IlllHHIIHIlllllllllllllHHHIUI”Ill!Hllllllllllllllllll

31293 10465 8814

THESIS

   
 
 

LIBRARY ‘
Midngm Sou:

University ,

This is to certify that the

thesis entitled

RACIAL BIAS OF TEACHERS AND COUNSELORS IN THE
ASSIGNMENT OF INCOMING SEVENTH GRADERS TO ABILITY
GROUPS WITHIN A DESEGREGATED SCHOOL DISTRICT

presented by

Cassandra Anae Simmons

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for

 

 

 

h . Counselin
P D degree in g
(2' .
m @‘M6
1 “ma/w
*T / '
Major professor

Date 1119/79

0-7639

  

1 JUL“

1 APR 2 @999
1

 

OVERDUE FINES:

25¢ per day per item

RETURNIIS LIBRARY MATERIALS:

Place in book return to remove
charge from circulation records

 

 

 

RACIAL BIAS OF TEACHERS AND COUNSELORS IN THE
ASSIGNMENT OF INCOMING SEVENTH GRADERS TO
ABILITY GROUPS WITHIN A DESEGREGATED
SCHOOL DISTRICT

By

Cassandra Anae Simmons

A DISSERTATION

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of Counseling, Personnel Services
and Educational Psychology

1979

ABSTRACT

RACIAL BIAS OF TEACHERS AND COUNSELORS IN THE
ASSIGNMENT OF INCOMING SEVENTH GRADERS TO
ABILITY GROUPS WITHIN A DESEGREGATED
SCHOOL DISTRICT

By

Cassandra Anae Simmons

The purpose of this study was to investigate if
whether academic placement decisions made by sixth grade
teachers and seventh grade counselors in a desegregated
school district are influenced by the race of the student.
This study also sought to determine the importance of
factors considered in making the academic placement decisions
of students and the level of confidence in the placement
decisions made.

A review of the literature provided the foundation
for this investigation that teachers and counselors who
make educational placement decisions are not immune to the
racial bias that exists in the broader society, moreover,
academic placement decisions are undergirded by the assump-
tion that the ability and potential of students is related
to their race, sex or socioeconomic status.

The existence of differential academic decision

making as it relates to the race of the student was tested.

Cassandra Anae Simmons

The instruments used in this study were four vignettes
depicting hypothetical male sixth grade students. The
vignettes were varied only by the race of the student for a
total of eight cases. In addition, Placement and Rating
Scales, Level of Confidence Scales, an Attitude Question-
naire, Personal Data Sheet, and Counselor-Teacher Question-
naire forms were administered.

This study was conducted in a desegregated school
district in Western Michigan. The subjects in this study
were 12 junior high school counselors and 18 sixth grade
teachers who were responsible for making academic placement
recommendations for sixth grade students in seventh grade
language arts and mathematics courses required in the school
system. These subjects were randomly selected from the total
pOpulation of junior high school counselors and sixth grade
teachers in the school district.

The four vignettes, varied only by the race of the
students, were randomly assigned to the 30 subjects. Each
of the subjects received a total of four vignettes depicting
sixth grade male students (ten Black and two White). They
were instructed to place each of the four students in one
of two levels of language arts and one of three levels of
mathematic courses. There were noteworthy variations in
the required course areas as each course presupposes differ-
ent levels of student skills. The respondents then weighted
the importance of six factors considered in making the

academic placement decision and further, indicated their level

Cassandra Anae Simmons

of confidence in the decision made. Finally, the subjects
in the study completed questionnaire and background informa-
tion forms which were developed to obtain personal back-
ground information, attitudes toward desegregation, and
race related issues. The chi-square analyses was used to
test the hypotheses to determine if academic assignments
were made resulting in significantly different frequencies
related to the race of the student. The .05 level of signi-
fiance was established for the purpose of this investigation.

The results of this investigation did not support
the hypotheses that the race of the students affects the
academic placement decisions of sixth grade teachers and
junior high school counselors. The students' race did not
appear to influence significantly the level of placement in
language arts and mathematic courses as determined by
teachers and counselors. The frequency of academic place-
ment in both language arts and mathematics was comparable
for the students when they were depicted as either Black or
White.

In addition, the race of the student did not affect
the degree of importance assigned to the six factors (I.Q.
Test Scores, Standardized Achievement Test Scores, Student
Motivation, Teacher Perception and Student Performance
Evaluation, Student Background Information, and Parental
Recommendation) which were considered in making the language

arts and mathematics placement recommendations. The null

Cassandra Anae Simmons

null hypothesis was not rejected, however, Factor 4, Teacher
Perception and Student Performance Evaluation was signifi-
cant at the .05 level for one of the cases (Timothy) when
portrayed as a White student in both language arts and mathe-
matic placement decisions. Finally, the reported level of
confidence in the placement decisions made by the teachers

and counselors did not appear to vary based on the race of

the student.

DEDICATION

To my mother, Margaret L. Latham, for her love,

support and understanding.

To my nine year old son, David, who remained a
constant remainder of the practical realities in life

throughout graduate school.

ii

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I would like to thank Dr. Norman Stewart, chair-
person of my guidance committee, for his continued support
and encouragement throughout my graduate program. Dr. Larry
Lezotte, an intense scholar who unselfishly gave of his time
in the development of the instruments and design and was
an invaluable source of inspiration.

Dr. Thomas Gunnings who sparked my interest in
Counseling and Guidance and encouraged me to persue a career
in the field of Urban Counseling. To Dr. Robert Green, I
am extremely thankful for his continued interest and support
in my academic career since my SOphomore year in college.
His numerous contributions in the field of Education and
School Desegregation provided the basis for this study.

I am thankful for his friendship, and for the educational
experiences we have shared over the years. His capacity

to conceptualize problems and set forth sound and equitable
solutions is unsurpassed. This study would not have been
possible without Dr. Green's assistance.

I would also like to thank Roberta Grange and Carol

Crawford who spent many hours typing and editing this study.

iii

It was a continued struggle to produce written material at
a pace commensurate with their excellent secretarial skills.
An additional note of appreciation for Mrs. Grange's
friendship over the years.

Also I thank my talented friends who have achieved
recognition in their respective fields, for their input and
assistance in the completion of this study. To Dr. Karen
Maroda, Jill Hirt, Nelvia Brady, and Brenda White, and Dr.
Martha Warfield, my sincere appreciation for your help and
encouragement.

A special thanks to my sister Barbara, my brother
Gerald, my grandfather Mr. Elston and my uncles, aunts and

cousins for their love, support, and encouragement.

iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chapter
I. THE PROBLEM. .

Introduction. . . . . .
Background Statement . . .
Purpose of the Study . . . .
Need for Study . .

Theory: The Nature of Bias.
Hypotheses . .
Definition of Terms

Overview .

II. SUPPORTIVE RESEARCH . . . . . . .

Introduction. . . . . . . . .
Ability Grouping . . . . . . . .
Teacher Expectations . . . . .
Counselor Attitudes and Bias . .
Summary . . . . . . . . . .

III. DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY . . . .

The Setting . .
Definition of the Research Population
The Teacher/Counselor Role in Academic
Selection . . . . . . .

Instruments
Experimental Procedures
Design and Analysis . . . .

‘( Summary . . . . . . . . .

IV. ANALYSIS AND RESULTS.

Introduction. . . .
Academic Placement Decisions
Summary of Individual Placement Decisions

Page

vii

Chapter Page
Tests of Hypotheses . . . . . . . . . 94

Summary of Hypothesis . . . . . . 115
Background Characteristics of the
Respondents . . . . . . . . . . . 116
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
V. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . . 121
Overview of the Study . . . . . . . . 121
Results . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Discussion . . . 124
Limitations of the Study with Implications
of the Findings. . . . . . . . 132
Implications for Counselors . . . . . . 137
Implications for Future Research. . . . . 139
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
APPENDICES
Appendix
A. Vignettes . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
B. Criteria for Determining Placement of Students
by Sixth and Seventh Grade Counselors . . . 150
C. Attitude Questionnaire. . . . . . . . . 152
D. Personal Data Sheet. . . . . . . . . . 154
LIST OF REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . 157

vi

Table
3.1.

LIST OF TABLES

Page

District-Wide Racial Ethnic Census Data of
Student Enrollment During 1970-79 . . . . 63

Enrollment in Upper-Elementary Buildings K,
4, 5, 6, 1970-71 through 1978-79 . . . . 64

District-Wide Black Enrollment of Seventh Grade
Courses in the Junior High Schools for
1978-79. . . . . .. . . . . . . . 66

Demographic Data: Breakdown for Teachers and
Counselors. . . . . . . . . . . . 68

Schematic DiSplay of Randomly Assigned Vignettes
for the Academic Placement Decisions of

Students by Counselors and Teachers . . . 81
Academic Placement Decisions for Matthew . . 87
Academic Placement Decisions for Michael . . 88
Academic Placement Decisions for Robert. . . 90
Academic Placement Decisions for Timothy . . 92
Decision 1, Language Arts Placement Decision . 95

Decision II, Level of Mathematics Placement
Decision . . . . . . . . . . . . 96

The Importance of I.Q. Test Results in the
Language Arts Placement Decision . . . . 100

The Importance of Standardized Achievement Test
Scores in the Language Arts Placement
Decision . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

The Importance of Student Motivation in the
Language Arts Placement Decision . . . . 102

vii

Table Page

4.10. The Importance of Teacher Perception and
Student Performance Evaluation in the
Language Arts Placement Division . . . . 103

4.11. The Importance of Student Background Infor-
mation in the Language Arts Placement
Decision . . . . . . . . . . . . 104

4.12. The Importance of Parental Recommendation in
the Language Arts Placement Decision. . . 105

4.13. The Importance of I.Q. Test Results in the
Mathematics Level Placement Decisions . . 106

4.14. The Importance of Standardized Achievement
Test Scores in the Mathematics Level
Placement Decisions . . . . . . . . 107

4.15. The Importance of Student Motivation in the
Mathematics Level Placement Decision. . . 108

4.16. The Importance of Teacher Perception and
Student Performance Evaluation in the
Mathematics Level Placement Decisions . . 109

4.17. The Importance of Student Background Infor-
mation in the Mathematics Level Placement
Decisions. . . . . . . . . . . . 110

4.18. The Importance of Parental Recommendations
in the Mathematics Level Placement
Decisions. . . . . . . . . . . . 111

4.19. Level of Confidence in Language Arts Placement;
Decision I . . . . . . . . . . . 113

4.20. Level of Confidence Mathematics Placement;
Decision II . . . . . . . . . . . 114

4.21. The Percentage of ReSponses to the Attitude
Questionnaire for the Total Sample . . . 118

viii

CHAPTER I

THE PROBLEM

Introduction

 

This study is designed to examine how racial bias in
classroom teachers and counselors affects the placement de-
cisions these individuals make in grouping students by
ability in educational programs. It is the contention of
this researcher, and others who are examining the efficacy
of school desegregation programs, that ability grouping, or
educational tracking, leads to the resegregation of students
in academic programs within a district, even though a racial
mix has been achieved within building. Many educators
(Green, Griffore, and Simmons, 1977; and Williams, 1974)
argue that standardized tests, with strong middle-class
biases, are partially to blame for differential placement.
However, there are other important elements in the ability
grouping process, such as the expectations of teachers and
the biased attitudes held by counselors, that affect their
decision making and the consequent placement of students.

In this chapter, the background of the problem will
be presented, as well as the need for and purpose of the
study. The nature of racial bias will be defined and exam-

ined as the theoretical basis for the study. The hypotheses

1

for the study will be presented and some important terms,

as used in the context of this study, will be defined.

Background Statement

 

American society has been fragmented along racial

lines since the first slaves of color were brought here in
1619 (Franklin, 1967). No American institution has escaped
the negative impact of racial bias and injustice. Racial
bias has taken a firm and agonzing hold on all aspects of
American life. Religious institutions and institutions of
employment, housing and education have had their roots firm-
ly entrenched in racial segregation and discrimination.
The most important of all American institutions are school
systems and they have historically reflected racial separa-
tion and distinctions based upon race, as they exist in the
greater society.

School desegregation research strongly documents
the process by which school districts have served to rein-
force stereotypes, negative attitudes, and biases that are
associated with racial distinctions, either real or con-
trived (Green, 1977). The segregation of school districts
both de facto and de jure, in the North and South have re-
sulted in a dual system of education, leading to differen-
tial treatment of American public school children based on
their racial background. Blacks and other minorities have
been the victims of this educational bias and discrimina-

tion.

The historical record categorically demonstrates
that school districts have not moved to voluntarily dese-
gregate their staffs and student bodies (NIE, 1977). In

1954 in Brown v. Board of Education, Topeka, the United

 

States Supreme Court ruling initiated one of the most im-
portant institutional changes of our time. The legal de-
segregation of our nation's schools was mandated "with all
deliberate speed." Twenty-five years of "deliberate speed"
has resulted in some desegregation but also increasing re-
sistance toward educational desegregation in our schools.
Many school districts have used the legal process
to reinforce and maintain segregation along racial lines.

Since Brown v. Board of Education, Topeka, more than 1600

 

school desegregation cases have been before the courts
(Green, 1976). Desegregation litigation has been a costly
battle involving millions of dollars and hours spent by
school boards to maintain systems that are admittedly bi-
ased and unfair to school children.

School administrators, school boards, and educators
have demonstrated little leadership in the establishment of
a unitary, non-racial or non-discriminatory system in this
country; hence the necessity for court involvement in
school desegregation to render decisions and remedies that
are both constitutionally and educationally sound. The
structural underpinnings of school desegregation litigation,
(Brown v. Board of Education, Topeka) was an authoritative

decision that guided later court mandates which have had a

tremendous impact on school systems in this country. The
Brgwn decision overruled the "separate but equal" doctrine,
which had permitted dual school systems to exist in the
South. This landmark decision also extended to students
the equal protection and due process provisions of the
Fourteenth Amendment. It further sought to "eliminate all
vestiges of segregation, both root and branch." Yet an-
other important aspect of Brown held that the courts should
retain jurisdiction of cases until desegregation is
achieved. The determination of whether or not the deci-
sions rendered by the court do, in fact, change the poli-
cies and behaviors of those to whom they are directed is
the ultimate test of the judiciary branch of government as
a policy maker (Nystrand and Staub, 1978).

School desegregation is accomplished by establish-
ing a racial mix of students within the schools based on a
proportional figure derived from the total of majority and
minority group children enrolled in the school district
(Green, 1977). Busing of students either one way or two
way, is used as a legitimate procedure by which the actual
racial mix is accomplished within schools in accordance
with a desegregation plan mandated by the court for the

school district (Swann v. Charlotte—Mecklenburg, 1971).

 

However, many desegregated school districts have become
resegregated through other processes (Green and Cohen,

1979).

Within-school resegregation in desegregated school
districts is a result of the identification, evaluation,
and placement of students in particular educational classes
and programs. Tests used in the classification process have
been ruled to be culturally biased and prejudicial (Larry
P. v. Riles, 1972; Diana v. State board of Education, 1970).
Moreover, the court has upheld plaintiffs' charges that
their misplacement in Special Education carried with it a
stigma that often remains with the students throughout
their educational careers.

Second generation problems, those of resegregation,
have been the basis for additional litigation and legisla-
tion regarding the labeling, classification, and placement
of students. Students are often misplaced and mis-classi-
fied, not only as a result of inappropriate evaluation
instruments and/or procedures, but also because of arbi-
trary and capricious decision making on the part of school
personnel (Zettel and Abeson, 1978).

The problem of educational segregation is not limi-
ted to any geographical section of the United States.
During the pre-Brgwn days, d3 1333 school segregation was

seen as a Southern problem. Brown v. Board of Education,

 

spoke of school segregation in the context of the South.
Recent reports from the Department of Health, Education
and Welfare and the Southern Regional Council indicate
that substantial progress has been made in Southern school

desegregation (Findley and Bryan, 1975). Recently, the

most intensive and active opposition to desegregation has
occurred in Northern urban school districts. William Grant,
a journalist who has written more than 1500 articles on
school desegregation, stated that Michigan was a leading
state in resisting school desegregation (Grant, 1979).
There are more school desegregation cases currently before
the courts in Michigan than in any other state. Further-
more, the North has surpassed the South in active school
desegregation litigation. The subject district, an urban
public school system in midwestern Michigan, is one of se-
veral districts in the state under court-ordered desegrega-
tion (Oliver v. Michigan State Board of Education, 1971).
Considering the status of this district's school desegrega-
tion effort, it is an ideal one in which to assess counselor
and teacher attitudes toward students in educational deci-
sion making, for the following reasons. (a) It is similar
in size and population to several other districts in the
Middle Cities School Association; (b) Desegregation has
been operative for seven years; (c) Counselors and teachers
play an important role in the education placement of stu-
dents, and (d) There are sufficient numbers of Black and
White males at the sixth grade level to provide the back-
ground for the development of teacher attitudes toward stu-

dents by race, if indeed such attitudes have crystallized.

Purpose of the Study

 

The primary purpose of this study is to determine
if counselors and/or teachers, due to their personal sys-
tems of racial bias operating either consciously or subcon-
sciously, will make differential decisions about students
based on the race of the student. Secondly, an attempt
will be made to determine if there are specific factors
which might prompt counselor and teachers to narrow the
range of academic options of Black as, opposed to White,
students. Although there has been an increase in the amount
of school desegregation research in the past decade, very
few research or evaluative studies have been conducted to
determine if racial bias is a factor in counselor and tea-
cher decision making which impacts upon students in desegre—
gating or desegregated school districts.

Therefore, it is felt that the results of this study
will assist in the development of a new counselor training
model in an effort to minimize the possibility of racial
bias as a contaminating factor in the decision making

process.

Need for Study

 

This study was conducted in an urban midwest com-
munity with a population of 85,661, of which 8,500 are
Black persons and 1,580 are Hispanic persons, according to
the 1970 census. The 1970 census further indicates that
the Black population was 10 percent of the total, with 75

percent of the Black pOpulation residing in two census

tracts. In the 1970-71 school year, three elementary
schools located in the section of town where Blacks
resided had Black enrollments of 92.7 percent, 86 percent,
and 47.3 percent. In other parts of the city, nine
schools had less than 10 percent Black students enrolled,
and five other schools had less than two percent Black
students enrolled. The racial imbalance in pupil enroll-
ment and the small numbers of Black teachers and adminis-
trators became a concern of the community resulting in a
petition by some citizens to the school board, requesting
that the board adopt a plan of redistricting students who
would attend the 10th grade in September 1968. The
implementation of this request, according to the petition,
would establish equal representation of ethnic, cultural,
and racial student groups in the two high schools.

In April of 1969, the Michigan Civil Rights
Commission conducted a study based on the knowledge that
minority citizens of the city were faced with problems of
discrimination. The study, which cited the previously
mentioned school imbalance, covered the areas of employ-
ment, education, housing, and law enforcement. The
Commission found that problems did exist in the latter
areas and that there was a willingness by some locally-
elected officials, to do something about the situation.

There was also some community resistance to change.
Education recommendations of the Commission included

desegregating the schools, recruiting and training of

minority teachers, promoting minority teachers and
administrators, and adopting fair disciplinary guide-
lines for the schools. During the late 19605 and early
19705, the community was confronted with racial tension and
disruptions in the schools, and organizations Opposing the
school integration movement were formed to erect barriers
to plans designed to bring about education desegregation.
Appointed by the Board of Education an ad hoc
Racial Balance Committee presented a plan to the Board for
implementing desegregation in the community schools.
Quoting from the report, the principal policy was twofold:
(a) Legal--"in the field of public education a doctrine of
separate but equal has no place . . . separate but equal
facilities are inherently unequal"; (b) Mora1--”to assure
quality education for all children attending the public
schools." The committee recommendations were presented
as preparatory steps to desegregation, and in September
1969 the school board adopted the recommendations. In
December 1970, a separate proposal for racial balance in
the schools was presented and accepted by the board. This
proposal called for boundary changes to balance the
schools racially. One month later a proposal for the
junior high districts was presented. During this time
there was growing interest from the citizens of the city,
both for and against the plans to be implemented. Feelings
against desegregation ran so high that an election was held

in which school board candidates who supported school

10

desegregation were defeated. This clearly reflected the
antidesegregation sentiment from the White community.
The first action of the new board in July of 1971 was to
postpone the racial balance plan for one year at the
junior high and elementary levels. A substitute plan for
the voluntary integration of the elementary and junior
high schools was adopted. However, in August 1971 the
NAACP filed suit against the Board of Education to prevent
the open enrollment policy of the "new" board and to rein-
state a decision for mandatory racial balance.

Later that month, United States District Judge
Noel Fox ruled in favor of the NAACP and ordered that the
schools be desegregated when they opened in September 1971

(Oliver v. Michigan State Board of Education, 1971).

 

That fall, busing began and continued with
relatively few problems. However, efforts by the school
board to appeal the order and reverse a decision made
permanent by Judge Fox in October 1973 were continued.

An appeal to the U. S. Sixth Courth of Appeals in December
1974, ruled two to one to uphold Judge Fox's order and,
despite overwhelming odds, the board sought a U. 8.
Supreme Court review of the Appeals Court decision.

In May 1975, the U. S. Supreme Court refused to hear the
case. The refusal of the U. 8. Supreme Court to hear the
case ended the actions of the defendants to prevent court-
ordered desegregation. In December of 1977, Judge Fox

directed that an evaluation be made by his court-ordered

11

desegreation plan with Robert L. Green, Dean of the
College of Urban Development at Michigan State University,
and Wilbur Cohen, Dean Emeritus of the School of
Education at the University of Michigan, directing the
effort.

The school district currently has a minority
enrollment of 27 percent and is in the seventh year of
the court-ordered desegregation program. Minority
enrollment ranges from 8.3 percent at the school with
the lowest minority representation to 49.3 percent at the
school with the highest minority representation.

