-n-o- M“ ~-——- -w"‘ I {5‘5 ‘ Lii‘ififitfi‘f . Eiietifigrgasa £mte ummgm \ . w”...— 9-”...M..." w— / This is to certify that the dissertation entitled A STUDY OF THE LEADERSHIP STYLE OF THE ACADEMIC DEANS OF THE SEVENTH-DAY ADVENTIST COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES IN NORTH AMERICA presented by David Shu 0n Pang has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph.D. degree in Higher Education '1’“ - / Major professor Date December 1, 1982 MS U is an Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution 0-12771 ; Huiwillilinliiml' IVIESI.) RETURNING MATERIALS: Place in book drop to LIBRARIES remove this checkout from .—_ your record. FINES will be charged if book is returned after the date stamped below. gflfi'LHS M47 JUN 2“?ng 3‘6; w 25‘ 329 A STUDY OF THE LEADERSHIP STYLE OF THE ACADEMIC DEANS OF THE-SEVENTH-DAY ADVENTIST COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES IN NORTH AMERICA by David Shu 0n Pang A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Administration and Curriculum T982 céT“/<:Z,;a g? :> .3 / ABSTRACT A STUDY OF THE LEADERSHIP STYLE OF THE ACADEMIC DEANS OF THE SEVENTH-DAY ADVENTIST COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES IN NORTH AMERICA by David Shu On Pang Problem The Seventh-day Adventist Church operates a worldwide system of education from preschools through universities. Since in educa- tional institutions academic deans are the leaders of faculties, their leadership style is important to subordinates and institutions alike. Often academic deans ck) not realize that their leadership style affects the performance of subordinates and Operation of the institution. The purpose of the study was to examine the relation- ship of leadership style of the academic deans to job satisfaction of the chairpersons and to certain demographic variables. Method The descriptive survey research method was used. Population included all academic deans and chairpersons of the Seventh-day Adventist colleges and universities in North America. Data were collected through three standardized question- naires: Leader Behavior Descriptive Questionnaire--Form XII, Least Preferred Coworker Scale, and Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire-- Short Form. Research hypotheses were developed to determine relationships/ differences between leadership style of academic deans and job satis- faction of Chairpersons and between leadership style of deans and selected demographic variables. Hypotheses were. also developed to test significant differences between leadership style of deans of schools of medical arts and liberal arts and between style of the deans as perceived by themselves and as perceived by Chairpersons. For all tests of significance, alpha was set at the .05 level of confidence. Multiple regression was used to determine relation- ships, and the appropriate analysis of variance or Chi square was used to find differences. Results Significant relationship beyond the .05 level of confidence was found between the linear combination of the degree of considera- tion and initiating structure (i.e., leadership style) and job satis- faction of Chairpersons. Consideration was found a better predictor of job satisfaction than initiating structure. A related finding indicated that predictive accuracy was significantly related to job satisfaction. Conclusions One can conclude from the research findings that (l) the leadership style of deans which contributes most toward job satisfac- tion of Chairpersons is a combination of consideration and initiating structure, with consideration being the more important contributor; (2) chairpersons' perceptions of deans' leadership style do affect their job satisfaction; (3) administrators of collegescr universi- ties should consider the above leadership style, including predictive accuracy, when selecting deans. To my wife Maggie ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS In pursuing this research study, many individuals have either directly or indirectly contributed towards its successful completion. To each of these individuals I wish to express here my sincere appre- ciation and heartfelt gratitude. I am profoundly grateful to Dr. Richard Featherstone, Dr. Howard Hickey, Dr. James Page, and Dr. Vandel Johnson who so willingly. and graciously committed themselves to be members of my guidance committee. It has been a real pleasure working with each of them. Their professional assistance and scholarly commentary were invaanble to the study and their warm friendship will be long remem- bered. A very Special appreciation and deepest gratitude are due to members of my family. Our children, Marilyn and Dudley, gave lovingly and unreservedly their moral support, c00peration, and understanding. My wife Maggie, to whom I am forever grateful, worked very hard all these years while I attended college in order to pro- vide financial support for the family and gave abundantly of her love, faith, and encouragement throughout my doctoral program and the writing of this dissertation. The memories of my late parents are fondly remembered. With- ' out their support, encouragement, and loving kindness when I started pursuing my higher education there would not be this day. iii Most important of all, I must acknowledge here the ever loving and guiding presence of my Heavenly Father. To Him I give all the praise for this final milestone of my academic achievement. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES ........................ Chapter I. INTRODUCTION ...................... Statement of the Problem .............. Purpose of the Study ................ Need for the Study ................. Definition of Terms ................. Hypotheses ..................... Delimitations .................... General Design ................... Organization of the Study .............. REVIEW OF LITERATURE .................. Introduction .................... Historical Background of the Academic Deanship Roles and Functions of the Academic Dean ..... The "Man in the Middle" Increasing Responsibilities and Varying Roles- . . The Dean's Role in the Educational Program Personnel .................. Curriculum ...... . . . . . . . . . . . . . Budget . . . . . , . . . . . . . ....... Administrative Functions of Academic Deans . . - - Relationship of the Academic Dean with Others Selection, Qualification, and Preparation of Academic Deans - - . . - - - - Selection Procedures ..... . . ....... Preferred Qualifications . Preparation for the college Dean Leadership .................... Job Satisfaction ................. Relation of Democratic and Autocratic Leadership with Job Satisfaction ............. Relation of Permissive and Restrictive Leadership with Job Satisfaction ............. Relation of Follower-Oriented Leadership with Job Satisfaction ............. Relation of Participative and Directive Leadership with Job Satisfaction ............. Relation of Leader Consideration and Structure with Job Satisfaction ............. III. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY ............ Type of Research .................. Study Population and Sample ............ Research Instruments ................ Least Preferred Coworker Scale ......... Leader Behavior Description Questionnaire-- Form XII ................... Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire-- Short Form .................. Research Procedures ................ Statistical Analysis ................ IV. PRESENTATION OF FINDINGS ............... General Findings of the Study ........... LPC Questionnaire Results ............ LBDQ-lZ Results . ................ MSQ Results ................... Specific Findings of the Hypotheses ......... Related Findings of the Study ........... V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS .................. Summary ...................... Background and Purpose ............. Population and Sample .............. Instrumentation and Methodology ......... Delimitations .................. Conclusions .................... Implications .................... Recommendations .................. General Recommendations ............. Recommendations for Future Research ....... APPENDICES .......................... A. Questionnaire Sample--Least Preferred Coworker (LPC) Scale .................... B. Questionnaire Sample--Leader Behavior Description Questionnaire--Form XII .............. C. Questionnaire Sample--Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire--Short Form ............. D. Sample Introductory-Endorsement Letter from the General Conference of the Seventh-day Adventists ...... vi 119 122 122 122 123 123 126 126 129 131 132 133 136 136 138 144 146 E. Sample Covering Letter for the Academic Deans ...... 147 F. Sample Covering Letter for the Department/ Division Chairpersons ......... . ....... 148 G. Sample Follow-up Letter for the Academic Deans ..... 149 H. Sample Follow-up Letter for the Department/ Division Chairpersons ................ 150 I. Normative Data of Managers for the Long Form MSQ . . . . 151 BIBLIOGRAPHY .......................... 153 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. LIST OF TABLES Responses by Categories of Questionnaires and Colleges. . LBDQ-12 Means and Standard Deviation for Consideration and Initiating Structure by Academic Deans ...... Multiple Regression Analysis of Consideration and Initiating Structure on Job Satisfaction ....... Analysis of Variance of the Level of Job Satisfaction of Chairpersons Under Relationship-Motivated and Task— Oriented Academic Deans 107 ............. Univariate Analysis of Variance of Consideration between Medical and Liberal Arts Academic Deans ....... Univariate Analysis of Variance of Initiating Structure between Medical and Liberal Arts Academic Deans ......................... Chi Square Analysis of Relationship- and Task- Motivated Leadership Styles of Academic Deans by Colleges ....................... Chi Square Analysis of Relationship- and Task-Motivated Leadership Styles among Medical Arts and Liberal Arts Academic Deans .................... Univariate Analysis of Variance of Consideration between Male and Female Academic Deans ............ Univariate Analysis of Variance of Initiating Structure between Male and Female Academic Deans -------- Multiple Regression Analysis of Consideration and Initiating Structure upon Age ---------- Multiple Regression Analysis of Consideration and Initiating Structure upon Length of Service ----- Chi Square Analysis of 15 Academic Deans by Leadership Styles and Sex -------------- Chi Square Analysis of 14 Academic Deans by Leader- Ship Styles and Sex .................. viii 94 103 106 110 114 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. Analysis of Variance of Age between Relationship- and Task-Motivated Academic Deans ......... Analysis of Variance of Length of Service between Relationship- and Task-Motivated Academic Deans Analysis of Variance of Consideration between Relationship- and TaskeMotivated Academic Deans ......... Analysis of Variance of Initiating Structure between Relationship- and Task-Motivated Academic Deans Multiple Regression of All the Leadership Dimensions of LBDQ-lZ on Job Satisfaction .......... Correlation Coefficients of the Leadership Dimensions of the LBDQ-12 ............. ix 116 117 117 118 120 121 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Leadership has been characterized as a phenomenon easier to recognize than to define.1 Consequently, there are as many defini- tions for leadership as there are writers. To Hemphill, "a defini- ‘tion of leadership must include both the characteristics of a social 2 111 some, situation’ and the characteristics of’ an 'individual." "leadership is a man's ability to take the initiative in social situations, to plan and organize action, and in so doing to evoke c00peration."3 To still others, ". . . leadership is a process of mutual stimulation--a social interactional phenomenon in which the attitudes, ideals, and aspirations of the followers play as important a determining role as do the individuality and personality of the leader."4 Of all these definitions, the last is perhaps the most 1John Wesley Gould, The Academic Deanship (Los Angeles, California: Institute of Higher Education, 1964), p. 40. 2John 1(. Hemphill, Situational Factors in Leadership §Columbus: Bureau of Educational Research, Thio State Wiversity, 949), p. 5. — 3Office of Strategic Services Assessment Staff, Assessment of ,flgfl (New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1948), p. 301. 4A Paul Hare, Edgar F. Borgatta, and Robert F. Bales, Small EEPUP51 Studies in Social Interaction (New York: Alfred A. Rnoff, 1955). p. 93. applicable to the academic dean's situation. However, it is startl- ing to discover that a great many deans regard themselves not as leaders but as catalysts of faculty Opinion and decision making. Therefore, it is not easy for the academic dean to be a leader.5 According to Gould, only a very rare situation would permit a thoroughly autocratic or authoritarian academic dean to operate. One must remember that a dean's actions are dictated not only by his own interests, abilities, and experience, but by those of the president and the department/division heads as well.6 Of the 330 deans who participated in a study done by Ward, . . very few marked themselves at either extreme end of the democratic-autocratic self-rating scale. The great majority of the group, and the group as a whole classified themselves on the democratic side of the scale. The adjusted mean for the group was 70, repfesenting a position 70% toward the democratic . . . scale. Ever since 1934, the position of dean has moved toward the democratic end of the scale. In fact, in Stoke's view, the autocra- tic dean is now very likely to be regarded as a troublemaker. Administration imposes habits which often create occupa- tional characteristics in those who hold such offices. They are not positions of final or primary authority, yet a strong dean . . . frequently may be tempted to emphasize the impor- tance of his position by adepting an independent attitude toward the president or an arbitrary one toward the faculty. Either creates trouble. Or he may deliberately restrict him- self to a narrow conception of his position and become 5Gould, The Academic Deanship, p. 41. 61bid., pp. 43, 44. 7Merle Scott Ward, PhiloSOphies of Administration Current in the Deanship of the Liberal Arts COTlege (New York: ‘BUreau of PGbTi- cations, TeaChers COllege,‘Columbia’UnTVersity, 1934), p. 97. virtually a clerical intermediary who accepts any recommenda- tion and who receives and transmits any decision--without affecting either. The problem is a serious personal one for the parties at interest and for the administrative organiza- tion and leadership of higher education generally. It deserves a better solution than has been found.8 Statement of the Problem The Seventh-day Adventist Church has a worldwide system of education ranging from preschool through university level. According to the 118th Annual Statistical Report 1980, compiled by Office of 9 this worldwide Archives Statistic of the Seventh-day Adventists, system is comprised of eight home-study institutes, 4,127 primary schools, 806 secondary schools (complete and incomplete) and worker training schools, and seventy-six universities and colleges. Of these seventy-six institutions of higher learning, twelve (ten colleges and two universities) are located in North America. According to Fiedler, ". . . the survival of our institutions depends to a considerable extent on the type of leadership we are able to get."10 Moreover, the way' in which managers lead is obviously important to the employee and to the organization as a whole. How the manager behaves toward his/her subordinates affects 8Harold W. Stoke, The American College President (New York: Harper & Row, 1959). pp. 42443. 9Office of Archives and Statistics, 118th Annual Statistical Report--l980 (Washington, D.C.: General Conference of Seventh-day AdventiSts, 1980), p. 24. 10F. E. Fiedler, A Theory of Leadership Effectiveness (New York: McGraw Hill Book Co., 1967). P. 3. 4 labor turnover, employee satisfaction, and, of course, performance.n Certainly, the same thing can be said of the leadership of the academic dean, since the academic dean is considered the leader of the faculty”. It is not unreasonable then to assume that the academic dean is the person to whom the individual faculty member must look for leadership. The procedure by which the Seventh-day Adventist colleges and universities select their academic deans is appointment by the board of trustees upon the recommendation of the college or university 13 McGinnis points out that where the dean is appointed by president. the president, more or less independently of faculty sanction, the dean is likely to be the president's representative in the college faculty, is more or less the president's confidential adviser, and is directly responsible to the president.14 This leads one to believe that the predominant leadership style of the academic deans of the Seventh-day Adventist Colleges and universities is more autocratic or directive rather than democratic or participative. It seems that the academic deans often do not “F. E. Fiedler and Martin M. Chemers, Leadership and Effective Management (Glenview, Illinois: Scott, Foresman & COmpany, 1974), p. 40. 12Gould, The Academic Deanship, p. 70; Arthur F. Engelbert, "The)Professor Looks at the Dean," The Educational Record (October 1957 : 316-19. 13H. Leverne Bissel, "The Relationship of Leadership Charac- teristics of Academic Deans in Seventh-day Adventist Colleges and Universities to Their Performance Levels as Perceived by Educational Administrators and Faculties," Ed.D. dissertation, Andrews Univer- sity, Berrien Springs, Michigan, 1977, p. 2. 14F. A. McGinnis, "The Dean and His Duties," Journal of Higher Education 4 (April 1933):191-96. realize fully that their leadership style affects the performance of the faculty and the operation. of the institution as a whole. Moreover, they may not even know what leadership style they are emulating in dealing with their subordinates. Therefore, a study of leadership style and its relationship to job satisfaction and certain demographic variables would be helpful. Purpose of the Study This study serves a four-fold purpose: (1) to determine if a relationship or difference exists between the leadership style of the academic deans and job satisfaction of the department/division Chairpersons; (2) to determine if there exists a difference between the leadership or difference style of the deans of medical and para- medical schools and those of colleges of art and sciences; (3) to determine if a relationship or difference exists between the leader- ship style of the academic deans and their demographic characteris- tics, namely, sex, age, level of education, and length of service; and (4) to determine if there exists a difference between the leader- ship style of the academic deans as perceived by the academic deans themselves and as perceived by the department/division chairpersons. Need for the Study .A preliminany review of literature shows that the academic deanship and its various aspects has been the subject for a wide selection of research studies and publications. However, this has not dealt specifically with the academic deans ofthe Seventh-day Adventist colleges and universities in North America. There appears to be only one incident in published literature where the academic dean of one Seventh-day Adventist college in America was represented and that is in a study by Ward.15 One study which deals specifically with the academic deans of the Seventh-day Adventist colleges and universities is a dissertation written by Leverne H. Bissel in 1977 at Andrews University, Berrien Springs, Michigan. Bissel's study concerns the characteristics of the academic deans and their performance. Since the Seventh-day Adventist Church operates a system of education throughout the world, it would seem that the successful operation of its many educational institutions would depend to a considerable extent on the leadership abilities and style of the academic deans. Certainly, then, there is a need for more studies than have already been done to be devoted Specifically to the leadership of the Seventh-day Adventist academic deans. Inasmuch as little attempt has been made to identify the leadership style of academic deans of the Seventh-day Adventist colleges and universities in North America, this study tries to discover the leadership style of the academic deans and certain of its relationships and differences.16 It is h0ped that the results of this study will prove helpful to colleges and universities in North America in planning their personnel programs and to present and future academic deans in 15Ward, Philosophies of Administration, p. 32. 16See above, p. 5, "Purpose of the Study." America. There appears to be only one incident in published literature where the academic dean of one Seventh-day Adventist college in America was represented and that is in a study by Ward.15 One study which deals specifically with the academic deans of the Seventh-day Adventist colleges and universities is a dissertation written by Leverne H. Bissel in 1977 at Andrews University, Berrien Springs, Michigan. Bissel's study concerns the characteristics Of the academic deans and their performance. Since the Seventh-day Adventist Church Operates a system Of education throughout the world, it would seem that the successful Operation Of its many educational institutions would depend to a considerable extent on the leadership abilities and style Of the academic deans. Certainly, then, there is a need for more studies than have already been done to be devoted specifically to the leadership Of the Seventh-day Adventist academic deans. Inasmuch as little attempt has been made to identify the leadership style Of academic deans Of the Seventh-day Adventist colleges and universities in North America, this study tries to discover the leadership style Of the academic deans and certain of its relationships and differences.16 It is hOped that the results Of this study will prove helpful to colleges and universities in North America in planning their personnel programs and to present and future academic deans in ISWard, PhilOSOphies of Administration, p. 32. 16See above, p. 5, "Purpose Of the Study." improving their leadership style or adapting the leadership style which may be most conducive to high levels Of job satisfaction and performance (production) of subordinates. Also, it is hoped that this study will contribute tO making it possible for the academic deans to focus on understanding and accepting their own style and recognizing its positive and negative qualities. Definition Of Terms Leadership style refers to the combination Of the leadership dimensions Of consideration and initiating structure, as determined by the Leader Behavior Description Questionnaire--Form XII (LBDQ-lZ), or the relationship-motivated, or task-motivated leadership style, as determined by the Least Preferred Coworker Scale (LPC).]7 Consideration refers to behavior indicative Of friendship, mutual trust, respect, and warmth in relationship between the leader and members Of the group.18 Initiating structure refers to behavior in delineating the relationship between the leader and members Of his or her group, and in endeavoring to establish well-defined patterns Of organization, channels Of communication, and ways Of getting the job done.19 Relationship-motivated defines the leadership style of the l7Full explanations of these two instruments are given in chapter III. 18A. it. Halpin, "Manual for the Leader Behavior Description Questionnaire" (Columbus, Ohio: Bureau Of Business Research, College of Commerce and Administration, Ohio State University, 1957), p. l. (Mimeographed.) 19mm. individual who describes his or her least preferred coworker in relatively favorable terms and is being interpreted as reflecting a basic motivation Of relationship with others.20 Task-motivated defines the leadership style Of the individual who describes his or her least preferred coworker in very negative, rejecting terms and is being interpreted as reflecting a motivation for task accomplishment.2] Job satisfaction is the sum Of the evaluations of the 22 discriminable elements Of which the job is composed. It is to be determined by the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire--Short Form 23 (M50) in this study. Medical arts, as used in the context Of this study, includes the college of medical arts and the schools of medicine, allied- health professions, dentistry, health, and nursing Of the Seventh-day Adventist Church in North America. Liberal arts, as used in the context Of this study, includes all the undergraduate colleges Of arts and sciences Of the Seventh-day Adventist Church in North America. Length Of service is restricted to the number Of years a person serves as an academic dean. 20F. E. Fiedler and M. M. Chemers, Improving Leadership Effec- tiveness (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1977), p. 9: 21 Ibid. 22E. A. Locke, "What Is Job Satisfaction?" Organizational Behavior and Human Performance 4 (l969):330. 23 I Full explanation cfi’ this instrument is given in chapter 11. Level Of education refers to the academic degrees--namely, bachelor, master, or doctoral degree--held by the academic deans. .592 refers to the chronological age Of the academic deans. North America is limited to the United States and Canada. Seventh-day Adventist colleges and universities are institu- tions of higher learning owned and Operated by the Seventh-day Adventist Church as a part of its worldwide educational program. As used in this study, they include educational institutions which Offer two or more years of post-secondary studies. Hypotheses Fourteen hypotheses which concern the relationship between the leadership style Of the academic deans and the job satisfaction Of the department/division Chairpersons and between the leadership style (Hi the academic dean and selected demographic variables are listed below: Hypothesis One. The leadership style (i.e., degree of consideration and initiating structure) Of the academic deans as perceived by the department/division chairpersons is significantly related to the level Of job satisfaction of the department/division chairpersons. Hypothesis Two. The level of job satisfaction Of the department/division chairpersons whose academic deans reported their own leadership style as being relationship-motivated is significantly different from the level Of job satisfaction Of the department/ division chairpersons whose academic deans reported their own leadership style as task-motivated. 10 Hypothesis Three. The leadership style (i.e., degree of consideration and initiating structure) Of the academic deans of medical arts institutions and the leadership style (i.e., degree of consideration and initiating structure) Of the academic deans of liberal arts institutions as perceived by the department/division chairpersons is significantly different. Hypothesis Four. The proportion of medical arts academic deans who reported themselves as relationship-motivated versus task-motivated is significantly different from the proportion Of liberal arts academic deans who reported themselves as relationship- motivated versus task-motivated. Hypothesis Five. The leadership style (i.e., degree Of consideration and initiating structure) as perceived by the depart- ment/division chairpersons Of the male academic deans is signifi- cantly different from the female academic deans. Hypothesis Six. The leadership style (i.e., degree of consideration and initiating structure) Of the academic deans as perceived by the department/division chairpersons is significantly related to the age Of the academic deans. Hypothesis Seven. The leadership style (i.e., degree Of consideration and initiating structure) Of the academic deans as perceived by the department/division chairpersons is significantly related to the level Of education Of the academic deans. Hypothesis Eifl. The leadership style (i.e., degree Of consideration and initiating structure) of the academic deans as perceived by the department/division chairpersons is significantly 11 related to the length of service Of the academic deans. Hypothesis Nine. The prOportion of male academic deans who report themselves as relationship-motivated versus task-motivated is significantly different from the proportion Of female academic deans who report themselves as relationship-motivated versus task- motivated. Hypothesis Ten. The academic deans who report themselves as relationship-motivated are significantly different in age from those who report themselves as task-motivated. .Hypothesis Eleven. The academic deans who report themselves as relationship-motivated are significantly different in educational level from those who report themselves as task-motivated. Hypothesis Twelve. The academic deans who report themselves as relationship-motivated are significantly different in the length Of service from those who report themselves as task-motivated. Hypothesis Thirteen. The academic deans who report them- selves as relationship-motivated are perceived by their department/ division chairpersons as higher in consideration than those who reported themselves as task-motivated. Hypothesis Fourteen. The academic deans who report them- selves as relationship-motivated are perceived by their department/ division chairpersons as lower in initiating structure than those who report themselves as task-motivated. Delimitations This study is limited to the Seventh-day Adventist colleges and universities in North America. All twelve colleges and 12 universities (nine colleges and two universities in the U.S.A. and one college in Canada) are inclUded in the study. The population for this study is limited to only 'those academic deans who have at least four department/division chairper- sons directly under their supervision and all department/division chairpersons who serve directly under them. All the academic deans of schools without any departments or divisions, associate deans, and assistant deans are excluded. Since this study examines academic deans functioning within the Seventh-day Adventist Church in North America, generalizations are limited to that group Of academic deans in North America only and may not extend to those academic deans Of the Seventh-day Adventist Church outside North America. ‘However, generalizations may be made to extend to academic deans Of colleges and universities Of other institutions which are similar to the Seventh-day Adventist colleges and universities in their organizational structure and Operation. General Design Sample: The sample for this study was made up Of all academic deans and department/division chairpersons who met the criteria stated above. There are altogether 23 academic deans and 244 department/division chairpersons who qualified for this study. Sources and Nature Of Data: the leadership style of the academic deans was assessed using the LBDQ-12 and the LPC. The department/division chairpersons described their academic deans by reSponding to the LBDQ-12. The academic deans responded to the LPC Scale. 