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AN ETHNOGRAPHIC STUDY OF THE INTERRELATIONSHIP OF
COMMUNITY COLLEGE TEACHERS AND STUDENTS
IN A LABORATORY SETTING

By

Kay T. Dodge

A DISSERTATION

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fuifillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of Administration and Curriculum

1982

ABSTRACT

AN ETHNOGRAPHIC STUDY OF THE INTERRELATIONSHIP OF
COMMUNITY COLLEGE TEACHERS AND STUDENTS
IN A LABORATORY SETTING

By
Kay T. Dodge

The college science laboratory offers a unique opportunity for
instructors to interact with students in a variety of ways; however,
few studies have analyzed the complexflsocial encounter that occurs
in this important instructional/setting.*TThewpurpose of the study

was twofold--to describe and analyze the factors that shape the

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dynamics of the face- to- face interaction between teacher- student(s)

in the community college laboratory and then to develop a descriptive

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model of teacher- student interaction in that sett1ng To accomplish

 

 

 

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this, the study examined the key factors of teacher role and leadership-
management patterns as they naturally occur in the laboratory class-
rooms of three experienced community college instructors.

In this study, to examine what was happening in lab, ethno-
graphic methods were used to look at teacher-student interaction in

m- ._._
Kn WWW

terms of a grounded analyt1cal model. Qual1tat1ve research methods

cw...,-....._
rh‘.._.-..—pv-.n ~— r-

included participant observation, field notes, surveys, interviews,
videotape of laboratory sessions, and review of college and course
documents. The data provided a rich description of what was happen-

ing in lab but also an understanding of the broader context in which

Kay T. Dodge

the social event is rooted. Throughout the year-long study, field
work focused on meaningful patterns of interaction jointly produced and
interpreted by the instructors and their students.

Interaction in the laboratory is not an accident, but a complex
social encounter. In the study, the inquiry process moved from an
examination of teacher role, to management patterns, and finally to
teacher-student interaction. The study suggests that teacher role is a
function of the transaction between a myriad of extrinsic and intrinsic
factors, and that the individual instructors' perception of role not
only influences the leadership-management patterns employed in the
laboratory, but ultimately the amount and type of teacher-student
interaction.

The theoretical model of teacher-student interaction developed
in the study portrays the dynamic encounter of teacher and student(s)
within the classroom setting. The study has implications for both
improving instruction and for teacher training. The interactive model
has implications for educational researchers interested in classroom

interaction.

COPYRIGHT BY
KAY T. DODGE
1982

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

To properly thank those people who contributed to the study
is an impossible task, yet I must recognize several individuals never
meaning to diminish the contributions of others.

Two individuals who dramatically influenced me in my formative
years were my father, Arthur Haminger, and a very special teacher,
Marinus Swets. They both encouraged me to be a sensitive observer
and participant in my environment.

My father, although not formally educated beyond the eleventh
grade, is wise in the ways of nature and a creative, gentle teacher
and parent. I thank him for taking me fishing and sharing his world.

Marinus Swets. a master teacher and now a college dean, had a
decided effect on the direction of my early education. I am forever
in his debt for exposing me to Steinbeck and snakes, constantly feed-
ing my sense of'wonder.

My professional colleagues and instructors at Michigan State
made the move into field work an exciting one. Encouraging me
throughout my doctoral program and research, Howard Hickey as committee
chair always provided wise counsel and support-—igracias me amigo!

Susan Florio as dissertation chair provided strategic criti-
cism in preparing the manuscript as well as being a personal model
as a field researcher. Her time and valuable suggestions were

instrumental in helping to weave together the multi-faceted strands

ii

of the study. For her personal time and thoughtful advice, I am
most grateful.

To Ben Bohnhorst, a perpetual hug in my heart, and to Lou
Hekhuis, Bob George, and all the other instructors and colleagues,
sincere thanks for providing me with solid foundations and personal
support.

One is diminished without loved ones, family and friends,
and I am so rich on this account. The understanding and support of
these important people in my life must also be recognized for they
share the sweat, tears, and broken bones that have been part of this
project.

Finally, I must thank my three teacher informants and many
students who participated so willingly in the study. Although they
will remain nameless, they are the study. I only hope the world they
were so willing to share can help others grow in knowledge and aware-

ness of this very special learning environment.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLES .........................
LIST OF FIGURES .................. . ......
FOREWORD

INTRODUCTION ......................

The Community College .................
Purpose ........................
Research Questions ..................

THEORY AND METHODS ...................

Background of the Study ................
Methods of Fieldwork .................
Ethnographic Approach ................
Value of Observation ................
Research Strategies . . . . . .............
Participant_gbservation ...............
Field Notes/Recording and Analysis of Verbal and
Nonverbal Behavior ................
Interview ......................
Enumeration and Sample ...............
Overview of the Study .................
Strengths and Weaknesses of Fieldwork .........
The Evolution of an Ethnographer ...........

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE ..............

College Teaching ...................
Science Teaching ...................
Behavior Within a Social Context ...........
Organizations and Leadership .............
Role .........................
Getzels and Guba: Social-Psychological Model .....
Nomothetic and Idiographic Dimensions ........
Transactions ....................
Conflict ......................

Page

Epistemological Perspective .............. 44

Situational Frame .................. 44

Space and Proxemic Patterns ............. 46

Grounded Theory in Research on Teaching ....... 47

IV. THE STUDY ........................ 54

The Laboratory Environment .............. 54

The Setting ..................... 54

The Actors ..................... 57

The Students .................... 63

The Laboratory ................... 66

The Office ..................... 72

The Lounge ..................... 73

The Actors in the Setting .............. 76

The Researcher in the Setting ............ 88

Descriptive Model of Teacher-Student Interaction . . . 92

Role ........................ 92

Role Influences and Formation ............ 95

Role Variations ................... llO

Leadership-Management Patterns ........... 114

Three Management Patterns .............. ll9

Situational Leadership Style ............ l26

Linking Participation Structure to Interaction . . . . l38

"Sheep Brain Dissection" .............. 14]

"Tears and Bones" .................. 143

Feedback ...................... l46

“Together We Struggle" ............... l48

Importance of Interaction ............... l49

"You're on Your Own" ................ 151

Summary of Findings .................. 156

V. DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS OF THE RESEARCH ....... l58

Discussion of the Findings .............. 158

The Interactive Model ................. l6O

Implications for Teacher Education .......... l66

Implications for Further Research ........... 169

The Next Step ..................... l7O

APPENDICES ........................... l7l

A. SAMPLES OF FIELD NOTES ................. 172
B. ORIENTATION MATERIALS AND SAMPLES OF LABORATORY

EXERCISES ....................... l80

C. INFORMANT INTERVIEWS .................. 204

D. STUDENT SURVEY

E. TEACHER QUESTIONNAIRE ..................
F. COLLEGE DOCUMENTS AND CONTRACT
BIBLIOGRAPHY

OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO

vi

LIST OF TABLES

Table Page
l. Follow-up Study of Graduates ............... 99
2. Three Participant-Structure Types ............. ll7

vii

Figure

01-wa

OGDNOS

10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.

LIST OF FIGURES

Expanding PerSpective Through Participant Observation

Triangulation of a Single Event ............

Research Outcomes ...................

Role and Personality ..................
John—-Interacting With Older Students .........
One-to-One Explanation After Lecture ..........
Margaret--Professional Expert .............
Comparative Anatomy Lab and Human Physiology Lab . . . .
Comparative Anatomy and Embryology Lab .........
Floor Layout .................. .. . . .
Lab Partners as "Live Specimens" ............
Ten O'Clock Coffee ...................
Pre-med Lab Partners ..................
Introducing the Day's Lab ...............
Four Heads Are Better Than Two .............
Informal Professional Counseling Before Class .....
John--Introducing Lab .................
Clarifying a Point ...................
Researcher in the Setting ...............

Linking Role to Interaction ..............

viii

Page
l5
17
25
4O
43
60
61
63
67
68
69
7l
75
77
79
84
85
86
88
89
9S

22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.

31.
32.
33.

34A.
34B.
34C.
34D.
34E.

35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.

Extrinsic and Intrinsic Role Influences ..........
Role Formation .......................
Classroom Visitors .....................
Role Feedback-~John as a Mentor ..............

Participation Structures Constituting Management Patterns

Teacher-Centered Management ................
Teacher-Student Interplay .................
Student-Centered Management ................

Three Patterns of Lab Instruction--Produced by
Participant-Structure Shifts ...............

Pattern A--John's Lab ...................
Pattern B—-Margaret's Lab .................
Pattern C--Ed's Lab ....................
Approaching the Group ...................
Small-Group Lecture ....................
Personalizing Small-Group Interaction ...........
Role Transition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Student as Teacher .....................
Student Role Shift to Group Leader .............
Answering Student Questions ................
Personal Space .......................
Overseeing Dissection ...................
Quizzing Students .....................
Levels of Interaction in the Laboratory Setting ......

The Setting for Interaction ................

ix

Page

97
105

121

132
133
134
135

42.
43.
44.
45.
46.
47.