This detailed desegregation information is impor-
tant to this study for several reasons. First, it will
provide the reader with a more accurate picture of this
”desegregated" school district for comparative purposes.
Secondly, while the desegregation order refers to racial
imbalance in the schools, current observations suggest
that, while the schools have been desegregated for the
purposes of racial balance, classes within those schools
show a decided imbalance in racial composition (Green and
Cohen, 1979). The factors associated with this imbalance
are of particular concern to this study as it relates to
the function of counselors and teachers in their deci-
sion making capacities.

Brown v. Board of Education, and more than 1600
court cases since 1954 are constant reminders which high-

light the educational institution as a continuing

12

centerstage where racial bias plays a major role in the
education of American school children.

Judge Fox, in an October 1973 decision in the case
regarding the subject district, held that the district:

. was in fact racially segregated, that
defendants had followed a purposeful pattern of
racial discrimination by intention acts of Commis-
sion or omission as regards drawing of attendance
boundaries, site locations school construction
policies, additions of permanent portable class-
rooms and teacher assignment policies, that
policy of assigning most black teachers to
disproportionately black schools was itself
unconstitutional discrimination and that desegre-
gation plan voluntarily adopted by local school
board was constitutionally mandated, its recission
by the board was an act of de jure segregation
(p. 143).

The above legal findings by Judge Noel Fox are aspects

of educational practices that can be found in numerous
school districts throughout the country. Teachers and
counselors have played important roles in’faCilitating?and
reinforcing the biased decisions and practices of school
administrators as described above. Since it is the
contention of this study that racial bias, of a conscious
and unconscious nature, underlies and reinforces the
decisions that counselors and teachers make, it is impor-
tant to more clearly and precisely isolate the role that

they play in determining the educational placement of

school children.

Theory: The Nature of Bias
Basic to any discussion of bias is an understanding

of Allport's (1954) classic work. It is noteworthy that

13

Allport's book, The Nature Of Prejudice, was published 25
years ago, coinciding with the B3232 decision. Although
the concept of prejudice has no consensual meaning,
Allport sought to define prejudice within the context of
interracial contact. The work of Allport illustrates that
ethnic prejudice is based upon faulty and inflexible
generalizations and stereotypes which place a group or
object of prejudice at a particular disadvantage. He
further argues that intergroup contact may serve to rein-
force those previously held stereotypes unless such con-
tact is structured so as to reduce rather than reinforce
those attitudes.

Klineberg (1954) emphasized that prejudicial
feelings or responses toward a person, group, or object
are attitudes often formulated prior to actual experience
with the person(s) or things toward which these attitudes
are held. Krech, Crutchfield and Ballechey (1962) con-
cluded that prejudicial attitudes tend to be stereotypical
in nature, emotionally charged, and difficult to change,
even with reliable information contrary to one's belief.
Amir (1969), like Allport, emphasized that prejudicial
attitudes and beliefs can be strengthened with contact.
He held this to be true especially under circumstances
in which contact between majority and minority group
members takes place when a criterion of equal status is
not met. Rose (1965) asserted that prejudice is an

attitude that categorizes people in terms of negative

14

stereotypes. He further stated that these attitudes are
usually held for the purpose, either conscious or uncon-
scious, of perceived advantage to the person holding the
prejudicial attitude. According to Rose, prejudice is
usually referred to as a negative attitude or bias
toward a racial, religious, or ethnic group.

Karl Marx defined prejudice from an economic
perspective. In his theory of exploitation, Marx held
that prejudice is an attitude propagated and perpetuated
by the exploiting class in an effort to justify the
limitation of resources to the groups that have been
labeled inferior. In the Marxist analysis, discrimina-
tion against groups is practiced for the economic gain of
power elitist groups (Cox, 1948, p. 393).

Although there are several categories of theories
of prejudice to be considered (economic theories,
historical theories, social-cultural theories, and psycho-
logical theories), a common theme emerges as theoreticians
seek to define the dimensions of prejudice. First, the
out-group or person toward whom prejudice is directed is
derrogated by the in-group. Secondly, the basis on which
these attitudes and biases are formulated is interwoven
with the adoption of preconceived societal norms and
social pressures for the purpose of maintaining a belief
in the superiority of the persons or in-group who
commonly share the prejudicial beliefs and to enforce

the subordinate status of the out-group. Allport (1954)

15

states, "Those children who learn the prejudices of our
society are also being taught to gain personal status in
an unrealistic and non-adaptive way . . . (by) comparing
themselves to members of the minority group. . . . The
culture permits and at time encourages them to direct
their feelings of hostility and aggression against
minority groups" (pp..430-434).

Furthermore, prejudice is viewed as a complex
attitude (Ehrlich, 1973; Lewis, 1975). An attitude is
defined as an interrelated set of propositions or a
response tendency about or directed toward an object or
class of objects. The three components around which
attitudes are organized are: (a) cognitive--an organized
set of negative beliefs about a group; (b) affective--
negative feelings about a group; and (c) conative--
negative behavioral intentions toward a group.

Thus, prejudice may also be understood as multi~
faceted negative attitudes toward a group or its indi-
vidual members for the purpose of maintaining the sub-
ordinate status of its particular members.

A strategy toward the reduction of prejudicial
attitudes is the promotion of contact between the groups.
However, Allport's "contact theory" suggests that con-

tact alone is not sufficient to reduce racial prejudice:

It has sometimes been held that merely
by assembling people without regard for race,
color, religion, or national origin, we can
thereby destroy stereotypes and develop friendly
attitudes. This is simply not the case. (p. 261)

16

Allport's basic theory of contact provides: (a) that the
contact situation should be structured in such a way as

to promote equal status for minority and majority group

 

members, (b) the necessity of cooperative interaction
directed toward the achievement of shared or common goals,
and (c) that the presence of strong institutional sanctions
for positive relations is influential in determining the
outcome of interracial contact. According to Allport,
improvement in intergroup relations is unlikely to result
unless these conditions are met.

Conversely, if the existing social climate and
significant reference groups define the contact as being
undesirable within the existing normative structure, then
the contact and resultant attitudes of participants are
likely to develop in an unfavorable direction (Amir, 1969).
Research studies undertaken that have met contact theory
criterion have produced favorable outcomes in many
instances.

Cook's (1969) study was carefully constructed to
meet Allport's criterion for contact in addition to two
other items Cook felt were crucial, based on his review
of literature concerning intergroup relations. The two
additional factors were that:

l. The disliked group members in the contact situa-
tion must have attributes which are contra-
dictory to prevailing stereotyped beliefs,

and

17

2. The contact situation should be structured

such that personal information about the

disliked group members can be revealed so

that others are encouraged to perceive them

as individuals.

Highly prejudiced White college students were
selected to participate in the study. They were exposed
to a Black colleague daily in an experimental situation,
which the students believed to be a part-time job, over
a period of four weeks. White subjects were then retested
to measure attitude change approximately two months after
the experimental situation. In comparison to the control
group, which consisted of other highly prejudiced college
students who were not exposed to any treatment, there were
significant positive changes. Cook, in a 1971 replication
of this study, supported the results of his initial
research.

Rakenson and Preston (1976) conducted a study of
350 teachers in the Houston School System to determine if
prejudice was reduced among faculty after desegregation
of schools had taken place. One hundred eighty teachers
had participated in intensive inservice workshops designed
to facilitate successful school desegregation by empha-
sizing the role of the teacher in the process of school
desegregation and to promote positive interracial attitudes.
Cultural differences, values, attitudes, and life styles

of minority and majority group members were major topics

18

of the program. Pre-and post test measures were taken
during the first and final weeks of the inservice training
program. The findings revealed that the attitudes of White
teachers who participated in the inservice workshops were
significantly more positive than Black participants. In a
follow-up study a questionnaire was administered to 152 of
the 180 workshop participants and 198 randomly selected
teachers who had not experienced inservice training.
Significant differences were found between the two groups
on six of seven scales. The workshop participants were
significantly less prejudiced. They were more likely to
hold favorable attitudes regarding previous contact with
persons of another race, exhibit positive behavior in
hypothetical situations with Blacks and Whites, have posi—
tive attitudes toward integration, and participate in
integrated social functions.

Meer and Freedman (1966) tested the hypothesis
that equal status contact in a predominately upper status
integrated neighborhood would lead to a reduction of
prejudice. The control group consisted of 10 Black home
owners, and the experimental group was composed of 50 White
home owners who were immediate neighbors to the Blacks
selected and 50 White home owners randomly selected who
were dispersed throughout the general residential area.
The conditions of equal status, lacking competiveness and
antagonism, prevailed. A Negro Social Distance Scale was

constructed to measure the degree of acceptance in Negro

19

and White interpersonal relationships. The results
suggested that Whites who had Blacks as immediate neigh-
bors had developed more respect for Blacks and were more
accepting of Blacks as neighbors than those Whites who had
less immediate and more infrequent contact with Blacks.
Further, it was suggested that this condition of respect
and acceptance could lead to more personal interactions
and a reduction in the level of prejudice.

These results indicate the importance of carefully
planning the conditions under which the interracial inter-
action will take place so that the contaCt theory criteria
are met.

The preceeding summary of the racial bias litera-
ture has emphasized several major points related to the
theoretical basis of this study.

1., Contact between different racial groups can

have a direct impact on both group and indi-

vidual racial attitudes.

2. Both racial attitudes and behavior can be
affected, either positively or negatively,

through group or individual contact.

3. Such conditions as equal status, strong
institutional sanctions for positive rela-

tions, cooperative interaction, non-

competitiveness and the ability to work

toward shared goals all relate to the

development of positive racial attitudes.

20

The background, training, and experiences of
individuals, together with societal mores,
shape and direct the racial attitudes and
behaviors of members in a particular racial
group toward members of another racial group.
Finally, prejudicial attitudes can and often do
lead to prejudicial behavior and differential
decision making when the race of a person or

group is a factor.

Therefore, the review of the literature formed on the above

theoretical assumptions clearly indicates that one's total

past experiential background is a factor in determining

both racial attitudes and behavior. More specifically,

teachers and counselors are all a part of the American

system of racial bias and are not immune to its effects.

Hypotheses

 

In carrying out this study, the following hy-

potheses have been tested:

1.

Sixth grade teachers will make differen-
tial placement decisions resulting in the
placement of Black male students in reading
and the placement of White male students in
English, when presented with identical case
study material, varied only by the race of

the student.

21

Sixth grade teachers will make differential
placement decisions resulting in the
placement of Black male students in lower
level mathematics courses, when presented
with identical case study material, varied
only by the race of the student.

Junior high school counselors will make
differential placement decisions about the
case study subjects, resulting in the
placement of Black male students in reading
and White male students in English, when
presented with identical case study
material, varied only by the race of the
student.

Junior high school counselors will make
differential placement decisions about the
case study subjects, resulting in the place—
ment of Black male students in lower level
mathematics courses, when presented with
identical case study material, varied only
by the race of the student.

The level of importance assigned to the cri-
teria in making placement decisions will vary
according to the decision made about the stu-

dents by race, as designated in the vignettes.

22

6. Sixth grade teachers and junior high school
counselors will not differ in their level
of confidence in the placement decisions

made about the students.

Definition of Terms

 

For the purpose of this study, the following terms
are defined as indicated below.

Ancillary Relief -- The academic support system
that serves to enhance the
probability of achieving inte-
gration by attempting to
rectify the educational
consequences of segregation.

Desegregation -- The racial mixing of students
within a school district based
upon a ratio of the minority
and majority population within
the community at large or
students enrolled in the
school district. This racial
mix definition includes
administrators, faculty,
support staff and students.

Differential -- The process of selecting a

Decision Making course of action or alterna-
tives under the influence,
either directly or indirectly,
of factors which will affect
the outcome of the process.
Factors which can bias deci-
sion making are:

1. projection of attitudes
and values

2. identification with out-

side reference groups

dichotomized thinking

cognitive nearsightedness

oversimplified motives

of causation (Katz and

Kohn, 1966)

01-504

23

De facto -- Customs, actions and behaviors
of authorities which resulted
in racial separation in both
public and private educational
systems. De facto school
segregation ex1sted primarily
in Northern, Eastern and
Western states.

De 'ure -- Laws and procedures reinforced
by legal decisions which
mandated and supported racial
separation in both public and
private education. De 'ure
school segregation eiTsted
primarily in Southern and
border states.

Overview
In this chapter, the background of a specific
desegregation problem has been described. As the
theoretical basis for this study, the nature of bias has
been investigated through a review of the racial bias
literature. The need for and purpose of the study has been
defined and the hypotheses to be tested have been presented.
In the discussion to follow it will become evident,
through a review of pertinent literature, how racial bias
can operate to influence and reinforce resegregation of

classrooms through educational ability grouping, teacher

expectations and counselor bias.

CHAPTER II

SUPPORTIVE RESEARCH

Introduction

 

In exploring the literature pertinent to a study
of racial prejudice among counselors and teachers and its
effects on educational ability grouping, it has been appro-
priate to examine the nature of racial bias, the rationale
of its existence, how it manifests itself in majority group
members, and conditions under which it may be reduced or
alleviated. This has been an emphasis in the Opening chap-
ter of this study. The second chapter will be used to
examine historically and philosophically the practice of
ability grouping or educational tracking in the United
States. Closely related to ability grouping are the coun-
selor attitudes and teacher expectations that form the
bases for placing children in differential ability groups.
Literature concerning counselor bias and teacher expecta-
tion will be viewed in the second and third sections of

this chapter.

Ability Grouping

 

"A child miseducated is a child lost." President

John F. Kennedy in a message to Congress, January 11, 1962.

24

25

In the following paragraphs, the historical perspec-
tives, rationale and inherent dangers of miseducation by

ability grouping (or educational tracking) are examined.

Historical Perspective

 

Homogeneous grouping, as defined by the Dictionary

 

of Education, is "the classification of pupils for the pur-

 

pose of forming instructional groups having a relatively high
degree of similarity in regards to certain factors that
effect learning."

The origins of grouping can be traced back as far
as 1867 in St. Louis, Missouri, where talented students
were selected on the basis of achievement, as determined
by teachers, and promoted rapidly through the elementary
grades. In 1891 Cambridge, Massachusetts established abil-
ity grouping whereby the brightest students were expected
to complete grades 4 through 9 in four years as compared to
eight years permitted for completion by slower students
(Goldberg, 1966). Another form of grouping was the Santa
Barbara Concentric Plan which systematically divided each
grade level into A, B and C sections in the early 19003.
Each of the sections was taught the basic concepts for all
subjects, but section A was clearly more advanced than sec-
tion B, and section C was the lowest of the groups in the
subject area. Thus, students were homogeneously grouped

on the basis of ability.

26

Cook (1958) points out that the McGuffey Readers,

 

which were introduced in 1837, were the first graded text-

books to allocate students by reading levels in the one

room rural schools relevant in those days. The basis for

ability grouping was an economic one, allegedly providing

for instructional opportunities for large numbers of pupils

(Ryan 1927). Grouping plans that were used in the mid

18005 through the 19205 may be listed as follows:

1.

A plan providing short units, to facilitate
"skipping”: The St. Louis Plan, 1867.

A plan for providing deliberately for the slower
pupils to repeat work: The Double Tillage Plan,
1894-1903.

A plan providing for extra teacher help--coaching:
The Batavia Plan.

Plans providing ability grouping for enrichment:
The North Denver: 1895: and Baltimore Plans, 1902.
Multiple Track Plans: The Elizabeth, 1887:
Cambridge, 1891: Lemars, Portland, Odeholt, Santa
Barbara, 1900: and "Large School" Plans.

Plans providing loose grouping for purposes of
enrichment: The Pueblo, 1901: Newton, 1904: San
Francisco, 1913: Winetka and Dolton Plans, 1919
(Ryan p. 30).

By the 19205 and throughout the 19305 ability group-

ing gained acceptance among educators and was widely

27

practiced in American school systems (Findley, 1971), how-
ever, experimental studies conducted on homogeneous
grouping at that time
failed to show consistent, statistically or

educationally significant differences between the

achievement of students in homogeneous groups.

Under our present system there are large numbers of

children who are destined to live of failure. We

know them in the schools as the children who are a

little behind physically . . . intellectually

and in the power to do (Rock, 1929, p. 125)-
Rock determined that to make the schools responsive to the
needs of the growing number of immigrants and ethnic Ameri-
cans, whose problems were decidely different, courses of
study should be developed as suited for the average and re-
tarded pupils of the system. He further noted that the
schools were geared basically for the "bright pupils," (a
practice which presented problems to average pupils who
could not advance as rapidly). The author concludes by
stating that ". . . a boy may owe his peculiarity not to

physical immaturity or debility but to racial, regional, or

family characteristics" (P- 139)-

Rationale and Methods for Grouping

In the courses of study suited for average and re-
tarded pupils as defined by Rock, ethnic minority students
comprised the bulk of students allocated to lower ability
groups. A rationale for ability grouping by family charac-
teristics or income was also established. Since education
was based upon the theory of innate differences and, more-

over, that educational theory accepts the belief that

28

individuals differ in numerous ways, then these differences
must be taken into account and educational offerings be ad-
justed to the differences that exist in individual pupils
(Ryan, 1927).

Schools have traditionally used two processes to
group students for instruction: by prior subjective expec-
tations of student ability, and by the use of intelligence
tests. Intelligence testing and ability grouping are two
independent concepts, although they are often used in con-
junction with each other.

The merits of testing, as an educational tool, are
beyond the scope of this study. However, it is important
for the reader to distinguish between the two methods as
they relate to pupil placement.

Standardized testing has lent a patina of legiti-
macy to the practice of classifying and labeling students.
The primary instruments for sorting and classifying students
are IQ tests and ability tests. Nevertheless, it is impor-
tant to understand that the practice of testing in American
schools has been criticized by many scholars. Standardized
instruments have been carefully assessed and have been
found to contain content bias which in turn produces pre-
diction bias (Green, 1975). Green asserts that tests fail
to measure the broad range of experiences that contribute
to all intellectual functions and furthermore are fre-

quently based on middle class values and experiences.

29

In addition, most tests have not been standardized or vali-
dated on a substantial or proportionate racial minority
sample.

Since criticism often accompanies the practice of
standardized testing, many educators are opposed to the se-
paration and classification of students based on test re-
sults. Although Ebel (1974) advocates the use of standard-
ized tests, he does acknowledge that some tests "are imper-
fect and that some are seriously flawed." School systems
place too much emphasis on testing and most educators are
not adequately trained in the interpretation or meaning of
test results. Ebel further states that tests should be de-
signed to be educationally helpful in understanding the
needs of students when properly used and are not construc-
ted to penalize students.

Racial and ethnic minorities, however, have been
the victims of test misuse and abuse. Testing for the pur-
pose of academic sorting and placement has led to rigid
educational tracking of many minority students. Lower
tracks have become permanent placement for disproportionate
numbers of ethnic and racial minority students. Further-
more, the abuse of standardized tests has resulted in
school imposed stigmas and labeling of students since many
are used to differentiate between various levels of abili-
ty and intelligence.

Hambly (1972) has summed up the attitudes of many

who are opposed to the use of standardized testing to

30

determine allegedly superior and inferior abilities and
to separate children based upon assumed ability levels for
educational experiences.

"The poverty implicit in an approach wherein a mea-
surement . . . determines the subsequent parcelling out of
appropriate educational experience drawn from a few alterna-
tives does not do us proud? (p. 126).

Since its inception, ability grouping has contri-
buted to homogeneous classrooms and differentiation of in-
struction. Despite its widespread popularity among many
educators, this onerous practice has not enjoyed consistent
empirical support concerning positive measurable educational
outcomes. The goal of ability grouping is to sort students
based on ability in order to ease the instructional tasks
of the teacher. It is also felt that this educational
method will increase the achievement level of all students.

Research studies conducted on the educational
tracking are numerous. However, a selection of those which
appear to be most closely related to the present study are
reviewed. Hartell (1936) used a counterbalanced design to
investigate the advantages of ability grouping. One-half
of his 1,374 students were homogeneously grouped into three
levels of ability while the other students were assigned to
heterogeneous groups. The homogeneously grouped students
received a differentiated curriculum. However, a regular
curriculum was used for the heterogeneous group. Students

remained in the groups for one-half of the school year and

31

were tested for achievement at the end of the year. During
the following school year the students were regrouped;

those previously grouped homogeneously were heterogeneously
grouped and vice versa for the school year, then admini-
stered an achievement test. An analysis of the achievement
test results indicated there were no significant differences
between the two groups in academic achievement. Earlier
researchers were also unable to support statistically sig-
nificant differences between homogenous groups and hetero-
geneous groups (Jones, McCall, 1926; Worlton, 1926).

Borg (1964) conducted a four year longitudinal
study of 4,000 students to determine the effects of ability
grouping and random assignment in adjacent school systems
in Utah. The research concluded that neither method was
significantly more effective, although ability grouping
slightly favored superior students.

According to Hogan (1974) in the case of Hobson v.
Hansen, Judge Wright declared in his summary:

The track system as used in the district's

public schools is a form of ability grouping in
which students are divided in separate, self-
contained curricula or tracks ranging from "basic"
for the slow student to honors for the gifted. The
aptitude tests used to assign children to the
various tracks are standardized primarily on white
middle class children. Since these tests do not
relate to the (Black and) disadvantaged child,
track assignments based on such tests relegate
(Black and) disadvantaged children to the lower
tracks from which, because of the reduced

curricula . . . as well as continued inappropriate
testing, the chance of escape is remote (p. 120).

32

. rather than being classified according
to their ability to learn, students are in
reality being classified according to their
socio-economic or racial status--or more
precisely--according to environmental and psy-
chological factors which have nothing to do
with innate ability (p. 129).

It is evident that ability grouping both reinforces
and produces more bias and differential education of
children along racial lines. In examining the role of
teacher expectations, as both a result of and a basis for
biased educational grouping, the insidious nature of the

practice will, perhaps, become more obvious.

