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The Role of Values in Higher Education:
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Maxie S. Gordon, Jr.

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THE ROLE OF VALUES IN HIGHER EDUCATION:

AN EXPLORATORY STUDY

BY

Maxie S. Gordon, Jr.

AN ABSTRACT OF
A DISSERTATION

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of Administration and
Higher Education

1978

ABSTRACT

THE ROLE OF VALUES IN HIGHER EDUCATION:
AN EXPLORATORY STUDY

BY

Maxie S. Gordon, Jr.

The purpose of this dissertation is an attempt to
explicate the role of values in higher education. It
is, to be sure, exploratory in nature but based on well-
established philosophical and educational works, with
particular emphasis on the writings of Plato, Frederick
Nietzsche, and John Dewey--a1though the writer takes
the position that it is impossible to treat seriously
problems that are central to the study of values with-
out discussing such thinkers as Epicurus, Epictetus,
Locke, Bentham, Mill, Kant, Hobbes, Ayer, Sartre (and
a literal host of others) who also offered to the Western
world comprehensive views on theories of value.

Moreover, the writer has attempted to bring
together the contributions of the three principal
scholars named above, along with the contributions of
several other scholars, in such a way as to examine in
a serious fashion, the different interpretations of the

term "value" given via philosophy, education and science

Maxie S. Gordon, Jr.

as well. The reader should bear in mind, too, the fact
that there are fgw_subjects in all of philosophy, and
education (and, indeed, in the society at large) that
are more complex and controversial than that of values.

The thesis is argued that each educator ought
to develop a philosophical basis, methodology and values
approach to teaching, whether or not he/she happens to
be in the actual classroom setting,that will enable,
especially those students in higher education, to develop
higher levels of moral reasoning. In this regard, the
writer takes the position posited by Robert B. Bloom,

. . . that "compared to college students in other fields,
future teachers do not seem to have developed high levels
of moral reasoning.” A discussion of the implications of
the above for undergraduate education in the American
colleges and universities constitutes a great deal of

the substance, focus, and subject matter of this disser—
tation.

The author further takes the position that each
educator has a moral responsibility to systematically and
rationally investigate and develop not only their own
value stance, but of at least equal importance, to con-
tinually raise and attempt to resolve the crucial moral
dilemmas that confront all of us of the 20th century.

The writer further takes the position that the

use of the term values throughout this dissertation is

Maxie S. Gordon, Jr.

intended to communicate the general overall interest in
the broad field of values, with particular emphasis on
moral values. It is the opinion of many that moral
values are considered as the primary values and serve,
in many ways, as exemplars of other types of values.

In a word, values constitute the primary and inclusive
category; moral values are considered a sub-category of
values--and they are considered by this writer to be the
most important sub-category. Obviously, there are
other categories as well, namely: esthetic values,
religious values and political values, etc.

Lastly, some recommendations are made for further
theoretical, philosophical and empirical exploration and
extension of this one of many attempts to develop a
comprehensive theory of the role of values in higher
education. This extension is accompanied by some con-
cern for the pragmatic or practical aspects of what has

been presented in this dissertation.

DEDICATION

This dissertation is dedicated to my two beauti-
ful little children, Maxie S. Gordon, III (age 8) and
Alethea Baleria Gordon (age 5)--and to their children
after them--in the hope that they too shall continually
be of spirit, unity, substance, vision, integrity, love
and peace. Always remember that where there is no

vision and no unity, a people perish. You are the change

 

if change is to come. It will not be easy; in days to

 

come the road will be rough, but I cannot ask anymore of
you than this, to give your very best. And in times like

these, I cannot ask any less.

ii

SPECIAL ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

In any endeavor of such magnitude as that required
via the extensive writing, editing and research activity
that goes into the successful completion of a doctoral
dissertation, a number of people should be given at
least honorable mention. However, space limitations
permit me to name only a few.

To my Graduate Committee Chairman, Dr. Paul L.

Dressel, I am deeply grateful for the extensive guidance

 

and supervision he has given to my research activities,
over the course of the past 2 1/2 years. In addition,
he has proven to be more than merely one of the profes-
sors with whom I happen to have come in contact during
the course of my graduate studies. Needless to say, he
has given me a great deal to reflect about, in the
broad area of values in education; so much so that it
would literally take a life time to digest it all. He
has nurtured me from the "embryonic" stage with respect
to some crucial issues in the field of Higher Education.
And given me the opportunity to broaden my scope of
thinking to include a wide range of educational alterna-

tives. I acclaim him as truly an educator, a scholar, a

man of vision, understanding and compassion--and, lastly,
as my FRIEND.

To my brother, Dr. Thomas A. Gordon, special
thanks is also due. For he has on so many occasions
given me sound advice about matters pertaining directly
to the writing of this dissertation. Moreover, he has
helped me to "better focus in" on some of the practical
problems associated with any attempt to develop a con-
sistent and comprehensive theory regarding values develop—
ment, in the field of higher education. Lastly, I feel
that he possesses that special combination of {are
qualities that will, to be sure, one day mark him as
truly an outstanding educator.

Naturally, to my wife, (lloria Beryl Gordon, who
has been my companion, my love, and my life for the past
12 1/2 years, I am also deeply grateful. For she has
stood by me on so many occasions in the midst of extreme-
ly rough and unsettled times. Still further, I have
welcomed her "illuminating" comments about this disser-
tation from the time that it was merely an idea in my
mind, then on to the "drawing board" and, lastly, in
the final stages of preparation of the manuscript.

Being a teacher and an educator herself and, I might add,
well-qualified in her own right, she has brought a

combination of humor and comfort by—way-of a positive

iv

attitude about my research efforts, during this most
difficult period of my life.

Thus, I feel that the following words most aptly
sum up my feelings about this truly remarkable woman,
viz.:

Grow strong, my comrade . . . that you may stand
unshaken when I fall; that I may know the

shattered fragments of my song will come at last
to finer melody in you; that I may tell my heart

that you begin where passing I leave off, and
fathom more.*

 

*From the opening lines of Will Durant's "The
Story of PhilOSOphy," page iv.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I am deeply indebted to my parents, the Reverend
(Dr.) Maxie S. Gordon, Sr. and Dr. Ethel M. Gordon,
for the foundation they laid so many years ago. Above
all they planted not only the moral seeds for my spiritual
develOpment but of at least equal importance they in-
stilled in me a desire to achieve a higher education.

Against the background of a deep Southern up-
bringing--and a way of life that was filled with racial
bigotry, hatred and injustice for Black men, especially-—
they always countered any negative experiences that I
had with a positive philosophy. Thus, there are no
words that could fully express my gratitude, respect and
LOVE for them.

Thank-you very much Mom and Dad for seeing me
through (spiritually and at times financially) the suc—
cessfixlcompletion of the doctoral degree.

To Dr. William J. Callaghan I owe a great deal
of thanks for nurturing my academic and personal develop-
ment over the course of the past 16 years. In a very
real sense I have grown into "academic manhood" under
his tutelage, and as a result of testing my ideas and

various theories with him. (Obviously, I have grown

vi

immensely from these transactions.) Additionally, he
deserves special credit in far too many ways to mention
here as it would literally take a dissertation to point
out all of the unique qualities that he possesses.
Suffice it to say that he and his wife, Mary, will always
be treasured friends. And I acclaim them both as dis-
tinguished from the "herd."

To Dr. Gwendolyn Norrell I am especially grateful
for all of the support and encouragement (and, yes, even
the "prodding") that she has given to me, since as far
back as 1964. To be sure, her interest in and support
of my tetal_welfare has been far more than that shown me
by most human beings. She is extremely warm, sensitive
and cordial and with the power of her convictions. She
has been an educator, a counselor, a professional col-
league and an inspiration to me and to other students
with whom she has come in contact. Always a champion of
"social justice" and human rights for all peoples, I
feel that my life has truly been enriched as a result of
knowing and having worked with her.

To Dr. Louis C. Stamatakos I would also like to
express my gratitude and appreciation for the assistance
he rendered me, both in terms of the preparation of the
dissertation and the advancement of my thinking on values
education. In a word, this special recognition is due

him because he has worked so closely with me during the

vii

course of my graduate career--and, still further, his
consultations, moral support and friendship have been
unwaivering sources of support. Lastly, he has displayed
a marvelous sense of humor, irrespective of circumstance;
and is without equal in matters pertaining to the critique
of students' term papers and reports, et. a1.

It is doubtful if the present study could have
been completed if it were not for the generous and con-
tinued support that I received by-way-of a Fellowship
from The National Fellowships Fund (The Ford Foundation).
This award permitted me continued usage of funds for
research purposes; a special dissertation grant; a sti-
pend for "basic" living expenses for my family; as well
as a budget for those consumable supplies and items that
were required to see the dissertation through to frui-
tion. A special word of gratitude in this regard is
due to Dr. Samuel M. Nabrit, Executive Director of the
Fund, and to his administrative associate, Miss Lottie
Bw Goodwin.

The final acknowledgment must, of necessity, go
to a numberlof "key" people who have performed vital
typing and editing assistance, especially in regard to
the final preparation of the dissertation manuscript.
Thus to Cara Vaughn, Jo Grandstaff, Jan High, and Ann
Byrne of Ann Brown Printing and Typing, I say thank-you

again for the quality of your work. Whenever I look

viii

in this dissertation, I'll always remember the hard
work that you too put into it, and the degree of
interest you had in seeing that it was done properly

and on time.

ix

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter Page
I INTRODUCTION 0 O O O O O O O O O O l
The Classical Perspective . . . . . . . 2

American Universities Since the
Colonial Period . . . . . . . . . 9

The Modern Perspective . . . . . . . . 16
II REVIEW OF LITERATURE . . . . . . . . 21

Plato . . . . . . . . . . . .. . 23

Nietzsche . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
An Appraisal . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Dewey . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

III A PERSONAL APPROACH TO VALUES DEVELOPMENT . 62

Theme 1: Outer Limits or Environment . . . 76
Theme 2: Inner Limits . . . . . . . . 80
Theme 3: Culture . . . . . . . . . 82
Theme 4: Community . . . . . . . . . 84
Theme 5: Healthy Habitat . . . . . . . 86
Theme 6: Productivity . . . . . . . . 88

IV CONCLUDING STATEMENT . . . . . . . . 96

BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

The present crisis in American education is very
largely the result of attempting to provide students
with a sound education without requiring of them the
necessary self-discipline and hard work. Students
have been led to believe they can achieve without
effort, that all they need do in order to obtain a
good education is skip blithely down the royal road
to learning. The catch, however, is that what
appears to be a royal road to learning is no more
than a detour to the dead end of ignorance.

Steven M. Cahn
"The Myth of the Royal Road"
The Andover Review

xi

 

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CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

For the past two years or so, the writer has
become increasingly aware of the vast domain associated
with values in education. In addition to the above, the
reader should bear in mind, too, the fact that there are
few subjects in all of philosophy and education
(and, indeed, in the society at large) that are more
complex and controversial than that of values.

This controversy and complexity is extremely
important for especially the educator as not only must
he/she deal with the notion of values within the context
of the university community in which educators live and
Operate but, of even greater significance, they (i.e.
the "breed" of teachers and educators) generally
determine what specific values will be passed on to
future generations; via which media they will be trans-
mitted; and furthermore, to HERE they will be transmitted.

Thus, in this dissertation in general and in
Chapter I in particular, the author wishes to stress the
point that one cannot separate his/her education from
the values climate of their society. In this regard the
process of educating is ALWAYS dependent on whg "knows"

l

what about nature to "pass on" to whom, in what form
when and where! The focus of this dissertation though
chiefly concerned with the role that values should play
in modern American universities--which are for the most
part located within "mass society"-- does, nevertheless,
make an attempt to draw upon several of the Platonic
dialogues for the purpose of showing that serious social
thinkers hgyg been deeply concerned with the problem of

values for thousands of years.

The Classical Perspective

Human values are difficult to define, and even
more difficult to agree upon. For example,jxithe fifth
century BC in Athens, Greece, the problem of the univer—
sal nature of values and whether they could be taught
was vigorously debated by Socrates and his opponents, the
Sophists. The discouraging conclusion of one of the most
brilliant Sophists, Gorgias, was that no absolute values
exist; that if they did exist, they would be impossible
to understand with the inadequate tools of human reason;
and if by some miracle, these values wgpg comprehended,
they could not be communicated. Socrates obviously

thought otherwise. He believed that a universal system of

 

human values existed, spanning cultural, geographic, and
temporal distances; and that it was the duty of each per-

son to come to an understanding of these values.

For Socrates, all evil was the result of ignor-
ance; with knowledge of the True came the desire and
ability to do the Good. To be sure, in his commitment
to his calling as a teacher Socrates lived out his belief
that human values could and must be communicated.

Rhetoric, the "technique or art of persuasion,"
as defined by Gorgias,l was adhered to, primarily by the
SOphists, and their influence was felt all over ancient
Greece. -But, always constantly challenging and quizzing
them, to the delight of especially the young men of
Athens, was Socrates, who sought to examine and know the
truth.

Many historians have attempted to compare
Socrates and the Sophists, as both were interested in man
and in human problems, but, there was a vast difference
between them. The difference lay within their methods
and in their ideals. The Sophists were professional
teachers who boasted of their knowledge and their own
success. They were given to long discussions on the
problems of life, exercising particular care for the
rhetoric exercised in such harangues.

Socrates, on the other hand, professed ignorance

and a willingness to be taught, for his heart was set on

 

1Edith Hamilton and Huntington Cairns, The Col-
lected Dialogues of Plato, (New York: Random House, Inc),
p. 236.

seeking the truth. His own discussions were simple in
appearance but in context and purpose extremely subtle.
His goal was not his own glory but the improvement of the
souls of men, for this he considered the command or
mission given him by the gods. Thus, in his approach to
a problem, he came to develop his own "method of conver-
sation," a dialectic aimed at the true good of his
Opponent. We may conclude, therefore, that in place of
the SOphists sham2 display of learning he (Socrates)
sought true knowledge, and to their constant chattering

he opposed thought provoking discussion. The Sophists,

 

however, made knowledge a public thing, with intellectual

 

frivolity as a result. Socrates in reaction withdrew

 

into the world of thought and reflection to recover his
own intellectual stability; and when he then emerged
into public life, it was to bring man to his form of
wisdom.

In the Protagoras, a young man by the name of

 

Hippocrates, eagerly awakens Socrates before daybreak,
in order that he might take leave of him to learn from
the leading Sophist of their day. When questioned by

Socrates as to his concern with the aged Protagoras,

the young man laughingly replied to Socrates that "he

 

23. W. F. Tomlin, The Great Philosophers of the

Western World, (New York: A. A. Wyn, Inc., 1952), p. 77.

 

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[Socrates] was keeping his wisdom to himself instead of
sharing it with him [Hippocrates]."3 Never weary of
investigation, Socrates immediately began to examine and
question the young man, attempting to find out if it were
his intention to go to Protogoras and pay him a fee; for
he supposed Hippocrates to have no knowledge of what he
is contemplating doing.4 And, in fact, Socrates did use
the Sophist technique while actually waging a real battle
against their teachings. Thus Socrates undertakes to
make Hippocrates think about what he is doing, as he
shouldn't lightly place himself into the hands of someone
whom he does not know to teach him he knows not what!
This incident introduces a most important concept

involved in Socrates life of strenuous examination-—that

 

of the concept of the soul, and its relationship to man.
The soul, for Plato and for Socrates is the intellectual

and moral personality, the most important part of man.5

 

3Hamilton and Cairns, p. 308. Furthermore, the
dialogue displays "a picture of Greek life or interest
the Athenians took in the purely intellectual."

