CHINESE IM'anmms-“i'N‘SQUTHEAST A'sm -

AND EN TAIWAN Z

Thesis for the Degt'ée of M; A.

MECHEGAN sums uweasmi ;

JUNE HUANG CHERN
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LIBRARY

I‘H ES'S
Michigan Sta”
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'he study of oversea~ Chinese goes back to the latter

half ." the nineteenth century, hut a.) a series of somewhat
, . . . aim WW .
unrei, ad works with little comparative MI ysis. aoc1al
science is necessarily and inherently comparative. Therefore,
it is my nurgose lL th Eager to analgz; the gloTicn f
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overseas Chinese comparatively.

71-30
According to the China,Ye ea rhook l?’7~€3, the total

pC‘} ulation of overseas Chinese, includin; tfcse with dual
nationality, is 17,991,493}. Nearly ”5 gut cent of them reside
2%‘19tab>
in Southeast Asia. Faced with geogra;tical, economic, and
social challenges which are ess' ent ally different from those
of China, overseas Chinese immigrants re5pond in a diversity
of ways in different areas. This paper attempts to apply the
theory of ecology-—the study of the interrelationships between
orga anisn and onvircnment-—to two different areas where Chinese

immigrants have settled: Southeast Asia and Taiwan.

There are striking similarities among Chinese immigrants
in Southeast Asia. A great majority of them are engaged in
trade, commerce and industry. They constitute a sizeable
pr0portion of the total urtan gorulation and develOQ a kind of
segmentary structure in urban overseas Chinese communities.
The real locus of power lies with voluntary associations,

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s.ec ally Chambers of Commerce and oi a

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.ect associations

(I)

formed on non—kin bases. Furthermore, social status and

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prestige are “equired through wealth.

These similarities, of course, are not coincident and
obviously can not be attributed to a common historical
backgrcu ’. I seek the explanation in a common human reSponse

:1 a.

-:; ant to similar environments.

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or

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winese immigrants to Taiwan, on the other hand, who

rig ;;:d in the same years and from the same provinces as those
im-fgrants to Southeast Asia, develop different kinds of

Atlement and economic patterns, social and political struc—
tures. The majority of them go into agriculture and are pre-
dominantly rural. as in Southeast China, family and kin groups
are significant, while othe‘ groups tend to be relatively un~
im;"r.ant. Social control is largely effected within lineages

an” iffirmally by gentry and elders in the village environment.

is interesting to note that Chinese immigrants of the
peial cultural and historical background who moved into
C;* erent ecological environments-—Southeast Asia and T iwan--
established different economic patterns, social structures, etc.,
as adaptive mechanisms. This paper attempts to find out precisely
how differences in environment, social structure, and economic

E:*~~wn are CODUGCtefi an interaCt With eaCh Other.

The problem of Chinese immigrants includes a whole complex
of :;eial, cultural, historical, economic, and political aspects.

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Thfi paper will not be ahle to embrace all of those problems.

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ated to economic arrange -t;s and

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ll focus my attention Upon those fea ures which are closely

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tence activities.

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.rCer to arsomplish thi , 5 will take into consideration

lulation density, settlem..* patterns, dialect groups, volur-
y associations, land own'_-hip, citizenship, tit. J; i-£u:-,

political situations and historica background.

(1)

(2)

(4)

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My prepostions in this paoer are the fol
An increase in population density leaos t7 an intense
le for land. Thus, demography and land ownership
should be examined if we want to know how the environment
affects the economic adaptation of immigrants.
Differences in socia- structure must be examined iL the
context of physical and socioeconomic environments. Volunt.ry
associations may we seen as an historical process of ala2tation

to new conditions. These associations should he examined in

order to “now how they play an important part in the establish-

ment of economic patterns and the deveIOpment of the commercial
success of Chinese immigrants to Southeast Asia.

Chinese communities in Southeast China, as well as in South-
east Asia and Taiwan, are by no means homogeneous. They

are divided into differenl dialect groups. Thus, dialect
difference must be examined if we want to understand how

they affect the occupational Specialization, settlement
patterns and social stratification of Chinese immigrants.

