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© Copyright by
Joel Craig Panetta
’19 80

A STUDY OF THE EFFECT OF EDUCATION AND
EXPERIENCE ON SUBORDINATE PERCEPTION

OF LEADERSHIP IN THE POLICE AGENCY

By

Joel Craig Panetta

A DISSERTATION

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of Higher Education

1980

ABSTRACT

A STUDY OF THE EFFECT OF EDUCATION AND
EXPERIENCE ON SUBORDINATE PERCEPTIONS
OF LEADERSHIP IN THE POLICE AGENCY

By

Joel Craig Panetta

Social change has always had a pronounced impact
on the values, beliefs, attitudes, and expectations of the
public. It is often an expression of frustration with the
current established systems. When change involves an open
confrontation between interest groups, the social-legal
systems are tested. This study is concerned with the oc-
cupational ambivalence and related stress that the police
patrolman must deal with as the most visible representative
of the established judicial system, whose responsibility it
is to maintain law and order.

The general purpose of this study was to examine
189 patrolmen's role perceptions of their sergeant as an
effective leader. This information was sought to increase
our knowledge and understanding of the sergeant position.
It was hoped that this information could be used to decrease
the amount of occupational ambiguity for the individual of-
ficer and also to decrease the amount of goal displacement

of the agency. The interaction facilitation of the sergeant

Joel Craig Panetta

position which clarifies and gives direction to subordinates
and superiors is an important area that is surveyed in deter-
mining leadership and influence. This study also attempts

to assess the effect of experience, education, and military
service on the role perceptions of patrolmen who were sur-
veyed.

The basic assumption of the study was that a super-
visor who is a highly effective leader will be helpful to
subordinate officers which will enhance the goal attainment
of the agency.

The data of the study were collected by means of
a questionnaire that was administered to all of the patrol-
men in a medium sized municipal police department. The in-
formation was processed in such a way that descriptive anal-
yses would probe further into the findings, beyond the out-
come of hypotheses.

The main findings of the study were:

(1) A significant relationship existed between
leadership ability and the interaction facil-
itation skills of the sergeant.

(2) A positive but nonsignificant relationship
existed between leadership ability and the
support, work facilitation, and the goal em-
phasis skills of the sergeant.

(3) Patrolmen with military service experience
rate their sergeants' leadership ability
lower than do patrolmen with no military
service experience; however, the difference
is not significant.

(4) Patrolmen with some college (1-90 credits)
rate their sergeants' leadership ability

higher than do patrolmen with much college
(graduate credits).

Joel Craig Panetta

(5) Patrolmen with little experience (1-4 years)
rate their sergeants' leadership ability
higher than do patrolmen with some experience
(5-9 years).

(6) The leadership rating by patrolmen decreases
to a significant degree as their years of
police experience increase when controlling
for years of college education and military
service experience.

(7) There is a strong interaction affect between
years of college and years of experience that
tend to equalize each other's impact depending

on the composition of the groups that are
being contrasted.

The findings of the study suggest that interaction
facilitation skill is the most important variable. Also,
that it is highly related to the other performance variables
and to the background variables.

Similarly, experience is the most important of the
background variables and it also is highly related to the
other background variables. Experience appears to have a
significant effect on the perceptions of patrolmen. While
education seems to effect the perceptions of patrolmen, it
was not at a significant level. The interaction of these
two variables indicates that in some of the groups they
factor each other out by having an identical impact on the
perceptions of patrolmen. This implies that higher edu-
cation is important for new patrolmen, who are joining the

agency, as a supplement for experience.

In memory of Dr. William Sweetland who by example
and precept affirmed the important things in education. His
loyalty to teaching and learning and his conviction that edu-
cation is the best hope for constructive advancement gave
significant meaning and optimism to me. As my chairperson,
his conscientious mannerism and encouraging support was re-
assuring through some of my most anxious times. I remember

and I miss him, I am thankful for having known him.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

First, I would like to thank Dr. Howard Hickey,

Dr. Robert Trojanowicz, Dr. Samual Moore, and Dr. Richard
Featherstone for their willingness to serve on my doctoral
committee. Their critical comments and recommendations were
especially helpful in improving the clarity, understanding,
and meaning of this dissertation.

Special appreciation is extended to Dr. Howard Hickey
and Dr. Robert Trojanowicz. The time, work, and guidance of
Dr. Hickey was enormously helpful in spurring me on through
numerous rewrites. As my chairperson, his expectations were
explicit, his standards were high and his advocacy was unques-
tionable. To Dr. Robert Trojanowicz I am glad to acknowledge
my indebtedness. As my mentor he has challenged, inspired,
and advised me during the past fifteen years, through three
degree programs. His friendship has been a positive force
that is unique and highly valued by me.

Finally, I wish to express my appreciation for the
help generously given by Dr. Paul Weikert and Dr. Nora Bvers.
Dr. Weikert shared with me his professional knowledge and in-
sights, and made many constructive suggestions. To Dr. Evers
I am indebted for her editorial work in preparing the manu-

script, her willingness to devote valuable time and the

iii

supportive understanding that she has shown. Her involvement
was above and beyond anything I had expected and for that

I am grateful.

iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLES O O O C O O O O O O O 0
LIST OF FIGURES . . . . . . . . . . . .

LIST OF APPENDICES . . . . . . . . . .

Chapter
I. THE PROBLEM . . . . . . . . . . .

Introduction . . . . . . . . .
The Need for Agency Leadership

The Needs of the Individual Officer

Purpose of the Study . . . . .
Conceptual Framework . . . . .
Definition of Terms . . . . .
Contributions and Implications
Overview of the Study . . . .

II. SELECTED LITERATURE REVIEW . . .

Introduction . . . . . . . . .
Selected Review of Literature
and Research . . . . . . . .
Education and role diversity
Performance and background
characteristics . . . . .

Leadership traits and characteristics

Stress and the policeman .
Implications of the Literature
for the Study . . . . . . .
Summary . . . . . . . . . . .

III. METHODOLOGY . . . . . . . . . . .

Background of the Study
Hypotheses Development .

Hypotheses . . . . .
Instrumentation . . . .
Item Construction . . .

Validity and Reliability of the Indices

Validity . . . . . . . . .
Reliability . . . . . . . .

Summary of validity and reliability

Subjects and Data Collection .
Limitations . . . . . . . . .
Variables . . . . . . . . . .

V

Page
vii
viii

ix

(DUHA H

10

11
14
15

16
16

17
17

32
36
45

53
57

61
61

66
68
69
7O
7O
72
73
75
76
77

Chapter Page

Design of the Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

IV. ANALYSIS OF THE DATA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

Hypotheses Concerning th Factors . . . . . . 84
Summary of findings for hypotheses

concerning factor data . . . . . . . . . 89

Descriptive Presentation of

the Categorical Data Set . . . . . . . . . . 90
Descriptive Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Years of college variable . . . . . . . . 96
Military service variable . . . . . . . . . 98
Years of experience variable . . . . . . . 99
Hypotheses Concerning the Category
Data Set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Hypotheses concerning years
of college . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Hypotheses concerning military
service experience . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Hypotheses concerning years of
police experience . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Hypotheses Testing EPL by a Categorical
Variable while Controlling for Others . . . 107
Summary of Category Data . . . . . . . . . . 110
V. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Implications and Conclusions . . . . . . . . . 119
APPENDICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129

vi

LIST OF TABLES

Table Page
2.1 Citizen complaints radioed to patrol vehicles -

Syracuse Police Department, June 3-9, 1966

(based on a one-fifth sample of week's calls) . . . 24
3.1 Factor Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
3.2 Summary of index reliability . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

4.1 EPL score by education group . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

93

4.2 EPL score by military service group
4.3 EPL score by experience group . . . . . . . . . . . 94

4.4 Summary of category variables . . . . . . . . . . . 95

vii

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page

1.1 Conceptual Framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

viii

LIST OF APPENDICES
Appendix Page

A. Questionnaire O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 125

ix

CHAPTER I

THE PROBLEM

Introduction

 

During the past few decades much social change has
come about through minority group upheaval, beginning with
the civil rights movement and continuing through anti-war
demonstrations, campus riots, and the burning of large metro-
politan areas. When laws were defied, police had the direct
responsibility to maintain law and order in a struggle that
became increasingly visible. Because police are the enforce—
ment agency in our criminal justice system, strong anti-
police sentiments often develop and are noted in public
opinion polls. Stories of brutality and corruption have
been reported by local and national news agencies. From
this and similar experiences it became apparent that major
changes should be made in the image of the police agency to
assure community support and cooperation.

Resistance to social change is often predictable
and can be anticipated in many situations. The unique
visibility of the police as the guardians of the public

peace and as a barrier to movement for change has caused

a re-examination of law enforcement philosophy and practice
(Police Training/and Performance Study, 1970:1). Studies
indicate that the great majority of situations in which
policemen intervene are not criminal situations (The Chal-
lenge of Crime in a Free Society, 1967:91). Most, however,
could involve the violation of some ordinance or statute,
or could lead to a serious crime. Policemen spend much of
their time in preventive intervention, attempting to restore
control and balance to situations so that extremes do not
develop.

The occupational stress of police work in a dynamic
society is hard to overstate.

Policemen deal with people when they are both most
threatening and most vulnerable; when they are angry;
when they are frightened; when they are desperate;
when they are drunk; when they are violent; or when
they are ashamed. Every police action can affect

in some way someone's dignity or self respect, or
sense of privacy, or constitutional rights (The
Challenge, 1967:91).

A general shift in social-legal attitudes that
emphasize individual rights over property and/or group
rights has forced an examination of the primary purpose
of the police agency and the activities of its officers.

On one hand, if the primary function is law enforcement,
the physical activities (i.e., chasing felons, subduing
prisoners, making arrests, crowd control) require the at-
tributes of physical strength, certain motor skills, and

stamina. On the other hand, if police work is seen as

largely a service function or "peace keeping," then verbal

skills, interpersonal skills, tact, discretion, human
relations expertise, and abstract intelligence may be

more appropriate (Vollmer, 1959). In a study on the role
of the patrolman, Wilson (1968:16) found that an officer's
role is defined more by responsibility for maintaining
order than by responsibility for enforcing the law.

Because police work does involve inconsistent
activities, it is inevitable that the public is of two
minds about the police.

Most men both welcome official protection and
resent official interference. How the police
perform their duties affects to some extent
which state of mind predominates, i.e., whether
the police are thought of as protectors or op—
pressors, as friends or enemies. Traditionally,
police training has focused on procedures, such
as searching a person for weapons, transporting
a suspect, taking finger—prints, writing arrest
reports and testifying in court. They have re-
ceived very little help or guidance in handling
intricate and intimate human situations (The
Challenge, 1967:92).

The inconsistencies in public perceptions about
police operations have not been adequately addressed by
most police agencies.

Law enforcement operations reflect economic

cycles, population movements, changes in ethnic
compositions, public attitudes toward law and
morality and specific responses to these atti-
tudes made by political leadership (Police Training
and Performance Study, 1970:1).

Public awareness of the purpose of these operations
should perhaps be considered a community relations responsi-

bility of each police agency. In this way, officers could

present the reasons for various operations and, hopefully,

4

create an atmosphere of public acceptance. The absence of
this type of initiative by police agencies on any large
scale has contributed to many internal and external problems.

For the individual officer the trauma of occupa-
tional stress is difficult. Being publicly ostracized for
upholding the law and protecting the public can cause un-
necessary confusion. A survey study of New York patrolmen
indicated that most patrolmen felt they would receive little
or no help from the public if their lives were in danger
(Police Training and Performance Study, 1970:21). Police
agencies must recognize the role stress on officers and ac-
cept their responsibility to tie the agencies' purpose more
closely to the officers' function.

Two national commissions have reported on the
extraordinary and difficult problems faced by the police.
The Kerner Commission Report (1968), in discussing the role
of the police, indicates that:

His role is already one of the most difficult
in our society. He must deal directly with

a range of problems and people that test his
patience, ingenuity, character, and courage

in ways that few of us are ever tested (Kerner
Commission Report, 1968:157).

The Task Force Report on the Police in the Presi-
dent's Commission on Law Enforcement and Administration of
Justice (1967:144) stated:

It is obviously difficult and often impossible
for police officers to respond in an appropriate
manner to numerous incidents called to their at-
tention. They are under constant pressure ....

to handle a volume of cases that are beyond their
capacity .... They lack adequate training with

respect to some of the more complex social
problems. And there has been little efforts
to provide individual officers with the guide—
lines which they require if they are expected
to make more effective and judicious decisions
in disposing of the incidents which come to
their attention. In the absence of adequate
resources, training and guidance, the tenden-
cy is for the individual police officers to
attempt to meet, largely by improvisation,

the varied demands made upon them.

Both commissions recognized the difficulty inherent
in performing the duties of a police officer, given the
varied circumstances of problems and people that are en-
countered. Both recommended guidelines that place emphasis
on the need for educational programs to prepare officers to
exercise discretion properly, to understand the community,
the role of the police, and what the criminal justice system
can and cannot do.

These commission reports have, through recommen-
dations and endorsements, given impetus to the rise of a
police education and training movement that has spread
rapidly.

The Need for Agency Leadership

The identification of primary sources of stress in
police work can begin by exploring the police agencies'
functions in promoting the communities' welfare. This is
an important starting point in defining the purpose of a
police agency. The dependence of the police agency upon
community cooperation and involvement is direct inducement

to recognize the relevance of police-community relations.

During periods of change and unrest this relationship has

been altered by social-legal-economic actions diminishing
police authority and increasing recognition of individual
rights and freedoms. Most patrolmen believe that the lenien-
cy of courts has reduced their job effectiveness and that it
has caused a deterioration in their relationships with the
community. In response to this, police agencies are attempt-
ing to identify, develop, and implement alternate ways of en—
forcing and maintaining law and order (Police Training and
Performance Study, 1970:21).

These efforts will require new and aggressive
testing and negotiation by police agencies while attempting
to define and delimit community expectations for police
operations. This has not occurred in the past, but is
necessary in the future if police agencies are to be ef-
fective and accountable.

In attempting to understand the primary source
of stress in police work, some distinct consequences can
be identified that have directly resulted from our changing
social norms and values. The community goals on which police
operations were built in the past have been altered. The
changing social values have resulted in a community more
liberal in its interpretation of law and order now than
in the past. While demands on constituents are being
loosened in the community, the judicial system has not
clarified any changes in their expectations for the police
agency that are consistent with the more liberal values.

Maybe it is not possible to clarify these expectations

explicitly without a precedent setting judgment and this
necessitates a developmental or case law approach. How—
ever, if an inverse relationship exists, as it seems to,
between liberalized social norms and an increase in crime
or its potential, then use of discretion by police will be
necessary and new methods of control must be acquired by
police agencies and officers.

Police agencies are confronted with a serious
organizational challenge which will require a reordering
of priorities to include more emphasis on continuing edu—
cation and training programs. Occupational stress has been
recognized as a main problem and has been addressed by many
police agencies. Various approaches have been studied and
undertaken (Levinson, 1975:4; Selye, 1979:7-9; Stratton,
1978:58). Police officers of today must be flexible and
adaptive since they are exposed to a great range of people
and many potential crime producing activities. For this
reason they should be supported by a chain of command that
is empathetic to their situation while at the same time
responsive to the changing demands of society.

There appears to be a need for explicit, but non-
restricting, role definitions for police officers. This
would require a method of establishing differential role
parameters for various police activities. It is important
to communicate the role definitions with an appropriate
rationale that can be accepted and easily internalized by

the police officers. Currently, the individual officer has

the task of integrating many mixed messages when determining
what is appropriate police behavior. This responsibility
with its accompanying pressures must be assumed by the police
agency and local community leaders. Without positive leader-
ship, goals, operational guidance, and public support the
individual policeman can only feel victimized (Kerner Report,
19682157).
The Needs of the Individual Officer

For the individual officer changing mores and
values have also changed his life as a member of the larger
community. The clear-cut issues of yesterday are now gray
and muddled. Conservative values have been scrutinized,
questioned, compared, and contrasted with the benefits and
costs of relativistic hedonism which narrowly limits individ-
ual and social responsibility to the here and now. This
expands individual freedom to the point of license while
acknowledging responsibility based on the results of actions,
rather than the acts themselves. Exposure to this orientation
is confusing to police officers, since much of their duty time
is spent in preventive law enforcement where authority is im-
portant in deterring extreme actions and intervention is based
on the perception of anticipated action or danger rather than
on the result of the action.

One social critic has described the predominant
social climate as follows:

Of all the ills that our poor criticized, analyzed,
sociologized society is heir to, the focal one,

it seems to me, from which so much of our
uneasiness and confusion derives is the
absence of standards. We are too unsure
of ourselves to assert them, to stick by
them, or if necessary, in the case of
persons who occupy positions of authority,
to impose them. We seem to be afflicted
by a widespread and eroding reluctance to
take any stand on any value, moral, be-
havioral or aesthetic (Tuchman, 1967:3).

The uneasiness and confusion referred to grows
greater and of more critical consequence as it impedes
persons responsible for peace-keeping and maintenance of
law and order from carrying out their jobs.

While many of these contradicting influences must
be dealt with by each individual, for the police officer
the role stress of unclear occupational expectations frequent-
ly place personal values in conflict. This can create
feelings of disorientation due to the loss of a sense of
purpose and control. In police work clear and predictable
routines are helpful in the mastery of assignments. Mastery
and job satisfaction are important factors in the retention
of competent officers who are mentally and emotionally com-
mitted to the goals of the agency.

Thus a two fold challenge is presented to police
agencies--one is the role of the agency in supporting
community values and the second one is the leadership,
exemplified in the agency in the support and training of

police officers. It is the role relationships in the police

agency which is the concern of this study.

1O

Purpose of the Study

This study is an exploratory survey of a municipal
police department. The researcher's objectives here are two
fold:

(1) to assess the leadership ability and role performance of
police sergeants by examining the perceptions of subordinate
officers, and

(2) to analyze differences between police officers' role
perceptions of the police sergeant position, using years of
police experience, education, and previous military experi-
ence as variables for comparison.

