THE RELATION3HIP' 0's EDUCATJONAL—GCCUPATIONAL BACKGROUND, STEREOTYPY, TRADITIONAL-EMERGENT VALUES, sex, AND ACADEMIC APTLTUDE OF COLLEGE STUDENTS meounsmm PURSUIT Thesis for the Degree of 'Ph. D. MiflflGAN STATE UNIVERSKTY Kent M. Chr’isfiansen 3965 n...“ There seemed to be an almost inherent assumption that, AA... 1E.G. Williamson. H.P. Longstaff. and J.M.,Edmunds. "Counsel- ing Arts College Students." Journal of Applied Psychology. Vol.19 (1935). PP. 111—124. 16 .pk’ 17 the type of problem exhibited or expressed as well as the frequency of its occurrence was sufficient evidence that the visitor to the counseling center or the psychological clinic. was atypical. Subsequently the interest swung to the counseling relation- ship itself with emphasis upon the outcome. Studies using pre- counseling psychological test performance as the criterion of prognosis were often attempted. In a comprehensive review of such studies..Windle2 was left without any definite conclusion about their effectiveness. Furthermore. he concluded that out- come appeared to be more strongly determined by some character- istic of the client than the therapy applied. Windler comments seemed to stimulate other investigators toward attempts.to resolve the inconclusive results which he noted.. Estimates of personality or behavior variables by both clinical.Judgments and test instruments were designed primarily to select those clients most likely to remain as compared with those clients.most likely to prematurely discontinue the psychologicalghelping process. The duration of treatment was consideredntombe one of the most important criteria of success and failure...The use of these more sOphisticated anddiscriminating 26harles.fiindle. "Psychological Tests in PsychOpathological Prognosis. "Psychological Bulletin. Vol.49 (September. 1952). pp e “51-1‘82 e 18 techniques resulted in evidence to support the claim that there were identifiable variables associated with length of stay on the part of the client. In the main. three classes of client var- iables were evaluated: demographic. intellectual. and personality.3’u It seems only natural that attention should next.have shifted to a focus.more precisely upon the client himself. and especially upon those dimensions that distinguished him from the non-client. In order to specify those characteristics associated with the person seeking help. more rigidly-controlled comparison groups were employed than in earlier research. Users and non- users of psychological services.were subjected to study to -determine those characteristics which might be related to counseling readiness. counseling pursuit. and counseling success. However..because of the contradictory results. studies of this nature are inconclusivemin.the research literature. .The fact that there isha paucity of decisive information concerning.client and nonaclient group characteristics has prompted the present investigation; To.initiate and administer a program of counseling services effectively it is first necessary to understand the students for 38amnel.c. Fulkerson and John R. Barry. "Methodology and .Research.on the Prognostic Use of Psycholo ical Tests. ”Psychological Bulletin. Vol. 58 (May. 1961 . pp. 177-204. See this source for a full review of these studies. “Julius Seaman._"Psychotherapy." Annual Review of Psychology. Vol. 12 (1961). pp. 157-194. 19 whom such a program is built. By reviewing research approaches of this nature. fundamental bases for generalizations.are estab- lished. The review of literature in this chapter focuses upon these approaches and their ensuing descriptions of the individuals involved. The task of categorizing studies becomes increasingly com- plex when several groups and several factors are considered. For example. if an investigator purports to study seekers and non-seekerssochounsel he usually considers a number of variables. There is naturally much overlap in any scOpe that attempts to study the multiple factors separately. Nonetheless. for the purpose of convenience and a degree of reasonable orderliness within the intention of the study. the review has been divided into the.following categories: (1) the social background of students who pursue counseling. (2) the attitudes and values of clients.ofmcounseling.facilities. (3) the importance of sex variation and counseling use. (u) the academic ability of .studentswand counseling pursuit. and. (5) the distinction be- .tweenwcounselees.with.personal-sooial problems and counselees with educational-vocational problems. Social Background and Counseling Pursuit .Among the numerous motivational factors which bring the .college student to react favorably or unfavorably to certain ‘situations are those of a sociological basis. Parental education 20 and occupation are well known as elements of influence in the lives of children. Included within the studies mentioned here are additional aspects connected with the individual's background such as size of home town and economic background. One researcher made an extensive investigation into the personal.and social factors associated with users and non-users of college counseling services. In advance he had observed that: It‘"0bviously the social and cultural background of .clients may condition their attitudes toward coun- .selors and the counseling process. This background -may generally set the course of the relationship .between client and counselor. Specifically. the -student's sex. socio-cultural background. economic ”level. social stereotypes. images. and attitudes toward himself or the counselor may be related to successful counseling." The findings generally confirmed the above proposition. 6 certain background In a companion report by the same author. factors were isolated and found to be identified with college students and their differential use of the counseling center. Proportionately speaking. the lower-middle social class as de- picted by clerical and manual occupations of fathers tended to be slightly over-represented. The magnitude of representation was based on the frequency of contacts at the counseling center in relation to the total student body. That is. the occupation 5Arnold L. Form. "Measurement of Student Attitudes Toward.Counsel- ing Services." Zersonnel and Guidance Journa . Vol. 32 (October. £953). p. 84. 6Arnold L. Form. "Users and Non-Users of Counselin Services." ._ £2EE2EE2L.&ES.§ELQEE§2.£22£E§¥~ V01-32 (Decemberol953 . Ppo209-213- 21 of the father was used.as a level of socio-economic.status of the family. The students of a given.socio-economic background who visited the counseling center were then compared with that prOportion of the total school.p0pulation that they.oocupied. Thus. equal or unequal representation was suitably determined. Two additional background situations received.reoognition in the study. “First. metropolitan students were largely among the nonsusers and yet appeared most frequently among those who visited the center more than five times. More students from the smaller towns and villages tended to appear as visitors than .those with other backgrounds.--8econd. the majority.of the respondents rated.their experience with high school guidance quite..-negati.vely. Although. not statistically significant. there.was a tendency for "poor" or "harmful" raters to visit the student personnel center- An interesting evolvement. also. was-themclose~associationebetween size of community and type of .guidanoe-services of the local high school;.these rose together ..steadily-nntil.large cities of over 100.000 were viewed. At .thismpointithe association dropped. Apparently the "best" .oversallmhigh school guidance programs existed among the .mediumssized.cities. .The social status of clients has been previously studied. largely in public agencies. and has been found to rather 22 .consistently correlate with.various variables.suoh as.source of “referral. type.ofmservice..length of contact. successiof,treatment. .and diagnosis. The research dealing with these relationships were reported by Lewis and Robertson7 prior to conducting a study which dealt strictly.with a university pepulations In.their investigation they found no significant relationship between similar clinic variables.and the socio—economic status of clients. However. when the clinic group. selected from the university's psychological clinic..was contrasted with a nonaclinio group of a random sample of 160.university students. an important difference was noted,“ Modifying Warner's nggxug§.8tatus Chery “acteristics.to indicate education. occupation. and source of -income of parents. thewsooioneconomie.status of the clinic ,sampleuwas significantly higher than that on the non—clinic sample. -.. .The college students.used as.the clinic group were primarily .wadfiustmental cases.rather than.educational or vocational guidance cases as determined in the intake interview. Students with. . educational and vocational problems were either seen by another “agenoymormexcluded from the study. It is not unusual for the psychological clinic on a university campus to be separate from and to handle cases different from the counseling center. One 7Harry Lewis and Malcolm Robertson. "Socio-Economic Status and a University Psychological Clinic." Jougnal of Counseling Psychology. Vol. 8 (1961). pp. 239-242. 23 can only assume that.thatwwaswthemoasewinithissstudymandu .oaution should be exercised in generalizing to the counseling. center. . In the first of-a twospart retrospective study ofsa college adjustmentclinic made- by McKinney..8 he found visitors to the clinic differed from others only in the amount ofmproblems , revealed and.in the fact-that they placed more emphasis on emotional problems.. Otherwise they were similar tootheir class- mates. .In fact. he-estimated 75 Percent of college students have psychological problems of-varying intensity and.he further pointed out that this.figure is close to what other investiga- tors had previously found. Annapproach to identifying.theioharacteristicshof"coun— selees.inmthe secondwpartmofwhis.study9 compared thenfirst 200 ..conseoutiIeiapplicantswtomthemoliniowwith-lflonconsecutireicases ithreeiyearsilater-wiTheitwo-groupsswerewalsomcomparediwith,a ..“randomisampleitrom"thewtotalwstudentshady.. Comparisonssmade. “onutenrxariables showed the clinic group was somewhat dissimilar ”fromxtheilarger_student.group. The clinic group was more often .frommthemlarger cities. somewhat younger. more often freshmen. 8Pred McKinney. "Four Years of a College Adgustment Clinic." Journal of Consulting gsychology. Vol. 9 (l9h5 . pp. 203-212. 912111.. pp. 213-217. 24 more frequently female. and differed on a psycho-neurotic scale from the unselected students. No differences were noted on academic ability. college major. or affiliation with a fraternity or sorority. In another comprehensive report by the same investigator10 in which he limited the counselees to those with pronounced emotional problems. he found them to be less socially.inolined. less happy. less-realistic. lacking in personality integration. and lacking in enduring motivation. But contrary to his previous study he found no differences when he compared this group with an applied psychology class. assumed to be representative of the total university. in terms of sex. age. size of home town. use of time. nature and presence of problems. economic back- I ground.ability. and achievement. - ”Social background seems to be positively correlated with -clients who are inclined or referred to agencies that specialize “in psychological.aid with personal and emotional difficulties. .MoKinneyis.reports dealt with a personality clinic and a ,_clinical psychologist as the therapist. LeWis and Robertson's study likewise had its setting in a psychological clinic. -The higher.the social status the seemingly greater likelihood that the individualreceived treatment intended as more loFred McKinney. "Case History Norms of Unselected Students and Students with Emotional Problems." gouygal 9f Consulting Psychology. Vol. 11 (1947). pp. 258-269. 25 intensive such as psychotherapy. College counseling services as a rule are more limited to providing help to students who bring less severe problems for discussion. The only investigation that concerned itself with a university counseling center reported in this section showed that.students from the general student body who visited the center were more often below the upper middle-class status. From these limited studies one might contend thatstudents from a higher social standing are more oriented toward receiving psychotherapy while students seeking help with career planning and personal adjustment of a less severe nature are more apt to be from a.lower social status which stresses vocational achieve- ment and personal success. Attitudes and values and Counseling Pursuit It is to.be expected that a pattern of ideological forces lends weight to the preferences some people have in their .approach to problem-solving. Attitudes and values are inseparably connected with a student's personality and bias his choice. Judgment. and action. The research reported in this section extends. therefore. to other personality variables that may not "technically” fall under the rubric of attitudes or values. Their inclusion was felt Justified because they help influence 26 and explain possible relationships between students' attitudes and values and their differential use of counseling services. Using the norm group on which the Brown and Holtzman Survey 9£_§32gy Habits agg,Attitudes was deve10ped-as a normal popula- tion. male volunteers to a counseling center differed from those required to go.for scholastic probation and the norm group. Probationers and volunteers were about the same in their attitudes toward school and both differed from the test-basis group.11 .The maJor reasons for including the above study were three- fold: (l) the.acceptance of the pepulation on which.the.8urvey ‘gg‘ggggy Habits aggflAttitudes was standardized as a control group. (2) the general conclusion reached that clients who volunteer for counseling are more 'open" to discussing.them- selves while non-volunteers are more "defensive." and. (3) the “attitudinal differences as demonstrated by their test.perform- ., .ances on the....§u_zy§y 93m Habitg ;_an_d_..rAtt;tudes.e Undesirable -attitudes toward teachers. classrooms. and other elements of .scholasticllife are perhaps not too far removed from the attitudes.toward student personnel workers. . 11Robert P. Anderson and James E. Kuntz. "The. lSurvey of Study Habits and Attitudes' in a College Counselin Center." zegsonnel and Guidance Journal. Vol. 37 (January. 1959 . pp. 365-3 . 