13 The MSQ was used to determine the job satisfaction Of the department/division chairpersons. The chairpersons responded to the M50. Statistical Analysis: The regression method was used to determine whether a significant relationship exists between the per- ceived leadership style (Hi the academic deans and job satisfaction Of the department/division chairpersons, and whether a relationship exists between the perceived leadership style Of the academic deans and each of their demographic variables Of age, level Of education, and length of service. The apprOpriate methods Of analysis Of variance and Chi square were used to determine whether there are any significant dif- ferences between (1) the reported leadership style Of the academic deans and the job satisfaction of the department/division chairper- sons, (2) the leadership style (both reported and perceived) Of the deans Of medical arts and liberal arts institutions, (3) the per- ceived leadership style Of the deans and their demographic variable of sex, (4) the reported leadership style of the deans and each of the demographic variables Of sex, age, level Of education, and length Of service, and (5) the reported and perceived leadership style of the deans. Organization of the Study This study is organized as follows: Chapter I is an intro- duction to the study. It consists Of such necessary details as the statement Of the problem, purpose Of the study, need for the study, definition of terms, hypotheses, delimitations, and design. 14 Chapter II reviews the related literature. It focuses pri- marily on studies in leadership, academic deanship, and jOb satisfac- tion or performance. Chapter 111 describes the research design and methodology. It includes a more detailed description ofthe pOpulation and sample, the instruments for Obtaining data, the statistical analysis used, and the whole procedure for Obtaining, handling, and recording data. Chapter IV presents the actual analysis Of the data and the outcome Of the study. The findings are presented systematically and logically. Chapter V summarizes the study and discusses the conclusions that have been reached. It also includes any implications and sug- gestions that seem warranted. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF LITERATURE Introduction There is a dearth Of material regarding leadership and deanship. This review, therefore, is selective and is based on material that relates most directly to the present study and which contributes tO a better understanding of the present investigation as a whole. The chapter is divided into two main sections. The first presents a review Of the literature which is most pertinent to the academic deanship. It would seem that a research study in relation tO deanship in higher education cannot be fully understood without some attention given to its history. Consequently, the review of literature begins with a brief historical background Of academic deanship. The role and function Of the academic deans follows with special emphasis on the conflicts inherent in that role. This section would also seem incomplete without a discussion on the relationships of the academic dean with others and his/her Opportuni- ties for leadership in the institution. Recent trends in selection, qualification, and preparation for the academic deanship concludes this section. The second section first gives an overview of the literature dealing with leadership and job satisfaction in general, and then 15 l6 tries to focus on the concepts that have a direct bearing on the present study. The second section begins with a general introduction on leadership and is followed by some basic assumptions and key defi- nitions. Job satisfaction is discussed with special emphasis on its meaning, concepts, and role variables Or job dimensions. The remainder Of the second section is devoted to discussions on the effects of leadership styles on job- or group-member satisfaction. Historical Background Of the Academic Deanship It is interesting to note at this point the derivation Of the word "dean" and its applications in the early days. Charles F. Thwing, president emeritus Of Western_ Reserve University, has suggested that the term was borrowed from the church.‘ Records, however, reveal that the title had been in use long before the church employed it. The term "dean" is derived from the Greek "seka" and the Latin "decanus," meaning "ten," which was probably originally used tO designate a military Officer in charge of ten peOple in pre-Christian Rome.2 During the fourth century the term "dean" began to acquire a much broader use. It was applied to members of a guild whose occupation was the burial of the dead, to certain minor Officers Of the imperial household, and later to various civil functionaries of 1Charles F. Thwing, "College Presidents: Whence They Come, Whither DO They GO, What DO They 00?" School and Society 35 (January 2, 1932):3. 2Clyde A. Milner, The Dean of the Small College (Boston: ChristOpher Publishing House, 1936), p. 17. '17 the Roman Empire. Originally, the church borrowed the term ”decanus" to designate a monk appointed to take charge Of the discipline Of ten other monks. Later, the term was introduced among the clergy and was applied tO the head Of the chapter in the cathedrals.3 While the term "dean" continued in the church, it began to appear also in many Of the great medieval universities in Europe. At Oxford and Cambridge the Office Of dean was established to superintend discipline. In Germany the dean presided over faculty meetings, represented the faculty in its external relations, and supervised both the faculty and the student body.4 From this heterogeneous application Of the term "dean," the title was carried to American higher education. Having no single definite application abroad, it came likewise to serve indiscriminate purposes in the United States Of America.5 The beginning Of the academic deanship in the United States seems to date back to 1870 when Ephraim Gurvey was appointed to act as dean Of the college at Harvard.6 However, prior to 1870, there had been a few professional deans-~the first Of whom was the dean of the medical school at Harvard.7 3Merle S. Ward, PhilOSOphies Of Administration Current in the Deanship of the Liberal Arts COTleges ‘(New ‘YOrRT'TBureau of *PUblications, Teachers College, COlumBia University, 1934), p. 12. 4 5 Ibid., p. 13. Ibid., p. 14. 6Myron F. Wicke, "Deans: Men in the Middle," in The Study Of Academic Administration, ed. Terry F. Lunsford (Boulder: Western Interstate Commission fOr Higher Education, 1963), p. 54. 7Earl J. McGrath, "The Dean,“ Journal Of Higher Education 7 (November, l936):428. 18 By 1933, it seems most senior colleges in North America had established the Office Of the academic dean.8 Ward, in a study made in 1934 Of 319 liberal arts colleges, found 1913 to be the median year of the establishment of the dean's Office.9 In another study Of thirty-two institutions made in 1936, McGrath found the median year Of establishment Of the dean's Office 1.10 to be 189 Florence Partridge, who studied the dean's Office in thirty liberal-arts colleges, found the median year of establishment Of the dean's Office to be 1904.11 The diSparity among these years Of establishment of the dean's Office could be explained by the difference in the selection or sampling Of the institutions for the study. For example, Ward included institutions established as late as 1930, and eighty-six Of them were not in existence in 1891. This sampling procedure would 12 . naturally raise the median year considerably. However, the difference in the date of establishment of the dean's Office is not very significant. The fact is that the office of the dean has been a response to the president's need for administrative assistance.l3 81bid. 9Ward, PhilOSOphies Of Administration, pp. 22. loMcGrath, "The Dean," p. 428. nFlorence A. Partridge, "The Evolution of Administrative Offices in Liberal Arts Colleges from 1875 to 1933," Master's thesis, University Of Chicago, 1934, cited by McGrath, "The Dean," p. 428. lecGrath, "The Dean," pp. 428-29. 131p1d., p. 429. 19 It seems reasonable to Speculate that deanships did not emerge until recently because: (1) the president could handle all administrative affairs when colleges were small, (2) the president could still know enough of several academic disciplines to handle the proficiency of the faculty, (3) the president wanted to guard his own prerogatives and did not wish tO share them, or (4) there were insufficient funds to pay an additional administrator.14 However, as colleges increased in size and presidents' responsibilities multiplied, it became Obvious that deanships would sooner or later become universal. The Office Of the dean was created in many colleges to aid the president. In others, it came into being tO meet an emergency, such as illness, resignation, or death Of the president. Sometimes it came about through the reorganiza- tion Of the college, and sngtimes it was created outright at the Open1ng Of the college. In 1885, fifteen years after the first academic dean was appointed at Harvard, only fifteen deanships had been established, but by 1913 the Office Of the academic dean was already quite universal.)6 Since the position Of the academic clean is of relatively recent origin, the functions and relationships Of that Officer are not yet standardized. Former Dean Herbert E. Hawkes Of Columbia College once said, "There is no such thing as a standardized dean. There is a dean Of this and that college, but I have never seen any 14John hL Gould, The Academic Deanship (Los Angeles, California: Institute Of Higher Education, 1964), p. 2. 15Roy J. Deferrari, The Problems of Administration in the American College (WEashington, D.C.: The» Catholic 'University’ Of America Press, 1956), p. 55. 16 Ibid. 20 twO deans who would exchange places and retain the same duties."17 This leads tO a discussion about the roles and functions Of the academic dean. Roles and Functions Of the Academic Dean According to Gould, the position Of academic dean is in fact a precarious one» Deans appear to have the Opportunity to be just what they want to be: 'wwephets, prime movers, or keepers Of the status quo; or weather vanes; builders, or housekeepers; mavericks, or lackeys to the president." However, there seems to be little Opportunity for the academic dean tO exercise a leadership role. The deanship is a form Of authority, but some deans think they are denied the power thereof.18 The "Man in the Middle" Academic leadership in small liberal arts colleges rests in the hands Of the academic dean. In the public mind, the academic 19 dean is an educational leader. However, because the deanship position does not necessarily' demand 'technical expertise, 'trained skills, or even administrative experience, liberal arts academic deans are Often considered "amateur" administrators.20 ”Herbert E. Hawkes, "College Administration," Journal of Higher Education 1 (May 1930):245. 18Gould, The Academic Deanship, p. 4. ngohn D. Garwood, "Leadership in Small Colleges," Improving College and University Teaching 15, no. 4 (Autumn l967):205-6. 20Robert A. Scott, "The 'Amateur Dean' in a Complex University: An Essay on Role Ambiguity," Liberal Education 65 (Winter 1979 :445. 20 two deans who would exchange places and retain the same duties."]7 This leads to a discussion about the roles and functions Of the academic dean. Roles and Functions Of the Academic Dean According to Gould, the position of academic dean is in fact a precarious one. Deans appear to have the Opportunity to be just what they want to be: "prOphets, prime movers, or keepers of the status quo; or weather vanes; builders, or housekeepers; mavericks, or lackeys to the president." However, there seems to be little Opportunity for the academic dean to exercise a leadership role. The deanship is a form Of authority, but some deans think they are denied the power thereof.18 The “Man in the Middle" Academic leadership in small liberal arts colleges rests in the hands Of the academic dean. In the public mind, the academic 19 dean is an educational leader. However, because ther deanship position does not necessarily' demand 'technical expertise, “trained skills, or even administrative experience, liberal arts academic deans are Often considered "amateur" administrators.20 17Herbert E. Hawkes, "College Administration," Journal of Higher Education 1 (May l930):245. 18Gould, The Academic Deanship, p. 4. ngOhn 0. Garwood, "Leadership in Small Colleges," Improving College and University Teaching 15, no. 4 (Autumn l967):205-6. 20Robert A. Scott, "The 'Amateur Dean' in a Complex ggiversity: An Essay on Role Ambiguity,“ Liberal Education 65 (Winter 79 :445. 21 Recently, the responsibilities of the academic deans have increased. Pressing problems Of higher education are demanding a higher level Of expertise in virtually all facets of this leadership role. Therefore, it seems unreasonable to continue to assume that academic deans will be able to respond to the demands Of the leadership role without the Opportunity for job-Specific training.21 The Office Of academic dean is situated in the heart Of its own little academic world. If the role Of the dean is prOperly understood by all, including the deans themselves, deans are in a better position than anyone else on campus to vitalize the internal affairs of the institution. Actually, real or potential contribu- tions Of the academic dean to the life of the college or university are such that they directly concern the major problems now confronting higher education.22 A triadic model of the academic leadership may be posited as the college or university president, the academic dean, and the department chairperson. In such a model, the president is thought Of as the head Of the college or university as well as its representa- tive to the outside world. The department chairperson is the personification of the faculty as organized in a discipline» or profession. The academic deanship constitutes the middle position.23 ZlDaniel E. Griffiths and Donald .1. McCarty, The Dilemma Of the Deanship (Danville, 111.: Interstate Printers and Phblishers, 1980), pp. 91-92. 22Victor E. Hanzeli, "The Educational Leadership of the Academic Dean," Journal Of' Higher Education 37, lKL. 8 (November l966):421. 23 Ibid., Pp. 421-22 22 The terminology "man in the middle" as it refers to the academic dean, has both positive and negative connotations. In the positive sense, the term represents precisely the role Of the dean as the potential creative link between faculty and administration. In the negative sense, it portrays the academic dean as an "outsider." The faculty considers the dean as part Of the administration; the administration, on the other hand, identifies him/her tOO closely with the faculty. Be that as it may, if the academic dean moves out Of the nfiddle position, he/she loses his/her usefulness. It seems that by definition, academic deans must remain the "men in the middle."24 Increasing Responsibilities and Varying Roles It is enlightening tO note that the academic dean is perhaps the only academic administrator whose constituency is almost entirely within the institution. The dean is solely committed to the governance Of an academic program which consists Of the "faculty qua teachers" and the "students qua learners."25 ' In tracing the Changing role of the academic dean during the past thirty years, Gould points out that the academic dean has progressed . . . from almost sole concern with students, through a phase when students and the curriculum were his largest responsi- bilities, to a period when curriculum and faculty demanded the greatest part of his energies, and finally tQGa place where his major concern is the faculty alone. . . . 24 25 26 Wicke, "Deans: Men in the Middle," p. 58. Hanzeli, "The Educational Leadership," p. 424. Gould, The Academic Deanship, p. 10. 23 _ Over the years the role Of the president has become increasingly more concerned with the external affairs Of the college or university; the role Of the dean has become more concerned with internal affairs. Thus, the dean performs functions which were once the sole prerogative Of the president. In addition, the dean is now involved with persistent problems of faculty personnel and budget as well as most Of the administrative chores unloaded by the president more than half a century ago.27 In describing the role Of the academic dean, Doyle comments: NO one (except the academic dean) has been called upon more frequently tO vary his act on the academic stage; no one has been more versatile and adaptable in adjusting to the complexity Of changes characterizing8 the development of h1gher educat1on 1n the Un1ted States. This statement, along with the numerous titles used to describe the Office Of the academic dean and the variation Of degrees a dean might hold all prove Hawke's comment that there is no 29 In other words, there is no fixed or definite standardized dean. role for the academic dean tO play. Therefore, it seems appropriate when Archibold MacIntosh of Haverford College labels the academic dean as a "legendary figure, cunning as Satan, patient as Job, and unscrupulous as any Machiavellian."3O 27Ibid., p. 6. 28 Edward A. Doyle, "The Functions of the Dean and His Office," in Functions of the Dean Of Studies in Higher Education, ed. Roy J. Deferrari (WEShington, ‘D.C.: ‘The' Catholic University' Of America Press, 1957), p. 3. 29 McGrath, "The Dean," p. 429. 30A MacIntosh, Behind the Academic Curtain (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1948), p. 118. 24 The Dean's Role in the Educational Program Although the academic dean is becoming more and more concerned with the overall administration Of the college or university, it is necessary at this point to focus attention on the dean's role in the educational program--where many of the conflicts or problems arise. This is not, however, an attempt to give a comprehensive description Of the dean's work. In what specific areas does the dean have responsibilities where role conflicts may arise? Horn points out three areas where . 31 conflicts are almost inevitable: personnel, curr1culum, and budget. Personnel Traditionally the faculty has had the responsibility for the educational programs Of a college or university. Where then does the academic dean fit into this belief? Henderson contends that the academic dean is the most visible leader and guiding spirit Of the faculty. Therefore, he/she should be stimulating, coordinating, and directing the educational program. TO be'more specific, the dean should be the official principally concerned with the faculty 32 This includes all the hiring, training, evaluating, and personnel. firing of faculty. It seems, however, that it: is in this personnel area that academic deans have a hard time. Barzum notes: 3lFrancis H.Horn, "The Dean and the President," Liberal Edycation 50, no. 4 (December 1964), p. 468. 32A190 0. Henderson, "The Dean Is Busy," The North Central Association Quarterly 32 (October l957):l79. 25 By necessity they (deans) love peace and hate trouble. But by professional duty they ought always to prefer facing trouble and resolving it if the required effort means getting a varigated faculty. Peace may' mean only routine and suspended animation of the soul; trouble may express intellectual vitality and positive accomplishment. According to Barzum there are many diverse kinds of men and women who can make desirable teachers. He suggests that the important thing for the academic dean to do is to make sure that he/she is hiring "a teacher and not a wolf wrapped in a sheepskin."34 In Horn's opinion, faculty appointments are primarily the responsibility of the academic dean, but the president must at least have veto power. The problem arises in how much the president should participate in the selection process beyond this veto power. Any suggestions from the president could be resented by the dean and regarded as presidential pressure.35 Curriculum Curriculum is another facet in the academic program where the academic dean has to play a vital role too. The need for leadership from the dean in this area seems Obvious. As supervisor of the curriculum the dean must make sure that the instructional program Of the faculty is effective. Moreover, it is the responsibility Of the dean to continuously clarify the purposes Of the institution so that the curriculum is kept in accord with them.36 Every college or university faces the problem Of prolifera- tion of curricula. While it is theoretically true that the 33Jacques Barzum, "Deans within Deans," The Atlantic Monthly, February 1945, p. 79. . 34mm. 9 “SHorn, "The Dean and the President," p. 471. 36 Henderson, "The Dean Is Busy," p. 181. 26 curriculum is in the domain of the faculty; financial implications and evidence Of faculty irresponsibility indicate that it cannot be left strictly to the faculty. Therefore, the president expects the academic dean to exercise some control of the curriculum. Most deans are reluctant to exercise much control Of curriculum, leaving it entirely to the department/division chairpersons--who add (n1 new courses year after year. When the academic dean does not do anything 37 about the problem, the president feels he/she has to move in. This is where the role conflict arises. Budget The academic dean's responsibility for budget is another area where conflict may arise. All tOO Often the dean does not exercise prudence and may fail to maintain balance among his/her departments. In other words, the wise dean will use the budget to bring strength where it is needed and curb departmental empire building where it is evident. All too Often the dean says yes to every request submitted by department chairpersons. TO be a good administrator, the dean must occasionally say no to certain departmental budget requests. When the dean submits his/her overall budget to the president, it must be reasonable; it should not need a complete revision by the president or the budget committee.38 However, it should be noted here that the above mentioned three major areas of conflicts which faced the academic deans in the 505 and 605 may not be applicable to the deans of the 805 as the 37Horn, "The Dean and the President," pp. 469-70. 381bid., pp. 473, 474. 27 affirmative action and academic governance Of colleges and universi- ties have changed drastically in recent years and are still changing through the years. While these facets Of the dean's role in the educational program are still in mind, it is necessary tO turn one's attention to some of the other major functions Of the academic dean. Administrative Functions of Academic Deans Here it must be pointed out that it is impossible to make an accurate list Of the dean's functions or Of his/her Official responsibilities, for these have never been clearly defined, nor are they uniform in any sense.39 A review Of the literature dealing with the functions and reSponsibilities Of the academic dean reveals little clarification of definition over the years. The diversity Of institutions and their administrative organizations makes a clear definition Of the dean's functions and responsibilities an impossibility.40 In fact, some of the descriptions Of the dean's functions are not very complimentary. For example, Bevan Observes that "the deanship was born out Of servile tasks which the registrar no longer had time to perform and the faculty regarded as unworthy of the time 41 needed to assemble for deliberation." Cleland comments that "the dean's work is any duty not sufficiently important for the president 39Howard Troyer, "The Faith Of a Dean," Liberal Education 50 (March l964):50. 4O Horn, "The Dean and the President," p. 463. 41d. M. Bevan, "The Deanship," Liberal Education 3, no. 3 (October 1967):344. 28 and not sufficiently practical for the janitor."42 Fortunately, not tOO many Of the writers hold the same Opinion as Bevan and Cleland. Pierce does not appear to think that the dean's work is insignificant, for he says, "The dean's work is to supervise all matters related to instruction in the college, and all 43 In other words, the matters involving students at the school.“ dean appears to be 'the leader' in ‘the internal Operation Of the college or university. However, there seems to be no very definite agreement as tO what the duties or functions Of the academic dean are. Inan attempt to explain this lack Of uniformity, Reeves and Russell made the following Observation: "The advisability Of attempting to define precisely all the respective duties Of administrative Officers (deans'. included) is Open to question."44 This is because The size Of an institution must be given consideration in dealing ‘with the allocation Of administrative functions. Also the type Of college, its control, location, traditions, and needs, as well as itsageculiarities Of personnel, must be taken 1ntO cons1derat1on. This leads one to believe that different institutions have different functions for their academic deans depending on the existing conditions and needs Of the college or university at a particular time. 42J. S. Cleland, "The Dean's Job," School and Society' 42 (August 10, l935):l96. 43A. C. Pierce, "Deans in the Organization and Administration of Junior Colleges,“ Junior College Journal 21 (February l951):366. 44Floyd W. Reeves and John Dale Russell, College Organization and Administration (Indianapolis, Indiana: BOard ofTTEducat1on, Disciples of Christ, 1929), p. 72. 451bid., pp. 71-72. 29 As a case in point, listed here are those functions which were being performed by the academic deans in the 19205 or the 19305. It is not expected that all Of these functions were performed by all the academic deans in all colleges or universities. Neither do Reeves and Russell claim that their list is an exhaustive one. Instead, it contains only those functions which were being performed most by the academic deans Of the colleges and universities at the time of their study (1929). These were: 1. Directing the educational activities Of the college 2. Advising the president in matters pertaining to policies of the college 3. Formulating educational policies and presenting them to the faculty for its consideration 4. Directing the faculty to educational thought and practice with particular reference to trends in higher education 5. Transmitting to the president budget recommendations that worked out in conference with department heads 6. Making reports relating to the work Of the colleges 7. Supervising curricula, courses, and methods Of instruc- tion 8. Supervising the progress and academic welfare Of students 9. Classifying and assigning students to classes 10. Keeping in touch with the disciplinary problems of the college 11. Serving as a member of the administrative council 12. Representing the college at meetings of educational associations 3O 13. Nominating members of the teaching staff in cooperation with the departments concerned.46 As enrollments and college programs expanded, the function of academic deans have increased so that many Of the lesser tasks or 47 duties have been delegated to new or subordinate Officers. Thus, in a study made in 1934, Ward summarized the academic dean's functions as: Improvement of instruCtion, personnel work, admissions, student counseling, comprehensive examinations, honors cour- ses, curriculum revision, clarification Of the purpose Of the college, experimentation Of various types-~all these and other fields are Open to the dean who wills and dares to exercise his leadership. The Office is still in evolu- tion. . . . Concise definition of authority, duties, and responsibilities is needed before deans generally can realize fully on weir possibilities for accomplishment in higher education. It is interesting to Compare some of the early views on the academic dean's functions with those listed by more current writers. One notes that the lists are the same or at least very similar. However, the new lists seem to become shorter and shorter as the years go by. This may be due to the fact that more Of the functions once performed by the academic dean are now being delegated to other Officials. Increasingly the academic dean is becoming the head Of the college instructional administration.49 46Ibid.. pp. 73-74. 47Roy J. Deferrari, College Organization and Administration (Washington, D.C.: The Catholic University of America Press, 1947), p. 87. 48Ward, PhilOSOphies Of Administration, pp. 27-28. 