The focus of the study is on the sergeant position
because it is seen by many as an influential position with-
in the agency. This position can be used to decrease the
amount of occupational ambiguity for the individual officer
and also to decrease the amount of goal displacement of the
agency. Because of the communication function of the ser-
geant position, which clarifies and gives direction to sub-
ordinates and superiors, this area will be surveyed in deter-
mining leadership and influence for this study. An analysis
of the role perceptions of the officers who vary in years of
police experience, education, and previous military service
will possibly yield information that is useful in determining
the relative importance of each of these variables.

The survey of the role perceptions of the police
sergeant position by fellow officers will indicate how well

police sergeants are meeting the role expectations of

11

subordinates. The anticipated outcome will be that the
police sergeant's duties and functions are congruent with
the behavior expected by the subordinates. The closer a
police sergeant's involvements or activities fit this ex—
pectation, the more beneficial the position is assumed to
be to the organization and its staff. The less congruent
the role functions are to the expectations of others, the
less helpful the position is assumed to be to the organi-
zation and staff.
Conceptual Framework

The conceptual framework for this study involves
the linking of many related concepts, in an attempt to
address the problem of role stress while exploring the
probability of a theoretical solution. These concepts are
identified and elaborated upon in the review of the litera-
ture and also, in Chapter III, the develOpment of the hypo-
theses that are tested in this study (see Figure 1.1).

Definition of Terms

The following definitions are provided to clarify
a number of terms that are used in a particular manner in
this study:
Effective Leadership‘: the process of influencing the activ—
ities of an individual or a group and fullfilling their vital

needs by integrating them into the efforts toward goal achieve-
ment in a given situation (Mac Gregor, 1968:65).

 

 

Q
The definitions with an asterisk are paraphrased
from the sources indicated.

12

Agency Goals

Sergeant Interaction Facilitation
Support

Work Facilitation

Goal Emphasis

E.P.L.

years of: Patrolman
College

Experience Perceptions
Military Service

Age and Needs

 

Community Demands

Figure 1.1.-—Conceptual Framework.

13

Executive Professional Leadership: the efforts of an

executive of a professionally staffed organization to

conform to a definition of his role that stresses the

obligation to improve the quality of staff performance
(Gross & Herriott, 1965:22).

Expectations: beliefs and demands about what should or
ought to be done and what should not or ought not be done
by a role incumbent (Sterling, 1972:7).

Generalized Other: the social group with which a role
incumbent identifies and gains a sense of self (Sterling,
1972:9).

 

Goal Emphasis: behavior that stimulates an enthusiasm for
meeting the group's goal or achieving excellent performance
(Bowers & Seashore, 1966:68).

Interaction Facilitation: behavior that encourages members
of the group to develop close, mutually satisfying relation-
ships (Bowers & Seashore, 1966:66).

Leadership: the process of influencing the activities of
an individual or a group in efforts toward goal achievement
in a given situation (Hersey & Blanchard, 1977:84).

Norm of Distributive Justice‘: a standard that contains the
strong expectation that the "investments" one makes should

be followed by returns of value in prOportion to the ratio

of returns over "investments" of others in similar circum-

stances (Webster, 1975:333).

 

Norm of Equity‘: a standard that requires that the exchange
between two persons, or between person and organization, not
be unequal in value (Webster, 1975:386).

Norm of Reciprocity‘: a standard based on the mutual ex-
pectation of a reasonably equivalent exchange or paying back
of what one has received (Webster, 1975:964).

Position: a place in a social structure to which a collection
of duties and rights are assigned and recognized by members
of a society (Sterling, 1972:6).

Reference Group: a group by whom an actor sees his role per—
formance observed and evaluated and to whose expectations and
evaluations he attends (Sterling, 1972:11).

Role: the dynamic aspect of positions--what a person does
as an occupant of a specified position (Sterling, 1972:6).

14

Role Conflict: exposure to and awareness of conflicting
expectations in connection with either single or multiple
role incumbencies (Sterling, 1972:11).

 

Role Model: someone, real or fictitious, whose behavior
and attributes are accepted as a relevant model by someone
else learning or redefining a role (Sterling, 1972:10).

Role Perception‘: (other)-observations and judgements made
by others about the adequacy of the performance of a role
incumbent (Sterling, 1972:9).

Role Performance: behavior characteristics of an incum—
bent of one position toward the incumbent of another posi-
tion (Sterling, 1972:8).

Socialization: a formal or informal learning process by

which an individual becomes aware of and committed to be-
havioral norms which are seen as appropriate and right for
specific role performances. Conversely, socialization in-
cludes the learning of expected behavioral responses to the
performances of specific roles by other people (Sterling,
1972:7).

Stress‘: a physical, chemical, and/or emotional factor that
causes bodily or mental tension and may be a factor in disease
causation (Webster, 1975:1151).

Support: behavior that enhances someone else's feeling of
personal worth and importance (Bowers & Seashore, 1966:65).

Work Facilitation: behavior that helps achieve goal attain-
ment by such activities as scheduling, coordinating, planning,
and by providing resources such as tools, materials, and
technical knowledge (Bowers & Seashore, 1966:65).
Contributions and Implications

Several contributions are seen as being made by
this study: (1) a contribution to the literature on the
police agency, (2) research information concerning the per-
ceptions of policemen in regard to their superiors, and (3)
an understanding of the influence of variables like years of

police experience, education, and previous military experience

of the policeman.

15

These implications involve the further exploration
fof the police officers' function in a quest for understanding
of their roles. This also will involve the impetus for
others to carry on and build cumulatively toward a greater
understanding of the police agency as the difficulties of
this occupation are comprehended.

Overview of the Study

This chapter includes an introduction to the
general problem, with delineation of the specific needs
for agency leadership and the needs of the individual
officer. Major objectives and purposes of the study are
explored, as are the contributions and implications that
are seen.

Chapter II is divided into two main areas: first,
a review of the literature, relevant to the purpose of the
study, and second, the implications of the literature for
this study.

Chapter III consists of the methodology used in
the study, including the background, the development of the
hypotheses, the instrumentation, limitations, and the design
of the analysis.

Chapter IV contains the analysis of the data.

Chapter V presents a summary, conclusions, a dis—
cussion of the results, and some of the implications that

can be drawn.

CHAPTER II

SELECTED LITERATURE REVIEW

Introduction

 

The number of reported studies dealing with
leadership and supervision in law enforcement agencies
is limited. Studies focussing upon leadership abilities
are usually in areas other than police agencies but pri—
mary principles derived from these studies can be logi-
cally applied to the police work situation. However, there
is some research available that is directed at the issues
of whether or not higher education is beneficial for police-
men. These studies focus upon the educational component
along with other background characteristics of officers.

The literature review is divided into the fol-
lowing areas: (1) education and role diversity-—this section
mainly consists of opinions and judgements that have been
expressed by individuals with experience and knowledge in
criminal justice or related fields; (2) performance and
background characteristics--empirical studies dealing with
police background variables, particularly those involving
or related to age, education, and experience; (3) leadership
traits and characteristics--empirical studies exploring
leadership and its characteristics; and (4) stress and the

16

17

policeman--studies that examine the policeman's role using
the concept of stress.

Selected Review of Literature
and Research

 

Education and role diversity

In this section the researcher presents the posi-
tions that are held by individuals with experience and/
or knowledge in criminal justice, higher education, and
related fields when addressing the necessity or desira-
bility of formal education for law enforcement officers.

Jagiello (1971:114) posed the question "College
education for the patrolman-~necessity or irrelevance"
which expresses the central concern of this inquiry. It
is important to recognize the value that is placed on
education in our society; a bias is apparent in the liter-
ature that deals with the subject of education. It con-
tains many authoritative opinions and judgements that are
not necessarily based on scientific and objective data.
Consequently it is difficult to find literature that is
critical of education or its impact in a scientific report.
Data showing education as having a detrimental affect are
sparse. Most studies were written by educators and prac-
titioners who were college educated and therefore it can
be expected that this group will look to education as a
way of improving police service.

Another possible bias is the tendency to over-

emphasize the qualifications required for a profession

18

within which one is a member. This status enhancing has
positive aspects that include raising standards but if it
is inappropriate the negative consequences can be devasta-
ting. However, biases are inherent in any subjective study
and if recognized appropriate allowances can be made. In
spite of the limitations imposed by bias, the value of in-
formation and intuitive judgments is acknowledged and can
be utilized through further exploration. A descriptive or
historical point of view is useful in indicating the trends
of changing attitudes toward education as a solution for
police and community problems. This approach offers the
reader a perspective on the police role in a changing
society.

A first attempt was made by Fuld (1909:152) to
present the principles of police administration in a syste-
matic way; his textbook had significant influence on the
development of law enforcement. In many instances Fuld
reflected the social—cultural context of law enforcement in
the early 1900's. The simplistic and uncomplicated role of
the police is indicated as he wrote:

It is certainly true that the police officer
must possess physical power rather than in-
tellectual powers, that he must act rather
than think, but a moment's reflection will
conv1nce anyone that he must think as well
as act (Fuld, 1909:152).
In other instances, Fuld indicated an awareness

of the need for improvement of the quality of police per-

sonnel because of the great amount of authority given to

19

the individual policeman in determining the application of
criminal sanctions.

In discussing police officer discretion and auto-
nomy, Fuld stated:

It is the element of individual discretion
which distinguishes the police officer from
the soldier .... The policeman ... does not
always nor even generally act under the im-
mediate supervision of his superior officer
and accordingly, he must himself determine

by the exercise of a sound discretion whether
he shall act or not, and if he decides to act,
what he shall do and how he shall do it

(Fuld, 1909:152).

Fuld often indicated a distinction between the
practical and the ideal. He favored higher education for
police officers and encouraged the recruitment of high school
graduates and "college bred" men. His emphasis upon socio-
logy and the special problems of police duty indicate that
in this early period education was seen as the best solution
to apparent social problems.

Vollmer (1936:230-232) consistently expressed ad-
vocacy of better education and training for police officers.
In his writing, Vollmer compares the requirements of the
legal, engineering, and medical profession with those used
by police. He speculates that if these "real" professions
used the usual police methods of recruitment—-that randomly
selects members and that has no requirements for prior
education--"disaster would be the inevitable consequence

of such stupidity" (Vollmer, 1936:230).

Vollmer and Parker (1935) indicated that police

20

should be men of superior education,
intelligence, character, and physique.
Their education, moreover, should be
made a continual process by the estab-
lishment of a state school for police
and an institute for police research
(Vollmer & Parker, 1936:209).

The Wickersham Report (1931:58, 79, 85) identified
low educational level as a major problem in law enforcement.
It pointed out that more than 60 percent of the police in the
United States at that time had never entered high school.
Vollmer (1959:440-442) felt that prOper training and edu-
cation for police was only possible by two means: "... state
supported and controlled schools for police only; secondly,
university cooperation." Vollmer stated also that necessity
demanded the application of science to law enforcement prob—
lems. He viewed the advantages of education as multiple and
indicated that it would "... fortify the students when they
later contact life in the raw state, and will also help
them to resist the temptations that beset law enforcement
officials" (Vollmer, 1959:444).

Fosdick (1920:225), an early expert on both Euro-
pean and American police systems, urged the establishment
of a profession for police administrators, so that "...
the talent of the universities might be attracted to police
services."

Brandstatter (1966:14) pointed out that

as social institutions are faced with in-
creasingly complex social problems ...

assistance would be needed in research,
training, and education, and that new

21

knowledge and skills necessary to improve
police operations would emerge primarily
from college and universities through
meaningful research.

Brandstatter (1966:14) eXpressed concern that if
police work did not raise its educational standards it
would begin to attract "the most marginal people coming
out of high schools, the lower 30 percent." This occurs
because the better qualified individual would go on to
college and would not likely be attracted to police ser-
vice once he had a degree.

The abilities to diagnose and to make quick but
accurate decisions and judgments were emphasized by Jameson
(1966:211). He indicated that the "common sense" approach
which emphasizes "how to do well" skills for police officers
must be changed to a "why do it" philOSOphy, which emphasizes
an understanding of the law enforcement role in relation to
the context within which it is being applied.

Clark and Chapman (1966:84) stated that experience
has shown that

candidates with a minimum of two years of
college are easier to train on the complex-
ities of change in the rules of evidence,
search and seizure, arrest and court tech—
niques. They are more susceptible to
training on specialty items, such as
internal and external intelligence,

public relations, budgeting, and auxiliary
services, they are more adept at adjusting
to situations that require clear thinking
and precise action.

Chapman (1966:26) found that one of the most

important considerations for future leaders is proper

22

educational background. He indicated that a continuing
education program is especially important for experienced
policemen, because established attitudes, values, and
behaviors are challenged through questioning. Chapman
(1966:26) also wrote about the "cop cultural lag." He
felt that educational background was essential to over—
come this situation; he pointed out that ability to make
good decisions is important in police work and that
college level courses in evaluation, logic, and reasoning
are helpful in this regard.

In an article by Germann (1967:604) it is pointed
out that police agencies used relatively uneducated men
to perform simple tasks under careful supervision in the
past. Today, however, police agencies are using well-
educated men who independently perform complex tasks and
to a greater extent exercise their own judgment. Germann
also explained the increased complexity of the tasks which
police perform and the direct influence on the level of
education; i.e., a high level of educational achievement
is not required to teach an individual the vocational mecha-
nics of law but a broader educational base is required to
understand the "psychological, sociological, anthropological,
legal, ethical, and human relation aspects of work."

In upgrading American Police, Saunders (1970:89-

 

91) stated that there is an obvious lack of research to sup-
port or refute the theory that a significant relationship

exists between educational level and actual performance as

23

a police officer. He indicated that there is reason to
believe that a greater turnover rate among better educated
and more intelligent men, due to frustration and dissatis-
faction, does occur. Saunders (1970) finds that this ar-
gument is often used for not recruiting college trained
men. He feels, however, that a reform of the system is
needed to provide greater incentives and more opportunities
for educationally qualified men. Saunders indicated that
the constantly rising level of education of the overall
population was an important factor in raising the educational
standards for police.

In 1946, only 22% of all persons between 18

and 21 were enrolled in institutions of higher

education; in 1967 the figure is 46.6%. The

trend is continuing: 58.7% of all males who

graduated from high school in the spring of

1966 enrolled in college that fall. The median

years of school completed by employed males in

the civilian labor force is 16.3% for profes-

sional and technical workers and 12.5% for

clerical workers as compared with 12.4% for

police ... unless a serious effort is made

to raise educational standards it will not

be possible to even maintain the status

quo let alone raise educational standards

(Saunders, 1970:89).

Along with questions around educational factors,
conflicts arise due to the diversity of the role activities
that police officers are involved in and the expectations
that are commonly held for these encounters.

Wilson (1968:30) reported on the police role in a
medium-size municipal jurisdiction. Table 2.1 illustrates

the types of requests for service that were made in a sample

of calls; only ten percent (10%) of the calls are for service

24

TABLE 2.1--Citizen complaints radioed to patrol vehicles
Syracuse Police Department, June 3-9, 1966
(based on a one-fifth sample of a week's calls).

 

 

 

Calls Number in Full count Percent
Sample (sample multiplied
by 5)
Information gath- 69 345 22.1
ering

Book and check
Get a report

Service 117 585 37.5
Accidents, ill-
nesses, ambulance
calls
Animals
Assist a person
Drunk person
Escort vehicle
Fire, power line
or tree down
Lost or found person
or property
Property damage

Order maintenance 94 470 30.1
Gang disturbance
Family trouble
Assault, fight
Investigation
Neighbor trouble

Law enforcement 32 160 10.3
Burglary in progress
Check a car
Open door, window
Prowler
Make an arrest

Totals 312 1,560 100.0

 

Source: James Q. Wilson, Varieties of Police Behavior

(Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press,
1968), p. 18.

25

involving control of criminal activities. Thirty percent
(30%) of the calls involve the maintenance of order which
would require the use of discretion in the application of
police authority. Some of these disputes could result in
criminal actions that lead to arrest but most of the time
this is not the case. The remainder of the calls (59.6%)
involve noncriminal situations.
The "order maintenance function" of the police role
is difficult because it requires critical thinking that is
situationally applied. The individual officer, working on
the street, must make many discretionary judgments which mean
the difference between fair or biased enforcement of the law.
Police officers must perform situationally using their own
initiative and basing judgment on a multitude of circumstances
(Wilson, 1968:30).
Urbanization has complicated the role functions of the

police because more people are in need of police services
in an expanded number of different situations. The Education
and Training Task Force Report (1958:59) commented on the im-
pact of urbanization on the police force:

Urban life as we know it is so generally

precarious that none of us can count our—

selves safe, and all of us may at some

time or another have to invoke the police-

man's help in a striking variety of problems.

Thus, a different kind of person is required

to meet the needs of the bona-fide members

of society.

McNamara (1962:164) indicates that in many urban areas

the lower socioeconomic classes depend upon the police to

26

"perform the functions of family counselor, obstetrician,
agents of socialization for potential delinquents." McNamara
(1965:251) also commented on the training methods of the
police force, stating that police training methods resembled
a military model rather than professional models. This ap-
proach to training fails to recognize the autonomous nature
of police work. Despite the semi military nature of the
police organization, minimal field supervision is available
and varied and multiple tasks are performed. The personal
role identity of the police officer with the community re-
quires a thinking individual who can apply the rules and
principles of law to real life situations.

Lejins (1970:13-16) presented the various categories
of disturbances that require the police officer to use mature
judgment; he also indicated how educational background can
enhance a police officer's ability:

1. Among the frequent disturbances to which a
policeman is called are family conflicts, which
often reach the level of disturbances of the peace,

fights, assault and manslaughter. It stands to
reason that an officer who has been exposed to some
educational experience in the area of family rela-
tionships, the types of family conflict and the way
they run their course, would approach this type of
disturbance with a much broader and sounder per-
spective than someone equipped with many conven—
tional folklore stereotypes permeated by punitive,
disciplinary or ridiculing impulses ....

2. An even more obvious example is a disturbance
anchored in the area of ethnic relations and ethnic
tensions. Exposure to the university-level study of
ethnic relations, contributing an historical and
broader perspective ... again suggests itself, and
again one would expect that such study would tend

27

to diminish the effect of prejudice, racial and
ethnic stereotypes, erroneous and often exag-
gerated, rumors, etc. ....