27 The Counseling Center at the University of California has been participating in continuing research along the lines of client and counselor personality characteristics and their relationship to counseling. Appropriately their first report was entitled "Personality Differences Between Students Who Do and Do Not Use A Counseling Facility."12 The approach used attempted to.measure cognitive and intellectual variables by use of.the gyergzgyiggs Type Indicator (MBTI). a personality instrument fashioned after Jungian theory on four dimensions: Judgment—Perception. Thinking-Feeling. Sensation-Intuition. and.Extraversionalntroversion. This self-descriptive. forced- choice inventorynwas administered to 72 male and female students who appeared.at the Counseling Center voluntarily for vocational. educational. or/and personal counseling within one year after enrolling as freshmen. The ygg; had been previously adminis- tered to a random sample consisting of one-sixth of the freshman __class.. This control group consisted of 97 males and 103_females who during the same time sequence did not make an appearance at the Center. They were assumed to be similar to the non- control group in intelligence. age. education. socio-economic status. and other important variables. . 12Gerald A. Mendelsohn and Barbara A. Kirk. "Personality Differences Between Students Who Do and Do Not Use A Counseling Facility." Journal of Counseling Psychology. Vol. 9 (1962). pp. 341-3h65 28 The investigators concluded that. "Compared to the nonclient 83. the students who seek counseling score less toward the Judging side. more toward the intuitive side. less toward the feeling side and more toward the introversion side of the respective.dimensions. It was suggested that the cus- tomary attention to subJective experiences characteristic of the intuitive type and the greater tolerance for or enJoyment of ambiguity characteristic of the perception type predisposes such individuals to make use of the counseling approach."13 More specifically. the dimensions which discriminated significant- ly between the two groups were Judgment-Perception and Sensation-Intuition. The more intuitive individual who required less concrete patterns of sensation was more likely to use counseling services. Analysis of the former dimension indi- .cated the differences were attributable to male clients who ,significantly varied from female clients. The male who was less likely to make.a Judgment about something was more apt to become a client. One might easily speculate from the results of the study previously cited. as did the authors. and state the importance of attitudes on the part of individuals when it comes to 13Ibid.. pp. 3h5.3h6. 29 receiving assistance in the decisionumaking process. By the same token. the authors were also somewhat amazed to find no significant differences in the dimension of Thinking-Peeling. a dimension frequently mentioned as an important counseling variable. A self-concept investigationlu of college freshman.seekers and non-seekers of counseling produced no evidence to support the claim of less self-understanding on the part of the.help- seeker. One finding of variation did occur in the area of interest where.counseled students showed the highest mean in this measurement. This tendency characterized the belief of many that clients are particularly motivated to enlarge and explore their vocational and academic interests. Furthermore. the significant difference occurred among male students who supposedly are more vitally involved in identifying an aspira- tion and interest of career import. In a related self-concept research proJect15 an Opposite finding to the previous study was made. The client was found to approach counseling through "subJective” feelings of dis- comfort with himself rather than "reality" factors of being unacceptable or unworthy in the estimation of his fellow students. innoss W.Matteson."Self-Perceptions of Students Seeking Counsel- ing." Peysonnel and Guidance Journal. Vol.36 (1958). PP.545-548. 15James S. Terwilliger and Fred E.Fiedler. "An Investigation of Determinants Inducing Individuals to Seek Personal Counseling." Journal of Consulting Psychology. Vol.22 (1958). p. 288. 50 Over the years the 5&2; has received considerable study as a predictor instrument. Parker16 referred to an unpublished study in which the use of the g§2;_at the time of freshman orientation was unable to predict personal counseling students from a control group. In his own study. Parker noted that the long form of the guy; was able to predict students who would subse- quently seek personal counseling whereas the short form of the 55:; failed to do so. However. both forms accomplished the task if administered at the time of counseling. In addition. Judges were able to identify Egg; profiles from either the first or second test-setting for the counseled group when they were scrambled. but they were not able to consistently do so for the nonecounseled group. The control group did not vary from orientation time until the time of the second test. One additional aspect of the experiment was to measure motivation for treatment. Motivation was determined by the client's feelings of tension. manifest anxiety. interest in getting help. feeling he must have help. Poor motivation was determined by ambivalence about.getting help. referred by administration. feeling he ought to do this by himself. Two Judges rated the candidates by reading notes taken at the time of the intake interview. Although they initially rated them on 16Clyde A. Parker. "The Predictive Use of the MMPI in a College Counseling Center.“ ou of Counsel n s cholo . Vol; 8 (1961). pp. 154-158. 31 a six-point scale from low to high. the scale was collapsed to form merely a high motivation group and a low motivation group. The inter-Judge correlations were only moderately high but none- . theless the criterion used for Judging was considered by the investigator as.worthy for use in selecting motivated persons for personal counseling. Whereas.Parker had been able to show the gygy to beia useful discriminator between a counseled group and a non-counseled group. a comprehensive study17 conducted in a counseling center at a large midwestern.university failed to do so. In his doctoral dissertation. the investigator discovered no signif- icant differences.of any consistency between clients and non- clients. Three hundred cases of visitors and non-visitors to the counseling center were studied on 20 items of data.including 12 §§g1,T-scores. the.Ag2yican.Coungi;.on.§ggggtion T-score. .grade point average. chronological age. and five indexes derived from.the.ggg1: (1) Behavior Problem. (2) Neurotic Index. (3) Psychotic Index. (h) Anxiety Index. and. (5) Internalization Ratio. The contradictory findings may be attributable to several factors. It should be remembered that McCain used 17Robert Francis McCain. "A Descriptive and Comparative Study of Personality Characteristics of Clients and Non-Clients At a University Counseling Center" (unpublished Ph.D.dissertation. University of Wisconsin. 1954). 32 students appearing for educational. vocational, personal or social problems.whi1e Parker restricted his clientele to people with personal problems. The control group in Parker's study was limited to students involved in either education or general psychology classes. Students on various campuses are apt to perceive differently the services of a personnel agency such as the counseling .center. The religious orientation .of students.attending.the Brigham Young University. for example. may dispose them quite frequently to seek help through other sources. Rothla devised a method he felt was practical for identi- fying prospective counselees. He-assumed that poor.adJustment and high anxiety would characterize visitors to a college counseling center. The gglyggygyg,gg§t‘2£,g§ysonality and the Manifest Angigtyifigglg selected by Both were given to the entire freshman class and.the resulting scores broken into.quartiles. Expected scores were determined. The scores of a group of students who sought counseling were analyzed by chi-square values and found to possess a combination of poor adJustment and high anxiety significantly.contrary to the larger population. ‘ Roth admitted that there were undoubtedly other factors involved in the student's motivation to seek professional counseling. 18Robert M. Roth. "A Method for Identifying Prospective Coun- selees in College." The Jougggl of Educational Reseaych. Vol.56 (January. 1963). pp. 275-27 . 33 An attempt19 was made recently to hold "exposure to the availability of counseling service" constant by testing all subJects and immediately exposing them to the possibility of entering into a counseling relationship. The Mooney Problem ghggk_;;§t was given to selected introductory psychology students near the end of the winter term. In lieu of the usual essay questions at the end of the ghggk_;;§§, a dittoed sheet was inserted. .The subJect was informed of the availability of both counseling services-and qualified counselors. Each one was asked to indicate if he were interested in taking.advantage of the Opportunity for counseling which was offered. He responded by.checking whether he was very interested. interested. neutral. not too interested. or not-at all interested. Those people endorsing either the first or second category were contacted by letter or telephone and invited to come in. They were reminded of their initial endorsement and invited to make an appointment. Analysis showed that the three groups (clients. potential clients who changed their minds. and students who checked one of the three remaining alternatives) differed on five scales of the Mooney zyoblem Check List. The scales were: (1) Health 19Ernest J. Doleys. "Differences Between Clients and Non- Clients on the Mooney Problem Check List." he Journal of Colle e Student Personnel. Vol. 6 (October. 196n). PP. 21-25. ’ 34 and Physical.Development: (2) Finances. Living Conditions. and Employment:.(3) Social-Psychological Relations; (4) Personal- Psychological Relations; and (5) AdJustment to College Work. The remaining non-differentiating scales were: (1) Social and Recreational Activities; (2) Courtship. Sex. and Marriage; (3) Home and Family; (h) Morals and Religion; (5) The Future. Vocational and Educationalz-and. (6) Curriculum and Teaching Procedure. In all cases the clients expressed significantly higher scores on total problems than did the non-interested subJects. The group that showed an interest but later changed their mind about receiving help were much more variable. perhaps symptomatic of why they changed their minds. The investigator felt that counseling readiness might be a person's admission of certain areas of concern. It is rather obvious that the differences could be somewhat tainted due to the formal letter or telephone call inviting the students to pursue counseling. Had the investigator per- mitted the students to appear of their own volition the study would have been free from the response to an "authoritative" request. The timing and selection of subJects were not the most adequate. Representation of the total college was not sampled. The end of the winter term was rather late for many students. How the researcher estimated he was "introducing" the possibility of receiving counseling for the first time appears to be beyond 35 comprehension. Certainly the maJority of students must have been aware that the services were available before this. Also. nothing was.said regarding those who may have made contact with a counselor during the previous two quarters. Expressed attidudes toward counseling and counselors tend to be favorable not only by those students who take advantage of it. but also by members of college campuses who have not yet had direct contact with the facility. This favorable opinion is.cvidenced in two studies of college counseling centers in the midwest. Student reaction toward counselors 20 were ob- and personnel services at Michigan State University tained by means of a Counseling Attitude Sgglg. It was noted that 8h percent of those surveyed held favorable attitudes toward university personnel services while the remaining indi- cated mild. indifferent. or negative responses. An interesting observation was the fact that even though 40 percent of the .number queried had never used the agency they still reported a feeling of favorableness toward the counseling organization and personnel. A follow-up study aimed at measuring expressed satisfaction with counseling services at the University of Chicago21 showed 20Arnold L. Form."Measurement of Student Attitudes Toward Counseling Services." Personnel and Gu dance Jou nal. Vol. 32 (October. 1953). pp. 85-87. 21E.H.Porter.Jr.."Clients' Evaluations of Services at the University of Chicago Counseling Center." Journal of Counseling Psychology. Vol. # (1957). pp. 274-281. 36 a favorable.attitude among former users. .It was felt that "a training center.can Operate a service valued in the community."22 The reasoning for such a conclusion seemed to be based on the time lapse and the fact that these individuals were no longer affiliated with the university at which they received their help. The respondents had no apparent "axe to grind." and in addition they were in a position to relate the assistance they received to their present situation. According to Woodruff.23 who has done considerable study of the roles of values in human behavior. attitudes are temporary states Of readiness.to act based upon an individualls more fundamental value structure. Values and-attitudes are consid- ered important.and decisive factors influencing behavior. Thus. the way a person feels because of his beliefs. preJudices, Opinions. loyalties. and preconceived notions is probably as determinative. if not more so. than his cognitive understanding. Because this emotional complex permeates the total personality. .directions along many given affective continua studied by .researchers were.considered apprOpriate for review under the .. preceding section. 221bid.. pp. 280. 281. ‘23Asahel D. Woodruff and F.J. DiVesta. "The Relationship Between values. Concepts. and Attitudes " Educational and zgychological Measuyement. Vol. 8 (1948). pp. 5- 59. 