The type of society in which the immigrants settled must

be examined in order to unde‘stand ethnic segmentation and

economic iiterde pc ndence, to find out whether the environ—
ment of any one ethnic group is defined by natural cone iticns,
or by the presence and activities of other ethnic groups.

(5) Political situations must be taken into consideration to
understand how they influence the economic pa ;terns, settle-
ment patterns, and the social structure of the immigrants.

"‘ Chinese pepulations in Southeast Asia andwTaiwan are the

result of long—term migration. Therefore, the time dimension
important in resyect to economic opportunity, social

structurs, and political situation.

(7- southea t As it and Taiwan have undergone substantially

i1ffcront l :;orical experiences during the past several

centuries. Thus, historical differences should be examined
in order to see whether or not they play a part in shaping

the are ant situation of Chinese immigrants.

fr alman, in his article,"What Social Science can Do for

China ; -tudies", says "When we examine some aSpect of Chinese
society we should make exolicit comparisons with the corre Spending

aSperts of other societies in order to deepen our understanding
at the least and perhaps also to Sp oeed the coming of general
explanatory principles" (1964:527). In th e conclusion of this
paper, I will also ur_=e imiigrants from India and EurOpe as
comparative data in order to show that, given certain common

conditions or processes, the same kind of patterns can occur

’1

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in widely different cultures and area. 0 the world.

 

.. l oncrt Histrrg 0L Chinese Emicration

‘tgm T'a'w Sung, Yuan and Wing dynasty records, we Know

that chines: intercourse with Southeast Asia began quite early.

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has hagpened in the past must be viewed in the context 0

the historical background and social and political conditions.

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here is evidence that at least three centuries before

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the Christian era, Chinese merchants had reached the coast of

South China and contacted the peogles of the Indo—Chinese

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peninsula (Wane 195 Yet, it was not until the third
century A.U. that Chinese merchants and artisans began to settle

in Vietnam (Rohequaln 1944:32), and later in Cambodia and Siam

(Purcell 1965z9).

Chinese merchants and pioneers along the Salween, Irrawaddy,
and Chindwin rivers oenetratel into Burma in the beginning of the
second century 3.C., but hev began to settle there much later
(Chu 1J57:193}. From the beginning of the second century A.D.,
the Chinese stirted commercial intercourse with the Cdflytries

of the ialay Archipelago (Simoniya lOCl:9). In addition,

relationships were estahlished with Java in the figth century

\.¢.

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'T‘e: r+:rirnfl ‘7rcri tflie ifi-l“ec1 t}: Genitiir;r‘tc> t
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cehtury was important metauee various Burepeens arrived in

~ing center on the west

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outh-ast Asia.

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—- C ’"- .\ ~ . «— ,-\ -.—. ‘-. » n '. ‘ l .
ccret rm iJse‘ a.ay “on.nsela, was taken.rgrflm;'?orrhguese who
a"! ' - —- - j ' ‘—4 Una" / q;- ' 4. \. .. " u —‘ a: . .. A
22’7”] l" I." r__ Cr :3 l r: n \ J L" ( ”F 0““ LCCL‘ t "3g 4.9 l N. {LC ‘5 I twf-BILLh

‘ -

century (Ween: 195$:xxii). from 156? to 1999, the Philitrines

were under Beanieh control (Purcell lQCE:FG7‘

A ’1 : . - e. V ‘« “Q t 4 “ n- —' W, . P. —. .. a.” m ‘-‘ fl . 1 .

in all tie., the oittn eetarlieheu thezselve; in Java in
1679 (“an l:¢?:2). Fr the miG—seienteen+h C'ntur“ the whole
‘I ‘ N - -\ - 1 ‘ - - —— N A ; - Q . - ,
pro irele;c ”at t*-er +z~ r control, ahw Fortncueee -n-1uence

~~( . ’5 F‘v‘. "UF - ~‘- ' : i" “ 0 ~\ a
enoed in Inmonelia, C4C€Et in Timer (Purcell 19n5:;01).