491bid. 31 In a study made in 1977, Bissell compiled a list of 360 functions that academic deans performed or are expected to perform as perceived by former academic deans Of the Seventh-day Adventist colleges. These functions, divided into nine categories and ranked by the deans in the order Of importance, are as follows: 1. Functions in relation to students Functions in relation to faculty (A) Functions in relation to administration 4. Functions in relation to curriculum and instructions 5. Functions in relation to educational activities Functions in relation to educational policy 7. Functions in relation to public relations 8. Functions in relation to budgeting and finance 9. Functions in relation to research.50 Judging from the above list of functions, one concludes that current rendering Of the same topic merely expounds on one function or another. While there is little agreement as to a specific list Of functions the academic dean should perform, everyone has at least a general idea of who the dean is and what he/she should do. Now the important question is, how does the academic dean function in relation to other members of the institution? 50 22 Bissell, “The Relationship of Leadership Characteristics," p. . 32 Relationship Of the Academic Dean with Others First consideration should be given to the relationship Of the academic dean with the president for it is generally recognized that the dean's authority is delegated by the president. Often the dean Of a small college is the chief administrative assistant who carries out the president's policies and orders. Therefore, the dean must be in harmony with the president. If harmony does not exist and the fault lies with the dean, the president should lOOk for a new dean. However, if the president himself is a tyrant and the dean has the full backing of the faculty, the trustees of the institution should lOOk for a new president.51 In a small college, there is no doubt that the president and the dean must be on the same team, have the same ultimate interests, and work amicably together. However, this may not be so in a complex university because the president is not considered the "academic leader" but the "educational leader" whose major activities are not academic. Thus, the academic dean of a large university is in many reSpects an administrator who, like the president, has many significant administrative responsibilities such as public relations, promotion, fund raising, building, etc., to perform as well.52 The next consideration Inust be given to ‘the relationship between the dean and the department chairpersons. In a study by Finnegan in 1951, it was found that the most common practice for the appointment of department head was the recommendation Of a certain 5lHorn, "The Dean and the President," pp. 466-467. 52Ibid., pp. 467-68. 33 individual, usually a senior faculty member of the department, to the president by the dean. Other methods used were direct appointment by the dean, election by the faculty as a whole, and election by the members Of the department concerned.53 The position of the department chairperson as head Of these administrative units (departments) varies among institutions and with personalities. Despite 'these variations, department chairpersons have ii decisive influence on budgeting, staffing, planning, report- ing, and directing Of research within their departments.54 Increasingly, responsibility for decision making in the central areas Of educational governance is being entrusted to department chairpersons; or, more precisely, it should be said that these responsibilities are entrusted first to deans who, as their time is consumed by administration, entrusts it to department chairpersons.55 Some students Of administration in higher education believe that the truly significant educational decisions come from department chairpersons rather than from the higher administrators or from the faculty as a whole. Because Of the growing awareness of research and knowledge 111 a particular subject discipline, the department chairperson is in a position to see the needs Of his/her department 53Darrell F. X. Finnegan, The Function of the Academic Dean in American Catholic Higher Education (washingten, D.C.: ’TThe Catholic University OfiAmerica‘Press, 1951), p. 30. 54John J. Corson, Governance Of College: and Universities (New York: McGraw-Hill Book CO., 1951). pp. 87- . 55 Ibid., p. 95. 34 more clearly than the dean or president. For this reason, the department chairperson plays an important role in maintaining and augmenting the strengths Of the institution as a whole and its appeal to students and scholars elsewhere. Thus it is easy tO understand that the department chairperson can be either of invaluable help to the dean or of incalculable harm--if the chairperson happens for one reason or another to be dissatisfied with the dean.56 Carson makes the observation that "the functioning Of deans in many institutions suggests that their role and influence tend tO be directly, but inversely, related to the status and power of the departments and department chairmen."57 Caplow and McGee make an important distinction between the dean's power over individuals and his/her power over departments as a whole. They conclude that the dean's power over individuals in the college is definite, _but organizational authority over departments and their policies is distinctly limited and ambiguous. The fact that the dean can exercise power over individuals easily but over ‘ departments with difficulty means that control Of departments depends on personal power over the chairperson and other senior departmental personnel whose salaries and prerequisites the dean controls. The personal nature of the dean's power is not Often recognized, although it is widely resented.58 56Gould, The Academic Deanship, p. 61. 57Corson, Governance Of Colleges and Universities, p. 84. 58Theodore Caplow and Reece J. McGee, The Academic Market- place (New York: Basic Books, 1958), p. 202. 35 Power struggled between the dean and department chairperson are evident. Sometime these power struggles need tO be compromised on account Of institution-wide interests: Rebellion against the dean is extremely rare, although bitter conflict between deans and departments seem to occur in all universities. Departments attempting such a move always fail, for the issues are usually department and' college matters, and one department rising alone is hopelessly isolated. The typical outcome of the struggle is either the resignation of the disaffected faculty members or the withdrawal of the department from the affairs of the college, if it is internally stable enough to accomplish such a retreat and retain its members. In the later case, the department will probably be left unmolested, having shown sufficient strength to claim a measure of autonomy. At the other extreme, a department which complains that the dean meddles constantly in its internal affairs is probably one which lost a battle with him and which he was able to dominate thenceforth. The degree (H: autonomy enjoyed by a department or an individual faculty member is Often g9 accurate index of their potential strength in campus feuds. Granted that Open dean/chairperson power conflict may be extremely rare, even successful deans are not free from problems related 1x1 department chairpersons. In order to have a harmonious relationship, deans must be able to learn how to work with rather than to alienate department chairpersons. Moreover, the department chairpersons can be extremely important determiners Of the academic dean's leadership Opportuni- ties. Some academic deans of large colleges regard their relation- ships with the department chairpersons -tO be twice as important as their relationships with either the president (M5 other informal faculty leaders.60 591bid., p. 205 60Gould, The Academic Deanship, pp. 67, 69. 36 While there are many other relationships between the dean and other members in the same institution--with faculty, students, and non-teaching staff--these are not discussed here since ‘they are outside the sc0pe of this study. It is further assumed that the president and the department chairpersons are those with whom the academic dean works most closely. Selection, Qualification, and Preparation Academic'Deans Recent literature indicates that it is becoming more difficult. to fill the role Of deanship. Current events and constituencies seem to be calling for stronger leadership. This means that in many instances, filling the deanship entails naming a 1.51 This indicates team rather than simply choosing one individua how important it is to know how to go about selecting an academic dean. Selection Procedures In most colleges and universities the choice Of the president is definitely in the hands Of the governing board; department chairpersons are commonly chosen by, or at least after consultation with, faculty' members Of 'the department concerned. However, 'the selection Of the academic dean poses more complex problems than is first realized, since the administrative Office lies between that of the president and the department chairperson and has some Of the qualities Of both.62 6‘Griffiths and McCarty, The Dilemma of the Deanship, p. 278. 62Harvey H. Davis, "The Selection Of College Deans," Journal Of Higher Education 21 (March, 1950):147. 37 Davis presents a method for selecting academic deans which seems to be effective for small institutions. Briefly, the method is for the college or university administration to call together immed- iately the faculty members of the school or college in which the dean- ship becomes vacant. During this meeting, each faculty member is requested to write a statement covering the following four points which are tO be discussed during the next meeting: (1) the most desir- able next steps in the development of the college program, (2) the qualities that the prospective dean should possess, (3) whether the new dean should be secured from some other institution, and (4) a list Of names Of persons who, in the Opinion of the faculty member, possess enough Of the qualities listed (in 2 above) as desirable in an academic dean to merit further investigation and consideration.63 A careful analysis Of the reSponses from the faculty should provide the college administration with a fair view Of ‘faculty judgment concerning the future Of the institution and the desired qualities Of an academic dean who would be most competent in leading the institution toward that desired goal. Moreover, it would provide the administration with valuable information about the best source for dean and a considerable list Of prospective persons to. be investigated and considered for filling the deanship.64 There are, Obviously, several methods for selecting academic deans; however, it would seem that the above procedure would work well since it encourages participation from the faculty concerned and 63Ibid., pp. 147-48. 64Ibid. 38 it appears to be democratic. This selection method also Offers sufficient adaptability so it can be successfully implemented or used as a guide in any college or university. I What, then, are the most desirable qualifications Of the academic deans? These are the next consideration. Preferred Qualifications Among the qualities usually listed for the academic dean are: vision, ability to lead, courage, integrity, emotional stability, perseverance, decisiveness, poise, good balance, charity under criticism, patience and Objectivity with people, fearlessness under pressure, restraint in judgment, Openmindedness, balance in decision, 65 The list could be longer, but it is and fairness in presentation. already tOO long and it is difficult to find an individual who possesses all these qualities. One cannot help but agrees with Davis when he states: "It is to be recognized that a composite Of the most frequently mentioned qualities will describe a man of SUCh perfection 66 Nevertheless, it is desirable to have in that he cannot be found." mind the composite picture Of the ideal dean in order to secure that individual who measures up as closely as possible tO this ideal. It should be noted that personal qualities desired in an academic dean do not vary greatly among colleges. The qualities most commonly sought are vision, ability to lead in a democratic way, 65Gerald E. Dupont, "General Qualifications of the Dean and His Professional Training," in Functions of the Dean Of Studies in Higher Education, ed. Roy J. "Deferrari (Wéshington, *D.C.: ‘The CdthOlic University Of America Press, 1957), p. 21. 66Davis, "The Selection Of College Deans," p. 148. 39 courage, and integrity. In fact, these qualities are usually regarded as even more important than administrative skill.67 Griffiths and McCarty report from a recent scanning Of advertisements in the Chronicle Of Higher Education that most listings for academic deans are similar in criteria and order. They are: 1. An earned doctorate degree 2. Experience which demonstrates teaching and scholastic capabilities 3; Commitment to the values and philosophies that are important to the college seeking the candidate 4. Administrative ability.68 Although schools Of business and education sometimes rank administrative training and experience as high as second on the list, they are vague about the kinds Of training or experience they consider most valuable. Surveys made over the years confirm that previous managerial experience ranks low as a necessary credential.69 This bears out Davis' statement that other personal qualities are being considered more important than administrative skill. It would seem that administrative skill is very important and should rank high on the list (H: qualifications for academic dean. There may be some differences Of Opinion about the nature and extent Of the professional training required for the academic dean, but the 67Ibid. 68Griffiths and McCarty, The Dilemma of the Deanship, p. 278. 691bid. 40 need for some expertise seems tO be gaining general acceptance. Unfortunately, college personnel have lagged far behind business and 70 other professions in recognizing this need. Therefore, the idea that individuals can be deliberately prepared for administration at 7] In the college level is relatively new and still controversial. view Of this fact, it is not surprising that all surveys indicate that relatively few academic deans have ever had any training for their position. Often they have been assigned to it fresh from the classroom and, in some cases, they’ have ,just stumbled into it. However, the complexities Of the changing and expanding system Of higher education certainly calls for men and women as thoroughly prepared as possible.72 Preparation for the College Dean One very real problem facing those who desire to become academic deans is where and how to acquire the professional training needed. The emphasis for such a training would seem to be definitely on structure and cwganization, on facts and statistics. Moreover, specific training for the academic dean should be a matter Of individual arrangement and seminar work. A doctoral program in administration would not be recommended for the prOSpective academic dean. Nevertheless, a full year or the equivalent in summer sessions 7°Dupont, "General Qualifications," p. 27. 7lRonald C. Bauer, Cases in College Administration (New York: Bureau of Publications, TeaChers College, COlumbia University, 1955), p. . 72Dupont, "General Qualifications," p. 27. 41 could be well spent on courses which are Offered in the fields Of college administration and on courses which bear upon educational problems or situations which every academic dean must face.73 Dupont believes that the basic fields Of study for the academic dean are: (1) History Of Higher Education, (2) Organization and Administration Of Higher Education, (3) PhilOSOphy Of Education, (4) Curriculum Development, (5) Test and Measurement, and (6) Counseling and Guidance. He also suggests that an apprenticeship Of at least one year under an experienced and competent academic dean would be very useful. This would afford the prospective academic dean the Opportunity to Observe the daily handling of problems, to learn procedures, tO study files and records, to become acquainted with personnel relationships, .and to make notes for future reference.74 Unfortunately, formal training of this type is seldom available. In most cases, the newly appointed academic dean has to depend on his/her own resources to develop his/her capacities for the work Of the academic deanship. Faced with such a situation, the new dean should proceed very slowly and cautiously the first year or two and run: make changes unless they are absolutely necessary. In the meantime, the newly appointed dean should read and digest a few good books and articles dealing with each of the fields Of study prOposed above by' Dupont. In addition, he/she should attend one or more Of 73Ibid., pp. 27-28. 74Ibid., pp. 28-29. 42 the college workshops held during the summer, twO or three educational conventions every year, and be a member Of the American Conference Of Academic Deans]5 It must be noted that in recent years college and university presidents have become more and more involved in non-academic pursuits. Consequently, the American higher education looks more and more to the deans for academic leadership. However, good leadership can only come from intelligent men and women who are deeply conscious of their reSponsibilities and who have the training and dedication to 76 meet the challenge. Leadership The tOpic Of leadership has always held a strong fascination for man. As a matter Of fact, concern with leadership is as Old as recorded history. However, concern with leadership has recently become more acute. Modern production methods and contemporary organizations have become, more complex and now require greater coordination Of effort and an increasingly high degree Of specializa- tion. One man cannot master all the skills which may be required for various tasks. Consequently, large teams of highly trained Specialists must somehow be made tO work together toward a common goal. This requires competent leadership. Highly trained leadership is required to reconcile and utilize constructively different abilities, viewpoints, attitudes, and ideas in the performance Of 75161d.. pp. 29-31. 76Ibid. 43 group tasks and organizational missions.77 Yet the theoretical status in the field of leadership is far from being satisfactory. Most researchers on small groups and leadership have pointed out that an acceptable theory Of leadership is lacking. Browne and Cohen put it bluntly: . there is now a great mass Of "leadership literature' which, if it were to be assembled in one place, would fill many libraries. The great part Of this mass, however, would have little organization; it would evidence little in the way of common assumptions and hypotheses; it would vary widely in theoretical and methodological approaches. TO a great extent, therefore, leadership literature is a mass Of content without any coagulating substances to bring togethermor to produce coordination and point out interrelationships. Relatively little research on leadership could properly be called systematic. Yet, it is quite clear that a systematic body Of theory is essential for the sake of organizing the research findings in the field and providing practical guidance in the selection, training, placement, and evaluation Of leadership in the inumerable Situations which may require group effort.79 . Even in the absense Of an integrated or systematic body of leadership theory, one takes for granted that groups and organiza- tions will succeed and thrive under good leadership and fail under poor leadership. One regularly ascribes successful business or educational organizations to the managerial or leadership abilities '77Fred E. Fiedler, A Theory Of Leadership Effectiveness (New York: McGraw-Hill BOOk CO., 1967). pp. 1-4. ”G. G. Browne and T. s. Cohen, The Study Of Leadership (Danville 111.: Interstate Printers and PublTShers, 1958), p. v. 79Fiedler, A Theory Of Leadership Effectiveness, p. 5. 44 80 of their leaders. What, then, is really meant by the term "leadership"? Some representative definitions are as follows: 1. Leadership is "the behavior of an individual when he is directing the activities Of a group toward a shared goal."81 2. Leadership is "a particular type Of power relationship characterized by a group member's perception that another: group member has the right tO prescribe behavior patterns for the former regarding his activity as a group member."82 3. Leadership is "the influential increment over and above mechanical compliance wjth the routine directives Of the organiza- tion.“83 4. Leadership is "the process Of mutual stimulation which controls human energy in the pursuit of common cause."84 5. Leadership is "the initiation and maintenance Of struc- ture in expectation and interaction."85 6. Leadership is "interpersonal influence, exercised in a Bolbid., pp. 5, 3. 81J. K. Hamphill and A. E. Coons, "Development Of the Leader Behavior Description Questionnaire," Leader Behavior: Its Descrip- tion and Measurement, ed. R. M. Stogdill and‘A. E. Coons (COlumEUS: Bureau Of'Business Research, Ohio State University, 1957), p. 7. 82K. F. Janda, "Toward the Explication Of the Concept of Leadership in Terms Of the Concept Of Power," Human Relations 13 (l960):358. 83D. Katz and R. L. Kahn, The Social Psycholo y of Organizations, 2nd ed. (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 197 T, p. 528. ‘ 84P. J. W. Pigors, Leadership or Domination? (Boston: Houghton Mifflin CO., 1935), p.‘T6. 85 R. M. Stogdill, Handbook of Leadership (New York: Fress Press, 45 situation, and directed, through the communication process, toward the attainment Of a Specified goal or goals."86 Two facts can be derived from these definitions: (1) Leadership is a relationship between people in which influence and (power may be unevenly distributed on a legitimate basis. This power may be attributed to the leader by the group members, by contractual work agreement, or by law; but it is the leader's to exercise. (2) There can be no leaders in isolation--for a leader must have followers. Since no leader can really coerce peOple tO behave in apprOpriate ways, leadership implies that followers voluntarily consent to this leader-member relationship and relinquish Ito the leader their right tO make certain independent decisions.87 Leadership is fascinating because it influences the follow- ers' beliefs, satisfaction, and behavior as well as the group's productivity, drive, and cohesiveness. Studies have been conducted on the response Of all these variables to leader behavior (leadership style). Various aspects Of leader behavior exert different effects on follower satisfaction and group performance.88 One Of the first and most famous studies Of leadership styles was conducted by Lewin and Lippitt in 1938. This empirical 86R. Tannenbaum, I. R. Weschler, and F. Massarik, Leadership and Organization: A Behavioral Science Approach (New Yorlu McGraw-H111 80% CO., 19617, p. 24. 87Fred E. Fiedler and Martin M. Chemers, Leadership and Effective Management (Glenview, 111.: Scott, Foresman and Company, 1974), p. 4. 88 Stogdill, Handbook Of Leadership, pp. 363, 327. 46 experiment was designed tO explore the effect of democratic, autocratic, and laissez-faire leadership styles upon the behavior of the group members. The researchers formed a number of sponsored clubs among elementary-schOOl-age boys and made adult, male-graduate social-psychology students the leaders Of these clubs. Each Of the leaders had been trained to play the role Of one Of three leadership styles toward his group members.89 Briefly, the styles were (1) autocratic, in which the leader made policy decisions and required the members to follow prescribed procedures under strict discipline; (2) laissez-faire, in which the leader allowed the members to be on their own--essentia11y without supervision; and (3) democratic, in which the leader made group decisions by majority vote, encouraged equal participation, and kept criticism and punishment tO the minimum. It was found that the democratically led groups were the most satisfied and functioned in the most orderly and positive manner. The autocratically led groups suffered the greatest number and most aggressive acts.90 These findings cannot be treated as conclusive evidence that participative, permissive, human-relations-oriented leadership styles will be always or universally effective. For example, two 89K. Lewin and R. Lippitt, "An Experimental Approach to the Study Of Autocracy and Democracy: A Preliminary Note," Sociometry l (1938):292-300; and R. Lippitt, "An Experimental StUdy' of the Effect Of Democratic and Authoritarian Group Atmospheres," University Of Iowa Study of Child Welfare 16, no. 3 (1940):43-95. 9O Ibid. 47 91 92 experimental studies conducted by Morse and Reimer ahd Campion, comparing a directive, structured type Of program with a democratic, participative type Of program, failed to find any significant differences. In fact, the directive-structured program resulted in greater profits due to lower labor costs. Other studies made by Vroom indicate that employee character- istics determine, at least partially, which leadership style will be most effective. Employees who are high in authoritarianism but low in the need for independence are found to perform best under directive supervisors. Employees who are high in the need for independence but low in authoritarianism perform better under. democratic leaders.93 Similarly, a study conducted by Haythorn and his associates shows that authoritarian. individuals are more satisfied with authoritarian leadership than are non-authoritarian individua1s.94 Another determinant Of leadership style is the expectations which the followers hold for their leaders or which the society at 91 . . N..C. .Morse and E. Re1mer, "The Experimental Change Of a Major Organ1zat1onal Variable," Journal Of Abnormal and Social Psychology 52 (1956):127-29. 92 . . J. E. .Camp1on, Jr., Abstract of "Effects Of Managerial Style. on.Subord1nates' Attitudes and Performance in a Simulated 3rgan1z2tioqgg8) Setting," (Ph.D. dissertation, University Of 1nneso a, , Dissertation Abstracts International/30, 2 Au ust 1969):881B-8828. ( 9 93 V. H. Vroom, "Some Personality Determinants Of the Effects Of Participation," Journal cH’ Abnormal and Social p5 chol (1959): 324-25. Y 093’ 59 94w. Haythorn, et al., "The Effects Of Varying Combinations of Authoritarian and Equalitarian Leaders and Followers," Journal Of Abnormal and Social Psychology 53 (1956):218. 48 large holds for leadership positions. When a new manager joins an organization, he/she is often advised to "learn the ropes" (simply meaning to find out how things are being done) before reorganizing his/her department.95 Job Satisfaction English defines satisfaction as the state Of a person whose current dominant motivation tendencies have (for the moment, at least) attained their goal, or the feeling state (affective condition) of a person who has gratified his desires.96 This does not tell one very much about satisfaction. TO formulate an adequate definition of anything about which one knows so little is extremely difficult, if not impossible. Nevertheless, 97 Therefore, job satisfaction appears to be asSociated with work. satisfaction generally refers to how happy a person is with his/her work. It reflects the degree to which important needs for health, security, esteem, and so on are satisfied on the job or as a result Of the job.98 There are two basic theories Of how employee satisfaction and performance are related. The first says that "satisfaction leads to 95 p. 50. 96Horace B. English and Ava Champney English, A Student's Dictionary Of Psychological Terms (New York: David McKay CO., 1958), p. 473. ' 97Robert HOppock, Job Satisfaction (New York: Harper and Brothers Publishers, 1935), p. 47. 98Gary Dessler, Human Behavior-~Improving Performance at Work (Reston, Virginia: Reston deliShing CO., n.d.), p. 204. Fiedler and Chemers, Leadership and Effective Management, 49 performance" or "satisfaction causes performance."99 However, research findings have generally failed to support this theory. For example, Lawler III and Porter, 1967; Organ, 1977; Sheridan and Slocum, Jr., 1975; Strauss, 1968; and Wanous, 1974, did not find any significant correlations between satisfaction and performance in their studies.100 The second theory says that rewards which are based on performance lead to both satisfaction and subsequent performance, that is, rewards cause both satisfaction and performance.]01 According to this theory it is reward (extrinsic or intrinsic) that results in satisfaction and expectation of a reward leads to performance.102 Since HOppock's unnograph on job satisfaction in 1935, many research studies have been made on this tOpic. Variables such as job satisfaction, employee attitudes, and morale have ‘frequently and importantly appeared in the literature Of industrial, vocational, and 99Arthur Brayfield and Walter Crockett, "Employee, Attitudes, and Employee Performance," Psychological Bulletin 52 (September l955):415-21. 100John Wanous, "A Casual-correlational Analysis of the Job Satisfaction and Performance Relationship," Journal of Applied Psychology 59, no. 2 (l974):l4l. J. E. Sheridan and 11V. Slocum, Jr.,lTThe Direction Of the Casual Relationship between Job Satisfac- tion and Work Performance," Organizational Behavior and Human Per- formance 14, no. 2 (October 1975):169. ‘0]Jacob P. Siegel and Donald Bowen, "Satisfaction and Perfor- mance Casual Relationships and Moderating Effects," Journal of Voca- tional Behavior 7 (1971):267. 102C. N. Greene, "The Reciprocal Nature of Influence between Leader and Subordinate," Journal Of Applied Psychology 60 (1975):189- 92. . 50 social psychology. The terms "job satisfaction" and "jOb attitudes" especially are typically used interchangeably.103 The term "morale," however, has been given a variety of meanings, some Of which correspond quite closely to job satisfaction and job (employee) attitudes. For example, Likert and Willits define job morale as an individual's “mental attitude toward all features Of his work and toward all the peOple with whom he works."104 Similarly, Guion defines job morale as "the extent tO which the individual's needs are satisfied and the extent to which the individual perceives that satisfaction as stemming from his total job situation."105 Job satisfaction, job attitudes, and job morale are typically measured by means Of interviews or questionnaires in which workers are asked to state the degree to which they like or dislike various aspects Of their work roles. The degree to which a person is satisfied with his/her job is inferred from the responses he/she gives to one or more questions about job feelings.