who need reasonably similar new knowledge and skills. Suggestions for "reasonable compromise" solutions follow. Historically, upward mobility in individual careers has been such that young newcomers begin in lower management positions, are promoted to middle management positions by the time they reach their late thirties, and (for those who make it) are promoted to top management by fifty (92,104,220). The kinds of knowledge and skills necessary to perform successfully at each of these levels are different. Technical skills, for example, are most important at the first level; human skills are most important at the second level; and conceptual skills are most important at the top level. The content of education and training programs must focus, not only on the kinds of knowledge and skills necessary to perform successfully at the learner's present level, but also at the learner's next level. In this study it was found that Traditionalists (who now and for the next few years will fill most of the top management posi- tions) and In-Betweens (who now and for the next few years will fill most of the middle management positions) are different from Rejec- tionists (who now and for the next few years will fill most of the lower management positions) with respect to learning style prefer- ence. Given this researcher's findings, continuing education programs for top and middle management personnel, designed, for example, to improve conceptual skills, probably should incorporate some of the pedagogical processes outlined in Figure 2 (see page 15). Continuing education programs for lower management personnel, 80 designed, for example, to improve technical and human skills, should incorporate more of the andragogical processes outlined in Figure 2. Programs to develop conceptual skills, using more andragogical process elements, will be needed within a few years, of course, because Rejectionists will then be assuming more middle management positions. Three trends in the demographics of the population of hospitality industry managers and executives have additional signif— icance because of the findings from this study. First, the size of the Rejectionist age group is likely to remain disproportionately large for at least the remainder of this century. Second, more managers and executives are likely to be women. Third, the per- centage of college-educated managers and executives is increasing, and is likely to do so even more rapidly in the near future (92,77). The impact of this Rejectionist age group has been discussed at some length in Chapter II. Traditionalist managers are confused and frustrated at the attitudes and behavior exhibited by these "Young Turks." This study's findings suggest that, as investments in continuing education increase and as these Rejectionists assume more and more organizational responsibility, the "Old Guard" is going to have to accept and deal with the fact that these younger managers even balk at learning the "right" way. The impact of the last two demographic trends on continuing education programs, unfortunately, is likely to be confusing and complicating. Women were found in this study to more prefer the Humanist Approach than men. Those persons with at least some 81 college were found to more prefer the Behaviorist Approach than those with no college. Each group is increasing in number and as a percentage of hospitality industry managers and executives. The "reasonable compromise" solution, mentioned earlier, of finding reasonably homogeneous learner groups who need reasonably similar new knowledge and skills may be made more difficult because of these trends. How much an individual hospitality firm is able to accommo- date additional sub-groups in the "reasonable compromise" solution to achieve reasonable learner homogeneity within groups is likely to be a function of size and amount budgeted for education and training. Since most women entering the ranks as managers are also Rejectionists beginning in lower management positions, no conflict with educational programs designed with age group in mind is seen. Where accommodation is reasonable, however, it is suggested that hospitality firms might consider separate programs for Rejectionists with and without college. Each of the five major hospitality industry associations-- American Dietetics Association, American Hotel and Motel Associa- tion, Club Management Association, National Institute for the Food- service Industry, and the National Restaurant Association--provides extensive nationwide continuing education programs for executives, managers, supervisors and/or students preparing for such roles (l3,50,77,l96). Given the numbers that they serve and their ability to target programs by both content and management level, 82 the researcher strongly recommends their accommodating to each of the “reasonably homogeneous" learner groups discussed. Recommendations for Further Research On the basis of both the limitations of, and the oppor- tunities provided by, this study, the researcher recommends five additional studies. The author is himself interested in conducting each and all of them. 1. An update and amplification of the Shaner study of 1978 (184,185), which used the Value Survey (173) (see Figure 3, page 28) to compare the fundamental values of hotel managers with those of a random sample of adult Americans (see Table 2, page 35) seems warranted. The new study would compare hotel managers (Shaner's data) and college students studying hospitality manage- ment, using Rokeach's Value Survey. This study could be useful in career counseling of students, and in providing a preview to industry professionals of the value differences and implications of the "new breed" of managers about to enter the industry. 2. The author would also like to shorten the Learning Preference Survey and use it with a random sample of hospitality industry managers and executives. This would serve to validate (or not validate) this study. 3. This Learning Preference Study could also be employed to study the learning style preference characteristics of the students studying hospitality management mentioned above in the proposed Shaner update study. Massey calls this age group the 83 "Synthesizers" (124) (see Figure 4, page 31). Results from this study can be used (a) to see whether values predict learning preference for this age group as they did in this study for older groups, (b) to guide instructional strategy in hospitality college curricula, and (c) to provide a preview to planners of hospitality industry continuing education programs of the learner characteris- tics of the next group of lower level managers. 