‘ - -- '.- A 1" ~ , ~. ~ -- - '--‘ r—
T‘i clfllal e_ +h: gulolcofi- sis e tUlang—EOlHC Jtr
304thgast Asia eni lav table traving o nortunities “or the
~A-
Ctineseo Che dee're to heretit ecofieWically from the colonies

led the Euregean 1<einistrators to use Special eolici:s with

regarfl to the Chinese. "Cn the one hanfl, they encouraged

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immigration in oroer that the .‘ese might provile coolie

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labor and enereyreneurial services, relaxed restrictions, anr

permitted Opportunities lor “refit. On the other hand, they
maintained control bx limiting eccuPations Open to the Chinese

and restricting areas of settlement" (Louis 1967:25).

Fence, Chinese immioration raeiilv increased in the seven—

~v:

teenth century. Es a result, Sganish an} Dutch fears that the
Chinese woull challenge their authority anfl cwoyete with their

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‘ifih trade, led to a series of massacres o the Chinese peeple

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in t'm region. The ma eacrgs CE 1603 and 1639 in the Philippines

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resulted in the death of about 46,000-47,00C Chinese (Chen 1963:
143—145) 5 (Felix 1356:7“J. The same method was used by Dutch
authori“ies id fava a” well as ianaiwan. In Tatlvia’alone
ahout -T¢ Chi.osa “wees wrre glundered and Burned, ani thousands
of Ch gaze inhigrants were killcfl in 1743 (Kwa~Chiao—chih 1°75:
ll"). ' T “ .ui, alcut.l,’“‘3 "h ,";2“ 2.}tillcfi tartflne uh L
1 ‘” T ’ ‘ L 1762:1“.
-itar the Lownfall of the king dynasty in 1644, the Manchu

b? fh'ing figuasty came to power. Unwillingness to submit to

tie rrlv of the Eereign conqueror caused a wave of emigration

from the southeastern '.=gicn of China to Southeast Asia anfl

After 1739 the Zritish began to make settlements in the
Yalay Peninsula (Purcell 1965: 25), ana later in Bu ma (af ter
1852l (ihidz53). Toward the enfi of the nineteenth century,

France became establishe‘ in Indochina (ibiflzlEB).

ks first Grimm War (1839-13”2), Chinese emigration

\! til.) t O t A ‘ v *
’l

was due mainly to politil cal factors. -etnom*c factors Pla'td

er raleo he situation hegan to change after the failure

J

a l~

(I)
U)
D)

of the Ch'ing dynasty to defeat the Br '-ti ;‘h in 1812. Economic

factors then :ecame the ruling causes of Chinese emigration.

Ca aritalisn anfl im; eria lism develoged in the nineteenth
century fiemande ed a large numter of coolie laborers. The

BelCemefl newsonrrss an-l provilfed attractivw incentives to settlers.

This stimulated a mass 1grati n cf Chin3se 1n the A1 -n1rere~nth
century. fatv Chingse quickly settled in Singapore, the Talay
Peninsula, and later Sarawak and North Borneo (Lee 1963:209-

At the end of the nineteenth century and the beginning of
the twentieth century, an increase in the number of women
immigrants brought a vital change to the demographic pattern
of Chinese settlements in Southeast Asia. Finally, in 1949,

the Chinese Comm nist :arty stablished a Peeple's Republic in

C)

the mainland of China and so closed the door to Chinese em‘gra—

 

tion to 271%? art 3 in and other parts of the wcrld
A H, Causes of Cliinese Emigrati01
is i'“ ;t:ting that the majority of the Chinese emigra atyi
from t‘: two ' acheastern of six coastal Chinese provinces:
Fu“?*x and frangtungo In addition, they are not d.rawn fron

all garts if these two, but are recruited from a few districts
or village; ntar the cities of Amoy in Fukien and Canton in