57 In summary..a.thorough search Of the literature.failed to uncover any evidence of maJor studies being conducted for the explicit purpose of determining whether or not there were any significant differences between users and non-users of college counseling services in terms of attitudes and values as identified in this study. The studies selected did provide background infgrmation on other personality correlates as they relate to counseling pursuit. . The non—counselee appeared to be more Judgmental and less tolerant of ambiguity. He required more concrete proof Of sensation.and was somewhat less appeased by subJective experiences. His mode.of "adJustment" and level of "anxiety" were somewhat more nearly "normal" than the student who sought professional help. although the results of one detailed doctoral study indicated evidence that would not support these findings. In addition. the nonecounselee had ambivalent feelings about _.receiving help and possessed rather strong feelings he ought to _work out a solution to his problems by himself. Verbalized attitudes on the part of both users and non- users indicated a healthy appreciation for the services and personnel involved in college counseling settings. Attitudes toward school in general in one study reported were more favorable among a norm group used for the Brown and Holtzman Suyvey g; 58 §£ggy Habits agg.Attitudes than for male counselees. It must be remembered that this study. at best. has only indirect rele- vance to the present problem since no distinction was made regarding use of professional counseling on the part of the control group. The importance of self-concept. which can be regarded as a reflection of attitudes turned inward. was not clearly iden- tified in the studies reported here. In a later section of this chapter* the research reported which dealt with self- descriptions as revealed by adJective check lists showed that clients appeared to have a more negative "self-concept" than did non-clients. Sex and Counseling Pursuit Over the years researchers have devoted a considerable amount of attention to studying the influence of the sex of the client upon problems under investigation. Likewise. reasons for unequal attraction of persons and places for help in solving problems has been assumed to be partly due to beliefs and expectations held with respect to men and women. By and large. as evidenced in the literature. men less frequently appear for consultation with their problems at a *See pages h8-5b. 39 college counseling center and when they do appear they are more apt to discuss problems Of an educational and vocational variety while women more frequently discuss personal and social difficulties.2u’25’26 Male clients were also found to be slightly below female clients on three academic aptitude scales.27 Male seekers of guidance were significantly higher in interest aspiration as measured by the Lee-Thorpe Occupa- tional Interest Inventory.28 A previously cited study29 using the Myers-Briggs Typp Indicator accounted for some differences along the Judgment- Perception continuum between users and non-users of a counsel- ing center. When a detailed examination was made the differences were attributed to variance between male and female clients. The former. who were less Judging in their nature. were more prone to accept the need for receiving counsel. Generally. college women were less reluctant to seek counseling aid. especially of a personal content. When college 21*F-orm, pp. pip.. Vol.32 (December.1953). pp. 209-213. 25Herbert A.Carroll and Helen M.Jones."AdJustment Problems of College Students." School and Society. Vol.59 (l9uu).pp.27o-272. 26Lewis and Robertson. pp. cit. 27Williamson. Longstaff. and Edmunds. pp. cit. 28Matteson. pp. cit. 29Mendelsohn.andKirk. pp. cit. 40 men accepted professional counseling they commonly wanted help with vocational or educational concerns. Very limited informa- tion suggested.a slight superiority in ability on the part Of the females. Women. who were less Judging. appeared to be more amenable to admitting need for psychological services. Likewise. the frequency with which they visited suggested more Of a will- ingness on their part to engage in such interpersonal relationships. Academic Ability and Counseling Pursuit One of the most popular characteristics to be examined whenever differences between groups of individuals are sought is the attribute of intelligence. ability. or aptitude. This. of course. usually refers to academic aptitude if the subJects are college students. Three theoretical camps are evident with respect to the importance of native ability as a determinant in seeking help with problems or decisions. The one group rational- izes that the more intelligently alert individual will recog- nize his difficulty and understand the advisability of receiving aid. Another group argues that readiness for outside assistance is largely dictated by multiple factors of which academic aptitude is one but an insignificant one. and when compared with the total student body those who seek help are but a true representation Of the larger universe with respect to this aspect. There are still others who would hold to a 41 stronger point of view. namely. that an inverse relationship exists between academic aptitude and the motivation for receiving help. Divergent conclusions have-been drawn as to the representa- tiveness of academic ability of students-who have been.counseled. 30 One of the first comprehensive studies to compare users and non-users of college counseling services revealed no signi- ficant differences with respect to aptitude for college work. high school scholarship. measured personality traits. and measured interests between the two groups. Anotherstudy31 conducted at another university showed the Opposite findings. At the latter institution students who went for counseling were not considered to be a representative cross-section of the freshman class asra whole. Based on a scaled score derived from pro-registration classification tests. the more able student appeared for guidance. They were like- wise the equal if not somewhat better than non-counseled students in scholastic achievement. Students who appeared with problems of emotional or social adJustment when separated from students with vocational or educational problems were 30Gwendolen G.Schneidler and Ralph F.Berdie."Representative- ness of College Students Who Receive Counseling Services." ’J5urna; Of Educational Psychology.VOl.33 (l9h2 pp.5h5-551- Binarsep R.Baller."Characteristics of College Students Who Demonstrate Interest in Counseling Services." Journal of Educational Psychology. Vol.35 (l9uu). pp. 302-308. 42 likewise better-than-average in ability but were noticeably inferior on academic achievement. The author thought scholas- tic difficulties were the result or at least the companion Of personal or social problems. The remaining group Of counselees were not separately compared with the larger reference group. Although some of the measuring devices used in the two studies were.similar.-there was still enough variability in the tests used singly to help account for the contradiction. In a limited study32 it was found that based on a college aptitude rating. high school scholarship percentile rank. and college aptitude percentile rank. most Of the 371 students seen by counselors at the University Of Minnesota Testing Bureau were above the fortieth or fiftieth percentile on all three scales. Males were slightly below the females on these ratings. In general. skepticism was raised regarding the commonly-held belief that students of high ability tend to solve their own .problems without aid. although nothing conclusive could be .drawn because of the sample used. Only students from one college within the university were included. and students with academic .difficulties were seen by advisers outside of the counseling bureau. both factors highly important in making for biased results. 32williamson. Longstaff. and Edmunds. _p_. cit. '43 In a psychological clinic33 which concentrated upon emotional and social guidance. the average intellectual status Of its clients was the same as that of the student body in general. However. one marked difference appeared. At the upper extreme of the American Council pp Education Test percen- tiles. l6 per.cent of the subJects fell within the 90-99 percentile range instead of the expected 10 per cent. Per- plexing and unanswered possible reasons were then raised: 1. ."It may be that intellectually gifted college- students are more unstable emotionally than those of less ability." 2.. "It may be that. being very intelligent. they are more likely to recognize their maladJustments and to understand the desirability of seeking professional help.” 3. "It may be that our colleges and universities. geared to meet the needs of typical college students. provide frustratiogg for the superior deviate which he cannot master." The previous researcher noted the peculiarity Of a high percent of counseled students in the.upper percentiles of an academic ability test although on the average they were not .unlike the total student body. Perhaps enough students in the .lower ranges of.the percentiles seek assistance so that the two extremes balance one another. 33Carroll and Jones. pp. cit. 3“Ibid.. p. 271. 44 Along these same lines, Williamson and Bordin Observed that "It is interesting to note that the students who are counseled by the Testing Bureau. contrary to the opinions Of many. are not students of inferior ability. but. if anything. are slightly superior to the general undergraduate population of these two colleges."35 .The two colleges mentioned referred to the General College and the College of Science. Literature and the Arts at the University Of Minnesota. Experience may be a more powerful force than merely intellectual potential alone for a student to benefit from counseling. Williamson and Bordin36 also discovered that both "cooperation" and "adJustment" by the counselee in the counseling process were related to past achievement while ability as measured by an aptitude test was not. When students experiencing educational and vocational problems were isolated from those experiencing social and personal problems there was a greater expectancy of cooperation on the part of the former. One can be easily misled. however. unless he remembers that this particular agency was primarily oriented toward educational 35E. G. Williamson and E.S. Bordin. "A Statistical Evaluation Of Clinical Counseling." Educational and Psychological Measure-= pent. Vol. 1 (1941). p. 125. 351bid.. pp. 117-132. 45 and vocational counseling. In fact it was really this type of counseling that was being evaluated. Also. it might be consid- .ered much easier to become involved in areas of concern that are not nearly as "threatening" to oneself. The discussion whether ability or achievement is a better index as a determinant in seeking counsel is partially resolved when one considers "over-and under-achi evers. " Over and under- achievement was studied by one educator37 who observed the difference in-scholastic-aptitude and scholastic achievement of users and noneusers. Neither group appeared to possess unequal over—woruunderaachievers. The direction of difference in grade point average was higher for the client group but not significantly so. Based on his data. Form38 thought that non-users of the counseling center might be academically as well as socially and emotionally well adJusted. even more so than users. His results showed above average grade point averages were achieved by a larger proportion of non-users. Those found to be lower in academic performance tended to appear for counseling propor- tionately and frequently more. .The student's academic ability. however. was not taken into account. 37McCain. _p, cit. 3grorm. pp, cit.. Vol.32 (December. 1953). p. 211. 46 There seems to be contradictory evidence that the intel- lectual ability which college students exhibit isea disposing factor to seeking counsel. Considering all the studies reviewed some support is marshaled for counseled students to resemble the larger group from whence they come. One study offers the possibility that the very bright will seek help to a greater extent thaniwill their less able counterparts. These students seem to be located in the upper extremities of a percentile ranking. However. because no average-differences were consis- tently proven the assumption was made that a counter-balance was achieved.by a rather substantial number of low ability students who seek help with vocational. educational. and personal difficulties. Educational-Vocational and Personal-Social Counseling Pursuit It is generally conceded that problems are interrelated. Any attempt to categorize a complex situation is difficult. _ The separation of clients used here is inferred to be valid -because of (l) the.distinctions established between the two groups in previous research. (2) the rationale that classifica- tion increases the counselor's understanding and effectiveness. and. (3) the finding39 that students in the general student body 39Paul T. King and Ross W.Matteson."Student Perception of Counseling Center Services.” Peysopfiel and Guldance Joupnal. Vol. 37 (January. 1959). pp. 35 -3 . 47 tended to mentally visualize a counseling service as rendering aid with educational-vocational problems or personal-social problems. but not necessarily both. Gaudet and Kulicku0 were interested in determining if those peOple who came to a vocational guidance center were atypical and suffered from problems not usually found in the population. as a whole. By use of the Minnesota Personality gpplp.they com- pared disabled veterans who requested educational or vocational guidance with the sample used for the establishment of the norms for the Mlnnesota Pepsonality Scale. As another part of the same venture 200 clients accepted for counseling on a private basis who indicated problems of a personal-social nature were pitted against 200 similar clients with concerns about vocational and educational plans. Highly significant differences between the two groups were found in social adJustment. family relations. emotional.adJustment. and economic conservatism.. NO differences were found on the Morale Scale of the Mlnnesota Personality Scale. They concluded that "Individuals who seek vocational and educational guidance have problems Of emotional. social. and qurederick J. Gaudet and William Kulick. "Who Comes to a Vocational Guidance Center?“ gepsoppel and Guidance Jouppal. Vol. 33 (December. l95h). pp. 21 -2 . 48 familial adJustment similar to others composing a normative sample. Persons seeking personal-social guidance are more poorly adJusted socially. emotionally. and in their family relationships than those requesting educational-vocational guidance."41 Since the client marked the form indicating the problem. there might have been some personal contamination. .A vocational- educational presentation may be additionally complicated by an underriding personal problem more so than the dichotomy achieved when the nature of the problem is identified by the client rather than the professional helper. lOne must also not forget that these were disabled veterans outside Of a college setting. In an attempt to measure this very essence of a vocational and educational client being confused by personality problems. Merrill and Heathers)"2 quantitatively assessed counseling center clients "showing some emotional disturbance" with another group Of counseling center clients who did not. Using a 58- item list Of adJectives it was found that 31 Of the items had t-ratios Of at least 2.00 between the contrasting sets. These 41gold” p. 21h. queed M. Merrill and Louise B. Heathers. ”The Use of an AdJective Checklist as a Measure of AdJustment." Journal Of gpppselipg Psychology. Vol. 1 (195“). pp. 137-1u3. 