4Ignatius Brady, A History of Ancient Philosophy,
(Milwaukee: The Bruce Publishing Company, 1939), p. 76.
The above notion of receiving fees for their teaching was
quite germane to the SOphist, though ruat to Socrates.
Concerning this difference, Brady states: "Externally,
perhaps Socrates was so like the Sophists, except for the
fact that he took no fees, that a superficial observer
like Aristophanes was led to number him among them. "

5A. H. Armstrong, Introduction to Ancient Philo-
sophy, (Boston: Beacon, 1963), p. 40.

Its significance is readily seen as Socrates points out
to Hippocrates the danger to which he was about to
expose his soul, as he foolishly is about to put his
(and possibly his friend's) money, and his whole welfare
into the hands of a man about whom he knows nothing.

And thus from this "brief" encounter we might
conclude that Plato intended for us to see 1:172 positive or

favorable results:

1. A young man, in a wild and excited frenzy, who
might have been about to harm something of the
highest value (namely his soul) was saved (as
a result of Socrates' method) from this near
disaster; and,

2. Socrates succeeded in getting Hippocrates to
see, as a result of examination, that the
course of action he previously intended to take
was, by far not the the best course at all.

For Socrates the unexamined life was not worth living,

and thus he confronted his fellow citizens day by day
attempting to get them to utilize "his method," and
thereby seeking knowledge which for him is based on propo-
sitions that have been examined.

The SOphists then were seen as traveling profes-
sors, who were concerned with the art of success in
public life. They spoke eloquently, and used the art
(bf persuasion for both sides of any case. In the
(iialogue concerning Protagoras we see that he is more

Chancerned about his appearance, than anything else, for

he must maintain fame in the public's eye. And, as he

is termed a professional and thus paid quite highly, he

must not falter in his performance. Genuine knowledge

 

was not the chief concern of the SOphists, as they were

 

concerned rather with performance, and eloquence, and

thus they sought to popularize knowledge.6

 

In conclusion, then, before long this brought
with it the subordination of purely theoretical learning

to its practical usefulness, and the Sophists, far from

 

teaching what is most likely true, instructed the yputh

in what is most likely to bear political fruit. Thus,

 

eloquent public appeal and the art of rhetoric soon took

the place of pure science and philosophy. ”In this very

desire," states Runes:7

However, to persuade and refute, the problem
presents itself as to whether among the various
conflicting opinions which the Sophists had taught
their pupils to defend and to oppose, there was
anything of permanent value which could claim the
assent of all men everywhere.

This quest of the universal in knowledge and conduct

 

forms the basis of the Socratic Quest.

We remember the results; unfortunately, Socrates
was condemned to death for impiety and for "corrupting
the morals of the young men of Athens" with his dis-

quieting teaching. Furthermore, we may feel a bit too

6Dagobert D. Runes, Dictionary of Philosoph ,
(New Jersey: Littlefield, Adams & Co., New York) p. 295.

7
Ibid., p. 295.

complacently that we (that is to say, "History") vindi-
cated Socrates, and so absolve ourselves of the guilt of
his death. After all, "everybody" knows his name but
only a few "dusty" old philosophers have ever heard of
Gorgias, Protogoras, and the Sophists. This is an unfor-
tunate assumption: to equate the mgwith the thing it
represents. Because, quite obviously our educational
system today is the natural heir, not of Socrates, but of
Gorgias. We do not believe in a universal system of
human values, equally binding on all people; nor do we
recognize our mandate to communicate these values to our
offsprings as the most precious and useful legacy our
society has to offer.

Socrates' mind was exceptionally clear, critical
and eager. It tolerated no pretense; and since his will
was as strong as his convictions, his conduct was as
logical as his thinking. For in a skeptical age--one
in which Socrates encounters much opposition from the
Sophists or wandering teachers--he believed firmly in
moral goodness as the one thing that matters; and he
identified it with knowledge, because to his straight-
forward nature it seemed inconceivable that anyone should
see what is right without doing it. In a word, then,
llis genuis and his contribution lay in his concern for
humanity, and a commitment to a way of life that so

c=learly indicates his attempt to pgya good or a wise or

a just man. As stated earlier, the author is primarily
concerned in this dissertation with the role that values
should play within higher educational settings, in
modern (mass) American society. However, as was seen
from the foregoing analysis, the raging debate or dis-
course about values did not begin with American colleges
and universities; on the contrary, this controversy
dates back to classical antiquity,8 flourishedthroughout
the middle or dark ages, and still continues today.

Perhaps now it would be appropriate to take a
"brief" look at the historical development of some of
the early American educational institutions, for the
purpose of attempting to answer (in Chapter III) the
poignant question: "How then has it happened that values
teaching has been neglected in American education?"

American Universities Since the
Colonial Period

The first institutions of higher education in
America were founded for the purpose of training the
clergy. Harvard was founded in 1636 explicitly for this
purpose; the same was true of William and Mary, founded

in Virginia in 1693; and of Yale, founded in 1701. The

‘

8Obviously, the attempt at integrating values,
Say, into the Academy for the Master was quite different
frrmithe attempts to do so in the "wider" social context
of the American society.

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case of Yale, however, was somewhat exceptional, as its
stated purpose was the training of both clerical and
civil servants. In addition, these institutions were

both conservative and isolated and compared unfavorably

 

with the universities of the "old world," the latter
being chiefly exponents of classical, liberal and
humanist teachings.

In the eighteenth century, several philosophical
controversies were waged over the nature of higher
education in this country. One such problem, for

example, was the issue of secularization of the univer-

 

sities. To be sure, in New Jersey, the colonists
rejected the New England conservatism that the first
universities reflected. The New Jersey colonists felt
that a liberal, secular system of higher education was
more suited to the colony they were developing. And so
in 1746 Princeton was established by the colonial
government. Moreover, although New Jersey Presbyterians
were behind the project, the institution was secular in
spirit.

Following the Revolution, the Americans were
divided on the States' Rights vs. Federal government
.issue in the field of education, as well as in other
"Key" policy areas. On the one hand, George Washington

311d Benjamin Rush (among others) argued for a national

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university to serve the needs of the new Republic.
Other statesmen, however, championed the concept of
regional centers of higher education--and it was the
ideas of the latter that were eventually adopted.

In any event, the trend toward secularization
was firmly established by this time. It continued with
the establishment of Union School (1759) and Franklin
College (1787), both in Pennsylvania, where both German
and English cultures were to be taught.

Some other secular institutions which were
initiated roughly about this time were King's College in
New York (1754), which would later be called Columbia,
and the College and Academy of Philadelphia (1754), later
called the University of Pennsylvania. Benjamin Franklin
was an active force behind the establishment and guidance
of the latter institution. To some extent he imprinted
upon it his own interest in the study of science and
society more so than in the more traditional disciplines
of religion and the classics.

In the pre-revolutionary war years the pattern
of state-supported secular universities along with
private often denominational institutions became esta-
blished. The first state universities were those of
Ifiorth Carolina (1795) and Georgia (1801). Moreoever,
<>ther states and territories founded their own state

llniversities. Every state now has one or more state

12

supported or state assisted universities. The seculari-
zation process too has affected many smaller colleges
which were originally founded as denominational insti-
tutions. Tufts University (1852) is an example. And
although some of these such schools did, in fact, choose
to retain schools of theology, basically they are secular,
liberal institutions. Even the Catholic universities
have acceded to this trend. Lastly, in this regard, the
major Catholic universities were founded in the pre-
civil war period--with Notre Dame (1844) being one of
fourteen Catholic universities founded during this time.

During the mid-nineteenth century, the universi-
ties began to be regarded more and more as meeting the
material needs of the emerging industrializing nation.
Medical and law schools were established, and other,
more practical arts were incorporated into the curricu-
lums of the existing colleges. The major step in this
area, however, came with the passage of the Morrill or
Land-Grant Act of 1862 which laid the foundation for
the land grant colleges and university system designed
to promote agricultural and mechanical studies.

Most of the large Midwestern universities began
.in this way and contributed to the economic development
(bf predominantly "western" lands as they were opened up.
I3‘Ventually, most of these land grand universities

developed into complex institutions offering a wide

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range of programs including liberal arts courses and
degrees. And although these universities are financially
dependent upon their respective state governments,
whereas private colleges are not, nonetheless, in the
opinion of the writer, it is the large state universities
that, in this century, have been the more liberal and
radical educational centers in this country. To be sure,
perhaps these institutions did (or do) provide the inde-
pendent decentralism which the early leaders of the
"Republic" sought in opposing a national university sys-
tem such as, for example, that adopted by France. In
any event, education in the Western states and terri-
tories became more public—-if one may say so--than it
was in the East.

Another trend, and the one that as we shall see
in Chapter III of this dissertation has had a profound
effect on my thinking about how values have shaped our
present educational institutions, was the belated recog-
nition of the necessity for the education of women and
Blacks (and, later, other minority groups as well) on a
level comparable to that provided for white males. The
first separate-but-equal women's colleges were Vassar
(1861), Smith (1875), and Wellesley (1875). Later,
'“affiliated” colleges such as Radcliffe (Harvard) and

Barnard (Columbia) were founded. The first coeducational

14

college, and the first college to admit Blacks, was
otnerlin (1833) in Ohio. In addition to the above the
first all Black, or at that time all Negro college, was
the Ashman Institute (1854). sanctioned by the state of
Pennsylvania and was later called Lincoln University.
FiskUniversity was founded in 1866 at Nashville; Howard
was founded in Washington in 1867 and named for General
Oliver 0. Howard, the "Christian general", and lastly,
Tuskegee was established in Alabama in 1881. These
schools were developed, obviously, as a consequence of

Reconstruction politics.9 And it is questionable, that

 

9For many slaves in the South, freedom came at
different times and in different ways. In a word,
actual freedom for many and perhaps most, did not come
until the war had ended; constitutionally, it became a
reality only with the ratification of the Thirteenth
Amendment in December, 1865. But the commitment of the
nation to the principle of freedom far all had been
made in 1863 when President Lincoln issued the Emancipa-
tion Proclamation, declaring the essential inconsistency
of slavery with the American democratic creed. The
Proclamation thus had answered one question, namely, that
of the future of human bondage in America; but it too
left unanswered another that was no less critical, that
of the future place of the former bondsmen in a so-called
free society. For a further discussion of this point the
reader should see: B. A. Botkin, Lay My Burden Down: A
fjglk Historyfiof Slavery (Chicago:fi‘l945), p.*267. Also
see, Martin B. Duberman, In White America (New York: The
.American Library, 1965), p. 56.

 

 

 

 

is, ‘

firfifl
Boy‘s

u
:Y'é
“U V i

can

U»
Ll.

15

is, Open to debate, whether much more than a "little"
progress has been made, to date, in this area.

To continue, in 1876 graduate education began in
earnest at John Hopkins. Furthermore, a cursory review
of our history points out the fact that this seems to
have been a response inoreso to the mediocrity of Ameri-
can high school and college education than for a desire
for superiority in advanced studies. For prior to 1890,
most wealthy students were sent to Europe for college.
Additionally, American colleges also suffered from a
failure to attract European scholars. Thus, America's
isolationism in this period was cultural as well as
political.

In the latter part of the nineteenth century
there emerged a trend away from fixed curriculums in
favor of a move toward elective programs. This change
also followed from the prevailing political phiIOSOphy
in basically three ways:

1. It was assumed that college students were
entitled to decide the course of their own
education(s);

2. It was thought that political and economic free-
dom implied the doctrine of freedom in educa-
tion; and, lastly,

3. It was felt that the more traditional schools

were out of step with the scientific and social
advances of the period.

16

The Modern Perspective

Turning to the modern perspective, perhaps the
most glaring fact of the twentieth century is the des—
truction of values that has occurred in our time. For
the loneliness, emptiness, and anxiety indicate that we
can no longer ride on the goals of the past; for obvious-
ly these goals have pgp resolved the particular dilemmas
which nearly everyone of us faces today. In a word,
then, one can hardly ignore what happens when a society
loses its center of values.

Putting the point still further, in the judgment of
the author, the most serious general problem facing not
only us as a nation today but facing the entire world
also seems to be the problem of values. It can be
assumed naturally that there are literally hundreds of
other related problems that every human being must face--
but, in the final analysis, most of us are struggling
with the deterioration of morality in the highest sense.

The waves of massacres, devastations, and
tyranny in the middle twentieth century point out a
crucial lesson to us all, namely: that far, far too
many were willing to stand by silently and watch Hitler
SO audaciously flout the humanistic and Hebrew-Christian
Values of this period.

In addition, it was the brillant and insightful

Eihilosopher Frederick Nietzche who pointed out to us in

I
F
1

L)

t?

17

the 20th century the fact that science in the late nine-
teenth century was becoming a factory and he feared that
man's great advances in science and techniques without

a parallel advance in ethics and self-understanding would
lead to nihilism.

In other words, Nihilism is the philosophy which
points out the story of the tragedy that comes to men
and nations when survival conditions are no longer pre—
sent. Thus, nihilism as a social doctrine warns us
that "progress" is possible only through the destruction
of all economic, moral, social, political and religious
institutions and organizations in the society. According
to Nietzche, unless our society does have a radical
advance in ethics and morality to match its progress in
technology, then we are all doomed to the eventual total
destruction of this world.

It must be apparent also to at least the enlight—
ened people in this nation that none of us, from the
oldest to the youngest American, can escape the conse-
quences of the continuing social, political, economic,
moral and religious decay of the major cities in this
nation. Still further, we live increasingly in a
Inulti-cultural and multi-racial world. And, because of
the rapid mobility and technological conditions of this
Ilation, coupled with continental or global impact of

the media, people of different value systems are living

 

.1?

M"

v
a!

18

not only next to each other but are to a great extent
influenced by each other's values and value systems, even
though literally living thousands of miles apart. What
happened in Viet Nam is a case in point of this.

Thus, the author is convinced now that one of
the problems we need to study in higher education is £23
role that values should play in educational settings.
In one way or another, values "crop-up" in EXEEX phase of
education, in decisions as to who gets to teach, and to
what is taught: when, where and via which media it is
taught. In a very real sense then values are not only
inextricably linked to every facet of the educational
process, but no such facet is etler value neutral.

In other words, universities do _n_o_t exist in a

vacuum. For example, it is the opinion of the author

 

that values imply "evaluationfigprocesses at work. That

is to say, in this society the person or the social

unit has placed a greater "weight" on some object or

(event—-and has maintained that, more or less, it ought
tn) be considered "good," or "right," etc. A case in
ENDint of this is the recent controversy over whether or
Ilc>t Black History and Black Studies should be taught
5111 the schools. Thus, values are always positive or
Iléagative, depending on where you stand in the culture
Eirléi, to be sure, what one has to either gain or lose. A

Value is never neutral.

b~'

"V
in

r)

r—fi

19

In addition to the above, and for quite some
time now, the author has argued that the philosophical
curriculum slant or point of view, if instituted on a
mass scale at such an institution as Michigan State
University, pill lead to more ethical or value conscious
people. At the very least, it is the opinion of the
author, that such efforts would sharpen one's powers of
critical thinking--although it is evident that MSU encoun-
ters a number of forces which stand in the way of the
recognition and realization of certain important values.
If it were possible to reduce or eliminate some of these
negative forces, we could expect muchmore positive out-
comes from those persons who are ultimately responsible
for determining what subject matter will or will not be
studied; and the form that it will be transmitted to
future generations.