4. The Learning Preference Survey could be employed to study the managers and executives of a major hospitality industry firm, employing many and committed to quality continuing education. Such a study could provide more specific intelligence regarding that firm's learners. The researcher believes that such informa- tion could help further improve educational outcomes. 5. The population of business managers and executives from all industries could be analyzed with respect to learning system preference using the Learning Preference Survey. The need for particular knowledge and skills, in many cases, is not specific to just managers and executives in one industry. In such cases, findings might help determine reasonably homogeneous learner groups who need this reasonably similar knowledge or skill. APPENDICES 84 APPENDIX A LEARNING PREFERENCE SURVEY 85 LEARNING PREFERENCE SURVEY PLEASE PROVIDE THE FOLLOWING INFORMATION ABOUT YOURSELF: PLEASE CHECK (XL_ONE PLEASE FILL IN THE BLANK SEX: 1. ( ) male 2. ( ) female I was born in 19 . PLEASE CHECK (KyyONE PLEASE CHECK (X) ONE 1. ( ) White American were you born in the United 9 2. ( ) Black American States. 3. ( ) Spanish American ( ) Yes 4. ( ) Other ( ) NO PLEASE CHECK_(X) ONE PLEASE FILL IN THE BLANK SCHOOLING COMPLETED: Before becoming 21 years old, how many years did you spend living outside of the United States? 1. ( ) more than 4 years of college 2. ( ) 4 years of college ( ) some college, but years. less than 4 years 4. ( ) 4 years of high school 5. ( ) less than 4 years of high school THANK YOU! NOW, PLEASE CONSIDER THE FOLLOWING HYPOTHETICAL CASE. A new company for whom you go to work -- believing more and more in the vital importance of its human resources - wants to make a substantial commitment to the continuing education and personal development of its key people. The Survey on the back of this page represents an attempt to determine how ygg prefer to learn. It seeks to find out what kind of a learning situation for continuing your education ygg_wou1d like best. -- OVER -- 86 87 For each statement indicate (with an 5) whether you 4. Q s A.» r‘ 0 *%%“Q ‘Q I HOULD PREFER INSTRUCTORS HBO Q) a * ~————— .0 0.410., 1" o o 1 1 ta? 93.04:. *‘f‘fioe (I) tell me exactly what is important for me to learn. ++ O —- (2) ask me to choose what I want to learn. ++ 0 -- (3) arrange activities so that I learn a bit at a time and ++ 0 __ build toward higher skills and knowledge. (4) give a learning situation (text, lecture, etc.); quiz ++ 0 _ to see that I have learned what I should; give feedback. ' (5) help me to find information sources for myself rather than ++ 0 __ just giving me the information. (6) cover exactly what they have planned. ++ 0 - (7) are flexible when learners would prefer to discuss some situation which may seem unrelated to the plan for the ++ 0 -— session. (8) Teach at regularly scheduled times: hold class for a set ++ 0 _- length of time; assign the same amount to read each time. (9) discourage discussion and stick to providing information ++ O __ and answ (10) encourage me. and others, to discuss how we feel about I H 0 -— esch other s ideas. (ll) let me discover things for myself, rather than show me. ++ 0 -- (12) work with me at my pace and schedule meetings when I am ++ O __ ready. (13) do not either pressure me or threaten me. ++ 0 —- (14) suggest new and different ways for me to learn and for me ++ 0 _- to approach a subject. (15) regularly review to see that previous information is not ++ 0 __ orgotten (16) help me to grow, to become more aware and self—fulfilled. ++ 0 -- (17) tell me exactly what I must do to show that I have learned. ++ 0 -- (l8) ask me to participate in the process of evaluating my ++ 0 __ learning achievements. (19) tell me how what is being taught should be used in my job. ++ 0 - (20) ask me to consider and figure out how what I am learning ++ 0 __ might be useful in my job (21) see that those who show that they have learned are rewarded. ++ 0 -- (12) see that those who show that they have learned the subject ++ 0 __ matter are awarded certificates of achievement. (23) have the authority to recommend promotion or a salary *+ 0 -_ increase if I have scored better than others. (24) work hard to see that the learning process is fun. ++ 0 -- [I 91 SI 81 APPENDIX B FACE VALIDITY TEST 88 Name For each statement indicate (with an 5) whether you believe that an executive/manager indicating agreement would be suggesting preference for a Behaviorist Approach (B), a Humanistic Approach (H), or neither of them (*). I WOULD PREFER INSTRUCTORS WHO tell me exactly what I must do to show that I have learned. 2. arrange activities so that I learn a bit at a time and build toward higher skills and B H knowledge. 3. see that those who show that they have learned B H are rewarded. 4. give a learning situation (text, lecture, etc.); quiz me to see that I have learned what I B H should; give feedback. 5. teach at regularly scheduled times; hold class for a set length of time; assign the same 8 H amount to read each time. 6. have an input into company decisions about promotions and salary raises if I have scored B H better than others. 7. ask me to choose what I want to learn. B H 8. provide resources for me to use in learning B H what I have chosen. 9. do not either threaten me or pressure me. B H 10. let me discover things for myself, rather B H than show me. ll. let me participate in the process of evaluating B H my learning achievements. 12. work with me at my pace and schedule meetings B H when I am ready. PLEASE TURN TO THE NEXT PAGE! 89 90 For each statement indicate (with an 5) whether you believe that an executive/manager indicating agreement would be suggesting preference for a Behaviorist Approach (B), a Humanistic Approach (H), or neither or them (*). I WOULD PREFER INSTRUCTORS WHO 13. schedule sessions during my off hours so that B H * I don't miss time at work. 14. schedule sessions during my working hours so B H * that I don't miss time off. l5. teach me skills which will improve my immediate B H * day-to-day job performance. l6. help me to grow, to become more aware and B H * self-fulfilled. l7. work hard to see that the learning process is B H * fun. 18. see that those who show they have learned the subject matter are awarded certificates of B H * achievement. l9. are thoroughly prepared for each learning ses- B H * sion and cover exactly what they have planned. 20. let me role-play so that I can get the actual B H * feeling of what I am trying to learn. 2l. let me see more qualified professionals role- play so that I can see what I am trying to B H * learn. , 22. suggest new and different ways for me to learn B H * and for me to think. 23. arrange for me to take classes with my peers; B H * not with my bosses or with my subordinates. 24. arrange for me to meet with persons who have similar subject interest, regardless of B H * organization status. 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