3. Still another example is the handling of distur-
bances for which mentally abnormal people are respon—
sible. The use of conventional and straight—forward
evaluations of behavior as being or not being a vio-
lation of law, and the use of conventional law en—
forcement steps to arrest the ongoing violation and
secure the violator for action of the criminal jus-
tice system, would often cause unnecessary harm to
the perpetrator, who is viewed by contemporary so-
ciety as a sick person, and to the community itself,
by injecting what basically amounts to an improper
solution of the problem ....

4. Whatever has been said with regard to the above
three categories of disturbances could be properly

restated with regard to the handling of drunks and

drug addicts ....

5_ And finally, let us take the so-called area of

civil rights and contemporary struggles for them,
which often express themselves in disturbances and
so-called riots. Here again the quick and sharp
discernment between permissible actions in terms of
freedom of speech, and freedom of demonstration, and
actions that violate the individual rights of others
and have all the characteristics of plain criminal
acts, presupposes alert and SOphisticated individ-
uals. Persons without any higher education, acquired
either in their college-age period or subsequently
by means of adult education and in-service training,
can hardly be cast in the role of the wise law en—
forcement officer who manages to lessen the tensions
between ideologically antagonistic mobs, protects
the rights of innocent bystanders and would-be
victims.

Police Foundation (1972:31) indicates in a task

force report that the tasks performed by the police re-

quire professional ethics and skills. Since other pro-

fessions are normally prepared for their role by an academic

program of study, police should not be an exception.

Conflict resolution or order maintenance in an

urban society involves the use of social counseling and
law enforcement techniques. These skills are acquired by
the individual officer through education and experience.
If they are employed at the appropriate time and in an
appropriate manner they can mean the difference between
successful and unsuccessful resolution of conflict. The
necessity of utilizing a variety of techniques in dealing
with a conflict situation requires the individual police
officer to assess the facts and use discretion in deter-
mining the method to be used. The individual officer as
an autonomous decision maker with the authority to make
arrests has become the most critical and perhaps the most
powerful component of the criminal justice system.
Niederhoffer and Blumberg (1970:3-4) state that,

"In practice the average policeman exercises greater ju-
dicial discretion over cases than does a judge on the court
bench." However, in situations where serious crimes that
produce victims have occurred, the discretion of the police
is limited. Yet, less than ten percent of all arrests are
made for any of the seven serious offenses that make up the
FBI Crime Index:

The vast majority of arrests, and of citizen-

police contacts that involve an offense but

do not lead to an arrest, are for such matters

as drunkenness, disorderly conduct, assault,

driving while intoxicated, gambling, vandalism,

and the like. People do differ as to whether

such matters are important, or such conduct are

"really wrong," or even what constitutes the
proscribed conduct in question (Wilson, 1968:6).

29

In the vast majority of cases neither social mandate
nor departmental policy have any application. Discretion,
as it is exercised, is almost entirely the individual police
officers' (Wilson, 1968:84). The police officer on the beat
or in the patrol car makes more decisions and exercises
broader discretion affecting the daily lives of people,
every day and to a greater extent, than a judge will or-
dinarily exercise in a week (Burger, 1972:2). The patrol-
man is almost solely in charge of enforcing the laws that
are the least precise, most ambiguous, or the most sensitive.
The exercise of discretion in interpreting the substantive
criminal law is necessary for the police officer on the beat
because no legislature and no police administrator has suc-
ceeded in formulating a criminal code or policy manual which
clearly defines all conduct as either criminal or legal
(LaFave, 1969:114—116). Insufficient financial resources
make "complete" enforcement of all laws at all times impos-
sible. For this reason decisions must be made regarding
levels of enforcement, i.e., what resources will be devoted
to enforcement of particular types and Classes of criminal
conduct to the exclusion of other enforcement activities.

In summary, the exercise of discretion is necessary
because of limited police resources, the ambiguity and breadth
of criminal status, the informal expectations of legislatures,
and the often conflicting demands of the public (National

Advisory Committee on Criminal Justice Standards and Goals,

30

Report on the Police, 1973:22).

Making the police accountable in our society is
difficult because direct supervision is not possible. Reiss
(1970:331) indicates that the only viable solution to this
circumstance appears to be professionalization. Profes-
sionalization generally occurs when it is realized that the
minimal standards of law, as they apply to the role respon-
sibilities and authority in question, are inadequate (Aherm,
1972:179). Whenever supervision is not possible, one depends
upon the individual's internalized social values to protect
society. The internalization of a professional code of
conduct is directly related to education:

With the possible exception of recruitment,
nothing is more vital to the creation of the
democratic policeman than education. As noted
earlier, democratic attitudes and patterns of
behavior increase markedly with education.

Thus, the educated policeman is more likely

to be the democratic policeman (Berkley, 1969:74).

Hudzik (1978:70) indicates that researchers will
not be able to design studies that will validly isolate
the full range of effects of college education on police
officers in the immediate future. He claims that we are
currently without a firm picture of which effects are at-
tributable to formal education and which are caused by other
factors. Hudzik indicates that a college education covers
a variety of experiences with different impacts so that an

analysis of subconcepts is necessary to determine which types

of college experience produce differences. He points out

31

that proponents of college education for police insist that
college environment produces less authoritarian, more in-
novative and resourceful individuals capable of dealing with
problems more flexibly and with less need for supervision.

College educated officers have been found to take
less sick time, receive higher evaluations from supervisors,
and to have better response times in calls for service (Baehr
et al., 1968:7-11; Saunders, 1970:81-92; Witte, 1969:37-58).
Opponents of college education suggest that very little of a
college education has actual value for on the job performance
and that college training may well be irrelevant (Lewis, 1970:
1; Livermore, 1971:718). Stronger Opponents claim that
college educated officers are more recalcitrant in the face
of established police command structures, they are more
likely to quit within the first few years (Wilson, 1974), and
they are likely to encounter and even create disputes between
themselves and non-college educated officers. A more cautious
group of researchers takes a middle position in suggesting
that the real effect or value of college education is dif—
ficult to measure because of intervening influences or
variables, such as the nullifying effects of the police
work role, or the psychological predispositions of students
attending a college criminal justice program (Chevigny, 1969:
276-283; Weiner, 1974:317—328).

Hudzik (1978:70) suggests that all these positions

are talking past each other, even though they all point to

32

empirical evidence in support of their positions. He
claims that most of the research that has been done has
not systematically attempted to control for variables other
than formal college education. The absence of effective
controls in these areas makes cautious interpretation of
the various findings necessary. Hudzik indicates that de-
fining what we mean by "college education" in terms of
length, curriculum, and setting is extremely important.
This is Necessary because the effects of different amounts
of college education under different curricula and in various
kinds of teaching settings will indicate the relative im-
portance of these variables. This kind of specificity will
allow us to determine whether or not college education does
make a difference. Hudzik concludes that a large portion of
existing research in this area may be criticized because it
has failed to adequately control for extemporaneous variables
and for component variables. He indicates that the mere
existence of statistically significant differences among
educationally defined groups does not constitute proof that
education is the causative factor for any of the differences.
Hudzik advises that limits should be placed on interpreting
findings of differences among educationally defined groups.
Performance and background characteristics

In this section the researcher will consider studies
that have attempted in a scientific or systematic manner to

examine the relationships between exposure to certain variables

33

and actual police performance and attitudes.

A study by Levy (1967:50) used biographical data
from personnel files and found a significant difference
between police officers remaining on the job and those who
had left police work. Officers remaining on the job had the
greatest amount of tenure on previous jobs, were the oldest
at time of appointment, and were most likely to have been
exposed to police courses but had the least amount of edu-
cation. Officers who left police work were most likely to
have been fired from previous jobs, were younger at the time
of appointment, had the highest level of education, had the
most vehicle code violations, and the most marriages among
married men.

Smith et al. (1968:132) analyzed the differences
in authoritarianism between groups of men who attended college
and those who did not. Highly significant differences were
found to exist between some of the groups: "Police who
are attracted to college are significantly less authoritarian
than police who are not impelled to attend college."

From a study that involved a national sample of
4,672 policemen, Saunders (1970:89-92) concluded that there
were significant differences between college and non—college
officers in the perception of their role, and in approaches
to the concepts of justice and law. For example, the lower
the education level, the greater the tendency to View the law

as fixed.

34

Reiss (1971:45-47) reported on a study that made
observations on 5,360 mobilizations of the police. Most
of the mobilizations (81%) originated with citizens tele-
phoning the police for service. Twenty—eight percent failed
to produce any transaction with citizens while 14 percent
originated on the initiative of the police and five percent
when a citizen mobilized the police in a field setting.

These observational studies of police activity
indicate that the patrolman usually has sketchy and pos-
sibly misleading information to act upon. He enters a
variety of social stages, encounters the actors, determines
their roles, and figures out the "plot" and makes judgments
as to what has occurred and what to do. Often the fate of
the actors in such cases may reside with the police. In
police work, the officer is usually confronted with a dual
set of clients--those who call the police and those who
are to be "policed." In most situations the police officer
must establish authority because unlike other professionals
the clients do not automatically accept him as an expert.
The officer is dependent upon the clients and their audience
for information and social support. He must assert himself
and make judgments based upon reasonable expectations and
reciprocal obligations that are attached to the clients and
the situation.

Cohen and Chaiken (1972) conducted a study that

related background CharaCtEIiStiCSMwith subsequent performance.

35

This study contained a sample of 1,915 New York City police
officers, appointed to the force in 1957. Their performance
was evaluated through 1968 by using "only quantifiable
measures of background and performance, of a type commonly
maintained in personnel files by police departments" (Cohen
and Chaiken, 1972:4-6). The findings indicated that the
following background characteristics were not related "in
important ways" to performance measures used:

Civil service exam scores; I.Q.; arrest for a

petty crime; military service; military com-

mendations; father's occupation; number of

residences; aspects of early family respon-

sibility, including marital status, number

of children, and debts; reported history of

psychological disorder; place of residence;

and number of summonses.

Although not significant, the strongest relation-
ship to later performance was derived from the variables that
reflected the subject's primary behavior and experience over
a period of time. These included employment, military
disciplinary actions, repeated appearances in civil court,
education, and performance in the recruit academy and during
the probationary period.

In the study of a midwestern sheriff's department
(Hudzik, 1978:71-75) administered a survey questionnaire to
195 members of the department's five major divisions with
380 questionnaires returned. The data were analyzed to
determine whether differences occur among the educationally

defined groups. The findings of the study indicated that

the more highly educated groups tended to show less job

36

satisfaction and tended to rate departmental effectiveness
lower than do the less educated groups. It is also important
to note that significant differences were found between the
"associate of art holders" group and the "bachelors degree
holders" group. These differences were in several instances
greater than the differences occurring between those with no
college education compared with those with some college
education. Hudzik concluded that these generalizations are
indicators of the possibility that college education and
particularly different types of college education will effect
the views and attitudes of individuals.

Leadership traits and characteristics

The researcher's purpose in this section of the
review is to bring together the empirical findings and
opinions of individuals with experience and knowledge in
group dynamics, leadership, and supervisory methods. Most
of these researchers have drawn conclusions based on their
inquiries and have taken a position on the necessity or
desirability of certain elements that increase the probabili-
ty of effective leadership.

The literature on leadership indicates that many
organizations are continually searching for persons who have
the necessary ability to enable them to lead effectively.
There seems to be a scarcity of people who are willing to
assume significant leadership roles and who are capable of

commitment to them. Barnard (1938) identified these

37

leadership concerns in the late 1930's while the early
schools of thought in organizational theory reveal the same
concern.

According to Terry (1960:493), "Leadership is the
activity of influencing people to strive willingly for
group objectives." Tannenbaum et al. (1959:24—25) defined
leadership as "interpersonal influence exercised in a
situation and directed, through the communication process,
toward the attainment of a specialized goal or goals."
Koontz and O'Donnell (1959:435) state that "leadership is
influencing people to follow in the achievement of a common
goal."

A review of these writers suggests that most of
them agree that leadership is the process of influencing the
activities of an individual or a group in efforts toward
goal achievement in a given situation. From this definition
of leadership, it follows that the leadership process is a
function of the leader, the follower, and other situational
variables.

Katz and Kahn (1966:301) indicate that the term
"leadership" has three major meanings: (1) an attribute of
a position, (2) a characteristic of a person, and (3) a
category of behavior. The three meanings are ways of recog-
nizing that the influence potential of leaders may be related
to different qualities or characteristics.

A study by Hoffman and Maier (1967:172-182)

38

demonstrated that an individual who is put into a leadership
position has greater leverage when it comes to power and
influence than the position of any other member of the group.
Leaders are expected to try to influence behavior and

their attempts to influence consist of role behaviors that

are attached to the position of leader. Subordinates expect
to be influenced by the leader and will follow this direction.

Leaders perform other roles than that of influencing
the members of their group. They communicate with other
existing groups on behalf of their own group; they serve as
a channel of information and they help meet some of the de-
pendency needs of group members who need a source of reas—
surance. A leader's ability or power to influence the be-
havior of others varies with prestige or status. The degree
to which his or her actions are regarded as significant,
relevant, and important by the group members shape the
controlling actions.

Fiedler (1970:1-14) reviewed the data from three
experiments and observations of eleven sets of task group
supervisors in an attempt to find evidence that time spent
in a leadership capacity had a relationship to effectiveness
as indicated by the performance of the groups supervised.
Although time on the job was correlated positively with
effectiveness in some types of situations, it was correlated
negatively in others. The overall median correlation between

leader—experience and group effectiveness was —.12 which,

39

while not disproving the relationship, certainly indicates
that experience is not as important to effectiveness as had
been expected.

Mann (1959:241-270), in a survey of personality
traits on leadership, noted that intelligence was the charac—
teristic found to be most commonly associated with leadership.
Kiessling and Kalish (1961:359-365) used an assessment proce—
dure known as "leaderless group discussion" technique in
which group members were observed and scored on behavior that
aided or facilitated the functioning of the group. In this
rating of natural leadership, the authors found a positive
correlation (.35) between leader ratings and scores made on
standard intelligence tests. In similar research by Lindgren
(1973:389) a correlation of .41 for males and .38 for females
was found between leadership potential scores and the overall
college grade-point average of participants.

The Ohio State Leadership Studies were initiated
in 1945 by the Bureau of Business Research to identify the
dimensions of leadership behavior. One of these studies was
conducted at the International Harvester Company and focused
on supervisory effectiveness. The foreman position was
selected as the leader-position since it was felt that the
attitudes and behavior of supervisors at this level would
have maximum impact on morale, worker satisfaction, and
production. Two patterns of supervisory leadership were

explored: (1) consideration and (2) structure initiation.

40

Consideration refers to behavior that is indicative of
friendship, mutual trust, respect, and warmth in the re—
lationship between the leader and the members of the staff.
Initiating structure or task behavior is the leader's behavior
in delineating the relationship between him or herself and
members of the work group and in attempting to establish well
defined patterns of organization, channels of communication,
and methods of procedure. Stogdill and Coons (1957) indi-
cated that although the two dimensions appear to be opposite
they are in fact independent. The researchers found that the
foremen worked in two kinds of situations. Foremen on pro-
duction lines, where they were required to meet schedules,
were more oriented toward structure initiation and they
tended to work for supervisors who also favored structure
initiation. In the other job situation foremen were not
involved in direct production, but worked in stores, inspec-
tion, and maintenance. Here the scores were higher on con—
sideration and lower on structure initiation. Most workers
tended to prefer foremen who rated high in consideration and
low on structure initiation. Further research by Halpin
(1959:79) showed that effective leadership behavior is
characterized by high performance in both initiating struc-
ture and consideration while ineffective leadership is low
on both dimensions.

Likert (1961:7) studied management by high pro-

ducing managers and found that managers who focused on the

41

human aspects of their subordinates' problems and on building
an effective work group with high performance goals had the
best records for high production. These were termed
"employee—centered" supervisors which stands in contrast

to "job—centered" supervision. The implications of Likert's
study are that the ideal, productive leadership behavior is
employee—centered or democratic management.

Many leadership models have been developed for
exploratory studies. A Tri—Dimensional Leader Effectiveness
Model was used in research conducted by Hersey and Blanchard
(1977:103). The researchers developed four basic leader
behavior categories that depict different leadership styles:
(1) high task, low relationship; (2) high task, high relation—
ship; (3) high relationshp, low task; and (4) low relation—
ship, low task. Each leadership style is the behavioral
pattern a person exhibits when attempting to influence activ-
ities of others as perceived by those others. The leaders
"self-perception" may be quite different from the subordi—
nate's perception. An individual's leadership style is made
up from a combination of task behavior and/or relationship
behavior. Task Behavior is defined as the extent to which
leaders are likely to organize and define the roles of the
members of their group (followers); to explain what activ-
ities each is to do and when, where, and how tasks are to
be accomplished; characterized by endeavoring to establish

well-defined patterns of organization, channels of

42

communication, and ways of getting jobs accomplished.
Relationship Behavior is the extent to which leaders are
likely to maintain personal relationships between them-
selves and members of their group (followers) by opening
up channels of communication, providing socioemotional
support, "psychological strokes," and facilitating behaviors
(Hersey and Blanchard, 1977:103).

The Tri-Dimensional Model indicates that an
important skill for leaders is to know how to diagnose
the environment. The environment consists of the leader,
follower(s), superior(s), associates, organization(s), and
job demands. This list is not all-inclusive; the environ-
ment may have other situational variables that are unique
to it as well as an external environment that has an impact
on it. The environment can be viewed as having two main
components: (1) style, and (2) expectations. Leadership
style is the consistent behavior patterns that the leader
uses when working with and through other people as perceived
by those other people. Expectations are the perceptions of
appropriate behavior for one's own role or position or one's
perceptions of the roles of others within the organization.
In other words, the expectations that individuals hold define
for them what they should do under various circumstances
in their particular job, and how they think others--superiors,
peers, and subordinates--should behave in relation to their

position. Leadership style is an important element in a

43

leadership position; it is develOped over time from
experience, education, and training.

Fiedler (1967:9-15) developed the Leadership
Contingency Model, in which he cites three variables that
determine whether a situation is favorable to leaders:

(1) leader-member relations-—their personal relations

with the members of their group; (2) position power--the
power and authority that their position provides; and (3)
task structure-—the degree of structure (routine vs.
challenging) in the task that the group has been assigned
to perform. The relative amount of these variables that
Fiedler recommends can be expressed in task or relationship
terms; each situation tends to favor either a task-oriented
or a relationship-oriented leader.