Teacher Expectations

 

Parents, teachers, and peers are frequently
identified as the "significant others" in influencing stu-
dent behavior. Students' academic performance is related
to the expectations, evaluations, and behavioral opinions
that "significant others" hold of as learners.

Teachers play an important role in the sorting and
labeling processes sanctioned by the school system and
routinely make judgments about the ability of students.
Their reasons for the sorting decisions are varied, as
judgments about student ability are difficult to make with
precision. Teacher expectations, valid and invalid, both
result from and form the basis for much of the classifi-
cation of students.

Green (1977) states that a student's image of

himself can be damaged, not only by formal text material,

33

but also by attitudes of teachers and counselors who

expect little achievement and much aberrant behavior from
him or her. The literature includes many studies of teacher
bias and its relationship to pupil race and social class;
therefore, only selected major studies will be cited in

the context of this study.

Paley, a white teacher, wrote in 1979 of her
experiences in teaching minority children. The author
discussed the differential treatment, quality of teacher-
student interaction, and her expectations of Black stu-
dents in the classroom. She examined and challenged her
own prejudices which were reflected in the classroom and
served to lay the foundations for differential treatment
and expectations of her minority students. She so
poignantly states:

". (I was) so acutely aware of color that I
could see children as individuals only as they came close
to being my color and using my speech. . . ." (p. 137).
Paley sought to understand why she needed a "collective
Black” reference point which she used to identify
characteristics of minority children. Although the book
was only one teacher's analysis of the effects of subtle
racism and prejudicial feelings operating in the class-
room, there is considerable evidence to document these
practices throughout the school systems in America.

In the now classic and controversial Rosenthal

and Jacobson study (1968) of the effects of teacher bias

34

in the classroom, the investigators chose an elementary
school located in a predominantly lower-class neigh-
borhood in San Francisco and selected, at random,
approximately five students in each classroom. All of
the students were administered tests purportedly designed
to predict academic ”blooming." Teachers were then led
to believe that the results of the tests indicated that
the selected students were very likely to "spurt rapidly
ahead." However, unknown to the teachers, the selected
students actually had no more potential for advanced
achievement than did any other student in the school. The
findings of the study were remarkable. The selected stu-
dents did, in fact, make substantial academic gains in
comparison to both a control group and total school
student population. These gains were attributed to teacher
expectations. The authors concluded that teacher expecta-
tions regarding a student's academic performance have a
strong influence on the actual performance of that student.
Rosenthal (1973) in several other research efforts
has demonstrated that teacher attitudes and behavior do
play a major role in either facilitating or inhibiting
the achievement of school children. He found that factors
attributed to social class, past achievement, and race
determine how teachers view students and that teacher
behavior toward students is indeed affected by those

factors. His data suggests that teachers who believe that

35

a particular group of students can learn will elicit from
those children responses consistent with their level of
expectations. Moreover, in subsequent research studies,
the author maintains that teachers do not favor those stu-
dents who violate their expectations. Whether the expec-
tations are negative or positive, once a student's role
has been cast by the teachers, he is expected to play out
the role.

Palardy (1969) in an earlier study, supported the
findings of Rosenthal and others regarding the role played
by teacher expectations in the academic success of stu-
dents. Palardy investigated the long—held assumptions
that girls can learn to read more quickly than boys.
Surveying more than 62 first grade teachers, he found that
there were some who believed boys could learn to read as
quickly as girls. Equating the two groups of teachers in
terms of age, sex, and classroom teaching experience, he
paired the "believers" with the "non-believers,"

i.e., those who did not believe that boys could learn to
read as quickly as girls. Palardy found that boys did
learn to read as rapidly as girls if their teachers
believed they could. When teachers believed girls could
learn faster, girls in their groups indeed achieved signi-
ficantly higher levels than boys in reading achievement

at the end of a one-year period. These studies clearly

suggest that teacher expectations, behavior, and

36

decision making profoundly affect the educational careers
of all school children.

In a study by Miller etflal.(1969), teachers were
asked to predict the future academic succes of four
hypothetical first grade students after reviewing case
history reports. The four students were depicted in
vignettes and matched on I.Q., grades, and classroom
behavior. Teachers were informed that two of the students
were from middle-income familes and two were from low-
income homes. The results of the study indicated that,
although the students were matched on relevant variables,
teachers rated middle-class students higher on ten of the
twelve scales for academic success.

Goodwin and Sanders (1969) attempted to ascertain
the importance of seven variables as predictors of academic
success for first and sixth grade students. Teachers ranked
the socio-economic status of the student as being the most
important predictor of student success. The other factors,
listed by importance as determined by the teachers in the
study, were: I.Q., standardized test scores, age, sex,
anecdotal notes and grade point average. Standardized
test scores were followed by grade point average for the
sixth graders.

The race and socio-economic class of students are
also critical variables in the quality of student-teacher

interaction and teacher reinforcement. Friedman and

37

Friedman (1973) studied the relationship between teacher
reinforcing behavior and student social class. The
researchers found that in 24 fifth and sixth grade class-
rooms middle class children received significantly more
total reinforcement than their lower income classmates.
These findings were consistent with earlier studies which
found a significant relationship between the social status
of a student and teacher reinforcement.

Byers and Byers (1972) videotaped a classroom in
their investigation of interactions between a teacher and
her Black and White students. Their findings suggest that
teacher discrimination is not necessarily a deliberate or
conscious act. In their assessment, they determined that
Black students made eye contact with the teacher as fre-
quently as White children. However, White children
attempted contact at times when the teacher was available
to reciprocate. The authors concluded that less frequent
teacher interaction with Black children could not be
attributed solely to the teacher since there appeared to
be a difference in the perceptions of Black and White
children based on their interpretations of gestures and
their understanding of interaction.

The findings of Byers and Byers are somewhat
different from those of Aspy (1973). His study of
"interchangeable responses” between students and teachers,

a concept adopted from Carl Rodgers, related to empathy

38

training. Aspy operationally defined ”interchangeable
responses" as the teacher's summations of students'
statements which reflect the accuracy of the teacher's
understanding of what the student has said. Teacher
responses were coded and a percentage was computed for
interchangeable statements. It was found that the
standardized achievement scores of 120 third graders were
positively related to teachers' interchangeable response
scores. In a follow-up study, reading teachers who were
trained in making interchangeable responses were more
successful in increasing student reading achievement
scores than were untrained teachers who participated in
the study. The findings are significant to this study for
the following reasons: Byers seemingly attributed the
responsibility for differential responses by teachers to
the Black students' inability to determine the appropri-
ateness of interaction. However, Aspy suggests that the
quality of teacher-student interaction can be determined
by the teacher. Furthermore, his research highlights the
importance of the ability of teachers to make inter-
changeable responses since these responses imply to stu-
dents that teachers are attentive and interested in what
students have to say and that what students say is
important and worthy of teachers' attention. Jackson and
Casco (1974), in their research, directly relevant to the

quality of teacher-student interactions, studied 500

39

classrooms in the southwestern states. The researchers
concluded that there were major disparities in the treat—
ment by teachers of White and minority students. Teachers
gave positive feedback, praise, and encouragement, and
were more accepting and less critical of their White
students as compared to the minority students in the
classroom.

The research of Leacock (1969) supports findings
of racial and social class bias reflected in teacher
attitude. Leacock looked in depth at two low-income
and two middle-income New York City schools. One school
was predominantly Black and one predominalty White at
each income level. Leacock's findings, based on class-
room observation and on the analysis of teacher and stu-
dent interview data, were two-fold. Teachers were found
to have more negative attitudes toward Black children
than White and to favor middle-income children over low-
income children. More specifically, teachers in the low-
income all—Black schools "both reflect and create the
expectation of defeat for the Black students in the
classroom.” In addition, Black students received nega-
tive responses twice as often as positive responses from
their teachers.

The teachers of the fifth and second grades

in the lower-income Negro school, at first
impression did not seem unsupportive of the
children. . . . Both, however, shared a
derogatory attitude toward the children and

their potentialities as groups. The second-
grade teacher denied much of what the children

4O

offered from their own experience. . . . The
fifth-grade teacher . . . continually derogated
and undermined the children's academic contri-
butions. In both classrooms, the children were
constantly receiving the message, "You are not
going to do very much." The researchers were
struck by the fact that standards in the low-
income Negro classrooms were low for both
achievement and behavior Cp. 155).

Rubovitz and Maehr (1973) in their study of teacher-
student interaction found significant racial differences
on six of the eight measures used. Sixty-six teachers,
who each taught a lesson to a small group consisting of
two White and two Black seventh and eighth grade students,
were found to: be less attentive to the Black students,
request fewer responses from them, less frequently
encourage Black students to express ideas, ignore a
greater percentage of Black student responses, praise
White students more frequently, and be more critical of
Black students.

Racial and Social Class Determinants
of Teacher-student Interaction

Dusek (1975) suggests that teachers and students
are continually interacting in the context of the class-
room. He further states that there is considerable
evidence supporting the contention that teachers do treat
groups of students differently. Moreover, this differen-
tial treatment can influence student self concept and
student performance.

Rist (1970), in one of the most signigicant

studies in the field of teacher racial bias, found that

41

teachers do form low expectations which impact on the
achievement level of students. The study is of parti-
cular note since Rist found that teacher expectations were
founded on subjective attributes, impressions, criteria,
and characteristics of students. He further concluded
that the expectation of differential academic ability and
potential formed the basis for the placement of students
in ability groups. Rist found in his study that
kindergarten teachers had effectively sorted their students
into one of three "ability" reading groups within eight
days after school had started. He noted that although the
teachers had several sources of information available for
making decisions about individual students, none of the
available information was related to the actual academic
potential of the incoming kindergarten students. The
researcher further described the composition of the stu-
dent groups. He observed students in reading group one
interacting more frequently with the teacher and with each
other. Furthermore, the students were clean, well-dressed,
and located in close proximity to the teacher. Group two
students were less neat in physical appearance. Their
clothing was not as "nice," they were viewed as being less
verbal, and used more non-standard English as compared to
group one. Group three students had the darkest complex-
ions, shabbiest clothing, interacted less frequently with

the teacher, and almost always responsed in "Black

42

English." Information available to the kindergarten
teachers for putting students into these groups, other
than the visually obvious, was
(the) financial status of certain

families, medical care of the child, presence

or absence of a telephone in the home, as well

as the structure of the family in which the

child lived, i.e., number of siblings, whether

the child lived with both, one or neither of his

natural parents (Rist, 1970, p. 418).
The teachers further revealed that Group 1 consisted of
the "fast learners" while students in the remaining two
groups, "had no idea of what was going on in the class-
room." According to Rist, teachers used objective
criteria to make evaluative academic judgements which
became the basis for differential treatment of the
students. Furthermore, Rist noted that once a student
was placed in a low group, upward mobility was virtually
impossible. Elaborating on this finding, Rist stated
that the expectations of the kindergarten teachers were
fulfilled and further sanctioned by the first grade
teacher who grouped the students based on past performance.
There appeared to be no mobility between the groups, even
by the time students had reached the second grade. Rist,
who conducted the study over a two and one-half year
period, concluded that not only did teacher expectations
of student ability rest on subjective "irrational"

criteria, but once students were allocated to various

ability groups they (the students) received differential

43

treatment and these groups were maintained by first and
second grade teachers. The teacher expectations became
self-fulfilling prophecies.

It is evident from these studies that negative and
positive teacher expectations exert considerable influence
on student performance. These expectations and attitudes
are often formed on the basis of irrational or inappro-
priate criteria having little to do with the actual ability
of the students. Such criteria include race and socio-
economic class and are critical variables in teacher-
student interaction. Teachers' judgments of student
potential become particularly critical when these judg-
ments are translated into placements in a system of edu-
cational tracking.

One other professional educator, influential in the
educational placement process and in helping students to
determine educational and lifetime career choices, is the
school counselor. The importance of the counselor's role
increases as a student progresses from elementary into
junior high or middle school and on into high school.

It is during these years that counselors present to
students a range of educational and eventually career
options. Counselors also assist students in shaping thier
lives toward the goals the counselors (and teachers)
believe are most suitable for them. It is obvious that a

counselor's attitude toward each individual student will

44

be highly influential in determining the level of academic
study to which that student is assigned and the educational
and career options that they are offered.

In the section to follow, counselor bias, based
upon the criteria of race and socio-economic status will
be examined for its effects on student placement and

academic achievement.

Counselor Attitudes and Bias

 

The Need for CounselingTServices

 

Counselors were first included as an integral part
of a school system as early as 1895. The first organized
guidance program emerged in the Cincinnati, Ohio Public
Schools in 1911 (Hollis, 1977). However, guidance and
counseling services spread throughout public education
from 1920-1945 due to the increased demands of labor and
industry in the society at large. Counselors were pri-
marily expected to assist in planning educational programs
for students consistent with the labor needs of a rapidly
expanding industrial society (Spring, 1976; Rosenbaum,
1976). In an effort to more efficiently assist students
in determining their vocational direction, counselors
began using a system of testing, tracking, and ability
grouping. The focus of guidance counseling services has
broadened with the advancement of counseling theories and

procedures, the refinement of existing tests, and the

45

development of additional assessment tools. The over-
all general welfare and development of the individual
became the primary focus of many counselors. However, a
major aspect in the development of individual potential
is related to the success of counselors to assist clients
in leading lives that fulfill individual needs and are
socially effective. While the growth of sociological
theory contributed to the concern for self-awareness and
self-actualization in the field of counseling, the princi-
ples and methods of guidance are embedded in psychology.
Although psychology is primarily the study of human
behavior and learning, individual differences and abilities
were also stressed and incorporated in counseling and gui-
dance services. However, the role of the counselor has
been defined by complex and changing societal needs and
developments, coupled with the disciplines of sociology,
philosophy, and psychology.

Ryan and Zeran (1972) noted that institutions are
a "bounded organization of interdependent and interre-
lated components maintained in a stable state of
relatedness to each other, and to the total system and its
environment, by standard modes of operation and feedback
for the purpose of accomplishing stated goals.” (p. 2).
These modes of operation and stated goals have not always
benefited minorities. For example, counselors have had

minimal impact in helping minorities deal effectively with

46

an oppressive system. Instead, according to Gunnings and
Tucker (1974), counselors can be viewed as a force working
against fundamental change in the status of minorities.
Furthermore, research has shown that the race of a client
does affect the process and outcome of counseling. There-
fore, even though a need for counseling does exist,
counselors have not always acted in the best interest of
racial and other minorities. In the context of education,
counselor bias has made an impact on the treatment of

children.

Counselor Bias and Stereotyping

 

The American Personnel and Guidance Association,
American Psychological Association, and American School
Counselors Association codes of ethics maintain that
counselors should treat all clients with equality, re5pect
and understanding. However, Banks (1972a); Yamamoto et al
(1967); and Rosenthal and Frank (1958), assert that the
racial attitudes and biases'of white counselors are con-
sistent with those held by the American population at
large. Counselors are not immune to the negative attitudes
and racially prejudiced beliefs held by the general
culture of which they are a part. In the view of Ayers
(1970), "to assume that counselors are immune to racism

would be naive and even absurd" (p. 21).

47

Halleck (1971) refers to counselors as "the
handmaidens of the status quo." Sue (1978); Smith (1977);
and Ruiz and Padilla (1977), concur that counseling and
psychotherapy are transmitters of society's values and
instruments of oppression. Sue (1978) maintains that cul-
tural and racial oppression occur because counselors tend
to respond to minorities according to their own conditioned
values and stereotypes.

Counselor bias has been well documented throughout
the literature and come as no surprise to researchers in
the field of education and psychology. Generally, the
only preparation counselors receive in techniques for
assessing and working more effectively with ethnic minority
groups is provided on a limited basis through conference
workshops and inservice training programs. Few formal
courses in working with ethnic and minority clients exist
in counselor education departments throughout the country
(McDavis and Parker,1977). Moreover, research conducted
in the field of counseling and psychology has failed to
promote a better understanding of the psychological and
counseling needs of minority groups. Instead, research
often conducted in the field of counseling serves to
illuminate the stereotypes held by White society and

further distort the realities of the "Black experience.”

48

Jones (1972) demonstrated that counselors have
negative stereotypes about the characteristics and atti-
tudes of students labeled "culturally deprived."

Counselors were divided into two groups and asked to
respond to questions on the School Morale Inventory
(Wrightsman, 1968) as they thought a 12-year-old sixth
grade male student would. The experimental group was
further instructed that the boy was "culturally deprived"
and their responses should reflect the way in which they
predicted a "culturally deprived" student might respond.
Counselors in the experimental group, who responded as
"culturally deprived" students, predicted lower morale on
all subscales of the inventory than counselors in the con-
trol group who were not designated to respond as culturally
deprived students. This study reinforces the negative
expectations of "culturally deprived" students held by
counselors. The following studies will illustrate the
impact of race on counselor research and counselor
behavior.

Blacks have been depicted as nonverbal, untrusting,
with severe and permanent character disorders (Pinderhughes,
1973). They are also described as disadvantaged, cultur-
ally deprived, and products of broken homes with
matriarchal family structures (Amos, 1968; Haettenschwiller,
1971; Moynihan, 1965). Blacks are portrayed as culturally

deficient and possessing those negative attributes and

49

characteristics which are equated with social pathology,
which serve as barriers to positive educational and
psychological growth and development. With respect to
Minority clients, research paints a dismal picture which
counselors use in preparation for providing services to
this particular group. The stereotypes held by counselors
and psychologists are supported by researchers and their
research. Tblson(1972) states that, "Some of these adjec-
tives (used to describe Blacks) have become so culturally
powerful that they control our perceptions and thereby
limit our ability to apply what we know to be good
counseling techniques" (p. 735).

Cultural differences are a reality among majority
:nuiminoritypopulations. The experiences of Black and
other ethnic minority group members sometimes bear little
resemblance to those of the White majority. Blacks have
not been afforded the privilege of equal opportunity or
the potential for equal status in this country. Further-
more, Blacks occupy a position of inequality within the
socioeconomic system. However, societal racism, discri-
mination, and cultural isolation of Blacks and Whites
should not connote "cultural deficiencies." Cultural
differences are not synonymous with cultural deficiencies.
Black cultural disadvantagement is based on the premise of
the superiority of the White middle class culture. Clark

(1965) satirically points out that to label a Black client

50

as culturally disadvantaged is to make the assumption that
the White counselor is advantaged.

Counseling literature has also documented the
practice of sex role bias and stereotyping. Fidell (1970)
investigated the hiring practices in the psychology
departments of 228 universities. Letters of application
were developed for prospective faculty members, using
identical qualifications, varied only by the sex of the
applicant. Female applicants were rated "less desirable”
more often than the male applicants. In addition, when
women were offered positions at the university, they were
lower-level appointments. Thomas and Stewart (1971) also
examined the problem of sex bias in counseling. The study
was conducted in St. Paul, Minnesota with a sample of 62
volunteer school counselors. After viewing three video-
tapes of female clients an introductory tape, a tape of a
client who selected deviate career goals, and a tape of a
client who chose a conforming career goal, participants
were asked to rate the females, using the Gough Adjective
Check List and response scales on "Appropriateness of
Career Choice, and "Need of Further Counseling."
Counselors were also instructed to list two other career
choices they deemed appropriate for the client. The
findings suggested that female counselors were more
accepting of both deviate and conforming clients than were

male counselors. Secondly, both male and female counselors

51

were more approving of the female clients with "female"
conforming career goals. The findings also indicated that
experienced male counselors showed increased acceptance

of non-conforming career goals as opposed to female
counselors. Finally, the study determined that both male
and female counselors rated female clients with deviate
career goals in need of further counseling.

Donahue and Costar (1977) reaffirmed the findings
of sex bias indicated by Stewart and Thomas. A random
sample of 300 senior high school counselors in Michigan
were asked to select the most appropriate occupation for
three hypothetical male and female case study subjects
from a list of 28 occupations provided by the researcher.
The sex of the subjects was varied on an alternate form
of the vignettes. Half of the sample received form A and
the remaining half received form B. The results showed
that counselors selected lower-paying occupations
requiring more supervision for female subjects than they
did for the same subjects when depicted as males.

Additional studies investigating sex role bias
have determined that females are viewed by counselors as
unhealthy and immature (Braverman, 1970; Maslin and Davis,
1975), psychologically unstable (Abramswitz, 1975), and
more passive and dependent than their male counterparts
(Donahue, 1978). The previously cited research suggests

that counselors are biased and that these biases may

52

affect the educational and vocational development of their
clients. Thomas and Stewart (1971) suggested that personal
biases held by counselors are communicated to the client
either openly or covertly. Furthermore, if the client's
goals are viewed as nontraditional or nonconforming to
those stereotypes held by counselors, then the outcome of
counseling may result in clients being placed in more
"untenable positions rather than having obtained actual
help in working out (the) concerns" (p. 357). Kincaid
(1969) emphasizes, however, that counselors who encourage
and support their clients in making choices that are non-
traditional promote independent and healthy decision
making.