‘06 Although job satisfaction is Often referred to as a single variable, most investigators treat it as a rather complex set of 103V. H. Vroom, Work and Motivation (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1964), p. 99. 104R. Likert and J. M. Willits, Morale and Agency Management, vol. 1, Morale-~The Mainspring of Management (HartfordT‘TEife'Insur- ance Sales—Research BUreau, 19401, p. 27. 105R. M. Guion, "Industrial Morale (A Symposium) 1, The Problem of Terminology," Personnel Psychology 11 (l958):62. 106 Vroom, Work and Motivation, p. 100. 51 variables. The reasons for doing this are obvious, workers can be very satisfied with their supervisors, indifferent toward company policies, and very dissatisfied with their wages. Therefore, it is very difficult tO decide which one or which combination of these variables represents their level Of job satisfaction. Moreover, if job satisfaction is to be treated as a set Of dimensions rather than a single dimension, the problem is how to divide these characteris- tics Of work roles in order to arrive at some useful dimensions of job satisfaction.107 There appear to be conditions under which both general and Specific measures Of job satisfaction are useful. The review Of the literature Shows that most studies dealing with the determinants Of job satisfaction use specific measures, whereas those dealing with the relationship of job satisfaction to job behavior tend tO use more general measures. The reasons for this tendency are simple. If an individual is interested in the effects of a specific work-role variable-~such as amount Of wages--on jOb satisfaction, it is likely that these effects are more evident on workers' reports Of their satisfaction with their wages than on their satisfaction with their job as a whole or with other aspects Of their jobs.108 It should be noted, however, that general measures of job satisfaction fall into two distinct categories. These may be obtained (1) by combining the workers' reSponses to a large number of questions, each dealing with a specific aspect Of their jobs, or ‘07Ibid., p. 101. mama” p. 104. 52 (2) by asking the workers one or more questions concerning how much they are satisfied with their job as a whole.109 Unfortunately, one of the problems that is constantly confronting the researchers is how to account for the fact that peOple do vary in the degree to which they report satisfaction with their jobs. Typically, it has been assumed that the explanation for peOple expressing different amounts Of job satisfaction lies in the nature of their jobs--having different supervisors or co-workers, working for different companies, or performing different duties.no While there might be valid reasons to question the above assumption, they are not elaborated in this study. Instead, the following work-role variables or job dimensions with which resear- chers typically measure employees' satisfaction are listed. They are: 1. Work-eincluding how interesting it is, its variety, Opportunity fOr learning, difficulty, amount, chances for success, and control over pace and methods 2. Pay--including amount, fairness or equity, and methods of payment 3. Promotions--inc1uding Opportunities for, fairness of, and basis for 4. Recognition--inc1uding praise for accomplishment, credit for work done, and criticism 5. Benefits--such as pension, medical allowance, annual leave, and cafeteria service 109 110 Ibid. Ibid., p. 105. 53 6. Working conditions--such as hours, rest periods, equip- ment, temperament, ventilation, humidity, location, and physical layout 7. Supervision--inc1uding supervisory style, technical help, human relations, and administrative Skill 8. Coworkers--inc1uding confidence, helpfulness, and friend- liness 9. Company and management--including concern for employees as well as pay and benefit policies.1n With these points in mind, it is time to turn to the principal subject Of this section-~the effects Of leadership style on job satisfaction. Considered in turn are the relations of: (l) democratic and autocratic leadership, (2) permissive and restrictive leadership, (3) follower-oriented leadership, (4) participative and directive leadership, and (5) leader consideration and structure tO job satisfaction. Relation of Democratic and Autocratic '[eaderthip thh Job Satisfaction Anderson surveyed 'the literature» bearing on leadership iri education and found that democratic leadership is associated with high morale (job or employee satisfaction) when the primary goal is social. However, autocratic leadership is associated with member _ I”Edwin A. Locke, "Nature and Causes of Job Satisfaction," in Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology. ed. Marvin Dggette (Chicago: Rand"McNale COlTege Publication CO., 1976), p. 2. 54 satisfaction when the goal is task performance.”2 Foa studied groups of workers under democratic and authori- tarian supervisors. Groups with authoritarian and permissive expectations were about equally well-satisfied with permissive officers. However, when the officers were authoritarian, crews with authoritarian expectations were better satisfied than those lNlth permissive expectations.”3 These results suggest that the leader's behavior is decisive when the group expects permissiveness, but the group's expectation is decisive when the leader is authoritarian. Two studies involving a set often groups of ten students each and a second set of twenty groups of twenty U.S. Air Force officer cadets each were reported by Gibb. In the experimental groups satisfaction with the leader was correlated .76 with autocratic leadership and -.60 with group freedom (democratic leadership).H4 Hamblin, Miller, and Wiggins, in a study of experimental groups of students, found no relationship between authoritarian leadership and group morale.”5 Harnqvist observed that group members tend to feel more 112R. C. Anderson, "Learning in [Hscussions--A Resume of the Authoritarian-Democratic Studies," Harvard Educational Review 29 (l959):204. 113U. G. Foa, "Relation of Worker's Expectation to Satisfaction with Supervisor," Personnel Psychology l0 (l957):l66-67. H4C. A. Gibb, “An Experimental Approach to the Study' of Leadership," Occupational Psychology (London) 25 (l95l):240. nsRobert L. Hamblin, Keith Miller, and James A. Wiggins, ggroup Morale and Competence of the Leader,“ Sociometry 24 (l96l): 5. 55 satisfied under democratic than under autocratic leadership."6 Mullen carried out a study on a large insurance company where he conducted over fifty indepth interviews with subordinate supervis- ory personnel. In addition to these interviews, he made an attitude survey of non-supervisory personnel. It was found that employee satisfaction was associated with democratic leadership in the work groups.”7 hi an experimental study concerning the effects of authori— tarian and non-authoritarian leadership upon the performance and morale of groups in various communication nets, Shaw found that job satisfaction was higher under non-authoritarian (democratic) leader- ship than under authoritarian leadership.”8 Snadowsky varied task _complexity, communication net, and leadership in experimental groups. Groups under authoritarian leaders required less time in planning phases but were less efficient in task-solving phases. Democratic leadership resulted in better member satisfaction in both phases of problem solving.”9 H6K. Harnqvist, Adjustment: Leadership and Group Relations in a Military Training Situation TStockhoTFn: Almqvist and Wiksell, 1956l. Pp. T39-48, WIT-SIT. 117d. Ii. Mullen, "Differential Leadership Modes and Producti- vity"hi a Large Organization," Academy of Management 8 (l965):ll3, 114. 1”M. E. Shaw, "A Comparison of Two Types of Leadership in Var- ious Communication Nets," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology H9A. M. Snadowsky, Abstract of “Group Effectiveness as a Function of Communication Network, Task Complexity, and Leadership Type" (Ph.D. dissertation, The University of New York, l969), Dissertation Abstract International/30, 5 (November, l969): 2l55A. 56 Finally, in an experimental study comprising approximately 500 aircrews, Ziller found members least satisfied under autocratic leadership but most satisfied under member-centered leadership. Group members, however, perceived greater problem difficulties under member-centered leadership.‘20 The studies reviewed above clearly indicate that member sat- isfaction is associated with a democratic style of supervision or leadership. Exceptions were noted in Gibb, who found a positive relationship between autocratic leadership and group satisfaction and a negative relationship between democratic leadership and group satisfaction, and Hamblin et al., who found no relationship between oauthoritarian leadership and group morale. The other investigators found ii positive relationship between democratic leadership and job satisfaction. It should be noted here that several of the studies suggest that satisfaction with supervision differs with the size and composition of the group. Consequently, in shall, interaction- oriented groups members are better satisfied under democratic leadership, 'but in large, task-oriented groups, members are better satisfied under autocratic leadership. Relation of Permissive and Restrictive tLeaderShip with JOb Satisfaction It is very hard sometimes to distinguish between participa- tive leadership and permissive leadership. Permissiveness implies no 120R. C. Ziller, "Four Techniques of Group Decision-Making under Uncertainty," Journal of Applied Psychology 4l (1957):386. 57 effort on the part of the leader to involve the member in participative decision making. The permissive leader allows group members a wide degree of freedom and does not exert himself/herself further; In other words, permissiveness is essentially a laissez- faire style of leadership. 0n the other hand, the restrictive leader ‘21 Permissive leadership style was exerts a high degree of control. noted in most of the following studies that were investigated. Arensberg and McGregor made a case study of an engineering department without supervisors. It was found that the employees felt insecure and constrained in the overly permissive environment.122 Argyris made a case study of a bank where management recruited the "right type" of employee--one who desires security, stability, and predictability; wants to be left alone; and dislikes hostility and aggression. Yet, it was found that the management's permissive attitude fostered a norm of low work standards and unexpressed dissatisfactions among employees.123 Aspergren's study compared three leadership styles: laissez-faire, directive, and participative. It was found that participative leadership was associated with higher task motivation and satisfaction with superiors than evidenced by laissez-faire or directive ieadership.124 12] 122C. M. Arensberg and D. Macgregor, "Determination of Morale in an Industrial Company," Applied Antropology (January-March, l942): l5. Stogdill, Handbook of Leadership, p. 37l. 123C. Argyris, "Human Relations iri a Bank," Harvard Business Review 32, no. 5 (September-October, l954):68-70. 124R. E. Aspegren, Abstract of "A Study of Leadership Behavior and Its Effects on Morale and Attitudes in Selected Elementary 58 Berrien studied two groups that differed in adjusting to changes in workload--the poorly and well-adjusted groups. The poorly adjusting groups felt less discipline and low pressure from their superiors and appeared to attribute their poor performance to lax discipline (permissiveness).125 Indik studied 96 organizations of three types: 32 package- delivery organizations, 36 automobile-sales dealership organizations, and 28 voluntary-membership, educational-political organizations. It was found that worker freedom to set one's own work pace was loaded on the same factor with high productivity and job satisfaction. It was negatively loaded on the same factor with "SUpervisor too strict" and "supervisor lets his superior decide things."126 Myer studied two manufacturing plants, one managed according to "Theory Y" principles and the other according to "Theory X" principles. workers under the more permissive (Theory Y) type of management reported higher responsibility, risk, reward, warmth, and identity--items suggestive of group cohesiveness and member satisfac- tion.‘27 Schools" (Ed.D. dissertation, Colorado State College, l962), Disser- tation Abstracts/23, lO (April, l963):3708-3709. 125F. K. Berrien, "Homeostasis Theory of Groups--Implications for Leadership," in Leadership and Interpersonal Behavior, ed. L. Petrullo and B. Bass (New York: Halt, Rinehart, and Winston, l96l), pp. 88, 93-94. 1268. P. Indik. "Organization Size and Member Participation: Some Empirical Tests of Alternative Explanations," Human Relations l8 (l965):339-SO. 127H. H. Myer, "Achievement Motivation and Industrial Climates," in Organizational Climate, ed. R. Tagiuri and G. H. Litwin (Boston: HarvardtUniversity, GradUate School of Business Administra- tion, l968). pp. l57-59. 59 An experiment conducted by Morse and Reimer in a nonunion- ized, industrial organization, which had four parallel divisions engaging ‘hi routine clerical operations, involved increasing rank- and-file decision-making in two of the divisions (autonomous group) and increasing upper-level decision making in the other two divisions (hierarchically controlled group). One of the results of' this experiment was that satisfaction increased in the autonomous group but decreased in the hierarchically controlled group.128 Pelz and Andrews studied scientists and engineers in several laboratories. They found that the most effective scientists were self-directed and valued freedom. At the same time they welcomed coordination and guidance from other members of the organization. They were not, however, necessarily better satisfied than the less effective scientists.129 In a study of 456 supervisors, representing several levels of management and many different industries, Solem found that full delegation (permissiveness) results in solutions of better quality and higher satisfaction than a more restrictive form of discussion l3O (limited delegation) leadership. Trow, in an experimental study involving forty-four volunteer 128Nancy C. Morse and Everett Reimer, “The Experimental Change of a Major Organizational Variable," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 52 (l956):l2l, l26-l27, 129. 1290. C. Pelz and F. M. Andrews, "Autonomy, Coordination, and Stimulation in Relation to Scientific Achievement," Behavioral Science ll, no. 2 (l966):89-97. 130Allen R. Solem, "An Evaluation of Two Attitudinal Approaches to Delegation," Journal of Applied Psychology 42 (l958):38—39. 60 college students, reported that the groups with high degrees in autonomy provide greater member satisfaction than those in which members are dependent upon a centralized group structure.]31 Weschler, Kehane, and Tannenbaum surveyed a naval research _laboratory; one division was Operated under permissive leadership and the other under restrictive leadership. They found that Job satisfaction was higher in the permissive than in the restrictive division.132 In l960 White and Lippitt studied a laissez-faire pattern of leadership along with the democratic and autocratic patterns. They repdrted that the laissez-faire (permissive) leadership resulted in low satisfaction with the group as well as low quantity and quality of work, low sense of accomplishment, and low sense of group unity.133 Of the twelve studies reviewed here, seven found permissive leadership to be positively related to member or job satisfaction, but five showed zero or negative relationship. It appears that follower satisfaction or job satisfaction is not consistently related to permissive leadership style. 13lDonald B. Trow, "Autonomy and (RN) Satisfaction in ‘Task- oriented Groups," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 53 (l957):207-9. 1321. R. Weschler, M. Kahane, and R. Tannenbaum, "Job Satisfac— tion, Productivity, and Morale: A Case Study," Occupational Psychol- ogy 26 (l952):2. 133R. K. White and R. Lippitt, Autocracy and Democracy: An Experimental Enquiry (New York: Harper, 1960), PP. 61, 129, 1311 6] Relation of Follower- Oriented Leadership with Job Satisfaction Follower-oriented leadership is variously referred to as "group oriented,“ "employee centered," or "the human relations approach." This type of leadership implies that the leader maintains a friendly and supportive relationship with the followers or subordinates as individuals. It does not necessarily imply a high degree of permissiveness. In fact, the employee-centered leader may still maintain high performance standards.134 In the Calcutta study, Bose observed that workers under employee-centered supervisors had more group pride than those under work-centered supervisors. It was also found that the workers in the high-pride groups were more loyal to their fellow workers than those who were in the low-pride groups.‘35 Herzberg, Mausner, and Snyderman, in an analysis of published research, found little relation between employee-centered supervision and job satisfaction.136 H0ppock analyzed the early literature on job satisfaction. The results indicated that workers tend to feel more satisfied when l37 supervisors understand their problems and help when needed. In a l955 survey of several thousand workers, Likert reported 134Stogdill, Handbook of Leadership. P- 375- 1355. K. Bose, "Employee Morale and Supervision," Indian Jour- nal of Psychology 30 (l955):ll7-25. 136E. Herzberg, B. Mausner, and Barbara 8. Snyderman, The Moti- vation to Work (New York: John Wiley and Sons, l959). Pp. l27, I36. 137H0ppock, Job Satisfaction, pp. 66, 70, l30. 62 that the workers indicated a tendency for job satisfaction to 138 Then in l96l, decrease as pressure for production increased. Likert obtained results which tended to support the hypothesis that a supportive attitude toward men is associated with an increased desire for reSponsibility.139 MacKinney, Kavanagh, Wolins, and Rapparlie, however, found both production-oriented and employee-oriented management unrelated to employee satisfaction.140 In a study conducted during the Foremen’s Conference at the University of Michigan, Maier and Danielson reported ‘that group discussions of a disciplinary problem resulting in an employee- ‘oriented solution produces greater satisfaction than one bound by legalistic restrictions to problem solving.]41 Mann and Hoffman carried out a comparative study on a manufacturing company that was automated and another that was not. They found that foremen of the automated plant rated comparatively low in human relations skills. However, in both plants, workers were , 138R. Likert, "Developing Patterns ir1 Management," American Management Association, General Management Series, no. ”8719557? 41-43. 139R. Likert, New Patterns of Management (New York: McGraw Hill Book CO., l965), p. T8. 140A. C. MacKinney, M. J. Kavanagh, L. Wolins, and J. )1. Rapparlie, "Manager Devel0pment Project: Summary of Progress through June, l969" (Ames, Iowa: Iowa State University, l970) (mimeo- graphed), cited by R. M. Stogdill, Handbook of Leadership (New York: Free Press, l974), p. 38l. ‘ MlNorman R. F. Maier and Lee E. Danielson, “An Evaluation of Two Approaches to Discipline in Industry," Journal of Applied Psychology 40, no. 5 (l956):320, 322. 63 better satisfied with the foreman who was considered as considerate, who recognized good,work, was reasonable in his expectations, who sought workers' ideas about the job, and who stood up for his men.142 Morse made a study of employees and supervisors in an office situation. She found that general supervision and delegation of authority facilitate worker satisfaction with the work group.143 In another study in which questionnaire responses were collected from nearly 400 managers in six divisions of a manufactur- ing organization along with company data on division performance, Roberts and his associates found that both member satisfaction and group performance were higher under an employee-oriented leadership style than under a more disinterested style of supervision.144 Stagner, Flebbe, and Wood conducted a study on 7l5 railroad workers and found that the workers were better satisfied when their supervisors were good at handling grievances and communicating with employees.145 In an experimental study in which the teacher was to 142F. C. Mann and L. R. Hoffman, Automation and the Worker: A Study of Social Change in Power Plants (New York: HEnryTolt an’d Cb., 1960), PD. 153459. 143Nancy C. Morse,'Satisfaction in the White Collar Job (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, Institute for Secial Researchitl953), pp. l63-65. 144Karlene Roberts, R. E. Miles, and L. V. Blankenship, "Organ- izational Leadership, Satisfaction, and Productivity: A Comparative Analysis," Academy of Management Journal ll (l968):40l-l4. 145R. Stagner, D. R. Flebble, and E. V. Wood, "Working on the Railroad: A Study of (NW) Satisfaction," Personnel Psychology' 5 (l952):30l, 304. 64 exemplify' a "learner-centered" climate and the» other a "teacher- centered" climate, Thelen and Whitehall found that a learner-centered climate (follower-oriented leadership) enhances satisfaction.146 Based on a series of intensive research studies made by the Institute of Human Relations at Yale University, Turner reported that satisfaction with a job is related to the variety of tasks performed and to the relative absence of pressure in the job. The study further seems to indicate that workers regard a good foreman as one who knows his job, relieves some of the pressures on his men, has a personal feeling for his men, approches his work specifically rather than generally, is fair, friendly, understanding, and considerate, and does not tell his workers to quit if they do not like it.147 In general, it appears that research studies on follower- oriented leadership indicate that employee satisfaction tends to be high under an employee-centered leadership style. The ratio of eleven positive to two zero relationships suggests that the employee-centered style of leadership does facilitate employee or job satisfaction. Relation of Participative and Directive Leadership with Job Satisfaction Participative leadership implies that the leader permits or encourages active group members to participate in discussion, problem solving, and decision making. Directive leadership implies that the 146H. A. Thelen and J. White, "Three Frames of Reference: The Description of Climate," Human Relations 2 (l949):l69. 147A. N. Turner, "Foremen--Key to Worker Morale," Harvard Business Review 32 (l954):66. 65 leader plays an active role in problem solving and decision making and expects group members to accept or be guided by his decisions.148 lhi an experimental study, Anderson and Fiedler compared two types of leadership conditions; namely, participatory and supervis- oryu It was found that these two leadership styles did not produce any significant differences in the members' esteem for the leader or in the members' morale and satisfaction with thetask.149 However, in another study involving elementary schools, ASpegren found that participatory leadership produced higher levels of member satisfaction and task motivation than either the directive or laissez-faire leadership.150 Baumgartel's study involved three types of research labora- tories which were being directed by a laissez-faire, participatory, or directive leadership style. He found that scientists in the research laboratories under participatory leadership exhibited a higher degree of task motivation and job satisfaction than those under directive leadership.]5] Berkowitz observed decision-making groups in industry, business, and government organizations. He found that the group 148Stogdill, Handbook of Leadership, p. 386. 149Lynn R. Anderson and Fred E. Fiedler, “The Effect of Parti- cipatory and Supervisory Leadership on Group Creativity," Journal Applied Psychology 48 (l964):227, 23l-32. 150 Aspegren, "A Study of Leadership Behavior," pp. 3708-3709. 151H. Baumgartel, "Leadership, Motivations, and Attitudes in Research Laboratories," Journal of Social Issues l2, no. 2 (l956):29; and "Leadership Style and Administratiorf" Administrative Science Quarterly 2 (l957):352-56. 66 member satisfaction decreased ufith leadership sharing and increased with directive leadership.152 In an experimental study, Fox investigated two types of leadership—~positive and negative--which are essentially the partici- patory and directive leadership styles, respectively. He found that groups under the positive leaders exhibited higher degrees of cohesiveness and member satisfaction but were slower “hi problem solving.153 In his study, Heyns coached one set of leaders to play a positive, supportive role emphasizing'agreement, mutual liking, and cooperation. He had another set of leaders coached in a negative role involving overt misunderstanding of members and making no effort to develop group cohesiveness.‘ He found that the (two styles of leadership produced no significant differences in the quality of solutions or member satisfaction.‘54 - Mann and Baumgartel. found that employees who felt free to discuss job-related and personal problems with their supervisors were better satisfied with the company, exhibited less absenteeism, and GOJQYEd membership in more cohesive work groups.155 152Leonard Berkowitz, "Sharing Leadership in Small, Decision- making Groups," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 40, no. 2 (l953):23l, 233. . 153W. M. Fox, "Group Reaction to Two Types of‘ Conference Leadership," Human Relations lO (l957):288. 154R. W. Heyns, Abstract of "Effects of Variation in Leadership on Participant Behavior in Discussion Group" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of NHchigan, l948), Microfilm Abstracts/9, 2 (l949):l6l- 63. ' (SSF. (1. Mann and It. Baumgartel, Absences and Employee Atti- tudes in an Electric Power Company (Ann Arbor: _University of Miéhigan, Survey Researéh Center, 1952), p. lO. 67 In another study, Mann, Indik, and Vroom reported that worker satisfaction is highly related to participation in decision making.156 Page and McGinnies showed a mental health film to six groups of subjects who then discussed the film under two styles of leadership. They feund that the directive leader was rated by the members as significantly more satisfying, interesting, frank, purposeful, enlightening, industrious, and persuasive. than the nondirective leader. Both active (high participatory) and passive (low participatory) members favored the directive leader--the passive followers to a significant degree.‘57 Storey studied groups with a responsibilty-sharing leader and others with a strong-procedural leader. The two styles of leadership correspond to the participatory and directory types of leadership. It was found that the participative groups were better satisfied with group procedures, decisions reached, and inter~member acceptance.158 This group of research studies suggests that job or group member satisfaction does not vary consistently with participative and - directive leadership styles. However, six of the ten studies 1551?. c. Mann, B. P. Indik, and v. H. Vroom. The Productivity of Work Groups (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, Survey Research Center, T963), PP. 20-2l. 157Richard IL. Page and Eflliott McGinnies, "Comparison of Two Styles of Leadership in Small Group Discussion,“ Journal of Applied Psychology 43 (l959):242-43. 158A. W. Story, Abstract of "A Study of Member satisfaction and Types of Contributions in Discussion Groups with Responsibility- sharing Leadership“ (Ph.D. dissertation, the University of Michigan, l954), Dissertation Abstracts/l4, 4 (April l954):737. 68 reviewed show a positive relationship between participative leader- ship and group member satisfaction. There seems to be, therefore, a slight tendency for member satisfaction to be related to participa- tive leadership. Relation of Leader Consideration and Structure with Job Satisfaction Consideration and initiation of structure are two strongly defined subscales in the Leader Behavior Description Questionnaire-- Form XII. These are more fully discussed in chapter III. It is necessary here to focus on the relationship between these two leadership styles and job or member satisfaction. Aboud employed two supervisory styles, namely, high structure-high consideration and high structure-low consideration, in his experiment. He found that the groups under the high structure- high consideration style of supervision had significantly' better attitudes than the groups under the high structure-low consideration style of supervision.159 In a study in which all the subjects and all supervisors were women, Boyles found that consideration was positively related to job satisfaction, but that structure was unrelated to satisfaction.‘60 159J. Aboud, Jr., Abstract of "The Interactive Effect of Group Cohesion and Supervisory Style on the Productivity of College Students on a Motor-Skill Task” (Ph.D. dissertation, The Pennsylvania State University, l968), Dissertation Abstracts/29, 5 (November, l968):18538. 