In the final analysis, it is the author's belief
that values education is, on the one hand, a source of
great hope and inspiration for our society at large;
<On.the other hand, cluttered with its own internal
inconsistencies. But the question of values (and the
Llltimate dignity and freedom of man) confronts us as
educators today more critically than ever before. Our

£3<:ientific and technological achievement, our engagement
jLII the pursuit of peace, the ggpiggg possibilities

fiLIlherent in a thermonuclear war, the mass of problems

20

related to the population explosion, the age-Old problem
of class versus class, nation versus nation, race versus
race will continue to vex and haunt us unless we as
educators focus serious attention upon those kinds of
problems that involve value dimensions and the future

of people in the 20th century.

Frederick Nietzsche once remarked, prOphetically,
that men are no longer creative and critical. They
cling to dogma, absolutes and mistakes, namely, mistaken
standards and thus they fail to realize that "everything
absolute belongs to pathologyu lAccording to him, men
exalt everything but the right thing, from reason and
logic to pessimism and pity.

In sum, mankind in the twentieth century is weak,
dishonest, and decadent, and hypocritcal, His gply
hope for regeneration is a pg! perspective on life.
Still further, we need to know, according to Nietzsche,
W§Y_we believe in the values we do, and HQW we came to
adopt them. In other words, we need to understand the

true genealogy of morals.

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

It has been said that philosophical movements

Often reflect particular places and periods of time.

 

Perhaps this is best seen in contemporary philOSOphy,
Vfor if one were to ask what sort of questions philoso-
phers today are trying to answer, a brief reply might

be that they are mainly concerned with the Egpmg in
which we express what we experience. This, however,
should not be taken to imply that modern philosophy is
necessarily subjective. While some maintain that what
we experience only exists in the mind, others would deny
it, although they might still be content to call what
they analyze "experience." Perhaps for EEEES philoso-
phers, then, the problem is merely to state and then
argue about what is meant by such terms as "experience,"

1

"meaning," "understanding," and "values," etc.

 

1The writer takes the position that the use Of
the term values throughout this dissertation is intended
to communicate the general overall interest in the broad
field of values, with particular emphasis on moral values.
It is the opinion of many that moral values are consid-
ered as the primary values and serve, in many ways, as
exemplars of other types of values. In a word, values
constitute the primary and inclusive category; moral

21

22

But in this dissertation, in general, and for the
purposes of this chapter, in particular, the author
wishes to take a "fresh" approach to such perennial
problems as those treated via the aforementioned con-
cepts, an approach that is strikingly different from
the present trend(s) in modern phiIOSOphy, namely: to
do merely conceptual or linguistic analyses about values.
To this end, I shall discuss the views of three of the
most influential of the "social philosophers" known to
the Western world, i.e. Socrates via the writings of
Plato; Frederick Nietzsche; and John Dewey. Each of
these thinkers,2 in turn, showed the pggg for emphasizing

so much more than a mere conceptual, linguistic, or

 

values are considered a sub-categoryof values--and they
are considered by this writer to be the most important
sub-category. Obviously, there are other categories,
as well, namely: esthetic values, religious values and
political values, etc.

2The reader should understand (for the sake of
clarity) that I am only assuming that the positions I
attribute to Socrates are actually Socrates'. It may
well be the case that Plato changed his (Socrates')
view(s) in later writings; or, I might have mistakenly
attributed Plato's thoughts to Socrates. Nevertheless,
What is of philosophical importance is not who was
the prOpounder of such arguments, but the arguments
themselves and the historical problems to which they
gave rise.

23

intellectual analysis of values; on the contrary, they
argued for a 22! emphasis (or, perhaps I should say, a
revival of an old emphasis) on the notion of commitment
or concrete involvement in social situations in the hope
that the majority of persons will consciously attend to
the implications of their actions for themselves and for
others, that is, always with a view towards humanity.

To be sure, the author wishes to maintain that linguistic
analysis gggp have its "proper" place in modern philo-
sophy, but, in the final analysis, one also must be

committed to a way Of life that indicates an attempt to

 

22 a good or a wise or a just man.

P332.

It has been said often that the best introduction
to philosophy is through Plato, and many serious students
of philosophy feel that the best introduction to Plato
is through his earlier dialogues of which the _C_r£cg (in
which Socrates, in prison awaiting execution, considers
whether he should escape as his friends and pupils urge)
and the Apology (Socrates' speech defending himself at
the trial) are excellent examples. Furthermore, for
the sake of clarity, many scholars maintain that Socrates
wrote nothing himself, but talked at length to the young
men of Athens, including Plato, who listened to him in

the streets and gathering places of Athens.

 

24

The "fine" line between Socrates and Plato is
hard or difficult if not impossible to draw. Moreover,
for the purposes of this dissertation, the question of
what was original with Plato and what belongs to Socrates
is of little importance. Suffice it to say that it is
the Opinion Of this author that Socrates via the writings
of Plato was perhaps the greatest Of all philOSOphers
and indisputably the founder of Western philosophical
tradition.

Almost 2500 years ago the noble Socrates was
put on trial for his very life because he supposedly
"corrupted the morals of the Athenian youths." But it
is clear from the account of his trial as it appears in
Plato's Apology that Socrates could have avoided the
death penalty. That is to say, had Socrates agreed to
abandon the practices for which he had been summoned
before the court, the jury almost certainly would have
voted an acquittal.

Yet this he refused to do, preferring to drink
the hemlock rather than to alter his way of life. This
invaluable lesson that Socrates taught so long ago
cannot be minimized; for he maintained that the examina-
tion of life (to which-he-Socrates had devoted most of
his own life and for which he was willing to die) is of

more value than life itself.

25

In my mind, this classical genius had set an
ethical or normative standard not only for his fellow
Greek philosophers, but, to be sure, for us today as
well. For his statement before the court that "the
unexamined life is not worth living" must come to us as
a challenge that somehow has to be met.

Socrates was concerned with the conduct of men,
or the type of behavior in which the person involved
makes a voluntary choice between alternatives as a
result of having decided that he ought to choose one of
the alternatives in preference to the other, i.e. be—
havior resulting from a moral choice. In other words,
and in the opinion of the writer, Socrates had laid
the basis for a major system of thought in which men
today might well afford to heed.

According to the Master, philosqphy or the
interpretation of philosophy then is not merely an

intellectual affair; on the contrary, the philosopher

 

must be imbued with a desire to be involved in/with
concrete "social" situations and matters pertaining to
human character and conduct.

Who are to be the rulers and who their subjects?
'The best rulers will be those who most have the char-
lacter of Philosopher guardians. To this end they ought

to be wise and efficient. There must be a selection.

26

In the Ideal State (in which Platonism as a po-
litical philosophy finds its best known exposition)
Plato shows that this selection is to be based on

education. Only those who in their whole life show the

 

greatest eagerness to do what is for the good of their
country, and the greatest repugnance to do what is
against its interest, will be selected. They will have
to be watched at every age, from youth upwards, in order
to see whether they preserve their resolution, and never
under the influence either of force or enchantment for-
get, Or cast off, their sense of duty. They must be
made to perform actions in which they are most likely to
forget or to be deceived, since only he who remembers
and is not affected by pleasures, pains, or terrors is
selected.3 Such a man, because of his nature and train-
ing, shall be honored in life and death, with the great—
est memorials of honor that his society can give him.
But he who fails must be rejected.

The training of the philosopher rulers requires

the selection of the most promising children in their

 

3Plato compares such a man with a piece of gold
that has been tested in the refiner's furnace. Such a
man is more thoroughly proved, and he will always bear
himself nobly, for he has a rhythmical and harmonious
nature.

27

infancy, and a rigorous disciplining of them in gymnas-
tics (in order to harden their bodies) and music, poetry
and art (in the Greek sense of literary studies).4 The
true functions of the two arts of music and gymnastics
both improve the soul and each is of value in its work
only when employed in the proper proportion and harmony.
It is not the case that one is for the training of the
soul and the other is for the body; on the contrary,
these arts must be incorporated into the soul in several
phases, resulting in either the harmonious soul, which
is both temperate and courageous, or the inharmonious
soul, which is cowardly. According to the Master, excess
in the former leads to effeminacy, and excess in the
latter to harshness.

In the first stage of this process sweet and soft
music pours into a man's soul, and in this way the
passion or spirited element is tempered. Such a man is
compared to a piece of iron, as they are both useful
when tempered, instead of brittle and useless. However,
if he carried on this softening and soothing process in
the second stage he begins to melt, and may waste away
his spirit until he has cut out the sinews of his soul

and becomes a feeble warrior.

 

4Dagobert D. Runes, "Dictionary of PhilosoPhy,"
(New Jersey: Littlefield: Adams & Company, 1962),
p. 238.

28

In gymnastics, if a man takes violent exercises
and is a great eater--being the reverse of a proficient
student in music and philosophy--at first the high
condition of his body fills him with pride and spirit,
as he becomes twice the man he really was. Then, if he
does nothing else, thatintelligence grows feeble, and he
becomes dull and blind through a lack of any sort of
inquiry or culture. His mind never wakes up or receives
nourishment, and he finally becomes a hater of philo-
sophy, and uncivilized, he never uses the weapon of
persuasion. Plato compares him to a wild beast as he
lives violently, ferociously, and in ignornance as he
knows no other way.

Thus there are two principles of human nature--
one philOSOphical and the other spirited which corres-
ponds to music and gymnastic. He who mingles them in
the fairest proportions, best tempering them to his
soul, may rightfully be called the true musician and
harmonist. Such a genius as this is required if the
society is to last.

After the incorporation of these arts into their
lives, the young adults begin to study science and
mathematics, those failing to prove themselves competent
by the age Of twenty being weeded-out, while only the
best or the most competent remain to continue their

education. This they will do until the age of thirty,

29

and then begin the study of dialectics (the study of
ideas)5 which was to last for approximately five years.

Each man was required to spend fifteen years of
practical apprenticeship in the subordinate offices of
the state, and he would therefore enter the army or the
civil service at approximately the age of thirty-five.
Here he remained until the age of fifty (the last stage
of separation) and then returned to study philosophy.
Those who spend their lives studying philosophy beyond
the age of fifty are the guardians, and are to be the
actual rulers of the state. They are to rule or give
commands because by nature and by training they are the
best men for the job; and, they are to rule through the
use of reason.

The rulers must of necessity have subjects, and
these subjects are divided into two classes. Just
below the ruling class are the warriors, their primary
function being to aid the ruling class by insuring that
all orders passed down to them are properly obeyed.

The warriors are to watch over the general good or
‘welfare of the state, and their education is to be care-
ful, so they they might never lose courage in battle,

become traitors, or fail in any of their responsibilities.

 

5Runes, p. 238.

There

whom 1

 

CE

be

30

There must, however, always be people over them, and to
whom they are to be responsible, and these are the rulers.

Finally, there are the craftsmen or producers,
who are the industrialists, and they are to provide
the economic income for the state. Each man has a spe-
cial function and is educated to fit a particular
custom. They must, of necessity, never lie, as they
aren't really able to understand the laws or customs,
etc. Thus, for them to achieve happiness they must
not deviate from their function.

The Ideal State is divided into three classes,
and each is based on a strict and absolute division of
labor. The efficiency of production hinges on each
person's doing that at which he is expert, and nothing
else. Plato feels that a man who devotes himself solely
to one occupation will do the best job. Therefore, the
rulers are to be exclusively rulers, and nothing else.
Epr to deviate in any manner would upset the harmony of

‘the state. The producers and the guardians must always

 

remain temperate, and never become disobedient. Thus they
‘Nill take the laws and institutions of the state like a
dye, and never lose them. And in order to insure that
<3ertain means are ad0pted to certain ends, there must
lye an elite class among the guardians, who will be
responsible for the overall welfare of the state. These

are to be the philOSOpher-kings.

31

Each class has its own virtue, with the rulers
excelling particularly in their rational abilities or
their special virtues in philosophical wisdom. The
soldiers, or guardians of the state, must be remarkable
for the development of the spirited, warlike element,
under the control of the virtue of courage. And finally,
the lower class will be made up of the workers of every
sort, whose characteristic virtue is temperance. Justice
or harmony consist in each of these classes not meddling
in the affairs of the others, but, in doing their own
job and doing it rightly.

WOmen are to have the same duties as men, thus,
they must have the same nurture and education. They will
be taught music, gymnastics and the art of war, which

they must practice like the men.6

 

6At this point one might raise several objections
to this contention, for Socrates (Plato) says that "at
the foundation of the state everyone was to do the work
best suited to his own nature." We might then ask "do
not the nature of men and women differ, and, if so,
should not the task assigned them differ also?" If so,
it seems that Socrates has fallen into a serious incon-
sistency in saying that "men and women whose natures
are different ought to perform the same actions."
Socrates attempts to resolve this inconsistency by con-
sidering the notions of sameness or difference. He holds
that if this difference consists only in the fact that
‘women bear and men beget children, then, we must maintain
that this doesn't amount to a proof that woman differs
<essentially from man in respect to the sort of education
.she should receive. Therefore, we shall continue to
hold that men and women ought to hold the same pursuits.

32

In reference to thepursuits or arts of civic
life, there is no special faculty of administration in
a state which a woman has because she is a woman, or
which a man has by virtue of his sex. For Plato, the
gifts of nature are diffused alike in them, so the
pursuits of men might be the pursuits of women, except

that woman is weaker than man. Therefore, men and women

 

alike possess the qualities which make good guardians of

the state.

 

The state has wisdom, and this is found in the
ruler, as he takes counsel for the good of the state.

The state exists solely that its citizens mgy become

 

good, so its goal is "the happiness and well-being of the

 

citizens." This is achieved through the institutions of

 

education, as through them they are made wise. There-

 

fore, for Plato, the wise should be the absolute rulers
of this utOpia, and thus it shall be ruled by an aristoc-
racy of the intellect, or the few wise and best men, over
the many.

Finally, we might briefly summarize our discus-
sion of the function of education in the utopia by saying
that Plato intended for the best education to be taught
to the best children, as this phase of education is
intended to create an intellectual elite; the military
class, on the other hand, was to undergo a shorter period

of training suited to its functions, and the masses of

33

peOple engaged in production, trading, and like pursuits,
were not offered any special educational schedule.

For the two upper classes Plato suggested a
form of community life which would entail the abolition
of monogamous marriage, family life, and of private
property. Thus, children of these classes are born to
the state, and those born either out of marriage sanc-
tioned by the state, or physically defective, would be
immediately put to death. Presumably, the remainder were
okay. Private property too was abolished, and one was
allowed to have only the barest of necessities. Also,
all things which are considered to be immoral are cen-
sored. The lower class families, on the other hand,
differ from their counterparts in that they presumably
have normal marriages and normal family lives.

In the end, Plato feels that there might be a
reform of their state if only one change was made, but
this change, though possible, was not to be easy. And
so for him, until philOSOphers are kings, or the kings
and princes of this world have the spirit and power of
philOSOphy--unti1 political greatness and wisdom meet
in one ruler--cities will never have rest from their
evils, nor the human race.