Although sex bias and attitudes related to gender
are not the main thrust of this study, it is important to
note that such biases do exist. Literature and research
efforts related to the issue of sex role stereotyping have
gained momentum in the field of counseling. Since sex
bias operates to maintain individuals in a subordinate
position, its dynamics are similar to racial bias and it
stems from similar stereotypes. In counselors, such bias
results in school placements and client guidance that
subtly reinforce sexist or racist attitudes

Bloombaum, Yamamoto, and James (1967) conducted a
study in which psychotherapists were interviewed to

determine their attitudes toward Mexican-Americans,

53

African-Americans, Japanese-Americans, Chinese-Americans
and Jews. Of all the responses, 22.6 percent were
culturally stereotypic in terms of imputations of supersti-
tiousness, changeability, impulsiveness, grasp of abstract
ideas, and distinction made between illusions and facts.
Furthermore, 79.2 percent of the psychotherapists were
found to have subtle stereotypic attitudes. Banks,
Berenson and Carkhuff (1967); and Carkhuff and Pierce
(1967), assert that a difference in values between
counselors and clients strongly influences decision
making, goal setting, and the outcome of counseling.
Counselors who are more different from their cli-
ents in terms of cultural background, race, or sex are
more likely to experience difficulty in "communicating
empathy, respect, congruence, and general assistance,"
than those counselors who are less different and who share
and understand the cultural background of their clients
(Maslin and Davis, 1975; Pedersen, 1976). Supporting
these findings, Gordon and Grantham (1979) assert that
perceived similarity in social class background is also a
critical variable in the counseling dyad. Considerable
research lends support to findings of increased effective-
ness with clients and respect for clients who are similar
to the counselor in social-economic status and background
(Carkhuff and Pierce, 1967; Jackson and Kirschner, 1973;
Walkon, et a1, 1973; Hollingshead and Redlich, 1958).

54

When studies demonstrating the importance of perceived
homogeneous social class background on counselor effective-
ness are combined with previously cited studies which
stress the impact of race in the counseling dyad, then the
merging pattern suggests that cultural, racial, social
class, and SES are important factors in determining how
counselors differentially respond to certain clients.

This differential response affects the range of decisions,
goals and options the counselor may make available to

Black and other minority clients.

Differential Classification and
Treatment of Minorities

 

Counselor effectiveness is related to accurate
identification and classification of the client's strength,
weaknesses, and problems.

Szasz (1971) suggests that in the United States,
where specific social customs and policy prevail, the
Negro race is systematically subjugated, and psychiatry
and psychoanalysis lend their specialized jargons to
justify this subjugation. According to Hollingshead and
Redlich (1958), diagnosis and therapist expectations are
significantly related to the socioeconomic status of the
client. More specifically in their research, Blacks and
lower status clients were less likely to receive favorable
classification and to benefit from therapy, as compared to

Whites and higher status clients. Rosenthal and Frank

55

(1958) supported the findings of Hollingshead and Reddick
by demonstrating that Blacks and lower status clients
received less therapy than White clients, once they were
accepted for therapy.

Strupp (1960) identifies six variables which
influence the process and outcome of counseling. These
variables--the client's station in life, socioeconomic
status, intellect, sex, age, and race--will most likely
determine the diagnosis made by the counselor regarding
the attitudes and behaviors of the client.

Similar findings of the differential classification
of clients were reported by Lane (1969). Therapists were
asked to classify schizophrenic clients as either process
schizophrenics or reactive schizophrenics. The first
classification is based on organic factors, the latter on
enviornmental causes. Race becomes a factor in this classi-
fication process in that Black male schizophrenics (n=50)
were more often classified as reactive schizophrenics than
their White counterparts. The latter findings supported
the study of Kleiner, et a1 (1960), who investigated the
etiology of mental disorders among high status Whites and
lower status non-Whites. Non-Whites were found to have a
higher incidence of process schizophrenia in comparison to
the higher-income White patients, again demonstrating the
importance of race in the classification process. Ellison

(1952) maintains that counselors and psychologists have

56

failed to understand the prevailing cultural differences
and experiences of Blacks. This lack of understanding
limits the effectiveness of these professionals in
accurately assessing the mental health and symptoms of
minority clients. Ellison further advocates the formula-
tion of new counseling models that would be more appropri-
ate in diagnosing, classifying, and treating Black clients.
Blacks have been superimposed on theories which were
disigned to explain white middle class behavior (Calia,
1966). Gunnings and Tucker (1974) assert that counselors
and psychologist are unable to correctly assess the symptoms
of Black clients, since they fail to examine their clients'
status in the context of a racially Oppressive and dis-
criminatory system. Ryan, 1971, and Gunnings, 1976, assert
that therapists and counselors tend to engage in blaming
the clients for their problems as opposed to exploring

the influences of enviornmental variable on client dys-
function. Gunnings further contends that client behavior
is a symptom of the negative impact of the social system
on client's affective and cognitive function. Gunnings
states that as therapists and counselors continue to make
diagnostic judgments without considering the effects of
the social system, not only will those appraisals likely
be incorrect, but the strategies for therapy will also be
inappropriate and symptoms will not be eliminated.
Counselor and therapist ineffectiveness and client mis-

classification are attributed to denial of social system

57

variables. Hence, Gunnings focuses on the development of
a systemic counseling model, which places emphasis on the
role of the social system in determining the attitudes,

values and behavior of individuals.

Summary

This review of the literature suggests that tea—
chers and counselors who make educational placement
decisions that affect school children are not immune to
the racial bias that exists in the broader society. Coun-
selor racial bias provides the background for biased
standardized testing, racially oriented teacher expecta-
tions, and prejudicial counselor attitudes, resulting in
the disproportionate placement of Black and minority
children into low tracks with low academic standards.

The literature also suggests a parallel between sex and
race bias, in that counselors used both factors to make
differential distinctions and placement decisions about
their clients. Although different forms and methods of
grouping exist in American education, they are all under,
girded by the assumption that the ability and potential of
young peOple are related to their race, sex, or SOCIO'
economic status.

The studies cited in this review of the literature
provided the foundation for this study in which the racial
attitudes of sixth grade teachers and junior high school

counselors in a desegregated school district were examined

58

to determine their impact on the educational placement

of White and Black sixth grade male students.

CHAPTER III

DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY

The primary purpose of this study was to determine
if sixth grade teachers and junior high school counselors
make differential academic placement decisions about sixth
grade students based on the race of the students. In this
chapter, the setting, the characteristics of the popula-
tion and sample, and the research design are presented.
The instruments used to collect data for the study and the

research procedures are also discussed.

The Setting

 

As indicated in Chapter I, this study was conducted
in a midwestern city which had undergone court ordered
school desegregation when the schools opened in September
1972. This school district is similar to many medium size
school systems throughout the country in terms of racial
composition, financial stability, and the academic achieve-
ment levels of Black, Hispanic, and White students.

A detailed description of the school district in
which the study was conducted will follow. The reader will
be provided with enrollment data for the year prior to

school desegregation (1970-71) and for the 1978-79 school

59

60

year, showing the racial composition of the student popula-
tion and the number of sixth grade teachers and junior high
school counselors employed in the district during that
period.

The subject district was undergoing study and evalu-
ation of the effects and progress of court-ordered desegre-
gation at the time of this study. The court order for this
evaluation is discussed in the following paragraphs and a
breakdown of the student population will follow. This
information is designed to provide necessary background for
the reader before proceeding to an examination of the

research population.

Order for Desegregation Progress
Report and Evaluation

 

On August 15, 1977, the judge presiding over the
desegregation case ordered the Board of Education to pre—
pare a full report "on the present situation within the
school as it relates to the implementation of this Court's
desegregation order of October 4, 1973." The Board was in-
structed to detail ”the progress that had been made to date
in eliminating the effects of prior segregation and what
further efforts the defendent Board deems necessary to cure
the condition found to offend the Constitution." (Court
Order: Judge Noel Fox, August 15, 1977).

The Desegregation Progress Report prepared by the
school district was submitted to the Court on September 5,

1977. On December 5, 1977, Professor Robert L. Green,

61

Michigan State University, and Professor Wilbur, J. Cohen,
University of Michigan, were appointed as "experts for and
on behalf of the Court." They were ordered to "assist in
the study and evaluation of said desegregation report and
perform such other service as said experts deem advisable
or as the Court may, from time to time, direct." (K88-71
CA., December 7, 1977). This current study related to the
court-ordered evaluation of the school district (Green and
Cohen 1979). Academic selection processes were evaluated
to determine how students were assigned to various academic
programs offered by the district. The academic placement
procedure analyzed in this study is only one of several
policies, procedures, and practices evaluated by the court-

appointed research team.

Student Population

 

Prior to the 1972 court-ordered desegregation plan,
the school district was comprised of twenty-nine elementary
schools, five junior, and two senior high schools. In
1970-71, the school year prior to desegregation, there
were 2,541 (15.9 percent) Black students and 13,412 (84.1
percent) White and other students enrolled in the public
schools. Four of the twenty-nine elementary schools had
Black enrollments as high as 93.7 percent, 82.7 percent,
49.0 percent, and 57.3 percent. Thirteen of the twenty-
nine schools had less than 1.0 percent Black enrollment.

At the junior high level, two buildings had a Black enroll-

ment less than 2 percent, while the remaining three

62

buildings housed 95 percent of the Black junior high
students. Finally, over 90 percent of the Black students
of high school age attended one of the two schools which
had a 20 percent Black enrollment (368 F. Supp. at 153).

From at least the middle 19505 until the early 19705
the Board of Education followed a purposeful pattern of
racial discrimination by intentionally creating and main-
taining segregated schools in this district (368 F. Supp.
at 202).

Under the desegregation plan ordered by Judge Noel
Fox, 5 of the 29 elementary schools in the district were
closed; 15 became grades K-3 buildings and 10 were con-
verted to grades K, 4-5-6 buildings, of which 9 are
currently in operation. All schools in the district were
involved in court-ordered busing; however, kindergarten
students were excluded from the plan and could attend their
neighborhood schools.

In 1978-79 the public schools enrolled 14,937 stu-
dents of whom 4,577 or 30.6 percent were Black. Although
the district has experienced a decline in total enrollment,
the number and percentage of Black students had increased.
The number and percentage of Black enrollment in the dis-
trict is reported in Table 3.1 to provide the reader with
a contextual basis for analyzing the distribution of
students within the school system. The racial composition
of the student population by individual buildings in the
district during 1978-79 when this study was undertaken is

reflected in Table 3.2.

63

Table 3.1-6District-Wide Racial Ethnic Census Data

of Student Enrollment During 1970-79-

 

Total

Students
Enrolled Students Students Students

#White

#Black

%Black

 

1970-71
1972-73
1975-76
1978-79
NET CHANGE

Percent Net Change

17,835
15,915
15,231
14,937
(2898)
(16.2)

14,686
12,534
11,326

9,844
(4842)
(33.0)

2947
3127
3580
4577
1630

55.3

16.

U"!
o\°

19.

ON
o\°

23.

U1
O\°

30.

O)
o\°

14.

H
69

85.5

o\°

 

Note:
SOURCE:

Data include all enrolled students.

Racial Ethnic Census Data, Fourth Friday Counts,
State Department of Education.

64

.mqu Ownamhmoan psoUSum sumpcoEon pouuogcou “mama uflnmmhonom xpmucosoam

.xumflmnm uwmx

"mumsom

 

 

 

omH ONm NmH omm owH Nmm owH com oNH nmm ONH nmm moa Haw OOH cam NwN wa m Aoorum
mm ONN mm omN Nu HNN mm mmN uh mom we mam we mNm mo mmm N NNN w Aoorum
mm nmN mu mwN mo wON mm me mm mmN om me mm HNm wm mNm Nw omN m Aoozum
mo 0mm on 5mm mm omm Hm wmm ow mom mm waw mm mow Hm mww wH mam o Aoomum
on mmN No HON mo NwN mo NmN wo ch mm HwN on Nom on mmm NH wNN m Aoomum
Hw NNN nw mam om nmN mw HmN ww NmN nw Nmm um owm mw Nom N omN w Aoozum
woa mmm ONH mwm NNN mom owH Ham mmH OHw mNH mum woa Raw mm saw mww mnw m doomum
mm mww om oww mm cow om wa mm mam om Ham cm me wm Hnw wn maw N Aoozum
up mON mm owH mw NNN Nm mON om wNN ww mwN mN mMN om NNN o moa H Aoorum
ma HHQOH m» HmHOH mu HmHOH ma fiance mt HMHOH mu HmHOH ma Hmuoe mu HmHOH ma HMHOH

2-3. a Mum 3 Mg a a 3 a

 

.mh-wama emsoceu

HA-oRmH .6 .m .4 .g mmcwefiflsm semagofiofim-coaa: cw ucmaaflocem--m.m magma

65

Since the study at hand focuses on teacher and
counselor decisions to place sixth grade male students in
one of two 7th grade English courses and one of three 7th
grade mathematics courses, using "ability" as the major
criterion variable, the 1978-79 enrollment in these courses
is shown in Table 3.3 for each of the five junior high
schools. For comparison purposes, the level of Black
enrollment at each of the schools is shown. Criteria that
educators are to use in making the placement decisions are

presented later in the chapter.

Definition of the Research Population

 

According to data provided by the school district
in 1970-71, the year prior to desegregation, the number
of Black teachers was 63.5 or 6.5 percent of the total
teaching staff (971.2). The teacher staff for the 1978-79
school year consisted of 867.9 teachers, of whom 101, or
11.6 percent, were Black. However, the population of pri-
mary interest in this study were sixth grade teachers and
junior high school counselors. In 1970-71 there was a
total of 43 sixth grade teachers, 96 percent of whom were
White and 4 percent Black. Of the 38 sixth grade teachers
employed in the nine upper elementary schools during the
1978-79 school year, 18 percent were Black and 82 percent
were White.

The racial composition of the 18 counselors employed

in the five junior high schools during the 1970-71 academic

66

Table 3.3.--District:Wide Black Enrollment of Seventh Grade
Courses 1n the Junior High Schools for 1978-79.

——-

JHS #1 JHS #2 JHS #3 JHS #4 JHS #5

 

% Black Enrollment 32% 19% 34% 41% 17%
% Black in Seventh 22% 16% 28% 25% 9%
Grade English

% Black in Seventh 71% 31% 53% 68% 51%
Grade Reading

%B1ack in Seventh 11% 12% N/Da 17% 6%
Grade Select Math

% Black in Seventh 39% 20% 23% 48% 25%
Grade Independent

Math

% Black in Seventh 65% 30% 43% 58% 24%

Grade Regular Math

 

aN/D = data was not available.

67

year was 11 percent Black and 89 percent White. During
the year 1978-79, there were 13 junior high school
counselors, of whom 18 percent were Black and 82 percent
White.

The total 1970-71 counseling staff, which included
high school counselors, consisted of 31 counselors. The
composition of the 1978-79 counseling staff (a total of 25

counselors) was six percent Black and 94 percent White.

Sample
The sample for this study consisted of 19 sixth

grade teachers who were randomly selected from the total
population of 38 teachers. At least one teacher from each
of the nine upper elementary schools was included in the
sample. Since the population of junior high counselors was
small, all 13 junior high school counselors were included
in the study. Demographic data for both the counselors and
teachers is contained in Table 3.4.

The typical sixth grade teacher in the study was
White, 41.4 years of age, with 11.8 years of teaching
experience, and had a master's degree. The typical
counselor, based on the demographic data, was White, 43.8
years old, with 17.8 years of experience, and more than
likely had credits beyond a master's degree. Further, 83
percent of the subjects received their training at pre-

dominantly White colleges or universities.

68

 

 

Hc.mNU m Ho.o V o Ho.OHV m +HN

HN.H4v m HN.6HV m HN.6NV N ON-6H

Ho.mNV m Hm.NmV N Hm.mmv OH mH-HH

HN.N v H HN.NNV o Hm.va N OH-6

Ho.o v o HH.HHV N HN.6 v N m-H
woonQEm whee»

Hm.w U H Ho.m v H HN.o V N .a.em Ho n.:m

HN.HHV m HN.6HV m HN.oNV N .<.z ecoson mHHeopo

Ho.omv o Hw.wwv N HN.owv 4H .<.2

Ho.o v o Hm.mmv o Ho.ONV o .m.2 so .<.2 saga mmmH
EOHHmUSfim

HN.NNV OH HN.NNV mH HH.HNV mN muHez

HN.6HV N HN.6HV m HN.6HV m HuaHm
comm

HN.6HV N HN.NNV w Ho.oNv o +Hm

HN.GHV N HN.NNV 6 Ho.owv NH om-Hw

Ho.omv o Hm.mmv o Hm.mmv oH ow-Hm

Hm.mmv w HH.HHU N HN.6 V N om-ON
ow<

HN.HHV m HN.oov NH HN.omv NH aHmamm

Hm.wmv N Hm.mmv o Hm.mwv NH 6H8:
Now

mucouuomv mucoUHomv mucoUHomv
NH": HoHomcsoo NH": Monummh on": Hmuoh oHnmflHm>

 

.WHOHOmGSOU Uflm whmgummb MOM fi30fi¥fl®km

"muse uagmmuonoQ--w.m macaw

69

The Teacher/Counselor Role in Academic Selection

In the subject school district, the role of the
sixth grade teachers and junior high counselors is a cru-
cial one since these educators determine the level at which
each student will be placed as they complete elementary
and begin secondary education. As indicated in the
examination of bias in the first chapter of this study,
a student's academic placement may result from a decision
in which racial prejudice is a factor; that placement may
affect the students' academic progress during the remainder
of his/her educational career and beyond. To provide the
reader with an accurate picture of how this placement is
accomplished during the student's transition from ele-
mentary to junior high school, the details of the academic
selection process are outlined below and the criteria for
placement are presented in Exhibit A.

The discussion will then proceed to instruments
developed to simulate and analyze the teachers' and

counselors' placement decisions.

Academic Selection Process

 

As previously noted, nine elementary schools are
comprised of grades K, 4-5-6. In addition, there are five
junior high schools in the district with seventh, eighth,
and ninth grade levels. Sixth grade teachers make the deter-
mination as to which seventh grade courses their sixth grade

students will be placed in upon completion of the upper

7O

elementary grades. The placement decision is made in June
prior to the completion of the academic year. The teacher
recommendation is forwarded to the receiving junior high
school counselor who, in turn, reviews the placement
recommendation and schedules the courses selected by the
teacher for the student. The counselors may also intervene
if they feel that the placement decision was incorrect.

The counselor has the option to change the placement of

the student after consultation with the parents and/or the
student.

The transition from elementary to junior high school
is critical in the academic career of students. In the
district in which this study was conducted, students were
formally placed in academic courses according to their
"ability" and ”interest.”

More specifically, sixth grade teachers in the
school district are responsible for placing students in
seventh grade English or reading and math, at one of the
three levels offered; Select (Pre—Algebra), Individualized,
or Regular. The criteria for placement are given in
Exhibit A.

The criteria are consistent for all sixth grade
students and based on achievement scores for mathematics,
the completion of mathematics and reading programs, and

teacher/counselor judgments.

71

EXHIBIT A

DISTRICT SEVENTH GRADE PLACEMENT CRITERIA:
READING, ENGLISH, AND MATHEMATICS, 1978-79

Houghton Mifflin Reading

 

Sixth grade students who have not completed Magazine
5 in Level 10 of the Houghton Mifflin Reading Program are
placed in a seventh grade Houghton Mifflin reading class.

A sixth grade student who has completed Magazine 5
in Level 10 of the Houghton Mifflin Reading Program by June
and has obtained mastery(at or above the critical score on
the Houghton Mifflin tests) of that magazine and previous
magazines in Level 10 need not be placed in seventh grade
reading and may be assigned to a seventh grade English
cla55. However, if, in the best judgment of the principal
and teacher, the student's success would be greater with
continued reading instruction, it may be recommended that
the student be placed in the seventh grade Houghton
Mifflin Reading Program.

English

Sixth grade students who have not been assigned to
Houghton Mifflin or Title I reading programs are placed in
the seventh grade English program.

Select Mathematics

 

Sixth grade students are placed in seventh grade
select mathematics class by the following criteria: sixth
grade teacher recommendation, 1.5 years above grade level,
based on MAT total mathematics score, and completion of
Book 6 or above in the Holt School Mathematics Program.

Regular Mathematics

 

Sixth grade students who are not placed in seventh
grade select mathematics but need a structured learning
environment are placed in regular mathematics, based upon
the sixth grade teacher recommendation.

72

Individualized Mathematics

Sixth grade students not recommended to select
mathematics and who have the ability to work independently
are recommended by the sixth grade teacher to be placed in
the individualized mathematics program.

SOURCE: Seventh Grade Place-
ment Criteria:
Reading, English
Mathematics

73

Instruments

 

The material specifically designed for this study
included: four vignettes, Placement and Rating Scale, Level
of Confidence Scale, Attitude Questionnaires, Personal Data
Sheet, and Counselor-Teacher Questionnaire. College of
Urban Development researchers involved in other desegre-
gation studies assisted by commenting on the basic design
of this study. The purpose of the instruments was to
collect data that could be used to analyze the criteria
used by teachers and counselors for making placement deci-
sions about sixth grade students in seventh grade math and
English or reading courses.

The instruments were deve10ped with the help of
professors, counseling students, teachers, and junior high
school counselors. In addition, research in the areas of
ability grouping, teacher expectations, and counselor bias
provided direction for writing specific items considered
in the placement decision process. Copies of all instru-

ments are included in the Appendix.

Vignettes

 

Four hypothetical profiles were deve10ped depicting
sixth grade male students. These simulated case histories
of male sixth graders briefly described the following:

1. parent(s)' occupation, which implied socio-economic
status

2. student's previous academic performance

74

3. teachers' evaluation reports

4. age of the student

5. anecdotal remarks of teachers regarding student
motivation and interests

6. current level of achievement

7. specific reference to racial identity

The four vignettes used for this study underwent
several revisions in an effort to portray a male sixth grade
student who could be depicted as either Black or White,
based on identical background data presented to the
counselor or teacher.

Three Lansing junior high school counselors, were
consulted and they assisted in the construction of the case
studies. In addition, they provided data related to
achievement scores and actual anecdotal records of students
in order to help the researcher develop a framework from
which to construct the student profiles. Further, the names
of actual businesses or industries located in the city were
used for simulating typical parental employment. An
attempt was made to develop the case histories as realis-
tically as possible to approximate those sixth grade stuv

dents currently enrolled in the district.