Kwangtung. kiy did tarticular villages in Southeastern China

Specialize in sending their members abroad? Partial answers to
this q1> -7 ray Ou ath' from historical ma erial, and

.“

field stwfiy would cc rtainly heln us to understand more (Freedman

.1:

v~ ~— \
We work of Freedman (1:57), nuang (1954), Lee (1:66;,

32inx3r (1962), Counhlin (1»60), Uillmctt (19:7) T'i en (19,,),

H.-- 11 I (”f'\ «'3 . :
~W-';¢ \lZLJ), QLMOQ;

f”
3
l
(

if.:.r:1-"3‘;:iao—Chih etc., the factors which cau 3-3 d or encoura

w

tL: Chinese exigrat ion ni3ht 0e summarized as follows:

I \ T\. _ ° ._‘ - , ... 5' .1 fl .. __._ _ ‘ _g _, x _ - . ’ _ H

g1; mail“; the fun oyno ii, the CKIHC3t p3”gle 1n the Yandt e

v ’u 1.“.wv . fl '- w -‘ ~ ~- ~ -‘ . ( 4'- . s- 1- A V- -

lel3y and lui‘hcr nortn migra3ed into tuc stu‘nw‘ctern and
vw' ~ -~ - —‘ -~ .--s ”w. \ - . -- A H V "V —‘ u. c ..‘-' vyu. -. ‘\ ‘ q ”A r ‘ . f‘l

Smnihuuctuiu rroyince3. 3ecau3e L1 LLB «Lhfltalnn EUJ Hlllo

of Sauth China, contact with forth China was easy by sea and

- *trc- HL 1 1 a mu', __m :
11cu- C" iani. 11.15 .t ccd the cevelr moment of

A

F)

coastal fiiun1na in the southsrstern pr vinees of China. The

'5 1.. L. ~- ‘ '1.-‘,.- c. 1. -5 . 3R. ‘ -'-‘ r, e,‘ , ~. -
jun... c- . {Allen uC‘lcfltEdbt Iiula YII’LLCL". 1c.vll.o:-Ier1..a3 <10 extens1on
A ~ 1 " ‘ '1 r" ‘ ': «L. 1 \

SL’lAt’L. - r Cl. C1133 CC-C 5:, .L pulprint . .

”ider these conditions, the earliest contacts with the

a '_, —.< V 1a" ‘ I? - x r (w '- “”1 ‘3. M“. . 1 4- -\ .,..‘.- .1. -:
ou{_; Merle were -33alml 5neu malnl" throuan gerts in

e

and in Kwangtung (e.g. Ahoy, Swatow, Canton).

.1

-grton hai been a port of international trade since tie late

-~ I q . - ‘ ‘ o '1 I I ._‘ V ‘ - L- I .-‘_
"3ng dynasty. Thus, the Chincae in this area ncr' the Llrot
u." ‘ a a m . a “ r o ' q
3 o .ueiness m1’n ttr3ign traders.
I a h I" . “ - — ,."Q ‘ "I'm ‘ '\ ~“' , w " ~" " V'. w. .4 w _ Q’- - .-
3L .OyUlathQ pl‘3suic pron tne land aite rs to be greatest

,outheasttrn Cnina. In Fukien, ove rpo ct ulation was mentioned

.L

H
:3
I

an - -~ W H -A p- v -‘ N .— ‘- -I~- 4-“) -1 ‘ . r- 'i '7 Q
as early as the 3un3 dynastv. Fur3he1‘3ra, tne Chinese Contact

with Euregeans led to the int wrotuCtion 31 SW;LC potatoes and

r- 5‘ - - ~ 7- - / ---\/ 1 v
continuei no to the elllv HlDBLcdntn century.

:ortion

v~‘ ro""y'» .
1-3. __ ).
.J

In Fukien,
ung only

cultivating.