1608. R. Boyles, Abstract of "The Interaction between Certain Personality Variables and Perceived Supervisory Styles and Their Relation to Performance and Satisfaction" (Ph.D. dissertation, New York University, l968), Dissertation Abstracts/28, ll (May, l968):47888-4789B. 69 Evans carried out a study in two organizations, a public utility and a general hospital and reported that the results for the utility showed that both supervisory consideration and structure were positively related 11) subordinate job performance and satisfaction. However, in the hospital, no relationship was found between supervisory behavior and subordinate performance and satisfaction.]61 In another study, which was Sponsored jointly by the Human Resources Research Laboratories, Department of the Air Force, and the Ohio State Leadership Studies, Halpin found that consideration was positively and structure was negatively related to crew' member satisfaction.‘62 House and Filley conducted a study on 'a large petroleum refining company and a large business machine manufacturing company. It was found that in both companies supervisory consideration and structuring were related significantly to satisfaction with company, job, and family attitudes toward company and job.]63 In a study comprising 20l hOSpital personnel and 30 Rural Electric Association employees, Kroen found that consideration was 161M. G. Evans, Abstract of "The Effects of Supervisory Behav- icn‘ upon Worker Perception of their Path-goal Relationships" (Ph.D. dissertation, Yale University, l968), Dissertation Abstracts/29, ll (May, l968):44l9B. 162A. W. Halpin, "The Leadership Behavior and Combat Perform- ance of Airplane Commanders," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychol- 'ogy 49 (l954):2l. ‘53R. .1. House and A. c. Filley, "Leadership Style, Hierarchi- cal Influence and the Satisfaction of Subordinate Role Expectations: A Test of Likert‘s Influence Proposition," Journal of Applied Psychology 55 (l97l):427. 70 positively related to job satisfaction, but that structure was unrelated to satisfaction.164 Pacinelli's study of 250 rehabilitation counselors, indicated that job satisfaction was related positivety.to both consideration and initiating structure. However, consideration leadership behavior was found more highly correlated to the satisfaction factors than was initiating structure.165 Parker studied warehouse work groups and found that the supervisors' attitudes toward consideration and structure were both related positively and significantly to worker satisfaction with supervision.166 Rowland and Scott found in their study no relationship between employee satisfaction and the attitudes of their superiors toward consideration and structure.167 Stogdill studied 27 organizations of six types involving more than l,300 supervisors and 3,700 employees. For organizations in 164C. W. Kroen, Abstract of "Validation of Herzberg's Theory of Job Motivation and Its Relationship to Leadership Style" (Ph.D. dissertation, Colorado State University, 1967), Dissertation Abstracts/28, 12 (June, l968):52258-5226B. 165Ralph Nicholas Pacinelli, Abstract of "Rehabilitation Coun- selor Job Satisfaction as It Relates to Perceived Leadership Behavior and Related Background Factors" (Ed.D. dissertation, The Pennsylvania State thfiversity, l968), Dissertation Abstracts/29, 5 (November, l968):l8638. 166T.C. Parker, "Relationships among Measures of Supervisory Behavior, Group Behavior, and Situational Chracteristics," Personnel Psychology l6 (l963):325-26. 167Kendrith M. Rowland and William E. Scott, Jr., "Psychologi- cal Attributes of Effective Leadership in a formal organization," Personnel Psychology 2l (l968):37l, 372. 71 general, it was found that both supervisory consideration and structuring were related to employee satisfaction.168 The results of this section of studies can be summarized as follows: nine positive and one zero relationships between considera- tion and job satisfaction; and six positive, three zero, and one negative relationships between structure and job satisfaCtion. It appears, then, that member or job satisfaction is somewhat more highly related to consideration than to structure. Moreover, several studies seem to indicate that consideration and structure interact to influence satisfaction as well as productivity. Therefore, the most effective leaders tend to be described high in both consideration and structure. 168Ralph PL Stogdill, 'Managers, Employees, Organizations (Columbus: Ohio State University, Bureau of Business Research: l965), p. 44. CHAPTER III RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY This chapter discusses in greater detail the research design and methodology used in this study than has already been mentioned as follows: (l) type of research, (2) study population, (3) research instruments, (4) research procedures, and (5) statistical analyses. Type of Research This study is a correlational-descriptive type of research. The leadership style of the academic deans as perceived by the department/division chairpersons was correlated with the level of job satisfaction of the department/division chairpersons, and with the age, level of education, and length of service of the academic deans in order to determine whether any significant relationships exist between these variables. Also, in order to determine whether any significant differences exist between these variables and/or various groupings of chairpersons and deans, the following comparisons were made: job satisfaction of chairpersons under relationship-motivated and task-motivated deans, leadership style as perceived by chairper- sons of the deans of medical arts and liberal arts schools, propor- tion of relationship- versus task-motivated deans in medical and liberal arts schools, leadership style of male and female deans as perceived by the chairpersons, proportion of male and female 72 73 deans who report themselves as relationship- versus task-motivated, age of relationship- and task-motivated deans, level of education of relationship- and task-motivated deans, length of service» of relationship- and task-motivated deans, and leadership style of the academic deans as reported by the deans themselves and as perceived by the department—division chairpersons. Study Population and Sample The subjects for this study consisted of the academic deans and the department/division chairpersons of all the Seventh-day Adventist colleges and universities in North America. This included ten colleges and two universities operated in North America by the Seventh-day Adventist Church. To determine the total number of academic deans and department/division chairpersons in the study p0pulation, the resear- cher compiled a list from the most current (l981-l982/83) bulletins of all the colleges and universities available at the time of the study at the James White Library of Andrews University, Berrien Springs, Michigan. In addition, a list of all the current academic deans and department/division chairpersons was obtained from the Department of Education, General Conference of the Seventh-day Adven- tists, at Washington, D.C. From these two lists of names, a carefully compiled final list, which included 27 academic deans, 280 department chairpersons, and 35 division chairpersons was made. However, for the study sample only the academic deans who had at least four departments or divisions directly under their supervision were selected. This was based upon Halpin's suggestion 74 that a minimum of four respondents per leader is desirable in order to provide a satisfactory index score of the leader's behavior or 1 Moreover, all the academic deans of the schools leadership style. that had only programs instead of departments, and associate and assistant deans were excluded. Thus, only twenty-three of the aca- demic deans met the above criteria. This included one academic dean from each of the ten colleges and a total of thirteen academic deans from the colleges and schools of the two universities. All of the department/division chairpersons under the selec- ted academic deans were included in the sample. There was a slight complication where some chairpersons headed two or more departments. Therefore, wherever the chairpersons had two or more departments under their supervision, they were included only once in the first department of which they happened to be the chairperson. In one of the universities where there are twenty-four departments in the col- lege of arts and sciences, sixteen of the chairpersons headed the same department on both the undergraduate and graduate levels, and one of them headed a third department. Thus of the twenty-four chairpersons in the college of arts and sciences, only seven were chairpersons of only one department. In this case, a random sampling method was used to divide the subjects into two groups. Since seven of the chairpersons were definitely in the undergraduate group, then the sixteen other chairpersons holding joint-appointments were divi- ded into two groups, five for the undergraduate group and eleven for the graduate group. Thus, the samples for the college of arts and 1Halpin, "Manual," p. 2. 75 sciences and the school of graduate studies consisted of twelve and eleven chairpersons, respectively. The final study sample consisted of twenty-three academic deans and 244 department/division chairpersons. No prior general approval to participate in the study was obtained from the institu- tions concerned. Instead, a letter of endorsement for the study to be mailed with the questionnaires to each subject was sought from the Department of Education of the General Conference of Seventh-day Adventists in Washington, D.C. Research Instruments Three standardized questionnaires were used in this study. The Least Preferred Coworker Scale and the Leader Behavior Descrip- tion Questionnaire--Form XII were both used to determine the leader- ship style of the academic deans, that is, relationship- or task- motivated and the combination of consideration and initiating struc- ture, respectively. The Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire--Short Eggm was used to determine the general job satisfaction of department/division chairpersons. The rationale for the use, devel- 0pment, concept, reliability, and validity of each of these instru- ments is discussed below. Least Preferred Coworker Scale The academic deans were requested to respond to the Least _Ereferred Coworker Scale (LPC). This instrument was chosen for the following reasons: (l) The LPC appears to have been widely and successfully used by the leaders in identifying their own leadership 76 style. (2) The two leadership dimensions (styles), namely, relation- ship-and task-motivated, as measured by the LPC, are parallel to two of the leadership dimensions, namely, consideration and initiating structure measured by the Leader Behavior Description Questionnaire-- Form XII. The use of this instrument introduced a second Opinion with respect 1x1 the leadership style of the academic deans as they perceived it. It also helped to determine whether there is any rela- tionship existing between the deans' and the chairpersons' perception with respect to the leadership style of the academic deans. The LPC was developed within the context of Fiedler's earlier 2 In this research, Fiedler research study' on person perception. _ typically required the respondents to describe a number of persons, for example, self, ideal self, family members, clients, and other group members (including most-(and least-preferred coworkers). The study showed that reputedly effective clinical psychologists described themselves and their clients more similarly than did clini- cians reputed to be relatively ineffective.3 Later Fiedler. discovered that leaders' perceptions of coworkers are related to group effectiveness.4 In conducting this 2See F. E. Fiedler, "Quantitative Studies in the Role of Therapists' Feelings toward Their Patients," in Psychotherapy Theory and Research, ed. 0. H. Mowrer (New York: Ronald"Press, l953):296- 3l5, and Eeader Attitudes and Group Effectiveness (Urbana, Illinois: University of Iliinois Press, I958). 3Robert W. Rice, "Psychometric Properties of the Esteem for Least Preferred Coworker (LPC Scale)," Academy of Management Review 3 (January l978):l07. 4See F. E. Fiedler, "Assumed Similarity Measures as Predic- tors of Team Effectiveness," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychol- .9gy 49 (l954):38l-88. 77 study, Fiedler develOped a measure of Assumed Similarity between Opposites (A50). The A50 scores were obtained by computing the dif- ference between the LPC scores and the Most Preferred Coworker (MPC) scores. The A30 scores had been viewed as indicators of "leadership 5 style" and correlated with group performance. Because the LPC and A50 scores are highly correlated (r = .70 - .90), recent research has employed only the LPC scale.6 Although the LPC scale was not devel0ped for the specific purpose of measuring theoretically distinct styles of leadership,7 it can be used to identify leadership style--according to Fiedler's terms. For Fiedler, leadership style refers to the underlying needs and motives of the leader, not the overt behavior patterns diSplayed by the leader.8 Moreover, the LPC score of group leaders has proved 9 Therefore it is to be an important predictor of group performance. reasonable to believe that the LPC can be used as E! measuring instrument for leadership style. In its most recent version, the LPC consists of eighteen pairs of bipolar adjectives. The examinee (usually a leader) is asked to think of everyone with whom he or she has worked and then to 5Bernard PL Bass, Stogdill's Handbook of Leadership (New York: Free Press, l981), p. 341. 6Rice, "Psychometric Properties," p. l07. 7Robert W. Rice, "Construct Validity of the Least Preferred Coworker Score," Psychological Bulletin 85, no. 6 (l978):l200. 8F. E. Fiedler, A Theory of Leadership Effectiveness (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., T967), p. 36. 9 Rice, "Psychometric Properties," p. l08. 78 describe the one person with whom he or she could work least well by marking these eighteen items. Each item of this simple bipolar scale is scored from l to 8, with 8 as the most favorable pole of the scale and l 'the least favorable. The sum of the item scores constitutes the individual's LPC score. A relatively high LPC score (64 or above) has generally been conceived by Fiedler as indicative of a relationship-motivated person, whereas a low LPC score (57 or below) l() A has been conceived as indicative of a task-motivated person. sample copy of this most recent LPC questionnaire, which was used in this study, can be examined in Appendix A. This emphasis on the LPC measure leads the discussion to the next two topics considered here, namely, the validity and reliability of the LPC instrument. These are treated separately as follows: Validity. Fiedler and Chemers have admitted that "for nearly 20 years, we have been attempting to correlate it (LPC) with every conceivable personality trait and every conceivable behavior observa- tion score. By and large these analyses have been uniformly fruit- ll less.“ But in a study sampling 64 of ll4 studies involving a total of l,445 statistical relationships between LPC and another variable, Rice concluded more optimistically that although it remains unclear as to whether LPC is a measure of social distance, personal need, cognitive complexity, or motivational hierarchy, not in doubt is the . 10Bass, Stoddill's Handbook of Leadership, p. 342; F.E. Fiedler and M. ‘M. Chemers, Leadership and‘ Effective Management (Glenv1ew, Ill.: Scott, Foresman 8 CO., 1974), PP. 73-74; and Fiedler, Theory of Leadership Effectiveness, p. 45. HFiedler and Chemers, Leadership, p. 74. 79 interpersonal relations versus task orientation of LPC scores.12 In the same study, Rice found that the data taken as a whole support Fiedler's proposition that persons with low LPC scores are primarily task oriented and persons with high LPC scores are rela- tionship oriented.13 Fiedler inferred that for the person who describes his or her least preferred coworker in negative, rejecting terms is task- motivated since the completion of the task is of such overriding importance that it completely colors the perception of all other per- sonality traits attributed to the LPC. If' I cannot work with you, if you frustrate my need to get the job done, then you can't be any good in other respects. You are . . . unfriendly, unpleasant, tense, distant, etc. The relationship-motivated individual who sees his or her LPC in relatively more positive terms says, "Getting a job done is not everything. Therefore, even though I can't work with you, you may still be friendly, relaxed, interesting, etc., in other words, someone with whom I could get along quite well on a personal basis." Thus, the high LPC person looks at the LPC in a more differentiated manner--more interested in the personality of the individual than merely in whethef4this is or is not someone with whom one can get a job done. But it is important to note that a high LPC score does not always predict that a leader behaves with concern for relationships nor that low LPC scores of a leader always predict that the leader 12Rice, "Construct Validity," pp. 1206-1232. 131oid., p. 1230. l4 F. E. Fiedler, "The contingency Model and the Dynamics of the Leadership Process," in Advances in Experimental Social Psychol- .9gy, ed. L. Berkowitz, ll (New York: ‘ACademic Press, 1978), p. 6T. 80 pushes for more structuring or task completion.15 16 Nevertheless, in a number of studies it was found that low LPC scores coincided with initiating structure and ‘task-oriented leader behavior and high LPC scores coincided with relations-oriented behavior.l7 Reliability of the LPC Scale. The internal consistency reliability of the LPC seems well-established. For earlier versions l8 of LPC, ‘Rice obtained from seven studies a mean internal consistency coefficient (using Fisher's Z transformation) of .88 (standard deviation = .33),in Spite of the fact that some investiga- tors (e.g., Fox, Hill, and Guertin, l973; Shiflett, l974; and Yukl, l970) have found separate interpersonal and task factors in these 19 earlier LPC scales. However, the newest eighteen-item version of the LPC used in this study was designed to minimize the task-factor 20 items. Therefore, in five studies with the newest eighteen-item version, Rice (l979)2] was able to report a somewhat higher 15Ibid. l6 . See, for example, Nebekar and Boni, l974; Gruenfeld, Rance, and Welssenberg, l969; Fox, l974; Yukl, l970; Meuwese and Fiedler, 1955; Chemers and Skrzypek. 1972; Blades and Fiedler 1973- s and Wilson, l965; Sashkim, 1972, . . ample 17Bass, pp. 344-45. l8 19 Rice, "Psychometric Properties," p. lll. Bass, p. 342. 20Fiedler, "The Contingency Model," p. 89. 2(Robert W. Rice, "Reliability and Validity of the LPC Scale: A Reply," Academy of Management Review 4, no. 2 (l979):29l. 81 reliability with alpha coefficients of .90, .91, .79, .84, and .89. Having dealt with the internal consistency, one must turn his/her attention to the question of the test-retest reliability of the LPC, that is, the consistency of the score over time. Rice found twenty-three reports of test-retest reliability ranging from .01 to .91 with a median of .67 and a mean (using Fisher's Z transformation) of .64 (standard devitation = .36). A correlation between the length of the test-retest interval and the magnitude of the stability coefficient was -.30. Since the interval between testing ranged from a few days to two and a half years, this finding suggests that the magnitude of the stability of LPC is not primarily a function of time.22 ' While the LPC score can be stable over relatively long periods of time, there are other factors which affect the stability of LPC. Rice suggests that the respondents' Experiences such as executive development workshops, leader- ship experience, management games, and military training sometimes can reduce drastically the stability of LPC. . . The only exceptions to this general trend toward low stabil- ity in training settings occur when the test-retest interval is extremely short or the trainees gave had prior experience in the general training environment. This seems 1x1 support Fiedler's own observation that "the stability of . . . LPC scores depends to a considerable degree on the 24 intervening experience of the men." Therefore, in the absence of 22Rice, "Psychometric Properties," pp. 112-13. 23Ibid. 24Fiedler, Leadership Effectiveness, p. 48. 82 these intervening experiences, it is reasonable to expect that the more typical test-retest reliability of the LPC scores of more mature subjects in stable Situations (i.e., without undergoing very drastic 25 changes in their lives) to be around .60 to .70 Thus, the stability of LPC seems to fall within the acceptable range for established personality attribute measures.26 Leader Behavior Description Questionnaire--Form XII As one of the main objectives of this study was to determine the leadership style of the academic deans, the Leader Behavior Description Questionnaire--Form XII, the latest version of the Ohio State Leadership Scales, was selected for this purpose. Form 12 of this instrument is designated. as LBDQ-12 throughout this chapter, while the original Leader Behavior Description Questionnaire is referred to as LBDQ only. The rationale for using this instrument is as follows: (1) the LBOQ-12 has been widely and successfully used by other researchers and investigators irl determining leadership styles, namely, consideration and initiating structure. (2) As already nkntioned earlier, the task-oriented and relationship- (or person-) oriented behavior of the leaders measured by the LPC are the counterparts (Hi the LBDQ-12 initiating structure and consideration, respectively. Thus, this affords the opportunity to determine whether the LPC scores correlate significantly with either considera- tion or initiating structure. (3) Since the LBDQ-12 was used to 25Ibid.. pp. 48-49. 26Fiedler, "The Contingency Model," P- 90- 83 determine responses by the department/division chairpersons, it would provide a useful comparison between the leadership style Of the academic deans as they reported it and the leadership style as per- ceived by the chairpersons. The LBDQ was develOped by the staff Of the Personnel Research Board, the Ohio State University, from work initiated by Hemphill.27 It provides a method in which group members can describe the behavior Of designated leaders in any type Of group or organization, provided they have had an Opportunity to Observe the leader in action as a leader Of their group.28 The LBDQ contains several items, each Of which describes a specific manner in which a leader may behave. The respondent indi- cates the frequency with which he or she perceives the leader engaging in each type of behavior by marking one of five adverbs: always, Often, occasionally, seldom, never. These responses are usually obtained from the leader's immediate subordinates and are scored on two dimensions Of leader behavior, namely, initiating structure and consideration. These two factorially defined subscales have been widely used in empirical research, particularly in 29 industrial, military, and educational settings. The LBDQ-12 was develOped by Stogdill and his associates of 27For details Of this work, see J. K. Hemphill, Situational Factors 'hl Leadership (Columbus: Ohio State University, Bureau Of _ Educational Research, Monograph NO. 32, 1949). 28Ralph M. Stogdill, "Manual for the Leader Behavior Descrip- tion Questionnaire-Form XII" (Columbus, Ohio: Bureau Of Business Research, The Ohio State University, 1963, p. l. (Mimeographed.) 29Halpin, "Manual," pp. 1-2. 84 the Ohio State Leadership Studies as a result of his doubts that “two factors are sufficient to account for all the observable variance in 30 leader behavior." However, Shartle has Observed that there was no 3] Therefore, theory available to suggest additional factors. Stogdill and his associates continued their research for a new theory whereby other new factors could be added to the LBDQ scales of ini- tiating structure and consideration. Eventually, ten more factors were suggested and added to the LBDQ. Thus, the LBDQ-12 was born. It represents the fourth revision Of the questionnaire and is subject to further revision.32 (A sample copy Of the LBDQ-12 appears in Appendix B.) The LBDQ-12 has a total Of 100 items and consists Of twelve subscales or leadership dimensions--as its name implies. Each subscale is composed of either five or ten items. A brief descrip- tion of each Of these subscales is listed below: 1. Representation--speaks and acts as the representative of the group (5 items) 2. Demand Reconciliation--reconciles conflicting demands and reduces disorder to system (5 items) 3. Tolerance of Uncertainty--is able to tolerate uncertainty and postponement without anxiety upset (10 items) 30Stogdill, "Manual," p. 2. 31C. 1.. Shartle, "Introduction," in Leader Behavior: Its Description and Measurement, ed. R. M. Stogdill and A. E. Coons (COIumbus: The Ohio State University, Bureau of Business Research, Monograph NO. 88, 1957), p. 1. 32 Stogdill, "Manual," p. 2. 85 4. Persuasiveness--uses persuasion and argument effectively; exhibits strong convictions (10 items) 5. Initiation of Structure--clearly' defines own role and lets followers know what is expected (10 items) 6. Tolerance Of Freedom--allows followers sc0pe for initia- tive, decision, and action (10 items) 7. Role Assumption--actively exercises the leadership role rather than surrendering leadership to others (10 items) 8. Consideration--regards the comfort, well being, status, and contributions Of followers (10 items) 9. Production Emphasis--applies pressure for productive out- put (10 items) 10. Predictive Accuracy-exhibits foresight and ability to predict outcomes accurately (5 items) . ll. Integration--maintains a closely knit organization: resolves intermember conflicts (5 items) 12. Superior Orientation--maintains cordial relations *with superiors; has influence with them; is striving for higher status (10 items).33 The LBOQ-12 Consideration and Initiating Structure seem to be the two most commonly used scales to determine leadership style and have been found to correlate Significantly with job satisfaction and performance Of subordinates.34 However, there is evidence that the 33Ibid., p. 3. 34Robert L. Dipboye, in The Eight Mental Measurements Year Book, ed. 0. K. Boros (Highland Park, N.J}: ’Gryphon Press, 1978), p. 86 other ten dimensions also are related to job satisfaction and group performance.35 Validity. The term validity implies that a given subscale measures the pattern Of behavior (leadership style) that it is intended to measure. The items in a subscale Of the LBDQ-12 define the pattern of behavior the subscale is intended to measure. TO test the validity, Stogdill showed movies Of actors displaying different leadership roles to Observers who then completed the LBDQ-12. The observers significantly (p < .01) distinguished between consideration and productivity and between structure and tolerance of freedom. Since each role was designed to portray the behaviors described by the items in its respective subscale, this finding shows that the subscales Of the LBOQ-12 measure what they are purported to measure. Moreover, it seems that Observers would probably have distinguished between consideration and structure although this was not tested. Therefore, the LBDQ-12 may be regarded as valid under experimental conditions.36 Reliability. The internal consistency reliability Of the LBDQ-12 seems well established. The reliability Of the subscales- given by Stogdill was determined by a modified Kuder-Richardson formula which yields a conservative estimate of the subscale relia- bility. The reliability coefficients on the twelve subscales ranged from a low of .38 for production emphasis for senators to a high of 35Ralph M. Stogdill, Handbook Of Leadership: A Survey Of Theory and Research (New York: Free Press, 1974), pp. 142-55. 36Ralph M. Stogdill, "Validity Of Leader Behavior Descrip- tioons," Personnel Psychology 22 (1969):153-58. 87 .91 for predictive accuracy for aircraft executives. However, the reliability coefficients for initiating structure were between .70 for ministers and .80 for college presidents, with an average Of .76 (n = 9); and the reliability coefficients for consideration were between .76 for army division Officers and college presidents and .87 for highway patrol administrative Officers, with an average Of .81 (n = 91.37 The test-retest reliability coefficients Of LBDQ-12 for one-, two—, and three-month intervals were found to vary between .57 and .72 for initiating structure and between .71 and .79 for considera- tion.38 In summary, the LBDQ-12 appears to possess concurrent valid- ity in that its scales have been found to correlate with the external criteria Of job satisfaction and performance and are capable Of dis- tinguishing between persons displaying behaviors corresponding to the dimensions. Also, it would seem that the LBDQ-12 does possess reasonably good internal consistency and moderately high stability on the consideration and initiating structure scales. Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire- Short Form In order to determine the job satisfaction Of the department/ division chairpersons, the short form Of the Minnesota Satisfaction 37Stogdill, "Manual," pp. 8, 11. 38Charles IL. Greene, "A Longitudinal Analysis Of Relation- ships among Leader Behavior and Subordinate Performance and Satisfac- tion," Academy of Management Proceedings (August 19-22, 1973):437. 88 Questionnaire was chosen for use in collecting data relative to job satisfaction. This instrument is simply referred to as MSQ through- out this chapter. This instrument was chosen as apprOpriate for two reasons: (1) The MSQ has been Specifically designed to measure job satisfaction and has been widely' and successfully used by' many researchers and investigators. (2) It is a very short and simple instrument and may be effectively administered by mail, as with the LPC and LBDQ-12. The MSQ was developed by the Work Adjustment Project, Industrial Relations Center, University of Nfinesota, for measuring the job satisfaction Of workers. It is composed Of twenty items and consists of three scales: intrinsic satisfaction, extrinsic satis- 39 (A sample COpy Of the MSQ can faction, and general satisfaction. be found in Appendix C.) The MSQ was developed by choosing twenty representative items, one from each Of the twenty scales, from the long form MSQ, which is composed of 100 items. The items chosen were those which correlated most highly with their respective scales.40 The MSQ was then administered to a heterogenous group Of 1,460 workers. The resulting data were factor-analyzed tO Obtain the intrinsic and extrinsic satisfaction factors. In addition, all twenty items were scored as a general satisfaction scale.4] 39David J. Weiss, Rene V. Dawis, George W. England, and Lloyd H. Lquuist, Manual for the (Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (Minnesota: WOrk AdeStment Project, IndUStrial Relations Center, University Of Minnesota, 1967), p. 2. 