Placement and Rating Scale

 

After reviewing a vignette, teachers and counselors
were asked to recommend placement of the student in either

English or reading; select math, individualized math, or

75

regular math. The rating scale included six factors con-
sidered in making the placement decision for the student.
In addition, teachers and counselors could specify "other"
factors they considered important in making the placement
decision. The six factors were weighted on a scale which
ranged from 1 to 4 representing a rating of minimal
importance to one of extreme importance. Factors 1 and 2
assessed the importance of test scores. Factors 3 and 4
were concerned with student performance and teacher per-
ception and evaluation. Factors 5 and 6 dealt with stu-
dent background information and parental recommendation.
Subjects were asked to rate the same six factors for all
four vignettes in making the English and math placement
decisions. If a subject specified a seventh factor under
”other," this factor was also rated and included in sub-
sequent analyses. A list of the specific factors may be
found in Appendix B.
The instructions for rating the factors on the

scale were as follows:

We have identified a possible list of factors that may

be used as criteria for determining placement of stu-

dents by 6th grade teachers and 7th grade counselors.

Please rate the importance of each factor you may have

considered in your evaluation and placement recommen—

dation of the 6th grade students you have just

reviewed. Where you are uncertain, make the best
possible choice. Please do not leave any scale blank.

Attitude Questionnaire

The attitude questionnaire was constructed primarily

to measure the attitudes of the teachers and counselors

76

toward school desegregation and the quality of education
offered in the desegregated school. The questionnaire also
contained items regarding attitudes toward open housing and
level of personal skill in working with minority students.
There were a total of eleven items, and subjects were
instructed to respond to these items on a five-point scale
which ranged from strongly agree to strongly disagree.

(See Appendix C)

Personal Data Sheet

 

The Personal Data Sheet was deve10ped to obtain
demographic data on the subjects. The background variables
listed on the form were age, sex, race, years of experience,
professional organization affiliation, and racial attitudes.
The form contained a total of fifteen items. The informa-
tion from the Personal Data Sheet has been used to provide
the researcher and the reader with a more detailed descrip-

tion of the sample in this study. (See Appendix D)

Counselor-Teacher Questionnaire

 

This instrument was primarily developed for use in
the major court-ordered evaluation study to determine the
role of the counselor and teacher in the desegregated
school district. The questionnaire contained items
related to discipline, suspension, student personal/social
problems, and classroom goals and objectives. For the pur-

pose of this study, only a portion of the data collected

from the questionnaire will be included in Chapter V.

77

Experimental Procedures

 

The subjects (counselors and teachers) who were
participants in this study were notified by the principal
of their school one day prior to the scheduled appointment
with the interviewer. The school principal made arrange-
ments for substitute teachers when necessary so that the
teachers could be relieved of classroom duties to partici-
pate in the study. Teachers and counselors had the Option
not to participate, however, only one teacher refused to
take part.

The investigator interviewed the subjects indi-
vidually with the exception of three participants, two of
whom were not used in the analysis of the data. Each
interview took approximately one hour to complete.

First, each subject was given four vignettes which
were randomly varied by the race of the student, with an
attached Placement Form and Rating Scale for each vignette.
Two of the vignettes depicted Black students and two
depicted White. Each subject was instructed to read each
profile carefully and then make two placement decisions
about each student. After reviewing a student profile, the
subject then decided whether to place the student in
English or reading. The subject then listed factors
related to placement which were weighted for their relative

influence in making the placement decision. Next, the

78

subject placed the student in one of the three levels of
math: Select, Independent, or Regular. The factors con-
sidered for the placement of students in math were then
rated. Finally, the subject was instructed to indicate
how confident they were with the placement decisions made
about the student on the Level Of Confidence Scale. These
instructions and procedures were repeated for all four
vignettes. Upon completion, the vignettes and scales were
placed into an envelope by the subject.

Afterthe student placement decisions were made,
each subject was individually interviewed by the examiner
using the Teacher-Counselor Questionnaire. Next, the
examiner gave instructions for filling out the Attitude
Questionnaire and Personal Data Sheet and informed the
subject to place the forms, when completed, in the
envelope containing the vignettes and seal it. The
examiner was notpresentin the room while subjects com-
pleted these forms. Subjects also had the Option of
randomly placing the sealed envelope in a larger stack of
identical envelopes to prevent identification by the inter-
viewer. Only two of the 32 subjects exercised the option.
Precautions were taken to assure the subjects that their

identity would not be known.

Limitations of the Study

 

Those limitations regarding validity and relia—

bility of the instrument in studies using questionnaires

79

will apply to this study as well. It is further limited,
as with similar research studies, by the veracity of the
subjects' responses to the instruments. Since there were
only four vignettes (varied by race for a total of eight),
the author recognizes that these hypothetical cases are
only a simulation of cumulative files used by teachers and
counselors when making placement decisions about students.
Therefore, vignettes cannot predict actual decision

making behavior but merely infer it, since counselors
and/or teachers might respond differently in the actual
classroom setting.

Furthermore, the results from this study can be
generalized to other populations only to the extent that
other populations are similar in characteristics to the
school district and population of teachers and counselors

in this study.

Design and Analysis
The post-test--only control group designed as

described by Campbell and Stanley (1963) was used for the
experiment in this study. Although there are some limita-
tions with re5pect to the external validity in the use of
this design, it was appropriate for the purposes of this
study. The experimental treatment was the four vignettes
which were varied by the race of the students. A total

of six combinations were generated from the four vignettes

such that each teacher and counselor received four

80

vignettes depicting two Black and two White students. The
experimental conditions were randomly assigned to the sub-
jects. A schematic display of the random assignments is
provided in Table 3.5. In all four cases (Matthew,
Michael, Robert, and Timothy) one of the students was pre-
sented to the sample as either Black or White a total of
15 times.

To determine if academic assignments were made
resulting in significantly different frequencies related
to the race of the student, chi-square tests were conducted.
Since the variables of concern were nominal data, and the
hypothesis required the determination of whether the fre-
quency of placement decisions was greater or less with
respect to the race of the student, the chi-square analysis
was appropriate.

In order to reject the null hypothesis of random
assignment without respect to the race of the students,

the .05 level of significance was used.

Summary

The study was conducted in a medium-sized mid-
western school district which underwent desegregation in
1972 and had an enrollment, at the time of the study, of
about 15,000 students, of whom 30.6 percent were Black.
Study subjects included 19 sixth grade teachers, randomly
selected from a total of 38, and all 13 junior high

counselors.

81

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

NHu x x x x NH.NH.N
NHu x x x x NH.HH.N
NH" x x x x NH.oH.w
NHu x x x x NH.N.N
NH" x x x x NH.N.N
NHu x x x x NH.N.H

muonomoh

knuoeHH phonom Homsqu Bunyan: knuoEHH uuonom Homnqu zozuumz
oHHez HONHm
qu N N N N N N o o
N u x x x x NH.o
N u x x x x HH.N
N u x x x x NH.w
N u x x x x N.N
N u x x x x N.N
N u x x x x N.H
wheammdzou
xnposwe phenom Homguflz zonpumz knuoeflh phenom Homnufiz soauumz
mommu
oanz HONHN

 

.mponumoe wee mHOHOmcsou kn menopaum mo maoflmfiuoa
p:oEoumHm OHEme6¢ onu How mouuocmN> wocmwmm< stowcmm mo xmammfia uflumEOnum--.m.m manna

82

Instruments specifically designed for this study
included four vignettes which were varied by the race of
the student, depicting specific characteristics of four
hypothetical male sixth grade students. Also included
were rating scales, attitude questionnaires, and personal
data forms presented in the section included in the
Appendix.

After reading the vignette, subjects placed the
student described in one of two levels of English and one
of three levels of math, and then rated the factors they
had used in making their decisions. Subjects also rated
the level of confidence they gave to their placement
decisions. Finally, subjects were interviewed by the
researcher and completed attitude and personal data

questionnaires.

CHAPTER IV

ANALYSIS AND RESULTS

Introduction

 

In this chapter, the analyses and findings are pre-
sented in three major sections. The first section focuses
on the placement decision for students depicted in the four
vignettes where they were varied by race. The second sec-
tion presents the results of the hypotheses tests conducted
as part of the analysis. Finally, section three presents
an analysis of the additional data which describes the
respondents in terms of their background and attitudes.

Statistical tests for a relationship between the
placement decisions of students as a function of race were
calculated using a chi-square analysis. Initially, the
students placement decisions were analyzed separately for
counselors versus teachers. NO significant differences
were found between the teachers' and counselors' decisions.
Since there were no significant differences between tea-
chers and counselors in their academic placement decisions,
they were combined into one group in order to test for
significant differences in race related placement

decisions. Following is an analysis of the data.

83

84

Academic Placement Decisions

 

One of the responsibilities of sixth grade teachers
and junior high school counselors in the district is to
recommend students for placement in the required seventh
grade language arts and mathematics courses. Language
arts courses are reading and English, while mathematics
courses are select mathematics, regular mathematics, and
individualized mathematics. There are noteworthy vari-
ations in the required course areas. Each of these
courses presupposes different levels of student skills.

The reading course stresses basic level skills, as does the
regular mathematics course. The individualized mathematics
course is designated for students of variable competency
levels; however, the student must demonstrate the ability
to work independently. The latter courses are perceived

as being "low level" in orientation. The other courses,
English and select mathematics, are accelerated courses
designed for students with perceived higher level skills

in these areas.

As previously mentioned, thirty subjects (teachers
and counselors) were used in this study. Each of the sub-
jects received four vignettes and made academic placement
decisions for each of the four students (2 White and 2
Black students). Each case (Matthew, Michael, Robert, and
Timothy) was responded to as a Black student 15 times and

a White student 15 times.

85

The results of student placement decisions made by
the respondents (teachers and counselors combined) are
presented in Tables 4.1, 4.2, 4.3, and 4.4. The discussion
to follow will summarize the placement decisions pertaining
to each student--Matthew, Michael, Robert, and Timothy.

An examination of Table 4.1 reveals that Matthew
was placed in Reading one additional time when he was
portrayed as a Black student. When Matthew was White,
respondents placed him in English 12 times, as opposed to
11 when he was Black. Matthew was placed in Select math
twice, once as a Black student, and also as a White student.
Placement in Individual math and General math varied
slightly. He was placed in Individualized math more fre—
quently as a White student and in General math more fre-
quently as a Black student. However, the frequency of the
placement decisions based upon the race of the student was
not significant.

Respondents appeared to be more confident about the
Language Arts placement of Matthew when he was portrayed
as a Black student. However, the level of confidence was
basically comparable regarding the placement of Matthew in
the mathematics courses. The factors considered in making
the language arts and mathematics placement recomendations
were also comparable. I.Q. Test Scores and Parental
Recommendations were of minimal importance, whereas

Student Motivation and Teacher Perception and Evaluation

86

were very important factors in making the placement deci-
sions. The Students Background Information was also a
consideration and was rated slightly higher when Matthew
was Black. Overall, there were only minor differences in
the placement decisions regarding Matthew when depicted
as either a Black or White student. The figures for
Matthew are presented in Table 4.1.

The frequency of academic placement in both
language arts and mathematics was comparable for Michael.
There were no significant differences in the placement
decisions made when the race of the student was varied.
Also, teachers and counselors were more confident about
their placement decisions of Michael. The race of the
student did not appear to be an influence in the level of
confidence. The factor considered of minimal importance
was I.Q. Test Results, whereas Teacher Perception and
Student Performance Evaluation were decidedly more impor-
tant in making the placement decision. Student Motivation
was also considered an important factor. Parental
Recommendation was minimally important to one-third of the
respondents in making math recommendations for Michael.

In summary, the placement recommendations for Michael when
depicted as Black or White were comparable. Further, the
race of the student did not have a significant effect on
the level of confidence, the decisions made, or the factors
considered in making the placement recommendations. The

figures for Michael are presented in Table 4.2.

87

Table 4.l.--Academic Placement Decisions for Matthew.

 

 

 

 

 

Black n=15 White n=15
Decision I English 11 12
Language Arts .
Placement Read1ng 4 3
Decision II Select 1 1
Mathematics . . .
Placement Ind1v1dual1zed 8 10
Regular 6 4
Somewhat Very Somewhat Very
Confident Confident Confident Confident

 

Level of Confidence in
Decision I 3 12 7 8
Language Arts Placement

 

 

Level of Confidence in
Decision 11 7
Mathematics Placement

on
O‘
\D

 

 

Minimally Very Minimally Very

 

 

 

Important Important Important Important

The impor- 1. IQ Test Scores 14 1 l4 1
tance of 2. SAT Scores 12 3 7 8
Factors 3. Student Motiva- 1 l4 4 11
Considered tion
in Making 4. Teacher Percep- 1 l4 3 12
the Lan- tion 6 Student
guage Arts Performance
Placement Evaluation
Decision 5. Student Back- 6 9 ll 4

ground Infor-

mation

6. Parental Recom- 12 3 11 4

mendation
The Impor- 1. IQ Test Scores 14 1 13 2
tance of 2. SAT Scores 12 3 6 9
Factors 3. Student Motiva- l 14 2 13
Considered tion
in Making 4. Teacher Percep- l 14 l 14
the Mathe- tion 6 Student
matics Performance
Placement Evaluation
Decision 5. Student Back- 8 7 10 5

ground Infor-

mation

6. Parental Recom- 10 5 12 3

mendation

 

 

88

Table 4.2.--Academic Placement Decisions for Michael.

.1 .._. —.—.—_====;_-.

 

=8 -— =3 ‘-3 2

 

 

 

 

 

Black L=lS White n=lS
Decision I English 2
Language Arts ,
Placement Reading 13 14
Decision II Select 0 0
Mathematics . . .
Placement Ind1v1dual1zed 9 10
Regular 6 5
Somewhat Very Somewhat Very
Confident Confident Confident Confident
Level of Confidence in
Decision I 4 ll 5 10

Language Arts Placement

 

 

evel of Confidence in
Decision 11 4 11 5 10
Mathematics Placement

 

 

 

 

 

 

Minimally Very Minimally Very
Important Important Important Important

The Impor- 1. IQ Test Scores 15 0 12 3
tance of 2. SAT Scores 7 8 ll 4
Factors 3. Student Motiva- 3 12 Z 13
Considered tion
in Making 4. Teacher Percep- 2 13 4 11
the Lan- tion 6 Student
guage Arts Performance
Placement Evaluation
Decision 5. Student Back- 6 9 7 8

ground Infor-

mation

6. Parental Recom- 12 3 9 o

mendation
The Impor- 1. IQ Test Scores 13 2 12 3
tance of 2. SAT Scores 6 9 12 3
Factors 3. Student Motiva- 2 l3 0 15
Considered tion
in Making 4. Teacher Percep- 1 14 3 12
the Mathe- tion 5 Student
matics Performance
Placement Evaluation
Decision 5. Student Back- 6 9 8 7

ground Infor-

mation

6. Parental Recom- 10 5 10 S

mendation

 

 

89

Robert, who was portrayed as an above-average
student, was consistently placed in English by the
respondents. However, Robert was recommended by the place-
ment in the higher math level more frequently when he was
designated as a Black student. The respondents were more
confident with the language arts placement decisions in
comparison to the math decisions. Although Robert was
placed in Select math more frequently as a Black student,
respondents were less confident in their recommendations
for math placement. The factors which received the
highest ratings in making the placement decisions were
Student Motivation and Teacher Perception and Evaluation.
Those factors considered to be of minimal importance were
I.Q. Test Scores and Student Background Information.
There were slight variations in the factors of SAT Test
Scores and Parental Recommendations. These two factors
were slightly less important for Robert when he was
depicted as Black as compared to being depicted as White.
The placement decisions regarding Robert were comparable
with regard to race. The figures are contained in Table
4.3.

Timothy was the poorest student academically in
comparison to the three other students in this study.
There were no differences in the frequency of placement
of the student in reading when Timothy was Black or White.

However, Timothy was placed in English one time when his

Table 4.3.--Academic

9O

Placement Decision for Robert.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

_Black n=_15 WIS;
Decision I English 15 15
Language Arts .
Placement Reading
Decision II Select 10 7
Mathematics . . .
Placement Ind1v1dua112ed S 7
Regular 1
Somewhat Very Somewhat Very
Confident Confident Confident Confident
Level of Confidence in
Decision I 2 13 l 14
Language Arts Placement
Level of Confidence in
Decision 11 6 9 Z 13
Mathematics Placement
Minimally Very Minimally Very
Important Important Important Important
The Impor- l. IQ Test Scores 15 0 14 1
tance of 2. SAT Scores 10 5 8 7
Factors 3. Student Motiva- 2 13 1 14
Considered tion
in Making 4. Teacher Percep- Z 13 1 14
the Lan- tion 8 Student
guage Arts Performance
Placement Evaluation
Decision 5. Student Back- 10 5 10 5
ground Infor-
mation
6. Parental Recom- 9 6 12 3
mendation
The Impor- l. IQ Test Scores 13 2 15 0
tance of 2. SAT Scores 10 S 8 7
Factors 3. Student Motiva- 0 15 1 l4
Considered tion
in Making 4. Teacher Percep- 1 14 l 14
the Mathe- tion 6 Student
Placement Evaluation
Decision 5. Student Back- 10 S 10 5
ground Infor-
mation
6. Parental Recom- 9 6 13 2

mendation

 

 

91

racial designation was that of a Black student and was
retained in the sixth grade when he was portrayed as a
White student. Again, the math decisions were comparable
for Timothy when portrayed as either a Black or White stu-
dent. However, one of the respondents placed him as a
Black student in Select math and when he was White one
respondent placed him in Individualized math. The sub-
jects were more confident in their placement decisions when
Timothy was White. The factors of minimal importance were
IQ. Test Scores, SAT Scores, and Parental Recommendations.
These factors, however, were somewhat more important when
Timothy was White, with the exception of I.Q. Test Scores.
Teacher Perception and Student Performance Evaluation was
also an important factor when Timothy was a White student
but was rated of minimal importance when he was Black.
Another important factor considered in the placement
decisions, when Timothy was Black or White, was Student
Motivation. The level of importance varied, however, for
the Student Background Information factor. The results of
the placement decisions are reported in Table 4.4. This
table shows that there were no significant differences in
the academic placement recommendations concerning Timothy
when varied by race. However, the Teacher Perception and
Evaluation factor was significant at the .05 level for
placement in both language arts and mathematics for

Timothy. The results of these findings are reflected in

Table 4.4.--Academic

,____ ~_—._._

92

Placement Decisions for Timothy.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Black n=lS White n-lS
*
Decision I English 1
Language Arts .
Placement Reading 14 14
gfcision 11 Select 1 0
lat emat1cs . . .
Placement Ind1v1dual1-ed 2 1
Regular 12 13
Somewhat Very Somewhat Very
Confident Confident Confident Confident
Level of Confidence in
Decision 1 7 8 3 12
Language Arts Placement
Level of Confidence in
Decision 11 7 8 3 12
Mathematics Placement
Minimally Very Minimally Very
Important Important Important Important
The Impor- 1. IQ Test Scores 11 4 15 0
tance of 2. SAT Scores 11 4 8 7
Factors 3. Student Motiva- 4 11 Z 13
Considered tion
in Making 4. Teacher Percep- 7 8 0 15
the Lan- tion 6 Student
guage Arts Performance
Placement Evaluation
Decision 5. Student Back- 9 6 7 8
ground Infor-
mation
6. Parental Recomo 11 4 9 6
mendation
The Impor- 1. IQ Test Scores 11 4 14 1
tance of 2. SAT Scores 11 4 8 7
Factors 3. Student Motiva- 2 13 1 l4
Considered tion
in Making 4. Teacher Percep- 5 10 0 15
the Mathe- tion 6 Student
matics Performance
Placement Evaluation
Decision 5. Student Back-
ground Infor-
mation
6. Parental Recom- 12 3 9 6

mendation

 

 

*
Timothy was retained in the sixth grade when portrayed as a White Student.

93

Hypotheses 3 and 4. In addition, a discussion of the
significance of the latter factor is included in

Chapter V.

Summary of Individual Placement Decisions

 

The four student profiles, which were varied by
the race of the students for a total of eight cases, were
randomly distributed to the sample of teachers and
counselors. The results of decisions made regarding the
level of academic placements of the students were pre-
sented in Tables 4.1, 4.2, 4.3, and 4.4.

In summarizing the data across the race of the four
students (Matthew, Michael, Robert, and Timothy), some con-
sistent patterns emerge. Although there were only slight
variations in the level of academic placement, the vari-
ability in the level of confidence and in the six factors
considered in the placement decisions made by the respon-
dents was noteworthy. The subjects were more confident in
the language arts placement decisions than they were in
the level of mathematics placement decisions when students
were Black. The reported levels of confidence were com-
parable for students, when portrayed as White, for language
arts and mathematics placements. The factors considered
of least importance in making the language arts and mathe-
matics placement decisions for Black students were I.Q.
Test Scores, Parental Recommendation, SAT Scores and

Student Background Information, in that order. Factors

94

considered of least importance for White students were I.Q.
Test Scores, Parental Recommendations, Student Background
Information, and SAT Scores. The factors of considerably
more importance were Student Motivation, and Teacher Per-
ception and Student Performance Evaluation for both Black
and White students in language arts and mathematics level
placement recommendations.
The following tables (4.5 and 4.6) focus on the

test of the null hypothesis related to an analysis of the
academic placement decisions as a function of the race Of

the students.

Tests of Hypotheses

 

Ho: The race of the students will have no sig-
nificant effect on the frequency of place-
ment of students in English or reading.

H1: Sixth-grade teachers and junior high school
counselors will make differential decisions
resulting in the placement of Black students
in reading and the placement of White
students in English, when presented with
identical case study material varied only
by the race of the student.

The Obtained value of X2(1) = 0 was not statis-
tically significant (Table 4.5). Theefore, it was not
possible to reject the null hypothesis. The non-
significant finding indicates that race did significantly
influence the placement of students in English or

reading.