Page

Reinforcing Role and Management Patterns .......... l46

Model of Teacher-Student Interaction--Two-Way Feedback . . . l47

Student Interaction--Attitude-Knowledge Loop ........ l50
Positive and Negative Feedback ............... l54
Model of Teacher-Student Interaction ............ l6O

Potential Outcomes of Teacher Inservice Based on Model . . . l68

FOREWORD

"The Making of a Field Worker"

Five A.M. on what promised to be a marvelous Michigan August
day, a fisherman loaded his gear and sleepy eight-year-old daughter
into the car. Driving for perhaps twenty minutes before leaving the
paved roads, he turned off onto a tree-covered gravel country road
on his way to Angel Lake. As he drove he pointed out the natural
sights hidden to many--a fat woodchuck nibbling grass at the woods'
edge, a red-tailed hawk perched watchfully in a dead tree, or a snake
coiled in the morning sun alongside the road. Later as they sat in
a small wooden rowboat, they talked of fishing lore, the dragon flies
dancing on the ends of the poles, and the carefully packed lunch in
the picnic basket. The hours were spent talking and sharing, and
very often just listening to the natural world. The fisherman and
his daughter returned home in the late afternoon with fish stories
and a small catch of fish displayed proudly on a silver stringer.

Learning to look and really see the multifaceted world around
is not a universal characteristic of modern man. In fact, in our
complex society, sormufl1of the world around us is filtered out
because of distraction and noise, that often only a small portion of
any scene is really comprehended. Much of the richness of reality is
lost, and with it the knowledge of the whole. Being raised in an

environment where observation was important, and even reinforced,

xi

learning to look, listen, and really see were part of growing up.
Today, as a researcher, the skills cultivated in my early years of
exploring and studying the natural environment have had a profound
influence on my perceptions. Fishing with my father was only a
beginning of a series of events that were to shape my attitudes,
values, and perceptions.

From the time I was a young girl, I wanted to be a teacher.
Although what I desired to teach changed over the years, the goal
of being a teacher remained, for I loved the process of learning and
discovery, and school opened up areas of knowledge home could not
provide.

Graduating from college with a double degree in biology and
art, I began my teaching career in the tumultuous times of the late
sixties. Revolution, evolution, and a period of change were reflected
in both the social and academic structure of the public schools.

Throughout my career as a biology and ecology teacher, the
artist in me vied for expression. An artist-scientist for some is
a troublesome dichotomy, but for me it offered a more holistic way
of seeing the world. The late sixties and early seventies were
exciting times in innovative and alternative education, and I became
a curriculum innovator within my school district and community col-
lege. While developing many new classes in the humanities and envi-
ronmental sciences, my respect for the value of "field work'l grew.
Traveling extensively with students, both in this country and in
Central America, the value of "face-to-face" encounters with people,

places, and things continued to grow. My science expanded into the

xii

multidisciplinary field of ecology with its intricate interrelation-
ships. Looking and listening were not enough, for the problems of

the environment had to be framed within a social and cultural context.
My art also evolved both through the lenses of my Nikkormat and a new-
found interest in detailed wildlife painting and drawing.

For me, the success of my teaching was measured by the
involvement and ability of my students to see. Unleashing the "sense
of wonder" in the man or child was my personal goal. Influenced by
naturalists like Rachel Carson and John Muir, biologists like Jane
Goodall, and educational psychologists like Abraham Maslow, my teach-
ing became highly experiential. Charges like "you get out of an
experience only what you are willing to put into it," or "never lose
your precious sense of wonder" were paramount. Western culture often
forces the curious, hungry child to put the sense of wonder and emerg-
ing intellectual curiosity in his/her "back pocket." Some never
retrieve this sense of wonder and as a result see little of the world
around them. In teaching, I sought to bring out the child in the man.
The roles<yfteacher and student were often indistinguishable for me--
I learned as I taught, and I taught as I learned. Today, as an edu-
cational researcher, those years of probing, observing, teaching,
and learning travel with me into the field. I, too, am a sum total
of my experiences. Teacher, ecologist, biologist, artist, mother,
wife, and friend--each contributes to the cultural lenses through
which I see. What I see are interrelationships, spatial configura-

tions, and teaching and learning modes that cause me to ask questions

xiii

concerning the dynamics of teachers and students within various
settings.

How to study the complex educational setting was a problem
ethnography helped me resolve. Since choosing ethnographic method-
ology, changes in my thinking and ultimately my perspective have
occurred. I cannot, nor do I wish to, divorce myself from who I am,
but as a researcher I must expose myself to the reader. Past experi-
ences should be supporting, rather than controlling, factors in any
research. As I gained a better understanding of and respect for the
process of ethnography as it applies to educational settings, a priori
notions were in fact replaced by questions that emerged from partici-
pant observation. Spending countless hours in the college science
laboratory, not only as a teacher but also as a student, I began to
see a setting with potential for teacher-student interaction rare in
lecture-dominated college classrooms. But only after observation as
a researcher could I really see the multidimensional setting from the
perspectives of not only teachers but also students in that setting.
Allowing the setting and unique actors in the setting to provide the
definition of the scene, I could ask better questions. Ultimately,
more meaningful questions evolved out of the reality of the situation.
The patterns emerging from observation are like the multicolored
hues of the artists as they blend into a painting, for there is both
art and craft involved in the teaching and learning process.

What is happening in educational settings goes far beyond
test scores or the number of times a teacher reinforces student

behavior, for teaching and learning are but part of a complex

xiv

educational, cultural, and social environment. Understanding of

the whole can help educators plan strategies for a more effective and
affective use of the educational setting. For the college labora-
tory, discovering the roles, management, and context of the setting

in terms of the teachers and students have become important considera-
tions during observation. Observed behavior within a social setting
is influenced by complex factors discovered only through indepth
observation, interview, and survey.

Although I have always been interested in the qualitative
nature of the educational process and setting, ethnographic method-
ology has caused me to ask more succinct qualitative questions con-
cerning the dynamics of the setting. In ethnographic research method
I have found a systematic approach for addressing educational-research
questions in a holistic, humanistic manner.

Although not as exotic as a native village on the Amazon, the
social setting of education can provide an exciting arena for the
researcher. The words I wrote many years ago can be appropriate to
the cultural environment as well as the natural setting:

At our doorstep,

Nature's gifts

Offer the same wonder
Found in the alpine wood.
But unfortunately,

Do not seem so grand
So are passed by.

1974

XV

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

Higher education in America has experienced dramatic change
in its short history due in part to major social and economic shifts
in the counrry as a whole. The secular, elitist institutions that
were the early foundation of higher education could not meet the
technical and vocational needs of a growing industrial and agricul-
tural nation. The Land Grant Act of l862 opened the door for a shift
not only in curriculum, but also in population served. The more
egalitarian nature of the institutions was to have a profound effect
on higher education in America.

Although not as highly acclaimed, other factors have also
changed the face of higher education. They include the post-war
influx of students under the G.I. Bill, the increased enrollment of
young women, and more recently the emergence of the two-year insti-
tutions. The decade of the 805 has produced two additional chal-
lenges that must be addressed—-crushing funding cuts and the changing
profile of the American college student. All facets of higher educa-
tion will be affected by these profound changes, and to remain viable,
higher-education institutions must adapt to the evolving milieu. In
an article on the transformation of American education, Trow (in

Karabel & Halsey, l977) suggested:

The commitment of America to equality of opportunity, the

1mmense importance attached to education throughout American

h1story, the very great role of education as an avenue of

mobility in a society where status ascribed at birth is felt

to be an illegitimate barrier to advancement. All of these

h1storical and social psychological forces are involved in

the extraordinary American commitment to mass secondary and

higher education. (p. lO7)

The Community College
Since their humble beginnings early in the T9005, community
and junior colleges have become an important component of the higher-
education system in the United States. Traditionally, many of the
older junior colleges operated as transfer institutions with curricula
designed to complement the programs of the universities they served.
Currently, two-year colleges enroll approximately two-thirds of all
college-freshmen in the United States (Rowe, l980). The more dynamic
missions of community and junior colleges provide multidimensional
educational programs and services. With goals and missions closely
linked to the communities they serve, these twoeyear institutions are
responsive to a wide range of educational needs, including two-year
academic transfer programs, terminal two-year degree programs, pre-
professional programs, technical training, and community-service
experience.
Arthur Cohen (l975) considered the responsiveness to the local

community the "ideological cornerstone" of the community college.
The growth of community colleges is a reflection of the need for
community-based higher-education programs. Because of the emphasis

on instruction rather than research, the twoeyear colleges are able

to provide quality academic instruction for a fraction of the cost per

student. Unlike the larger foureyear institutions, the use of
graduate or teaching assistants is absent; instructors teach not only
specialized courses, but introductory and laboratory courses as well.
With an emphasis on teaching and a more egalitarian approach to higher
education, community and junior colleges provide educational oppor-
tunities to many groups previously excluded from higher education.
With a more heterogeneous population, community-college programs

have had to be adaptable and flexible (Garrison, l968; Zoglin, l981).

In light of the current economic constraints, all higher-
education institutions are having to adapt to reduced resources.
While many colleges are experiencing enrollment declines, some commu-
nity and junior colleges are experiencing enrollment increases. More
students are staying in their own community for the first two years
of training, then either transferring to a senior institution or
graduating with a two-year associates degree (Magarrell, l98l).
Because of the ever-changing milieu of the community college, the
institution has had to possess dynamic flexibility to survive.
Community colleges are a reflection of the needs of the communities
they serve. It will be a challenge to community college institutions
to provide quality educational opportunities in these times of finan-
cial stress.

Historically, the community and junior college movement has
been under a great deal of criticism concerning both their mission
and overall quality of instruction (Astin, l979; Cohen, l975).