One further point about Socrates needs mentioning,

as it will throw more light on the subject-matter under

34

consideration, viz., that this "behavior resulting from

a moral choice" reflected Socrates' belief that ggodness

 

is a matter of knowledge. Specifically, he wished to

 

reduce all excellence to some kind of knowledge and was
profoundly convinced that no man does wrong on purpose,
i.e. no man sins on purpose.

Perhaps the simplest expression of the close
relation between knowledge and goodness is found in the
Lysis, where the youth of that name has had to admit that
though his parents love him, they forbid him many things
and is led to the conclusion that they trust him to act
alone only where he possesses the necessary knowledge,
and this is then shown to be the case with every one.

As Socrates says:
Every one - whether man or woman, Greek or foreigner-
will entrust us with the things of which we have
acquired knowledge. In such matters we shall do
what we please and no one will want to hinder us;
we shall ourselves be free and rule over others.
It is our province, and there we act with benefit.
Where we do not possess understanding, no one will
allow us to do what we want, every one will hinder
us as much as possible, not only strangers but
our father and mother, or anything nearer to us
still. We must then obey orders. Such things are
not our province, we can derive no benefit from
them. (210b)

And so, as we prepare to take our leave of
Socrates, we cannot help but be impressed with the

message that he has left for us, both young and old

alike, of the twentieth century. He has told us that

35

we are free to question the very nature of our existence;

and responsible beings only to the extent that we seek

 

to fulfill this task.

I am certain that almost all of us, through our
childhood and youth, have accepted with very little
question the moral precepts and practices learned in
the home, school, and church (and perhaps this is as it
should be). But what happens when a previously accepted
"moral truth" becomes challenged, or comes in serious
conflict with other existing values--as is evident in
the racial and educational crises in America. Again,
Socrates has supplied us with an answer, for he tells
us that we can choose to subject these values to rigorous
tests and "undergoings"--with a view toward determining
whether these values are rational, i.e. provide a ra-
tional justification for morality.

This conviction--that the pursuit of truth is worth
the risk of one's life-~is one Of Socrates' major
contributions to the Western tradition. He
believed that philosophy must be lived, not merely
thought about or verbally accepted; for its value
lies in its contribution to the goodness of a man's
life. His own life is our best exemplification of

this view. (Plato's Meno, Sesonske and Fleming.
p. 2).

 

 

To digress from the central theme for a moment,

the reader might note that the history of philOSOphy

36

provides us roughly with Egg_main7 answers to the ques-
tion of how we Obtain knowledge, that is, what we know
of the "outside" world. The first is that knowledge is
in fact obtained in and through sense experience, and is

called the theory of empiricism.8 The second answer,

 

that it is Obtained by our reason alone, has usually been
given by philosophers known as rationalists.9 They have
argued that the mind is provided initially with a number
of ready-made principles or faculties, and that in order
to obtain knowledge it only needs to reason in accordance
with these principles and to use these faculties. Speci-
fically, just as a mathematician sitting in his study

could, provided he reasoned well enough, deduce the whole

 

7There was also a widely accepted third approach
to knowledge, namely intuition. This is the theory that
certain ideas are so clear and so simple that when we
encounter them we know directly and immediately without
needing any proof whatsoever that they are indeed true.
Thus the process or method of intuition may be defined
as the process of knowing or apprehending self-evident
truths, in the direction of the Summum Bonum. In my
gpinion, however, intuition, called Practical Reason by
Kant, simply affirms that which rationality cannot in
itself handle. I would further argue that thé history
of philosophy has shown that this is usually part of
the rationalist approach, e.g. Descartes noted that
there are Egg avenues to truth; intuition and deduction.

8

 

 

John Dewey .is a chief proponent of empiricism.

9Plato was the initial proponent of this philo-
sophical position.

37

of mathematics from a set of fundamental axioms by
sheer process of reasoning, so, the rationalist taught,
the philosopher, provided he was a good enough philo-
sopher, could discover the truth about the universe by
the same methods. Hence a rationalist philosopher was
one who took the view that reason itself, unaided by
observation, can provide us with true knowledge. Such
knowledge is generally called a priori.

Moreover, the rationalists, who had been inclined
to regard all knowledge as mathematical in character,
tended therefore to think of a priori knowledge as
analytical. To be sure, it was a making clear or expli-
cit the implications of what one already somehow knew.
And, if the following question were asked, namely, "How
did one come by this prior knowledge?", the general
answer was (as Descartes attempted to prove nearly 2,000
years later) that the mind possesses initially, as it
were, certain "innate ideas" in which or by means of
which this knowledge was stored up. A man had only to
develop these ideas and the knowledge would reveal
itself. A priori knowledge, then, was analytical. And,
it was also necessary, since, if A is implied by or
contained in B, then so long as B is as it is, A cannot

be other than it is.10

 

10C. E. M. Joad, "Guide to Philosophy," (New
York: Dover Publications, 1936), p. 108. He argues

38

To return to the centraltheme once more, we might
then ask the question can the human mind, by processes of
reasoning and reflection, reveal to us the nature of the
universe? Plato certainly thought so. And this is
brought out by an illustration in the dialogue called
the flgpg, where Socrates cross-examines a slave in order
to throw light upon the nature of his knowledge of
mathematical propositions. The slaveijsplaced before
the figure of a square, and Socrates proceeds to question
him as to the nature of the square whose area is double
that of the original square. Socrates then asks can he
(the slave), for example, give any information about
the side of this double square? The slave is at first
at a loss, and makes a number of false suggestions.
Finally, he perceives in the diagonal of the given square
the side of the double square which he is seeking.

The point is that Socrates concludes that the
slave had in himself as an original possession the know-

ledge Of which he is suddenly made conscious. Thus,

 

the thesis that: "if the universe were like a mathematical
problem, the claim put forward by the philosophical
rationalists on behalf of reason could be sustained.
ButL unfortunately, the realm of what exists is differ-
ent from the realm of mathematics; it contains the sort
Of facts with which mathematicians concern themselves,
and, in so far as it does, may legitimately be eXplored
Iby pure reason; but it contains other facts as well.

The sort of facts with which mathematicians concern
themselves are usuallygknown as necessary, the remainder
gre contiggent."

 

 

39

"teaching" is a process of directing the attention of
the pupil to what he already knows. Learning then, for
him, is the apprehension of inborn knowledge. It is,
according to the Master, "to recover of oneself know-

ledge from within oneself."11

Nietzsche

 

Nietzsche stands as the Darwin of ethics--his
moral system takes root in a philOSOphy of life and
selection, survival and struggle. Life for Nietzsche is
a universal and invisible force--a dynamic entity essen-
tially irrational, violent, brutal, and at times tragic.
Capable of both growth and decline, life compels chaotic
man to chaotic action in a chaotic world. He who thinks
that life follows from a rational principle need only
examine the "facts" of existence to see life's relation
to reason: life controls reason--not reason life.
Nature takes pride in power, strength of will, energy,
capacity; She is unswayed by logic, sentiment, and/or

debate. In Nietzsche's own words:

 

11PLATO'S MENO: "Text and Criticism," Alexander
Sesonske and Noel Fleming (Editors) (California:
Wadsworth Publishing Company, Inc., 1965) p. 2.

40

To speak of right and wrong per se makes no
sense at all. No act of violence, rape, exploita-
tion, destruction, is intrinsically 'unjust,‘
since life itself is violent, rapacious, exploita-
tive,and dggtructive and cannot be conceived
otherWise.

To be sure, self-preservation, aggression, and
self-assertion, etc. are the rules of Nature's game.
Men ygpp and they 33kg. Will to Power is its own justi-
fication; the strong say "I will" and that suffices.
Will to Power keeps pace with Nature; it re-enforces
life, and where it roams, logic and reason cannot. For
life is too difficult, too complex, too changeable, to
be reduced to formula.

Only death can break man's tie to life and
Nature. Man's sole reality is his earthly existence.
And this existence is at heart irrational--for who will
deny the ubiquity of thwarted human striving, meaningless
achievement, cruelty, and suffering? Thus, Nietzsche's
challenge is this: no matter the irrationality--
experience the tragedy of existence and therewith exis-
tence itself. To be sure, he asks for self-awareness

and self-assertiveness in this life and this world:

renunciation, suppression of Will to Power, fear of Hell,

 

12The Birth of Tragegy and The Genealogy of
Morals, Francis Golffing (translator)(New York: Double-
day and Company, Inc., 1956), p. 208.

 

 

41

and false hope in Heaven, according to Nietzsche, all

are delusion. The earth is man's and until death returns
him to dust, man can sink or rise to no other reality
save his earthly one. According to Nietzsche, therefore,
he ought to recognize this as a "fact“ of existence and
to affirm it physically, intellectually, and morally.

One would be seriously mistaken to interpret
Nietzsche (in the above paragraph) as asking, "Is life
worth living?" since this would suggest that the value
of life can be judged by some external standard. On
the contrary, Nietzsche believes that life itself is
the ultimate criterion of judgment. Man must say Yea or
Nay to it and it alone. Only if he says Nay to it is
life really a burden. For life is a struggle, Will to
Power, ups and downs; ergo, fullness of life lies in

fullness of struggle, the value is in the struggling.

 

Thus, it is the striving itself that counts--even failing
while daring greatly.

To be sure, Nietzsche writes as an act of defi-
ance against a society he sees as radically wrong. Men
are no longer creative and critical. They cling to
dogma, absolutes, and mistaken standards, (i.e. anything
except lifg as a standard of life is mistaken). They
fail to realize that everything absolute belongs to

pathology. They esteem religious and intellectual ideals

 

42

over actualities. They exalt everything but the right
thing--from reason and logic to pessimism and pity.

They view the laws of Church and State as impeccable--
immortal and immutable--when by the "facts" of existence
many things esteemed as right and holy are, in reality,
loathsome; just as many things in bad repute are really
not wrong in themselves. They give lip service to
Christianity, but are in no real sense Christian. They
are weak, dishonest, hypocritical, decadent; their only
hope of regeneration is a new perspective on life.

They need to know why they believe in the values they
do and how they came to adopt these values; they need to
understand the true genealogy of morals.

"God is dead!" says Nietzsche, and it is impera-
tive that man understand the significance of this death.
Man can prevail in this world without God and without
the comfort of any orthodox religion's claim to absolute
truth. God is dead; forget fear, and embarrassment,
etc., says Nietzsche, and admit this "fact"; recognize
by it that "meaning" in the traditional (Judeo-Christian)
sense no longer exists, that men must learn to stand at
the center of their own lives. God is dead, says
Nietzsche, and the human situation--as bad as it is--
will not be helped by creating gods of absolutes in a

vainsearch for security. Man must bring back his soul

43

from Heaven and put it in the body. Thus, writes
Nietzsche:

Zarathustra speaks of the death of God and
proclaims the overman. Faith in God is dead as a
matter of cultural fact, and any "meaning" of life
in the sense Of a supernatural purpose is gone.

Now it is up to man to give his life meaning by
raising himself above the animals and the all-
too-human. What else is human nature but a euphem-
ism for inertia, cultural conditioning, and what
we are before we make something of ourselves?
Our so-called human nature is precisely what we
should do well to overcome; and the man who has
overcome it Zarathustra calls the overman.
And so, Nietzsche's critique of Judeo—Christian values
is quite strikingly clear as he considers not only their
rigid continuation but even their birth decadent and
life-repudiating. They are born in the weak, malicious
reaction to aristocratic values and hence from the out—
set are unhealthy and pathological or degenerate.

Man for Nietzsche is, most of the time, a sick,
degenerate animal, biologically depressed, unsociable,
bestial. (Here, one can almost envision Hobbes nodding,
Aye!) Men are unhappy even when they try to lose them-
selves in art, religion, or work. Thus Nietzsche offers
a program to regenerate degenerate man and return him to

the center of life: master-morality must regain its

rightful dominance; there must be a transvaluation of

 

all values.

 

 

13The Portable Nietzsche, Walter Kaufmann (ed.)
(New York: The Viking Press, 1965), p. 118.

44

Equality fosters mediocrity and anarchy. Like
transcendental hope, it works against the creation of
"superior personalities." In Nietzsche's own words:

I do not wish to be mixed up and confused with
these preachers of equality. For to me justice
speaks thus: "Men are not equal." Nor shall
they become equal! What would my4love of the
overman be if I spoke otherw1se?

Some men are just naturally superior to others, i.e.
stronger physically, more alert mentally, more driven

by the Will to Power. Even so, however, master-morality
does not exclude the weak: their place is to serve the
strong, and they had better learn to stay in their
place. The goal of Nietzsche's dream of regeneration is
the creation of "superior personalities"--namely, super-
men or overmen--to be forged in a crucible of conflict
and competition. For the idea of "live and let live"
has thwarted human progress long enough. The overman
will delight in combat of all kinds, for he is superior
in mind and body, conscious of his power, free from
transcendental hope.

In sum, the overman is free from the dominance
of morality: he obeys neither gods nor laws. His life

is inner-directed, making externally-imposed codes of

conduct unnecessary. Negative sanctions, such as, say,

 

14Ibid., p. 213.

45

"Don't," are irrelevant to him; true inwardness makes
him beyond good and evil. Moreover, the overman values
heroism, discipline, duty, energy, manhood, creativeness,
pride, spontaneity, etc. But he scorns comfort, weak-

ness, pity, equality, and intellectualism. Savoir faire,

 

self-reliance, autonomy, (perhaps I should say "great
soulness or soulfulness") all these distinguish the over-
man. And so, as one views Nietzsche's "fittest" of all
men, one notes that the future heralds his arrival.
Nature bids him come. Shieer prowess of body, creative-
ness of mind, and exuberance of spirit demand that he

answer Nature's call.

An Appraisal

 

The foregoing quite REESE exposition enables us
now to draw out some of the more striking implications--
both positive and negative-—of Nietzsche's philosophy.
These critical remarks, however, will also be quite
brief; they are really only sketches of what would be
(or perhaps I should say, "should be") definitive
criticisms.

To appraise Nietzsche is to understand the
aphorisms of his ethics and the man. My initial reaction
to his philosophy in general is that he is quite serious-
ly mistaken in his interpretation of the "facts" of

existence; for one thing, what one discerns as the

46

"facts" of existence are not always facts. But in an
effort to be objective in hip probing of all value, he
(i.e. Nietzsche) decides to rely solely on the "facts"
of existence. Nothing is more indisputable he thinks
than man's indelible pact with that Nature with which he
is essentially involved. After all, consciousness is
at bottom natural instinct. Human actions--from blind
impulse to conscious thought--are but expressions of
man's primary instinct to preserve life. Life is
struggle and this world is just one of struggling in-
stincts and desires. Will to Power, then, is the crux
of human reality. Nevertheless, even though Nietzsche

may be partially correct in maintaining this view, I

 

cannot accept his interpretation in its entirety. For
moral systems do not 2229 to follow strictly and solely
from facts of existence.

To be sure, in this same vein, moral systems
may be based on other more important criteria, such as,
say, social utility, and/or happiness, etc. Then, too,
man does p25 live by instinct alone--Nietzsche tends to
overestimate the role of intuition, "creativeness" and
"super personalities" in shaping human history. As a
result of this overestimation, etc. his transvalued
morality hinges in part on a fine distinction which in
theory is open to question and in practice quite arbi-

trary and exceedingly difficult to determine.