95

Table 4.5.--Decision 1, Language Arts Placement Decision.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Black White x2* 1df

English 11 12 0
Matthew

Reading 4 3

English 2 l 0
Michael

Reading l3 14

English 15 15 0
Robert

Reading 0 0

English 1 0 0
Timothy

Reading 14 14a

 

3The student was retained in the sixth grade when
portrayed as a White student.

2

*X value of 3.84 = .05 level of significance.

96

Table 4.6.--Decision 11, Level of Mathematics Placement

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Decision.
Black White x2 df

Select 1 1

Matthew Individualized 8 10 0.62 de
General 6 4
Select 0 0

Michael Individualized 9 10 0 ldf
General 6 6
Select 10 7

Robert Individualized S 7 1.86 de
General 0 1
Select 1 0

Timothy Individualized 2 l 1.34 de
General 12 13a

 

3The student was retained in the sixth grade when
portrayed as a White student.

*Xz value (ldf) of 3.84 = .05 level of significance.

2 value (de) of 5.99 = .05 level of significance.

X

97

Ho: The race of the students will have no significant
effect with respect to placement of students in
mathematics courses.

H2: Sixth-grade teachers and junior high school
counselors will make differential placement
decisions resulting in the placement of Black
students in lower level math courses, when
presented with identical case study material
varied only by the race of the student.

The obtained X2 with the appropriate degrees of
freedOm were not statistically significant. (Table 4.6).
Therefore, the race of the student was not a significant
variable in the frequency of placement in Select, Indivi-
dual, and General math. Subsequently, the null hypothesis
was not rejected.

Ho: The race of the student will not significantly
affect the degree of importance assigned to the
six factors* considered in making the English/
reading placement decision.

H3: The degree Of importance assigned to the six
factors* considered in making English/reading
placement decisions will vary significantly
according to the decision made about the stu-
dent by race.

The six factors were tested and the following tables
(4.7-4.12) report the data for each of the six factors
considered in making the language arts placement decision.
The Obtained X2 values were not significant at the
.05 level. Therefore, the null hypothesis was not rejected.
The race of the student did not affect the degree of
importance assigned to the six factors (I.Q. test scores,

standardized achievement test scores, student motivation,

98

*Factors
1. I.Q. Test Scores
2. Standardized Achievement Test Scores
3 Student Motivation
4. Teacher Perception and Student Performance Evaluation
5. Student Background Information
6. Parental Recommendation
teacher perception and student performance evaluation,
student background information, and parental recommenda-
tion) which were considered in making the language arts
placement recommendations.

However, Factor 4, Teacher Perception and Student
Performance Evaluation (Table 4.10) was significant at the
.05 level for Timothy. When Timothy was portrayed as a
White student, the latter factor was significantly more
important than when he was Black. Therefore, the race of
the student did affect the level of importance assigned
to the Teacher Perception and Evaluation factor. In
summary, the null hypothesis was not rejected although the
factor was significant in the case of Timothy.

Ho: The race of the student will not affect the
degree of importance assigned to the six
factors* considered in making the math level
placement decision.

H4: The level of importance assigned to the six
factors* considered in making the math level
placement decisions will vary significantly

according to the decision made about the
student by race.

5.
6.

99

*Factors
1. Q. Test Scores
Standardized Achievement Test Scores
Student Motivation
Teacher Perception and Student Performance Evaluation
Student Background Information

Parental Recommendation

The six factors considered in the level of mathematics

placement decisions of students were tested and the

results are presented in Table 4.13-4.l7.

Table 4.7--The Importance of I.Q.
Language Arts Placement Decision.

100

Test Results in the

 

2

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Minimally Important Very Important * ldf

Black 14 1

Matthew 0.53
White 14 1
Black 15 0

Michael 1.48
White 12 3
Black 15 0

Robert 0
White 14 1
Black 11 4

Timothy 2.59
White 15 0
*X2 value (ldf) 3.84 = .05 level of significance.

101

Table 4.8.--The Importance of Standardized Achievement Test
Scores in the Language Arts Placement Decision.

 

Minimally Important Very Important X2* ldf

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Black 12 3

Matthew 2.30
White 7 8
Black 7 8

Michael 1.25
White 11 4
Black 10 5

Robert 0.13
White 8 7
Black 11 4

Timothy 0.57
White 8 7
*X2 value (ldf) 3.84 = .05 level of significance.

102

Table 4.9--The Importance of Student Motivation in the
Language Arts Placement Decision.

 

Minimally Important Very Important X2* ldf

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Black 1 14

Matthew 0.96
White 4 11
Black 3 12

Michael 0
White 2 13
Black 2 13

Robert 0
White 1 14
Black 4 ll

Timothy 0.21
White 2 13
*X2 value of 3.84 = .05 level of significance.

103

Table 4.10--The Importance of Teacher Perception and
Student Performance Evaluation in the
Language Arts Placement Division.

 

Minimally Important Very Important X2* 1df

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Black 1 14

Matthew 0.28
White 3 12
Black 2 13

Michael 0.20
White 4 11
Black 2 13

Robert 0
White 1 14
Black 7 8

Timothy 6.70
White 0 15 .0096**
*X2 value of 3.84 = .05 level of significanc.

**Significant at .05 level.

104

Table 4.11--The Importance of Student Background Infor-
mation in the Language Arts Placement Decision.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Minimally Important Very Important X2* 1df

Black 6 9

Matthew 2.17
White 11 4
Black 6 9

Michael 0
White 7 8
Black 10 5

Robert 0.15
White 10 5
Black 9 6

Timothy 0.13
White 7 8

 

 

2

*X value of 3.84

.05 level of significance.

105

Table 4.12--The Importance of Parental Recommendation in

the Language Arts Placement Decision.

 

2

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Minimally Important Very Important X * 1df

Black 12 3

Matthew 0
White 11 4
Black 12 3

Michael 0.63
White 9 6
Black 9 6

Robert 0.63
White 12 3
Black 11 4

Timothy 0.15
White 9 6
*X2 value of 3.84 .05 level of significance.

106

Table 4.13--The Importance of I.Q. Test Results in the
Mathematics Level Placement Decisions.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Minimally Important Very Important X2* 1df

Black 14 1

Matthew 0
White 13 2
Black 13 2

Michael 0
White 12 3
Black 13 2

Robert 0.53
White 15 0
Black 11 4

Timothy 0.96
White 14 1
*X2 value Of 3.84 = .05 level of significance.

107

Table 4.14--The Importance of Standardized Achievement

Test Scores in the Mathematics Level
Placement Decisions.

 

2

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Minimally Important Very Important X * 1df

Black 12 3

Matthew 3.47
White 6 9
Black 6 9

Michael 3.47
White 12 3
Black 10 5

Robert 0.14
White 8 7
Black 11 4

Timothy 0.57
White 8 7
*X2 value Of 3.84 .05 level of significance.

108

Table 4.15--The Importance of Student Motivation in the
Mathematics Level Placement Decision.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Minimally Important Very Important X2* 1df

Black 1 14

Matthew 0
White 2 13
Black 2 13

Michael 0.53
White 0 15
Black 0 15

Robert 0
White 1 14
Black 2 l3

Timothy 0
White 1 14
*X2 value of 3.84 = .05 level of significance.

109

Table 4.16--The Importance of Teacher Perception and
Student Performance Evaluation in the
Mathematics Level Placement Decisions.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Minimally Important Very Important X2* 1df

Black 1 14

Matthew 0.53
White 1 14
Black 1 14

Michael 0.28
White 3 12
Black 1 14

Robert 0.53
White 1 14
Black 5 10

Timothy 3.84**
White 0 15
*X2 value of 3.84 = .05 level of significance.

**Significant at .05 level.

110

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Table 4.17--The Importance of Student Background Information
in the Mathematics Level Placement Decisions.
Minimally Important Very Important X2* 1df
Black 8 7
Matthew 0.13
White 10 5
Black 6 9
Michael 0.13
White 8 7
Black 10 5
Robert 0.15
White 10 5
Black 9 6
Timothy 0.53
White 6 9

 

 

7
*X“ value of 3.84 = .05 level of significance.

111

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Table 4.18--The Importance Of Parental Recommendation
in the Mathematics Level Placement Decisions.
Minimally Important Very Important X2* 1df
Black 10 5
Matthew 0.17
White 12 3
Black 10 5
Michael 0.15
White 10 5
Black 9 6
Robert 1.53
White 13 2
Black 12 3
Timothy 0.63
White 9 6

 

 

*Xz value Of 3.84 = .05 level of significance.

112

The results of the X2 tests were not significant
at the .05 level. Therefore, the race of the student did
not have a significant effect on the degree of importance
assigned to the factors considered in making the level of
mathematics placement decisions. Therefore, the null
hypothesis was not rejected for Factors 1, 2, 3, 5, and 6.

However, Factor 4 (Teacher Perception and Student
Performance Evaluation) was a significant variable at the
.05 level in the mathematics placement decision for
Timothy. When Timothy was depicted as a Black student,
Teacher Perception and Student Performance Evaluation was
significantly less important than when Timothy was White.
The data are provided in Table 4.15. Timothy was the
exception for the factor Teacher Perception and Student
Performance Evaluation, as there were no significant
differences with regard to the remaining three students.
Subsequently, the null hypothesis was not rejected.

Ho: The race of the student will not affect the
reported level of confidence in the placement
decisions.

H5: The level of confidence in the language arts
placement decisions will differ as a function
of the race of the student placed in English
or reading.

Ho: The race of the student will not affect the
reported level of confidence in the level of
mathematics placement decisions.

H6: The degree of confidence in the level of mathe-
matics placement decisions will differ as a

function of the race of the student placed in
Select, Individualized, and Regular math.

113

mchNON cw woumHm Ho: mm: uponom

n

.mofiocoscoum mHHoo HHmEm ow 63w Nx woumaonmu ou oHnmaam

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

NN.N NH N N N NeHNNNN
NNHNEHN
a N N N H NNHHNem
N - N N N NNeHNeeN
puonom
N NH H NH N NNNHHNem
NN.N N N NH N NeHNNeN
Heaequ
m H o H H nmflawcm
e H N N H NeHeeem
zonuumz
NN.N N N N N NNHHNem
x NeeeHNeoN NeeeHNeou NeeeHNeoN NeeeHNeou
N Aho> amazoEom xho> amazoeom

 

eNHez

 

xumam

 

.H :OHmNOom “pcoeoumHm muH< owmsmcmq :H oucowfimcou mo

Ho>oq--ma.w oHan

114

.Humz uuoHom cH woumHm go: we: HomHqum

.wowmqueH mum mosHm> Nx OHozz
umouxo mOHucoscOHm HHOO HHmEm ow 63w Nx we OHmEHumo oumHonmu on oHnmez "Opoz

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

mw.H
mo.H HH N N m Hmuocoo
a H N N N eeNHHeeeH>HeeH NNNNEHN
m o o H o wooHom
m H o o o kuocou
m o H m N woNHHmst>chH uuonom
m o H o w puoHom
m N m w N Hmuocoo
m m N N N wONHHmscH>chH HONHOHE
o o o o o muuoHom
m N N w N Hmuonou
m m m m o NONHHmSUH>HpeH soguumz
m H o o H uuoHom
x ucOuHmcoo ucouHmcou ucomecou pcomeaoo
N kuo> umnzoEom kpo> amazonm
oanz HomHm

 

.HH :onHuon HueosoomHm mOHumsoaumz oucovaeoo mo Ho>OH--ON.w OHQNH

115

Summary of Hypothesis

 

The results of hypotheses tested using chi-square

analyses, when compared to the frequency of the academic

placement of students by race, are summarized as follows:

1.

The race of the student was not a significant
variable in English/reading placement decisions
made by sixth grade teachers and junior high
school counselors. There were no significant
differences found in the level Of placement as
a function of the race of the student.

The level of mathematics placement (Select,
Individualized, and Regular) was not signi-
ficantly related to the race of the student.
Moreover, Black students were placed in Regular
math as often as White students, 24 times as
compared to 23 (White). In addition, Black
students were placed in Individual math 24
times out of the total 52 placements and 12

of the 20 students placed in Select math were
Black.

The level of importance assigned to five of

the six factors considered in making the place-
ment decision [(a) I.Q. Test Results, (b)
Standardized Achievement Test Scores, (c)
Student Motivation, (e) Student Background

Information, and (f) Parental Recommendation],

116

did not differ significantly based on the
race of the student. However, Teacher
Perception and Student Performance Evaluation
was considered significantly more important
when Timothy was portrayed as White in

making English, reading, and mathematics
placement decisions. A discussion on these

finding will be presented in Chapter V.

Background Characteristics of the Respondents

 

The sample consisted of 18 randomly selected sixth
grade teachers and the total population of 12 junior high
school counselors. Although general background informa-
tion on the sample was presented in Chapter III, additional
findings regarding the sample will be included in this sec?
tion. An analysis of the responses given to the items on
the Personal Data Sheet further revealed that 36.7 percent
of the sample lived in all-White neighborhoods, while 43.3
percent lived in predominantly White neighborhoods. Of
the subjects, 41.4 percent indicated that their racial
attitudes were liberal and 27.6 percent indicated that they
had very liberal racial attitudes; another 24.1 percent con-
sidered their racial attitudes moderate and 6.9 percent of
the subjects felt they were conservative in their racial
attitudes.

The teachers and counselors were also asked how

often they invited someone of another race for a casual

117

or social visit in their homes. The responses were:

16.7 percent indicated that they never entertained persons
of another race in their homes, 36.7 percent entertained
persons of another race at least once every six months;

20 percent indicated that they invited persons of a differ-
ent race to their home once every three months; while only
10 percent of the sample statedcnuxea month; and 16.7 per-
cent of the respondents invited racially different persons
to their home once a week.

The Attitude Questionnaire was completed by the
entire sample. The percentages compiled from the responses
to the items on the questionnaire are presented in Table
4.21 and summarized below.

The subjects were asked if court-ordered school
desegregation was necessary to provide equal Opportunity
for quality education for all students. Of the respondents,
73.3 percent indicated that school desegregation was
necessary, 16.7 percent felt it was not necessary, and 10
percent of the subjects were neutral. Seventy percent of
the subjects agreed that school desegregation would improve
the conditions for quality education, while 16.6 percent
did not concur and 13.3 percent remained neutral. Eighty
percent of the respondents indicated that their school
offered a high quality of education. Only 3.3 percent of
the sample disagreed, with 16.7 percent remaining neutral.
The majority of the group was in favor of school desegre-

gation (86.6 percent) while 73.3 percent agreed that their

118

Table 4.21--The Percentage of Responses to the Attitude Questionnaire

for the Total Sample.

 

N=3O

SA

SD

 

1. The court-ordered desegregation of
the schools in the *
School District is necessary to
provide an equal opportunity for
quality education for all students.

2. The desegregation of the schools
in * will improve con-
ditions for quality education.

3. My colleagues in this school gen-
erally support school desegregation.

4. I am in favor of school desegrega-
tion in *

5. This school offers the students a
high quality of education.

6. It is a good idea for students to
attend school with those of
other races.

7. Children of all races seem to get
along fairly well in this school.

8. School desegregation is important
enough to bus children from one
school area to another.

9. I support open housing for all
people.

10. I feel that my college program
adequately trained me to counsel
or teach minority students.

11. I have found inservice training
programs helpful in increasing my
skills in working with minorities.

SO.

33.

13.

16.

36.

86.

20.

16.

23.

36.

60.
23.
43.

23.

53.

40.

10.

20.

30.

U]

10.

13.

13.

16.

16.

10.

20.

26.

10.

13.

13.

10.

30.

23.

 

Note: The key for the responses is:
SA - Strongly Agree
A = Agree
N Neutral

SD = Strongly Disagree
D = Disagree

*The name of the school district is omitted to insure anonymity.

10.

119

colleagues were also in support of school desegregation.
In addition, 76.7 percent agreed that school desegregation
was important enough to bus children and 86.6 percent
thoughtit was a good idea for students of different racial
groups to attend school with each other. Seventy percent
of the respondents felt that students of racially different
groups did get along fairly well in the schools. Also,
the respondents were generally in favor of open housing.
The respondents were asked if they were adequately
trained in their college program to teach or counsel
minority students. Of the total responses, 40 percent
indicated that they were not adequately trained to work
with minority students, 40 percent stated that they were,
and 20 percent of the sample remained neutral. Less than
one-half of the respondents (45.7 percent) found the in-
service workshops helpful in increasing their skills in
working with minority students; 26.3 percent of the subjects
did not find in-service training helpful; and 26.7 percent

were neutral.

Summary

In this chapter, the results of the academic place-
ment decisions of the students depicted in the vignettes
were presented. The results of the statistical analysis of
the hypotheses and additional background information per-
taining to the sample as well as the results of the

Attitude Questionnaire were also presented.

120

In general, it was found that race did not affect
the academic placement decisions of teachers and counselors
as distinct or separate groups. Secondly, five of the six
factors--i.e., I.Q. test results, standardized achievement
test scores, student motivation, student background
information, and parental recommendation did not differ
significantly based on the race of the student. Teacher
perception and performance evaluation was considered sig-
nificant in only one instance. Although statistical tests
could not be conducted on the level of confidence placed
in the subjects' decisions, they did not appear to vary by
the race of the student. Finally, all subjects generally
expressed positive attitudes toward school desegregation
and other racial factors. The implications of the

findings and results are presented in Chapter V.

CHAPTER V

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

In the final chapter of this dissertation will be
found an overview of the problem and related literature, a
description of the procedures employed, the results, a
statement regarding the limitations of the study, and impli-
cations for counselors and other school personnel who are
in a position to make academic placement decisions that

affect both racial minority and majority students.

Overview of the Study

 

The purpose of this study was to examine the impact
of race on the academic placement decisions of public school
teachers and counselors. The study was also focused on the
importance of factors considered in the academic placement
decisions of students and the level of confidence in the
decisions made. The instruments used in this study were
four vignettes depicting male sixth grade students; the
vignettes were varied only by race, for a total of eight
cases. In addition, Placement and Rating Scales, Level of

Confidence Scales, an Attitude Questionnaire, Personal Data

121

122

Sheet, and Counselor-Teacher Questionnaire Forms were
administered to the subjects.

The subjects in this study were sixth grade teachers
and junior high counselors who were responsible for making
the academic placement recommendations for sixth grade
students in seventh grade language arts and mathematics
courses offered in the school system. The sample for the
study consisted of randomly-selected sixth grade teachers
and the total population of 13 junior high school counselors
employed in the school district. For statistical reasons,
two of the subjects were dropped from the sample for a
remainder of 18 teachers and 12 counselors.

The four vignettes, varied only by the race of the
student, were randomly assigned to the 30 subjects. The
subjects were instructed to place the students (two Black
and two White) in one of two levels of language arts and
one of three levels of mathematics courses. The academic
courses varied in difficulty from high (college preparatory)
to low (non-college preparatory). The re5pondents then
weighed the importance of six factors considered in making
the placement decision and further, indicated their level
of confidence in the decision made. Finally, the partici-
pants in the study completed questionnaire and background
information forms focusing on personal characteristics,
attitudes toward school desegregation, and race related

issues.

123

The chi-square analysis was used to test the hypothe-

ses and the .05 level of significance was established.

Results

A significant finding in this study was that the
race of sixth grade male students (Black or White) did not
appear to be a factor in the academic placement decisions
of sixth grade teachers or junior high school counselors,
on the basis of the subjects' responses to the instruments
employed in the study. In essence, the data of the study
indicate that race did not appear to be a factor in the
placement of students in junior high school language arts
or mathematics courses.

Furthermore, the weight given to five Of the six
factors considered in making the placement decisions did
not vary significantly as a function of the race of the
student. However, one of the factors, Teacher Perception
and Student Performance Evaluation, was significant at the
.05 level for Timothy when he was portrayed as a White
student. The factor was significant as a criterion in both
the language arts and mathematics course placement decisions.
Finally, the reported level of confidence in the placement
decisions made by the teachers and counselors did not appear
to vary based on the race of the student.

One of the instruments used in this study was the
Teacher-Counselor Questionnaire. The questionnaire was

designed by this researcher primarily as part of the

124

court-ordered evaluative project. However, two of the items
were specifically relevant to this research. Although the
findings related to the hypotheses were included in Chapter
IV, the responses to the items on the Teacher-Counselor
Questionnaire are more apprOpriately presented in this
section.

Teachers and counselors were asked what specific
factors accounted for the disproportionate number of Black
students enrolled in Select mathematics and English. The
primary reasons given for the disprOportionate Black enroll-
ment in the courses were the following:

1. lack of parental support

2. economic and environmental factors

3. less ability and low language skills

4. a limited range of experiences
Since the sample of teachers were randomly selected and all
of the junior high school counselors were participants in
the study, the responses may be taken as indicative of
attitudes that sixth grade teachers and junior high coun-
selors have about the academic potential and achievement of

Black students.

Discussion

 

A review of literature related to racial bias and
segregation in education, to racial bias of teachers, and
to the role that education as an institution has played in

developing, supporting, and reinforcing racism provided the

125

major background and research assumptions for this study.
Furthermore, the literature provided support for the premise
that educators in a system plagued with racism would not be
immune from its daily influence. Finally, the literature
review indicated that the decisions that teachers and
counselors make about their client are often race related.
Therefore, the general hypothesis that the race of the
student will affect the academic placement decisions of
counselors and teachers was reasonable and supported by the
literature review.

However, this investigation did not support the
hypothesis that the race of students affects the academic
placement decisions of sixth grade teachers and counselors.
Although the research hypothesis indicating that race was a
factor in the academic placement decisions was not con-
firmed, it is important to note that the factor referred to
as Teacher Perception and Student Performance Evaluation
was significant in the case of Timothy. Teachers rated this
factor as being more important when making academic place-
ment decisions when Timothy was White rather than Black.

In this vignette, Timothy's parents were depicted as being
upwardly mobile--i.e., his father was a Ph.D. candidate and
his mother was a Michigan Bell Telephone representative.
However, Timothy was portrayed as a slow and disruptive
student. Therefore, this finding supports an aspect of the

literature review, in that teachers give more credence to

126

to their own perceptions and ability to evaluate student
performance accurately when the student is White rather
than Black.