49 two male groups were later compared with 400 male freshmen who composed a control group of non-clients. The abbreviated adJective list sharply separated the clients with problems from the controls at the 1% level of significance and the second set of clients from the controls at the 5% level of significance. Those experiencing personality problems considered themselves not as happy. confident. well-liked. socially oriented. or emotionally balanced persons. It was wisely acknowledged that there was a lot of overlap in personality test scores. In order to more adequately compare personality in the patterns of college students in a related study43 a number of control groups was employed: 618 Minnesota Mggl,normals. 1763 Minnesota psychiatric cases. 100 State University of Iowa freshmen. and 3996 University Of Wisconsin counselees. Those individuals who arrived for help with personal adJustment problems seemed to be less well adJusted on the any; than vocational-educational counselees and controls and vocational- educational counselees were more poorly adJusted than controls. Much information was lacking to adequately comment on this report. The use Of multiple groups from various locales introduces too many outside influences to confidently attribute the differences to the nature of the clients alone. “3W. Grant Dahlstrom andeorothy Drakesmith Craven. "The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory and Stuttering Phenomena in Young Adults."American Psychologist. Vol. 7 (1952). p. 3h1.(Abstract). 50 An attempt to identify the maladJusted college student was made by Kleinmuntzuu who developed a scale drawn from the guy; profiles. excluding the Mf scale. by selecting 43 items which highly discriminated between "adJusted" and "maladJusted" students who appeared at a mental hygiene clinic. The "adJusted" group was selected from 40 male and female college students required to take the guy; for a teachers college but who had not at any.time received psychological treatment from the clinic. The "maladJusted" were voluntary appearers or referrals who remained for three or more interviews. The same items were analyzed from the ppg; records of two new groups at the Carnegie Institute Of Technology. Once again the mean differences on the raw.scores were highly significant between the adJusted and maladJusted students. Clusters Of clinical interpretations which characterize the maladJusted were described. This study is pertinent to the present problem only as it relates to the two succeeding studies. At a western universityusKleinmuntz's items discriminated among students at the time they presented themselves for counseling but not during a routine battery during orientation “uBenJamin Kleinmuntz. "Identification of MaladJusted College Students.” Joupnal of Counselipg Psychology. Vol. 7 (1960). pp. 209- 211. usClyde A. Parker (Letter to the Editor). Journal of Counpeling Zpyppplpgy_. Vol. 8(1961). PD. 88- 89. 51 week prior to school enrollment. Notwithstanding Kleinmuntz's claims. his battery was thus discredited as a practical screening device. #6 quickly replied and maintained the usefulness Kleinmuntz of the instrument for identification of those traits even if they did not assuredly predict in all cases. He supported its predictive power by pointing out that of 126 freshman students who took the so-called "MaladJustment Scale" at time of entrance into school and later appeared for counseling it would have been possible to accurately predict 84 percent who appeared for vocational-academic counseling and 72 percent for calls involving emotional problems. This adJustment-maladjustment indicator did not attempt to separate into the two categories but the two groups were calculated separately; hence. the distinction. In a unique approach devised to test the validity of Berg's Deviation Hypothesis. Grigg and Thorpe took the deviant responses of a sample of normal college students on an adjective check list and checked lhOO entering freshmen at the University of Texas. hypothesizing that "those who become therapy clients 46Ben3amin Kleinmuntz. "Screening: Identification or Prediction?" Journal of Counseling Psychology. Vol.8 (1961). 52 would check more of the rare words and fewer of the common words than would the non-client members of the pOpulation."u7 'A deviant response was interpreted to mean both the absence of a check onea typical adjective and the selection of an atypical adjective..thus a response signifying unusualness. The final tally consisted of 33 commonly selected adjectives and 39 un- commonly selected adjectives as determined by the original sample. By the end of the freshman year. out of the lhOO beginning students 24 had reported for psychiatric help. 37 for personal- adjustment.counseling. 186 for vocational-educational counseling. A randomly selected group of 150 non-seekers were inserted as a control group. The two groups who sought aid with their personal problems exhibited more personality deviations on this response device than did members of.the vocational- educational group and the non-counselee group. A further check revealed the relatedness of the two groups seeking. personal help as well as the relatedness of the control group and the vocational-educational group.48 In another investigation.“9 a sample of people who sought n7Austin E. Grigg and Joseph S.Thorpe."Deviant Responses in College Adjustment Clients: A Test of Berg's Deviation Hypothesis." l9nrnal_9$.92nsnltins_zszchnlnsz. Vol. 2h (1960) p. 92. “31b1d.. pp. 92-9u. ugAlfred B.Heilbrun.Jr.. "Personality Differences Between Adjusted and Maladjusted College Students." Journal of Applied Psychology. Vol.h4 (1960). pp. 3&1-346. 55 help with problems of a personal nature at a university counsel- ing service. another group who sought help with vocational and educational problems. and a control group selected from various undergraduate psychology courses were defined as maladjusted. adjusted counseling group. and adjusted. respectively. Using Gough's Adjective ghggk,gy§§ and the pooled judgment of expert raters the findings showed promising agreement. eSpecially for the men. The adjusted-counseled group resembled the adjusted group and both were significantly different from the maladjusted group. It should be remembered that both the maladjusted and the adjusted-counseled were alike in seeking aid and on being individually tested at the commencement of counseling. thus emphasizing the adjustment-maladjustment analysis. The maladjusted college male was characterized by ". lower need for achievement; less orderly; less likely to seek out friends; more.desirous of being cared for; less dominant in his personal relationships; more likely to feel inferior. timid. and inadequate in relating to others; less able to see something through once it is started; more aggressive; and perhaps less driven heterosexually." The maladjusted college female was characterized by". . . less orderly; less conforming or conventional and more independent; more likely to feel inferior. timid. and inadequate in relating to others; less willing or able to give in a concrete or emotional way to others; and less. 54 able to see something through once it is started." According to the Adjective Check List but not the judges' ratings the maladjusted woman had a greater need to be cared for and a greater need for change.50 Inastudy51 very closely related to the present undertaking. it was hypothesized that the leigoygia Psychological gnventory would serve as a reliable discriminator of potential counselees for a university counseling service and it would even specify patterns of scores differently between those who apply with personal-social problems and those with vocational-educational problems. Three categories of students randomly selected, were found.by analysis of variance technique to be different. Vocationaleeducational clients occupied an intermediate position on the ladder of adjustment between a non-client group and the more poorly adjusted clients with personal-social ~ concerns. This was true for both males and females in general adjustment as measured by profile elevation and adjustment modes as measured by profile shape. When the significant analysis of variance results were further analyzed by t-tests between every possible pair of 5°Ib1d.. pp. 3uu-3u5. 51Leonard D. Goodstein. g§,§;.. "The Use of the California Psychological Inventory in a University Counseling Service." 19323;; 9; Counseling Psychology. Vol. 8 (1961). pp. 1u7-153. 55 sub-scales there was some variation for the sexes. The authors generalized from inspection that these differences rested on the measures of socialization. maturity.-and responsibility or. the measures of intellectual and interest modes. both general classifications of the test used. The Califoynia Psychological Inventoyy elevation and shape varied with the adjustment status of the person. Support was provided for use of the le_in.a university counseling service as (1) an aid in referral of individuals with severe personal-social problems to other agencies; (2) a possible screening device to refer potential cases to the counseling center for assistance; (3) a means of specifying if a particular problem is more likely to be personal and social or vocational and educational in nature}2 An indication of the mounting interest in examining the relationship between personal characteristics of clients and their different problems is epitomized.in a recent publica- tion.‘53 Using factor analyses and profile analyses of client personalities and their measurement on the Califorgia Psycholog- ical Inventoyy. the author summarized the findings and drew 52pm. . p. 152. 53John O. Crites. "The California Psychological Inventory as a Measure of Client Personalities" (Test Beviegs). Journal of Counseling Psychology. Vol. 11 (1964). pp. 299 -3 some interesting descriptions of two types of clients: (1) personal-adjustment (PA) and (2) vocational-educational (VE). and non-clients (NC). Although he was careful to announce that the characterizations were tentative and required additional research verification. composite summaries were nonetheless made. "The PA client closely resembles what might be called thefnebellious Intellectual. He is bright and insightful and resourceful but also discontented and impulsive and withdrawn. He tends to be less well-adjusted than others both personally and socially. He is analytical and intraceptive and questioning. on the one hand. but egoistic and pleasure-seeking and sarcastic. on the other. He places a high value upon individual rights and. liberties. but is demanding and manipulative of others. He has.a.strong need for affection but can neither receive nor give love without embarrassment and self- consciousness. He suffers from conflicting tenden- cies to be autonomous and independent and self- reliant. onithe one hand. and to be conforming and dependent and passive. on the other. He is appre- ciative and idealistic and sympathetic. but by the same token is cynical and hostile and resentful. In short. he is an enigma -- a myriad of contra- dictory attitudes and moods and values. most of which find expression. in one form or another. in the particular kinds psychosocial problems he brings to counseling. "In contrast. the VE client can be characterized as the Cautious Commiter. whose behavior is consistent and predictable and stable. He moves deliberately and tentatively in decision-making and problem-solving, even to the point of indecisiveness. and sometimes prolonged inaction. He has a low tolerance for am- biguity and avoids taking risks as much as possible. He seeks structure in his daily living and planning for the future. and. when he finds it. he is dependent upon it. He seldom questions rules and regulations. although he may unconsciously resent them. He conforms in adjusting to life and its problems by making the expected resnonse. the modal response. He is submissive and compliant before authority. He is conventional and atonotypcd in his thinking. which may also be somewhat confused. and he lacks insight into his motives and those of others. At his best. he is conscientious and industrious and obliging; at his worst. he is anxious and inhibited and slow. It is not surprising. therefore. that he comes for coun- seling when he is under pressure to declare himself vocationally or to achieve educationally. since he lacks the confidence in his ability to cOpe effectively with such problems on his own that is necessary for further vocational and educational develOpment. "Finally. the nonclient has been identified as thegeasonable Adventurer (Heath. 1959). He is free of the autonomy-conformity conflicts of the PA client. which he has resolved through developing a tolerance for different points-of—view while maintaining his own non-dogmatically. and he is able to make decisions effectively and realistically. without the inhibiting doubts and misgivings of the VE client. Moreover. the nonclient is confident and enterprising and resourceful. He is a potential leader who controls and directs the activities of others but who also respects their Opinions and rights. He possesses selfeconfidence and self-respect. and he participates in life Optimistically and wholeheartedly. He assumes personal responsibility for the consequences of his actions and social responsibility for the welfare of others. He i§,the healthy or mature personality. Many counselors would consider him the ideal for their 54 clients who fall short of his equanimity and perspicacity." Notwithstanding the comprehensive descriptions above which lack verification. sufficient studies have been undertaken to document the validity of considering counselees seeking help primarily with educational or/and vocational problems as being characteristically somewhat different from other counselees whose major concerns are of a personal or/and social nature. In addition. one of the other studies showed that counseling 5“;b;d.. pp. act-306. 