47

But to criticize Nietzsche solely on the logic
of his arguments seems somewhat unfair, since he is more
of a poet-preacher-philosopher than a logician. Thus,

a more apt criticism would be to call in question the
style and tone of his writings. And so, my bias is
thus: Nietzsche is simply far too emotional--even for

a poet-preacher-philosopher. For if anyone hails
Nietzsche as vigorous, violent, powerful, then I can
only add: and deafeningly so. Nietzsche shouts far too
much; his imagination cannot be contained (much the

same as his use of the first person on nearly every
page). Continually nervous, he showers us with exclama-
tions. And whether exaggerating, asserting, or general-
izing, he pounds away unrelentingly at his pulpit of

aphorisms. Undoubtedly, Nietzsche is fascinating to

 

£229! shocking, brilliant, controversial, interesting.

But one so radically unorthodox--so against every virtue

and for every vice--can hardly appear as anything else.
And this stylistic comment leads naturally to

an aside--but an important aside in that it points to

the responsibility of a thinker to avoid sensationalism

in his writings, lest he be misconstrued and misused

by subsequent generations. For some historians have

noted a certain relevance of Nietzsche to the rise of

National Socialism in pre-WOrld War II Germany. And

48

although it is problematic to assert that Nietzsche would
have supported Hitler (I intend to discuss this very
situation, in a later paper), the fact remains that much
in Nietzsche's writings can be used and was used to
support Nazi doctrine. He (i.e. Nietzsche) argues at
times that he is against anti-semitism and nationalism,
that he is at heart a "good European." Still, in his
disparagement of democracy, passivism, and humanitarian
virtue; in his glorification of Superman ethics and the
warrior spirit; in his exaltation of uninhibited drives,
natural "creativeness," genuine "superiority," and the
rugged Bohemian type "genius," Nietzsche paves the way
for Nazi misuse and contributes considerably to the
creation of that atomsphere of anti-intellectualism--
that philOSOphic climate of opinion--which set the mood
and tempo of a nation and allowed such an anti-
intellectual movement as Nazism to take hold.

In addition to the above, and in this same
connection, it may be noted that both Nietzsche and
Freud comment insightfully on the nature of repression,
aggression, sublimation, natural drives and other such
terms that are related to the discipline of psychology.
Yet, the objectivity and scholarly detachment, the
discipline and equilibrim of tone, that appears in
Freud and is so absent in Nietzsche precludes any

appropriation of Freud's writings in the same sense as

49

Nazi apprOpriation of Nietzsche's. Thus, emotionalism
in excess is Nietzsche's vice--what supports Nietzsche
11.2 preacher undermines Nietzsche gpg thinker. For
Obviously he lacks that calm and subtle restraint that
distinguishes the true artist and sober thinker. One
certainly is inclined to think that he must have been
psychotic and yet (somehow) growing more and more insane.

Nietzsche is forever on the offensive, to return
to the central thesis once more, and not a great many
things escape his wrath. Socrates and Plato, Christ
and Wagner, women and professors, democracy and
equality, intellectualism and beer-~all have shared in
creating the wretched state of modern humanity. One
somehow wonders how Nietzsche arrived at pig historical
and political wisdom.

Another criticism with a view towards Nietzsche's
conception of morality might be that like other thinkers
before him, he is rather impractical in formulating his
Utopia. In one breath, he asks men to be egotistic,
selfish, self-reliant; in another, he appeals for self-
sacrifices in the preparation and service Of the Super-
man. One wonders, then, who--reading this philosophy--
will classify himself as servant, and not Superman.
Nietzsche says that the fittest will survive; but one
wonders in these increasingly skill-oriented times if

Nietzsche's fittest are really best suited to survive-—

50

even in Nietzsche's day (not to mention modern corrobor-
ation of the theory of brains being superior to brawn),

a well-aimed pistol in the weakest hands was quite an
equalizer against the "intuitively-driven" and physically
strong.

For all his shortcomings, though, Nietzsche has
many points to his credit, i.e. his philosophy has
several favorable aspects. Certainly, he is a powerful
and insightful thinker, who offers a "kernel of truth"

in maintaining that we need not go out of the realm of

 

human relations to found ethical conceptions. Many,
too, attest to the value of freedom in Nietzsche's
sense of inner guidance and true inwardness. For who
among us does not too value manhood, courage, capacity,
energy, creativeness, spontaneity, vivacity? Thus,

in suggesting that too much sentiment, hOpe, and sacri-
fice stifle human progress and hinder the enjoyment of
life, the ennobling of life, and the thankfulness to
life, Nietzsche teaches a valuable lesson.

However, a view of the man (i.e. Nietzsche the
man), uncovers the philosopher's perennial bout with
loneliness and disease. For ever since the early death
of his father (specifically, he was only fiye years
Old, when his father died), Nietzsche was reared by the
women of the household. He was continually in poor

health. Failing eyesight disqualified him for

51

soldiering; so, if he glorifies the soldier, war, prowess
and struggle, perhaps it is because his health would not
permit him to be (in the eyes of some) more than a

philologist and a Ph.D. Over—compensation is a dominant

 

trait in Nietzsche. He was never appreciated by his

colleagues, and never was a thinker so much alone in his

 

views. In a letter to a friend, Nietzsche writes:
I could sing a song and will sing it, although
I am alone in an empty house and must sing it into
mine own ears . . . LO! I am weary of my wisdom,
like the bee that hath collected too much honey;
I need hands reaching out for it.14
The "hands reaching out" never came. Nietzsche compen-
sated for the loneliness by hardening himself into an
idealized masculinity he could see in Superman. After
all, he had written: "What matter thyself, Zarathustra?
Say thy word and break into pieces." Nietzsche took the
words to heart; he preached the Superman ethic alone for
most of his life, and it was only in a fit of apoplexy
that he finally broke into pieces.
By late 1888 he was signing his letters the
Crucified One. Beneath this pathos, however, there lurks

still in the philosopher that undying spirit of noble

discontent. One imagines the old warrior bearing up

 

14Will Durant, The Story of Philosophy, (New
York: Time Incorporated, 1962), p. 386.

 

52

valiantly under his tribulation, affirming life and

 

rejoicing to the end for having been able to live and

 

struggle. Nietzsche suffered much in his life; he
struggled under hardship--and loved it. One must
inevitably conclude, therefore, that he found life's

sweetness, even in bitterness and pain.

Dewey
I take John Dewey to be the philosopher who made

the greatest contribution to American educational thought
and practice. To be sure, Dewey is the one philosopher
in whom philosophy and educational theory are virtually

indistinguishable. Furthermore, no philosopher has

 

written so extensively on education; in my judgment,

 

Plato alone competes with Dewey for having shaped con—
temporary civilization educationally.

Dewey's general philosophy, his pragmatism, was
in broad opposition to the Hegelian idealistic philosophy
which dominated American universities at the beginning
of his career. He was much influenced by Charles
Sanders Peirce and--as was Peirce himself--by the methods
of the sciences and by the particular scientific develOp—
ments touched off by Darwin's work.

Additionally, Dewey regarded the idealists as
badly mistaken on several counts. For example, they

gave an essentially supernaturalistic account of learning,

53

thinking and reasoning where he, as a "good" evolution-
ist thought these processes could and had to be accounted
for on a naturalistic basis. Still further, they heavily
under rated the connection of thought with practice,

with action, and did not recognize it as a factor in
human evolution and society.

Lastly, they did not see how both meaning and
truth depended upon experience, i.e. upon actual Obser-
vation. For Dewey, the meaning of a factual statement
consisted in what it implied about the results of obser-
vation and actions. Its truth, or as he preferred to
say, its "warranted assertibility," depended upon its
accuracy as a predictive device. In a word, these
views underlay his emphasis upon linking teaching and
learning with the world of the learner's living
experience.

Dewey lived and taught through the years of the
American Progressive Movement (roughly 1901-1927)
which tried to correct the abuses attending the growth
of big business in the early decades of the 20th century.
Curbing monopolistic development and restoring competi-
tion were aims of that movement which sought simultan-
eously to protect consumers from abuses by the large
manufacturers. The Progressive Movement's concern for
the people at large led to recommendations for reforms

in education as well as in the relations between big

54

knasiness and the public. His support of both roots of
:reforms, along with the faith in and strong advocacy of
.American democracy which appears in his philosophy made
Dewey a symbol for the whole progressive movement.
Dewey's deep faith in democratic idealogy, a faith which
grows out of his notion of the intrinsic worth of the
individual, is a case in point.

Dewey's pragmatism led him to give human exper-
ience a more dynamic interpretation than many other
philOSOphers had heretofore given it. The "experiencer"
was, for him, less of a "spectator" of his thoughts and
actions and more of an "intelligent participant" actively
engaged in solving "problem situations" deemed to be
significant aspects of the total experiential situation.
Thinking, to his mind, was continuous active engagement
by the experiencer in attempts to achieve adjustment
with the environment.

Believing with Darwin that man as evolved within
nature was a part of it, Dewey argued that man ought to
be studied by the methods natural scientists use in
their inquiries. He affirmed, for example, that the
spirit of education should be experimental since, for
him, human intelligence or mind is basically a problem
solving instrument. Securing knowledge of one's environ-

Inent through the problem solving method was for Dewey

55

an affirmation of the intimate connection between
thoughtand action, reflection and experiment.

From what has been stated above, it is apparent
then that Dewey considered education to be a continuous
endeavor in which accumulated experience is constantly
undergoing reconstruction to serve more efficiently

personal and social ends. Education was life, for Dewey,

 

rather than mere preparation for it; and it became

 

factual as the mind or intelligence attacked the problem
situations in its environment. Thus, as the problems
are dealt with scientifically until a satisfactory solu-
tion is achieved, the mind and the knowledge it elicits
are identified as the chief instruments for dealing with
life manifested in each situation.

School, Dewey felt, should provide a closer
relationship between the child's (student's) home and
its larger environment, the community. Its subject-
matter, thus, should be vitally significant to the
individual as learner or "experiencer." Recognizing
individual differences, it should give ample attention
to each pupil according to his/her need in the learning
situation. Further, it should take into consideration
the meaningful data he/she has acquired, as helpful in
the continuous learning experience of the classroom.

This approach rejected the traditional classroom

structure and procedures in favor of the so—called

56

freer climate, e.g. activity programs, projects, trips,
movable chairs and desk, space for informal activities
and dramatics became part of the progressive classroom
experience. Moreover, traditional grading considerations
gave way to other modes of evaluation. For example,
children under the progressive system were given a
greater degree of responsibility, for the features of
their social life as students. This was for the sake of
making that life more like life in the larger social
environment and thereby preparing students for the
responsibilities they would encounter there.
In order to grasp this organic relationship that

Dewey sees between philOSOphy and education it is neces-
sary to View all education as a much broader phenomenon
than mere schooling. Education involves ell of the
institutions and individuals that influence attitudes
and dispositions. Therefore, the school is such an
agency--and so are the home and the church, let alone
such obvious molders of human predisposition as tele-
vision, motion pictures, radio, newspapers and magazines,
etc. Any organization from the Boy Scouts to the local
youth gangs on the corner is educative (or, miseducative,
as the case may be) to the degree it forms or modifies
attitudes. In Dewey's own words:

Every place in which men habitually meet, shOp, club,

factory, saloon, church, political caucus, is per-
force a schoolhouse.

57

Some "brief" mention has been made about a leg

ideas that play major roles in Dewey's pragmatism, i.e.
the accounts he gives of meaning, truth, and the relation
of thought. They are enough, in the opinion of the
writer, to make it plain that the definition he gives
of education grows out of his whole system of phiIOSOphy.
Again, Dewey speaks for himself; he defined education in
the following manner:

Thatreconstruction or reorganization of experience

which adds to the meaning of experience, and which

increases ability to dissect the course of subse- 15
quent experience. (Democracy and Education, p. l)

 

In addition to the above, when the school is
set apart from its social context, when schooling is
unconcerned with issues in the larger environment,
then it, according to Dewey:
. . . tends to become a routine empirical affair
unless its aims and methods are animated by a . .
survey of its place in contemporary life as is
the business of philOSOphy to provide.
PhilOSOphy, which is the process of ordering ends

and means so as to develop a theory concerning the

achievement of a desired future, is thus related to

 

15This monumental work or essay by John Dewey
contains statements concerning the interaction between
phiIOSOphy and education. Originally written in 1911 and
published for the first time in 1913, the theme of the
essay--that philosophy is the general theory of educa-
tion--was Iater expanded‘by Dewey to become one of the
central ideas in this famous text.

16Ibid.

58

education in a practical sense--for education, consciously
geared to this ideal, becomes the vehicle by which to
realize this future.

In summary, then, Dewey's philosophy covers a
vast and significant period in American life and, need-
less to say, his influence is still being felt. It is
a well known fact, moreover, that his influence spread
beyond the United States and his interests covered many
fields in addition to that of education.

Lastly, Dewey managed to functionally link a
broadly conceived education with a philOSOphy grounded in
experience. In his words:

. . . education is the process through which the 17
needed (social) transformation may be accomplished.

Education thus becomes the translation of philosophy
into a deliberately conducted practice.

Thus, it was the brilliant and insightful philo-
SOpher, John Dewey--in whom philosophy and educational
theory are virtually indistinguishable--who advanced
even more radical ideas about education. He favored
learning through experience; he portrayed learning as an
active, searching process rather than a passive absorp-

tion Of other's ideas. This philosophy is considerably

 

l7Ibid.

59

at variance with the basic style of EurOpean education
and, in the Opinion of the writer, if truly adopted by
American universities could constitute a unique contri-
bution to the field of higher education today.

Another interesting point that needs to be
brought out is that according to Ivan Illich, who is
perhaps today's most controversial educational revolu-

tionary thinker, and author of Deschooling Society:

 

. . for most men the right to learn is curtailed

by the obligation to attend school. (Introduction,

page IV).
Illich maintains that the social organization or formal
organization of the classroom lg a focal point of inquiry
and innovation in respect to contemporary education and
educational processes in modern times, although he argues
that the needs of "peOple-processing" have permeated the
educational system to the extent that the situation is
clearly defined--both for teachers as well as students,
as one of constraint and subordination, i.e. the hidden
curriculum, as such, being the education for docility.
Illich's philosophy of education then questions the
value of extending Obligatory schooling to all people,
and further advocates the disestablishment of the school.
According to him, the school only serves as an effective

creator and sustainer of social myth because of its

structure as a ritual game ofggraded promotions.

60

In a word, he argues for complete freedom from
structural constraints, such as the classroom itself,
structured learning programs, the entire school building,
etc. Illich further argues for the ”open-school-approach"
which, for him, involves the relaxing of rigidity and
calls for the encouragement of cooperation and partici-
pation of teachers and teaching that is primarily focused
on the student's learning needs rather than being pre-
determined and prearranged by a handful of adults who
feel that they know what is best for students. Putting
the point thus: Illich puts forth a comprehensive
exposition dealing with the notion that universal educa-
tion through schooling is not feasible; and that the
ethos, not just the institutions, of society ought to
be "deschooled." Let Illich speak for himself.