George B. Vaughn (l979) concluded that much of the criticism comes

from scholars not versed in the real contributions of the community

college movement. He contended that the post-World War II growth of
community colleges has expanded access to post-secondary education,
thus mainstreaming many groups previously excluded from higher-
education opportunities. The criticism of "quality of instruction"
is often voiced, but claims that students are not receiving as good
an education at two-year colleges has been dramatically refuted by
the actual success of transfer students when compared to students
spending four years at the university. Community and junior college
transfer students in many institutions are doing as well as, and
sometimes better than, their four-year counterparts (Kellogg, 1981,
pp. llS-l6; Sanford, 1962, p. 176).

Effective teachers have long been recognized as important
factors in student success in college. Although the characteristics
that create effective teachers have been the subject of much debate,
Cooper (l979),ir1her study of university instruction, suggested that
effective teachers:

. create an interest in the subject;
. help students learn and create a desire to learn;
. establish rapport and are at ease with students;

. create a sense of harmony in class and orchestrate
interactions;

. . are selected by students; and
. . . are modeled by colleagues.
Although much is known about the characteristics of an effec-
tive teacher, less is known about how various instructors operate

within the actual classroom setting in higher education.

Ultimately, whether at a large university or a two-year
college, the actual learning comes down to the individual student in
the individual classroom. The educational hierarchy and complex
institution may be dramatically reduced to the relationship between
teacher and student within an educational setting. What happens
between a teacher and learner in that setting has been the subject of
many quantitative studies, but few qualitative ones. If assertions
are made concerning the quality of community college instruction and
that instructors do make a difference in the quality of the program,
there is a need to examine fully such contentions within the actual
educational setting.

To research the question, it is necessary to find an environ-
ment that will clearly demonstrate the interaction between teacher
and student in a community college setting. The science laboratory
is such a setting. The science laboratory, taught by a professor or
instructor rather than a graduate student or lab assistant, is an
excellent site for the investigation of the interaction between

science student and community college instructor in a social context.

Purpose

The purpose of this study is to develop a descriptive model of
the interaction between teachers and students in a college laboratory
setting and to understand that special learning environment within

the community college. The lab is a good place to undertake such a

 

study because it involves considerable face-to-face interaction

between teacher and student. We need to know more about the factors

that shape the dynamics of the laboratory setting--the types and
amount of interaction, the value of the actual interaction, the
various management patterns teachers use to orchestrate the setting,
and how roles within the setting are determined.

What is learned can be used not only as an inquiry process to
study other laboratory settings, but also to develop a strategy for
improving teaching within the college laboratory setting through
self-analysis.

The purpose of any research should be a contribution to the
knowledge base of a particular field. To analyze, to explain, to
understand--each of these research goals is best pursued under the
fullest possible awareness of the research question, and to reach
the goal of full awareness the researcher can benefit most from an
interface with the holistic qualities of the educational setting.
Care must be taken to ground the research questions in actual class-
room life and to refine it continually in the fieldwork.

By experiencing the laboratory environment firsthand, the
researcher might better analyze the complex social setting from the
point of view of both teachers and students. To focus on an educa-
tional setting such as a college laboratory class, ethnographic,
e.g., participant observation or field research, methods would appear
to provide the researcher with wide and rich ranges of descriptive
information. The social context in which teaching and learning take
place is considered an important source of explanations for classroom
phenomena (Clark, 1979; Cooper, 1979; Erickson et al., 1980; Florio,
1978; Yinger, 1978). Theory and methods of fieldwork research allow

the researcher to get closer to the subjects, not only to explore
proposed research questions, but also to conceptualize new questions
and emerging hypotheses as they occur in the setting. Schatzman and
Strauss (1973) stressed that the researcher's task requires distinc—
tive and flexible strategies to maximize discovery in a situation.
They also concluded that the field method of research is like an
umbrella of activity beneath which any technique may be used for gain-
ing the desired information and for thinking about this information.
Erickson (1972) claimed the "ethnos" (in-this case, the laboratory
ciassromm) is "any social network forming a corporate entity in which
social relations are regulated by custom“ (p. 10). This dynamic social
unit can be described ethnographically with more accurate and syste-
matic descriptions of both the whole and integral parts. Erickson
contended that ethnography, because of its holism and because of its
cross-cultural perspective, provides an inquiry process by which we
can ask open-ended questions that will result in new insights about
schooling in American society. He concluded that the unique "cultural
lenses" of the researcher using participant-observation techniques
allow for new vantage points for reflection.

The purpose of this study is to examine the interactions of
teacher and students within the social context of the science labora-
tory: Because college today is a complex social institution operating
within an even more complex society, to research any facet of the
school, a whole myriad of external and internal forces must be con-

sidered. Ethnography, Erickson contended, provides a rich, more

systematic definition of the school society's "whole and parts."
What results is a more accurate definition of what is happening.

For the study, the unit of analysis is the college laboratory
setting and actors in the setting, but only as they operate within
the larger contextual setting of the college and community. It is
not enough to count microscopes or to compare students' grades. The
task demands analysis of the question in terms of the values, needs,
and attitudes of the natives in this setting.

The development of descriptive models of interaction is based
on grounded theory, which is uncovered from the data emerging from
the actual event (Glaser & Strauss, 1973). Evolving throughout the
study, these models of interaction can provide an effective tool for

comparison with other similar settings.

Researchgguestions

 

Because of the highly inductive nature of fieldwork, broad
conceptual questions the researcher brings into the field are focused
and redefined while in the field. From many successful fieldwork
projects, Erickson, Florio, and Bushman (1980) concluded that field-
work can best address the following classes of closely linked research
questions. These qualitative questions have been adapted to the com-
munity college laboratory setting.

1. What is happening in the laboratory setting?

2. What do the happenings mean to the teachers and students
in the laboratory setting?

3. What do teachers and students have to know to function
in the setting?

4. How does the organization of what is happening in the
laboratory relate to what is happening in the wider
social context of the setting?

5. How does the organization of what is happening in the
laboratory differ from that found in different places
and times?

In the following two chapters, the research methodology and
literature related to the study are explored. The appropriateness
of fieldwork, including strengths and weaknesses related to the
research questions, is the primary focus of Chapter II. The litera-
ture related to the research questions is examined in Chapter III,
including research on college laboratory teaching, important research

on role and interactive management from social science literature,

and related ethnographic studies.

CHAPTER TWO

THEORY AND METHODS

Background of the Study

To understand a wolf, I must become a wolf--not in a cage
or a zoo, but in the context of a wolf's reality. Ecologists have
only recently learned that the true nature of the beast, or even of
nature itself, can be accurately analyzed, described, and assessed
only within the social, cultural, and environmental setting of the
observed. No, I cannot simply become a wolf, but as a researcher,

I can go to the field and observe the environment of the wolf and
experience his world through his eyes.

What can be learned by this kind of inquiry is exemplified by
recent discoveries by ecologists concerning status and communication
within the social structure of the wolf pack. The notion of the
"lone wolf" has been replaced by that of the wolf as a highly social
animal that lives in a hierarchical group. For example, only through
extended observation could the subtle communication, yet rich vocabu-
lary, of the "tail“ be revealed. In a wolf's world, the tail is an
expressive signal of status and mood. Role, status, body language,
and interaction are as important in a wolf's social structure as in
man's.

Training as an ecologist and experience as an educator have
led me to recognize that, just as an ecologist must adapt to holistic

1O

11

research methods to reach understanding, so too must the educational

researcher.‘

Methods of Fieldwork

 

The community colleges of the 805 are experiencing dramatic
change. The American Association of Community and Junior Colleges
(AACJC), in their guide published for prospective community college
instructors, advised that "no safe generalizations could be made
about community and junior colleges" (Garrison, 1968, p. 1). These
unique institutions are as varied as the communities in which they
are rooted. For this reason, to answer any specific question about
a community colleges or problems that may exist within a particular
setting, the answers are best derived from the actual cultural con-
text within which the questions are framed.

The use of fieldwork research (also ethnography, participant
observation, and descriptive research) as a holistic approach to
understanding schooling involves not only face-to-face encounters
but an understanding of the broader context in which the social event
is rooted. Because the process of teaching and learning operates
within the social context of a larger educational setting, ethno-

9’98E199921999919§Zgfllth the assoc1ated part1c1pant-observat1on

Wh‘mvhmwpd .. «.mw n...

fieldwork techniques can provide a rich descriptive picture of "what
is happening" in terms of those involved. The fieldwork or ethno-
graphic approach would focus on meaningful behavior patterns produced
and interpreted by actors within the setting. Qualitative research

techniques can address the question of what is happening in lab in

12

a holistic manner, allowing a systematic documentation of reality
within a local setting-—"being there." But the functional relevance
of such a study would come from understanding of the problem in the
terms of the actors and implications that may emerge related to the
natives' attitudes, values, and, specifically, needs. Future planning
for student-teacher interaction could best be based on clear under-
standing of local meanings for the people involved in the college
classroom.

Lutz (1981) argued that ethnography, although not statistical,
is empirical. The classroom may be observed as a cultural system
using anthropological theory to guide data collection and ultimately
to provide meaning and understanding. Lutz suggested that a [32:37

sentational model--the natives' interpretation of events and meaning

 

of events--is interfaced with the operational model--the researcher's

 

view of the events--to produce a final explanatory model.

Ethnographichpproach-

 

Ethnography, with its roots in anthropology, was developed and
used to study cultures, particularly cultures foreign to the ethnog-
rapher (Malinowski, 1961; Moore, 1973},Powdermaker, 1966;*Smith-Bowen,
1964). The methods of participant observation, fieldwork, use of
informants, and derivation of hypotheses from analysis of field notes
have been refined and modified to fit the more familiar context of
American schools. The ethnographer is committed to studying a whole
social system by portraying it in terms credible to and understandable

by its participants. Indeed, major questions in most ethnographic

13

studies have to do with locating the boundaries of the "whole" and
identifying the web of meaning shared by teachers and students
(Clark, 1979; Cooper, 1979; Florio, 1978).