58 center visitors and non-visitors alike perceived that agency as a place to take their problems if they were educational or vocational and again if they were personal or social. but not both. By the same token. investigators were generally quick to acknowledge that the one area of concern might be signif- icantly.contaminated by difficulties in another area and that caution should be followed when the individual counselee is under scrutiny. Also. the studies reviewed were equally divided on their.findings as to whether students with educational- vocational problems-were representatives of the larger student bodies from which they came. Summary In this chapter a review of research pertinent to the purposes of the study was presented. It contained a.listing and examination of research dealing with college students' pursuit of counseling services and (1) social background. (2) attitudes and values. (3) sex. (h) academic ability. and. (5) educational-vocational versus personal-social difficulties. The review revealed that educators have shown an increasing concern with various characteristics which typify the consumer of counseling services. However. there was found to be a noticeable lack of agreement in the research as to how repre- sentative these characteristics actually were in the students 59 studied when compared with the total population at the college and university level. There were conflicting data supporting the theory that students who use the facilities of an organized counseling.center were a random sample of students in general. Thus. the belief that there was a particular need for additional research into the characteristics-of counselees was reaffirmed. The literature cited also lent some support for the rationale for the research hypotheses proposed in Chapter I as evidenced in the following gleanings. Scme.clues were found in the research data which indicated that students from a higher social status were more receptive to the.intensive therapy received in psychological and psychiatric clinics. while students who sought assistance from college counseling centers in making less severe adjustments of a vocational. educational. personal. or social nature were from lower social ranks. relatively speaking. Personality dynamics were important items studied by investigators when describing counselees and non-counselees. Varied approaches were documented as appropriate for distin- guishing between the two groups. In the critical area of attitudes and values the difficult problem was to unravel them from other personality constructs. The reader will note that there have been very few studies based on identifying basic value concepts and attitudes which in turn give direction 60 to behavior. defined in terms of appearance or non-appearance for counseling assistance. Apparently little research.has been done.in this area other than strictly verbalized attitudes. On the.other hand, studies of self-concept. self-description. and otherwaffective factors suggested that the counselee possessed poorer opinions of himself. was less defensive. less“ judgmental. less orderly. less able to follow a project through to its completion. more tolerant of ambiguity. more anxious. and moreiprone.tc accept help from someone else rather than reach a decision by himself. Some of the data conclusively showed a relationship betweenethe sex of the client and the results obtained as a consequence of the instrumentation involved. Generally speaking. the literature surveyed found more women frequented counseling centers and predominantly to discuss personal and social problems. Male students tended to want help along educational and vocational lines but were more apt to solve their own difficulties. There has been much research on whether academic ability is an influential factor in counseling pursuit. The theory supporting the influence of academic ability has taken varied courses. One direction has supposed that self-determination engaged in problem-solving will be manifested to a greater extent 61 by the student with superior intellect. The counter direction has assumed that the academically-inferior student needed help with his decision-making. Another faction has suggested the brighter student would accept help for the purpose of supporting his decisions and plans. Finally. there were those who accepted the belief that peOple who sought help were similar on scales of academic ability to other students who did not seek help. .Unfortunately. the evidence in the research failed to prove any one of the alternatives to the complete satis- faction of the present investigator. The terminological distinction between personal-social counseled clients and educational-vocational counseled clients was largely supported by the review of studies reported in the preceding section. Although this distinction suggested merely the kind of problem rather than the source. nevertheless. there appeared to be enough essential difference to constitute reliable comparisons. One study even suggested that students in general tend to mentally visualize a counseling center as offering services for one or the other. but not necessarily both. The next chapter will contain the research design and methodology used in the study. A discussion of instrumentation and approach procedures will be included. CHAPTER III RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY The nature of the study necessitated the making of compar- isons on selected characteristics among students counseled for educational-vocational problems. students counseled for personal- » social problems. and students who were never counseled at a university counseling center. The purpose of the present chapter is to describe the procedures and the data-gathering instru- ments used to make such comparisons. Source of the Data The population used for the purposes of the study was 3.216 freshmen who entered Michigan State University in the fall of 1958. The poPulation was reduced to 2.746 01.n36 men and 1,310 women) by excluding the following: (1) all foreign students. (2) allepart-time students carryrmgless than twelve credit hours. (3) all students who had previously attended any cther college or university. and, (h) students whose test data‘ were incomplete or unusable. A comprehensive battery of tests was administered to this papulation at the time of their entrance into college including. among others. (1) a flichigan State Univeygity Biogyaphical Data Sheet. (2) the Inventory 2; Beliefs. Form I; (3) the Differential 62 65 22l22§,L222222£1. and. (4) the lele 2 Qualification Test. The results from these instruments were subsequently keyed to IBM cards. The nature of the research project necessitated the making of comparisons among groups of clients and non-clients on a number of selected characteristics. Consequently. non-client and client groups were obtained by reference to contact cards on file at the Michigan State University Counseling Center. Selection and Definition of the Sample From the restricted population defined in the preceding section. a sample of 316 students were used in the present analysis. The subjects were drawn from a roster of students who participated in a battery of examinations at the beginning of their freshman year in the fall of 1958 and who subsequently registered for their senior year of school. The total "normal” period of four years of college was used to prevent drawing false inferences regarding use of counseling services by students. The sample was classified into three categories according to their use of counseling facilities: (1) educational-vocational- problem-counseled clients. (2) personal-social-problem-counseled clients. and (3) non-clients. Clients were determined by reference to a contact card completed at the conclusion of each interview by one of the 64 trained personnel at the student counseling center. To qualify as a client the student had to meet four or more appointments at the counseling center and his sessions with a counselor or counselors had to be clearly identified as predominantly of an educational-vocational nature or a personal-social nature. In addition. at least two of the appointments had to be met within a two-week period. Every student who visited the center any time during his college experience from September 1958 to June 1962 and who met the definition of a client was included in the sample. Non-clients were the 508 students whose names did not appear in the contact file as having ever requested help from the counseling center. The non-client group was formed by selecting every fourth member from the alphabetical roster of names of students who did not visit the counseling center at any time during their tenure as students. Interview Classification One interview with a counselor may be helpful in the solution to a problem or the attainment of sufficient strength to cope with the situation. But for the purposes intended here. the rather stringent requirement of four sessions was made to es- tablish the fact that the student actually had a concern in the area endorsed by the counselor. At the same time. the exclu- sion of one-. two-. and three-time visitors restricted the 65 total number from which the sample of non-client subjects was drawn and in turn reduced the extent to which one is permitted to extrapolate to the university as a whole. In defense of these choices. it was deemed that the control of "contamination" would make for more realistic identification of counselees with different problems as well as to sharpen the distinction between counselees and people who show no inclination they need or want counsel. Sample Characteristics A final division of the subjects was made on the basis of sex. A tally of the frequency of the groups is shown in Table 3.1. The number of male students classified as non-clients was approximately double the number of female subjects which is diaproportional to the sex distribution in the college popula- tion studied. This observation is congruent with previous findings that women are less reluctant to seek help with their problems. TABLE 3.1 FREQUENCY CLASSIFICATION OF STUDENTS AS EDUCATIONAL- VOCATIONAL CLIENTS. PERSONAL-SOCIAL CLIENTS. AND NON-CLIENTS ACCORDING TO THEIR USE OF THE COUNSELING CENTER DURING THEIR NORMAL FOUR YEARS OF COLLEGE. 1958-1962 Educational-Vocational Personal-Social Non- Sex Clients Clients Clients Totals Male“ #5 #5 79 169 Female 22 pg, 33, 131 8h 109 123 316 66 Measuring Instruments . Instruments were selected to measure in four areas: (1) educational-occupational background. (2) stereotypy. (3) tradi- tional-emergent values. and (4) academic aptitude. Each of these measuring devices is discussed in greater detail. with special attention given to the origin of the instrument. its technical effectiveness. the purpose of its develOpment. and other distinguishing characteristics pertinent to its selection in the current project. Educational-Occupational Index Beginning in the fall term of 1958 the United States Depart- ment of Education sponsored a four-year project to study critical thinking. attitudes. and values in higher education under the leadership of the Michigan State University Evaluation Services.1 A biographical data sheet which contained a twenty-five item survey was administered to all entering freshmen as a part of the study. The data sheet was designed to seek information on the student's background as well as personal facts. It asked for such information as age. marital status. attendance at church. size of high school graduating class. relationship with parents 1Irvin J.Lehmann. Stanley O. Ikenberry. and Paul L. Dressel. C itical Thinkin Attitudes and values in H1 her Educat on (East Lansing. Michigan: Michigan State University. 1959). 67 and family. father's occupation. and parent's education. The purpose of the questionnaire was to secure demographic infor- mation. Estimates of reliability and validity naturally were not attempted. A copy of the data sheet is included in Appendix A. Edupgtional Level 0; Payentg. The father's occupation and the level of education attained by the father and by the mother were used as indicators of the educational-occupational status of the family in the present study. The educational level of the father and the educational level of the mother was each quantified by assigning point values of one through eight. Educational level was classified according to the scale in Figure 3.1. Lpgend: a = attended c = completed 8 x 7 X 6 x value 5 X ' it x 3 x 2 X 1 X ‘ a c a c a c a c Elementary High School College Graduate or School “f Professional School Educational Level Fig. 3.1.--Levels of education attained by the parents of the students in the study and the corresponding value assigned to each level. 68 Occupational Level of Fathers. Data were‘collected about the father's occupation by asking students to "describe in a line or two I . ." what their father did for a living. The occupa- tional descriptions were then classified according to the system developed by North-Hatt of Ohio State University in 19“? and further interpolated by A. 0. Keller of Michigan State Univer- sity with cross-referencing added by Farquhar.2 The prestige ratings of the occupations ranged from a low of 33 given to a "Shoe Shiner" to a high of 96 given to a "U.S. Supreme Court Justice." These scores were attached to the student's father's occupation. If the father's occupation was not given by the student. preferential order was given to (l) the mother's occupation. if any. and (2) the mean rating of all the occupations rated in the study. In nearly 95 per cent of the cases. the father's occupation was listed. Develppment of the Educational-Occupational Index. The quan- tified data of the father's educational level. the mother's educational level. and the father's primary occupation were collapsed to form a single Educational-Occupational Index. The intercorrelations among the three variables combined to form the Ipdex are presented in Table 3.2. 2Williamw. Farquhar. Mopivation Factors Related to Academic Achievement. A final report performed pursuant to a contract with the United States Department of Health. Education. and Welfare. (East gansing. Michigan: Michigan State University. January.l963). TABLE 3.2 INTERCORRELATIONS OF BIOGRAPHICAL VARIABLES OF PARENTS RELATED TO THE EDUCATIONAL-OCCUPATIONAL BACK- GROUND OF STUDENTS Mother' s Father‘s Occupational Biographical variables Educational Level Prestige Rating Father's Occupational , Prestige Rating .390 Father' 3 Educational , - 'Level '““ .547 ,51e The procedure for the construction of the Lpdpg_was based on factor analysis using the prOperty of the first factor con- sidered to be the best discriminator for this technique.3 To accomplish the procedure. scores from each subject were used to compute coefficients by the Pearson product-moment correla- tion method. The results were then factor analyzed and a loading matrix obtained. Correlation coefficients between each of the biographical variables and the first factor were cal- culated. The correlation coefficients are presented in Table 3.3. TABLE 3.3 " CORRELATION COEFFICIENTS OF THE EDUCATIONAL-OCCUPATIONAL VARIABLES OF PARENTS WITH THE FIRST FACTOR DERIVED FROM FACTOR ANALXSIS Biographical variables Correlation Coefficients Mothers' Educational Level .702 Fathers' Occupational Prestige Rating .666 Fathers' Educational Level ,4 .756 3Margaret J. Hagood and Daniel 0. Price. Statistics for Sociologists (New York: Henry Holt and Company. 1952). p. 56. The means and three biographical 70 standard deviations were calculated for the variables and are presented in Table 3Lh. TABLE 3.# MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS OF MOTHERS':EDUCATION. FATHERS' OCCUPATION. AND FATHERS' EDUCATION FOR THE SAMPLE OF THE STUDY Biographical variable Mean Standard Deviation Mothers' Educational Level 4.285 1.516 Eathers' Occupational Prestige ' . Rating 70. 