Furthermore, teachers and counselors tend to have
more negative attitudes and lower expectations with respect
to Black students, and to have more favorable attitudes and
higher expectations with respect to middle-income White
students. Therefore, one can conclude that the re5pondents
were not necessarily concerned with the low academic achieve-
ment or disruptive behavior when Timothy was portrayed as a
Black student, since these characteristics may have served
to reinforce the stereotypes held by the educators about
low-achieving racial minority students. However, when the
student was White, the factor was more carefully considered
and rated significantly more important, since the reported
academic and behavioral performance was contradictory to
those expectations typically held for White students of an
implied middle-income background.

Of further interest is the importance of the factor
referred to as Student Background information in the case
of Timothy (Table 4.17). The factor was of minimal impor-
tance to 60 percent of the re5pondents in determining the
level of mathematics placement for Timothy when he was
depicted as Black. On the other hand, 60 percent of the
respondents who placed Timothy when he was portrayed as
White considered the factor very important. This opposite

trend, though not statistically significant, would be noted

127

when discussing teacher and counselor bias that may have
been operating in the case of Timothy.

As previously indicated, the hypothesis was not con-
firmed, which indicated that the six factors considered in
making the language and mathematics placement decisions
would vary in the level of importance based on the race of
the student. However, the ratings given some of the factors
merit further discussion, even though statistically signi-
ficant differences were not found.

The factor termed Standardized Achievement Test
Scores in the language arts placement decision in the case
of Matthew did vary in the level of importance. When
Matthew was Black, the factor was minimally important to
80 percent of the respondents. It was of more importance
to 53 percent of the respondents who placed the student when
he was White. This same factor varied for Michael as well.
When the student was Black, 47 percent of the respondents
considered the factor of minimal importance compared to
73 percent of the respondents who reviewed the student when
White in making the language arts placement decision. It
should also be noted that the factor approached significance
at the .05 level in making the mathematics decision. How-
ever, due to the inflated alpha level used because numerous
independent tests were conducted, interpretation of these
results should await replication.

A review of the profiles reveals Matthew's test

scores in mathematics and language arts were at the fifth

128

grade level. Michael's test score results for mathematics
were also at the fifth grade level and his language arts
scores were at the fourth grade skill level. Matthew was
placed in English and Individualized math, and Michael was
placed in Reading and Individualized math by the majority of
respondents regardless of whether the student was depicted
as Black or White. Although the placement decisions made

by the teachers and counselors were comparable for both
students when varied by race, the weight given the factor

in making the decision differed.

Counselors and teachers in the case of the two
students did appear to use differential criteria in making
the placement decisions. In addition, the factor referred
to as Student Background Information was considered more
important in the language arts placement decision when
Matthew was Black, although the frequency of placement was
basically comparable. Again, the race of the student
appeared to influence the importance of this factor in the
case of Matthew. However, it should be noted that these
are trends in the data, not significant findings.

The significance of the level of confidence in the
language arts placement decisions, as reported by the
teachers and counselors, could not be determined (Table
4.19). There is, however, an alternative way in which the
data can be analyzed. For the purpose of this discussion,
the response percentages are used again to examine the

differences detected in the case of Timothy.

129

Although Timothy's language arts placement was
comparable when he was depicted as either Black or White,
the level of confidence reported by the respondents did
vary, based on the race of the student (Table 4.19).
Teachers and counselors were more confident in their
language art decisions when the student was White. However,
when Timothy was Black, the respondents were evenly divided.
Forty-seven percent indicated they were somewhat confident,
and 47 percent were very confident in the placement decision.
When a comparison is made across the race of the student,
teachers and counselors appear to be more confident in the
placement of Timothy when he was depicted as a White student.
Therefore, the race of the student appears to be an inter-
mittent but not a consistent factor in the consideration of
the academic status and possible placement of these students
on selected variables.

The responses given to the items on the counselor-
teacher questionnaire are in contradiction to the weights
given to the factors which were considered in the placement
of students in language and mathematics courses. The
factors referred to as Parental Recommendation and Student
Background Information were rated as being of minimal impor-
tance as criteria for making placement decisions.

Counselors and teachers indicated verbally, however,
that these factors were the primary reasons that Black
students were disproportionately underrepresented in higher

level academic courses. Moreover, students' lack of skills

130

and abilities was also ranked as a significant factor
related to the academic non-achievement of minority students.
When a comparison is made with the factors referred to as
I.Q. Test Results or Standardized Achievement Test Scores
(also identified as minimally important factors in academic
placement decisions), a discrepancy is found. It appears
that although teachers and counselors indicated that they
give little credence to parental recommendations in the
placement of students, they nevertheless hold parents
responsible for the failure of the students to achieve
academically. Moreover, the criteria for placement provided
by the district (Table 3) indicates the importance of test
results in the placement of students, even though the
responses of the counselors and teachers in the sample would
seem to show that test results were considered to be of
minimal importance in reaching decisions about student
placement.

The issue then becomes a question of whether
counselors and teachers follow the guidelines for placement
decisions, as set forth by the district, or whether they
place more weight on their personal, subjective judgments
in making course recommendations. This major discrepancy
becomes of critical importance in the decision-making pro-
cess investigated in this study. The criteria for placement,
as determined by teachers and counselors, not only is incon-

sistent with district policy, but is further inconsistent

131

in written and verbal re5ponses, as revealed in the present
study.

A logical explanation is that in the decision-making
process counselors and teachers rely on subjective teacher
evaluations regarding the competencies of students. These
evaluations can serve as the basis for criteria considered
in the academic placement of students. Once students are
placed in lower-level courses, based on these irrational and
subjective judgments, they receive differential academic
preparation. This discriminatory treatment then results in
more tangible data such as low achievement as determined by
test score results. This, then, completes the cycle of self-
fulfilling prophecy.

Therefore, it can be concluded that even though
responses to the vignettes indicated that race was not a
factor in the academic placement decisions regarding stu-
dents, this conclusion can be misleading. Race, was on the
contrary, a significant variable when teachers and counselors
in their verbal responses identified those characteristics
of Black students which, in their opinion, accounted for the
disproportionately small numbers of Black students enrolled
in English and higher level mathematics courses.

Further analysis of the re5ponses given by the
counselors and teachers also reveals other inconsistencies.
An inspection of the responses to the Attitude Questionnaire
(Table 4.21) would seem to indicate that the respondents

were generally in agreement with the statements posited.

132

However, a more careful examination of Table 4.21, in con-
junction with responses given on the Personal Data Sheet,
reveals departures on selected items and raises questions
about the results. For example, on item 10 of Table 4.21,
it is found that 96.7 percent of the sample lived in neigh-
borhoods that ranged in racial composition from predominantly
White to all-White. Further, 67 percent of the respondents
indicated that their racial attitudes were liberal to very
liberal, yet only 26.7 percent responded that they invited
racially different persons to their homes at frequencies
ranging from once a month to once a week. The actual
behavior is not consistent with the reported attitudes of
the teachers and counselors.

One possible explanation for this inconsistency
regarding the Attitude Questionnaire is that, since the items
were stated in a positive direction, a positive response set
might have occurred. Therefore, the re5ponses might not
necessarily be reflective of those attitudes actually held
by the subjects.

In order to understand how these inconsistencies in
responses and actual behavior might have occurred, it is

important to consider the context in which this study was

conducted.
Limitations of the Study with Implications
fer the Findings
The research of Brophy and Good (1974) and others

support the point of view that the educational climate plays

133

an important role in determining the instructional behavior
of teachers, the decision-making process that counselors
involve themselves in, and the decision that academic
administrators make regarding the overall educational pro-
cess.

Since the climate plays such a major role in all
aspects of decision-making, it is important to note that
this study was conducted at the time that a court-ordered
evaluation of the total school system was being conducted.
The evaluation was focused on the impact of the court-
ordered desegregation some years earlier on (a) pupil mix
and (b) the academic status of both minority and majority
students.

The climate that was created by a court-ordered
evaluation meant that all school personnel would be parti-
cularly sensitive to questions involving attitudes and
behavior related to race. It is likely that most re5pondents
would be reluctant to acknowledge racially-biased bases for
decisions regarding student placement in academic courses.

The district-wide evaluation included a wide variety
of educational factors including distribution of students by
race, site locations, school construction, additional per-
manent portable classrooms, school facilities, and staff
employment (Green and Cohen, 1979).

In this particular district, there had been con—
siderable racial tension and conflict prior to the desegre-

gation order. The tension at times produced physical

134

confrontations which led to the closings of junior and senior
high schools from time to time. There had been organized
Opposition to school desegregation by certain groups in the
district and in surrounding areas. On the other side of the
issue was the NAACP, which had served as a strong advocate
for school desegregation.

The community at large became very concerned about
the issue of desegregation. In essence, the school system
in this district became the focal point for an aspect of
social change. The educators within the system felt that
they too were on trial.

Another dimension to the case which may have
heightened the awareness of school administrators, teachers,
and counselors to the significance of the court-ordered
school desegregation evaluation was the fact that one of
the two social scientists assigned to direct the evaluation
had served as an expert witness in the case during the
liability stage. He had presented testimony that was
damaging to the district's position on the segregation of
students and staff. The same individual had also testified
in the case during the remedy stage. This meant that he
was well-known in the district. Therefore, respondents
would be understandably cautious in expressing views which
might be construed as racist when participating in any
aspect of the evaluation process.

Another a5pect to the unusual educational climate

at the time of this research was the evaluation order itself.

135

When judges direct institutions to cOOperate with evaluative
teams, they intend that the institutions will provide the
investigators with all the data needed to complete the
evaluation. In the context Of this study, it came at a time
when the school superintendent had directed all school per-
sonnel to work with an administrator in central administra-
tion in providing whatever data would be needed to complete
the investigation. Under these circumstances, school per-
sonnel would probably tend to protect themselves and the
district itself from any findings which might be interpreted
as racist-oriented.

These factors pertaining to the desegregation
evaluation, considered jointly with the attendant publicity
concerning the court order, thus served to potentially bias
the re5ponses of all subjects beyond the limits of the usual
social response set regarding racial prejudice. This, of
course, was a major limitation in this study and it would
be highly desirable to conduct future such studies in a more
controlled environment.

Another limitation of this study that pertained to
response set was the use of only positively worded items on
the questionnaire. This might have encouraged general agree-
ment with the items by the subjects, thereby creating a
positively biased response set. Half of the items should
have been negatively worded to avoid this possible source

of bias and stimulate "true" responses from subjects.

136

Considering the instruments used in this study
further, there did not exist any established reliability or
validity of the items used. The instruments were created
for use in the study and thus affected the outcome to an
unknown extent. Utilizing instruments with proven reliabi-
lity, had they been available, would have controlled this
effect on outcome.

A final circumstance which might account for the
findings based on the re5ponses of the subjects to the in-
struments used in this project is the fact that the inter-
viewer was Black and assumed to be a member of the research
team. Whatever racial biases may actually contribute to the
placement of students in the language and math programs of
the district might be specifically denied by respondents
when questioned on such matters during a period of court-
Ordered investigation.

Finally, this study was limited by the small number
Of subjects used. A larger pool of subjects would have pro-
vided a more representative group, enabling greater generali-
zation of findings. The results of this study are only
generalizable to the Kalamazoo public schools. However, in
generalizing these findings, the aforementioned limitations
produced by the court-ordered desegregation evaluation, race
Of the researcher, use of unproven instruments, instrument
response set created by all positively worded items and
small number of subjects used, must also be considered as

they affected the research outcome.

137

Implications for Counselors

 

A finding of particular interest is the fact that
counselors did not differ significantly from teachers in the
placement recommendations, in the criteria considered in
making the placement decisions, or in the reported degree
of confidence in the resulting level of placement Of the
students. This similarity existed deSpite the fact that the
counselors in the sample were slightly older and much more
experienced (17.8 years of service as compared to 11.3 years)
than the sample of teachers. Further, counselors were likely
to have had additional training beyond a master's degree as
compared to teachers who did not generally pursue training
after completion of a master's degree. Yet, given these
differences in background variables between the two groups
(teachers and counselors), they were relatively consistent
on measures of the dependent variables. The implications
of these findings are in support of the literature which
suggests that the role of counselors is perceived to be one
of maintaining the status quo.

Counseling and guidance personnel should be expected
to play an important role in the implementation of school
desegregation. Kromboltz and Thoresen (1969), Carkhuff
(1972), and Berdie (1972) concur with other major counselor
educators who advocate the active role of the counselor.
Gunnings (1976) also stresses the need for counselors to be
trained to work effectively as system-oriented change agents.

The role of the counselor as a change agent is especially

138

relevant in the context of school desegregation. Court-
ordered or voluntary school desegregation plans involve
major educational system change. However, the effectiveness
of such efforts is often undermined if changes do not occur
from within the system as well. Counselors, due to their
unique role within the school system, are in a pivotal
position to serve as change agents. Yet, for school guidance
and counseling departments to be effect as change agent,
major changes in the competencies and skill levels of
counselors will need to be made. Very few counselor edu-
cation programs formally train counselors in the necessary
skills of operating effectively as leaders and advocates
within the total system.

Hence, this study provides data indicating the need
for additional training of school counselors, both pre-
professionally and professionally, to enable them to work
more effectively, in an advocacy role, with minority stu-
dents. The primary goal of school desegregation is equal
educational Opportunity for all students. However, as indi-
cated by respondents on the Personal Background and Attitude
Questionnaire, counselors felt ill-prepared to work with
minority students. Consequently, the probability that
minority students will actually benefit from the desegregated
school experience diminishes if internal changes do not
accompany the major desegregation efforts. Therefore, a
well-planned, advocacy-oriented inservice training program

for counselors could assist them in acquiring attitudes and

139

skills which would allow them to make decisions that are

academically beneficial to minority students.

Implications for Future Research

Although the literature concerning school desegre-
gation research is abundant, there is a need for small-scale
studies which investigate interracial educational processes
in desegregated school systems (St. John, 1975). This study
was an attempt to contribute to the growing interest of
social scientists in the impact of within-school processes
on the effectiveness of school desegregation. It was the
intent of the investigator in this study to isolate the
impact of race as a factor in the continued practice of edu-
cational inequities in a particular desegregated school
district. However, considering the limitations of this
study, coupled with the statistically insignificant results,
the researcher strongly supports further investigation
related to academic decision-making in desegregated school
districts.

The results of this study may serve as a guidepost
for future research efforts. The following suggestions for
additional studies designed to examine the influence of race
on academic placement decisions should be considered.

First, the results of this study suggest that the
stimulus vignettes need to be improved before they are used
in further research. It now appears that the four vignettes

used in this study may not have been ambiguous enough to

140

generate variability in the placement decisions. The
academic competencies of students depicted in the vignettes
were obvious and did not require that the teacher or coun-
selor respondent give careful consideration to other cri-
teria in making the placement decisions. It is the belief
of this researcher that if the achievement level of students,
as indicated in the four vignettes, had reflected that of
marginal students as opposed to clearly advanced and under-
achieving students (as was true for two of the cases), then
placement decisions would have been more difficult to make
without attending to other factors. Based on the review of
literature, race then might have become an influential
factor in the decision-making process.

Counselors and teachers, when in situations where
the bases for estimates of students' abilities are not
clearly indicative, will consider their underlying belief
systems about students in academic decision-making. The
belief that Black students are generally less capable is
wideSpread in the educational system, according to the
literature. Therefore, by depicting students of marginal
or questionable competency levels, teacher and counselor
biases are more likely to become the basis for the evaluation
of students, thus generating more variability in the academic
placement levels.

Ways in which the purpose of the study could be more
carefully disguised should also be explored. It was the

impression Of this researcher that the counselors and

141

teachers were aware of the intent of the vignettes, usually
[after re5ponding to the second one. Vignettes depicting
female students, physically disabled students, or students
with varied ethnic backgrounds should be developed and
included to help disguise the question of interest to the
study.

The Attitude Questionnaire might also be improved.
The questions were stated in a positive manner which might
have encouraged a positive response set to the items.

It is also suggested that a larger sample size should
be utilized in a study of this nature. In this particular
study, it was not feasible to increase the sample of teachers,
nor was it possible to increase the sample of counselors,
since the total pOpulation was used. However, ways might
be considered to include more subjects so that the power of
the statistical test used would be increased, and so that
the variability of placement recommendations could be
enlarged. In future attempts, it is suggested that a study
of two or more comparable desegregated school districts
might be undertaken. With this approach, the population
would be increased, and the sample size could be determined
based on a power analysis with an alpha level of.05, and
an effect size preliminarity based on the results of this
study. In addition, a more powerful statistical test, such
as the ANOVA, might be used to test the hypothesis if two
or more school districts were included in the research

design.

142

It would be of further interest to conduct related
research at various points in time during school desegre-
gation. Longitudinal studies in desegregated school systems
are rare. Such an effort would serve to broaden the base of
knowledge regarding the effectiveness of school desegregation
over time as determined by the academic placement of minority
students. The results Of such a study would be useful to
districts undergoing school desegregation and more impor-
tantly, to federal court judges for their consideration in
ordering ancillary relief measures.

Other issues which could be examined, in addition
to the differential placement of minority and majority
students, would include student achievement in homogeneous
vs. heterogeneous classes, the relationship of race to up-
ward mobility of students in various academic tracks, and
students' selections of courses in comparison to the level
of placement as determined by counselors and teachers.

These kinds of studies would require additional resources
than those that were available for the present investiga-

tion.

Conclusion

 

Although the results of this study would seem to
show that the race of the student was not a significant
factor in the academic placement decisions made by counse—
lors and teachers, the need for further investigation is

indicated. The findings of this study, because of the

143

circumstances under which it was conducted, are not suffi~
cient to justify the conclusion that race is not a factor
in the decision-making process. It is strongly recommended,
however, that before further attempts are made to examine
the issue of differential decision-making, researchers
should first focus on refining the instruments to be used
in the study.

In summary, this study was an attempt to isolate
race as a factor in academic placement decisions. Based
on the experience gained from conducting this research, and
on the findings of this study, certain changes are warranted
in future attempts to examine the influence of race in
decision-making processes.

First, the changes would involve instrumentation.
This researcher devoted considerable time to the development
of the vignettes and consulted with professionals in the
field of education and educational testing on numerous
occasions concerning the clarity, content, and face validity
of the profiles. The knowledge gained from this research
illuminates the importance of developing profiles of stu-
dents who are clearly more marginal. Another recommended
change resulting from having undertaken this study would be
to first conduct a pilot study in order to provide appro-
priate guidelines for the major research effort. Given the
time frame that the researcher was operating under, it was
not feasible to do a pilot study for this investigation,

since the present study was a part of a major court-ordered

144

evaluation. Finally, it is highly inadvisable for research
of this type to be conducted in any district under continued
surveillance by the court, as the participants will tend to
view the study with warranted suspicion.

This study, which was designed and implemented by
this researcher, was fascinating throughout every stage.
Attempting to predict and explain human behavior and to
understand underlying motives and beliefs can present a
challenge to researchers. It is the hOpe of this researcher
that the results of this effort may stimulate on-going
attempts to investigate related issues in other school

districts.

APPENDICES

APPENDIX A

VIGNETTES

APENDIX A
VIGNETTES

Matthew is a _____ ll l/Z-year-old sixth grader.

He lives with his mother, father, 2 older brothers, and 3
younger sisters. His father is employed as a service worker
at the Miller Lumber Company and his mother is a maid at the
Sheraton Hotel. Matthew's intelligence test scores are
average. When he transferred into the school as a third
grader from a segregated inner-city school, his skill level
was below grade level. However, he was able to perform at
grade level by the end of the academic year.

Matthew re5ponds very well to praise, according to
his teacher. His teacher also noted that he works more
productively in higher structured situations. He becomes
very frustrated when he is unable to master a given task,
such as successfully computing a long division problem with
a divisor of 2 or more digits and a dividend of 4 or more
digits.

Matthew's sixth grade test results revealed that he
was performing at the fifth grade level in both reading
and math. He seems to enjoy attending school and has dis-

played leadership ability throughout the year. He made a

145

146

collage of famous [Black athletes for Black History Week/
Canadian Hockey players for International History Week] and
gave a report about the teams they played on. His teacher
further stated that Matthew is liked by his peers and has

not exhibited any behavioral problems.

147

Michael is a lZ-year-old _____ sixth grader. He
was retained in the first grade. The school psychologist
reported that Michael was immature for his age in addition
to having emotional problems, which were not detailed in
his cumulative record.

Michael has lived with his grandmother since he was
seven years old, according to his caseworker from Social
Services. Michael assumes a great deal of responsibility
for his two younger siblings. Both are students here at
this school. He enjoys playing the piano and is presently
taking lessons, which are paid for by Probate Court. He
appears to be content with his present living arrangements.
According to his teacher, Michael is always eager to please,
yet his feelings are hurt very easily. His teacher noted
that he displays an aggressive tendency when he feels
threatened academically or if his peers make fun of him.
His teacher also reported that Michael increasingly shows
less interest in his studies. Michael's test scores
revealed that he was working at a fifth grade math level
and reading at the fourth grade level.

Due to her working schedule, his grandmother has
been unable to attend conferences scheduled. Michael had a
history of placement in negative foster home environments

prior to living with his grandmother.

148

Timothy is an 11-year-old _____ sixth grader. His
father is a doctoral student at Western University and his
mother is employed at Michigan Bell Telephone Company as a
sales representative. The parent/teacher relationship has
been poor. Mr. and Mrs. Moore think Timothy's teachers are
to blame for the difficulties he has experienced in both the
third and fourth grades.