Gellerman (1963:265) views the leader as a facil—
itator who attempts to accomplish an integration of in—
dividual, group, and agency goals. The usual result of an
interaction between management and subordinate goals is a
compromise; actual performance is the outcome of this process.

The hope is to create an atmosphere in which one
of two things occurs. The individuals in the agency either
perceive their goals as being the same as the goals of the
agency or, although different, see their own goals being
satisfied as a direct result of working for the goals of the
agency. The closer the individual's goals and objectives to

the agency's goals, the greater the performance. Morale

44

and performance suffer when managers and workers see their
goals conflicting with the organization. Effective leaders
bridge the gap by creating loyalty to themselves among their
followers. They do this by being an influential spokesperson
for them. By communicating the agencies' goals and by as-
sociating the acceptance of these goals with accomplishment
of their own need satisfaction.

Klotter (1971:69) implies that the leader is a
role model for subordinates because they are the most visible
members of the group and because their concern with the group
goals causes them to make special efforts to see that members
learn the behavioral norms that contribute to the group.
Klotter indicates that learning is the process of acquiring
new knowledge, skills, techniques, and appreciation which
will enable the individual to do something that s/he could
not do before. In applying this definition to police work,
it becomes obvious that this learning is an ongoing, active
process. When the sergeant observes a patrol officer making
an arrest and points out to him several things that may en-
danger his life if repeated in another arrest situation, the
new knowledge, technique, and appreciation of this instruction
are active.

Carey (1975:283) explains that action initiated by
the responsible head to bring subordinates into the picture
on matters of mutual concern is not a sharing of prerogatives

of authority; rather it is an extension of the opportunity

45

of participation in the development of points of view and
the assembly of facts upon which decisions are made.

When comparing the performance of groups headed
by participatory leaders and those headed by non-participa-
tory leaders, Preston and Heintz (1949) found that partici—
patory leaders were more effective in getting group con-
sensus than were non—participatory leaders. Participatory
leaders were also more able to bring about changes in the
attitudes of the group members themselves, they were also
more pleased with their work, more inclined to find as—
signments interesting, and more likely to regard themselves
as effective workers.

The classical models of organization have in—
fluenced the police view of leadership as authoritarian
in nature. Although the human relation approach to or-
ganization has had impact on organizational relationships,
the "position" authority that is conferred by the formal
organization to control the actions of its members pre-
dominates the type of relationships between superior and
subordinates. The use of military ranks and the general
perception that higher rank has the authority to control
encourages a hierarchical orientation.

Stress and the policeman

 

The concept of stress was begun and developed by
Selye, as a medical student in Vienna in 1929. Selye's

research indicates that response to a change takes the form

46

of a three part pattern. The first reaction is alarm,

then resistance, and finally exhaustion. Selye concluded
that the key to dealing with human stress is to utilize the
brain's ability to rationalize along with the cognative
process of looking down the road or preparing ones self

to deal with the future (Selye, 1979:7—8).

Beecher (1978:16-18), in a study of reactions to
serious and painful injuries, observed that soldiers during
World War II were frequently jovial, smiling, and talking
with their doctors while civilians with similar injuries and
pain were often irritable and accusatory. Beecher inter-
preted this variance as a function of relativity. For
example, the soldiers were glad to be alive and in the care
of American doctors while the civilians comparison base was
much different. They had been more comfortable and happy
prior to their admittance to the hospital and now they were
worse off than they had perceived themselves before the in-
jury.

Beecher (1978:16-18) concluded that despite similar
physical conditions, the general response pattern was widely
deviant and this was due to the individual's expectations and
mental processing of the circumstances.

Friedman and Roseman (1974:1-5) found that the con—
cept of type A versus type B behavior and the effects of
stress on each type of person are related to the individual's

perception and expectations of circumstances. In brief, they

47

classified type A behavior as found in persons who were
consistently hurrying, incumbering themselves with excessive
deadlines, sitting on the edge of their chairs, and essen—
tially fighting themselves. In contrast, type B behavior

is more relaxed, appreciative of life's smaller treasures,
and is found in people who operate on an internal time clock
instead of an external, artificially imposed one. The
evidence overwhelmingly concludes that type A people suffer
from more psychological and other physical difficulties than
type B people.

Glass (1976:53), in a study of responses by type
A versus type B people, analyzed the individual's control
over annoying and stressful environment. It was found that
type A people become very frustrated when they are unable
to control their environment; type A peOple were found to
be more personally threatened then type B's by stress im-
posed by outside forces.

Anderson (1977:446), in a similar study, categorized
subjects as externals and internals which closely resembled
type A and B personalities. He defined internals as those
individuals who assume personal responsibility for their
performance, assume they can change their environment and
who, by acting upon these assumptions, tend to have in—
creased motivation toward task achievement. Conversely,
externals perceive their circumstances as a function of

fate, other people are viewed as the decision-makers, and

48

they are only reactors. Anderson's (1977) findings were
(1) externals perceive greater stress than the internals
in similar situations; (2) when experiencing stress, ex-
ternals respond with greater defensiveness and less task
achieving behavior; and (3) the task oriented c0ping be—
havior of the internals is associated with more successful
solutions of problems created by the stressful event.
Anderson indicated that the individual's past experiences
and successful performance effect the perception of where
the control in life is located.

Wolk and Bloom (1978:278-298) found that the
individual's orientation is vital to task success. Re-
searchers have found that when imposing environmental stress
(defined as noisy disturbances, annoying demands, and un-
expected interruptions) the internally oriented individual's
belief in the ability to control the environment caused them
to assert more effort than the externally oriented individual.
In summary, certain people adapt constructively under stress
by perceiving their performance level and focussing on per-
sonal control. The stronger the internal reward system is
for achieving goal completion, the greater the probability
of success. Those persons who were found to be less adaptive
under stress Seem to be perceiving the situation as threat-
ening to their ego in contrast to challenging their abilities.
Effective COping with stress in an organizational setting

seems to be a requirement for the policeman. It requires

49

that the individual learn to retain as many options as
possible while evaluating a situation. Methods for stress
adaptation and conflict resolution are similar in that the
best action is remaining‘versatile- The individual should not
allow him or herself to become locked into any pattern, either
prematurely or as a matter of course. In environmental diag-
nosis, there are four factors which should be considered:

(1) type of personal interactions; (2) issues at stake; (3)
type of stressors; and (4) environment or climate.

Levinson (1975:50-51) has developed four ways to
reduce anxiety on the job: (1) utilize participative manage—
ment because it will serve to lower hostility and reduce
rebellion among subordinates; (2) make the goal a collective
goal which will allow people to see how they will benefit by
cooperating and will reduce destructive competition; (3)
maintain contact with subordinates and in this way keep
abreast of employees' concerns; and (4) provide channels
for regular exchange on a day-to-day basis so that feedback
is available.

In an article by Selye (1979:7—8) it is indicated
that the typical stressors inherent in police work are the
shift work, long working hours, constant fear and anticipa-
tion of death, actual confrontation with injury and violence
as well as prejudice, suspicion, and hostility by the public
at large. These factors invariably cause dissolution and

disappointment with the job. Selye indicates that researchers

50
have for a long time been aware of physical and mental strain,
the relationships between bodily and mental reactions, and
the importance of defense—adaptive responses. Patrolmen
learn What it feels like to be keyed up by nervous tension.
While it can prepare them for peak accomplishment, the
tingling sensations and jitteriness of being too keyed up
can impair their work and even prevent rest. Selye asserts
that for the policeman the most important stressors are
emotional. This is because the stressor effects depend not
so much upon what we do or what happens to us, but on the
way we take it. He indicates that stress is usually a
matter of perception and the body can be instructed to react
at a proper level by educating the mind.

Caretti and Green (1979:15—16) indicate that the
psychological problems of police officers are a management
problem as well as a serious personal problem for the officer
who is affected. The researchers feel that a more concerted
effort is needed to identify, assist, and support the officer
when professional psychological assistance is needed.
Management must strive to improve psychological services
to police officers through better communication, better
education, and a.more enlightened attitude toward the
officer experiencing severe trauma. Caretti and Green
indicate that performance is the key factor which the police
administrator must focus on in recognizing the early warning

signs of emotional upset.

51

It would be most useful if police agencies provide
officers with some form of education and training to recognize
the symptoms of stress and understand its ultimate effect.
The agency must create a climate and a mood where officers
will not be ashamed or afraid to seek professional help
when psychological distress occurs.

An article by Axelberd and Valle (1979:13-14) points
out a new training approach to police stress management. The
training involves helping the officers learn to cope with
their own stress and personal crisis in a healthy and pro-
ductive manner. The authors indicate that this training
is especially relevant if the present trend of utilizing
police officers as professional mental health agents is
to remain feasible. They argue that it is naive to expect
officers, who are often under great stress themselves, to
intervene effectively into someone else's crisis. The
authors also indicate that the need for stress control
programs in the police population is evident by "diseases
of adaptation." Axelberd and Valle found that police
statistics indicate that officers suffer an unusually high
amount of divorce, alcoholism, coronary problems, ulcers,
headaches, suicide, and emotional problems. The sources
of stress that officers have to deal with are diverse and
often include hostile police—community relations, police
bureaucracy, shift work, and role ambiguity. The authors

point out thatlfiufifig occupational hazards affect the

52

emotional and physical well—being of the officer and his
ability to do the job effectively. They are also a source
of financial burden to the police organization. The article
shows an innovative approach to stress control that is being
conducted at the city of Miami police department training
center where three areas are focussed upon: (1) nutrition;
(2) phySical fitness; and (3) psychological well-being and
methods of recognizing and controlling stress.

A study by Danto (1978:32-40) on police suicide
indicates that the police system does not Operate suffi—
ciently on personal levels. Danto recommends that appli-
cant officers should be screened using psychological tests
such as the M.M.P.I. (Minn. Multiphasic Personality Inven-
tory). Danto also recommends guidelines for police ad—
ministrators that would indicate early warning signs for
emotional upset. A final recommendation by Danto refers
to the suggestion that each police department should hire
a trained mental health specialist whose role it is to
assist police officers in coping with the stress of work.

A study by Kroes and Gould (1979:9-10) consisted
of clinical psychological interviews. As part of the evalu-
ation of each police patient, an extensive report was
made detailing the pressures (or lack of) in the individual's
life. Three major stressors stand out: (1) lack of adminis-
trative backing and support including the relationship and

rapport between patrolmen and their administrator; (2) line

53

of duty/crisis situation-—policemen are indeed bothered by
the tragedies they see; and (3) emotional reaction to injury.
Long (1978), in a lecture at Hillsdale College,
indicated that certain types of stresses are necessary,
inevitable, and life enhancing while other kinds of stresses
are unnecessary, inappropriate, and life diminishing. He
stated that each of us must find out what responses and
behaviors are most effective in helping to handle or cope
with stress. Long concluded that, basically, there are three
sources of stress: (1) stress from authority that is exer-
cised on others or from others; (2) stress from the system
or organization; and (3) stress from yourself that is derived
from your past, present, or anticipated future.

Implications of the Literature
for the Study

 

 

When reviewing the literature and research on the
police and the agency, the most relevant studies have been
discussed in order to focus on areas of importance for this
study. Two qualifications need to be made regarding the
literature review: (1) very little of the data reported on
leadership and supervision dealt specifically with the police
and the agency; and (2) due to the paucity of the data content
a corresponding theory could not be developed to predict or
explain.

It was therefore necessary to divide the review
of literature into the areas that fit closest to the variables

used in this study: education, performance and background,

54

leadership traits, and stress.

Several studies have influenced the design and
analysis of this study, and have guided the theoretical base
and assumptions formed in it. Education, experience, and
age have traditionally been used as measures for occupational
"fit" and advancement. It is assumed that the exposure to
literature and various situational involvement will give
the individual a background of information from which further
judgments, decisions, and actions can be based. Similarly,

a person's age, to some degree, carries with it certain ex-
pectations of appropriateness in judgments, decisions, and
actions. The close proximity of variables like experience,
age, and education, as an influence in the social and personal
values of officers, made their inclusion and examination in
this study relevant.

The main issues that were exhibited in the education
and role diversity research review have been used to guide
the exploration and analysis of data in this study. This
is due to the importance of education as a primary variable
in the study and the acknowledgement of role diversity as
a primary cause of role conflict and occupational stress for
the patrolman. Because the problem addressed in this study
is one of role conflict and stress; an objective is to iden-
tify variables that reduce conflict and stress. Consensus
is viewed as an indicator of this because it implies shared

understanding and agreement.

55

Cottrell (1965:39) was one of the first
sociologists to recognize the theoretical utility of
treating role consensus in this way. In a paper concerned
with the individual's adjustment, Cottrell (1942:617-620)
presented a series of hypotheses that viewed role adjust-
ment as a function of consensus variables. He stated that
role adjustment is in part dependent upon the consistency
with which others in the individual's life situation ex-
hibit the response called for in his or her own role.
Cottrell recognizes role consensus as a useful variable in
the analysis of social behavior.

An examination of Parsons' (1965:39—40) definitions
of social systems indicates that he assumes consensus on the
evaluative standards of a group is beneficial and necessary
to the continuation of the group. Parsons states that
stability of interaction depends on the condition that
particular acts by both sides be orientated to common
standards since only, in terms of such standards, is order
in either the communication or the motivational context
possible. Parsons (1951:37-39) recognizes consensus as
a variable but also the importance of the theoretical
linkage between the evaluative standards of groups, or
large systems, in which they are involved and the degree
of internalization in the individual.

Cottrell (1965:41) and Parsons (1965:41) suggest

that consensus on the role definitions are probably related

56

in a positive and linear manner to the stability of the
social system and to personal gratification.

In a review of psychological factors involved
in group phenomena, Riecken and Homans (1954:788) indicate
that the degree of consensus in a group may depend on the
members' similarity in cultural and social backgrounds,
and also on the length of time that the members have been
in interaction with one another. They indicate that the
norms of members probably become more similar in time,
but that there are no empirical studies of this relation—
ship. The two properties--length of interaction among
members and the homogeneity in cultural and social back-
grounds-~are examined in the variables of education, age,
experience, years in position, and military service in this
study. These variables can be categorized in two areas of
inquiry: (1) education and military experience can be
viewed as homogeneity in culture and social background; (2)
age, experience, and years in position can be viewed as the
length of interaction.

In this study, the key concept and dependent
variable is executive professional leadership which Gross
et a1. (1961:22) define as "the efforts of an executive of
a profeSsionally staffed organization to conform to a
definition of his role that stresses his obligation to
improve the quality of staff performance." The definition

implies certain specifications for this study that help to

57

differentiate between the types of leadership research
that are applicable.

The first specification is that this study will
focus on the behavior exhibited by the formally designated
executive of a police organization—-the sergeant. This is
important to note since many studies of leadership have
references to informal rather than formal leaders of groups.
The second specification of this study is that the formal
leaders under study are executives of professionally staffed
organizations. A professionally staffed organization is
one whose core activities are carried out by personnel who
have completed specialized training and who have been judged
to possess at least a minimum competency to perform the
organizational tasks in an essentially autonomous manner.
The police agency is such an organization since it is staffed
with patrolmen who have been certified as possessing profes-
sional qualifications required for their tasks. A third
specification concerns the conCeptualization of leadership
in this study. The area of performance that EPL represents
is the sergeant's efforts to improve the quality of staff
performance. This area of leadership is referred to as
effectiveness.

Summary

Chapter II contained a review of the literature

and research which included sections on (a) education and

role diversity, (b) performance and background characteristics,

58

(c) leadership traits and characteristics, and (d) stress
and the policeman. Another important component of this
chapter is the implications of the literature for the thesis.

The section on education and role diversity
presented the opinions and positions that are held regarding
education for the police by individuals with experience and
knowledge in criminal justice, higher education, and related
fields. The need for higher education is based on two
factors: (1) changing social norms and values, and (2)
the role diversity of the patrolman. Within these areas
the autonomy of police work is explored. The literature
suggested that the patrolman i551 unique occupational
position which can not be directly supervised. Also, while
working alone the patrolman encounters many situations in
which he cannot immediately confer with a supervisor before
acting. Another factor of importance is the use of dis-
cretion by the patrolman. The application of the authority
and power vested in the role of a police officer offers a
strong argument for higher education. The role diversity
involved in the maintenance of order and the enforcement of
law requires the ability to assess and evaluate a situation
and to apply the appropriate use of human relations/social
counseling if order maintenance is the problem or reactive
action and arrest if enforcement is the problem.

The section on performance and background charac-

teristics Contained a review of studies involving or related

59

to age, education, and experience. In general, the background
variables of police officers have been evaluated in many
studies. Over time, it has been acknowledged that the

police officer as an authority figure possesses within his
discretion the power to influence behavior by invoking a

wide variety of actions. Background variables have for

this reason been viewed as indicators of present ability

and preparedness.

The third section contained studies that explore
leadership and its characteristics. In this study, leader-
Ship is viewed as a motivating, enhancing, and purposeful
activity. The importance of effective, middle-range leader-
ship is emphasized because if available it can clarify the
expectations of the agency and relate them to the personal
values of the patrolman, thereby integrating with and for
him a supportive stance upon which agency's priorities are
based. This orientation provides a frame of reference for
the decision-making involved in the diverse role activities.

The fourth section reviewed the literature on
stress and the police officer. The typical stressors are
identified. All of these authors agree that the police
officer has specific types of occupational stress that can
be recognized and diminished if the proper training is
provided and the axfixmarhas a supportive social—emotional
system for its officers.

In the final section the implications of the

6O

literature for the study are explained. The relationship
of the literature to the variables being explored is
elaborated upon. This is important to note because the
theoretical basis of this study is grounded in several
previous studies. The logical connection of these studies
and concepts derived from them is relevant to the develop-
ment of the hypotheses that will be tested. Also, speci-
fications are indicated that governed the selection of

material to be reviewed.

 

CHAPTER III

METHODOLOGY

In this chapter the researcher describes the
background of the study, the hypothesis development, the
instrumentation, the validity and reliability, item and
index construction, the collection of the data, and the
design of the analysis.

Background of the Study

The data presented in this study came from a
medium size municipal police department. It is located
near a large state university (over 30,000 students) in
a city of over 130,000 residents.