516 8.915 Fathers' Educational Level “.316 1.895 Raw scores were transformed into standard scores. Each of the standard scores was then multiplied by the correlation coefficient of the respective variable with the first factor. The following index score was developed: Index Score = where: X, S?) 0"- = 547,0" ZZG‘=’: -‘— / ) 402%.?» .666éé;az)+ ~756 g) are the raw score. mean. and standard devia- tion. respectively. of mother's educational level ' are the raw score. mean. and standard devia— tion. respectively. of father's occupational prestige rating are the raw score. mean. and standard devia- tion. respectively. of father's educational level With the known values in Table 3.4. it was possible to simplify the Index Score to the following formula. ’7 1 Educational-OccupapIpng Indgx = .h63X + .075! + .399Z - 8.995 where: X = raw score of mother's educational level I ; raw score of father's occupational prestige rating Z - raw score of father's educational level The Educational-Occupational Index formula yields both plus and minus values with a mean of zero. For ease of computation. a constant of five was added to each ng ; score to make all numbers positive. Furthermore. the decimals were removed by multiplying each score by ten. Thus. the scores ran from a low of 3 to a high of 99 in the final range of the EducatIonal- Occupational Index. This first factor index was then calculated for all the members of the sample and was subsequently machine-punched on the respective IBM data cards as a single score to represent level of educational-occupational background.“ Inventory of Beliefs The Inventory p£,BeIiefs. Form I. was developed by the Intercollege Committee on Attitudes. values. and Personal Adjust- ment of the COOperative Study of Evaluation in General Education ”Much of the computational information in this section was extracted from Stanley 0. Ikenberry. "A Multivariate Analysis of the Relationship of Academic Aptitude. Social Background. Attitudes and values to Collegiate Persistence" (un ublished Ph.D. dissertation. Michigan State University. 1960 . pp. 61-66. '72 of the American Council on Education.5 The committee explored the findings of studies on the "authoritarian syndrome" and the implications that these had for general education. Personalities most adaptable to general education were inferred. In order to identify these personalities one hundred twenty items of psuedo-rational generalizations. cliche-like statements. and statements of stereotyped beliefs were develOped. The series of statements became the Ipventory p§,BeIiefs. Students are asked to: strongly agree. agree. disagree. or strongly disagree to the statements presented. All of the statements are judged to be items with.which mature students should disagree. Typical of these items are: "We would be better off if people would talk less and work more.“ "If you want a thing done right. you have to do it yourself." and. "The predictions of economists about the future of business are no better than guesses.” The possible range of scores is from a low of 0 to a high of 120. High scorers are those who do not agree with the generalizations and cliches. The underlying assumption is that the opinions measured by the Ipyentoyy are relatively stable concepts and are indicators of the individual's personality. It purports to indicate degree 5Paul L. Dressel and Lewis B. Mayhew. General EducatIon: Ex- 1orations in Evaluation (Washington. D.C.: American Council on Education. 1955). pp. 208-241. 75 of rigidity by dividing students along an authoritarian -- non-authoritarian continuum. Those who score high on the scale (the non-rigid persons) are thought to be more independent. adaptable. flexible. democratic. and mature. Those who accept a relatively large number of stereotyped statements reveal traits of immaturity. compulsivity. and rigidity. They are characterized as consistently more defensive and resistant in relationships with others. In short. they are more stereotypic in their belief systems.6 The Inventopy has proved to be a reliable and valid instru- 7 Reliability ment for individual or group measurement. coefficients reported in the manual range from .68 to .95 with a median coefficient of .86. The manual also reported evidence of face validity and construct validity.8 Indications of con- current validity are shown in another study wherein the Inventory 2; Beliefs appears to be closely related to Rokeach's Dogmatism Scale.9 Both attempt to measure attitudes of a similar nature: 6Paul L.Dresse1 (ed.). Evaluation in the sic Colle e at MIphigan State University (New York: Harper &Brothers.1956).p.163. 7Paul L. Dressel and Lewis B. Mayhew. Genepal EducatIon: Ex- lorations in Evaluation (Washington. D.C.: American Council on Education. 19%). p. 222. 8CoOperative Study of Evaluation in General Education. Paul L. Dressel. Director. nst ctor's Manual for the nvento o Beliefs (The American Council on Education. Committee on Measure- ment and Evaluation. 1953). Mimeographed. 9Irvin J.Lehmann. Stanley O.Ikenberry. and Paul L.Dressel. Critical Thinki Attitudes and Values in H1 her Education East Lansing. Michigan: Michigan State University. 1959 . p.37. 74 stereotypy in the case of the former instrument and dogmatism by the latter scale. Considerable support for the claim for validity of both measures might be based upon the fact that the two scales were constructed independently to measure related phenomena and are positively correlated one with the other. DIztgyential values Inventory The DifferentIal values Inventopy was developed by Richard Prince while doing a doctoral study at the University of 0 Chicago.1 The construction of his Differential Values Inventory was based upon the "traditional“ and "emergent" value classifi- 11 Getzels12 conven- cations initially specified by Spindler. iently placed these traditional-emergent values in definite categories as illustrated in Figure 3.2. Traditional values Emergent values Puritan morality Relativistic moral attitudes Individualism Conformity Work-success ethic Sociability Future-time orientation Present-time orientation Fig. 3.2.-~Descriptive traits of traditional and emergent values. 10Richard Prince. ”A Study of the Relationship Between Individ- ual values and Administrative Effectiveness in the School Situa- tion" (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation. University of Chicago.l957). 11George Spindler. "Education in a Transforming American Cul- ture.” Harvapd Educational geview. Vol. 25 (Summer. l955).pp.1h5-h6. 12Jacob W. Getzels. ”Changing values Challenge the Schools." School Review. Vol. #5 (Spring. 1957). pp. 92-102. 75, Thus. the Inventopy was intended to discover whether an individual holds to the traditional or the more recent pattern of American emergent values. An individual is thought to have emergent values if he tends to regard more highly the values of morality determined by the group. personal actions governed by consideration of others. achievement harmony. and the satisfaction of present needs. A high score indicates a leaning toward traditional values such as guilt. thrift. and self denial. personal desires and beliefs above the group. necessity and desirability of hard work. and an orientation of sacrifice of present needs for a future reward. An individualis value orientation is determined by his choices from sixty-four pairs of statements. Each pair of statements has an emergent-value item pitted against a tradi- tional-value item. The respondent chooses what he ought to do or feel. Examples of typical statements are shown in Figure 3.3. tem AIternative Statement 8 A Rely on the advice of others in making decisions. B Be independent of others in making decisions. 51 A Feel that it will be good for me later if I endure unpleasant things now. B Feel that whether or not I should be willing to endure unpleasant things now because it will be good for me later is a matter of cpinion. Fig. 3.3--Examples of paired statements from The Differential values Inventory. 76 Each time the subject selects a traditional choice between the two alternatives he receives one point. Subjects who score above 32 are considered traditional in their value patterns and those who score below 32 are considered emergent. The scale yields a total traditional-value score as well as subscores for each of the four traditional values and for each of the four emergent values. The technical support of the QIIferentiaI values Inventory can be summarized in the words of Ikenberry. "Although the evidence for validity and reliability of the DIffepential values Inventoyy is not as extensive as some other measures used in , this study. the inventory appears to have a sound theoretical base with more evidence of validity and reliability than most 1“reported a test-retest reliability value instruments."13 Lehmann of .70 for the traditional-value score and an internal consis- tency reliability coefficient of .75 using the Kuder-Richardson formula. College Qpalification Test The QpIIp ; QpaIIIIcatIop Test actually consists of a series of three ability tests which may be collapsed into a single 13 Stanley O.Ikenberry. "A Multivariate Analysis of the Rela- tionship of Academic Aptitude. Social Background. Attitudes and values to Collegiate Persistence" (un ublished Ph.D. dissertation. Michigan State University. 1960). p. 0. 141rvin J. Lehmann. "Critical Thinking Ability. Attitudes. and values Amo College Students." Iournal 02 Teacher Education. Vol. 13 (19 2). p. 379. 77 total score. The three subtests include verbal ability. numer- ical ability. and general information.15 The Total Score consists of the sum of the scores on the verbal. numerical. and information tests. Because of the greater general predic- tive power of the Total Score it was used in preference to the three separate sub-scores. The instrument was initially developed to serve as a basis for prediction of academic success in college courses. The verbal test consists of 75 vocabulary items which requires the identification of 50 synonyms and 25 antonyms. The numerical test consists of 50 items requiring application of arithmetical. algebraic. and geometrical concepts. It was designed to measure conceptual skill rather than computational or clerical speed. Test "I” of the CollegepflalIfIcgtipn Ippp series has 75 items which measure the student's general information. These items cover a broad range of subject matter areas including scientific .subjects such as the physical. biological. and chemical sciences and social science subjects such as history. economics. geography. and government. Each sub—test is timed although the limits seem to be generous enough to function as real power tests. Estimates of the reliability of the College QpalIIicapion Test. total score. are given in the test manual and include A 15George K. Bennett. pp,gI.. Coll e a1 cat on sets. Manual (New York: The Psychological Corporation. 1957). p. 3. 78 coefficients of .97 for males and .96 for females. These reliability coefficients were determined through the split half method. a comparison of‘differences between scores on the odd\ ‘ and the even items of the test. The validity coefficients are reasonably high with a mean of .55 based on the total score. The College Qualification Iggy correlates .78 with the American Council on Education (ACE) tests and .82 with the School and College Ability Tests (SCAT). both well-recognized scholastic aptitude tests.16 In genera1.the College QualIIication Test is considered to be a valid and effective test for predicting academic aptitude and college success.17 Reliabilities using responses from the samples of the present study were not calculated because the data was recorded in total score form. Statistical Hypotheses The stated hypotheses in Chapter I were the generalized research form and constitute an attempt to predict the relation- ship of selected student characteristics to differential counsel- ing pursuit. For statistical purposes as well as to account 16Ipid.. p. 33. «HA7Oscar Krisen Buros (ed.). The Fifth Mental Me surement Yearbook (New Jersey: The Gryphon Press. 1959). pp. 555-559. 79 for the interrelatedness of factors testing will employ both a null and alternate hypotheses. Null othesis The null hypothesis tests the assumption that all of the groups of students may be considered members of the larger universe from which they were drawn and that there are no differences among the groups in educational-occupational background. stereotypy. traditional-emergent values. sex. and academic aptitude. Statistical-analyses are selected to help determine if the null hypothesis can be rejected. The null hypothesis for the present research is stated as: There are no differences in educational-occupa- tional background. stereotypy. traditional- emergent values. sex. and academic aptitude among groups of students classified by their use of college counseling services and the type of , problem they bring to the counseling relationship. Alternate Hypotheses Extrapolation of the stated purposes and research rationale of the study. and liberal "hunching." lends itself to desig- nating the direction of hypothesis expectancy. For clarifica- tion and for ease of manipulation a symbolical representation was developed. The major null hypothesis. the major alternate hypotheses. plus subsidiary hypotheses attributable to sex differences. are all accounted for in the summary of Table 3.5. 80 TABLE 3.5 SYMBOLICAL REPRESENTATIONS OP’THEzSTATISTICAL HYPOTHESES OF THE STUDY Legend: NC = Non-Client EV = Educational-Vocational Client P8 = Personal-Social Client m = male f = female Characteristics gzpotheses Educational-Occupational ‘ Background (EOB) A.0 : EOBNC = EOBEV = soaps (Mother's education A.i: EOBNCc7'EOBEv = EOBPS ! _. .. Father s education A.2 x EOBNCmf EOBEVmr EOBPSmf ' e Father 8 occupationh, A.3 . EOBPSfprEOBPSm Attitudes (A) B.O : ANC = AEV = APB (Stereotypic beliefs) B.l x ANC >AEV -..