Value of Observation

For ethnographic research in education, observational methods
involve a multidimensional process carefully managing the roles of
participant and observer. Making the “familiar strange," then redefin-
the familiar in terms of the occupants within a social setting is made
possible through extended participant observation. To create a holis-
tic view of any social event, observation must take place and must
include the "emic" meaning as well as the "etic." The etic refers
to the perspective assumed by an outsider, in this case the researcher,
while the emic would involve the meaning in terms of those personally
involved in the event (Pike, 1967).

Erickson (1972) contended that ethnography should be considered
an "inquiry process guided by a point of view" (p. 10). "Making the
familiar strange" is essential in fieldwork, for the ethnographer must
adopt a critical stance, continually questioning the obvious and
situations taken for granted. The strategy for ethnographic research
centers on discovery in the field, in this case the laboratory setting.
The human element operating within the social unit is of utmost impor-
tance to the researcher. Ethnography allows--no, demands--that the
researcher get close to the people studied in a "face-to-face"
encounter. This more naturalistic approach to inquiry allows linkage

of data and theory grounded in reality (Schatzman & Strauss, 1974).

14

"Face-to-face" encounters with natives in the setting allow
the researcher to construct an "emic" definition of situation, or
situational frame. The frame, as described by Erickson (1971), is
ontologically not a "given" but "made" (p. 11). Observation provides
the researcher with a deluge of sensory information that must be
processed, recorded, and analyzed. But care must be taken, for the
translation of the event must be presented in terms of the native's
reality, rather than that of just the researcher.

First-hand observation is important, for it allows the
researcher to ground theory in reality (Glazer & Strauss, 1975).Yinger:
1918). If observable patterns emerge, theory may be applied and tested.
Borrowed from the social sciences, participant-observation research
methods have proved to be the best form of research for understanding
the "ethnos"--the complex cultural frames that we as humans construct.
Through participant observation, a rich, more accurate description of
social events can be constructed, analyzed, and, it is hoped, better

understood.

 

As a researcher, being "apart from" the setting only gives a
171""

‘4

L. ., .1

limited perspective of the event, often influenced by a priori
assumptions. Becoming "a part of" the event as a participant observer
presents a multiple-lens collage of the event from the natives'
perspectives. The natives' perspectives are the key, for there may

be many such native perspectives. In addition, the broad-based ques-
tions brought into the field could be redefined and specific questions

derived from the field experience. After leaving the field, the

15

researcher could then create an “ethnosynthesis"--a more accurate

description and analysis of the complex human event being studied. _

EXPANDING PERSPECTIVE THROUGH PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

A PRIORIg LEAVING THE
__2 FIELD
I II III
APART FROM A PART OF ETHNOSYNTHESIS
TIME
I II III
"APART FROM" "A PART OF" "ETHNOSYNTHESIS"
. researcher's . native points . multiple points
point of view of view of view
. assumptions . native language . internal and
based on . native experi- external validity
researcher's ence . synergistic effect
reality . empathy . holistic view
. historical
perspective

Figure l.--Expanding perspective through participant observation.

Research Strategies

To move from an outsider's perspective to that of an insider,

the researcher must employ a variety of research strategies. Address-

ing the questions of teaching and learning is a complex task, for the

process may have multiple meanings for the many actors involved in the

16

process. The study of the interactions of community college teachers
and students in the laboratory setting involved the following methods
modified from McCall and Simmons (1969). By using a variety of strate-

gies, the meanings of the social event could be defined and redefined.

Participant Observation

To gain a better understanding of the event, the naturalistic
researcher must become involved in face-to-face interaction with the
actors. As a field researcher, I observed and participated in three
laboratory classes taught by different science instructors. The
amount of actual participation varied, depending on the instructor
and the nature of the class. Gathering information by participating
in the laboratory process from beginning to end (i.e., planning,
preparation, the actual class, and evaluation) provided a comprehen-
sive picture of the event. Participation in and observation of
events outside the classroom were also included in the study. It was
necessary continuously to develop relationships with both teachers
and students and to negotiate entry into all aspects of the educa-
tional process.
Field Noteszecording and Analysis
6? Verbal and Nonverbal’Béhavior

Because the systematic recording of events is essential in
ethnographic research, detailed field notes of the laboratory sessions
were recorded both from on-site observation and videotaped sessions.
The notes provideda rich, detailed description of what was happening.

Schatzman and Strauss (1974) and others have outlined strategies for

17

watching, recording data, and coding events. Observational notes
were helpful in the ongoing analyses and hypothesis development.
Recording and analysis of both verbal and nonverbal behavior was
essential for the recognition of patterns and key linkages, as well
as triangulation of data (Gordon, 1969; Green, 1981; Shatzman &
Strauss, 1974). The multiple perspectives of teacher, students, and
researcher (Figure 2) allows multiple comparison of the phenomenon

observed.

TEACHER

RESEARCHER
STUDENT v

Figure 2.--Triangulation of a single event.

Rather than a multiple comparison of a single event, Sevigny
(Green, 1981) suggested triangulated inquiry as ”the comparison of
several groups using varied perspectives and multiple procedures at
two or more points in time" (p. 73). Gorden (1969) suggested that

Often the nature of the problem under investigation demands a
multimethod approach because the various methods give totally
different kinds of information that can supplement each other,
because we do not know how to interpret some of the information
unless we can couple it with other information, or because we
need a cross-check to verify the validity of our observations.

(p. 12)

18

For this reason, the study included multiple observations of three
instructors teaching two courses elected by two diverse student
groups. f

Erickson (1971) and Glazer (1975) suggested thorough field
notes can reveal situational frames as perceived by various actors
so that better sense can be made of the flow of events. Thirty-five
millimeter slides and photographs were used to frame various interac-
tive patterns, and videotaped sessions provided a detailed record of

laboratory events for later analysis.

Interview

To understand fully and to analyze what was happening in lab,
interview was an important means to clarify or to reinforce the data
gathered by observation.

Formal and informal interviewing of teacher informants occurred
during and after the observations. Student informants were identified
and interviewed after the observations began. Former students who
are now at a senior institution or graduated were also interviewed.
both formal and informal interviews provided useful information to
support and/or refute working hypotheses and allowed exploration of
attitudes, values, and perceptions of the actors. Gordon (1980) pro-
vided specific strategies for ethnographic interviews (Appendix C).

Florio (1978) demonstrated the value of developing a working
relationship with an informant. Development of trust and adherence
to ethical practices were paramount. While information gathered via

interview was most valuable for understanding the event from the

19

points of view of varied participants, the information could also be
biased or, worse yet, unreliable. Care was taken to guard against
this problem by interviewing many informants and interviewing through-

out the entire observational period.

Enumeration and Sample

 

The use of a survey instrument was a logical vehicle to reach
a large number of students not interviewed and other faculty not
specifically included in the study. The qualitative questions emerged
from the strategies previously listed.

Participant surveys were given to teachers and students at the
end of the project. Direct, repeated, quantifiable observations of
behavior and focus were recorded during several laboratory sessions.
These were used to chart interaction and movement within the lab
period. Grades of students were obtained at the end of the semester.
Comparative grade data within and between lab sections were used to
support contentions that teacher interaction may have had an effect
on student performance.

Ethnographic descriptions, although highly qualitative, may be
reinforced by relevant quantitative data obtained as questions arise
from observation. While obtaining entry and selecting appropriate
informants, it was necessary to become familiar with the basic
ecology of the study--the community, the college, the department, and
actors within the setting. Schatzman and Strauss suggested starting
at the top of the organization, obtaining a historical perspective,

and establishing subsites for observation.

20

The process of data collection, according to Glaser and
Strauss (1975), is controlled by the emerging theory. The use of
"local" concepts may be relevant to describing the whole. Theoreti-
cal metaphors then can be developed to account for relevant behavior,

and grounded theory can be developed through comparative analysis.

Overview of the Study

 

Fieldwork as a process of inquiry is ongoing and ever evolving.
The study was preceded by a three-week observational study of three
laboratory instructors in the general biology labs of a community
college (Dodge, 1980). That short study suggested the need to con-
duct a more indepth study of "what was really happening" in the col-
lege laboratory classroom.

The study was conducted at a large metropolitan twoeyear
college, which I have renamed Lakeside Community College. Three
master teachers were selected for the study. Teaching style was not
a factor in the selection process; only their experience and willing-
ness to participate were considered. Although the major focus of
the study was on one instructor's classroom, all three were observed
extensively to allow comparison and triangulation. The term "master
teacher" refers to instructors highly experienced who are considered
to be effective teachers by both students and colleagues. The three
instructors, who were also renamed to provide anonymity, each taught
preprofessional biology classes.

The field study was conducted for the entire winter semester,

January-June 1981. Follow—up observations, interviews, and videotaping

21

of laboratory sessions occurred in the fall semester 1981. Although
observations were conducted in several laboratory sections, the pri-
mary focal group was followed through both semesters. Ten of the
twelve regular two-hour lab classes were attended. In addition,
thirty-six additional hours were spent in the labs of the other two
instructors.

A collegial relationship developed between the researcher and
participating instructors, facilitating entry into many facets of the
instructors' daily routine. Morning coffee break, student conferences,
office hours, staff meetings, and planning sessions provided addi-
tional insight into the complex social scene.