In 1976, an evaluative study of this police
department was made in which the researchers were allowed
to closely scrutinize police operations and personnel for
the purpose of identifying factors that affect the role
of the first line supervisor in police organizations. This
research (Trojanowicz, 1976) focused on the role of the
first line supervisor as perceived by the sergeants them—
selves, the officers they supervised, and the persons who
supervised the sergeants. Trojanowicz divided the officers

into five groups for the purpose of analysis: (1) patrol

61

62

officers; (2) detectives; (3) sergeants; (4) lieutenants;
and (5) command officers (captains and above). All the
officers in the department—~except three new recruits and
two sick officers-~were interviewed and filled out a
questionnaire. In addition, the researchers had an op-
portunity to be participant observers of the interactions
of officers of various ranks as they performed their
duties. ‘The study was based on a previous study by Gross
et al. (1961), which introduced the concept of executive
professional leadership (EPL). EPL is defined as "the
effort of an executive of a professionally staffed or-
ganization to conform to a definition of his role that
stresses his obligation to improve the quality of staff
performance" (Gross, 1961:22).

In the 1976 police department study, Trojanowicz
(1976) adapted the EPL concept to a new situation by ap-
plying it to a police organization. From this "parent"
study, the current patrolmen study has emerged. The
patrolmen of the police department were selected for this
study for the following reasons: (1) they compose the
largest number of officers in the department; (2) they
perform the duties that are most directly associated with
the purpose of a police agency; and (3) they are in a good
position to evaluate leadership in the agency.

The role of police sergeant was selected for

63

analysis because it is the central agency position exerting
the most direct supervision over an officer. For this
patrol officer study, it was felt that information is
needed regarding the supportive leadership ability of
police sergeants for subordinates. The method used to
obtain this information is a survey of patrolmen's per-
ceptions of their immediate supervisors' roles. This in-
dicates the expectations they hold for him and a measure

of his role performance.

Hypotheses Development

 

The questions addressed in this study involve
the exploration of the role perceptions of the police
sergeant position by patrolmen. The purpose is to deter-
mine the significant differences that can be attributed to
the three background variables of the individual officer
who is responding to the survey questionnaire. It is as-
sumed that high perceptions of the sergeant will affect
the adaptive ability of the patrolman by influencing at-
titudes, motivation, and expectations.

The first research question, more fully stated,
is: How do years of experience, education, and previous
military experience correlate with EPL? The rationale for
eXploring this question involves identifying the relation-
ship that may be attributed to the variables indicated.

If these variables are correlated with the role perceptions

of police patrolmen in a significant way, then further

64

analysis of the relevant variables can be made to determine
ways in which exposure to these variables or parts of them
can be utilized in improving the supervisory role of the
police sergeant. Because role perceptions are linked to
role expectations, the impact of social/educational
variables are important.

The relevance of this question is that the im-
pact of exposure to formal education and other primary
variables on the role perceptions of patrolmen have im-
plications for the purpose of recruitment, advancement,
implementation of training, etc. The impact of education
and social variables are important if an increase in
police officer's input is planned to keep the agency
more goal directed. Also, if a group of officers cate-
gorized by education, years of experience, and previous
military experience show a significant relationship to
a specific role perception of the sergeant position then
closer scrutiny may indicate that certain exposure may
increase or decrease the adaptability of the individual
officer. Also, it may indicate that position realignment
will increase or decrease the adaptability of the individual
officer. For example, assignment of responsibility and
authority by experience, through educational requirements.

The second research question can be stated as
follows: How does executive professional leadership (EPL)

correlate to (1) interaction facilitation; (2) support;

65

(3) work facilitation; and (4) negative goal emphasis?
This second question is an attempt to determine the type
and amount of influence that the police sergeant position
holds as perceived by patrolmen. Various categories of
interactional behavior are assessed. In this question it
is assumed that the closer the role perceptions of a po-
sition are to role expectations, the more beneficial the
position is to the patrolmen in dealing with role activities
and in accomplishing the agency's objectives.

The rationale for exploring this question is to
determine the type and amount of functional involvement
that the sergeant position has with subordinates in a
municipal police department. The relevance of this
question is grounded in the need to consider the struc-
tural advantages of utilizing the functional involvements
of the police sergeant position more effectively. This is
necessary due to the current trend toward the loosening
and/or changing of social mores and the increased value
in individual rights which are changing the role of the
police officer in contemporary America. Also, little
emphasis has been placed upon the police sergeant position
as a position of influence and as a structural or organiza-
tional point for introducing agency change even though the
research on management indicates that certain types of
leadership are more conducive to change than others

(McGregor, 1968:73-80).

66

If the role perception of the various groups
differ significantly, this could indicate some of the role
difficulties involved in the police sergeant position and
also some of the adaptive methods being used in adjusting
to conflicting expectations. Shedding light on research
question two will facilitate the comparative analysis of
research question one, the selected social/educational
variables, and how they are related to the type and amount
of functional involvement perceived in the sergeant position.
This then provides a measure of external variables that may
affect the attitudes and self-concept of the patrolman and
an internal measure of effectiveness for a central position
that may also affect the individual officer's adaptive
ability for his ambivalent occupational role.

On the basis of these assumptions and subsequent
reasoning about the matrix of social forces in operation,

a series of hypotheses will be presented and tested. They
will explore the differential role perceptions of patrol—
men and must show a .05 alpha value for retention.
Hypotheses

H1 There is a positive correlation between EPL and
the interaction facilitation of the sergeant.

H2 There is a positive correlation between EPL and
the support of the sergeant.

H3 There is a positive correlation between EPL and
the work facilitation of the sergeant.

H4 There is a negative correlation between EPL and
a negative goal emphasis of the sergeant.

H5

H6

H7

H8

H9

H10

H11

H12

H13

H14

H15

H16

67

No differences exist in the stated correlations
of H1 through H4 when controlling for years of
police experience, education, and military
experience.

There is a greater EPL score for subjects with
no years of college education than for subjects
with two years of college education.

There is a greater EPL score for subjects with no
years of college education than for subjects with
four years of college education.

There is a greater EPL score for subjects with no
years of college education than for subjects with
graduate college education.

There is a greater EPL score for subjects with two
years of college education than for subjects with
four years of college education.

There is a greater EPL score for subjects with two
years of college education than for subjects with
graduate college education.

There is a greater EPL score for subjects with four
years of college education than for subjects with
graduate college education.

There is a greater EPL score for subjects with no
military service experience than for those with
this experience.

The EPL score is higher for subjects with one
through four years of police experience than for
subjects with five through nine years of police
experience.

The EPL score is higher for subjects with one
through four years of police experience than for
subjects with ten through fourteen years of police
experience.

The EPL score is higher for subjects with one
through four years of police experience than for
Subjects with fifteen plus years of police ex-
perience.

The EPL score is higher for subjects with five
through nine years of police experience than for
subjects with ten through fourteen years of police
experience.

68

H17 The EPL score is higher for subjects with five
through nine years of police experience than for
subjects with fifteen plus years of police ex-
perience.

H18 The EPL score is higher for subjects with ten
through fourteen years of police experience than
for subjects with fifteen plus years of police
experience.

H19 The EPL score of subjects will decrease as the
years of college education increase, when con-
trolling for years of police experience and
previous military experience.

H20 There is a greater EPL score for subjects with
no military service when controlling for years
of college and years of police experience.

H21 The EPL score of subjects will decrease as the
years of police experience increase when con-
trolling for years of college education and
previous military service experience.

Instrumentation

 

The instrument used to obtain the data for this
study consisted of a questionnaire, comprising a series of
questions, indexes, and control items all of which were
originally used and developed by Gross et al. (1961). The
questionnaire is primarily composed of questions with or-
dinal categories in which the respondents' rate their
sergeant in terms of their perception (See Appendix A for
complete questionnaire). The present study is mainly con-
cerned with two types of information derived from the in-
strument: (1) a measure of professional leadership ability
(EPL); and (2) an assessment of performance in interaction
facilitation, support, work facilitation, and administrative

goal emphasis roles.

69

Special indices for this study were constructed
because few scales were available that would tap the in-
formation needed for testing the hypotheses.

Item Construction

The indices used in the study combined several
items into a composite measure. In general, the indices
are used to gauge an underlying continuum which cannot be
measured by any single item (Nye et al., 1970). Therefore,
most indices contain between three to eight items. Indices

required the respondent to select an answer from the fol-

lowing responses: 1 always
2 almost always
3 frequently
4 occasionally
5 almost never
6 never

A procedure of index construction was selected
and patterned after Waisaned and Durlack (1966:101-115),
who listed several assumptions underlying the use of this
procedure:

1. several questions designed to measure a variable
are better for the purpose than a single question;

2. the degree to which these questions correlate
with one another provides some tentative evidence
that there may be such a variable "at work in the
social world;"

3. the summed values of these inter-related items
can function as the measure of that variable; and

4. the degree to which these measurements relate
to other meaSUrements- beyond the reasonable limits
of chance--provides further basis for confidence
that a variable has been identified and that it

has some interpretative value.

7O

Factor analysis is used in this study to reduce
the data set and to be certain that EPL is one factor.
The results of the factor analysis can be found in Table
3.1.
Five factors were identified as being relevant
for the rotated factor matrix. Items which loaded .40
and above were selected for inclusion in a factor. Factor
one is executive professional leadership (EPL). Items 14,
15, 26, 30, and 38 thru 56 (except for 45 which had a loading

of .386) make up this index. Factor two is interaction

 

facilitation and items 1, 2, 3, 4, and 10 make up this index.
Support is factor three; items contributing to this index
are 12, 13, and 37. Factor four is work facilitation and
items 23, 24, and 25 comprise this index. The final factor,
five, is leader goal emphasis and is made up of three items
19, 20, and 22 (see also Appendix A for a description of

the items). These indices will be used throughout the
analysis for comparison purposes.

Validity and Reliability of the Indices
Validity '

Only items that appeared to measure the desired
dimension were included in the construction of an index.
This face validity by inspection was the initial criterion
for the retention of index items.

The items derived from the study of Gross et al.

(1961) and Trojanowicz (1976) had been subjected to intensive

71

TABLE 3.1.--Factor Analysis.

 

 

Negative

5
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FACTCR

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FACTOR

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75cc“37832653141909(5400551901978FQ.1EP77228C.4122373
001540.57 5.33.»...94......ucfél2046360,561.37909.116959920097410
1000010001111...10320650510010 00111211310000.3111011
cocoon...ooooooooooooooooooooooccoco.ooooooooooo

.821729117201661706,51.2720816932070233516093512 935

L 89......P n.16c..t8?7c. 51...: Cbt77519ué .....n303251195c ...: 05465006n 3

265775125260569846475“.1712366521363055660762..9590

9.70133943754113629r49720816271460.118603742670922

0201.5100010111211330010475133431.10101020010102001

00000000.oooooooooooooooooooooooo00000000000000.
.

nan/..chnc 041374.111acb3302106020.3816ch|.7204.7 8.621.607.3359
063353: 2 4,... 7212953124519553“FUD/125060796 96976965161
839575060259130,...“57928816“07305654654714.77662314
253640054 8091.10,.301163187357038505651543018410235
200126011205522103133110111000011103510120001120
0.0.000..OOOOOOOOOOOOOIOOIOOOOOOO00.000.00.00...

2556565952925993715758598..00064019953664264959508

82145236062887399407491704216565126680223077.6920

29.3393110928489600155200140078684384502527788391

8.048511002559790058014703902129334154. 03222982631

56.0123001401031001023001212420100000020021223112

no...ocuocoooooooouoooooooocoo-cocoooooooooooooo-
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33257927177214.573715648448118820,17O has 67230750..“45

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6507954.663723924096514.990158333195126303507186“1

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12345678911111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555
xxxxxxxXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX

71

TABLE 3.1.--Factor Analysis.

Negative

 

 

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00. 54037 55355423 .....c....¢1204,b3 CO.A..£1.D7 900.1164 rJguzmcnUUu/7410
1000010001113103).0650510010 00111211310000.3111011
cocoon...oooooooooooooooooooooo.coco.0.0.0.00...

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2.63775125260569846475417123665213630536607639590

570133943754113696.b49720816271460.118603742670922

020131000101112133001047513343110101020010102001

coo-coco.ono...oncocoon-000.....-coo-00.00.0000.
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22399c041374111F83302106205816557204756216075359
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E39575060259130645792881640730565463471477662314
253640054 809110..301163187357035805651543018410235
200126011205522103133110111000011103510120001120
000.00000oooooooocooooooooooooooo000.000.000.000

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804551100255979003H.01470390212R.334154 03222982631

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72

review in the qualitative evaluation and revision of the
wording, understanding, and intended meaning of each item.
Only those items that indicated high correlations were in-
cluded in the final instrument for the study by Gross et al.
(1961) and Trojanowicz (1976).

Content validity for theeitems is reported in
Gross et al. (1961) and was concurrently established by
Trojanowicz (1976) by subjecting each potential item from
the 1961 questionnaire to a panel of judges composed of
three professional behavioral scientists, Trojanowicz,
Moss, and Christian. To be included in an index, all
three judges had to agree that the item measured the
dimension stated. From this assessment five to ten items
were constructed for each index desired.

Reliability

 

A reliability check was made from the Gross et
al. (1961) study, in which the responses of 1303 subjects
were put through an item analysis from which a Guttman
scale for EPL was derived. It yielded a coefficient of
reproducibility of .978. In the police department study
of Trojanowicz (1976) the correlation of each item to the
total sum of all potential items in each index was computed
resulting in a item total index correlation.

For the purpose of the present study, a standard
was established that only those items showing a corrected

item total correlation between .40 and .80 were to be

73

included in any index. This resulted in the rejection of
some items even though they were statistically significant.
The lower limit of .40 was established to ensure the strength
of each index. The upper limit of .80 was established be-
cause any item reaching such a high correlation with the
total index is essentially measuring the same thing and
inclusion of it would be redundant, thus increasing the
probability of a skewed distribution.

This process of index correlation insures that
the items in the index are measuring in the same direction
along a dimension and at the same time it gives an indication
of the strength of the index.

In conjunction with the above measures, principal
component factor analysis was used to determine the pat-
terning of items, for data reduction, and for the construc-
tion of indices. Table 3.2 shows the summary of the reliabil—
ity for each index.

Summary of validity and reliability

The validity and reliability rested upon three
methods of insuring that the instrument measures what it
purported to measure. First, the items that were con-
structed were selected on the basis of face validity. That
is, did the item appear to measure the dimension stated.

The indices that were constructed in the Gross et al. (1961)
and Trojanowicz (1976) studies had been subjected to pre-tests

and indepth interviews with subjects. Second, content

TABLE 3.2.-Summary of index reliability

 

 

Neg.

Mil. Coll. Yrs Exp.

Goal
Facilit. Emphasis

Work

Interact
Facilit. Support

EPL

aoa-D
NNSD
07,6
H14 0

I II
”(D

ma-N
du-ul
N 1:")
DA 0

V V)

m-”
..Oklh
Km—I
cod 0

vua

”453‘
LON”
do):
Cit-A 0

II
VJI

0-0
Nun
.‘fu)N
Gd 0

”J:

3nd
@814
633374
a... o

'0')

final!»
N's!!!
'50:.)
dd 0

'u)

Dav-I
060

O o

H II
"III

EPL

”A“

thh
0‘00

141-40

MAC:
N'sm
N‘OM
Gd 0

II
”In

man-I
LON-v-
Nu:
.4" a

II
VJ)

Dang-I
BOND
atria
Md 0

V v‘!’

Nari
Jko
ch:
3'4 0

~I’(f)

Dav-I
DOD
O O
D o

H II
VAII

LCQIN
Nut-J
N610
v4.4 0

”In

Interact
Facilit.

MGR
O‘No
9.0::
vac-4 0

”'U)

CHAN
MNN
Nib")
1‘04 0

”VI

#45:!)
Oahu—I
d’no
Gd 0

ll
vm

Jaw-I
also
NIJO
Md 0

Va)

Jaw-I
:59
Mac:
Md 0

'u)

DAV-I
DOC,
G O
D O

u-I II
”10

Nahv-I
.1450
N09
..‘I'v-I .

VJ)

Jan-I
(“NV-l
wan-4
DH 0

II
”III

Support

74

man
"3th
M 13M
Ov-I o

vm

Nam
Isn‘t-I
mu:
Hrd o

”'11

\DAM
can”:
«In:
Q—I o
O
I II
“(A

UNI-H
ONO
LDCDD
3.4 a

Van

DAV-I

$98.4
3ND
RHOD
Mv-I 0

”VJ

CAI-4
BOND
J‘CDD
Md 0

II
will

-.Da-°
RING)
:QN
91" D

II
will

Work
Facilit.

Negative

Goal

Nah")
flfsn
first:
141-0 0

I ll
VJ)

(3-1.0
NN.s
N13")
(JG-i .

0 II
'III

3- 4
NNH‘

ll
v0:

Dav-I
can
0 c3

u-I II

$9.]!

mast-I
leo
dune!
JC‘I 0

'9J

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«ND
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Md 0

VJ)

thaw-I
6%.:
N00
dd 0

ll
v.1;

Emphasis
.Mil.

O‘afi
J‘ho
,ndJC
N?! o

I II
”.11

Mango
DNM
M'JJQ
v-Iv-I o

H
'J)

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one
D D

H II
um

Jan:
slsln
Nan!)
Clo-I o

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this“
046).?
01-4 0

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MAC:
NFC)
NON)
n'l‘ .

II
so“;

O‘ABO
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No.4
(DH 0

II
VIII

O‘AH
N‘so
”'0'?
3H 0

'J)

Dav-i
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Q Q

d Ii
VJ)

m-‘o
Ohm
Mann)
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It
am

”A9
Nos!»
Nam
Owl o

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-../I

Nam
Nhfl
than”)
dv-I 0

vi"

MAN
MINUS
NmM
Gd 0

I It
'0')

Gav-I
mum
cm:
6" o

”.41

U‘AN
v-Ikm
N'DWJ
0.4 0

VJ,

C011.

‘1‘-“
MIN-C5
U‘mD
Nd o

I II
'1!)

NAM
“Kt“
Han:
NH 0

I u
VJ)

IDA")
MI"-N
Mm")
0:4 o

“.1,

MAN
O‘k\0
D310
Hv-I o

Vt!)