40 41 Ibid., p. 13. Ibid. 89 Validity. According to Weiss, et al., since the M50 is based on a subset of the long-form items, its validity may in part be inferred from validity for the long-form. Evidence for the validity Of the long-fonn MSQ is derived from its performance in accordance with the theoretical expectations. Much Of the evidence supporting construct validity for the long-form MSQ is derived indirectly from construct validation studies Of the NHnnesota Importance Question- naire (MIQ) based on the Theory of Work Adjustment. Accordingly, the results of these studies indicate that the long-form MSQ measured satisfaction in accordance with expectations from the Theory Of Work Adjustment.42 Other evidence for the validity Of the MSQ is available from two sources: One comes from the studies Of occupational group dif- ferences, the results of which indicate that occupational group dif- ferences 'hl mean satisfaction scores were statistically significant for each of the three scales--intrinsic, extrinsic, and general sat- isfaction scales. As expected, group differences in variability were not statistically significant for any scale. These results happen to parallel those Obtained for the long-form MSQ and those generally found in studies of job satisfaction.43 The other SOurce comes from studies Of lfimz relationship between satisfaction and satisfactoriness, as Specified by the Theory of Work Adjustment. According tO the Theory Of Work Adjustment, satisfaction and satisfactoriness are independent, although interact- ing, sets Of variables. Thus, data reflecting this postulated lack 42 43 Ibid., pp. 16-18. Ibid., pp. 24-25. 90 Of relationship would support the construct validity of the MSQ scales. The results Of the analyses of the relationship between mea- sured satisfaction and measured satisfactoriness as reported in the Minnesota Studies 'hl Vocational Rehabilitation series supported the expectation that satisfaction and satisfactoriness are independent sets Of variables, and therefore indirectly support the validity of 44 the MSQ scales as measures Of satisfaction. Reliability. In general, the Hoyt reliability coefficients for internal consistency were high. For the intrinsic satisfaction scale, the coefficients ranged from .84 for the two assembler groups to .91 for engineers. For the extrinsic satisfaction scale, the coefficients varied frOm .77 for electronic assemblers to .82 for engineers and machinists. On the general satisfaction scale, the coefficients varied from .87 for assemblers to .92 for engineers.45 NO data are currently available to verify the stability of the MSQ scores. However, stability for the general satisfaction . scale may be inferred from data on the general satisfaction scale of the long form MSQ, since both general satisfaction scales use the same twenty items. The test-retest correlation Of General Satisfac- tion scale scores of the long form MSQ yielded coefficients Of .89 . . 46 over a one-week period and .70 over a one-year lnterval. 44Ibid.. pp. 25-26. 451bid., pp. 113, 117-19. 46Ibid., p. 24. 91 Research Procedures The method used for collecting the research data was by mailed questionnaires. However, extensive preparation was made before the questionnaires could be sent to the subjects. Preparation included the following procedures: 1. A final list Of all qualified academic deans and department/division chairpersons (M’ the Seventh-day Adventist col- leges and universities in North America was prepared. This list contained twenty-three academic deans and 244 department/division chairpersons. Each of these subjects was assigned a five-digit code number for the sole purpose of handling, recording, classifying, and analyzing the raw data collected. As soon as the study was completed all these records would be destroyed tO ensure the anonymity Of the participants. 2. Permission for-the reproduction and use of each Of the three questionnaires was obtained from the respective c0pywriters. The documents granting such authorization are filed in the research- er's permanent record file for future reference and for verification. 3. Since the subjects involved in this study were all employed by the Seventh-day Adventist Church organization, it was felt that a letter Of endorsement for the study from the Department Of Education, General Conference of Seventh-day Adventists, Washington, D.C., would promote the study and encourage more subjects to participate. Thus, a letter of endorsement and an introduction was secured from the associate director Of the Department Of 92 Education. (A copy Of this letter appears in Appendix D.) After the preliminaries were accomplished, materials for col- lecting the raw data were prepared. This included two covering letters, one for the academic deans (see Appendix E) and one for the department/division chairpersons (see Appendix F), since the» two groups were asked to respond to different questionnaires. The three questionnaires were printed in three colors for ease Of handling and recording. The LPC was printed in blue, the LBDQ-12 in green, and the MSQ in yellow. Altogether, twenty-three LPC questionnaires were sent to the academic deans and 244 LBDQ-12 and MSQ were sent to the department/ division chairpersons. Specifically, each subject received the following materials: (1) the. apprOpriate covering letter, (2) the letter (M: introduction and endorsement, from the associate director Of Education Department Of the General Conference Of Seventh-day Adventists, (3) a stamped, self-addressed envelope, and (4) the apprOpriate questionnaires: i.e., LPC for the academic deans and LBDQ-12 and MSQ for the department/division chairpersons. Every returned questionnaire was checked against individual code numbers on the master list containing the names Of all the sub- jects. This was done in order that follow-up letters could be sent only to those who did not respond and whose response was needed for the successful completion Of the study. The elimination Of code numbers would make follow-up difficult and more time and expense would be expended if follow-up letters had to be sent tO all subjects. 93 Four weeks after the initial mailing, a follow-up letter (see Appendix G) and a second LPC questionnaire were mailed to all the academic deans who had not responded. It was necessary, in a few instances, to write individual, personal letters to solicit responses from a few academic deans in order to Obtain a high rate of returns, since the number Of academic deans participating in the study was crucial. In the case of the department/division chairpersons, a follow-up letter (see Appendix H) was sent only to those whose school or college had fewer than four chairpersons responding to the LBDQ-12 (Halpin suggested that a minimum Of four respondents per leader would be desirable). NO given minimum seems to be required as to the pre- ferable number of reSpondents. for the use of the MSQ. It was presumed for this study that the minimum number of four department/ division chairpersons to describe their job satisfaction under each academic dean would be sufficient, since the same department/division chairpersons responded to both the LBDQ-12 and MSQ forms. The initial mailing yielded the following results: 14 of the 23 (60.9%) academic deans responded tO the LPC, 134 of the 244 (54.9%) department/division chairpersons responded to the LBDQ-12, and 127 Of the 244 (52.1%) department/division chairpersons responded to the MSQ. However, after the follow-up letters these results were significantly improved to 91.3 percent for LPC, 71.3 percent for LBDQ-12, and 68.0 percent for MSQ. Table 1 shows detailed results by colleges and questionnaires. 94 TABLE 1 RESPONSES BY CATEGORIES OF QUESTIONNAIRES AND COLLEGES Academic Deans Department/Division Chairpersons LPc LBDQ-XII MSQ W m In W m in E E t E e t e E .. 0 O O O O O O O O O D. ‘0- '4- '0— ‘O- Q! '4- 9- 0 H H- “- gun ‘4- 9- mm ‘0- '4- 05W 0 CU GIG) 0 DU 050 0 0U 150 Q} ' 0 pm 0) 44W 0 am 0" LU L: C: L‘U L: C: L‘U L: C: a) 0)” @5- 00 Q10 05- 00 cum US- 010 '- ..Dr-D: UD. .0!— .0: UD. .0!- .03 OD. .— Eor- 544 3.01 E-I- Eu LW E-o- EH LW 0 3‘0 :w 00) 340 :0) 0’0) 345 :0) 00) U ZEZL 0.0! ZE 25- an: 25 25- 0.0: 01 4 4 100 34 25 73.5 34 25 73.5 02 1 1 100 18 11 61.1 18 11 61.1 03 1 1 100 5 2 40.0 5 2 40.0 04 .1 1 100 15 10 66.7 15 9 60.0 05 1 1 100 9 8 88.9 9 8 88.9 06 9 8 88.9 82 65 79.3 82 63 76.8 07 1 1 100 13 8 61.5 13 8 61.5 08- 1 1 100 20 14 70.0 20 13 65.0 09 1 1 100 10 8 80.0 10 6 60.0 10 1 0 0 13 7 53.8 13 7 53.8 11 .1 1 100 6 4 66.7 6 4 66.7 12 1 . 1 100 19 12 63.2 19 10 52.6 Totals 23 21 91.3 244 174 71.3 244 166 68.0 94 TABLE 1 RESPONSES BY CATEGORIES OF QUESTIONNAIRES AND COLLEGES Academic Deans Department/Division Chairpersons LPC LBDQ-XII MSQ 0') m m m m m e a .. e E .L E E t . O O O O O O O O O D Q- 9— '4- W— W— H- . w m 0 H “a “a... :33 “5 “5.. 8'8 .5 “5.. 8'8 m 0 (D an m Hm 0) 4401 O) LU L: C: LU LC CC LU L: CC 0) 00) 0&- (DO 00) 0L Q’O 0J0) (DL 00 '— Dr-D: DD. .0!— .0: UQ .DF- D: 00. .— E°P 5+» LU) E-:- E» Lin E-:- E44 LU, O :30 :0) did) 3'0 :30.) mm :0 :30) 0.10 U ZEZL 0.0: 25 ZL an: 25 ZL an: 01 4 4 100 34 25 73.5 34 25 73.5 02 1 l 100 18 11 61.1 18 11 61.1 03 1 l 100 5 2 40.0 5 2 40.0 04 ‘l l 100 15 10 66.7 15 9 60.0 05 l l 100 9 8 88.9 9 8 88.9 06 9 8 88.9 82 65 79.3 82 63 76.8 07 l l 100' 13 8 61.5 13 8 61.5 ' O8~ l l 100 20 14 70.0 20 13 65.0 09 l l 100 10 8 80.0 10 6 60.0 10 1 O O 13 7 53.8 13 7 53.8 11 .1 1 100 6 4 66.7 6 4 66.7 12 1 . l 100 19 12 63.2 19 10 52.6 Totals 23 21 91.3 244 174 71.3 244 166 68.0 94 TABLE 1 RESPONSES BY CATEGORIES OF QUESTIONNAIRES AND COLLEGES Academic Deans Department/Division Chairpersons LPC LBDQ-XII MSQ m m m U) m In E E L e E L a a .. - o o o o o o o o o c: u— n- m u— 4— a: u— n- m '- ‘s “so as “5 “a... 8'8 '3 “as as a) - m um c1 um m «Hm m L‘O LC cc L'O L: cc L'U Lt: cc (D we: ms. mo dad) ms. mo mm ms. mo :— .Dr-D: 00. ar— e: on. .or— .0: on. .— Eor— Eu LU) E'r- Eu LU) E-v- EH LI" o :30 an) did) am so: mm :cu :m did: u zEzs. co: ZE 2;. mo: 25 2:. an: 01 4 4 100 34 25 73.5 34 25 73.5 02 1 l 100 18 11 61.1 18 11 61.1 03 1 l 100 5 2 40.0 5 2 40.0 04 _l l 100 15 10 66.7 15 9 60.0 05 l l 100 9 8 88.9 9 8 88.9 06 9 8 88.9 82 65 79.3 82 63 76.8 07 l l 100 13 8 61.5 13 8 61.5 08- l l 100 20 14 70.0 20 13 65.0 09 l l 100 10 8 80.0 10 6 60.0 10 l O O 13 7 53.8 13 7 53.8 11 ,1 1 100 6 4 66.7 6 4 66.7 12 1 . l 100 19 12 63.2 19 10 52.6 Totals 23 21 91.3 244 174 71.3 244 166 68.0 95 Initially fOur of the twenty-three academic deans had to be eliminated: one died just before this study was conducted, another chose not to participate for personal reasons, and two others had fewer than four department/division chairpersons responding to the LBDQ-12. Further, it was decided that only the academic deans and department/division chairpersons who had perfect responses on their questionnaires were to be included in the study. Perfect responses in this case meant that every item on the questionnaire was properly marked, that no blanks were left, and that only one response was given per item. In addition, the department/division chairpersons had to have both the LBDQ-lZ and MSQ returned. As a result, four additional academic deans lacked the minimum of four chairpersons to describe their leadership style on the LBDQ-12 and had to be elim- inated. Thus, the total number cfi’ questionnaires used in the study was made up Of fifteen LPC responses and eighty-nine pairs Of LBDQ-12 and MSQ responses, an average of approximately six chairpersons to a dean. The final step concerning the data used in the study was to have all the raw scores from the questionnaires transferred or key- punched on to computer cards. With all these data on computer cards, files can be created in the computer system; and with the SPSS pro- gram, these data can be manipulated and used for statistical analysis in testing the hypotheses. 96 Statistical Analysis In this study there were fourteen major research hypotheses-- all stated in the null form. These are listed below with the statis- tical method used to test them. For all tests Of Significance, alpha was set at the .05 level Of confidence. Null Hypothesis One. The leadership style (i.e., the degree Of consideration and initiating structure) Of the academic deans as perceived tnr'the department/division chairpersons is not signi- ficantly related tO the level Of job satisfaction of the department/ division chairpersons. This null hypothesis was tested by means of multiple regress- ion. Null Hypothesis Two. .The level of job satisfaction Of the department/division chairpersons whose academic deans reported their leadership style as being relationship-motivated is not significantly different from the level Of job satisfaction Of the department/division chairpersons whose academic deans reported their leadership style as task-motivated. The analysis Of variance was used to test this null hypothe- Null Hypothoses Three. The leadership style (i.e., the degree Of consideration and initiating structure) Of the academic deans Of medical arts institutions and the leadership style (i.e., the degree of consideration and initiating structure) of the academic deans Of liberal arts institutions as perceived by the department/ division chairpersons is not significantly different. 97 The multivariate analysis Of variance was used to test this null hypothesis. Null Hypothesis Four. The proportion of medical arts academic deans who report themselves as relationship-motivated versus task-motivated is not significantly different from the propor- tion Of liberal arts academic deans who report themselves as relationship-motivated versus task-motivated. Chi square was utilized in testing this null hypothesis. Null Hypothesis Five. The leadership style (i.e., the degree Of consideration and initiating structure) as perceived by the department/division chairpersons Of the male academic deans is not Significantly different from the female academic deans. The nmltivariate analysis of variance was used to test this null hypothesis. Null Hypothesis Six. The leadership style (i.e., the degree Of consideration and initiating structure) of the academic deans as perceived by the department/division chairpersons is run: signifi cantly related to the age Of the academic deans. This null hypothesis was tested by means of multiple regression. Null Hypothesis Seven. The leadership style (i.e., the degree Of consideration and initiating structure) Of the academic deans as perceived by the department/division chairpersons is not significantly related to the level Of education Of ‘the» academic deans. Since the data on the LPC questionnaire revealed that all the 98 academic deans have doctorate degrees, the original hypothesis had to be excluded from this study. Therefore, this null hypothesis was not tested. Null Hypothesis Eight. The leadership style (i.e., the degree Of consideration and initiating structure) Of the academic deans as perceived by the department/division chairpersons is not significantly related to the length Of service of the academic deans. This null hypothesis was tested by means Of multiple regress- ion. Null Hypothesis Nine. The proportion Of male academic deans who report themselves as relationship-motivated versus task-motivated is not significantly different from the proportion Of female academic deans who report themselves as relationship-motivated versus task- motivated. Chi square was used in testing this null hypothesis. Null Hypothesis Ten. The academic deans who report them- selves as relationship-motivated are not significantly different in age from those who report themselves as task-motivated. The analysis Of variance was used to test this null hypothe- sis. Null Hypothesis Eleven. The academic deans who report them- selves as relationship-motivated are not significantly different in educational level from those who report themselves as task-motivated. This null hypothesis was not tested for 'the same reason stated under null hypothesis seven. Null Hypothesis Twelve. The academic deans who report them- 99 selves as relationship-motivated are not significantly different in the length Of service from those who report themselves as task- motivated. The analysis Of variance was used to test this null hypothe- sis. Null Hypothesis Thirteen. The academic deans 'WhO report themselves as relationship-motivated are not perceived by their department/division chairpersons as higher in consideration than those who report themselves as task-motivated. The analysis Of variance was used to test this null hypothe- sis. Null Hypothesis Fourteen. The academic deans who report themselves as relationship-motivated are not perceived by their department/division chairpersons as lower' in initiating structure than those who report themselves as task-motivated. The analysis Of variance was used to test this null hypothe- sis. CHAPTER IV PRESENTATION OF FINDINGS This chapter, dealing with the findings and statistical analysis of the study, is divided into two sections. The first pre- sents the general findings Of the study which are mainly the results Of the three questionnaires. The second presents the specific find- ings, that is, the statistical analyses Of the data concerning the research hypotheses that were tested. General Findings Of the Study LPC Results The group Of fifteen academic deans studied was made up of five deans from medical arts schools, eight deans from liberal arts schools, and two deans from graduate schools. As defined in chapter I, the term "medical arts“ includes the college Of medical arts and the schools Of medicine, allied health professions, dentistry, health, and nursing. The term "liberal arts" includes all the under- graduate colleges Of arts and sciences. Each Of the fifteen academic deans studied responded to the LPC questionnaire. The primary purpose Of this questionnaire was to determine the leadership style (i.e., either relationship-or task- motivated) Of the academic deans as they perceived it and to Obtain 100 101 some demographic variables, namely sex, age, level Of education, and length Of service. First, the findings on each of the four demographic variables--sex, age, level Of education, and length Of service--are presented briefly in that order. Next, the LPC scores, which indi- cate» the leadership style (either relationship- (n: task-motivated) of the academic deans are given. Of the fifteen academic deans studied, two (13.3%) were female and thirteen (86.7%) were male. The ages of the fifteen academic deans in the study ranged frmn 39 to 67 years, with a mean age of 52.3 (standard deviation = 7.4). I All fifteen academic _deans studied had doctoral degrees. Hence, there was only one level Of education. The length Of service Of the fifteen academic deans studied ranged from one to twenty years, with an average Of 5.9 years Of ser- vice (standard deviation = 5.6) for each academic dean. The LPC scores of the fifteen academic deans in the study ranged from 20 to 126. Five Of the academic deans were found to be task—motivated (i.e., having LPC scores of 57 and below), nine were relationship-motivated (i.e., having LPC scores Of 64 and above), and one was undecided (i.e., having LPC scores betweene 58 and 63). LBDQ-12 Results ‘Of the eighty-nine department/division chairpersons studied, twenty-four were in medical arts schools, fifty-eight in liberal arts, and nine in graduate schools. Each Of these chairpersons 102 responded to the LBDQ-12. The primary purpose Of the LBDQ-12 was to determine the degree Of consideration and initiating structure Of the academic deans (i.e., leadership style). A summary Of the LBDQ-12 means and standard deviations for consideration and initiating structure of each individual academic dean is presented in Table 2. The individual mean for consideration ranged from 35.44 to 42.25, with six academic deans falling below the overall mean of 38.84 (standard deviation = 5.44). The individual mean for initiating structure ranged from 34.44 to 42.00, with six academic deans falling below the overall mean Of 39.17 (standard deviation = 4.13). MSQ Results In addition to the‘ LBDQ-12, each of the eighty-nine department/division chairpersons studied also responded to the short form MSQ. The primary purpose of this questionnaire was to determine the job satisfaction Of the department/division chairpersons, which could then be correlated with the leadership style Of the academic deans to determine whether any relationship existed between the job satisfaction of the department/division chairpersons and the leader- ship style Of the academic deans. According to Weiss et al., . . a percentile score Of 75 or higher is ordinarily taken to represent a high degree Of satisfaction; a percentile score Of 25 or below would represent a low degree Of satis- faction; and, scores in the middle range qf percentiles (26 to 74) would indicate average satisfaction. Moreover, 1Weiss, et al., Manual, p. 5. 103 TABLE 2 LBDQ-12 MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATION FOR CONSIDERATION AND INITIATING STRUCTURE BY ACADEMIC DEANS Academic NO. Of Deans Consideration Structure Respondents Mean Std. Dev. Mean Std. Dev. 1 40.89 4 68 39.11 4.48 9 2 42.25 4 57 39.75 5.38 4 3 41.22 2 22 39.67 2.78 9 4 39.86 5 18 41.57 5.32 7 5 41.33 3 56 40.17 2.56 6 6 38.00 5 83 41.25 2.63 4 7 40.00 4 00 37.20 4.97 5 8 39.00 6 52 42.00 3.16 5 9 31.20 6 94 40.20 3.49 5 10 38.80 6 06 34.40 2.07 5 11 40.75 3 77 38.75 2.63 4 12 41.20 4 27 41.20 1.64 S 13 36.29 7 83 39.57 4.24 7 14 36.60 4 56 35.40 7.06 5 15 35.44 4 50 37.44 2.79 9 Totals 38.84 5.44 39.17 4.13 89 Raw scores for each MSQ scale can be converted tO percentile scores (by) using the appropriate tables Of normative data. . . . The most meaningful scores to use in interpret- in the MSQ are the percentile scores for each scale Obtained from the most apprOpriate norm group for the individual. The norm group which comes closest to department/division chairpersons is that Of managers. (The normative data of managers for the long form MSQ are given in Appendix I.) Since the general satisfaction scale of the long- and short-form MSQ is made up Of the same twenty items, the normative data Of the general satisfaction scale Of the long—form MSQ for managers were deemed appropriate and 2 Ibid., p. 4. 104 used in converting the department/divisicwl chairpersons' MSQ raw scores intO percentile scores. The MSQ raw scores of the department/division chairpersons ranged from 57 to 97 (possible minimum score is 20 and possible maxi- mum score is 100 on a scale of l to 5). Twenty-two Of the chairper- sons fell between the raw scores Of 57 and 75 (i.e., between the 25th percentile and below), forty-one fell between 77 and 87 (i.e., between the 26th and 74th percentiles), and twenty-six fell between 88 and 97 (i.e., between the 75th percentile and above). Therefore, it might be interpreted that twenty-two (24.72%) Of the eighty-nine chairpersons studied had a low degree Of satisfaction, forty-one (46.07%) had average satisfaction, and only twenty-six (29.21%) had a high degree Of satisfaction. Specific Findings of the Hypotheses The purpose here is to present the results or findings con-‘ cerning each Of the major hypotheses, except hypotheses seven and eleven which were excluded since there was no differenxein the aca- demic deans' level Of education. The following format is used to present the findings: 1. An introductory statement on the Specific variables studied 2. A statement Of null hypotheses regarding these variables 3. A report of the findings as revealed tn! statistical analyses employed 4. A statement indicating whether the null hypothesis was retained or rejected at the .05 level Of significance. 105 The first hypothesis tested examined the relationship between the academic deans' leadership style (i.e., consideration and initia- ting structure) as perceived by the department/division chairpersons and the job satisfaction of the department/division chairpersons. This hypothesis, in its null form, stated: The leadership style (i.e., the degree Of consideration and initiating structure) of the academic deans as perceived by the department/division chairpersons is not _significantly related to the level of job satisfaction Of the department/ division chairpersons. The statistical analysis used in testing this hypothesis was multiple regression. In this case, the dependent variable was job satisfaction and the independent variables were consideration and initiating structure. The overall results Obtained showed a multiple- 2 Of .265, and a p correlation coefficient Of .531, an adjusted R value of .000. The results in Table 3 show that the leadership dimension (style) Of consideration is a better predictor Of job satisfaction than initiating structure. Since the p value associated with the Obtained overall adjusted R2 value was less than .05, this null hypothesis was rejected. The second hypothesis tested examined the relationship between the job satisfaction of the department/division chairpersons under relationship- and task-motivated academic deans. This hypothe- sis, stated in null form, was: The level Of the .job satisfaction cfl’ the department/ division chairpersons whose academic deans reported their own 106 TABLE 3 MULTIPLE REGRESSION ANALYSIS OF CONSIDERATION AND INITIATING STRUCTURE ON JOB SATISFACTION Variables B F p Consideration .788 21.308 .000 Initiating Structure .234 1.085 .301 leadership style as being relationship-motivated is not sig- nificantly different frmn the level Of job satisfaction of the department/division chairpersons whose academic deans reported their own leadership style as task-motivated. Analysis of Variance was used in testing Hypothesis Two. The results shown in Table 4 indicated no significant difference (p 27 .05) between the level Of job satisfaction Of the department/ division chairpersons whose academic deans reported their own leader- ship style as relationship-motivated and the level Of job satisfac- tion Of the department/division chairpersons whose academic deans reported their own leadership style as task-motivated. Therefore, thus null hypothesis was retained. The third hypothesis tested examined the relationship between. the leadership style of the medical arts academic deans and liberal arts academic deans as perceived by the chairpersons. This hypothe- sis, stated in null form, was: The leadership style (i.e., the degree level Of consideration and initiating structure) Of the academic deans Of medical 107 TABLE 4 ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF THE LEVEL OF JOB SATISFACTION OF CHAIRPERSONS UNDER RELATIONSHIP-MOTIVATED AND TASK-ORIENTED ACADEMIC DEANS Source Sum Of Degrees Of Mean F- Signi- Squares Freedom Squares Ratio ficance Between groups 96.038 1 96.038 1.208 .276 Within groups 5404.428 68 79.477 Total 5500.466 69 arts institutions and the leadership style (i.e., the degree Of consideration and initiating structure) Of the academic deans of liberal arts institutions as perceived by the department/division chairperSons is not significantly differ- ent. The Multivariate Analysis of Variance was used to test this null hypothesis. A Hotelling T2 value of .011 was Obtained. The approximate F value associated with the Obtained T2 'is .366 (p = .695, df = 2, 66). This hypothesis was further probed by the univariate analysis of Variance in order tO determine whether consi- deration or initiating structure by itself might be different between medical and liberal arts academic deans. The results presented in Tables 5 and 6, respectively, also demonstrate that neither consider- ation nor initiating structure contributed any significant difference between the medical arts and liberal arts academic deans. Since the 2 p value associated with the Obtained overall T value was greater than .05, this null hypothesis was retained. 108 TABLE 5 UNIVARIATE ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF CONSIDERATION BETWEEN MEDICAL AND LIBERAL ARTS ACADEMIC DEANS Source Sum Of Degrees Of Mean F- Signi- Squares Freedom Squares Ratio ficance Between groups 13.215 1 13.215 .529 .469 Within groups 1672.636 67 24.965 Total 1685.851 68 TABLE 6 UNIVARIATE ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE 0F INITIATING STRUCTURE BETWEEN MEDICAL AND LIBERAL ARTS ACADEMIC DEANS Source Sum Of Degrees Of Mean F- Signi- Squares Freedom Squares Ratio ficance Between groups 0.072 1 0.072 .005 .945 Within groups 1011.673 67 15.100 The fourth hypothesis tested examined the proportion Of medi- cal arts and liberal arts academic deans who reported themselves as relationship—motivated versus task-motivated. This hypothesis, stated in null form, was: The proportion Of medical arts academic deans who report themselves as relationship-motivated versus task-motivated is not significantly different from the prOportion Of liberal arts academic deans who report themselves as relationship- motivated versus task-motivated. 109 The Chi Square analysis was used to test this null hypothe- sis. Table 7 presents the results of the relationship- and task- motivated leadership styles Of the fifteen academic deans studied. One of the liberal arts academic deans was not classified under TABLE 7 CHI SQUARE ANALYSIS OF RELATIONSHIP- AND TASK-MOTIVATED LEADERSHIP STYLES OF ACADEMIC DEANS BY COLLEGES Leadership Graduate Liberal Medical Row Styles Schools Arts Arts Total Undecided 1 l Task-motivated 3 2 5 Relationship- motivated 2 .. 