The students were very willing to share attitudes and feelings
about the class and their relationship to the instructor and fellow
classmates. Formal interviews were conducted with students, but many
more personal comments were shared informally. Because of the
researcher's familiarity with the content area of science and a dual
role of researcher and instructor in the department, participation in
day-to-day events was accomplished with ease.

A general student and teacher survey was developed from obser-
vational data. Information from a large number of students was tri-
angulated with that from the research groups.

Initial analysis of the data occurred during the summer of
1981. Follow-up observations and videotaping sessions in the fall
added to a clarified descriptive data.

Sharing of the observations was ongoing. As a result of

sharing the videotaped sessions with staff, suggestions for in-service

22

programs on effective use of laboratory interaction were presented

for the faculty in-service.

Strengths and Weaknesses of Fieldwork
Many of the positive aspects of fieldwork were aforementioned.
A study's ultimate quality is determined from careful consideration
of issues including the following:
. defining the problem

. thedrelevance of the methodology to the problem under
stu y

. dealing with weaknesses inherent in the research design
and methods

. the accuracy of the data
. linking data to theory

. the meaning of the findings to the participants and
practitioners

The method a fieldworkers selects to study any problem will be
reflected in the quality and quantity of data gathered. The method-
ology must be relevant to the question and will be a key in evaluat-
ing the research. Fieldwork methods--participant observation,
interview, and related qualitative and quantitative data gathering--
can provide a comprehensive perspective of the problem from "inside
and out." But this is true only if the problems of fieldwork are
adequately addressed. Strength will be derived from dealing with
weakness. Experienced fieldworkers warn of the many pitfalls of
fieldwork, some of which are common to all empirical research! They
include observer bias, the effect of observer on observed, reliability

of informant information (dependent on trust, defense mechanisms),

23

ethical considerations, stress, and many others. Problems begin
before the researcher enters and field and continue through the
sometimes painful exit from the field site. Problems must be identi-
fied, literature searched, data-collection methods planned and imple-
mented; then problems of data analysis and sharing findings come
later. Disconfirming as well as confirming evidence must be sought.

Why bother to undertake a field study if there are so many
problems to address? The answer is simple. The richness of the
description can explain "what is happening," and that is the value of
field research-~grounding theory in reality. Meaning can be derived
from "imponderabelia" of the event in terms of the natives, and, it
is hoped, in terms of the question (Malinowski, 1961). Fieldwork
allows penetration of "the flow of life."

One of the major strengths in fieldwork is the rich descrip-
tion of what is happening in a local situation, as described by Yinger
(1978):

Since grounded theory is concerned with theoretical conceptuali-
zation that "fits" real situations and "works" when put to use,
the primary source of data for this type of investigation should
be real social encounters. Thus, fieldwork becomes a fundamen-
tal basis for theory development. For conceptual categories

and hypotheses which have meaning for real situations, they
must be based on qualitative descriptions of behavior in natural
situations. This does not rule out qualitative data from other
sources such as questionnaires, interviews, written documents,
and other research reports and writings. In applying this
method of theory building to research on teaching, the central
concern should be that the theorizing is grounded in situations
that are representative of real teaching and learning settings.
Better yet, theorizing should be grounded in actual teaching/
learning situations. The fact that grounded theory is closely
tied to field data means that the kinds of theories emerging
from these efforts will be somewhat specific and limited in
scope. (p. 13)

24

The potential validity of any ethnographic study lies in its
meaning not only to the researcher, but also to the natives in the
setting. A perceived weakness for some lies in the generalizability
of the findings. Because environments and actors vary, generalizing
findings to other settings may not always be appropriate. However,
grounding theory in the rich descriptive data and meanings of the
setting by the participants may reveal potentially significant theo-
retical frames for future planning, teacher training, and existing
faculty development related to laboratory instruction.

Revealing the meaning of what is happening in the laboratory
can be a valuable tool to the teacher in the environment and to prac-
titioners who wish to improve laboratory instruction. Clearly, there
are major concerns in the scientific community about the quality of
laboratory instruction (Dean, 1970). How to use the laboratory most
effectively is an important question, which can be addressed in two
ways (Figure 3). First, one can develop a clear picture of how
effective instructors manage the laboratory setting to be shared with
other instructors. Second, one can develop a way in which individual
lab instructors might analyze what is happening in their own labs
and how they might improve or maximize their management and teacher-
student interaction. Figure 3 illustrates this strategy.

Ultimately, this dissertation attempts the former with an eye
toward the applicability of improving the instruction of the latter.
Development of descriptive models and application of theoretical
constructs may also result in a degree of generalizability when

analyzing other labs.

25

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26

The Evolution of an Ethnographer

Man, like all creatures, is ever changing and evolving. So,
too, are the thought processes within each of us as we move through
the stimuli of life and learning. My thinking changed from the
initial notions I had as I approached the field experience. Without
a doubt, as a practitioner, I brought with me to the field a rich
teacher-based experience. But, because I have also been a student
concurrently, the student perspective is also strong.

The tendency to formulate questions from past experience,
rather than letting the questions evolve from the patterns observed
while in the field, was tempting but was dealt with and resolved
early in my research. This very important change in my thinking was
in part due to literature review and reinforced by practitioners,
but was driven home only after my first days in the field. Because
I had been properly warned about the fragile nature of a priori
notions in ethnographic research, my original questions concerning
lesson focus were painlessly replaced by questions emerging from
observation.

The original research questions of my field study very gen-
erally fbcused on the nature of the teacher-student interaction in
the community college laboratory setting. The social events within
this dynamic setting provide a wealth of information to be described,
analyzed, and interpreted. Questions of behavior, role, management,
and context guided my initial observations. After many hours of
participant observation and interview, the potential questions of

lesson focus and sex became less important variables, while questions

27

of context and perception became key elements to describe various
behavior patterns. The emerging hypothesis proposed that both the
nature and management of the teacher-student interaction in the
laboratory setting were a function of the teacher's perception of
his/her role in that setting, The parameters of the "situational
frame" suggested by Hall (1966) provided a way of systematically
describing the setting (see page 46). Because most human behavior is
purposeful, it also became necessary to explore further the observed
behavior through both the use of interview and the application of
analytical tools.

As expected, methods for my research ranged from the collec-
tion of detailed observational notes to formal and informal interview.
But through time in the field, the focus of the observation became
more multifaceted by using analytical tools to chart actual contact
or proxemic moves within the setting. This allowed the formulation
of typologies of interaction, development of organization patterns,
and descriptions of situational frames. The cycles of the situa-
tional frames provided me with samples of social behavior for later
analysis. The actual questions for the formal or informal interviews
evolved through focusing on the behavior observed within the social
setting. Interviews clarified, reinforced, and even refuted what I
had been observing in the laboratory. As entry expanded in the field,
a myriad of new questions demanded answers.

Even as I observed the phenomenon, the phenomenon changed.
Like any life form functioning within a community environment, change

is an ever-occurring process. Indiscernible at first, through extended

28

observations the subtle change becomes a reality. Change builds upon
change--an open system of intricate feedback mechanisms, resulting in
adjustments. To understand the "ethnos," the complex cultural frames
that instructors construct and reconstruct within their own labora-
tories, I focused more and more on perceived roles. The "key linkage"
describes the roles in terms of the instructor's individual needs and
personality. The control of the interaction between student and
teacher, and the resulting behavior within the social setting, can be
molded dramatically by these very important characteristics.

The rich descriptive data and emerging theoretical framework
bring definition to the scene; the task of the researcher in conjunc-
tion with native informants is to make sense of the scene with disci-
plined subjectivity.

Notebook in hand, I walk into the physical setting of the
laboratory. Yes, I've been here before, but somehow it is
very different. As an ethnographer, I have donned new
lenses. No rose-colored hues, but multifaceted angles and
attitudes. Life enters the setting. The physical setting
becomes alive with the biological. They merge into new
realities. Can I learn from these complex natives? And

ultimately can I answer the questions that need answering?
(Personal notes, 2-16-81)

CHAPTER THREE

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Both educational and social science literature include many
studies that shed light on the dynamics of the college classroom.
In this chapter three areas of literature are reviewed. First are
studies related to college teaching, including research on the role
of the instructor and more specific research on science laboratory
instruction. Second, literature is examined that focuses on behavior
within a_social context, including metaphors and models from the
social sciences. Third, the epistemological foundations for the
study, including related ethnographic studies of classroom interac-

tion, are discussed.

College Teaching_

The decades of the 605 and 705 produced volumes of research
and rhetoric related to college teachers and college teaching (Astin,
1978; Bogue & Saunder, 1976; Brophy, 1980; Chickering, 1981; Dean,
1970; Garrison, 1968; Herge, 1965; Lee, 1967; McKeechie, 1962;
Sanford, 1962; Umstattd, 1964). Many of the comprehensive studies
were sponsored by such groups as the American Council on Education,
the Center for Applied Research in Education, and the American Asso-
ciation for Community and Junior Colleges. Clearly the change American
higher education was undergoing was reflected in research. In response

29

30

to a changing milieu, educational researchers proposed a redefini-
tion of both the role of higher—education institutions and the role
of the instructor in the teaching and learning process.