Many students, especially those who are poor,
Intuitively know what the schools do for them.
They school them to confuse process and substance.
Once these become blurred, a new Io ic is assumed;
. . . the pupil is thereby "schoole " to confuse
teaching with learning, grade advancement with
education, a diploma with competence, and fluency
with the ability to say something new. His

imagination is "schooled" to accept serv1ce in
place of value. (Page 1)

 

This chapter, in conclusion, has provided infor-
mation about basically three historical approaches pre-
sented by philoSOphers who have significantly influenced
the broad field of values development. Furthermore,

‘building on the works of Plato, Nietzsche and Dewey

61

will now enable the writer to put fortha personal approach
to values develOpment in the field of higher education.
In other words, the examination of the philosophic

views of the aforementioned thinkers must be regarded

as highly significant in enabling the author to develop
the major focus of the disseration; their perSpectives
have contributed to the author's thinking about the role
of values, in general, and how values, in turn, relate

to higher educational settings in particular.

CHAPTER III

A PERSONAL APPROACH TO VALUES DEVELOPMENT

It has been said that axiology1 or the branch of
philosophy dealing with values and ethics, etc. is a
relatively pey_area in philOSOphy, although the author
has attempted to argue in this dissertation the fact
that philOSOphers even before the time of Plato specu-
lated about the problem of values. In retrospect, it
was the noble Socrates that first sought to delineate
some of these major concerns about values that philoso-
phers and other serious social thinkers yet today are
attempting to resolve. In a word, he (Socrates) was
concerned not only with the meaning of the term "value"
or the nature of that which one terms of value but, of
at least equal importance, he raised the issue as to
whether or not values are found only in the object, i.e.
and thus exist independently of our ability to perceive

them--or, in the mind.

 

1However, most "modern" philoSOphers would argue
that it was not until the middle of the 1890's with the
debate between Alexius Meinong and Christian Von
Ehrenfels concerning the source of values that the general
study of values emerged as a specialized area of
philOSOphy.

62

63

Still further, Socrates was concerned with the
criteria by which one selects and ranks values; and,
lastly, he even offered for our consideration an elabor-
ate notion of a hierarchy of values.

To be sure, philsophers today are still trying
to resolve this perennial problem that has literally
plagued the history of philosophy for nearly 3,000
years. That is not to say, however, that mepy_philoso-
phers do not agree on the assumption that the problem of
defining values is central to any ethical theory; on
the contrary, the point is that the problem is based
on the fact that there are mepy contradictory definitions
of what is meant by "value"--and the fact that these
many points of View are reflected by a literal host of
philOSOphers and schools of philosophy.

In this regard, it is necessary to point out,
here, the fact that many philosophers view ethics as a
sub-division of the general theory of value. In
addition, it has been said that the study of ethics is

of great practical value to man. For ethics refers to

 

the process of estimating the moral worth of an action,
as this system of moral values provides a means for the

individual to evaluate all of the activities and events

 

that surround his/her daily life. In a very real sense
then it cannot be disputed that the major decisions one

makes in life (and this is especially true of "educated"

64

persons) Often result from one's standards of what they
believe to be "right," and "good," etc.

To a certain extent, for example, John Dewey
was a humanist, in the sense that what happened to
human beings was for him the highest or ultimate value.
Thus, knowledge in the sense of facts vis-a-vis dis-
coveries made by scientists is of secondary importance,
as facts that cannot be used to further the affairs of
mankind are of no meaning or value to society.

Most philosophers of education and practically
anyone who dares to even debate the current state of

education generally agree that there is something wrong

 

with it. Few peOple, however, agree as to 293 it should
be changed. For more than 2,000 years a liberal educa-
tion has been the ideal of the West-—as this tradition
dates back to Plato, who argued in "The Republic" that
leadership should be entrusted to the philosopher who
was a lover not of a part but of the whole of wisdom.
In modern times, however, there is continual controversy
over a so-called liberal education versus one that will
enhance job skills.

Still further, it is reasonable to expect that
so many differing opinions regarding the value of or
the broad, general overall aims of higher education

would, of necessity, result in widely divergent

65

perspectives about the content and methods to be utilized
in educating students to assume full responsibility for
our total environment, in the years to come. Neverthe-
less, the point is that many writers and philosophers
maintain that the debate is and ought to be about the
meaning and purpose of education.

In a similar vein, the author has found it
somewhat difficult to develOp the "core" concerns of this
chapter-~especially in the requisite amount of space
allotted--as there are a literal host of factors that
must be taken into consideration when dealing with the
type of society in which we ought to live. Nevertheless
an attempt has been made to do precisely this and thus
the essence of this chapter has been divided into four
parts, namely:

1. A cursory discussion of a number of crucial
issues in the broad field of higher education which led
to the treatment of values education in this disserta-
tion; (and which will be further "highlighted" in
Chapter IV)

2. Second, a discussion about some specific
values that higher education has, in the Opinion of the
author, an Obligation to do something about;

3. Third, based on the afOrementioned, and
still further, based on the assumption that, hopefully,

in the not too distant future the author will serve as a

66

Vice-President of an institutioncnfhigher education-~and
faced with the question of what does this mean in terms
of providing salient experiences by-way-of a degree
program for the respective college--what kinds of
experiences would be deemed essential then for:
a. the faculty;
b. the administration; and,
c. the student body, as a whole?
4. Lastly, what are the criteria for deter-
mining the effectiveness of the above?
Perhaps the most significant distinction regard-
ing the broad area of human values, and one of paramount
significance for the philOSOphy of education, is cen-

tered around the fact that man is different from all

 

other forms of life. To be sure, he is a product of

 

choice, his own and the choices of his society. In

this regard, Aristotle once noted that "man is a creature
of the polis." And far too often throughout the course
of the history Of Western philosophy this gets mis-
translated as: "man is merely a political animal."

This is true, indeed, but the author does not feel that
this is the main point Aristotle wished to convey; on

the contrary, he meant to indicate that a human being

is rooted in and a result of his membership in a
community, a ppll_, Thus, this is more than a political

setting--it is also a social, educational and cultural

Ir

,1-

an

67

womb. For man does not emerge automatically, or as a
result of, so to speak, pulling himself up by his own

bootstraps. He must be trained and directed by a net-

 

work of people, as he/she grows in a cultural matrix

 

of incalculable complexity.

In addition to the above, it is a difficult
task, this work of growing to be fully human. The
Greeks certainly realized that only a small percentage
achieve this status. For example, Archie Bunker would
not be a comic figure to the ancient Greeks. He would
represent a tragic parody of what a man might have been,
were he prOperly trained and educated by his community.

Archie is what he is, and what he is not, because of

 

his values, because of what he loves and hates, not
because of certain skills he has acquired or data he has
mastered--or failed to master, as the case may be. As

long as education, thegeggpe, limits itself to skill

1.1.1...”
'-—_

training and the transmlssion of information, etc. it

 

fails in respect to one of its basic goals which is—-
or perhaps I should say, whlghwgggggmtgmpezrnolhipguless
thap_pgenengguragement of higher primates to become
truly £2222 beings.

The Greeks thought they understood at least the
rudiments of this important educational process. Still

further, Aristotle, in a book of ethics dedicated to

his son, described the aim Of . . . education as

68

basically to make the young student like what is good
and dislike what is bad. This too he saw as the founda-
tion for all future ethical action; i.e. the creation
Of healthy habits, so that the choice of generosity
over selfishness (or profligacy), of courage over
cowardice (or foolhardiness) comes "naturally," as
the result of steady modification of behavior and
exposure to superior moral examples.

Aristotle's own teacher, Plato, (who had
learned so well from his teacher, Socrates) said much
the same thing. C. S. Lewis, in his splendid book,

The Abolition of Man, paraphrases Plato's views on

 

elementary education:

The little human animal will not at first have
the right responses. It must be trained to feel
pleasure, liking, disgust, and hatred at those
things which really e£e_p1easant, likeable,
disgusting, and hateful. He would hate the
ugly even from his earliest years and would give
delighted praise to beauty, receiving it into
his soul and being nourished by it, so that he
becomes a man of gentle heart; all this before
he is of an age to reason, so that when Reason
at length comes to him, then, bred as he has
been, he will hold out his hands in welcome and
recognize her because of the affinity he bears
to her. ("Republic," 402 A, quoted in C. S.
Lewis, The Abolition of Man, pp. 26-27.)

 

There is no dilemma here. Socrates, Plato,
and Aristotle are quite clear about the purpose of
education, the role of the student and the teacher,
and the source of authority, the mandate, under which

both pupil and teacher Operate. School is not

69

separated from the rest of community life. Young
people are not alienated from adult authority-figures.
All are engaged in the lifetime learning experience of
becoming fully human. The "little human animals" are
merely at an earlier stage of their development, and

so in need of more constant direction from their larger,
and, hopefully, rather mg£e_human adult animals. There
is no evidence of neurotic concern about warping the
little creatures, destroying their spontaneity, their
individuality, imposing ellep values on them. That
was precisely the job of education, and of educators--
a class which included ell adult members of the
community. The Greeks sensibly realized that it takes
a whole citizepry to nurture a future citizen.

The results are interesting. This philosophy
of education did not produce a debased mob of repressed
robots. It produced the most highly creative, indi-
vidualistic society our world has recorded. Despite
political turmoil, economic crises, plagues, wars (civil
and uncivil), it gave us a splendid roster of names
to conjure by: historians like Thucydides, poets like
Aesclaylus, dramatists like Sophocles, artists like
Phidias, solidiers like Themistocles, statements like
Pericles. All, the authggmpelleves, because a certain

7’—

set pf human valueehmwith a certain definition of

 

humanity, pervaded an entire culture and became the

70

foundation of its highly integrated system of lifelong

education. This was the source for all authority: the
belief that human animals were born to transcend them-

selves, and by education to become rational creatures,

capable of living in harmony, love, and justice. What

could be more "relevant" than this curriculum?

Until the late nineteenth and early twentieth
centuries, there was little interest in educational
philOSOphy. Since that time and up until roughly 1950,
the predominant philOSOpher of education was John Dewey.
In fact, from 1920 to 1950 most educators were followers
of the beliefs and theories of John Dewey.

Additionally, Dewey views the role of the
school as the "embryo of society," a place where ideas
have a chance to grow and change institutions. This
view is similar to the age old one that Plato discussed,
viz., of how we want to live, and how we educate our

young. For both philosophers viewed the education of

 

the young as the foundation of society.

 

There are two questions that arise, here, and
they are of such magnitude that those of us who are
committed to higher education as an endeavor ought be
continually pondering, namely: (1) What will be the
role and Obligation of higher educational personnel
with respect to (moral) values, in the not too distant

future (and how they in turn can provide models for

71

society and consequently impact on those who are soon
to graduate from institutions like Michigan State)?, and (2)
what methods are best suited to accomplish this task?

It is the basic position of the writer, in this
dissertation, in general, and in Chapter III in parti-

cular--as it is with Aurelio Peccei--that you cannot

 

3%

have a better world until there are better peOple.

 

Technology helps and, consequently, people must
appreciate the real and potential benefits of the so-
called industrial, scientific, and technological
revolutions. Yet man moves and operates within some
specific set of values. Accordingly, all training and

* all education is value-based. Hence, mankind must

 

educate itself from now on quite differently if all
life on this planet is to survive.

In a recent article, entitled: "Teacher
Training, Moral Dilemmas, and Nonsense Responses,"
the point was made that "compared to college students
in other fields, future teachers do not seem to have

developed high levels of moral reasoning."2 Specifically,

 

Robert B. Bloom, coordinator of the Division of Special

Education at the College of William and Mary,

 

2Robert B. Bloom, "Teacher Training, Moral
Dilemmas, and Nonsense Responses," Phi Delta Kappan,
(May, 1976), p. 2.

 

72

reported--in the Phi Delta Kappan, May, l976—-that he

 

gave eighty-two education M.A. candidates a series of
six moral dilemmas followed by twelve questions.

Professor Bloom went on to note that the subjects
were then asked to rate the importance of the issues
raised by each of the questions in resolving the moral
dilemma. According to Bloom: "Compared to responses
from 815 college students in other fields, education
students performed at a significantly lower level of
moral reasoning."3

In some respect, then, it shall be the intent
Of the author--in the initial portion of Chapter III-—
to expand on the thrust of the article that Professor
Bloom recently brought to the attention of the educa—
tional community.

For if Bloom is correct, to be sure, teachers
and educators are by-and-large doing exactly the
Opposite of the sort of things they in fact ought to
be doing. To see that this point is, indeed, true one
need only reflect about the following comment that

Professor Bloom made of his findings, namely:

 

Ibid.

73

. . . We must begin to consider the moral as well
as the purely cognitive qualities of the people

we select and prepare for teaching. In a time when
creative thinking is tantamount to survival, our
children need open, flexible, principled teachers.
My research suggests4that this is exactly what they
are unlikely to get.

 

Still further, if the position Professor Bloom
is arguing is correct, then obviously teachers (espe-
cially those of the "near" future) are much worse off
than any of the other segments of college students.

For one need only consider via the multiplier effect
the tremendous number of our nation's youth that these
aforementioned education teachers will be "training" in
the not too distant future.

Bloom concludes his article by pointing out the
fact that "graduates from teacher preparatory colleges
were particularly likely to be impressed by pretentious
nonsense statements."5 One example of this, according
to him, is as follows, viz:

A significant number of these students thought
that a critical aspect of making a decision on
whether it is moral to steal an expensive drug
to save a person's life was whether the essence
of living is more encompassing than the t rmina-
tion of dying, socially and individually.

Of extreme importance for us to note, here, is the fact

that Bloom wants us to see that the contents of the

 

41bid.

5Kappan, loc. cit.

61bid.

74

above quotation raise the issue of conflict among values;
and, the point too that, for the most part, education
students tended to "gloss over" this highly significant
matter.

The late 1960's found our higher educational
institutions being dramatically confronted, for the
first time, with a whole host of broad moral issues.

To name only a few, the various issues surrounding the
Vietnam war (or, as many peOple prefer to call it, the
"Vietnam conflict"); the Civil Rights Movement; graft
and criminal activity in top eachelons of government;
the lack of respect for persons in positions of
authority; skyrocketing campus crime rates; increasing
incidents of students' cheating on term papers and
examdnations; and, lastly, epidemic proportions of
venereal disease and substance abuse--and, in more
recent times, changing attitudes and social values
about ethnic, gay, and women's rights and awareness
programs-~all challenged individual beliefs as well as
the basic beliefs, values and attitudes of various key
university personnel across the face of this nation.
Far too often the faculties and administrations were
reluctant to face these and other critical moral issues,

and thus the effects of this lack ofypositive action

 

has too been. substantiated and documented for all

posterity to observe.

75

In addition to the above, many scientists and
scholars believe that the next quarter-of—a century ylll_
be the turning point for humanity. Moreover, consid-
erable dispute and disagreement exist at the present
time about the role of education in shaping our future
society. Alvin Toffler, for example, in his new

work: 'Learning for Tomorrow, The Role of The Future In

 

Education," deals extensively with the educational
ramifications of the major cultural innovations that
might occur before the end of this century--and
especially as they relate to higher education. Of
special relevance to the discussion at hand, are the
Chapters on "Why Women See the Future Differently From
Men" and "The Black Child's Image of the Future."

In sum, Toffler's thesis is about the mepy
severe stresses and dislocations to which, he maintains,
the American culture will be subjected to in the near
future.