4 3 9 Column Total 2 8 5 15 x2 = 2.317, df = 4, and p = .678 either task-motivated or relationship-motivated leadership style, having indicated an LPC score between 58 and 63. Two of the academic deans who were graduate school deans were classified as relationship- motivated. The overall p value Obtained on the(3hi Square value Of 2.317, with 4 degrees of freedom, was .678. Table 8 presents the results Of the leadership styles Of the liberal arts and medical arts academic deans only. The p value Obtained on the Chi Square of .010, with 1 degree Of freedom, was .995. Since both the p values Obtained were greater than .05, this null hypothesis was retained. The fifth hypothesis tested examined the relationship between 110 TABLE 8 CHI SQUARE ANALYSIS OF RELATIONSHIP- AND TASK-MOTIVATED LEADERSHIP STYLES AMONG MEDICAL ARTS AND LIBERAL ARTS ACADEMIC DEANS Liberal Medical Row Arts Arts Total Task-motivated 3 2 5 Relationship- motivated 4 3 7 Column Total 7 5 12 x2 = .010, df = 1, and p = .995 the leadership style Of the male and female academic deans as perceived by the department/division chairpersons. This hypothesis, in its null form, stated: The leadership style (i.e., the degree Of consideration and initiating structure) as perceived by the department/division chairpersons of the male academic deans is not significantly different from the female academic deans. The Multivariate Analysis Of Variance was used to test this null hypothesis. A Hotelling 12 value Of .044 was Obtained. The approximate F value associated with the Obtained T2 was 1.603 (p = .208, df = 2, 73). The results Of the Univariate Analysis Of Variance for Consideration and Initiating Structure presented in Tables 9 and 10, reSpectively, also demonstrate that there was no signficant difference between the male and female' academic deans' 111 TABLE 9 UNIVARIATE ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF CONSIDERATION BETWEEN MALE AND FEMALE ACADEMIC DEANS Source Sum of Degrees Of Mean F- Signi- Squares Freedom Squares Ratio ficance Between groups 49.224 1 49.224 1.912 .171 Within groups 1905.386 74 25.748 Total 1954.610 75 TABLE 10 UNIVARIATE ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF INITIATING STRUCTURE BETWEEN MALE AND FEMALE ACADEMIC DEANS Source Sum Of Degrees Of Mean F- Signi- Squares Freedom Squares Ratio ficance Between groups .786 l .786 .051 .822 Within groups 1138.423 74 15.384 Total 1139.209 75 leadership style (Hi consideration (N‘ initiating structure.. Since the p value associated with the Obtained overall T2 value was greater than .05, this null hypothesis was retained. The sixth hypothesis tested examined the relationship between the leadership style Of the academic deans as perceived by the department/division chairpersons and the age Of the academic deans. 112 This hypothesis, stated in null form, was: The leadership style (i.e., the degree Of consideration and initiating structure) of the academic deans as perceived by the department/division chairpersons is not significantly related to the age Of the academic deans. The statistical analysis used in testing this hypothesis was multiple regression. The overall results obtained showed a multiple correlation coefficient of .168, an adjusted R2 Of zero, and a p value of .842. Since the p value was greater than .05, this null hypothesis was retained. The results presented in Table 11 also indicate that there was no significant relationship between age and the leadership style Of consideration or initiating structure. TABLE 11 MULTIPLE REGRESSION ANALYSIS OF CONSIDERATION AND INITIATING STRUCTURE UPON AGE Variables B F p Consideration -.424 .346 .567 Initiating Structure .134 .197 .891 The seventh hypothesis was Tun; tested since there was only One level Of education among all the fifteen academic deans studied. The eighth hypothesis tested examined the relationship between the leadership style cfl’ the academic deans as perceived by the department/division chairpersoms and the length Of service of the academic deans. This hypothesis, stated in null form, was: 113 The leadership style (i.e., the degree of consideration and initiating structure) of the academic deans as per- ceived by thedepartment/division chairpersons is not sig- nificantly related to the length Of service Of the academic deans. The statistical analysis used in testing this hypothesis was multiple regression. The overall results Obtained showed a multiple correlation coefficient Of .249, an adjusted R2 Of zero, and a p value Of .680. Since the p value was greater than .05, this null hypothesis was retained. The results presented in Table 12 also indicate that there was no significant relationship1 between the length Of service and the leadership style Of consideration and ini- tiating structure. TABLE 12 MULTIPLE REGRESSION ANALYSIS OF CONSIDERATION AND INITIATING STRUCTURE UPON LENGTH OF SERVICE Variables B F p Consideration .533 .993 .922 Initiating Structure .611 .741 .406 The ninth hypothesis tested examined the relationship between the proportion Of male and female academic deans who reported their leadership style as relationship-motivated versus task-motivated. This hypothesis, stated in null form, was: The proportion Of male academic deans who report themselves 114 as relationship-motivated versus task-motivated is not sig- nificantly different fhxmi the proportion Of femaleacademic deans who report themselves as relationship-motivated versus task-motivated. The Chi Square analysis was used to test this null hypothe- sis. Table 13 presents the results Of all fifteen academic deans studied by leadership styles and sex. One Of the male liberal arts academic deans with a score between 58 and 63 was not classified under either task- or relationship-motivated leadership style. There- fore, Table 14 presents the results Of only the fourteen academic deans by leadership styles and sex. Since both the p values Obtained were greater than .05, this null hypothesis was retained. The tenth hypothesis tested examined the relationship between the leadership style of the academic deans as reported by the TABLE 13 CHI SQUARE ANALYSIS OF 15 ACADEMIC DEANS BY LEADERSHIP STYLES AND SEX Leadership Styles Male Female Row Total Undecided l O 1 Task-motivated 3 2 5 Relationship-motivated 9 O 9 Column Total 13 2 15 x2 = 4.615, df = 2, and p = .100 115 TABLE 14 CHI SQUARE ANALYSIS OF 14 ACADEMIC DEANS _ BY LEADERSHIP STYLES AND SEX Leadership Styles Male Female Row Total Task-motivated 3 2 5 Relationship-motivated 9 0 9 Column Total 12 2 14 x2 L 1.569, df = 1, and p = .456 academic deans themselves and their age. This hypothesis, stated in null form, was: The academic deans who report themselves as relationship- motivated are not significantly different in age from those who report themselves as task-motivated. The Analysis Of Variance was used to test this null hypothe- sis. Table 15 presents the results Of the Analysis of Variance for age between the relationship- and task-motivated academic deans. Since the p value was greater than .05, this null hypothesis was retained. The eleventh hypothesis was not tested since there was only one level Of education among all the fifteen academic deans studied. The twelfth hypothesis tested examined the relationship between the leadership style Of the academic deans as reported by the academic deans themselves and their length Of service as academic 116 TABLE 15 ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF AGE BETWEEN RELATIONSHIP- AND TASK-MOTIVATED ACADEMIC DEANS Source Sum of Degrees Of Mean F- Signi- Squares Freedom Squares Ratio ficance Between groups 90.668 1 90.668 1.630 .226 Within groups 667.689 12 55.641 Total 758.357 13 deans. This hypothesis, stated in null form, was: The academic deans who report themselves as relationship- motivated are not significantly different in 'the length of service from those who report themselves as task- motivated. The Analysis of Variance was used to test this null hypothe- sis. Table 16 presents the results Of the Analysis Of Variance for length Of service between the relationship- and task- nmtivated academic deans. Since the p value was greater than .05, this null hypothesis was retained. The thirteenth major hypothesis tested examined the relation- ship between the reported relationship- and task-motivated leadership styles and the leadership dimension (Style) Of consideration. This hypothesis, stated in the null form, was: The academic deans who report themselves as relationship- motivated are not perceived by their department/division 117 TABLE 16 ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF LENGTH OF SERVICE BETWEEN RELATIONSHIP- AND TASK-MOTIVATED ACADEMIC DEANS Source Sum Of Degrees Of Mean F- Signi- Squares Freedom Squares Ratio ficance Between groups 48.611 1 48.611 1.682 .219 Within groups 346.889 12 28.907 Total 395.500 13 chairpersons as higher in consideration than those who report themselves as task-motivated. The Analysis Of Variance was used to test this null hypothe- sis. The results presented in Table 17 indicate that there was no significant difference between the relationship- and task-motivated academic deans in consideration. Since the p value for consideration was greater than .05, this null hypothesis was retained. TABLE 17 ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF CONSIDERATION BETWEEN RELATIONSHIP- AND TASK-MOTIVATED ACADEMIC DEANS Source Sum Of Degrees Of Mean F- Signi- Squares Freedom Squares Ratio ficance Between groups 44.177 1 44.177 1.953 .167 Within groups 1537.957 68 22.617 Total 1582.134 69 118 The fourteenth and final major hypothesis tested examined the relationship between the reported relationship- and task- leadership styles and the leadership dimension (style) Of initiating structure. This hypothesis, stated in the null form, was: The academic deans who report themselves as relationship- motivated are not perceived by their department/division chairpersons as lower in initiating structure than those who report themselves as task-motivated. The Analysis of Variance was used to test this null hypothe- sis. The results presented in Table 18 indicate that there was no significant difference between the relationship- and task-motivated academic deans in initiating structure. Since ‘the [3 value for initiating structure was greater than .05, this null hypothesis was retained. TABLE 18 ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF INITIATING STRUCTURE BETWEEN RELATIONSHIP- AND TASK-MOTIVATED ACADEMIC DEANS Source Sum Of Degrees Of Mean F: Signi- Squares Freedom Squares Ratlon flcance Between groups 37.843 1 37.843 2.497 .119 Within groups 1030.709 68 15.157 Total 1068.552 69 ' 119 Related Findings of the Study In addition to testing the major hypotheses, an investigation was also conducted to determine whether any relationships exist between job satisfaction and all twelve leadership dimensions (styles) Of LBDQ-12 jointly and between each of the leadership dimen- sions individually. The multiple regression was used for this pur- pose. The overall results Obtained showed a unfltiple correlation coefficient of .620, an adjusted R2 Of .288, and a p value of .000. The results presented in Table 19 Show that consideration and predic- tive accuraey were individually related significantly to job satis- faction. Another interesting finding from this study' concerns the research instrument, LBDQ-12.‘ Many of the twelve leadership dimen- sions seem to be highly intercorrelated. Table 20 shows many of these leadership dimensions or subscale intercorrelations. The subscale intercorrelations run from a low of .02 between Production Emphasis and Tolerance of Uncertainty to a high Of .73 between Inte- gration and Consideration and Predictive Accuracy. 120 TABLE 19 MULTIPLE REGRESSION OF ALL THE LEADERSHIP DIMENSIONS OF LBDQ-12 ON JOB SATISFACTION Variables B F p Representation .413 1.495 .225 Production Emphasis -.183 .584 .447 Tolerance of Uncertainty -.237 .792 .376 Tolerance Of Freedom .369 2.676 .106 Superior Orientation .196 .514 .476 Role Assumption -.177 .548 .941 Initiation Of Structure .509 .247 .876 Integration _ .245 .258 .613 Persuasiveness .401 .272 .869 Consideration .674 5.973 .017 Demand Reconciliation . .690 2.081 .153 Predictive Accuracy 1.243 4.312 .041 CORRELATION COEFFICIENTS OF THE LEADERSHIP 121 TABLEDZO DIMENSIONS OF THE LBDQ-12 Representation Demand Recon- ciliation Tolerance of ’_Uncertainty Persuasiveness Initiation Of Structure Tolerance of Freedom Role Assumption Consideration Production Emphasis Predictive Accuracy Integration Superior Orientation Representation .17 .42 .37 .25 .46 .41 .14 .37 .48 .22 Demand Reconciliation .67 .64 .54 .52 .67 .60 .23 .70 .55 .47 Tolerance of Uncertainty .19 .43 .50 .56 .02 .60 .36 .19 Persuasiveness .61 .39 .68 .54 .42 .66 .60 .58 Initiation of Structure .42 .55 .45 .53 .54 .58 .54 Tolerance of Freedom' .25 .68 .10 .63 .62 .35 Role Assumption .39 .20 .48 .42 .39 Consideration .72 .73 .34 Production Emphasis .30 .41 .45 Predictive Accuracy .49 Integration .51 Superior Orientation CHAPTER V SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS This chapter (1) summarizes the study, including the background and purpose, population and sample, instrumentatiOn and methodology, and limitations Of the study; (2) presents the results and conclusions from testing the major hypotheses; (3) addresses the implications Of the findings for the academic deans and administra- tion of the individual institutions; and (4) concludes with some recommendations which seem to be relevant according to the findings Of this study. Summary Background and Purpose The Seventh-day Adventist Church Operates a worldwide system Of education ranging from preschool through the university level. According to Fiedler, the survival of institutions depends to a great extent on the kind of leadership that is available. Since in educa- tional institutions the academic dean is considered the leader of the faculty, the way he or she leads Obviously is important both to the subordinates and to the institution as a whole. How the academic dean behaves toward his or her subordinates affects labor turnover, employee satisfaction, and performance. 122 123 The purpose of this study was to examine the relationships or differences between (1) the leadership style of the academic deans and the job satisfaction of the department/division chairpersons, (2) the leadership style of the academic deans and their demographic variables of sex, age, level of education, and length of service, (3) the leadership style (Hi the deans of medical arts and liberal arts schools, and (4) the reported and perceived leadership style Of the academic deans. Population and Sample The pOpulation for the study consisted of the academic deans and the department/division chairpersons of all the Seventh-day Adventist colleges and universities in North America. There were altogether twenty-seven academic deans and 315 department/division chairpersons among the ten colleges and two universities. In the study sample, a criteria was set that only the academic deans having at least four departments or divisions directly under their supervision would be selected. All the academic deans of schools having programs instead Of departments as well as associate deans and assistant deans were excluded. Thus, the final study sample consisted Of twenty-three academic deans and 244 depart- ment/division chairpersons. Instrumentation and Methodology Three standardized questionnaires were used 'in conducting this study. The LPC and LBDQ-12 (see Appendices A and B, respect- reSpectively) were used to determine the leadership style Of the academic deans. The MSQ (see Appendix C) was used to determine the 124 job satisfaction of the department/division chairpersons. Each Of the twenty-three academic deans was administered the LPC questionnaire. Only the questionnaires with perfect responses, that is, no missing items and/or more than one response to an item, were included in the statistical analyses for testing the hypotheses. Each item of this questionnaire is scored from one to eight, with eight as the most favorable pole Of_ the scale and one the least favorable. The leadership style of each academic dean was determined oy adding the score on each item. A total LPC score Of 64 or higher indicates a reJationship-motivated leadership style, whereas, a LPC score of 57 or lower indicates a task-motivated leadership style. If the LPC score is between 58 and 63, it indicates that the individual is neither relationship- nor task-motivated, and the individual has to decide to which Of these leadership styles he or she belongs. Each of the 244 department/division chairpersons was adminis- tered the LBDQ-12. Only the questionnaires with perfect responses were used in the statistical analyses for testing the hypotheses. Each item Of this questionnaire is scored from one to five, with five as the most favorable and one the least favorable. This question- naire has twelve subscales, each composed Of Teither five or ten items. The consideration and initiating structure subscales, each having ten items, were used to determine the leadership style Of the academic deans. The mean score (see Table 2) for each Of these sub- scales for each academic dean was derived by adding the sum of the scores from each chairperson and dividing by the number of chairper- sons for the particular dean. 125 In addition to the LBDQ-12, each Of the 244 department/ division chairpersons was also administered the short form MSQ. Only the questionnaires of the chairpersons who also had perfect reSponses for the LBDQ-12 were used in the statistical analyses for testing the hypotheses. Each item of this questionnaire is scored from one to five, with five being the most favorable and one the least favorable. The raw scores for job satisfaction were determined by adding the score of each of the twenty items. These MSQ raw scores were then converted into percentile scores by using the appropriate tables of normative data (see Appendix I). Multiple Regression was used to test hypotheses one, six, and eight in order to determine whether any significant relationships exist between the perceived leadership style (consideration and ini- tiating structure) Of the academic deans and the job satisfaction of the department/division chairpersons, and between style and age Of the academic deans and the length Of service Of the academic deans, respectively. The multivariate and univariate analysis of variance were used to test hypotheses three and five in determining whether any significant differences exist between the perceived leadership style (consideration and initiating structure) (Mi deans Of medical arts schools and those Of liberal arts schools, and between the per- ceived leadership style (consideration and initiating structure) of male and female academic deans, respectively. The analysis of variance was used to test hypotheses two, ten, twelve, thirteen, and fourteen in determining whether any significant differences exist between reported leadership styles (task- and relationship-motivated) 126 and job satisfaction, reported leadership styles and age, reported leadership styles and length of service, reported leadership styles and perceived leadership style of consideration, and reported leader- ship styles and perceived leadership style Of initiating structure. The Chi square was used to test hypotheses four and nine in order to determine whether any significant differences exist between the reported leadership styles Of the deans of medical and liberal arts schools, and the reported leadership styles of the male and female academic deans. The probability level for rejection Of each of the null hypotheses was set at an alpha level of .05. Delimitations This study examined the academic deans functioning within the Seventh-day Adventist Church 'in North America. Generalizations should be limited to that pOpulation and not extend to those academic deans of the Seventh-day Adventist Church outside North America. Since members of the Seventh-day Adventist church are a subcultural group, similar studies of other organizational models may yield different results. Therefore, caution should be exercised in generalizing the findings of this study to the academic deans of other institutions. Conclusions Before presenting conclusions resulting from the statistical testings Of the research hypotheses, some comments are first in order regarding the research hypotheses and their results. Originally, fourteen research hypotheses about possible 127 relationships and differences between leadership style and job satis- faction and some demographic variables (namely, sex, age, level Of education, and length Of service), between leadership style Of the deans Of medical arts and liberal arts schools, and between the reported and perceived leadership style of the academic deans were formulated in order to give direction to the study. Two Of these research hypotheses (seven and eleven) had to be dropped since there was only one level of education among the academic deans studied. The remaining twelve hypotheses were tested and the results of their statistical analyses are presented in chapter IV. In summarizing the results of the hypotheses,no statistically significant relationships or differences were found between (1) the leadership style Of the academic deans as perceived by the deans themselves and the job satisfaction of the department/division chairpersons, (2) the leadership style Of the academic deans either as perceived by the deans themselves or as perceived by the chairpersons and the demographic variables Of sex, age, and length of service of the deans, (3) the leadership style of the deans of medical arts schools and liberal arts colleges either as perceived by the chairpersons or as perceived by the deans themselves, and (4) the leadership style Of the deans as perceived by the chairpersons and as perceived by the deans themselves. However, 21 significant relationship beyond the .05 level of confidence was found between the linear combination of the degree of consideration and initiating structure (i.e., leadership style of the academic deans) and the job satisfaction Of the department/division 128 chairpersons. The finding also indicated that consideration was a better predictor of job satisfaction. In addition, a related finding indicated that predictive accuracy was significantly related to the job satisfaction of the chairpersons. The findings of the study that a significant relationship exists between both consideration and initiating structure and job satisfaction and that consideration is a better predictor of job satisfaction than initiating structure seem tO support the findings of other studies (e.g., Aboud, 1968; Evans, 1963; House et al., 1971; and Stogdill, 1965) which maintain that consideration and initiating structure are positively related to job satisfaction. These results also seem to support the studies of Paker (1963) and Pacinelli (1968) which maintain that consideration is nnre highly correlated to job satisfaction than initiating structure. However, these results do not support the findings of Rowland and Scott (1968) which demonstrate that consideration and initiating structure are unrelated to job satisfaction; and also that of Boyles (1968) and Kroen (1968) which maintain that initiating structure is unrelated to job satisfaction. There appear ix) be conflicting results regarding the relationship between consideration and initiating structure and job satisfaction among the studies of other researchers. However, judg- ing from the wide selection of studies presented in the review of literature there are more studies which support the findings of the. present study than not. Therefore, based on the findings of this study and personal 129 experience, it can be concluded that (1) the leadership style of the academic deans which contributes most toward the job satisfaction of the department/division chairpersons is a combination of consider- ation and initiating structure, with consideration being the more important contributor, (2) the department/division chairpersons' perceptions of the academic deans' leadership style do affect their job satisfaction, and (3) the administrators of the college or uni- versity ought to take into consideration the leadership style (i.e., consideration and initiating structure), including predictive accu- racy, of the candidates when selecting their academic deans. Implications In view of the findings of this study, several implications seem to be relevant to the academic deans and the administration of the Seventh-day Adventist colleges and universities in North America. It should be noted that these implications can be generalized to the academic deans of other institutions which are similar to those of the Seventh-day Adventist Church in organiza- tional structure and Operation. These implications are as follows: First, the findings of a significant relationship between both consideration and initiating structure and job satisfaction sug- gest that there is a need for academic deans to incorporate both these dimensions or styles in their leadership in order to fOster better job satisfaction among the department/division chairpersons. Since the findings clearly indicate that consideration is a better predictor of job satisfaction, it follows that there is a need for 130 the academic deans to be more considerate than structured. In other words, there is a need for the academic deans not to disregard the comfort, well being, status, and contributions of the chairpersons even though the academic deans have to define their own role and let the chairpersons know what is expected. It is fully realized that job satisfaction does not necessarily lead to better performance or more production. But it would seem that a satisfied worker is gen- erally more efficient and productive than a dissatisfied one. There- fore, job satisfaction can be viewed as a force in enhancing subordi- nate overall satisfaction and performance. Second, the related finding of a significant relationship between predictive accuracy and job satisfaction further' suggests that the academic deans should take into consideration this dimension or style in their leadership as well. Predictive accuracy is not only important to job satisfaction of the department/division chair- persons, but it seems to be important to the effective performance of the academic deans as well. In previous research of the Seventh-—day Adventist academic deans, Bissell indicated in his findings that predictive accuracy ranked tOp among the four leadership dimensions which were found to be very important for the effective performance of the functions of the academic deans.] 'Therefore, it seems reason- able to imply here that there is an urgency for the academic deans to acquire the skill for predicting accurately in order to improve their own performance and at the same time to enhance the job satisfaction 1 p. 160. Bissell, "The Relationship Of Leadership Characteristics," 131 of their department/division chairpersons. It would seem to be very important, especially in the changing modern-day society, that the academic deans be able to exhibit foresight and ability to predict outcomes accurately regarding the direction and future developments Of their institution. Third, the findings of the study seem equally relevant to the administration in the selection of new academic deans. Therefore, it appears that the» administration should select academic: deans who exhibit at least these three leadership qualities; namely; con- sideration, initiating structure, and predictive accuracy, among any others for which the college or university is searching. In other words, the college or university board of trustees Should seek candidates for the academic deanship who (1) show regard for the com- fort, well being, status, and contributions of subordinates; (2) are able 1x1 define their own role and to let subordinates know what is expected; and (3) exhibit foresight and ability to predict outcomes accurately. Fourth, a leadership training program which would help to focus on techniques that foster the above leadership qualities (dimensions) may be apprOpriate and beneficial tO many newly employed as well as present academic deans. Recommendations The recommendations that arise from 'the ‘findings of 'this study are focused on two areas: (1) some general recommendations concerning the academic deans and administration of the colleges and 132 universities, and (2) several recommendations for future research that have arisen from the research procedures and subsequent findings of this study. General Recommendations First, the existing academic deans of the Seventh-day Adven- tist colleges and universities in North America should make a greater effort to improve and practice the three leadership dimensions (styles), namely, consideration, initiating structure, and predictive accuracy, which have been found to he significantly related to the job satisfaction of department/division chairpersons. Perhaps different Situations would require quite different types of leader- ship style in order to maximize job satisfaction. Therefore, each academic dean should try to find a combination of these three leader- ship styles that may be optimally effective and efficient in his or her leadership functions and at the same time give maximum job satis- faction to the department/division chairpersons as the situations arise. Second, the present academic deans serving Seventh-day Adven- tist colleges and universities in North America should recognize that subordinate perceptions of leadership style affect subordinate job satisfaction. Therefore, it would seem apprOpriate for the academic deans to assess their individual situational needs and formulate specific leadership inmwovement plans or leadership style that will meet their individual needs and give their subordinates more job satisfaction. The notion that leadership style is andiought to be situational is consistent with a vast amount of the literature. 