MAL“
“‘NN
D110
(I‘d .

I II
VJ)

DAD
Nrsm
Owe:
VIVA 0

Yrs. Exp.

75

validity was established in previous studies by Gross et
al. (1961) and Trojanowicz (1976). In the present study,
factor analysis of items was used to assure continued
validity.

Third, the indices were then subjected to the
process of item total index correlation which requires all
the items in an index to measure along the same dimension.

Subjects and Data Collection

The present patrolmen study called for the
collection of data through the use of a survey question-
naire. A brief training session was presented in which
each patrolman was given a questionnaire which he was
asked to complete. The study also called for a review
of each patrolman's level of education, experience, age,
and military service. This information was taken from
personnel files and records that were available. Con-
fidentiality of the responses were insured during the
training session; questions about the research were also
answered at that time. Appendix A presents the complete
questionnaire. The subjects were allowed to fill out the
questionnaire during leisure time.

All questionnaires were collected within a three
day period and each was scanned for completeness and correct
marking. In constructing a method which would combine the
responses of the patrolmen in a stable and unidimensional

summary score, a form of factor scaling was used. This

76

procedure takes into account the reliability of both
questions and observations and then reduces the question—
naire from a series of items to a summary score. This
summary score can then be used as the definition of each
subject's position on the dimension under consideration.
Limitations

The present study has several limitations. First,
the data are uniquely agency bound in that each police de—
partment has its own organizational policies and social
structures that encourage or discourage supervisory styles,
officer involvement, agency involvements, and a multitude
of other individual and agency inter and intra-actions.
This means that generalization of the findings to other
agencies can be made selectively based on variables that
match those found in this agency.
I The danger of making false assumptions exists
when analyzing and interpreting the results of corre-
lational studies. The most common of these assumptions
is that a significant relationship is also a causal re-
lationship. Such a conclusion would be premature in this
study. The empirical findings will be based upon a limited
analysis of the statistical significant differences un-
covered between the various groups. No attempt will be
made to demonstrate a cause and effect relationship between
the independent and dependent variables. Rather, the aim

will be to describe the relationships that emerge.

77

Variables

 

The variables in this study fell into two broad
categories: (1) Performance Measures and (2) Background
Variables. The performance measures consisted of survey
items that were constructed into five indices:

Executive Professional Leadership (EPL)
Interaction Facilitation
Support

Work Facilitation
.Negative Goal Emphasis

mbwmg

The performance measures were selected because
they appear to be the best available indicators of the police
officer's knowledge and judgment about the sergeant position.
This conclusion was based on a review of relevant literature,
factor analysis of questions from this study, and on personal
observation.

The background variables consisted of demographic
information on the individual respondent: education, years
of police experience, and previous military experience.

These background variables were identified as being the
most relevant. It should be noted that years in position
and age are very highly correlated with years of experience;
that is, .94129 (S = .0001) for each. Other reasons for
the selection of these variables are:
1. the police department was seeking to evaluate
its own strength and weaknesses in an attempt to
improve leadership within the department. Con-
sequently, data on these variables were available

and easily accessible;

2. the underlying assumption is that EPL is a
significant indicator of position effectiveness; and

78

3. the agency was of sufficient size and
contained sufficient stratification by edu-
cation level, experience, and age to allow
one to draw conclusions about the population
with an acceptable degree of accuracy.
For the analysis of the data, the variables have
been grouped in the following manner:

Dependent Variables . . . EPL
Independent Variables . . A. Category Variables

1. years of college

2. years of police experience

3. military experience

B. Factors

1. interaction facilitation

2. support

3. work facilitation

4. negative goal emphasis
Design of the Analysis

The present study is descriptive in that it attempts
to identify significant relationships and differences between
variables. The study will provide information that can il-
luminate agency functioning by indicating how a central
agency position is perceived by subordinate officers and
how these perceptions are influential.

The choice of proper data analysis techniques is
governed by time, money, and level of conceptual under-
standing of the statistical techniques to be used, as well
as the appropriateness of the techniques in relation to the
data (Weikert, 1978:72). In this study, the purposes of the
researcher are best met by the use of a variety of statistical

tests: chi-square contingency procedures, correlation analysis

(zero—order and partials), T-tests, analysis of variance, and

79

factor analysis. These techniques provide measures of
statistical significance, strength of association, between
and within group variance, variance accounted for, constrasts
between groups, and the grouping of individuals from pre-
dictor variables. All of these procedures are essential to

a full analysis of the data. An alpha of .05 will be the
level of retention for all the hypotheses.

Contingency analysis will be used for testing
relationships between years of experience, education, and
military experience. Chi-square procedures will be used as
a test for the existence of association.

The one4way analysis of variance is a parametric
statistic which tests whether the independent samples have
come from the same or different populations. Assumptions
underlying the "F" ratio and all other interval statistics
are (1) scores were sampled at random; (2) samples were from
normal populations; (3) homogeneity of variance (homosceda-
sticity); (4) different samples were independent; (5) an
interval level of measurement has been obtained; and (6)
the hypotheses imposed for testing were true.

If the F ratio is large then one can conclude
that one of the above is false. Assumptions 1, 4, and 5
are most often met and recognized. Inferences based on the
F statistic are not seriously distorted by violations of
assumptions 2 and 3 (normality and homoscedasticity)

(Weikert, 1979:73). Therefore, most of the distortion of

80

the F statistic will ordinarily be produced by the false
hypotheses. When F is large, one is usually safe in not
retaining the hypotheses which are tested. Phillips (1966:
269) stated that:

Statistical assumptions must not be turned

into prohibitions against particular kinds

of experiments ... these assumptions should

be borne in mind ... in matching the par-

ticular experimental situation with ap-

propriate forms of analysis.

I In this data analysis, statistical conclusions

were not based solely on a significant "F." The "F"
examined the relationship between the variables. The
"F" ratio provides an overall measure of the data set
and, as Hays (1963) has indicated, a significant "F" is
a signal for further analysis.

Zero order correlation was used for initial
tests of the direction and magnitude of hypotheses. This
gave a measure of whether the hypotheses were in the pre-
dicted direction-—positive or negative and the strength Of
the relationship.

Multiple and partial correlation were used to
measure associations between the independent variables and
the dependent variables in order to control for the re-
lationship between the independent variables.

The purpose of the regression analysis is to pre-
dict; generally it is desirable to examine several predictor

variables simultaneously in light of the consideration that

their joint effect will provide a more accurate prediction

81

of the criterion variable. This strategy provides statistical
control for confounding factors (Weikert, 1978:74).

The method of analysis will proceed through the
following steps:

1. contingency analysis, chi-square will examine
the association between all the independent variables;

2. one-way analysis of variance will be used with
the resulting F to indicate differences in the as-
sociation between the dependent variables and the
independent variables;

3. T-tests will be used as contrasts with the one-
way ANOVA to determine where the differences lie.
An analysis of the contrasts will give comparisons
of the differences between the different levels of
EPL;

4. correlation analysis will give direction and

strength of relationships for zero-order and partial
correlation.

Summary

In Chapter III the researcher presented the metho-
dology of the study. This study is the "outgrowth" of the
previous leadership studies by Gross et al. (1961) and
Trojanowicz (1976). The focus is on the patrolman's role
perceptions of his first line supervisor, the sergeant.

The measure used in the study are both categorical
and quantifiable data. The categorical data consist of
demographic information that was available in existing
police personnel files. These measures made up the pre-
dictor variables that groUped the officers for comparative
analysis. Variables to be tested include: years of police

experience, education, and previous military experience.

82

The quantifiable data are the performance
measures taken from a survey form that was adapted from
a leadership study (Gross et al., 1961). Each officer
completed the survey form. The questions (see Appendix
A) focused on the sergeant position and elicited an eval-
uation of the role performance for that position. The
questions exploring the supervisory role characteristics
were categorized as: leadership, Interaction facilitation,
support, work facilitation and administrative goal emphasis.

The analysis of the data will be descriptive, in
that it attempts to identify relationships and differences
between variables. Statistical tests will include: chi-
square contingency procedures, correlation analysis, T-

tests, analysis of variance, and factor analysis.

CHAPTER IV

ANALYSIS OF THE DATA

Introduction

The analysis of the data will be presented in four
parts. In the first part, the researcher presents hypotheses
concerning the factor data set. Items which made up the
factors being tested in the individual hypotheses are pre-
sented. The Pearson Product Moment Correlation is used to
test the significance of these hypotheses.

In the second part the researcher presents a
descriptive analysis of the category data set. It offers
a general view of the perceptions and characteristics of
specific data sets by using contingency and frequency
tables. From this presentation it is hoped that the reader
will become familiar with the data set, especially where
similarities and differences exist between the variables.
In the third part the researcher deals with the testing of
individual hypotheses derived from the categorical data.
The Pearson Correlation, partial correlation, one way analysis
of variance, and analysis of covariance are used in testing
these hypotheses. For retention, all hypotheses will be

considered significant at the .05 level and always in the

83

84

predicted direction. In the fourth part, the summary,
the researcher will give a short recounting of the main
findings of the total study and presents a profile of the
patrolman through the medial response of perceptions and
characteristics of each specific category or group.
Hypotheses Concerning the Factors

Hypotheses 1 through 5 are concerned with the
relationship between EPL (Executive Professional Leader-
ship) scores and factors. To analyze this relationship
the Pearson product moment correlation coefficients are
computed for pairs of variables. The Pearson correlation
serves a dual purpose; besides indicating how well the
linear regression fits, it is a measure of association in—
dicating the strength of the linear relationship between
the two variables. Zero order correlations are produced
when no controls are made for the influence of other
variables. This statistic is used in this research when
the strength of relationship between two interval level
variables are measured.

Higher order partial correlations are used when
the researCher wants a single measure of association des-
cribing the relationship between two variables while ad-
justing for the effects of one or more additional variables.

H1 There is a positive correlation between EPL and
the interaction facilitation of the sergeant.

The patrolmen's responses to five questions

about their sergeants' interaction facilitation skills

85

in dealing with them comprised the data for testing this
hypothesis. Patrolmen were asked to report to what extent
their sergeants share with them the following interactions.

1. Gives officers the feeling that their work is
an "important" activity.

2. Gets officers to upgrade their performance.

3. Gets support from command when he makes a
decision.

4. Gives support and encouragement to formal
education.

10.1 Has constructive suggestions to offer officers

in dealing with their major problems.

It was hypothesized that there is a positive
relationship between EPL and interaction facilitation skills
of the sergeant. That is, the greater the ability of the
sergeant to communicate with patrolmen, the higher the
patrolmen's perception of him as a leader. This relation-
ship was in the predicted direction and was found to be
significant (r = .18) (S = .01). The hypothesis was there-
fore retained.

H2 There is a positive correlation between EPL and
the support of the sergeant.

To test hypothesis 2, the factor support was used.
Data upon Which the factor is based were obtained from replies
of the patrolmen to three questions about how frequently their

sergeants perform in these areas.

 

1Numbers are congruent with numbers in the
questionnaire.

86
12. Takes a strong interest in the professional
development of the officers he supervises.

13. Takes an interest in the personal welfare
of the officers he supervises.

37. Evaluates supervisees fairly.

The factor scores of the patrolmen for their
sergeants were averaged to obtain the best estimate of
his interpersonal support. The extent to which this index
measures the sergeant's relationship with his patrolmen
is tested with the EPL score.

Hypothesis 2 states that those patrolmen who rated
their sergeant high in leadership also rated them high in
giving support. This relationship was in the predicted
direction but it was not found to be significant (r = .09)
(S = .11), and the hypothesis was therefore not retained.

H3 There is a positive correlation between EPL and
good work facilitation by the sergeant.

Hypothesis 3 is tested with the factor work
facilitation which relates the degree to which the sergeant
effectively uses his patrolmen in relation to the agency's
goals. The patrolmen were asked three questions about how
frequently their sergeants perform these functions.

23. Maximizes the different skills found in his
supervisees.

24. Helps officers to understand the sources of
important problems they are facing.

25. Displays a strong interest in improving the
quality of the LPD.

87

The scale scores of the patrolmen were then
averaged to obtain the best estimate of the work facili-
tation skills of the sergeant.

Hypothesis 3 posits that those patrolmen who per-
ceived their sergeant as high in leadership would also per—
ceive him as a good work facilitator of the agencies goals.
This relationship was in the predicted direction but was
not found to be significant (r = .043) (S = .28), and the
hypothesis was therefore not retained.

H4 There is a negative correlation between EPL and
negative goal emphasis by the sergeant.

Hypothesis 4 was based on the responses of the
patrolmen to three questions. Patrolmen were asked: How
frequently does your sergeant

19. Require officers to engage in unnecessary paper
work.

20. Display inconsistency in decision making.

22. Reprimand officers whose ideas disagree with-
his own.

Again, the factor scores of the patrolmen were
averaged to obtain the best estimate of the sergeant's
negative goal emphasis.

Hypothesis 4 states that those patrolmen who view
their sergeant as high in leadership ability will rate him
low in negative goal emphasis. That is, if a sergeant lacks
clarity in his leadership roles he will be rated low in EPL.

This relationship was in the predicted direction but was

88

not found to be significant (r = .02) (S = .41), and the
hypothesis was not retained.

H5 No differences exist in the stated correlations
of H1 through H4 when controlling for years of
police experience, education, and military
experience.

Hypothesis 5 indicates that no differences will
exist in the stated relationships of H1 through H4 when
controlling for the category variables of years of ex-
perience, years of college, and military service. Partial
correlations were performed using these variables and four
factors: (1) interaction facilitation; (2) support; (3)
work facilitation; and (4) negative goal emphasis. When
controlling for military service the outcome produced sig—
nificance for the interaction facilitation factor (r = .17)
(S = .01). Although the remaining factors were in the pre—
dicted direction, they were not significant at the required
level. Support (r = .08) (S = .11) was not significant;
work facilitation (r = .04) (S = .27) was not significant;
negative goal emphasis (r = .01) (S = .42) was not signifi-
cant. From these data it is concluded that when controlling
for military service the interaction facilitation factor
continues to be the only one with a significant relationship
to EPL.

When controlling for years of college, the data

yielded the following outcomes: interaction facilitation

(r = .17) (S = .01) was significant; support (r = .08)

89

(S = .11) was not significant; work facilitation (r = .04)
(S = .29) was not significant; negative goal emphasis (r =
.02) (S = .41) was not significant. This data indicates

that when controlling for years of college the EPL score
is significantly related to the interaction facilitation
skill factor. While the other remaining factors are re-
lated to the EPL score, the relationship is not strong
enough to be significant.

When controlling for years of experience, the
data indicates the following outcomes: interaction facili-

tation skill (r = .17) (S = .01) was significant; support

(r = .08) (S = .14) was not significant; work facilitation
(r = .04) (S = .26) was not significant; negative goal em-
phasis (r = .01) (S = .47) was not significant. From the

above data it is indicated that the interaction facilitation
skill factor is the only significant relationship with EPL
when controlling for years of experience.

Hypothesis 5 was retained on the basis of data
from partial correlations that indicated no change from
the findings of the Pearson correlation that were performed
from H1 through H4.

Summary of findings for hypotheses
concerning factor data

The analysis of the factor data set has as main

findings:

9O

1. There is a positive and significant relationship
between EPL and the interaction facilitation
skills of the sergeant.

2. There is a positive but nonsignificant relation—
Ship between EPL and the support of the sergeant.

3. There is a positive but nonsignificant relation—
ship between EPL and the work facilitation of
the sergeant.

4. There is a negative but nonsignificant relation—
ship between EPL and the negative goal emphasis
,of the sergeant.

5. The relationship of the factor data set to EPL
remains constant regardless of years of ex-
perience, years of education, or military ser-
vice.

The EPL score and the interaction facilitation
skill factor are positive with a significant relationship.

The remaining three factors are nonsignificant but they

are positively related to the EPL score.

Descriptive Presentation of the
Categorical Data Set

 

Each category is descriptively analyzed. This
particular section includes years of college, years of
military service, years of experience, and a total sum—
mary that highlights the interaction effects of these
three variables.

Years of college are analyzed as a variable
using frequency tables that indicate the distributions
shown in Table 4.1. A natural grouping of subjects oc-
curred and was used in the comparing and contrasting of
groups. The subjects with no college numbered 23 which

represents 12.2 percent of the population. The next

91

grouping was at the two years of college level where there
were 85 subjects, which represents 45 percent of the pOpu-
lation. The next cluster of subjects is at the four years
of college level with 72 subjects at 38 percent of the
population. The group with graduate credits, in which
there are nine subjects, represents 4.8 percent of the
total population. The mean was 98.6 quarter hour credits;

the median was 90.2 and the standard deviation was 61.7.

TABLE 4.1.--EPL score by educational group.

 

 

Quarter hour

 

credits of Number of

college Group Respondents % EPL Mean
None 1 23 12.2 3.46
1-90 2 85 45.0 3.96
90-180 3 72 38.0 3.47
Graduate 4 9 4.8 3.06
Totals 189 100.0 3.49

 

The descriptive data for years of college as
illustrated in Table 4.1 indicate the following facts.
The EPL score represents the rating of leadership ability
for sergeants by patrolmen. Group four (Graduate) and one
(None) are the smallest numerically and at the opposite

ends of the continuum. As such, one might expect the

92

greatest difference between these groups. However, this
is not the case and elaboration on this relationship may
indicate the reasons. Group two (1-90 credits) is the
largest numerically and also has the highest EPL mean
score. Further analysis is necessary to determine the
reason for this and will be discussed later in this
section. Group three (90-180) is a large group with

72 subjects but its EPL mean score is similar to group
one with no college. This outcome is unexpected and

the reason for it will be explored in the hypotheses
that have been developed to test these relationships.
Also, there is a strongindication of interaction among
variables that will be explored. Group four (Graduate)
has the lowest EPL mean score which was expected, but
further elaboration is necessary to explain why this has
occurred.

Military service is analyzed through frequency
tables that were run on the patrolmen population consisting
of 189 subjects. In Table 4.2 the findings for this cate-
gory are presented. Listed are the number of patrolmen in
relation to military service. In the first group the
number is 99 subjects representing 52.4 percent while the
second group contains 90 subjects representing 47.6 per-
cent of the total sample.

The descriptive data for military service ex-

perience as illustrated in Table 4.2 indicate the following

93

TABLE 4.2.——EPL score by military service group.