And there are other futurist thinkers too who
have argued that our present style of education is
contributing to the world's "macro-problem" rather than

aiding in its solution. In a word, each one of us who

 

is involved in the "business" of education has a
responsibility to do the very best that we can in order
to insure the Europer, TOTAL, overall educational

development of our students in the future.

76

We are now in a position to take a close look

at some specific values for which in the opinion of the

 

author, higher education has an obligation or a respon-

sibility.7

Theme 1: Outer Limits or
Environment

 

 

Our planet, for example, has a certain "carrying
capacity," beyond which we strain its ability to
support and sustain life. Every living thing in the
universe exists within a web of interconnecting supports
and influences. To be sure, ecologists are warning us
of the fact that we are running out of drinkable water
and oxygen because of mass production, waste, abuse,
and improper distribution of our goods and services.
Hence, one value that Higher Education ought explicit-

ly take on is: Deep respect for natural balances,

 

ecological integrity, and thegprotection of our land,
water, air and all matters surrounding the bigpgysical

realm.

 

It is imperative for the reader to bear

in mind also the fact that this will vary from
one society to another, i.e. it would obviously

make sense to transmit nationalist values to students

in underdeveloped or develOping countries, whereas it
might be totally superfluous to do so in countries or
nations with high levels of technology. In a similar
vein, another example to note is that what is "growth,
progress and betterment" for an American might be viewed
in an opposite fashion by someone from another culture.

77

Thus, a dean or a vice-president of an insti-
tution of higher education (or, for that matter, any
one in a position of authority) would, of necessity,
have to--based on the aforementioned value--encourage
the faculty to build a general core curriculum as well
as specialty areas around the study of:

l. Ecology;
2. Biology;

3. Water, with particular emphasis on the use
and abuse of our oceans;

4. Climate Control/Weather;
5. Energy options;
6. Population studies; and, lastly,

7. Food Production, with particular emphasis
on agri-business.

The important thing here is that the student is forced
to grapple or come to grips with the interconnecting
problems associated with the environment. Furthermore,
evaluating effectiveness, whether via written and/or
oral examinations, term papers, field projects and
explorations, etc. then becomes a matter of assessing
the student's appreciation of not merely isolated
environmental factors but, of at least equal importance,
the interconnections and interdependencies governing
life itself.

In recent times, the poet, T. S. Eliot, has

commented extensively about the role education plays in

78

the development of a culturally healthy society. Speci-
fically, he warns us that the type of schooling we impose

is an abstraction. Thus, Eliot sees a need for social

 

commitment in education. He feels that being a well-
informed citizen, e.g. one who has directly studied
matters relating to public affairs. Furthermore, a sense
of public obligation arises out of the student's social
environment in the form of both unconscious assimilation8
and example. In a word, according to Eliot, unless a
person is directly concerned with these matters it is, to
be sure, useless to expect that they will have far-
reaching effects on the individual or on society at
large.

The author submits that universities must begin

to revamp the current incentives for, especially, faculty

 

and "other" key decision makers in ways that support
ethical development; as values education ought to be of
immediate and continuing concern to everyone involved in
the business of education. Additionally, universities
must begin to initiate and uphold formal ethical training
for college—level faculty, administrators and students

alike with respect to the "crucial" ethical problems

 

8B. H. Bantock, T. S. Eliot and Education (New

Yokr: Random House, 1969). P. 90.

 

79

confronting us, today--i.e. abortion; euthanasia; mental
and public health; racism; poverty; war and political
Oppression, etc.--if we are to survive and contribute
to the sanity of the let century.

Hence, there are several ways in which increased
emphasis on moral development via values education might
be accomplished, viz.:

// 1. By a series of rules or regulations that

spell out In great detail which particular

values are acceptable to said institution's

goals and objectives (especially in view of

the fact that we basically no longer have

religious values to guide us as we did in
the not too distant past);

 

2. By focusing particular emphasis on develop-
ing or advancing the philosgphical thinking
of the children and youth Of this nation; and,
lastly,

 

 

3. By various course offerings which deal
explicitly with values education.

 

Theme 2: Inner Limits

 

In a similar vein, higher education must also
deal with man's soul and psyche as well as the physical
quality of his "inner space." In other words, the "new"
scholar then becomes one who is mentally and physically
attuned to treat and aptly deal with new directions in
education. Additionally, if we as future educators
cannot do an adequate job of helping people to live and

"OOpe" in this society, how then do we realistically

80

expect to prepare them to live, at some future date,
either in outer space or on the floors of the oceans?

Again, as a vice-president or chief adminis-
trator of an institution of higher education, the
author would encourage the faculty to prOpose, design
and implement a core curriculum--with Options to
specialize--in the following, viz.:

1. Exposure to Psycho-therapy Techniques
and approaches;

2. Holistic medicine;
3. Stress management;

4. Nutrition;

5. Various religions of the world;

 

6. PhilOSOphy; and, lastly,

7. Martial arts, which would stress the impor-
tance ofgmental discipline and physical
fitness.

 

9The author is well-qualified to speak on the
point Of Martial Arts, etc. as he holds the rank of IL
Dan, First Degree Black Belt, in Taekwon Do (The Leading
Korean Martial Art); and, a Blue Belt (lst Cup) in Kang
Duk Kwon, another style of Korean Karate. In academic
circles, as an aside, this would be viewed similarly as
(nearly) the equivalent of having two Ph.D.‘s.

In addition to the above, aid—On a more serious
note, the author views the student of the martial arts
as one who is involved in a discipline that stresses
both mind and character develOpment as well as physical
fitness conditioning for men, women and children of
all ages. Through the scientific use of the body in
methods of self-defense which is one of mankind's most
priceless pieces of wisdom, the martial arts do in fact
aim at the development of the character of its parti-
cipants. Thus, those who practIce their art will
Obtain through vigorous and tireless traifiIfig the deeper

 

 

81

Still further, in this regard, the consideration
of the meaning and significance of education leads us
to the point where the philosophical, ethical and
theological presuppositions must of necessity be brought
out into the Open within our educational systems. Thus,
if in the not too distant future, we are to educate our
students to assume full responsibility for the entire
planet, they must be made to examine in a serious
fashion various doctrines of or about man, and his
relation to education, philosophy and religion as well.
To be sure, the author is profoundly convinced that
the student who has had a great deal of exposure to the
aforementioned subject areas (that is, ethics or moral
philosophy and religion, et a1.) will be in a better
position to deal effectively with not only cogent
theories about the material world, as we know it, but
he/she will undoubtedly be in a much better position
to deal also with such crucial and extremely pressing

issues as: war or militarism; hunger; disease;

 

more reflective aspects of his/her art--as well as
qualities of leadership, humility and respect for
themselves and all others around them.

For withOfit this mental conditioning, the student
will become only a "street fighter," and in his ignor-
ance may believe that he possesses superior techniques.
In a word, then, the martial arts via their mental and
physical education ultimately serve to develop a
sound mind and a sound body!

82

poverty; racial injustice and a host of other vital
concerns that are shaping the direction in which we as

a society are moving, as each day brings us closer to
the let century. As a famous Black educator once
remarked: "The problem of human relations may be boiled
down to the problem of religion and moral values."10

Evaluation would hinge on the students demon-

strated competence in some selected or requisite number

 

of one or more of the aforementioned seven core curri-

culum areas of specialization.

Theme III: Culture

 

Higher Education must also foster an apprecia-
tion for cultural diversity. Thus, one who is in a
position of authority hires, promotes, provides insti-
tutional backing to faculty and offers courses that
promote or embellish "cherished" values. In other
words, salaries, endowed chairs, tenure and promotions,
etc. all reflect institutional priorities. This
becomes increasingly important especially in attempting
to understand values within the context of the educa-
tional society in which we must live and operate. To

be sure, the breed of teachers and administrators, for

 

10Inez Bacoats, Echoes From A Life Well-Spent:
The Biqgraphy of Dr. John Alvin Bacoats, (South Carolina:
The State Printing Company, 1970), p. 52.

 

83

this society, inculcate by training, particularly in
relation to the college level, and reflect values about
E22 ought to pass on wisdom to whom--and in what form
this must be transmitted. In addition, this society,
as well as any society, must have lines of authority
and, typically, the same ordering principles define the
educator. And so,who gets to educate, the duration

and hardships, et al. of the educator's credentialing

 

process varies with different societies but certainly
this "preparation" too reflects the weight that people
place on education.

Again, as a vice-president or chief adminis-
trator of an institution of higher education, the
author would stress the urgency for the faculty to build
a core study around the following:

1. Anthropology;

 

2. Archaelogy;

3. Languages, with particular emphasis on
both oral forms and creative writing;

4. Literature/stories;

5. Music;

6. Art;

7. Dance;

8. Creative drama; and, lastly,

9. The mass media as a cultural or ethical

bearer via radio, television and the film
industry.

 

84

Evaluation, in this circumstance, probes not

only appreciation but demonstrated proficiency in some

 

creative medium of one or more of the above.

Theme IV: Community

 

As stated earlier, we live increasingly in a
multi-cultural and multi-racial world. And, because of
the rapid mobility and technological conditions of this
nation, coupled with continental or global impact of the
media (as mentioned in Theme III above) people of
very different value systems are living not only next
to each other but are to a great extent influenced by
each other's values and value systems, even though
literally living thousands of miles apart. Again, what
happened in Vietnam is a case in point of this.

Moreover, the author maintains the point that
since transportation and communications innovations
have effectively reduced the distances worldwide-~and
the "global village" concept is already (here) with
us to some extent-—and since local, national and
international and worldwide interaction is imminent,
there must be points of reference that will build the
sort of philOSOphical and educational bases for a "new"
understanding of man; that might make us respect one
another not only in this nation but in distant lands

as well.

85

In this regard, as a chief administrator of a
college or an institution of higher education, the
author would encourage the faculty to prOpose the
following peep areas of study:

1. Political Science;

2. Geography;

3. Global Conflict versus Cooperative efforts;

 

4. International law; and, lastly,

 

5. Transportation and Communication systems.

To be sure, the potential for a dean or a vice-
president in this area is virtually unlimited. Speci-
fically, he can organize or institute relevant field
trips, invite guest lecturers, and have video pre—
sentations, etc. all with the specific objective or
value of raising the consciousness of each student so
that he/she will become increasingly concerned for ell
other human beings.

The reader should bear in mind too the fact
that a few universities already have stopped teaching
in buildings, classrooms, and stationary facilities and
are instead renting space in ocean liners—-teaching
and "pausing” all over the world.

Insofar as evaluation techniques are concerned,
a truly worthy student would demonstrate his ability

to frame questions and focus upon problems, issues and

86

concerns that have bearing on the cohesion of people,

both at home and on a worldwide basis.

Theme V: Healthngabitat

 

Stated simply this theme involves YEEEE and
how we live. When World War II ended, America heaved
a great sigh of relief. The end of the war meant the
end Of rationing, rent control, paper drives, irritating
shortages and a whole host of sacrifices Americans
willingly made to defeat our enemies. More importantly,
it returned to our homeland the many veterans who had
fought so hard for so long. Now they were free to seek
their dreams of the "good life" and to secure the scarce
resources that were again available to the American
consumer. And, they did so with a zest that changed
the face of America.

The returning veterans attended college,
entered the job market, married, raised families--and
moved to suburbia. It was natural. Few questioned
the results and even fewer accurately measured the
effects of suburban development upon the urban centers.

Consequently, our urban centers were ignored

 

while our energies were epent on the development of
suburban paradises that were available to those who

could afford it, and who were, in particular, not

 

minority Americans. Thus, what 30 years ago, started

 

87

as the search for the "good life" became the desperate
flight to suburban safety. What began as a choice
became the imperative. As an administrator of an
institution of higher education, the author would be
especially concerned about the housing patterns of the
future. In addition, he would be concerned too with
the proper use of energy, weight, design strengths, and
access to both housing and transportation, etc. and
would therefore influence the faculty to insure that

a core curriculum be made or initiated to treat at
least the following:

1. Architecture and design;

 

2. Road Construction and transportation;
3. Space explorations;
4. Ocean living;

5. Urban living;

 

6. Rural living; and, lastly,

7. Use of leisure time.

And, as applicable to the aforementioned
situations or themes, evaluation would hinge on know-
ledge and demonstrated competency via written or oral
examinations, creative expression, field experience(s)
and/or some "approved" equivalent means of assessing
precisely what the student knows about one or more of

the above areas of study.

88

Theme VI: Productivity

 

For our eleee and final category, as a vice-
president or chief administrator of an institution of
higher education, the author would encourage the faculty
to create hypothetical situations where the student will
have to demonstrate the ability to frame questions
in meaningful/useful ways as well as adopt strate-
gies leading to "problem-foci" or answers about the
following, namely:

1. When have we as a nation or society had
too much growth?

2. What is the right trade balance? This ques-
tion obviously has implications for at least two major
points of View, i.e. to what extent are we as a nation

supporting something that is neither economically or

 

morally legitimate? Furthermore, one does not need an
academic degree to see that in either case we yet attempt
to help other nations (like Germany, Japan and South
Africa) to our economic and moral detriment. In all
three, to be sure, said countries have systematically
displayed a history of cruelty, barbarism and aggression
in dimensions surpassing previous human experience.

3. To what extent should the future job market
consider automation, and consumer trends, et al.? Thus,
it is imperative for the well-developed student to know

something about:

89

a. economics;
b. law;
c. marketing and/or advertising;

d. international trade; and, lastly,

 

e. job trends.

 

Following World War II, the West went overboard
in terms of the value or the emphasis placed on

specialization. But it is the author's belief that

 

higher education in the future ought to provide some
Options for peOple who wish to generalize. To be sure,
the author's point of view le biased to the extent that

he believes that we can no longer afford to have every-

 

one thinkingyabout his/her tiny or narrow areas of

 

specialization; on the contrary, we need people who

 

concentrate even as they learn a great deal more about
many, many things. Putting the point in another fashion:
due to a myriad of problems confronting us as a society,
today, specialization should no longer be the rule Of
thumb.

Still further, as the author sees it, a dean
or a vice-president or basically any authority figure
today must respond to at least basically three notions
or considerations, viz.:

l. Upholding the missions or standards
of their respective institution;

2. Implementing values education; and, lastly,

 

90

3. Continually being aware of and availing the

institution of all possible funding sources.

To be sure, no college or university is isolated
in this day and age, as with tri-speed satellite-beamed
video, the college or university brings a reasonable
facimile of the world to each student.

We are now in a position to answer another "key"
question and that is precisely what do these values
imply when considering the structure of a degree
program within a higher institute of learning?11 Or,
more specifically, what kinds of experiences would a
college provide which would serve to enhance the
appreciation of the aforementioned values? To begin with,
all of the values mentioned earlier cover a wide range
of concerns as they fall both into the social and
natural science fields. Thus, the author proposes that
specific courses would be designed and implemented to
promote and deal effectively with the aforementioned
requisite values--and said courses should be required
of ell students at the entry level of their respective
degree programs. As an alternative to this, however,
should those in positions of authority not see this as

a "prOper" course to chart then said courses in moral

 

11Naturally, the author is assuming that an
authority or one who is in a position of authority with
high resources and low constraints would be in the "ideal"
situation. Unfortunately, however, this is oftentimes
not the case at all.

91

or values education could be offered to students in the
form of electives, which provide more individual freedom
of selection and consequently increased curiousity and
interest.