‘ According to his teacher, Timothy does not have a
positive attitude about school. He has average to poor
work/study habits and has often neglected to complete his
assignments, even when they are sent home with him for com-
pletion. His teacher also stated that he needs his boun-
daries carefully defined. He will eventually work with
constant prodding. Tim required extra help in reading and
math throughout this school year.

Tim gets very angry with his peers and pouts when
he does not get his way. Several of the group assignments
in class have triggered his explosive temper. The principal
noted in his files that Tim does not deal well with authority
figures.

Timothy's test scores were below average. His
reading scores were at the fourth grade level, while his
math scores were at third grade. He is aware of his low
skill level and becomes easily frustrated when confronted

with academic tasks.

149

Robert is a lZ-year-old _____ student finishing
the sixth grade. He lives with his parents and is the
youngest of three children. His father is an accountant
with a local firm and his mother is an R.N. at Borgess
Hospital. Both parents are actively involved in PTO and
attend parent-teacher conferences regularly when scheduled.

Robert possess high level reading skills and is able
to understand very sophisticated reading selections and
their implications. Robert is interested in a variety Of
reading material and enjoys using the library, according to
his teacher.

His teacher further observed that he is very
enthusiastic about school. He is able to grasp math con-
cepts very quickly and works extremely well alone. Robert
usually completes his work ahead of most of the class and
helps his peers after his assignments are completed.

His test scores indicate his reading level is at
the eighth grade and math scores are at the sixth grade
level. His teacher commented that Robert has displayed
excellent academic and social skills, and is a highly moti-

vated student.

APPENDIX B

CRITERIA FOR DETERMINING PLACEMENT OF STUDENTS
BY SIXTH AND SEVENTH GRADE COUNSELORS

APPENDIX B

CRITERIA FOR DETERMINING PLACEMENT OF STUDENTS
BY SIXTH AND SEVENTH GRADE COUNSELORS

 

 

 

 

 

 

1. Do you recommend placement of the student you just reviewed in

seventh grade?

English

Reading

We have identified a possible list of factors that may be used as
criteria for determining placement of students by sixth and seventh
grade counselors. Please rate the importance of each factor you
may have considered in your evaluation and placement recommendation
of the sixth grade students you have just reviewed. Where you are
uncertain, make the best possible choice. Please do ppp leave any
scale blank.

2. Circle the number on each scale which best represents the importance
of each factor you considered in making a placement decision about
the student for seventh grade ENGLISH/READING.

Of Minimal Moderately Very Extremely
Impprtance Important Important Important
A. I.Q. Test Results 1 2 3 4
B. Standardized Achievement l 2 3 4
Scores
C. Student Motivation 1 2 3 4
D. Teacher Perception and l 2 3 4
Performance Evaluation
E. Background Information on 1 2 3 4
Students
F. Parental Recommendation 1 2 3 4
Other (Please specify)
1 2 3 4
l 2 3 4
1 2 3 4

 

150

151

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

3. Which level of seventh grade math do you recommend as placement for
the student you just reviewed:
Select
Individualized
Regular
4. Circle the number on each scale which best represents the importance
of each factor you considered in making a placement decision about
the student for seventh grade MATHEMATICS-
Of Minimal Moderately Very Extremely
Importance Important Important Important
A. I.W. Test Results 1 2 3 4
B. Standardized Achievement 1 2 3 4
Scores
C. Student Motivation 1 2 3 4
D. Teacher Perception and l 2 3 4
Performance Evaluation
E. Background Information on 1 2 3 4
Students
F. Parental Recommendation 1 2 3 4
Other (Please specify)
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
l 2 3 4
5. How confident are you regarding the placement decision you made about
this student in seventh grade English/Reading?
Minimally Moderately Very Extremely
Confident Confident Confident Confident
l 2 3 4
6. How confident are you regarding your decision about the level of

placement of the student in seventh grade MATHEMATICS-

Minimally Moderately Very Extremely
Confident Confident Confident Confident

 

1 2 3 4

APPENDIX C

ATTITUDE QUESTIONNAIRE

APPENDIX C
ATTITUDE QUESTIONNAIRE

The following items are designed to measure attitudes toward
school desegregation:

n=30 SA A N D SD

1. The Court ordered desegregation of
the schools in the * School
District is necessary to provide an
equal Opportunity for quality education
for all students. 1 Z 3 4 5

 

2. The desegregation of the schools in
* will improve conditions for
quality education. 1 2 3 4 5

 

3. My colleagues in this school generally
support school desegregation. l 2 3 4 5

4. I am in favor of school desegregation
in * . l 2 3 4 5

5. This school offers the students a high
quality of education. 1 2 3 4 5

6. It is a good idea for students to attend
school with those of other races. 1 2 3 4 5

7. Children of all races seem to get along
fairly well in this school. 1 2 3 4 5

8. School desegregation is important
enough to bus children from one school
area to another. 1 2 3 4 S

{O

I support open housing for all people. 1 2 3 4 S

152

153

SA A N D SD

10. I feel that my college program ade-
quately trained me to counsel or
teach minority students. 1 2 3 4 5

11. I have found inservice training pro-
grams helpful in increasing my skills
in working with minorities. l 2 3 4 5

Note: The key for the responses is:

SA = Strongly Agree SD = Strongly Disagree
A = Agree D = Disagree
N = Neutral

*The name of the school district is omitted to insure
anonymity.

APPENDIX D

PERSONAL DATA SHEET

APPENDIX D
PERSONAL DATA SHEET

Your job title is:

 

Sex: Male _____ Female

Race: Black _____ White _____ Spanish American
Oriental _____ Mexican American
Other

Age:

 

What is the highest level of education you have com-
pleted?

Less than an M.S. in the field of

 

M.A. in the field of

 

additional credits beyond an M.A.

 

an Ed.S., Ed.D., or Ph.D.

 

Was the college or university you attended:
all white

predominately white

about half white and half non-white
predominately black

all black

154

10.

11.

 

155

What was the racial composition of the neighborhood
in which you lived most of your life?

all white

predominately white

about half white and non-white
predominately black

all black

 

How often do you invite someone of another race to your
home for a social function or casual v151t?

once a week
once a month
once every three months
“___— once every six months

never

 

How much experience have you had in counseling/teaching

students from racial or ethnic groups other than your
own?

Have you attended inservice training programs specifi-
cally relating to ways in which to work effectively
with minorities?

yes approximately how many in the past 6 years?

no

 

 

List the kinds of inservice training programs that you
feel would be helpful in working effectively in a
desegregated school system.

 

 

 

12.

13.

14.

15.

156

Please check the following professional organizations

that you are presently a member of:

American Personnel and Guidance Association
Divisions of APGA

Association of Black Psychologists

MPGA and Divisions of MPGA

Local Personnel and Guidance Association

 

 

Michigan Education Association
National Association of Black School Educators

Other professional organizations (please list
names of organizations)

The number of years you have been employed as a
counselor/teacher are:

 

As you recall, were any of the cases labeled by race?

yes

 

no

 

Overall, would you say that your racial attitudes are:
very conservative
conservative
moderate
liberal

very liberal

LIST OF REFERENCES

LIST OF REFERENCES

Abramswitz, S. Comparative counselor inferences toward
women with medical school aspirations. Journal of
College Student Personnel, 1975, 19, 128-130.

 

 

Allport, G. W. The nature of prejudice. Cambridge, Mass.:
Addison-Wesley, 1954.

 

Amir, J. Contact hypothesis in ethnic relations. Psycho-
logical Bulletin, 1969, 11, 319-338.

 

Amos, W. The nature of disadvantaged youth. In W. E.
Amos and J. D. Gramds (eds.), Counseling the Dis-
advantaged Youth. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice
Hall, 1968.

 

 

A5py, D. A discussion of the relationship between selected
student behavior and the teacher's use of inter-
changeable reSponses. Paper presented at the
meeting of the American Educational Research
Association, New Orleans, Louisiana, 1973.

Ayers, L. P. La ards in our schools. New York: Russell
Sage, l

 

Banks, G. The effects of race on one-to-one counseling
interviews. Social Service Review, 1972a, 45,
137-146.

 

Banks, G., Gerenson, B. G., and Carkhuff, R. R. The effects
of counselor race and training on the counseling
process with negro clients in initial interview.
Journal of Clinical Psychology, 1967, 23, 70-72.

Banks, W. M. The black client and the helping professionals.
In R. L. Jones (ed.), Black Psychology. New York:
Harper-Row, 1972b.

 

Berdie, R. F. "The 1980 counselor: Applied behavioral
scientist. Personnel and Guidance Journal, 1972,
50(6), 451-456.

157

158

Bloombaum, M., Yamamoto, J., and James, Q. Cultural
stereotyping among psychotherapists. Journal of
Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 1968, 33, 99.

Borg, W. Ability grouping in the public school. 2nd
ed1t1on. a 1son, Wis.: Dembar Educational Research
Services, 1966.

 

 

 

Broverman, I. K., and Broverman, D. M. Sex-role stereotypes
and clinical judgments of mental health. Journal
of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 1970, 33,
1-7.

 

Brown, V. Board of Education of Topeka. 347 U.S. 483, 493
(1954).

BrOphy, J. E., and Goad, T. Teacher-student relationshipg:
Causes and consequences. New York: Holt, Rinehart
and Winston, 1974.

 

 

Lookin in classrooms. 2nd edition. New York:
Harper an ’Row, 1978.

Byers, P., and Byers, H. Non-verbal communication in the
education of children. In C. Cazden, V. John, and
D. Hymes (eds.), Function of language in the class-
room. New York: Teachers College Press, 1972.

Carkhuff, R. R. The credo Of a militant humanist. Personnel

 

and Guidance Journal, 1972, 51(4), 237-242.

 

Cook, W. W. Classroom methods: The gifted and retarded in
historical perspective. Phi Delta Kappan, 1958,
'32, 249-255.

 

Cook, 8. The effect of unintended interracial contact upon
raEial interaction and attitude change. (Project

NO. 5-1320), Final Report, U.S. Office of Education,
August 1971, mineo.

Calia, V. The culturally deprived client: A reformulation
of the counselor's role. Journal of Counseling
Psychology, 1966, 33, 100-105.

Carkhuff, R. R., and Pierce, R. Differential effects of
therapist race and social class upon patient depth
of self-exploration in the initial clincial inter-
yiew. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 1967, 31,

32-634. _—

Clark, K. E. Darkghetto. New York: Harper 8 Row, 1965.

159

Cox, 0. C. Caste, class and race. New York: Doubleday,
1948.

 

Campbell, D. T., and Stanley, J. C. Experimental and
quasi-experimental designs for research. Chicago:
Rand McNally, 1962.

 

 

Diana, V. State Board of Education. Civil Action No.
C-7037 R.F.P (N.D., Cal.), January 7, 1970 and
June 18, 1973.

Donahue, T. J. Discrimination against young women in career
selection by high school counselors. Unpublished
doctoral dissertation, Michigan State University,
1976.

Donahue, T., and Costar, J. Counselor discrimination
against young women in career selection. Journal
of Counseling Psychology, 1977, 33, 481-486.

Dusek, J. Do teachers bias children's learning. Review of
Educational Research, 1975, 33, 661-684.

 

 

Edel, R. Educational tests: Valid? biased? useful? Phi
Delta Kappan, 1975, 31, 83-88.

 

Ehrlich, H. J. The socialpsychology Of prejudice. New
York: Wiley, 1973.

Ellison, R. Invisible man. New York: The New American
Library, 1952.

 

Fidell, L. S. Empirical verification of sex discrimination
in hiring practices in psychology. American Psy-
chologist, 1970».£§(12): 1094-1098.

 

 

Findley, W. and Bryan M. Abilit rouping: Georgia.
University of Georgia, I97I.

Findley, W., and Bryan, M. The pros and cons of ability
grouping. Phi Delta Kappa, 1975, 33.

Franklin, J. H. From slavery to freedom. 3rd edition.
New York: Knopf, 1969.

Friedman, H., and Friedman, P. Frequency and types of
teacher reinforcement given to lower and middle
class students. Presented at the annual meeting
of AERA, New Orleans, 1973.

Goldberg, M., Passow, A., and Justman, J. Effects of
abilit rou in . New York: Teachers College
Press, ColumE1a University, 1966.

 

160

Goodwin, W., and Sanders, J. An explanatory study of the
effect of selected variables upon teachers' expecta-
tions of pupil success. Presented at the annual
meeting of American Educational Research Association,
1969.

Gordan, M., and Grantham, R. Helper preference in dis-
advantaged students. Journal of Counseling Ppy-
chology, 1979, 33, 337-343.

 

Grant, W. Desegregation: A report card. The Detroit Free
Press, May 14, 15, 16, 1979.

 

Green, R. Comments on Ebel's defense of tests and testing.
Phi Delta Kappan, 1975, 33, 88-93.

 

Green, R. L., Griffore, R. J., and Simmons, C. A restate-
ment of the IQ/culture issue. Phi Delta Kappan,
1976, 674-676.

 

Green. The urban challenge--poverty and race. Chicago:
Follett, 1977.

 

Green, R. L., and Cohen, W. An evaluation of the results
of the school desegregation order [368 F. Supp. 143
(W. D. Mich. S. D. 1973)]. Unpublished manuscript,
1979.

Green, R. L., Griffore, R., and Simmons, C. A restatement
of the IQ culture issue. Phi Delta Kappan, 1976,
33(10), 674-676.

 

Gunnings, T. A systemic approach to counseling. Unpublished
manuscript, Michigan State University, 1976.

Gunnings, T. S., and Jucker, R. Counseling black youth: A
quest for legitimacy. Journal of Non-White Concerns,
1974, 3, 208-216.

 

Hallack, S. L. Therapy is the handmaiden of the status quo.
Psychology Today, 1971, 98-100.

 

Hambly, J. Diversity: A deve10pmental perspective. In
Race and Intelligence.

 

Hartell, R. W. Homogeneous grouping. New York: Bureau of
Publications, Teachers Ollege, Columbia University,
1936.

Haettenschwiller, D. L. Counseling black students in
Special programs. Personnel and Guidance Journal,
1971, 33, 905-911.

161

Hobson and Hansen, 269 F. Suppl. 401, 484-492.

Hogan, J. The schools, the courts, and the public interest.
Washington, D.C.:THeath and Company, 1974.

Hollingshead, A. B., and Redlich, F. C. Social class and
mental illness: A community study. Neinork:
Wiley, 1958.

 

Hollis, J. W. Guidance and counseling in school: A histori-
cal approach. In C. L. Lewis (ed.), The status of
guidance and counseling in the nationTs schbols.

Washington, D.C.: APGA/USOE Project Task Force,
1977.

 

Jackson, G., and Cosca, C. The inequality of educational
Opportunity in the southwest: An observational study
of ethnically mixed classrooms. American Educational
Research Journal, 1974, 33, 219-229.

Jones, J. M. Prejudice and racism. Mass.: Addison-Wesley,
1972a.

Jones, R. Labeling children culturally deprived and cul-
turally disadvantaged. In R. L. Jones (ed.), Black
psychology. New York: Harper and Row, 1972.

Jones, V. A., and McCall, W. A. Application of two tech-
niques in evaluating some policies of dealing with
bright children. T.C. Record, 1926, 33, 825-835.

Kincaid, M. Identity and therapy in the black community.
Personnel and Guidance Journal, 1969, 33, 884-890.

Kirp, D. A. School as sorters. University of Pennsylvania
Law Review, 1973, 121, 707-794.

Kleiner, R. J. Mental disorder and status based on race.
Psychiatry, 1960, 33, 271-274.

Klineberg, 0. Social psychology. New York: Holt Rinehart
and Winston, 1954.

Krumboltz, J., and Thoresen, C. E. Behavioral counseling.
New York: Holt, Rinehart 8 Winston, 1969.

Krech, D. R., Crutchquill, S., and Ballachey. Individual
in society. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1962.

 

Lane, E. A. The influence of sex and race on process-
reactive ratings of schiz0phrenics. The Journal
of Psychology, 1968, 33, 15-20.

 

162

Larry, P. V. Riles. Civil Action No. 6-71-2270 343 F.
Supp. 1036 (N.D. Cal., 1972).

Leacock, E. Teaching and learningin city schools. New
York: Basic BOOKS, 1969.

Maynihan, D. P. The Negro family; The case for national
action. as 1ngton, D.C.: Office of Policy Planning
and Research, U.S. Department of Labor, 1965.

Maslin, A., and Davis, J. Sex roles stereotyping as a
factor in mental health standards among counselors
in training. Journal of Counselingngsychology,
1975, 33, 87-91}

McDavis, R., and Parker, M. A course on counseling ethnic
minorities: A model. Counselor Education and
Supervision, 1977, 33, 146-149.

 

 

Meer, B., and Freedman, E. The impact of Negro neighbors
on white home owners. Social Forces, 1966, 13,
11-19.

 

Michigan Civil Rights Commission and the State Board of Edu-
cation. Joint policy statement on equality of
educational opportunity, 1969.

Miller, C., McLaughlin, J., and Chansky, N. Socioeconomic

class and teacher bias. Psychology Reports, 1969,
33, 806.

 

National Institute of Education. School desegregation: A
report of state and federal judicial and administra-
tive activity. U.S. Government Printing Office,
October, 1977.

Nystrand, R. 0., and Staub, W. The courts as educational
policy makers. In C. P. Hooker (ed.), The courts
and education. Chicago: University of Chicago
Press, 1978.

 

Oliver, V. Michigan State Board of Education and School
Board of Kalamazoo, 346 F. Supp. 766 (W.D. Mich.
1971), Affirmed 448 F 2d 635 (6th Cir. 1971), 368 F.
Supp. 143 (W.D. Mich. 1973), 508 F 2nd 1978 (6th
Cir. 1974), cert denied 421 U.S. 963 (1975).

Palardy, J. M. What teachers believe-what children achieve.
Elementapy School Journal, 1969, 33, 370-374.

Paley, V. White teacher. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Uni-
versity Press, 1969.

163

Pederson, P., and Lanner, W. (eds.), Counseling across
cultures. Honolulu, Hawaii: University Press of

Hawaii, 1976.

 

Pinderhughes, C. A. Racism and psychotherapy. In C. Willie,
B. Kramer, and B. Brown (eds.), Racism and Mental

Health. Pittsburgh: University of PittsBurgh Press,

1973.

 

Rist, R. Student social class and teacher expectations: The
self-fulfilling prOphecy in ghetto education.
Harvard Educational Review, 1970, 39, 411-450.

 

Rock, R. T. A critical study of current practices in
ability grouping. Educational Research Bulletin.
Catholic University of America, Nos. 5 and 6, 1929.

 

Rokenson, J., and Preston, J. D. Equal status contact and
modification of racial prejudice: A reexamination
of the contact hypothesis. Social Forces, 1976,
33, 911-924.

 

Rose, A. Sociology, 1965. New York: KnOpf.

 

Rosenbaum, J. Making_inequality. New York: Wiley, 1976.

 

Rosenthal, R. The pygmalian effect lives. Psychology Today,
March, 1973, 3(9), 56-63.

 

Rosenthal, D., and Frank, J. D. The fate of psychiatric
clinic out-patients assigned to psychotherapy.
Journal of Nervous Mental Disease, 1958, 127,
330-343.

Rosenthal, R., and Jacobson, L. Pygmalian in the classroom.
New York: Hlt, Rinehart and Winston, 1968.

 

Rubovits, P., and Maehr, M. Pygmalian black and white.

Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1973,
33, 210-218.

Ruiz, R., and Padilla, A. Counseling Latinos. Personnel
and Guidance Journal, 1977, 33, 401-408.

 

Ryan, H. H., and Crecelius, P. Ability grouping. New York:
Harcourt Brace, 1927.

 

Ryan, W. R. Blamipgthe victim. New York: Random House,
1971.

Smith, E. J. Counseling black individuals: Some stereo-
types. Personnel and Guidance Journal, 1977, 55,
3 0-396. _—

164

Spring, J. The sorting_machine. New York: McKay, 1976.

 

St. John, N. School dese re ation: Outcomes for children.
New York: Wiley, 1975.

 

 

Strupp, H. H. The performance of psychiatrist and psy-
chologists in a therapeutic interview. Journal
of Clinical Psychology, 1960, 33, 210-217.

 

Sue, S. Counseling the culturally different: A conceptual
analysis. Personnel and Guidance Journal, 1977,
33, 422-426.

 

Swann, V. Charlotte-Mecklenberg Board of Education, 402
U.S. (1971).

Szasz, T. S. The Negro in psychiatry. American Journal
of Psychotherapy, 1971, 33, 469-471.

 

 

Thomas, A. H., and Stewart, N. R. Counselor response to
female clients with deviate and conforming career
goals. Journal of Counseling Psycholpgy, 1971, 33,
352-357.

Tolson, H. Counseling the "disadvantaged." Personnel and
Guidance Journal, 1972, 33, 735-738.

 

 

U.S. Bureau of the Census. Census of Population and Housing:
1970 Census Tracts. Final report PHC (l)-98,
Kalamazoo, Michigan SMSA.

Walkon, G. H., Moriwaki, S., and Williams, K. J. Race and
social class as factors in the orientation toward
psychotherapy. Journal of Counseling ngchology,
1973, 39, 312-316.

Williams, R. L. Abuses and misuses in testing black
children. The Counseling Psychologist, 1971, 2,
62-73. _

Worlton, J. T. The effect of homogeneous classification Of
scholastic achievement of bright pupils. Elementary
School Journal, 1928, 33, 336-345.

 

Wrightsman, L., Nelson, R. H., and Trants, M. The con-
struction and validation of a scale to measure
children's school morale. In R. L. Jones (ed.),
Black psychology. New York: Harper and Row, 1972.

165

Yamamoto, J. , James, Q. C. , Bloombaum, M. , and Hattem, J.
Racial factors in patient selection. American
Journal of Psychiatry, 1967, 124, 630- 636.

 

Zettel, J., and Abeson, A. The right to a free appropriate
public education. The Courts and Education. P.
Hooker (ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press,
1978.