 

 

 

Military Number of

Service Respondents % EPL Mean
with 99 52.3 3.45
without ' 90 47.7 3.90
Totals 189 100.0 3.67

 

facts. The military service group has 99 subjects with a
lower EPL mean score (3.45) than that of the no group
(3.90). The difference while nonsignificant is in the
predicted direction. These groups appear to be fairly
equal on a numerical basis but when confounded by the
other categorical variables of years of college and ex-
perience they may be widely dispersed. This will be
explored in the hypotheses that were developed and in

the comparative analysis of the descriptive data.

Years of experience are analyzed as a variable
using frequency tables to describe how the groups were
created and the distribution determined. Years of ex-
perience in Table 4.3 indicate the four groupings that
were used. In the first group (1—4 years), there were
69 subjects, 36.5 percent. In the second group (5-9 years),
there were 80 subjects or 42.3 percent. Throughout the

third group (10-14 years) there were 25 subjects or 13.2

94

percent. In the fourth group (15 or more years), there
were 15 subjects, 8 percent of the population. The
medium years of experience was 6.4, while the mean was

7.1 years with a standard deviation of 5.0.

TABLE 4.3.-—EPL score by experience group

 

 

Years of Number of

 

Experience Group Respondents % EPL Mean
1—4 1 69 36.5 4.18
5-9 2 80 42.3 3.30

10-14 3 25 13.2 3.38

15 + 4 15 8.0 3.67

Totals 189 100.0 3.63

 

The descriptive data for years of experience-as
illustrated in Table 4.3 indicate the following facts.
Group one (1-4 years) has a large number of subjects and
the highest EPL mean score. This is an expected outcome
as the predicted direction of EPL is to decrease as years
of experience increase. Group two (5-9 years) has the
largest numerical size and the loweSt EPL mean score
(3.30) for all groups. Reasons for this will be explored
in both the hypotheses that were developed and in the

comparative analysis of descriptive data. Group three

95

(10-14 years) has a slightly higher EPL score (3.38) than
group two (5-9 years). The difference while not significant
is in the opposite direction as predicted. Group four (15+)
has the least number of subjects and the second highest

EPL mean score (3.67). Although nonsignificant, it is

in the Opposite direction than predicted. The reasons

for this outcome will be explored in further analysis of

the data. Summary and analysis of the descriptive data

for the category variables are presented in Table 4.4.

TABLE 4.4.--Summary of category variables.

 

 

Groups

Exper. 1-4 5-9 10-14 15+ Row Total EPL
Mean

Mil. yes no yes no yes no yes no

No Coll. 2 4 4 3 9 1 23 3.46

1-90 11 17 25 16 8 4 2 2 85 3.96

1-180 15 23 15 12 5 1 1 72 3.47

Grad. 3 2 4 9 3.06

Column

Total 26 43 44 36 17 8 12 3 189

EPL

Mean 4.18 3.30 3.38 3.67

 

96

Descriptive Analysis
Years of College variables

In the college variables, the no—college versus
upper-college groups indicated that the experience of one
group factored out the education impact of the other re-
sulting in almost identical EPL mean scores. This is a
case of two different but separately homogeneous groups,
producing similar EPL scores. The no-college group con-
tains patrolmen with a minimum of five years experience.
The upper-college group is not well represented above the
ten years experience level. Therefore, it is posited that
the similarity between EPL mean scores for these groups is
due to the relationship between experience and education
which exposes the individual to similar learning situations
which have shaped the attitudes, perceptions, and cognitive
responses of these two groups.

The lower-college group.is a heterogeneous group,
in which the two variables are equally represented and for
this reason this group was selected as the base group for
comparison of the variable. The graduate-college group is
homogeneous in that it is high in the variable being tested
--years of college--while other variables are limited. The
result is the best single group for indicating the impact of
the variable on the EPL score of patrolmen.

Although the lower-college group lacks represen-

tation above the ten years experience level, it is the most

97

representative of all groups. With the highest EPL mean
score, it is composed of slight to moderately educated
and slight to moderately experienced patrolmen. With

the influence of these two variables factoring each other
out, this group is the best sample of a low college-low
experience group. Comparing it to the graduate group,
which is the lowest EPL mean score, gives the best indi-
cation of the impact of college on perceptions represented
in the EPL mean score. From this comparison, the re—
searcher suggests that years of college do impact on the
perceptions, attitudes, expectations, and cognitive re-
sponses of patrolmen in the predicted direction. Years
of college seem to produce more critical and evaluative
perceptions with higher expectations that result in lower
EPL mean scores for this group.

Another finding that can be identified is that
the interaction between experience and education is strong
enough to completely nullify the impact of education unless
a blocking factor is used or as in this study the graduate-
college group by chance had a maximum of one through nine
years of experience. This circumstance controlled the ex-
perience variable and allowed the researcher to analyze a
high-college group in a low-experience situation. There-
by it yielded the best indicator of the effect of years of

college on the perceptions of patrolmen for their sergeant.

98

Military service variable

The group with military service has a lower EPL
mean score (3.45) than the group without military service
(3.9). The difference, while not significant, is in the
predicted direction. The composition of the group with
military service is primarily made up of no-college/1O
years .+ experience; low-college/1 through 10 years ex-
perience; upper-college/1 through 10 years experience;
graduate-college/S through 9 years experience. The group
without military service is similarly dispersed in the
middle groups (lower/upper-college). But in the no-college
group/5 through 14 years experience one can find that there
is five years lower in range than the with-military—service
group. In the graduate-college group/1 through 9 years is
a four year front end extension. This indicates that can-
didates are being drawn from graduate schools who have less
than five years of experience and no military service.

It appears as though fewer young, less experienced
patrolmen have had military experience than older and more
experienced patrolmen. Comparing the 1 through 9 years of
experience group in the no-college and graduate-college
groups, 73 percent had no military service and 27 percent
had military service. Compared to the 10 through 15+ years
of experience group in the no-college and graduate-college
groups, 23 percent had no military service and 77 percent

experienced military service.

99

Years of experience variable

The experience variable for the 1 through 4
years group has the highest EPL mean score. It contains
no-college patrolmen and a fairly representative sample
of lower/upper-graduate-college patrolmen. This sets up
a moderate college/low experience comparison in which the
result is high EPL scores.

The second group with 5 through 9 years of ex-
perience contains a representative sample of all years of
college groups and both military service groups and shows
the lowest EPL mean score (3.30) for the experience vari-
able. This is the most representative base group to compare
the experience variable with.

The 10 through 15+ groups show movement toward
slight increases in EPL mean scores, with an increase in
the no-college group and the military service group.

Comparing the 1 through 4 years of experience
group with the 15+ years of experience group we find a
significantly lower rating for sergeants among the more
experienced patrolmen. The finding indicates that after
five years of experience the patrolmen are more critical
in their evaluation of their sergeants.

In general, the least experienced, less educated,
and with no military experience patrolmen rate their
sergeants higher in leadership when compared to the more
experienced, most educated, and with military experience

patrolmen.

100

Hypotheses Concerning the
Category Data Set

The category analyzed in this section are (1)
years of college; (2) military service experience; and
(3) years of experience. Each category is stated as a
hypothesis or set of hypotheses and tested for statis-
tical significance.

One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) with
contrasts was performed for most of the hypotheses
concerning the categorical data set. In these hypo—
theses the researcher tests the relationship between the
subject's EPL score and the specific category being ana-
lyzed. One-way analysis of variance was selected because
the output from it provides the following three types of
information: (1) decomposition of sum of squares and eta2
which can be used as a descriptive indicator of the over-
all relationship between the criteria and experimental
variables; (2) F ratio and other statistics that test
statistical significance; and (3) estimates of effects
of differences among the category means which can be used
in interpreting the pattern of the experimental variable.

Assumptions for all of the hypotheses using this
(ANOVA) statistical treatment are that the level of measure-
ment—-EPL score--is an interval scale and years of college,
experienCe, and military service are used as nominal scales.

The model used is independent random sampling,

with normal populations for each category of the variable

101

level. The population variances are assumed to be equal.
Hypotheses are stated in the alternate form and will
assume that the population means are unequal. The F
value is used as a measure in ANOVA and is the ratio

of the between and within estimates; it can be viewed

as an extension of the difference of means test.

Hypotheses concerning
years of college

 

H6 There is a greater EPL score for subjects with
no years of college education than for subjects
with two years of college education.

H7 There is a greater EPL score for subjects with
no years of college education than for subjects
with four years of college education.

H8 There is a greater EPL score for subjects with
no years of college education than for subjects
with graduate college education.

H9 There is a greater EPL score for subjects with
two years of college education than for subjects
with four years of college education.

H1O There is a greater EPL score for subjects Wifl1
two years of college education than for subjects
with graduate college education.

H11 There is a greater EPL score for subjects with
four years of college education than for subjects
with graduate college ducation.

Analyses of variance with contrasts were performed.
Because all hypotheses are stated in the alternate form, the
researcher will attempt to accept them directly as stated.

H6 contrasts group one (no-college) with group
two (lower-college). There was a difference of -.508 which

is not significant and it is in the opposite direction than

predicted. That is, subjects with no-college had a lower

102

EPL score than subjects with two years of college. On
the basis of this H6 is not retained.

H7 contrasts group one (no-college) with group
three (upper—college); this produced a difference of -.178
which was not significant and was not in the predicted
direction. That is, subjects with no college had a
lower EPL score than subjects with junior and senior
college education experience. However, the difference
is smaller than for subjects in lower college. H7 is
not retained because it is not significant at the re-
quired acceptance level.

H8 contrasts group one (no—college) and group
four (graduate-college). A difference of .45 is not
significant although it is in the predicted direction.
Therefore, H8 is not retained.

H9 contrasts group two (lower-college) and
group three (upper-college). A difference of -.4903
indicates no significant difference in EPL scores but
the difference is in the predicted direction. That is,
subjects with lower college have higher EPL scores than
subjects in upper college. Upper college subjects are
closer to no college subjects. H9 is not retained because
there is no significant differenCe.

H10 contrasts group two (lower-college) and
group four (graduate-college). A difference of .90 with

a pooled variance of 1.86 and a T probability of .063.

103

The difference is in the predicted direction and is close
to being significant. However, H1O as stated in the alter—
nate form is not retained.

H11 contrasts group three (upper-college) and
group four (graduate-college). A difference of .41 is
not significant at the appropriate level and therefore
H11 is not retained. The difference is in the predicted
direction.

In summary, each of these hypotheses turns out
to be less than unity, because values of greater than one
are needed to not-retain the null hypothesis and to retain
an alternative hypothesis. This did not happen; therefore
the null hypotheses are retained and the alternative
hypotheses are not retained. Because the F values are less
than unity, they indicate a greater degree of homogeneity

within categories than would be expected by chance.

Hypotheses concerning

military service experience
H12 There is a greater EPL score for subjects with
no military service experience than for those

With this experience.

Hypothesis 12 tests the relationship between the
subject's EPL score and the exposure to military service.
One-way analysis of variance is the test used. The F
ratio for H12 is F = 1.0539 with a F probability of .3059.
While there appears to be a relationship in the predicted

direction, it is not significant. Therefore, H12 as stated

in the alternative form is not retained.

104

In summary, the EPL score for subjects with no
military service (3.9) is greater than for subjects with
military service (3.45). The difference of .45, while
not significant, is in the predicted direction.

Hypotheses concerning
years of police experience

H13 The EPL score is higher for subjects with one
through four years of police experience than for
subjects with five through nine years of police
experience.

H14 The EPL score is higher for subjects with one
through four years of police experience than for
subjects with ten through fourteen years of police
experience.

H15 The EPL score is higher for subjects with one
through four years of police experience than for
subjects with fifteen plus years of police ex-
perience.

H16 The EPL score is higher for subjects with five
through nine years of police experience than for
subjects with ten through fourteen years of police
experience.

H17 The EPL score is higher for subjects with five
through nine years of police experience than.for
subjects with fifteen plus years of police ex-
perience.

H18 The EPL score is higher for subjects with ten
through fourteen years of police experience than
for subjects with fifteen plus years of police
experience.

One-way analysis of variance with contrasts was
performed. In these hypotheses the researcher tests the
relationship between the subject's EPL score among groups
with varying years of police work experience.

The test of H13 through H18 was to use the one-

way analysis of variance with a priori contrasts to

105

establish the differences between groups. A posteriori

 

contrast gave the means for each subgroup and the value
necessary to be significant, given the .05 level the re-
searcher established.

H13 compares group one (1-4 years of police
experience) with group two (5-9 years of police experience).
The difference in means between these groups is .875. The
pooled variance estimate had a T value of -1.83 and a T
probability of -.O69. The mean for group one was 4.18
and 3.3 for group two. While this contrast approached
our predetermined significance level of .05 it did not
reach it completely, and thus H13 is not retained.

H14 compares group one (1-4 years of police
experience) with group three (10-14 years of police ex-
perience). The difference in means between the two groups
is .795. The pooled variance estimate had a T value of
-.1.2 and a T probability of -.229. The mean for group
three was 3.38. H14 is not retained and the difference
between groups one and three is less than the difference
between groups one and two.

H15 compares group one (1-4 years of experience)
with group four (15+ years). The difference in means
between the groups is .41. The pooled variance T value
is .366. The difference is in the predicted direction
but is not significant at the appropriate level. There—

fore, H15 is not retained.

106

H16 compares group two (5—9 years of police
experience) with group three (10-14 years of police ex-
perience). The difference in means between groups is
-.08. The pooled variance estimate had a T value of
-.903. H16 is not retained and the difference between
these groups is even less than the two previous contrasts.

H17 compares group two (5-9 years of police
experience) with group four (15+ years of police experience.
The difference in means is -.37 which is not significant.
This outcome is in the opposite direction as predicted;
therefore H17 is not retained.

H18 compares group three (10-14 years of police
experience) with group four (15+ years of police experience).
The difference -.31 is not significant and also is in the
opposite direction as predicted. Therefore, H18 is not
retained as stated in the alternate form.

In summary, H13 and H14 are both near significance
and in the predicted direction. That is, EPL score in-
creases as the years of police experience decrease. The
remaining hypotheses are not even near significance level
and H17 and H18 also are not in the predicted direction.
This seems to be due to the slight increase in EPL mean
Scores above group two (5-9 years) for the third (10-14)

and fourth (15+) groups.

107
Hypotheses Testing EPL by a Categorical

Variable while Controlling for Others

Hypotheses 19, 20, and 21 are analyzed using
analysis of covariance because EPL is tested by a cate-
gory variable while controlling for the other variables.
This is an attempt to isolate the differences, if any
exist, for closer scrutiny. This statistical treatment
is used because the researcher is interested in the
effects of all independent variables (nonmetric and
metric). Interaction of these variables is expected
and so the adjustment process available through co-
variance seems appropriate. Adjustments are made to
hold constant the confounding effects of variables.
These adjustments are based upon assumptions which may
or may not offer the clarification of interaction that
is sought.

H19 The EPL score of subjects will decrease as the
years of college education increase, when con—
trolling for years of police experience and
previous military experience.

In H19, the researcher looks at the EPL score
by years of college when controlling for years of ex-
perience and military service. Analysis of covariance
was performed and, when using the F test, it produced
no significant relationships. In further analysis, a
partial correlation was run looking at EPL score by
years of college while controlling for years of experi-

ence and military service. No relationship was indicated

and therefore H19 is not retained.

108

H20 There is a greater EPL score for subjects with
no military service when controlling for years
of college and years of police experience.
Analysis of covariance for H2O was performed

which examined EPL by military service while controlling
for years of college and years of experience. The main
effects focused upon military service and there were no
significant relationships. In this test the covariant
years of college was not significant; however, the co-
variant years of experience showed a F value of 3.164

(S = .077) which is nearly significant and indicates a
moderate relationship between EPL and years of experience.
However, H20 is not retained.

H21 The EPL score of subjects will decrease as the
years of police experience increase when con-
trolling for years of college education and
previous military service experience.

Analysis of covariance was performed for H21
and was not significant. In further analysis, a partial
correlation was done looking at EPL scores by years of
experience while controlling for college. This yielded
a significant relationship (r = -.130) (S = .038); H21
is therefore retained. Further contrOl was attempted
Iby running EPL by years of experience while controlling
for college and military service (r = -.1151) (S = .058).
This seems to indicate that years of experience is a
significant factor in EPL perceptions. These two par-

tials indicate that years of college have an interaction

effect that, if held constant, allows years of experience

109

to be a significant variable. Military service, however,
has a reverse effect; when controlled for, years of ex-
perience move further away from significance.

In summary, an inspection of partial correlations
led to identifying a potential relationship between EPL
and years of experience and also between years of college
and military service (r = .1309) (S = .036), see Table
4.4. Further exploration through a partial correlation
between EPL and years of experience controlling for years
of college yielded a r = -.1295 (S = .038) Which is a
significant relationship. A similar partial correlation
between EPL and years of experience controlling for
military service yielded a partial correlation of r =
-.0866 (S = .119) which is not significant. Another
test run between EPL and years of experience controlling
for both years of college and military service yielded
r = -.1151 (S = .058) which is slightly higher than the
significance (S = .038), which was obtained when con-
trolling for only college. This indicates that EPL and
years of experience have a relationship when college is
controlled. However, when controlling for military ser-
vice alone and the college variable is left to affect the

relationship, there is no significance.

110

Summary of Category Data

One of the main findings of the category data
was that the relationship between EPL score and years of
experience is near significance at .080 level. However,
when college is controlled it becomes significant at the
.038 level, thus indicating a strong relationship between
years of experience and EPL score that grows stronger as
the variable college is controlled.

The EPL mean for patrolmen with no college and
patrolmen with upper level college--that is, patrolmen in
their junior and senior year of college--are very close
to being similar. The EPL mean for patrolmen with graduate
college credits drops as much as .40 from the no—college
group. This is the lowest EPL mean Of all the groups. The
EPL mean for patrolmen with lower college--that is, patrol-
men in their freshman and SOphomore years of college—-is the
highest of all groups with an increase of .50 above the
no-college group and a .90 difference when compared to the
graduate-college group.

It appears as though patrolmen with no college
perceive their sergeants as moderately competent in most
areas of leadership; while patrolmen with one or two years
of college view them as highly competent in most areas.
Patrolmen with three to four years of college also view
their sergeants as moderately competent; while patrolmen

with graduate credits view them as least competent in most

111

areas of leadership.