Brophy (1980), in a review of recent research on teaching,
concluded that the decade of the 70s, rather than focusing on cur-
riculum as was common in the 605, more appropriately focused on the
teacher as the unit of analysis. He suggested that research con-
ducted under more natural conditions produced the following generaliz—
able conclusions:

1. Teachers do make a difference

2 Teacher expectations and role definition are important

3 Effective teachers engage students in meaningful tasks

4. Students need direct instruction from the teacher

5 Different contexts call for different teacher behavior
Although the research included all grade levels, Brophy specifically
applied his comments to adult learners and college settings.

Feldman and Newcomb (1969), in their analysis of research on
the American college student, contended that the amount of faculty-
student contact is an important element in the effect of faculty on
students' educational and career plans and that many students desire
increased contact with their college instructors.

Most often the teacher assumes the leadership role in the
classroom. The leadership style employed often is a reflection of
the underlying needs of the leader (Fiedler, 1969). Because the
basic needs of individuals in the teaching profession are generally

met, they often look for other satisfiers (Griffith, l979; Maslow,

31

1954). Douglas M. McGregor suggested that individuals will commit
themselves only to the extent that they can see ways of satisfying
their ego and developmental needs. Each of these factors contributes
to the interactive behavior of teachers in the classroom setting.
In a study of effective teaching in different contexts

(Brophy & Evertson, 1978), two of the findings are specifically salient
to college laboratory instruction. First is the relationship between
student maturity, achievement level and intelligence, and the degree
to which the student depends on the teacher for learning. They con-
cluded that the levels of cognitive development are important, along
with the mastery of skills relative to the need for teacher-student
interaction. But their research also indicated that even older stu-
dents learn more efficiently when given more direct guidance from the
teacher. Second, the context-dependent relationship concerns student
field dependence or independence relative to teaching style (manage-
ment).

Students who are bright and confident, especially if they also

tend toward a field-independent cognitive style, tend to prefer

to be, and achieve more when taught by teachers who are oriented

more toward subject matter than individuals, and who are intel-

lectually stimulating but also demanding in their interactions

with students. (p. 11)
Insecure or field-dependent learners, according to Brophy, may be
alienated or discouraged by this style but respond well to encourage-
ment and support from teachers who establish themselves as concerned
helpers rather than authority figures. Brophy contended that match-

ing students with teachers according to needs and style, although

somewhat ideal, may be appropriate at the college level.

32

The importance of role, leadership, and_management was
addressed in the following studies.

Chickering (1981), examining the modern American college,
suggested that as with any leadership role, the teacher has the power
to influence decisively the interpersonal tone of the group. He also
concluded that the interaction between faculty and students can have
crucial effects on interpersonal development. Related to teacher-
student interaction, he also suggested that the roles of model,
mentor, friend, and even "charismatic shaman" can benefit both student
and teacher (pp. 206-208).

Examining role theory in relation to management of the educa-
tional setting, Griffith (l979) contended that roles are complemen-
tary and interlocking, deriving meaning from other related roles.

For example, a student's role is defined in terms of the teacher's
role, and a teacher's role is defined in terms of his students' roles.
A student perceives his role to be that of a learner, and his teacher
perceives his role to be that of director of learning. Thus the
rights of one role become the obligation of related roles.

The research of Umstattd (1964) addressed both the problem of
role and effective college teaching. He stated that research findings
refute the assumption that knowledge of content alone will result
in effective teaching. He concluded that sound purpose determines
rational action; thus knowledge of purpose lends direction and vitality
to classroom activity. The increased heterogeneity of student popula-
tions "demands greater skill in motivation, deeper insight into sensing

divergent abilities and interests and keener sensitivity" (p. i).

33

Bogue and Saunders (1976) suggested that a major barrier to
the effectiveness of educational managers is directly tied to inade-
quate role concept. They contended "that the effective professional
has his actions anchored in knowledge--knowledge of himself, knowledge
of his role, and knowledge of the environment in which he performs"
(p. 11). They also suggested that an individual's behavior in any
organization has multivariate causes derived from management philoso-
phy, organizational structure, group membership, and personality of
the individual. Too often, they suggested, educational managers
become involved in the operational detail and materials but have
little or no conception of where they are going. Thus both purpose

and direction would seem to be valuable for both teachers and students.

Science Teaching,

 

The growth of science and technology in the past twenty years
has created a need for research not only of curricular methods and
materials, but also a need for research on science teaching. Blazer
and Evans (1973), in A Review of Research on Teacher Behavior--
Related to Science Education, revealed that only 8 percent of the
studies reviewed concerned college classroom behavior. Included in
the report were many suggestions for further investigation, including
these two:

. Studies primarily inductive in methodology are needed.
Use of this methodology has sharply increased in the past two or
three years but primarily inductive studies still number only
about a dozen. A major contribution of inductive studies is the

provision of empirical data which may not be implied by the theo-
retical frameworks of deductive studies. (p. 95

34

. .. . More emphasis should be placed on behavioral studies

1n sc1ence classrooms at the primary grades level and the col-

lege level. Behavioral data at these levels are presently very
limited. (p. 96)

Both an ERIC search (Dodge, 1981) and the Summary of Research

 

in Science Education (Peterson & Gaylen, 1979) supported that fact
that there has been only minimal research on teacher-student inter-
action in the laboratory setting. Although the ERIC search covering
1968-1981 produced no studies directly related to teacher-student
interaction, teacher role, or management of the college laboratory
setting, there were several studies that did examine teaching assist-
ants' (TAs) behavior in the laboratory.
Four closely related studies by Shymansky, Kyle, and Penick

at the University of Iowa focused on teachers and students in the
science laboratory (Kyle et al., 1979, 1980; Shymansky & Penick, 1979,
1981). The behavior was analyzed using Science Laboratory Interaction
Categories (SLIC) developed to provide objective, detailed, quanti-
tative descriptions of laboratory interaction. Because of the concerns
related to the quality of laboratory instruction by TAs, the observa-
tional system was developed as a potential assessment tool and feedback
device. Shymansky and Penick (l979) succinctly described the rationale
for this systematic approach:

Teaching need not be a random activity. With even the crudest

of instruments, teaching can be approached systematically. One

such approach involves the use of observational data collected

in the laboratory classes. Accurate and detailed feedback con-

cerning the events taking place in the laboratory sessions is

an essential first step in analyzing and improving instruction.

Only after instructors are aware of what they and their students

are doing in the laboratory can they begin to think of ways of
improving that instruction. (p. 196)

35

Stressing the need to observe teaching activities syste-
matically, Kyle et al. used the SLIC to assess and analyze college
laboratory instructors' behavior strategies. They concluded that
although the primary purpose of science laboratories was to provide
students with procedural and investigative skills through hands-on
experimentation, a large percentage of the laboratory periods was
used by the instructor to transmit information. In the laboratories
they observed they also found that the opportunity on the part of
students to interact freely with lab instructors was almost nonexistent
(Kyle, 1980, p. 135). The largely taxonomic descriptions can, accord-
ing to the researchers, be used to improve teaching effectiveness
through analysis, but not to explain the phenomenon. They concluded
that more longitudinal studies would be necessary to explain what

was happening in lab.

Behavior Within a Social Context

 

The second area of literature examined focused on the dynamic
behavior within a social context. Man is a sophisticated animal
operating within a social, cultural framework. To understand the
dynamics of the phenomenon observed, better metaphors and models may
be adapted from social science and educational literature. The pur-
pose of this study was to examine the interactions of actors within
the cultural frame of the community college laboratory. As with a
good camera lens, observation allows definition and redefinition of

the frame.

36

The field of administrative theory is rich in models and
metaphors that may be applied to the college classroom. Francis
Griffith, in his book Administrative Theory in Education (1979),
concluded that contemporary theorists attempt to reflect actuality
rather than utopian states. Their concern is with the way things
are, rather than how they should be. He contended that analysis of
the professional literature in the fields of business, education,
medicine, and public health reveals common patterns and principles
of administration that apply to educational settings as well.

As part of a larger organization, the college classroom and
its occupants form the base of the hierarchical structure--students,
teachers, department chairs, deans, and boards of education. The
authority and responsibility of each position or role are defined

within the framework of the institutional mission and goals.

Organizations and Leadership

When analyzing organizations, Roethlisberger (1939) contended
that patterns of human interrelationships are defined by the system,
rules, and regulations of the company (in this case the college) and
that these patterns constitute a formal organization. But along with
the formal structure, he also suggested, there exists a less obvious,
yet highly important, informal organization including values, senti-
ments, face-to-face relationships, and prestige.

Max Weber (1952; Wrong, 1970) cited the importance of
authority and leadership in any organization. Leadership styles vary

in relation to both the culture and personality of the leader. The

37

teacher, as leader, uses the power and authority of the position to
manage the learning environment.
Situational leadership, as defined by Hersey and Blanchard

(1976), provides a model based on the interplay of task behavior--

 

the amount of direction a leader gives--and relationship behavior--

 

the amount of social or emotional support a leader gives. They
contended that successful leaders adapt their behavior to meet the
needs of each unique environment or situation. The theory suggests
that as the level of maturity (experience, knowledge) increases,
leaders should begin to reduce task behavior and increase the rela-
tionship behavior until the desired maturity level is reached. Only
when the maturity level is reached can both the task and relationship

behavior be reduced.

gngng

The roles of teacher and student are not always as clear-cut
and easy to define. The development of roles and the functioning of
individuals within roles have been the subject of much organizational
literature.

Roles are complementary and interlocking, deriving meaning
from other related roles (Goffman, 1961; Griffith, 1979). In educa-
tion the definitions<rfteacher role and student role are often the
function of the curriculum and setting.