—. APS B.2 I ANCmf = AEme = APSmf values (V) 0.0 : V C = VEV = Vps (Traditional--rather than 0.1 : NC 37'VEV = VPS emergent _ _ Sex (8) D.O : SNC = SEV = SP8 (Proportionality of women v.1 g = S S to men) SEVf Psf >" NCm Academic Aptitude (AA) E.O : AANC = AAEV = AAPS (College ability) E.l : AANC 37'AAP833’ AAEV Ee3 8 Mpsf7upsm 81 Statistical Analysis The approach to gathering the data was established from the above descriptions of origin and selection of users and non-users. The numerical data from the tests these subjects took were initially arranged for treatment at the Michigan State University Data Processing Center by the Control Data Corpor- ation 3600 computer system. Much of the data was calculated separately by hand machines as well. The statistical technique appropriate to many problems in education and personnel work wherein several groups and several variables are considered is the multiple discriminant analysis. Technical difficulties encountered with programming precluded its use in the present investigation. Consequently. several measures were considered necessary to test the hypo- theses of the study. The particular statistical models applied to the problem were the analysis of variance. Scheffe's technique, and t-tests with the continuous data. and the chi- square technique with discrete variables. Analysis of Variance Technique It was decided that the major portion of the data would be compared to test the hypothesis which demanded evidence of significant differences amOng groups. The technique for this comparison was the use of analysis of variance employing the 82 18 statistic F. The level of confidence at which a hypothesis could be rejected was set at the .05 level. A simple analysis of variance was used followed by Scheffe's technique to determine exactly which groups were significantly different between means if the analysis of variance yielded a significant F. An obvious limitation of the one-way analysis of variance is the absence of data on possible interactions. Intercorrelations were calculated on responses to the instruments for the total sample of students in the study to prevent overgeneralizing from the results or misinterpreting variables that were related. Assumptions of Analysis of variance. Certain conditions must be met for any statistical test to be apprOpriate. The assumptions of analysis of variance imply that each treatment population is normally distributed. each population has the same variance of scores. the mean of the criterion measures are the same for each treatment population. and that errors associated with any pair of observations are independent. The pOpulations in the present study were assumed to meet 'these requirements. The total freshman class was largely used 18Allen L. Edwards. 85 with sub-samples drawn according to their use or non-use of the counseling center. There was no evidence to suggest these groups were not normally distributed. Besides. Lindquist19 feels that the validity is affected little by violating this assumption. The Bartlett20 test for homogeneity of variance with unequal degrees of freedom was made to insure that each treatment population did not significantly vary from another. No significant differences were found by Bartlett's test among the variances of the groups. . The results are tabled in Appendix B. The null hypotheses stated in the study assumed the similarity of means for the three groups. Students in the non-client group were randomly selected and the two client groups included the total available pOpulation. Thus. the subjects within the groups were mutually independent. Intercorrelations were calculated among the instruments used in the study on the total sample of students to prevent misinterpretation of the variables that were related. Hence. a check on the error components was made. fiche {ft ' 8 Technique A significant F test by the analysis of variance method indicates that at least one significant comparison exists among 19E.F.‘ Lindquist. Design and Analysis of Experiments (Boston: Houghton Mifflin CO.. 1953 . p. 75. 20 Allen L. Edwards. E e ental Desi ' in P8 cholo cal _ Research (New York: Holt. Bine'hart and Winston. 1955). p". .127. 84 the means of the groups. This means that an additional approach is needed to search for the specific significant differences. Such a technique has been developed by Scheffe.21 According to Rays the method has the "advantages of simplicity. applicability to groups of unequal sizes. and suitability for any comparison. This method is also known to be relatively insensitive to 2 departures from normality and homogeneity of variance." Scheffe's test asserts that the means are significantly different if an established interval for each pair does not include zero. >74 “'73 3': V094)“: VWMSQLN'?) where: ad % z are the means being compared 1: = is the number of groups Foc = is the value of the "F" distribution . at the desired level of confidence WMS .- is the "within mean squares" obtained in the analysis of variance and is an estimate of the variance ”71:34“ rn' = are the respective number of obser- 3 vations of the groups being compared Assumptions pf Scheffe's Test. The assumptions for the analysis of variance are also appropriate for Scheffe's test. 21Henry Scheffe. "A Method for Judging all Contrasts in the Analysis of variance.” Biometrics. Vol.#0 (June.l953). pp. 87-10u. 22William L. Hays. Statistics for P3 cholo ists (New York: Holt. Rinehart and Winston. Inc.. 1933). p. 555. 85 The conditions met and discussed previously for the analysis of variance apply here. The Scheffe method is considered to be a very conservative test with respect to the Type I error.23 Thus. it will frequently fail to yield significant results when it really should. For this reason. Scheffe suggests using a ten per cent level of confidence instead of the five per cent level of confidence used in the analysis of variance.24 Chi-Square Technigue Whereas the analysis of variance technique was used to measure central tendency differences of the majority of the variables in the study. there was one component which was com- pared on proportionality. To consider the effect of the sex of the student in relation to pursuit of counseling. the two classifications--male and female--were evaluated to see if they deviated significantly from those expected on the basis of the known prOportion of males to females in the population studied. The apprOpriate model selected for evaluating this kind of 'frequency distribution was the chi-square (7!?) distribution. Essentially. the chi-square distribution compares an observed frequency distribution against a corresponding theoretical or 23B. J. Winer. tatistica inc les E erimenta Desi n (New York: MoGraw-Hill Book Company. Inc.. 19 2 . p. 9. 2“Henry Sheffe. The Analysis 0: variance (New York: John Wiley & Sons. Inc.. 1959). p. 71. 86 expected frequency distribution. A probability is determined and the obtained value of the observed frequencies to the theoretical frequencies are based upon the null hypothesis between the two. Whenever the null hypothesis can be rejected. then one can conclude that the observed variable deviates signif- icantly more than what would be expected by chance. Assumptions of the Chi-Sguape Test. Initially it is assumed in the chi-square that the individual events or measures are independent of each other. This is an important principle which for the present study was considered to have been met. There is no reason to suspect that the response of any one of the subjects in the sample is dependent upon or correlated with the response of any other subject. The chi-square technique was applied in the present study on the frequency distribution of men and women and their use of counseling services. Thus. the assumption was satisfied that chi-square should be used with frequency data. Random sampling or the use of total possible populations was followed and the assumptions in general. namely. a mean of 0 and a variance of 1. underlying the chi-square technique were met. The level of confidence at which any hypothesis would be rejected was set at the .05 level. Summary A sample of 316 students was selected from among 1.h36 men and 1,310 women who entered Michigan State University as new freshmen in the fall of 1958. The sample was then divided into three sub-samples according to their use of counseling services as defined for the purpose of the study as (l) educa- tional-vocational-problem-counseled clients. (2) personal- social-problem-counseled clients. and. (3) non-clients. Pertinent data regarding the subjects were obtained from a larger study on student values and attitudes. and from the files of the Counseling Center. The instruments used in the study were listed and described in some detail with reference to develOpment. rationale. re- liability. and validity. The instruments selected included the Inventopy p§_Be;;ets to measure stereotypy. the Differential value; Inventoyy to measure traditional-emergent values. and the College Qpalification.2ppp to measure academic aptitude. In addition. educational-occupational background was measured by means of an Educational-Opcupational Lpgp;,deve10ped by combining the educational attainment of the parents and the prestige level of the father's primary occupation using a factor analysis formula based on the property of the first factor. 88 The following null and alternate hypotheses were formulated: Major Null gypothesis A.0: There are no differences in educational-occupational backgpounds of users and non- users of college counseling services. Alternate gypothesis A, : Users of counseling services come from lower educational-occupational backgrounds than non-users. . Sub-gypothesis A.2: There are no differences in educational-occupational-background between 23p, and women non-clients. educational-vocational- problem-counseled clients. and personal-social- problem-oounseled clients respectively. Alternate gypothesis A.3: Personal-social-problem- counseled women come from a higher educational- occupational background than personal-social- problem-counseled men. Major Null gypothesis B.O: There are no differences in stereotypy among students who use and students who do not use the services of the counseling center. Altepppte gypothesis B.l: Students who use the coun- seling.center have less stereotypy than non-users. Sub-gypothesis BI : There are no differences in stereotypy between men and women non-clients. educational-vocational-problem-counseled clients,and personal-social-problem-counseled clients respectively. Alternate gypothesis B.3: Educational-vocational- problem-counseled men will possess more stereotypy . than educational-vocational-problem-counseled women. Alternate gypothesis B,4: Personal-social-problem- counseled men will possess more stereotypy than personal-social-problem-counseled‘women. Major Null gypothesis 0.9: There are no differences in traditional values among users and non-users of college counseling services. Alternate gypothesis C.l: Students who use college coun- seling services are less traditional in values than non-users. Sub-gypothesis 0.2: There are no differences in traditional values between men and women non-clients, educational-vocational-problem-counseled clients. and personal-social-problem-counseled clients respectively. Alternate gypothesis 0.3: Educational-vocational- problem-counseled men have more traditional values . than educational-vocational-problem-counseled women. A ternate othesis C #: Personal-social-problem- counseled men have more traditional values than personal-social-problem-counseled.women. 89 Major.Null.gypothesis.D.O: There is no difference in the proportion of men and women who pursue counseling at the counseling center.. Alternate Hypothesis D.l: A greater proportion of women pursue counseling at the counseling center than men. Major Null gypothesis E.O: There are no differences in academic aptitude cf users and non-users of college counseling services. _ Alternate othesis E 1: Users of college counseling services have lower academic aptitude than non-users. Sub-gypothesis E.2: There are no differences in academic aptitude between men and.women non-clients, educationalzyocational-problem-counseled clients. and personalésocial-problem-counseled clients respectively. ‘ Alternate gypothesis 3.2: Personal-social-problem- counseled women will possess greater academic aptitude than personal-social-problem-counseled men. Information was given relative to the gathering and the processing of the data. The statistical treatment of.the data by the analysis of variance technique was used to meet the technical objectives of the present project. Chi-square was used on that part of the data expressed in terms of prOportion frequencies. Whereas this chapter included a discussion of the.methods and procedures used in the study. Chapter IV will contain the analyses and results of the data used in testing the research hypotheses. CHAPTER IV PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF THE DATA The statistical analysis of the data was conducted according to the design as established in Chapter III. The purpose of the present chapter is to report the results and interpret the findings. The report will relate the data to the research hypotheses. As a matter of convenience the hypotheses will be restated in both the null and alternate forms prior to the presentation of the results. Analysis of the Data The interrelationships among the instruments used in the. study for males and females combined were calculatedwto.aid in the interpretation of the results. The absence of information on possible interactions by the use of simple analyses of variance prompted the need for a check against overgeneraliza- tion or misinterpretation of the findings. The intercorrelation matrix of the four variables is shown in Table #.l. 90 91 TABLE 1+.'l CORRELATION COEFFICIENTS AMONG THE FOUR VARIABLES USED IN THE STUDY: THE INVENTORY OF BELIEFS. THE DIFFERENTIAL VALUES INVENTORY. THE COLLEGE QUALIFICATION TEST AND THE ED- UCATIONAL—OCCUPATIOgAL BACKGROUND INDEX n=3 0 aHigh score indicates less stereotypy bHigh score indicates traditional rather than emergent values variables 1 2 3 4 . Inventory of Beliefsa Differential values Inventoryb .05 College Qualification Test .38* .08 e- u: no :4 . Educational-Occupational Index .11 -.22* .02 *Significantly different from zero at the .01 level” It is evident from Table ”.1 that there is a significant but low correlation (r = .38) between the scholastic aptitude measure (College ngligication Test) and the measure of stere- otypy (anentopy of Beliefs). The correlation might be mis- leading unless it is remembered that high scorers on the Inventory pg Beliefs are those individuals who do not agree with the generalizations and stereotypic cliches. Also. a significant low negative relationship (r = -.22) exists between the educational-occupational background (Educational-Occupation- al Index) of individuals and high traditional values (Diffepen- tial values Inventory). All of the other correlations were not significant. 92 The Bartlett1 test for homogeneity of variance for unequal observations was used to test the null hypothesis of equal variances among groups. No significant deviations were found for any of the groups in the study. Thus. it was assumed that the variances of the separate groups were all estimates of the same population variance. an important assumption to be met in any interpretation of the results of an analysis of nvariance. The results of Bartlett's test are reported in Appendix B. In the following sections. the individual hypotheses are restated prior to reporting the results of the data. The means and analyses of variance are presented for each major and alternate hypothesis. The results are shown for the total subjects in each sample group as well as separately for men and women. Comparisons of mean scores obtained by Scheffe's test are reported in each instance where the respective analysis of variance indicates a significant F. Also.t-tests between the sexes are recorded to verify certain sub-hypotheses. Educational-Occupational Backgpound Data For the combined sample of men and women the following hypothesis about educational-occupational background was tested: 1Allen L. Edwards. E er mental esi n in s cholo ical _ Research (New York: Holt. Rinehart and.Winston. 