This can be compared to patrolman with one to
four years of experience who see their sergeant as highly
competent in most areas of leadership; while patrolmen
with five to nine years of experience view them as least
competent. Further, patrolmen with ten to fourteen years
of experience perceive their sergeant as low to moderately
competent and patrolmen with fifteen or more years of ex-

perience see them as moderate to highly competent.

CHAPTER V

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Introduction

This chapter contains a summary of previous
chapters, principal conclusions are listed, discussion of
the research is presented, and implications for future
research and practice are stated.

Summary

This research has investigated the role perception
of 189 patrolmen for their immediate supervisor, the sergeant.
This was accomplished by evaluating the leadership ability
and role performance of the sergeants by surveying the per-
ceptions of subordinate officers. Differences between the
patrolmen's perceptions were then analyzed using years of
experience, education, and military service as variables for
comparison.

The purpose was to explore the availability of
leadership in the sergeant position. This was done in such
a manner that insight could be gained about how this position
might be utilized to fully meet the agency's goals and to
estimate the effectiveness of the leadership given to the

patrolmen. The specific objectives in this study were

112

113

(1) to gain information about the patrolmen's attitudes and
perceptions of leadership, and the selected factors of (a)
interaction facilitation, (b) support, (c) work facilitation,
and (d) leader goal emphasis; (2) to identify demographic
characteristics of the patrolmen that might be of importance
in explaining the differences in the perceptions; (3) to
examine differences in the patrolmen's responses from dif-
ferent groups, according to (a) years in college, (b) age,
(c) years of experience, (d) military service, and (e) years
in position; and (4) to test the relationships proposed in
the hypotheses.

The literature suggests that the patrolmen holds
a unique occupational position which cannot be directly
supervised. Also, while working alone the patrolman en-
counters many situations in which he cannot immediately
confer with a supervisor before acting. Another factor of
importance is the use of discretion by the patrolman. The
application of the authority and power vested in the role
of a police officer offers a strong argument for higher edu-
cation. Over time, it has been acknowledged that the police
officer as an authority figure possesses within his dis-
cretion the power to influence behavior by invoking a wide
'variety of actions. Background variables have for this
reason been viewed as indicators of present ability and
preparedness.

In this study leadership is viewed as a motivating,

114

enhancing, and purposeful activity. The importance of
effective, middle-range leadership is emphasized because,

if available, it can clarify the expectations of the agency
and relate them to the personal values of the patrolman,
thereby integrating with and for him a supportive stance
upon which the agency's priorities are based. This orien—
tation provides a frame of reference for the decision-making
involved in the diverse role activities.

In examining the concept of stress, all of the
reviewed authors seem to agree that the police officer has
specific types of occupational stress that can be recognized
and diminished if the proper training is provided and the
agency has a supportive social-emotional system.

Implications of the literature for the study are
based on the assumption that the more educated, more ex-
perienced an officer is, the more likely he is to be aware
of the circumstances of his position. As such, he will be
more willing to acknowledge his limitations, recognize
strengths and weaknesses, attempt to identify problem areas
and develop solutions based upon understanding that is
derived from a variety of different perspectives. In short,
he will more actively seek and acquire information in a
problematic situation. He will also be more verbal and
more critical in scrutinizing the circumstances of his
position and he will seek the involvement of others in

attempts to bring about change.

115

The main findings of the study were:

1. There is a positive and significant relationship
between EPL and the interaction facilitation skills
of the sergeant;

2. there is a positive but nonsignificant relationship
between EPL and the support, work facilitation, and
the leader goal emphasis of the sergeant;

3. there is a lower EPL score for subjects with no years
of college education than for subjects with two years
of college education. However, the difference is not
significant and the direction was not predicted;

4. there is an equal EPL score for subjects with no years
of college and subjects with four years of college
education;

5. there is a greater EPL score for subjects with no
military service experience than for those with this
experience. However, the difference is not signifi-
cant;

6. there is a significant relationship between the sub-
ject's perceptions (EPL score) and his years of police
experience;

7. the EPL score is consistently higher for subjects
with more years of police experience than for subjects
with less years of police experience, up to ten years
and then it levels off; and

8. the EPL score of subjects will increase as the years
of police experience increase when controlling for
years of college education and previous military
service experience.

Discussion
The researcher has found that the factor variables
(interaction facilitation, support, work facilitation, and
leader goal emphasis) are all highly correlated. This is
probably due to the interaction facilitation factor being

present in each of the other factors. The interaction facil-

itation skills of the sergeant is a positive indicator of his

116

leadership ability. This factor serves as a channel for
the exchange of information, and the transfer of ideas

and understanding between the sergeant and the patrolman.
The process by which the sergeant takes action--which is

a basic police management concern—-involves the giving,
asking, clarifying, and maintaining of an open flow of
information. In relation to the other factor variables,
interaction facilitation skills are essential for each of
them to be effective. It is therefore viewed by the re-
searcher as the single most important factor: its significant
relationship to leadership was an expected outcome in this
study.

Interaction facilitation skills also can be re-
lated to the category variables of education and experience.
Congruent with other studies, the researcher of this study
suggests that the effectiveness of interaction facilitation
skills increases with years of college education and years
of experience. One could posit that this is due to the
exposure and acquisition of knowledge and the heightened
awareness and sensitivity to the communication process.

An increase in the credibility of the communicator because
of status also occurs and this again aids in the effectiveness
of interaction facilitation.

The finding that the support factor is positively
related to effective leadership suggests that the more
frequently a sergeant engages in behavior that gives esteem

and builds the self-concept of the patrolman, the value of

117

the sergeant and patrolman relationship is increased.
Also, the patrolmen's willingness to act in response to
the sergeant's wishes—-not demands—-is increased through
activation of the norm of reciprocity.

In this study it was felt that the work facili-
tation factor, if performed effectively, would increase
the accomplishment of agency objectives with a minimum of
confusion and wasted time. It was assumed that a sergeant
who is orientated in this manner would encourage "openness"
in patrolmen so that problems were brought to his attention
at an early time, before much energy had been wasted by the
unit. This factor, which is found in the analysis, contains
items reflecting the sergeant's use of personnel and re-
sources. These actions probably had the effect of dis-
couraging or encouraging upward communication from the field.
To the extent that delay is incurred in the initiation of
action toward relieving a problem unit energy is wasted.
The norm of distributive justice can be applied to the
effort the unit expends. If inapprOpriate use of talent
and time is demonstrated it could lead to decreased satis-
faction with both the sergeant and the job.

The researcher suggests that the fourth factor—-
leader goal emphasis--presents a problem for the sergeant
because it involves making choices by selecting areas of
priority. For effective leadership, the unit's norm of

equitable importance has to be taken into consideration.

118

A study of Evans (1970;277-298) indicates that supervisor
style influences the worker's beliefs about the purposeful-
ness of their work behavior in accomplishing desired goals.

In this study the appropriateness of the sergeant's
goal emphasis was evaluated. Task oriented behaviors for
attaining desired goals occurred more frequently among
sergeants who were rated high in leadership ability.

All of the category variables (years of college,
years of experience, and military experience) were highly
correlated. This is probably due to the strong influence
of experience upon the other categories. Years of experience
affects the attitudes and perceptions of patrolmen about
their sergeants to a significant degree. Experience can
be viewed as practical learning. As such, it involves day-
to-day interaction within the agency. This may also be
called "learning the ropes." In addition, it establishes
status with credibility, confidence, and proficiency.

Experience appears to facilitate a subjective
assessment that has an actual reality basis. This can be
attributed to the availability of information, personal
self-assurance, and a specific understanding of the factors
that encourage or inhibit agency goal accomplishment.

Education seems to encourage the critical scrutiny
of the agency and a more Open expression of its short comings.
It is limited to comparisons with other similar agencies. In

this manner differences are identified from which objective

119

statements can be made about comparable goals, standards,
expectations, etc. It is based on a broader understanding
of the agency and its function. Although the literature

on education for the policemen is somewhat divided in
prOpositions and findings, the logical basis for it is
strong. The stated purpose of higher education presents

a persuasive argument: to increase critical thinking
ability, awareness and sensitivity, objectivity and reasoned
thinking. In this study, the education variable was not
consistent from group to group. This implies the presence
of interaction from other variables that are impacting on
it. One such factor has to be the atypical nature of the
population under study. The intensive screening procedure,
utilized to insure that policemen have at least a minimal
competency in communication and human relation skills, skews
the results of this investigation by minimizing differences
that are much greater in the general population.

Implications and Conclusions

 

The researcher concludes from the findings of the
study that education and experience do play an important
part in how patrolmen perceive the effectiveness of their
sergeants. The more education that patrol officers have,
the more of a tendency to critically evaluate the behavior,
actions, and procedures of their supervisor. Likewise, ex-
perience is also a factor in whether the supervisor is eval-

uated negatively or positively. The officers with the least

120

amount of experience Evaluated their supervisors in a more
positive vein. These two findings have implications for
both the individual officer and the functioning of his
organization.

On the one hand, college educated officers are
able to intellectually recognize the short—comings of their
organization and their first line supervisors. The sugges-
tions he makes for organizational improvement can benefit
the agency; the organization can be updated and the super-
visory process improved. However, if the first line super-
visor is not favorably disposed to listening to the patrol
officers' suggestions or if the upper administrative levels
are not concerned about change then this can create stress
for the patrol officers. In effect the college educated
patrol officers may not blame themselves for the problems
and become self-depreciating, but they may blame the or-
ganization. This can cause stress and frustration for the
officer. The officer may resign from the organization and
find employment that is more challenging and conducive to
his organizational orientation. However, if the officer
(does not have the Option of leaving, the stress created may
increase conflict between supervisee and supervisor.

The above situation is not totally unmanageable
however because often what appears to be an unconcerned
supervisor or restrictive organizational policies exist due

to a lack of awareness of the problems. The researcher

121

suggestssthat organizations can deal with supervisor/
supervisee interpersonal problems with a specific stress—
management approach that allows employees to make sug—
gestions and follow the suggestions through to fruition
if the suggestions are workable.

In addition, police organizations can employ a
mental health worker to aid officers in dealing with inter—
personal problems and to adjust to the frustrations that
may develop due to agency policies. The mental health
worker would not only provide direct counseling and as—
sistance to the officers but could be used as a referral
source for specific kinds of problems such as alcoholism.
Also a rest and recuperation program could be instituted
where patrol officers who are involved in highly stressful
activities, like under-cover assignments or working in
highly stressful areas like the inner city, could be trans-
ferred and rotated periodically to less stressful situations.

It is also concluded that the sergeant's role should
be well defined and understood by his supervisees. If the
supervisees are aware of the functions, duties, problems,
and orientation of their supervisor, role incongruity can
decrease and create a basis for cooperation, understanding,
and joint problem solving. As the researcher indicated in
Chapter II, the greater the homogeneity among position
incumbents the more concensus they will have in their per-

ceptions of other positions in the agency. Usually, the

122

longer the members of an agency have interacted with one
another the more concensus there will be and the more
similar will be their perceptions. The problem, as al-
luded to earlier, is however that officers with little
experience do not understand the role and functions of
their supervisor and this causes role incongruence. In
addition, the highly educated police officer has learned
from textbooks the theory of management and supervision and
once on the job often finds that his immediate supervisor
does not practice these principles; this also causes role
incongruity. There will be role incongruity between of-
ficers of the same rank because patrol officers in most
police departments do not have equal education and/or ex-
perience. Some patrol officers have as much as graduate
degrees while other patrol officers have no college at all.
American policing in the future will continue to
experience the problem of disproportionate amounts of edu—
cation and experiences among its line officers. Each par-
ticular police agency will have to deal with this problem
by having a specific training and orientation program that
deals with the varying perceptions and experience of the line
officer. In this regard many of the non-college educated
line officers are not as articulate as their college edu-
cated counterparts. This lack of articulation affects their
<:ommunication skills and makes it difficult for them to both

<:ommunicate with their supervisor and articulate the

123

frustration and stress that they are experiencing both on
the job, in relation to the public, and in their inter-
actions with their supervisors.

Another conclusion is that supervisors can also
benefit from training that stimulates an understanding of
the communication process as well as being exposed to tech-
niques that can improve their articulation ability. Tradi-
tional police supervisors have often depended upon the
authority of their position rather than the skills of
their imagination in dealing with their supervisees. In
many cases when a police supervisor is confronted by a
patrol officer with a new idea or a new procedure the
common response is, "I am the supervisor, you are the super-
visee. We have been doing it this way for years and we will
continue to do it this way." This is not only stifling for
the communication process but it also creates animosity and
hard feelings between supervisor and supervisee. The tra-
ditional orientation to supervision is often a reaction to
the "macho" phenomena, wherein the supervisor is reluctant
to pOsitively motivate and praise an employee because it
may be seen as a sign of weakness in the supervisor. A
training program and process which helps the supervisor
(Seal with this reluctance to positively motivate through
compliments can help the supervision process and create an
atmosphere of cooperation, especially between supervisor

and college educated supervisee.

124

The last conclusion is that training which
improves the communication process, education of individ-
ual officers, and stress management programs which may
include rest and recuperation and a mental health worker,
will be meaningless unless there is support from the upper
administrative levels. The upper administration will have
to endorse a well defined and strong role definition for
the sergeant and support the middle manager in his daily
operation. The upper administration should encourage the
positive use of the sergeant by patrol officers. The upper
administration should also support the suggestions of line
officers if they are workable, feasible, and fiscally

responsible.

APPENDIX A

APPENDIX A
QIEBTIGWAIRE

 

Please answer each statement listed below as it applies to first line

8

orsintheIPD. Inansweringthequestions, pleaseprintonthe

darklinetheoneletterthatbestdescribes thebehavioroffirstline
supervisors (or yourself if a supervisor).

To what extent do first line supervisors A Always
indielPDengageinthefollowingkinds B AlmostaJways
of behavior? C Frequently
‘ D Occasionally
E Almst never
F Never
Statanents:

£11wa

13.

Gives officers the feeling that their work is an "important"
activity.

 

Gets officers to upgrade their performance.
Gets support francamandwhenhemakes adecisicn.

 

 

Gives support and encouragement to formal education .

 

Solicits input from officers he supervises when a decision needs
to be made.

Gives officers the feeling that they can make a significant contribution
toward improving the performance of the LPD.

 

 

Stresses his personal rather than professional consideration in his
decisions.

Gets backing fran the LPD administration.
Displays integrity inhis behavior.

Has constructive suggesticns to offer officers in dealing with their
major problens.

 

 

 

Takes a strong interest in the professional development of the officers
he supervises.

Takes an interest in the personal welfare of the officers he
supervises.

 

 

125

Continue, print one of the following letters:

14.

17 .
18 .
l9 .
20 .
21.
22 .
23.
24.

26.
27.
28.

29.

31 .
32 .
33.

Almost never
Never

Treats officers he supervises as professional workers.

WEIUOP53>
1E.
‘4

 

Attempts to reward and canpliment officers who are doing an
outstanding job.

Makes finosewho work for him feel inferior.

 

 

Discourages officers who want to try new ideas.
Develops a "we" feeling when working out problems.

 

 

Requires officers to engage in unnecessary paper work.
Displays inconsistency in decision making.
Helps elimninate weaknesses in fine lPD.
Repdmannds officers whose ideas disagree wifin his own.

Maximizes the different skills found in his supervisees.

 

 

 

 

 

Helps officers to understand the sources of important problems they
are facing.

Displays a strong interest in improving the quality of the LPD.

 

 

Conveys an impression of leadership ability.
Defines clearly the objectives of his officers' duties.

Helps each officer understand fine quality and amnunt of work
expected of him.

Makes sure each office: understands how his work relates to the
ofiner areas of fine deparfinent.

Conveys an impression of always being ready to talk with his
officers.

Acts impartially and wifinout bias or favoritism.

 

 

 

 

 

 

Disciplines all officers against same standards.
Takes responsibility for mistakes wifinout "buck passing."

 

 

126

Continue, print one of fine following letters: Always

' ‘ ‘ Almost always
Frequently
Occasionally
Almost never
Never

34. Defends and explains unpopular policies of his superiors to his
officers.‘

35. Shows unwillingness to cooperate wifin other areas of fine department.

TWP???

 

 

36. Earns fine trustof officersbybeinghonestandfairindealing
wifinthan.

37. Evaluates supervisees fairly.

 

 

The purpose here is to explore how well first line supervisors in fine
IPD are able to carry out various aspects of their job. Please answer
fine following statements by circling the one letter which best represents

your feeling.

How would you rate fine performance of the A. Outs '
first line supervisors in fine LPD in eadn B. Excellent
of fine following areas: C. Good

D. Fair

E. Poor

F. Very poor

Areas of Administrative Behavior:

38. Handling delicate interpersonal situations A B C D E F
39. Worldngwifinofinerpolineandcamrmityagencies ABCDEF
40. Getting his officers to use new methods and

 

 

 

procedures ABCDEF
41. Directingfineworkofhisofficers ABCDEF
42. (hitting "red tape"whenfast actionisneeded ABCDEF
43. Communicating fine objectives of the LPD' 8 program

tohisofficers' ABCDEF
44. Improving the performance Of his inexperienced

officers ABCDEF
45. Getting his experienced officers to upgrade their

performance' ABCDEF

127

Continue, circle according to the following: A. Outstanding
B. Excellent
C. Good
D. Fair
E. Poor
F. Very poor
46. Givingleadershiptohisofficers ABCDEF
47. Developing and maintaining morale among his
officers A B C D E F
48. Revising procedures in fine light of new
departmental orders A B C D E F
49. Keepinghisshiftrnmmningsmoofinly ABCDEF
50. Ganeralplamningforfineurnit ABCDEF
51. Knowing about fine strengfin andweaknesses of
his officers ABCDEF
52. Getting his officers to coordinate their
activities A B C D E F
53. Knowing about fine strength and weaknesses of
fine department A B C D E F
54. Listening to problans, carplaints, and
suggestions fromhis officers AB C DEF
55. Taking action to improve operating and working
conditions for his officers whan possible A B C D E F
56. "Going to bat" for officers wifin higner aufinority
whenn necessary A B C D E F

128

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BIBLIOGRAPHY
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