Although roles are externally defined and serve as norms to
guide the behavior of role incumbents (Guba, 1958), the role is often

modified by the personality of individuals within the role. The

38

dynamics of the interaction between institutional role and individual
personality may produce role conflict (Getzels, 1968). The model
developed by Getzels and Guba is explored further at the end of this
section.

How an individual feels about a job or role within an organi-
zation has been the subject of recent research (Argyris, 1957;
Hertzberg, 1968; Rosenthal & Jacobson, 1974).

The importance of recognition, accomplishment, positive
reinforcement, and other satisfiers is particularly salient when
examining teacher and student roles in lab. The importance of the
"job satisfiers"-—e.g., recognition, accomplishment, etc.--in contrast
to "nonsatisfiers"--physical environment, money, etc.--applies to both
the "job" of teacher and student in the laboratory setting. How a
person feels about his role is reflected in the functioning within
1 and attitude about that role.

In his study of individuals operating within organizations,
Argyris contended that every person is capable of self-actualization,
and that although both the individual and the organization benefit,
unfortunately, organizational structure often inhibits self-development.
External forces operate both on the functioning of a teacher within a
role, and similarly the teacher can influence how the student operates
within a role.

When exploring teacher role within educational settings,
Rosenthal and Jacobson (1974) found teacher expectations can become
self-fulfilling prophecies. They contended that effects of these

expectations can have long-term ramifications. The implications of

39

of the study have the potential for both positive and negative
effects on student learning.

The study of leadership is not new, but the application of
leadership principles to educational settings is a very recent phe-
nomenon. Much can be learned from the application of established
organizational leadership and role theory. From Lao-Tzo (Townsend,
1970), came two enlightened concepts:

. When the best leader's work is done, the people say,
"We did it ourselves. "

. To lead the people, walk behind.

Getzels and Guba: Social-Psychological Model

 

To understand the complex dynamics of human behavior, social
scientists employ models that are simply analytical tools used to
examine behavior within a social setting. Appropriate to the study is
Getzels and Guba's Social-Psychologjcal Model (Getzels, Lipham, &
Campbell, 1968). The model suggests that all behavior occurs within
a social setting and that behavior is a function of role and its
expectations, interfaced with personality and accompanying needs dis-
position.

= F (R x P)
"Behavior is a function of rplg_times personality"
In any model that employs abstractions to make reality understand-
able, it is necessary to define the parts of the model. The social-
psychological model of Getzels and Guba analyzes behavior within a
social system by examining two interacting dimensions—-the nomothetic

and the idiographic.

4O

Nomothetic and Idiographic Dimensions

The NOMOTHETIC or sociological dimension (Tf the model con-
sists<yfinstitutions, roles, and expectations, while the IDIOGRAPHIC
or psychological dimension includes the individual, personality, and
needs disposition. The dimensions are independent, yet have a "trans-

actional interface" (Figure 4).

NOMOTHETIC

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Institutions ; Role 1

Social TRAN CTION
System
3 Needs ,x’Ta

Disposition

 

Expectations

 

 

 

  
    

 

bserve-

  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Individual 9 Personality

 

 

 

IDIOGRAPHIC

Figure 4.--Getzels and Guba's model.

Nomothetic: institutions.--Institutions are social units
purposefully created to pursue specific goals. These entities,
although having varied functions (e.g., education, protection), are
normative, ingrained structures within a society. Institutions are
types of organizations having a structure independent of individuals
operating within them. They are sanctioned to exercise normative

control of roles established to accomplish institutional goals.

41

Nomothetic: roles.-—The role component of the nomothetic
dimension can be defined as the structural elements that define
expected behavior. The set of expectations of any particular role
is independent of the person occupying that role. Within an institu-
tion there are many complementary roles (usually hierarchically
arranged), each with a set of expectations, responsibilities, or
obligations. Roles are a process of socialization, for roles tend
to be socially determined and individuals are socialized into them.

Nomothetic: expectations.-—The expectations component of the
nomothetic dimension include explicit rules, regulations, and respon-
silibities--the things one is accountable for. Although there is an
infinite range of expectations from role to role, how well an indi-
vidual or actor is functioning within a role is determined by the
degree to which the responsibilities are met.

Idiographic: individual.--The idiographic dimension represents

 

the psychological element within the social structure, centering on
the individual. To analyze the observed behavior within a social
structure or institution, it is essential to know the actor.

Idiographic: personality.--The personality, according to
Getzels, Lipham, and Campbell (1963), involves Vthe dynamic organiza-
tions within the individual of those need-dispositions and capacities
that determine his unique interaction with the environment." It is
the totality of behavior--personality of “style" is a determining

factor in behavior.

42

Idiographic: needs-dispositions.--Needs dispositions are
internal forces that cause individuals to act in a particular way or
to move in particular directions. Individuals tend to orient them-
selves and behave with respect to objects in their environment

according to personal needs (Maslow, 1976).

Transactions

 

The resulting observed behavior, according to the model, is a
function of each of the elemental components interacting. To under-
stand behavior it is necessary to analyze the nature of the interac-
tion between the nomothetic and idiographic dimensions. The model,
which can be applied to many situations within institutions, allows
analysis of the various roles and personalities along with resulting
interactions, including potential conflicts. In any administrative
position (including that of college teaching), there is a transaction
between role (institutionally determined) and personality (individually
determined). The degree to which role or personality is dominant in a
given setting is usually determined by the organization and nature of
the role. In situation "A" in Figure 5, role has a greater effect on
behavior; in "B" the personality of the individual is more dominant.
There are usually institutionally determined ranges of transactions
allowed with organizational roles (e.g., "C"). The needs-disposition
and personality of the individual may not always be congruent with

institutional roles and expectations, resulting in conflict.

43

B = F (R x P)

 

bRole

   

Personality

 

 

-0-O- --——---

{j
of

 

 

 

 

Figure 5.--Role and personality.

Conflict
Conflict within social systems is almost certain when insti-
tutions and individuals collide. Conflicts, the model suggests, may
arise from several sources:
1. A conflict between multiple roles
2. A conflict between role and personality
3. Internal personality conflicts or personality disorders
Knowing how adaptation or resolution of conflict occurs is important
in meeting both institutional and individual needs and also in analyz-
ing behavior.
Models are mere tools to analyze behavior in the setting.
Guided by research questions, with one foot in related lit-

erature and the other firmly planted in the field the ethno-
graphic researcher becomes immersed. (Field notes, 4-27-81)

44

Epistemological Perspective

 

In the following section, the third area of literature explores
epistemological foundations of the research and related ethnographic
studies of classroom interaction. To locate the Getzels and Guba
model in everyday life, it becomes necessary to analyze social and

psychological interaction.

Situational Frame

To develop a working hypothesis that would shed more light
on the nature of the teacher-student interactions, questions of
teacher perception and control and management of the interaction are
important considerations. The parameters of the "situational frame"
first described by Edward T. Hall (1966) and the "situational frame
cycle" developed by Erickson (1971) provide a way of examining the
effects of spatial settings on behavior.

The "situational frame cycle" model developed by Erickson
"permits the researcher to produce a process-based rather than
boundary-based definition for a social unit of analyses" (p. 3). The
behavioral records (videotape, film, etc.) monitor behavior in a
variety of situations. From the data situational frames, cycles
can be derived by analysis of patterns of behavior. The patterns
are interesting for they are the enactment of the curriculum.

Erickson defined the situational frame using five parameters:

1. Space (both location and proxemics)

2. Time, occupants (status relationships between frame
occupants and their accompanying roles)

3. Activity (work, play, courting, etc.)

45

4. Perception (of the frame by frame occupants)

5. Control (who controls and frame and which frame occu-
pants control the other occupants)

All the parameters interact simultaneously to define the situational
frame. The parameters are complex, as are the interactions among
them. It is necessary to define the nature of the parameters in
greater detail and to illustrate their syntactic relationships (p. 6).
As the following analysis illustrates, salient to the study
are the "control" factor: (culturally defined by the occupants of the
frame) and the "perception” of the frame by the occupants. These
interact to produce different behavior patterns in otherwise similar

settings. The evolved hypothesis proposed that both the nature and the

 

management of the teacher-student interaction in the laboratory setting
would be in part determined by the instructor's perception of hie/her

role as a science teacher.

 

Because the study involved three different instructors, dif—
ferences in the quantity and quality of interaction became clear during
ongoing observations. The instructors' perception of the "frame"
seemed the key linkage in determining management and control within
very similar spatial and activity settings.

As a result of cultural and personality differences, each of
the instructors views his/her role differently. Although they have
very similar overt goals, the perceived role and method each instructor
uses to orchestrate the lab and resulting student-teacher interaction

creates very different "situational frames."

46

Instructors often establish patterns of interactions with
varied rationales for their actions. As examples, these might
include:

Interaction Rationale

Academic only - Reserve socializing for
outside class
- Don't socialize with
students

Social only - Students must work
independently--discover
the answers for them-
selves

- Instructor not sure of
the material, doesn't
want to be put "on the
spot"

Academic & social - Helps to get to know
students
- Students feel more com-
fortable asking questions

Space and Proxemic Patterns

 

Hall (1966) contended the cultural dimension that man creates
has grown to the point that it shapes man's behavior. The environ—
ment people create along with the natural environment interact to
mold each other. Hall's research indicated that "man's sense of space
is closely related to his sense of self, which is in an intimate
transaction with his environment" (p. 63). The importance of space
and the proxemic patterns within culturally defined space are reflected
in the management and interactions within any territorial space.
Proxemics, in Hall's terms, are used to "define the interrelated
observations and theories of man's use of space" (p. 11). Proxemic

patterns derived from observation can provide clues to cultural

47

differences and attendant differences in social meaning from group to
group. Thus various patterns of fixed space (e.g., the laboratory)
and the social and personal distance of individuals operating within
the space (e.g., interaction) can provide clues to behavior within
the setting. Hall contended that most of the cultural dimensions

are hidden from view and that to understand the real interrelation-
ship it must be understood that "people cannot act or interact at

all in any meaningful way except through the medium of culture"

(p. 188).