1930). p. 127. 93 Major Null Hypothesis A.0:“ College students who come from high educational-occupational backgrounds will respond no differently than students who come from low educational-occupational backgrounds in their counseling pursuit. Alternate Hypothesis A.1: College students who pursue counseling services at the counseling center will come from lower educational-occupational backgrounds than non-users. The analysis of variance technique was used to determine whether the variability among groups was sufficiently large' enough in comparison with the variability within groups to justify the inference that there were no differences among the three groups. There was not enough variation on the ed- ucational-occupational background index for the F-ratio to be significant. Thus. the null hypothesis is accepted. A summary is made in Table 4.2 of the mean averages and the analyses of variance of the educational-occupational environ- ment indices for the three groups of students. Because the null hypothesis was accepted. it follows that the alternate hypothesis is necessarily rejected. When the sexes were treated separately the following hypothesis about educational-occupational background was tested: 94 mama amm.mm~ ommtsom mam N , ammqmmsnm coaumas spam doe.a ammemam Nam.oam sea m mmmqsmmms smmqamoa causes com» osaqmsm socqaa tea . 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However. the null hypothesis is not rejected for the three groups of female students. The Scheffe test to determine which pair of the means among the groups of combined males and females was particularly signif- icant was performed and the accompanying outcome is presented in Table 4.5. It is apparent from this test that the significant analysis of variance was due to differences between non-clients and personal-social-problem-counseled clients with the non- clients evidencing more stereotypy than the personal-social- problem-counseled clients. 99 TABLE u.5 SCHEFFE'S TEST OF SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCES AMONG MEANS ON THE INVENTORY OF BELIEFS FOR EDUCATIONAL-VOCATIONAL CLIENTS. PERSONAL-SOCIAL CLIENTS. AND NON-CLIENTS (MEN AND WOMEN COMBINED) The difference is significant if the interval does not include zero. Significance is at the .10 level of confidence as recommended by Scheffe. Groups Means Soheffe's Significant _ Interval Difference Educational-Vocational Clients 65.536 4 vs _ 8.133 to -.655 Personal-Social Clients 69.275 Educational-Vocational Clients 65.536 , .. vs _ 6.424 to -2.14 Non-Clients 63.398 Personal-Social Clients 69.275 _ . vs _ 9.828 to +1.926 * NOn-Clients 63.198 When the Scheffe test was performed on the three groups of men students. the significant difference between means was similar to the difference found for the men and women combined. That is. the significant analysis of variance was the result of differences which existed between male non-clients and male students who received counseling for personal-social problems. Men who never sought counseling evidenced more stereotypy than the personal-social-problem-counseled clients. The results of the Scheffe test are shown in Table 4.6. 100 TABLE 4.6 SCHEFFE'S TEST OF SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCES AMONG MEANS ON THE INVENTORY OF BELIEFS FOR EDUCATIONAL-VOCATIONAL CLIENTS, PERSONAL-SOCIAL CLIENTS. AND NON-CLIENTS (MEN ONLY) The difference is significant if the interval does not include zero. Significance is at the .10 level of confidence as recommended by Scheffe. Groups Means Scheffe's 'Significant Interval Difference Educational-VOcational Clients 65.978 vs 9.614 to -3.970 Personal-Social Clients 68.800 Educational-Vocational Clients 65.978 , . vs 7 10.339 to ~1.775 Non-Clients 61.696 Personal-Social Clients 68.800 , vs _ 9.828 to +1.926 * Non-Clients 61.696 When the sexes were treated separately the following hypothesis about stereotypy was tested: Sub-Hypothesis B.2: There are no differences in stereotypy between men and women non-clients, educa- tional-vocational-problem-counseled clients. and . personal-social-problem-counseled clients respectively. Alternate Hypothesis B.3: Educational-vocational- problem-counseled men will possess more stereotypy , than educational-vocational-problem-counseled.women. Alternate Hypothesis B.4: Personal-social-problem- counseled men.will possess more stereotypy than personal-socia1-problem-counseled wgmen. 101 On the Inventory p§,Be1iefs. sub-hypothesis A.2 is accepted for the two groups of clients but is rejected for non-clients. The summary in Table 4.7 shows the results of the t-test for men and women in all three groups. The male non-clients scored significantly lower (more stereotypy) than female non-clients. It was concluded that college men who stay away from the counseling center exhibit more stereotypic beliefs than college women who likewise do not use counseling services. Both alternate hypotheses B.3 and B.4 are rejected because of the previous acceptance of the null hypothesis (3.2). TABLE 427 COMPARISONS BY t-TEST ON THE INVENTORY OF BELIEFS BETWEEN MALE AND FEMALE EDUCATIONAL-VOCATIONAL CLIENTS (EV). PERSONAL-SOCIAL CLIENTS (PS). AND NON-CLIENTS (NC) RESPECTIVELY Clients N Male " 11— N Female 57- df t Ev 45 65.978 14.695 39 65.026 14.128 82 .302 PS 45 68.800 16.355 64 69.609 14.014 107 .269 NC 79 61.696 14.215 44 66.455 9.699 121 2.177* *Significant at the .05 level 102 Tradi ti onal-Emergent .. Value 8 Data For the combined sample of men and women the following hypothesis about traditional versus emergent values was tested: Major Null Hypothesis C.0: College stugents whose values are outer-directed" as revealed by descrip- tions of sociability. conformity. relativism. and a present-time orientation (emergent values) can not be differentiated in their counseling pursuit from "inner-directed" students asserted to have values of Puritan morality. individualism. work-success ethic. and future-time orientation (traditional values). Alternate othesis C'l: Students who use the coun- seling center will have values more "outer-directed" as characterized by sociability. conformity. relativism, and a present-time orientation (emergent values) than non-users whose values will be more "inner-directed" as characterized by Puritan morality. individualism. work-success ethic. and a future-time orientation (traditional values). The null hypothesis is accepted. It was concluded that there is no difference in the traditional or the emergent values among users and non-users of the counseling center. A summary of the simple analyses of variance is shown in Table 4.8. When the sexes were treated separately the following hypothesis about traditional values was tested: Sub-Hypothesis 0.2: There are no differences in tradi- tional values between men and women non-clients. educa- tional-vocational-problem-counseled clients. and personal- social-problem-counseled clients reSpectively. Alternate Hypothesis C.3: Educational-vocational-problem- counseled men have more traditional values than educational- vocational-problem-counseled women. 103 mqua ONo.Ns mamumm mam N osa.omoma Hmousma spcm - manna mso.ms stnme sea N NNsHNNac NemuwNa masses mom. saunas Nmawms sea N samusmms mmm.mm can: owamb m Done m $096 w zone m scam m zone a caste: scczucm Basses accepom snaps: sccspcm . soapsdhsp soapsans> Scapsans> ms at mm command» no new Hes< Asamnzv mNmuem Lasauzv Nmmdmm “moanzv Hso.mm Aimee: dunno AmNauzv wooden amoauzv “madam; asNuzv SNOHRm spam assuzv NNsuNm Astana scenes “amaze Naeqnm senses aasuzv oamusm Amsuzv msauem Annual aamwsm can: nuseaao IlmmmmAamIamammmzlulmmmmaamnwmmmmwecc> Rom): :soz : -Iassomhom .IHNfl0apdddum (monoom use: UZHAmmZDoo ho BHDmmDm MHmmB 924 HMOBZWbZH mmsnd> QdHBzmmmmmHQ Hm QmmDmdmz md mBzmQDBm momqqou mo mmoud> BZfiUflNSMIAdZOHBHQdMB mme mo moz¢Hm<> mo mmmfiq¢z¢ 02¢ mmmoom 24m: mo NMdzsz we: mqmda 104 Alternate Hypothesis C.4: Personal-social-problem- counseled men have more traditional values than personal- social-problem-counseled women. The sub-hypothesis is accepted. Because of this acceptance, the alternate hypotheses are rejected. The results of the t-tests are reported in Table 4.9. These findings would seem to indi- cate that, other things being equal, the acceptance of either traditional or emergent values did not affect the student in his counseling pursuit. TABLE 4.9 COMPARISONS BY't-TEST ON THE DIFFERENTIAL VALUES INVENTORY BETWEEN MALE AND FEMALE EDUCATIONAL-VOCATIONAL CLIENTS (EV). PERSONAL-SOCIAL CLIENTS (PS). AND NON-CLIENTS (NC) RESPECTIVELY Clients Male Female N 2 (7' N 2 (7‘ df t Ev 45 34.311 6.918 39 33.692 6.441 82 .424 PS 45 36.178 6.753 64 34.906 6.902 107 .959 NC 79 34.810 7.000 44 32.727 7.384 121 .764 Sex Data The following hypothesis about the prOportion of men and women who use college counseling facilities was tested: 0 e s D 0: There is no difference in the prOpor on o ma e an male students who pursue counseling at the counseling center. Alternate Hypothesis D.l: A greater proportion of female students will use the services at the counsel- ing center than will male students. III: ileu- llli ll 105 Because these hypotheses call for classification. a chi- square for prOportions was used. It can be seen from Table 4.10 that a significant difference did occur. It could be inferred. then, that men and women are unequally attracted to use the services of the counseling center with a larger TABLE 4.10 PROPORTION OF MALE AND FEMALE COLLEGE STUDENTS WHO PURSUE COUNSELING AT THE COUNSELING CENTER k Students Number Proportion Z Male emale Both Male Female Both Clients 90 103 193 .5325 .7007 .6108 ’ 3 3.9051* Non-Clients 22 44 123 .4625 .2223 .3892 Both 169 147 316 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 *Significant at the .01 level proportion of women considered clients. Thus. the null hypothesis is rejected and the attendant alternate hypothesis is accepted. In the total population on which the study was based the prOportion of men and women was found to be .5229 and .4771 respectively. Thus. the women in the sample used for the study were significantly disproportionately higher in their representation in the pursuit of counseling. Academic Aptitude Data For the combined sample of men and women the following hypothesis about academic aptitude was tested: 106 Major Null gypothesis E.O: There are no differences in the general academic aptitude of students identified as users and non-users of college counseling facilities. Alternate othesis E 1: Students identified as non- users of college counseling facilities possess higher general academic aptitude than persOnal-social-problem- counseled clients who in turn possess higher general academic aptitude than educational-vocational-problem- counseled clients. The null hypothesis is rejected at the .05 level of con- fidence. The results of the analysis of variance may be found in Table #.11. Once again the Scheffe technique was applied to determine where the significant differences among means indicated by the analysis of variance might lie. The findings are shown in Table h.12. As before. it was found that a significant difference existed between personal-social-problem-counseled clients and non-clients. However. the difference was found to point in the Opposite direction from that predicted in the alternate hypothesis for these two groups of students. It may be assumed that as far as academic aptitude is concerned, the non-client possesses less than students who use counseling services for aid with personal-social concerns. 107 amped no. on» pa psccdcssmsme *mmfium memqmme eases ase.oaa eamdm owe.mme Noe.mmmm [Mam N mamqefiweHMI emmwmwne spam omeqamms sea m fineHNeNNOs mamqmssm causes Hmeemmea to“ m eamqflemmo« mmdwommm can: osHm> m so 0 n so u w 50 0 m sono m #090 Mom m gasps: sweepem cased: eccepcm gasps: seczpcm soapmanab soapeanmb soapeanm> as mm cone Heb mo mom Head «camuzq mmmmmmaldwmmuze mme.mmmii «mosuze msfi.e a «emuzqwmmwamfi spawn: haefiuzv mam.ems ANN.HNH Aeeuzv mamqfinfi Ammmzv maflimmfl causes Ammfinzv mmH.NmH Ammwzv osmimma Amsuzv «amqmma Amswzv wansma mad: “men: meccaao mpnoaao Heficcm upsodao Hescapece> Nomi: cacao nsoz Iamsomnem Iaesoapwoscm namomm_¢wmfl ozHAmmZDoo mo BHDWMDQ mHmma mad Emma ZOHE<0HmHA mo mmmMA -de (log 81.?) i cl? a," 7(2 = (2.3026) (Diff.) 5.. 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MN: mosoHHouooz NHom.eoH nam:.m em:.ae~ swm.mQAHH «ammo. es noeoHHo HeHoom . lassomnom meoa.HOH msmm.m mem.mHm mme.Homo «ammo. as nssoHHo HeeoHueoo> -HesoHueosea am me. flag «a stm onvnceV Nam moH man «an H nildmmaail hampoenenm doSGHpGOOIIm xHszmmd 132 mmno. Naea.mam .- ,;. mmm.emma mmmmo. be ewmm.HmH moab.H ooowee ooeemmmm wmmHo. MN: moeeHHoieoz oesm.ma came.H moe.me mmm.eoom mammo. es nceoHHo HeHoom , lassomacm bmHm.ma meme.H mmm.ae eaa.moH~ «ammo. a: nosoHHo HeooHpeoo> -HeeoHoeosem . be. .43. g «x “Nan moHvauev mam on :wam «an H 2.5 mosam>.uncmaosmuacsoHpHosaa anew. Smnonemm eeonHmomH memwo. nHm , ..... emmm.mom NNHe.H mmmem sen.mm~e «Hmoo. mmw mucoHHousoz oomn.omH comb.H Nuance bam.Hmom mmmoo. moH mucoHHo HeHoom Iaesomaem osma.emH omee.H meshes eem.omem eomHo. mm neeoHHo HmeoHee6o> -HdsoHoeosem mo _Iwm Nmmmmmmw Na Amen onaaaev Nam on man «as m: ..._dmomo3 one sexy mosaob psowHeEMIHmsoHpHosna 155 oeHa.mmm . 1 oom.eHmeHN memmo. mHm emmH.Nmm mmea.m Hmmwomm wawnwmom MHmoo. mmm nonoHHouSoz ommm.mHm mHmm.N sam.Emm mam.mmHom mmmoo. mOH upcoHHo HeHoom . lassomnom AAHN.H emHm.mmm moom.m www.meb o:a.emmmm eomHo. mm npsoHHo HesoHpeoo> . -HesoHoeosea ue Iww .ummummmm ma Hmsm moHVAaeV mam moH man «as .4: finesdwosm no: “ oeSpHpae oHSooeo< omem.He~ .HmH.~Nee memes. eeH ; mummqmwu eemst mmmwsm masteenm wmmMO. .nm: mesoHHouooz oeHa.m0H omae.H mmm.ae emH.Hoom ammHo. no npsoHHo HeHoom Iaesomaom NHHm. moms.He muHe.H emeeHe mee.msmH Hmemo. mm npeoHHo HnsoHoeoo> queoHpeosem raw 1mm Huouuueo ma Amen moHVHaev Nam on ,mam «an H , xuummflw. mosHe> psownoswuassoHpHomna do: 0 I: m 134 swam.oHe www.memmoH mambo. esH Humo.HNH aeHm.N Nomwmme eme.omom~ wmnmo. aw: nssoHHoue62 meHN.NmH mmom.m ebm.owa mmm.meHme ammHo. no mesoHHo HeHoom . landownem seem. emoo.soH mmHm.N mquwme eem.moomm Hmbmo. mm neeoHHo HeeoHpeoos . . :HeeoHpeosem mm. 1mm _ Hmmmmmnm ma Amam moHaHaev mam on mam. «as H Janna.) evapHpad OHsOusod mmma.mee mmmnmemmOH emmmo. eeH eHwe.NH~ Annemanm emswmmm mew.HnWHs mmmHo. mm: moooHHousoz moa~.omH aoeo.m mbmanm bmm.mmHoe mammo. e: neeoHHo HeHoom . :Hesomnem esHe.H emoe.mNH eHma.m moo.moe mma.~moem mammo. es escoHHo HesoHpeoos , H53 38.3 as 1mm , Nmmmmmmm Na Hmam moHaHaea «an on Nam «an A: ooze oeoch 4 oHSoeeod eoseHosoouum x ozmmmd BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY Adorno, T. 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HICHI RN STRTE xiii/lulu! mum/umiii/121mm?! BRRRIES III 1W! 31293104646785