Tcnomic u’velrnx nt i

any Chinese
wraoed
J

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nan}!

the urban

'"1

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up

development of fiie

brought many Chine

1

Feast Agia. For

i alreaiy estac lishei bet

«I .-
93119:;

of mountainuous and

only 12

Asia and Southern

IIGEXV

instance

EZC’re ,

1

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hilly terrain,

(U1._t\’

and climatic

t'- /

tcaboard Of C

r

U)

n China curing th‘

influotries in the t

th

H
m
H
{.4

‘T'

U]

m

Ports, eon
J.

An3lo—Chinese Trea

e .Ti ration to Bout

(6.3
and internal reLcllionn

wavec of Chinese

and

ste lin nes in the

1.71:1qu

5e emigrant .5

‘, in 1870's,

twccn Tainlanfl China

Java, Sumatra,

there'

in Sou h

i

of uncultivable land in Fukien and in

hirl'a o

0‘an S

U]

M

&

ecially Hong

ty of

i;:a-:‘+_ \—

nine

at“

teen"?13

S a

similarity

and

W

3) of the total area

ixteenth century

der

L‘.Ong ’

194

Sung-Yuan—E ii m3—

teen

{J1

ti}:

C

q
1..

th

in

lincfi

{C} 'gtural calamities also stimulated emigration. For eanple,
Frv' 1:90 to 1626, famine raged 18 times (ab ut once in every
1” 333rs) in Southern China. It was even worse in Fukien.

n3 1369-1615, there were 29 droughts, and the pepulation

”Cered from famine 20 times from 1416-1635 (Chen 1940:9—10).

\

«
"1

J

ifipire in lfl33, it became necessary for the various colonial
ylantations to obtain labour from Infiia and China (Gangulee
3947:213. A large scale labour force was necessary in South-
east Asian countries, esPecially in Malaya, Indonesia, British

Torneo and partially in Vietnam and Thailand.

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“n Burma, nearly half of Chinese immiNrants are found

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1
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of thc“ -~ 1iving

in town: cf 40,000 or more inhahitants.
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immi rig“: resiée in the urban {art of Singagore (1961:3-).

c “ 11 halls; :nfl p‘rtly to the mercantile origins of their
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alpfloh, in her book, ‘inrrity >rohlens in Southeast
A ia, stat s that "tn? economic grip on the Chinese Upon South-
C1?” “sia's acenrny is grotahly the hasic cause of the infigtnou;
4 (:1es' rosehtzent and f?ar of the chinese minority. Their
Jo ition is the more remarkable when one realizes that tho
Ci-r;:e iorm only G roreant of the region's total nodulaticn.
Tfiinese are to he fsund throughout the entire economic gamut.
‘“:ir lip”ILZQC; in the different occupations varies from
e'untrg tx country but everywhere they dominate commercial
life, os;ecially ,he rltail treae" (l:55:4)?
' It is well—kiown that the Chinese have long glayed a
k:; tact in sontn"ist Asian economy. During the Zurofean
Locu;ation, Thailcnd was the only infiependent country in South-
east :-ia. -hus western colon'alisn and the Industrial Revolu—
tion gravidefl a uaSLS which encouraved the role that the Chinese
c“-ivefl in Southeast lsian economies.
D I
It is necessary to examine the economic role of the
Chirise in Southeast Asia. The question which I want to deal
with in this section is to what extent the Chinese in Southeast

riculture and labour.

the Philippines

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esoecially in Hanila (:chell lum5z522).

finezw, before 1932, conductcfl

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unfl red nag Liam “mull; to the Laficteat CCthrb of Lhm :hll

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{33‘ h.) 196?:1). fiben Bfircgzan? 5;“Rtra%cfi tfle hinfierlani
Cf "1;? 1‘ 1f30'3, Cflfincie ovcrlafii trafg had already DCCU
: “« 3+akTishe3.
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Tfig;;awfl is an agricultural society. The Chinese here

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D(:’T'~L€'S-Clc 5;: JeerC‘“ 19’J1.0 /. J 24,540 LJ....~
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—- - . a - a. . '21 n rm
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in tin—minihi, the Eurorcau owwefi E7 LEI cent of the mining
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