In addition to the above, and for quite some
time now, the author has argued that the philosophical
(values) curriculum slant or point of view, if insti-
tuted on a mass scale at such institutions as MSU will
probably lead to more ethical or value conscious people.
At the very least, in this regard, such efforts and
exposure would, undoubtedly, sharpen one's powers of
critical thinking.

Additionally, not only should students be given
the opportunity to look quite closely at such moral values,
but faculty and administrators also have a responsibility
to stay informed about and offer some individual con-
tribution(s) to understanding the world problems facing
them. Staff develOpment and training could very easily
provide a seminar or seminars which would deal specifi-
cally with world issues, utilizing group discussion
techniques for the formulation of individual, depart-
mental and university goals and programs which would
respond to these and "other" world issues. To be sure,
various members of each department's faculty could be

required to conduct said seminars on a rotation basis,

 

92

perhaps each month or so, depending on the size of the
faculty, etc.

Furthermore, some educators argue that

r7
W

each educator ought to develop a philOSOphical basis,
methodology and values approach to teaching, whether or
not he/she happens to be in the actual classroom
setting, that will enable, especially those students

in higher education, to develop higher levels of moral
reasoning. The author supports this premise and,
furthermore, takestfluaposition that each educator has

a moral responsibility to systematically and rationally
investigate and develop not only their own value stance,
but, of at least equal importance, to continually raise
and attempt to resolve the crucial dilemmas that con-
front all of us in the 20th century.

Within the past decade students have become
more individualistic in their attitudes toward moral
values in regard to higher education. In developing an
effective degree program which keeps the importance of
values strongly in mind, it is of prime importance that
a systematic evaluation method be developed which would
measure the change in attitudes following a relevant
class. Measurements used for the evaluation would

,L—, ._1
»include whether or not the person has moved from an

 

 

individualistic to a world perspective and if the class

 

93

has been successful in changing the student's overall
attitudes and values concerning world issues.

If it is true that it doesn't really matter
what we teach but the attitudes we utilize in our teach-
ing, our attitudes toward the moral issues confronting
the world today are certain to affect. the individuals
with whom we communicatein the classroom or in a given
faculty meeting. It is, therefore, up to each educator
to make sure he/she takes responsibility for affecting moral
values affecting all of humanity as well as to consis-
tently remind others of theirs. To quote Peccei:

I am fully determined to continue my reflections
on man and his future, although I do not know what
the next phase will be nor how long it might last.
My great hope is to have contributed--in the small
measure accorded to one person--to the rebirth
of man's spirit, without which the entire human
system will revert to conceptions or extreme
conditions which will lead it to ruination. But
I have faith in man--and I believe in the human
revolution which, even at the price of great

sacrifices and sufferipg, will in the long run
enable him to triumphTIZ

 

In conclusion of this chapter, then, the author
wishes to stress the point that the significance of ell
life processes and their relationship to our ecological
condition is certainly a realistic and crucial value to
transmit to students, at this particular point in time.

This is especially true vis-a-vis higher education where

 

12Aurelio Peccei, The Human Quality (New York: The

Pergamon Press, 1977), p. 205.

 

94

students will soon be taking on the responsibility for
relieving the earth from technological destruction and
wanton waste and abuse.

Another value that is relevant to contemporary
society and thus, higher education, is the importance
of a united humanity. To be sure, conflict between
races and cultures coupled with the world's starvation
problem have created a need for a higher level of
consciousness concerning each human being's relationship
to all other human beings. Thus, the prospect of
"world-survival" may soon be dependent upon how willing
those who are in possession of vast sums of material
wealth are willing to share with those who have little
or no resources at all!

Lastly, the world population problem poses yet
another challenge insofar as moral values and higher
educational institutions are concerned. Should,
for instance, family planning ideas and methods be
taught to students? And, to what extent should they be
taught? In a very real sense, students cannot be
expected to take responsibility for their sexuality and
the children they bring into the world unless they have
first been adequately informed as to the need for such
responsibility on both an individual and on a world-wide

scale.

 

95

In the final analysis, such a focus regarding
moral values within a higher educational system does
not in any way take away from the general educational
role or missioncflfthe institution; on the contrary, it
simply adds to the personal development of its individual
students. It is the author's belief then that personal
develOpment or a broadening of both the mental (cogni-
tive) and moral perspectives are necessary for the
attainment of learning in its fullest sense. TO quote
T. S. Eliot for one final time:

The ideal is-a life in which one's liveli-

hood, One's function as a citizen, and one's self-
development all fit into and enhance each other.13

 

13T. S. Eliot, op. cit., p. 104.

 

CHAPTER IV

CONCLUDING STATEMENT

The author has attempted to argue in this disser-
tation the point that it is eeg_time for a "new"
renaissance in morality. That is, given the fact that
we live in a world characterized by international
terrorism and highjacking; sex scandals and dishonesty in
government; marked fear on many of our nation's college
campuses; increasing incidents of students cheating and
reliance on "dangerous" chemical substances (as the
typical state-of—affairs, today, rather than the excep-
tion) it is no wonder then that the appeal to norms
and values, in this society may, for the most part, not
seem rewarding for so many.

In this regard, the author further argues that
since colleges and universities exist in a wider
social context, and thus sometimes its members do reflect

the prominent negative values of the larger society--from

 

the skyrocketing campus crime rates to student and faculty
indifference with respect to the denigrating of our edu-
cational institutions--this then must be viewed as one of
the major challenges facing both our educational institu-

tions and society today.

96

97

To be sure, the aforementioned are not new
problems, but they have grown to historic and frightening
dimensions. Putting the point thus, and in keeping with
the major focus of the dissertation, perhaps the increas-
ing reliance on chemicals and other dangerous substances
to avoid the stresses, anxieties, and discomforts of
modern civilization constitutes a BEEEE warning that
many aspects of modern civilization are for many people,
intolerable.

Additionally, the author further argued the

point that if there is to be any hgpe for the future,

 

via a "revolution" in values, then we must look to
educators, (and professional philosophers) and ask what
can they do by virtue of their training and disciplines
to help stabilize this nation's existence? In other
words, putting the question in a little different form,
the author asked: What can educators do in order to
find new directions by which we as a society can begin
to move forward, rather than continue our backward
decline?

All of these blatant negative dimensions do
suggest, however, the fact that we are in the midst of
an extremely unsettled season and troubled age and,
still further, in desperate need of new educational and
moral leadership. It is possible that the roots of

these serious negative maladies may well lie in the way

98

we treat each other in our families, our schools, our
churches, and on our jobs. Furthermore, if we as a

society attempted to reduce the harshness we display

 

 

toward one another--thus, by implication, reducing the
level of violence in this nation and, still further,
make a concerted effort to increase our respect for
one another--many of our present moral/values problems
would be well on the way to becoming serious problems
of the past.

This becomes increasingly important especially
in trying to deal with the role of values within the
context of the educational society in which we live.
For example, it is precisely the breed of teachers

W‘-

and administrators who determine which values will be

 

passed on to posterity. In addition to the above, the
author further argued that one does not need an academic

degree to realize that one cannot separate his/her

 

education from the value(s) climate of their society.
Thus, the very process of educating is ALWAYS dependent
on E22 "knows" what about nature to pass on to whom;

in what form, when and where! It is important for the
reader to bear in mind too the fact that students,
faculty members and, in some instances, administrators
are today moreso than ever before questioning the
traditional roles that American universities have

assumed (or failed to assume, as the case may be) in

 

99

education, research, and service to the larger society.
Furthermore, the value assumptions related to the
universities' posture on foreign and, especially,
domestic policies are also being challenged.1 Lastly,
in this regard, the author has argued the point that
this questioning and challenging have taken many forms,
and that we cannot help but remember them today as

the ”whirlwind of events" that came to us in the early

 

sixties. To be sure, we were all astonished at the
disrespectful, not to mention hostile, behavior of the

rioting students of the sixties. They burned school

 

records, marched on deans, took over university buildings,
challenged professors in mid-lecture, boycotted courses,
demanded the right to hire and fire faculty, to design
curricula, to set degree requirements, and to censor
course content for "relevance." We should have seen

the whirlwind coming, but we didn't.

 

1For a detailed discussion of this point, please
refer to THE UNIVERSITY AND SOCIETY, a speech presented
to the new university faculty on September 15, 1970
by Dr. Robert L. Green . . . at that time, Assistant
Provost and Director of the Center for Urban Affairs,
Michigan State University. He noted that " . . .
They have ranged from picketing, singing and marching
in front of the administration buildings in the
mid 19605, to the teach-ins during the 1966-67 period,
to the ill—fated events of Orangeburg in the latter
part of 1968, to Kent State University and Jackson
State College of the past spring, to the unfortunate
bombing of a research center at the University of
Wisconsin . . ."

 

100

The let century will soon be upon us, bringing
with it past and present unresolved moral and educa-
tional dilemmas (i.e. "old" values crises) as well as
new ones that are yet unforeseen; if we fail to focus
the requisite amount of attention and a great deal of
our resources and energy on this aspect of American
society then, in the opinion of the author, we cannot
possibly hOpe to survive. In a word, in reflecting
about the campus crisis, in the midst of a highly
advanced (mass) technological society, it is the
Opinion of the author that Nietzsche's prOphetic warn-
ings may be all too true--unless we as a society manifest
a radical advance in ethics and morality, to match our
progress in science and technology, then the end result
may very likely be the eventual total destruction of
EEle world.

Perhaps the essential mission of higher educa-
tion then is to enable the individual to live a life

which is at once reasonably satisfactory to himself

 

and those around him. Thus in a very real sense, this
dissertation is all about values--past, present and
future; and how we can begin to educate our students
in the not too distant future, to assume full respon-
sibility for the entire Planet.

The author concludes this dissertation then by

emphasizing the point thatthe study of the role that

101

values should play in higher educational settings is
appropriate, essential, timely, and plausible to the
overall mission of higher education. Education today
has become a "giant" field in its own right, as it
organizes, instructs, criticizes, researches, transmits
{econtext, analyzes and actually prepares every single
person on this earth, either directly or indirectly,

for whatever he/she wishes to do in life. For without

 

educators and teachers, all other professions would

literally grind to a halt.

 

But education can become an even greater force in

the future if educators were willing to institute values
education both in an academic and in a practical sense,
in their respective universities. That way, students
might begin to eee_as a result of personal examples and
personal commitment faculty members and administrators
giving more than merely "lip service" to values.
Obviously, there is a difference between
commitment and action. As a famous educator once noted:
”Education is as much the development of insights,
directions, and motivations as it is amassing facts and

skills."2

 

2Dr. Paul L. Dressel, in a final lecture pre-
sented for the Education 965C course, i.e. Seminar In
Evaluation.

 

 

 

102

As the author looks forward to the future, he
maintains that as we try to plan for our own future--
especially insofar as both our educational and moral
perspectives are concerned--the business of educators
will and must be to try and better equip us to live in
a world that will have mutual respect for all others on
the face of this planet, and possibly beyond, as we
are on the edge of the unknown in space ventures too.

We of the 20th century cannot afford to make

the same mistakes that educators in antiquity often

 

made, as they were mainly concerned with systems of

knowledge which were altogether oriented to the past.

 

In other words, the chief responsibility Of educators
today can only be to orient our knowledge toward future
. 3
perspect1ves.
It is no wonder then that students all over
the nation are uttering the all too familiar words of
Edward D. Eddy, Jr.: "Faculty members are accused of

being devoid of any genuine sense of concern for the

 

31n a word, the author maintains that if his-
torians of the past have taught us anything,they have
taught us that we cannot afford to wait until the
stresses and ills that are upon us are of crisis or
epidemic prOportions, before we seek to do anything
about them, Nazism, the glaring fact of the twentieth
century, is a case in point of this.

103

entire fabric of education including student responsi-

 

bility and morality."4

In the final analysis, the author submits that
the following thoughts, written by Maria Montessori,
most aptly sum up the point of this dissertation:

I, too, believe that humanity is still far
from that stage of maturity needed for the
realization of its aspirations, for the con-
struction, that is, of a harmonious and peaceful
society and the elimination of wars. Men are
not yet ready to shape their own destinies; to
control and direct world events, Of which—-
instead--they become the victims . . . If help
and salvation are to come, they can only come
from theschildren,for the children are the makers
of men."

 

Lastly, world peace flows inevitably when there
is harmonyiJIthe nation, security in the community,
order in the home, and calm and self-assurance within
the self. Still further, the author believes that a
much greater emphasis meee be placed on the personal,
mental (cognitive), psycho-motor, and moral perspectives
if we are to enable our students to attain a "prOper"
TOTAL education. This becomes apparent when we reflect

about the significance of the preservation of all life

 

4Edward D. Eddy, "What Happened to Student
Values?" Educational Record (56), 1977.

 

5This information was obtained from a Holy Cross
Montessori School Newsletter, Summer/1978, page 4.

104

processes and this vis-a-vis both our ecological

conditions and our personal welfare as certainly a

 

viable and desirable value to transmit to students; if
we hope to do an apt job of preparing them for the
responsibility which they will inherit, prior to

the start of the let century.

It is a truism that you cannot have a better
world until you have better people. And on, and on, and
on, until we have the sort of world in which people will
have profound respect for ell life, including life in
outer space and/or on the floors of the oceans.

Accordingly, all education is and ought to be

 

value-based. Hence, mankind must begin to educate itself

 

from now on quite differently, especially in respect to
dealing with concepts about moral values. In this
regard, students, faculty and staff members then must
be persuaded to keep values education in the forefront
of their thinking and instruction--while at the same
time developing the cognitive and affective qualities
of the peOple who they are teaching.

Some final remarks as to the major assumptions
implicit in this study and kind of result aimed at are in
order. First, as to value judgments (and especially
those of a moral and ethical nature): it has been

assumed that these mainly arise in attempting to solve

 

105

social problems, or associated groups of such problems.
A second assumption is that civilized societiesafimi at
making such judgments reasoned ones, growing out of
critical reflection upon all the relevant data. These
are points upon which philOSOphers as different (and
as remote from each other in time) as Plato and Dewey
would endorse. Alternatives to this approach to the
development Of value standards are all, at bottom,
varieties of authoritarianism.

It would appear that the general principles of a
democratic society indirectly involve the assumption that
value standards must be rationally defensible; shown as
the reasoned—out solutions to social problems; viewed
in the light of the relevant data; and in their connection
with other value-standards which are similarly based.

As for the results aimed at: obviously these
could not consist of solutions, of a finished code of
value-judgments and value standards. The aim instead was
to map out areas of study containing the facts bearing
upon problem-areas about values in contemporary American
society. Study of these social problems showed that the
standard organization of university studies isolates
inquiries which jointly bear on the social issues dis-
cussed. It is argued that these dividing walls need to

have openings made in them. And especially it has been

 

106

argued that many subjects have ignored evaluative
aspects--ignored sometimes out of tradition, sometimes
for practical reasons, sometimes on the basis of
theory (the theory, for instance, that the ”cognitive"
and "affective" aspects of experience can and ought to
be sharply separated). In a word, one of the major
points argued in this dissertation is the peed_for the

inter—relatedness of the two aforementioned domains.

 

g. .kawnl...nhm...wwu..k? ..!...>;.Frl..wa_zfr.h_uufi8i

BIBLIOGRAPHY

107

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