133 Third, the administration (i.e., the president and the board of trustees) of the Seventh-day Adventist colleges and universities should take into consideration the findings of this study in respect Of the three leadership dimensions or styles which seem to correlate significantly with the job satisfaction of department/division chair- persons when they select or hire future academic deans. It is vital that the academic deans know how to foster and maintain job satisfac- tion among the department/division chairpersons, because the effec- tive operation of the institution can be viewed in part as a function of the competence and job satisfaction of the professionals (chair- 2 Moreover, the successful Operation persons) providing the service. of the institution depend to a considerable extent on the type of leadership (academic deans) hired. Fourth, the administration should provide administrative leadership training programs for the academic deans to improve their leadership skills and/or acquire some new ones at the same time. If this is not found feasible for the college or university, then the administration Should encourage the academic deans to attend some professional leadership seminars and provide the means and opportuni- ties for them to do so at least once a year. Recommendations for Future Research The research procedure and subsequent findings of this study have stimulated several new ideas concerning future research which 2J. W. Getzels and E. G. Guba, "Social Behavior and the Administrative Process," School Review 65 (Winter 1957):423-41. 134 may prove beneficial to understanding leadership style as it relates to job satisfaction and the demographic variables as they relate to the leadership style. Some areas of potential future research are as follows: First, since many of the research hypotheses of this study have not been accepted for lack Of statistical evidence, it is recom- mended that a near replicate Of this study be conducted among similar church-related institutions in North America. It is further recom- mended that the areas Of research be focused on (1) the relationship between the leadership style of the leaders as they perceive it and the job satisfaction Of their subordinates, (2) the relationship between the leadership style of the leaders as perceived by the leaders themselves and the subordinates and the leaders' demographic variables of sex, age, level Of education, and length of service, and (3) the relationship between the leadership style as perceived by the leaders themselves and the leadership style as perceived by the sub- ordinates. However, the sample size Should be increased considerably (at least double the size Of the present study) in order to give greater power to the hypothesis-testings. Thus, the results of such replicated studies would permit a confirmation or rejection of the insignificant relationships or differences found in this study. Second, since predictive accuracy (foresight and ability to predict outcomes accurately) appear 1x1 be significantly related to job satisfaction of subordinates, a study of the amount Of impact it can have upon conSideration and initiating structure in influencing job satisfaction would seem apprOpriate in view of the findings and l35 conclusion made by this study relative to the interaction of these two dimensions or styles. Third, since the correlation coefficients (see Table 20) indicate that many of the leadership dimensions or styles are quite highly correlated with each other, it would seem apprOpriate that an investigation be conducted to factor analyze the items contained in the LBDQ-lZ. Such a study is important as it would strengthen the instrument for future leadership studies. Finally, it seems apprOpriate that leadership studies of this nature be continued so that a greater understanding of the impact of the leadership style of superordinates upon the job satisfaction, effectiveness, and efficiency of the various levels of subordinates can be fostered. It is hOped that such studies would add knowledge in the field of educational administration and toward the develOpment or improvement of a more effective and productive leadership style. In conclusion, it is hoped that the 'academic deans and administration of the Seventh-day Adventist colleges and universities in North America will find this study useful and beneficial and that this study will serve as a stimulant for further similar research studies in the future. APPENDICES APPENDIX A Questionnaire SampleffLeast Preferred Coworker (LPC) Scale l36 LEAST PREFERRED CO-WORKER (LPC) SCALE (Copyright 1967, Fred E. Fiedler) INSTRUCTIONS It is essential that you carefully read the following instructions and complete the LPC Scale on'the reverse side of this form. Throughout your life you will have worked in many groups with a wide variety of different people--on your job, in social groups, in church organizations, in volunteer groups, on athletic teams, and in many other situations. Some of your co- workers may have been very easy to work with in attaining the group' 5 goals, while others were less so. Think of all the people with whom you have ever worked, and then think of the person with whom you could work least well. He or she may be someone with whom you work now or with whom you have worked in the past. This does not have to be the person you liked least well, but should be the person with whom you had the most difficulty getting a job done, the o_r_ig_ individual with whom you could work least well. Describe this person on the scale which follows by placing an "X" in the appro- priate space. The scale consists of pairs of words which are opposite in mean- ing, such as Very Neat and Very Untidy. Between each pair of words are eight spaces to form a scale like this: Very Neat _ _ Very Untidy 8 7 6 5 A 3 2 1 Thus, if you ordinarily think of the person with whom you work least well as being quite neat, you would mark an "X" in the space marked 7, like this: Very X Very Neat 8 7 6 5 LI 3 2 1 UntIdy Very Quite Some- Slightly Slightly Some- Quite Very Neat Neat what Neat Untidy what Untidy Untidy Neat Untidy If you ordinarily think of this person as being only slightly neat, you would put your "X" in space 5. If you would think of this person as being very untidy (not neat), you would put your "X" in space 1. Look at the words at both ends of the line before you mark your "X". There are no right or wrogg answers. Work rapidly; your first answer is likely to be the best. Do not omit any items, and mark each item only once. Now please turn the page over and describe the person with whom you can work least well. l37 LEAST PREFERRED CO-WORKER (LPC) SCALE Pleasant Unpleasant T T T T T T T T Friendly —8— T —6— —5— T T -2— —1- Unfriendly Rejecting T T T T T T T T Accepting Tense T T T T T T T T Re'axed Distant T T T T T T T T 0°58 C°'d T T T T T T T T Warm supportive '8— —7—- —6-— T T -3— '2— —1— Hostile B°""9 T T T T T T T T '"te’estmg Quarrelsome T T T T -S—- T T T Harmonious ‘3'me T T T T T T T T CheerfU' 0P8" T T T T T T T T Guarded Backa‘Q T T T T T T T T W?" untrustworthy '1—' T T T —S— T —7' "8— Trustworthy Considerate T —7— T —5- T —3— T T lnconsiderate Nasty T T T T T T T T ”'58 Agreeable '—8— —7— '—6— —S- T —3— T T Disagreeable lnsincere -1— —2— —3— T —5— —6— T T Sincere Kind T T T T T T T T Unkmd Note: The following additional information must be given in order to complete the research study. Please answer these questions about yourself. (1) Sex: Male Female (2) Age years (3) Level of Education: Bachelor Master Doctoral (4) Length of Service as Academic Dean years. APPENDIX B Questionnaire Samplef-Leader Behavior Description Questionnaire-4Form‘XII 138 LEADER BEHAVIOR DESCRIPTION QUESTIONNAIRE--Form XII Originated by Staff Members of the Ohio State Leadership Studies and Revised by the Bureau of Business Research Purpose of the Questionnaire On the following pages is a list of items that may be used to describe the behavior of your academic dean. Each item describes a specific kind of behavior, but does not ask you to judge whether the behavior is desirable or undesirable. Although some items may appear similar, they express differences that are important in the description of leader- . ship. Each item should be considered as a separate description. This is not a test of ability or consistency in making answers. Its only purpose is to make it possible for you to describe, as accurately as you can, the behavior of your academic dean. Note: The term, "group," as employed in the following items, refers to a department, division, or other unit of organization that is super- vised by the academic dean being described. The term "members," refers to all the people in the unit of organiza- tion that is supervised by the academic dean being described. Pubflshed by College of Administrative Science The Ohio State University Columbus, Ohio Copyright 1962, The Ohio State University I39 DIRECTIONS: a. READ each item carefully. b. THINK about how frequently the leader engages in the behavior described by the item. c. DECIDE whether lie/she (A) always, (B) often, (C) occasionaII)’. (D) seldom or (E) never acts as described by the item. d. DRAW A CIRCLE around one ofthe five letters (A B C D E) following the item to show the answer you have selected. A = Always B = Often C = Occasionally D = Seldom E = Never e. MARK your answers as shown in the examples below. Example: Often acts as described ...................................... A C D E Example: Never acts as described .° ............... ‘ ...................... A B C D ([5) Example: Occasionally acts as described ................................ A B © D E l. Acts as the Spokesperson of the group .............................. A B C D E 2. Waits patiently for the results of a decision ......................... A B C D E 3. Makes pep talks to Stimulate the group ............................. A B C D E 4. Lets group members know what is expected of them ................. A B C D E 5. Allows the members complete freedom in their work ................. A B C D E 6. Is hesitant about taking initiative in the group ....................... A B C D E 7. Is friendly and approachable ....................................... A B C D E‘ 8. Encourages overtime work ........................................ A B C D E 9. Makes accurate decisions ......................................... A B C D E IO. Gets along well with the people above him/her ...................... A B C D E II. Publicizes the activities of the group ................................ A B C D E I3. Becomes anxious when hezshe cannot find out what is coming next .... A B C D E I3. 14. 16. l7. I8. 19. 20. . 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. I40 - A = Always B = Often C = Occasionally D = Seldom E = Never His/her arguments are convincing ._ ................................. Encourages the use of uniform procedures .......................... . Permits the members to use their own judgment in solving problems . . . Failsito take necessary action ...................................... Does little things to make it pleasant to be a member of the grow ..... Stresses being ahead of competing groups ........................... Keeps the group working together as a team ........................ Keeps the group in good standing with higher authority .............. Speaks as the representative of the group . . . . ....................... Accepts defeat in stride ...................... Argues persuasively for his/her point of view ........................ Tries out his/her ideas in the group ................................. Encourages initiative in the group members ......................... Lets other persons take away his/her leadership in the group .......... Puts suggestions made by the group into operation ................... Needles members for greater effort ................................. Seems able to predict what is coming next .......................... Is working hard for a promotion ................................... Speaks for the group when visitors are present ...................... Accepts delaysewithout becoming upset ............................. Is a very persuasive talker ........................................ Makes his/her attitudes clear to the group ........................... Lets the members do their work the way they think best ............. Lets some members take advantage of him/her ...................... A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A wwwmwwwww tn 0 O ('3 O 0 O O ('3 0 0 O D O 0 0 O O 0 O n O O 0 O U U U U U D U U U DO U U U U U U U DO U U D U m mmmmmmmmmmmm I 4] A 2 Always B = Often C = Occasionally D = Seldom E = Never 37. Treats all group members as his/her equals .......................... A 38. Keeps the work moving at a rapid pace ............................. A 39. Settles conflicts when they occur in the group ....................... A 40. His/her superiors act favorably on most of his/her suggestions ......... A 4l. Represents the group at outside meetings ........................... A 42. Becomes anxious when waiting for new developments ................ A 43. Is very skillful in an argument ..................................... A 44. Decides what shall be done and how it shall be done ................. A 45. Assigns a task. then lets the members handle it ...................... A 46. Is the leader of the group in name only ..... ‘ ........................ A 47. Gives advance notice of changes ................................... A 48. Pushes for increased production ................................... A 49. Things usually turn out as he/she predicts ........................... A 50. Enjoys the privileges of his/her position ............................. A 51. Handles complex problems efficiently .............................. A 52. ls able to tolerate postponement and uncertainty ..................... A 53. Is not a very convincing talker ..................................... A 54. Assigns group members to particular tasks .......................... A 55. Turns the members loose on a job. and lets them go to it ............. A 56. Backs down when he/she ought to stand firm ........................ A 57. Keeps to himself/herself........................................... A 58. Asks the members to work harder .................................. A 59. Is accurate in predicting the trend of events ......................... A 60. Gets his/her superiors to act for the welfare of the group members ..... A OOOOGOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO U D U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U 0 [TI mmmmmmmmmmm I42 A = Always B = Often C = Occasionally D = Seldom E = Never 61. Gets swamped by details .......................................... A 62. Can wait just so long. then blows up .............................. A 63. Speaks from a strong inner co". .ietion .............................. A 64. Makes sure that his/her part in the group is understood by the group members ............................................ A 65. Is reluctant to allow the members any freedom of action .............. A 66. Lets some members have authority that he/she should keep ........... A 67. Looks out for the personal welfare of group members ................ A 68. Permits the members to take it easy in their work .................... A 69. Sees to it that the work of the group is coordinated .................. A 70. His/her word carries weight with superiors . . . .‘ ...................... A 71. Gets things all tangled up ......................................... A 72. Remains calm when uncertain about coming events . . .‘ ............... A 73. Is an inspiring talker .............................................. A 74. Schedules the work to be done .................................... A 75. Allows the group a high degree of initiative ......................... A 76. Takes full charge when emergencies arise ........................... A 77. Is willing to make changes ........................................ A 78. Drives hard when there is a job to be done .......................... A 79. Helps group members settle their differences ........................ A 80. Gets what he/she asks for from his/her superiors ..................... A 81. Can reduce a madhouse to system and order . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......... A 82. Is able to delay action until the proper time occurs ................... A 83. Persuades others that his/her ideas are to their advantage ............. A OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOODO U CD DO U DO U U U U DC DO U U U U U mmm‘m m mmm [71 mm 87. 88. 89. 93. 94. 95. 96. 97. 98. 99. 100 I43 A = Always B = Often C = Occasionally D = Seldom E = Never . Maintains definite standards of performance ......................... . Trusts members to exercise good judgment .......................... . Overcomes attempts made to challenge hisxher leadership ............. Refuses to explain his/her actions .................................. Urges the group to beat its previous record ......................... Anticipates problems and plans for them ............................ . ls working his/her way to the top .................................. . Gets confused when too many demands are made of him/her .......... . Worries about the outcome of any new procedure ................... Can inspire enthusiasm for a project ......... _ ....................... Asks that group members follow standard rules and regulations ....... Permits the group to set its own pace ............................... Is easily recognized as the leader of the group ....................... Acts without consulting the group .................................. Keeps the group working up to capacity ............................ Maintains a closely knit group ..................................... . Maintains cordial relations with superiors ........................... A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A (I! comma: OOOOOODOOOOOOOOOO U U U U U U U U‘U U U U U D U U U APPENDIX C Questionnaire Sample--Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire--Short Form 144 minnesota satisfaction questionnaire ' (Short Form) The purpose of this questionnaire is to give you a chance to tell how you feel about your present iob, what things you are satisfied with and what things you are not satisfied with. On the basis of your answers and those of people like you, we hope to get a better understanding of the things people like and dislike about their jobs. On the next page you will find statements about your present job. ' Read each statement carefully. - Decide how satisfied you feel about the aspect of your job described by the statement. Keeping the statement in mind: —if you feel that your job gives you more than you expected, check the box under ”Very Sat." (Very Satisfied); —if you feel that your job gives you what you expected, check the box under "Sat." (Satisfied); —if you cannot make up your mind whether or not the job gives you what you expected, check the box under "N" (Neither Satisfied nor Dissatisfied); -—if you feel that your job gives you less than you expected, check the box under "Dissat." (Dissatisfied); —if you feel that your job gives you much less than you expected, check the box under "Very Dissat.” (Very Dissatisfied). ° Remember: Keep the statement in mind when deciding how satisfied you feel about that aspect of your job. ’ ° 00 this for all statements. Please answer every item. Be frank and honest. Give a true picture of your feelings about your present iob. 145 Ask yourself: How satisfied am I with this aspect of my job? Very Sat. means l am very satisfied with this aspect of my job. Sat. means I am satisfied with this aspect of my job. N means i can’t decide whether i am satisfied or not with this aspect of my job. Dissat. means I am dissatisfied with this aspect of my job. Very Dissat. means I am very dissatisfied with this aspect of my job. On my present job, this is how I feel about . . . iii/:3. Dissat. N 50,. 1;? 1. Being able to keep busy all the time ...................... . ....................................................... C] C] C] D C] 2. The chance to work alone on the job .............................................................................. C] Cl Cl Cl C] 3. The chance to do different things from time to time ............................................. C] U D U D 4. The chance to be ”somebody” in the community ................................................... D C] U [:1 Cl 5. The way my boss handles his/ her workers ..... Cl C] E] El Cl 6. The competence of my supervisor in making decisions C] E] El Cl [3 7. Being able to do things that don’t go against my conscience ..................... U C] U C] U 8. The way my job provides for steady employment ................................................ [:1 Cl C] Cl Cl 9. The chance to do things for other people ............. i ..................................................... D C] U U Cl IO. The chance to tell people what to do . U E] El Cl Cl II. The chance to do something that makes use of my abilities ........................... C] U Cl Cl C] l2. The way company policies are put into practice ................................................... D. Cl C] . Cl C] 13. My pay and the amount of work I do .................... . ....................................................... C] C] C] E] El l4. The chances for advancement on this job .................................................................. C] [:1 Cl Cl C] 15. The freedom to use my own judgment ............. .. .................................................... Cl C] U C] Cl Id. The chance to try my own methods of doing the job ........................ , ............... E] El Cl [3 [:1 l7. The working conditions . ............................... . ............................................ ......................... C] U D C] C] l8. The way my co-workers get along with each other ............................................ U C] C] E] El l9. The praise I get for doing a good job ....... . .......... . ..................... , ..................... Cl C] 1:] Cl C] 20. The feeling of accomplishment I get from the job ............... , .................. , ...... Cl C] C] U C] 8:53.. on“... N Sat. :23? Copyright 1977, University of Minnesota APPENDIX 0 Sample introductory-Endorsement Letter from the General Conference of the Seventhfday Adventists ’EPA R TMEN 1’ OF EDUCA TION cannon WILD HEAOWAITEB: .0 EASTERN AVENUE NW. WWW. DC m2 LIA TILE“: mm mm o CABLE: ADVENTIST. ”91mm 0 TELEX: can November 25, l981 Academic Deans and Division/Department Chairmen Seventh-day Adventist Colleges/Universities North American Division of Seventh-day Adventists Dear Colleagues: Mr. David Pang, a Chinese doctoral student on assignment to return to the South China Union, Hong Kong, has proposed a study of Seventh-day Adventist academic dean's leadership styles in this division as the subject of his doctoral dissertation. . I have read the proposal and the cover letter which provides assurance of privacy and anonymity in the exposition of its findings. Having care- fully noted its aim and scope and thinking that such a study would contribute to a greater professional understanding of the role and function of academic leadership in higher education, I would encourage you to cooperate in helping Mr. Pang realize the completion of his objective. Our mission institutions need very much the kind of expertise and talent that Mr. Pang would offer on his return to his division. Thanks for your anticipated help for this brother in academia. Sincerely, /§;c-ie;.sj;g7gfea‘q; Victor 3. Griffiths Associate Director rnd APPENDIX E Sample Covering Letter for the Academic Deans I47 MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY (Z()I.I.I'(ili ()l‘ I-.|)L‘(ZAII()N I‘ASI IA.\.\I.\(. ' \II(1III(..\.\ ' 8M2; I)lil’/\R'I‘.\II5NI' ("4 ADMINISIRA'I‘IUN ANI) IlI(iIIl-.R lil)[7('.r\'ll().\’ l-LRKIKSON IIAI.I. February 15, 1982 Dear I am a former MBA graduate of Andrews University with three years of denomina- tional and ten years of government work experience. At the present time I am a Ph.D. candidate of Michigan State University and am on assignment to return to the South China Union, Hong Kong, where I will serve as chairman of the busi- ness department of our college there. In order to complete the doctoral program at Michigan State University I am presently working on my dissertation entitled: "A Study of the Leadership Style of the Academic Deans of the Seventh-day Adventist Colleges and Universities in North America." And you will be pleased to know that this study has the endorse- ment of the Department of Education at the General Conference. A letter to this effect from Elder Victor S. Griffiths is attached herewith for your perusal. I am now writing this letter to personally invite you to participate in this research study by taking a few minutes of your valuable time in completing and returning the attached Least Preferred Co—worker (LPC) Scale to me in the self-addressed and stamped envelope as soon as possible. It is hoped that you will give top priority to this matter, because time is against me as I have to return to Hong Kong by September 1982. ' All the data collected will be treated with the strictest confidentiality. Moreover, this study is not an evaluation of any particular academic dean or institution as a whole. Also, it is not a test of individual ability. Rather, it is a study intended to expand the development and understanding of the leadership role in the office of the academic deanship. Therefore, the data collected will be properly coded for final reporting and the analysis will be pooled to emphasize group results, so that the identity of the individual or institution will not be exposed. May I now take this opportunity to thank you in advance for your kind cooperation and will look forward to receiving the questionnaire back from you in the very near future. If you would like to know the results of this study, please leave me your name and address when you return the questionnaire to me. Sincerely, David Pang Beechwood Apartments B-IIZ Berrien Springs, Ml l19103 Enclosures: Letter from V. S. Griffiths Least Preferred Co-worker Scale APPENDIX F Sample Covering Letter for the Department/ Division Chairpersons I48 MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY (‘()I l.I-(.I-'. ()I‘ l-.I)U(ir\’ll().\ I'Ah'l‘ I.A.\.\I.\(.' ° \ll(.lll(..\\ ' lhhll I)l-I’r\R'l’.\II'N'I‘ ()I" AlMIINISI’RAIIUN A.\I) III(.II|-R I'lll'IIAIII)?‘ ERICKSON IIAH. February 15, 1982 Dear I am a former MBA graduate of Andrews University with three years of denomina- tional and ten years of government work experience. At the present time I am a Ph.D. candidate of Michigan State University and am on assignment to return to the South China Union, Hong Kong, where I will serve as chairman of the busi- ness department of our college there. In Order to complete the doctoral program at Michigan State University I am pre— sently working on my dissertation entitled: "A Study of the Leadership Style of the Academic Deans of the Seventh-day Adventist Colleges and Universities in North America." And you will be pleased to know that this study has the endorse- ment of the Department of Education at the General Conference. A letter to this effect from Elder Victor S. Griffiths is attached herewith for your perusal. I am now writing this letter to personally invite you to participate in this research study by completing and returning the attached Leader Behavior Description Questionnaire--Form XII and Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire--Short Form to me in the self-addressed and stamped envelope as soon as possible. The amount of time required in completing these questionnaires is estimated to be around forty-five minutes. So I hope that you will give top priority to this matter, because time is against me as I have to return to Hong Kong by September I982. All the data collected will be treated with the strictest confidentiality. Morever, this study is not an evaluation of any particular academic dean or institution as a whole. Also, it is not a test of individual ability. Rather, it is a study intended to expand the development and understanding of the leadership role in the office of the academic deanship. Therefore, the data collected will be properly coded for final reporting and the analysis will be pooled to emphasize group results, so that the identity of the individual or institution will not be exposed. May I now take this opportunity to thank you in advance for your kind cooperation and will look forward to receiving the questionnaires back from you in the very near future. If you would like to know the results of this study please leave me your name and address when you return the questionnaires to me. Sincerely, David Pang Beechwood Apartments B-Ilz Berrien Springs, Ml lI9103 Enclosures: Letter from V. S. Griffiths . Leader Behavior Description Questionnaire-Form XII Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire-Short Form APPENDIX G Sample Follow-up Letter for the Academic Deans I49 MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY (:UII l'.(ol': ()I' l'.I)L='(f.‘\I.I()N I'r\.\l LANSING ' \II( III(..'\.\ ' Ih‘zi I)I{I’AR'I'.\I|{N'I' ()I" ADMINISI‘RAIIUN ANI) III(iII|pca .Lmucmu weapon—mm _epcum3ecH .uumnoc . . . . . . . a .ucmsumahu« xcoz .mOOmmccwzv mcwmccowummzo cowuumemwumm muommccwz ecu coo _m::mz .mum um_:awog I qu_4 new .ucmpmcu .3 mmcomw .mwzmo .> mama .mmwmz .O uw>mo ”muczom ”...—Scaaaon mm mm OO mm ON 9‘. Oh no OO mm. on av Ov an ON ON ON 2 Oun— OO 3 3 NO OO NO NO n» 3 NO «O on Op 2. 2. Op 2. Z. Np no Nn . CCCUEEEW 3.8.30 .8 AN : , . . VN ON .. NN «N ON .. ...... . O— m— on an O— c .. . 952655 "33:95 .ON WN .... VN MN NN «N .... ..... ON .. an On F" O .Auomuakl .m— nN vN : NN NN . —N ON .. . ..... .. . a~ a" h— an n— c— . _...a_czua~Icc_m_>._on:m .3 ON .......... VN ON NN . uN .. ON O. 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