Grounded Theory in Research
on Teaching,

 

Three ethnographic studies of teaching that explore teacher
perception (Janesick, 1978) and teacher-student interaction (Cooper,
1980; Florio, 1978) are relevant to the research reported here. Each
study provides insights into the management of effective learning
environments and suggests implications for instructional improvement
through a better understanding of the social and cultural dynamics
of the classroom.

In an ethnographic study of a teacher's classroom perspective,
Janesick (1978) studied a sixth-grade teacher using the theoretical
constructs of symbolic interaction (Mead, 1934). Because symbolic
interaction is characterized as a process of interpretation, the obser-
vational study focused on the teacher's interpretation of the classroom

environment.

. . For the interactionist, a perspective is a reflective
socially-derived interpretation of that which he or she encounters,
an interpretation which serves as a basis for the act1ons wh1ch he

48

or she encounters, an interpretation which serves as a basis
for the actions which he or she constructs. The person's per-
spect1ve is a combination of beliefs and behaviors continually
mod1fied by social interaction.

. In the classroom, the teacher acts and thinks in a par-
t1cular way. In the terms of the interactionist, the teacher
develops a classroom perspective, a consistent way of think-
1ng and acting in a classroom. That perspective enables the
teacher to make sense of his or her world, to interpret it,
and to construct his or her actions within it. (Janesick, 1978,

p. 3

Janesick's descriptive picture of the teacher's world revealed
five elements of the teacher's perspective: (1) concern for maintain-
ing a sense of groupness, (2) the goal of respect and cooperation,

(3) the concern for planning and organization, (4) the role of teacher
as leader, and (5) teaching style. Both external and internal con-
textual variables influenced the perspective and resulted in adjust-
ments in teaching behavior. The study suggested that "teaching remains
an individual enterprise dealing with present oriented situations in
the classroom." The teacher's classroom perspective became the "cur-
riculum of the classroom" (p. 22). Janesick's study supported the
notion that the teacher's perception of role and management of the
setting are influenced by external and internal factors. This concept
is key to the development of the interactional model developed in the
study.

Another recent ethnographic study by Florio (1978) investi-
gated how children "learn to go to school." Although the study
focused on the interaction in a kindergarten/first-grade classroom,
the implications revealed in the study are important to college learn-
ing environments as well. Interested in the interaction that occurs in

the classroom, as well as the interactional competence of participants,

49

Florio investigated verbal and nonverbal communication in the
classroom setting through participant observation, videotape, and
viewing sessions with the teacher.

Contending that norms for appropriate interactional behavior
must be learned just as language is learned in social life, the study
explored the contextual shifts within the dynamics of the classroom
social setting and found that "interactional competence is, in the
truest sense, acquired by doing" (p. ix). Childrenlearn about what
interactional behaviors are appropriate in various settings and
situations by participation. Shifts in activities are jointly
accomplished and are cued by changes in language and/or use of space
by participants. The teacher, as organizer of the classroom learning
environment, plays a major role in the process.

An interesting finding of the study, which certainly is
important to the investigation of the college laboratory, revealed:
"There is more than one way to be a teacher or a student, both across
and within time in the classroom" (p. 153).

By focusing on a classroom event or interactional context
such as "work time," Florio analyzed the varied contexts that made
up the work-time activities with resulting teacher and student behavior
shifts. Florio suggested that by the sharing of interactional events
children become competent classroom participants. Changes in con-
textual features such as time and activity create different demands
on participants. As teacher and students pass through changing phases
of activity together, roles change and there becomes "more than one

way to become a teacher or student, both across and within time in

50

in the classroom" (p. 153). Because there are also major shifts
from teacher-centered to student-centered learning in the college
laboratory, there also may be a need for students to "learn how to
function in lab." This is exemplified by the fact that many older
students have a period of adjustment when returning to school, and
the science laboratory can be particularly frightening for those
unfamiliar with the context of student-centered learning. In a sense,
they are newcomers just as the kindergarten children are newcomers to
an educational setting. Gradually, in interaction with teacher and
peers, they acquire the norms for appropriate behavior in the lab.
Florio suggested the need for further research on the rela-

tionship between teaching style and the academic and social learning
of students:

What might be most interesting to discover are the ways that

successful teachers use "instructional combination" of styles

in relation to such contextual variables as the time of day in

school and the nature of the subject being taught and the

social identities of the students. (p. 157)
The recognition by the teacher of "patterned variation" (p. 159) in
teaching style ultimately allows the teacher to improve the cues for
contextual shifts. This conscious improvement in interaction is
accomplished by a fuller understanding of the classroom event.

The ethnography of classroom interaction makes it possible by

means of intimate, extended contact with the teacher and chil-

dren for the researcher to learn a good deal about their social

world. But it is also a powerful tool by which the teacher can

bring to conscious reflection some of the information which

she/he takes into account when making decisions about classroom
organization, academic tasks, and the competence of students. . . .

(p. 162)

51

With the growth and diversity in higher education, there is
a growing need for research on effective college teaching. The third
ethnographic study examined the interactive dynamics of the instruc-
tional process (Cooper, 1980). Focusing on the classroom of an
effective college instructor, Cooper developed a descriptive model
of teacher and student interaction. The study explored questions of
teacher role and behavior patterns, ultimately developing a descrip-
tive model of the dynamics of the instructional process.

Cooper suggested analyses of the instructional process have
a variety of implications for both instructional development and for
further research in classroom interaction. For educators involved
in instructional development, a better understanding of the instruc-
tional process would allow:

1. Diagnosis of instructional systems to identify and under-
stand problems and strengths.

2. Design and development of instructional systems with input
from participants.

3. Faculty improvement via inservice training using models to
analyze and suggest strategies for change.
Cooper also supported the findings<yfother ethnographic
researchers who have studied classroom interaction. The findings

suggested:

1. The teacher's verbal and non-verbal behaviors influence the
instructional process and the subsequent interpretation of
the instructional event.

2. The participant's common recognition of the changing struc-
ture of the event is correlated with changes in use of space.

3. While the teacher orchestrates the event, it is an orderly,
joint production of all class participants. (p. 195)

52

When teacher and student roles were examined, the study also
supported the notion that:

. there are various situationally determined and socially
negotiated teacher and student roles in classroom interactions.
The shifts in roles can be described and analyzed in terms of
the part of the class the participants are "in," the focal
activity, and the moment to moment changes in the event. These
changes may be academically oriented (the students are or are
not understanding the subject matter), socially oriented (the
students are or are not involved in the instructional process,
or the instructor and students are involved in non-academic or
humorous exchanges), or managerially oriented (the business of
the course is the focal topic). In examining the intricacies
of these changes in the event and shifts in roles, the
instructor's pronominal usage and use of space turned out to
be reliable indicators of the social relationships. (p. 196)

The study clearly illustrated the value of including students'
perspectives in the process of analysis. The "school culture" became
an important factor in understanding behavior within that specific
setting (p. 196). In the analysis of behavior within the community
college, "school culture" is also an important consideration.

Recognizing the limitation inherent in studying one classroom
and one instructor, Cooper concluded:

Future research can be suggested in four general areas: a
continuation of descriptive studies of the dynamics of instruc-
tion in order to deveTop and compare models of effective
instruction, diagnostic studies of instructional systems in
order to use the inquiry process and methods to improve
instruction in particular classes, evaluative studies to
explore the use of the inquiry process and methods in order to
make administrative decisions, and comparative studies to look
for and to test relationships in order to determineTif they
hold in different situations. (p. 197)

 

 

 

Important to this study is the notion that the experienced
teacher orchestrates the event, but the final social event is a

joint construct of all participants. Also, the use of a model to

53

analyze instruction allows not only diagnosis, but also is an impor-
tant tool for comparative research.

In the next chapter we shall move from literature to the
dynamic social setting of the community college laboratory, examining
the interactions of the actors within three similar yet unique

settings.

CHAPTER FOUR
THE STUDY

The Laboratory Environment
The Setting
Lakeside Community College is a large midwestern two-year

institution with a tradition of academic excellence. Although the
college was initially founded in 1914 as a two-year transfer program
for a major state university, in the past twenty years the mission of
the college has continually evolved to meet the changing needs of the
community service area. The original college bulletin of 1914 car-
ried the following statement:

The work of the college may develop into other fields of

service in the future. It will be its best policy to meet

the demands of the public as rapidly as its needs are mani-
fested. (A_Self-Analysis, 1974, p. 2)

 

Today's mission and goals reflect that change.

College Mission to offer quality educational instructional pro-
grams, services and other activities for the needs of the com-
munity.

College Goals

1. To provide curriculums and programs that serve the needs
of the community.

2. To create an atmosphere of support and trust in which all
persons have the opportunity for growth.

3. To manage the finances of the college through responsible
fiscal planning.

4. To encourage student, staff and community involvement and
active participation in activities of the college.

54

55

5. To promote positive and productive relations with the com-
munity.

6. To provide and maintain supporvie services to the staff
and students to improve instruction. (November 1981)

The curriculum has expanded to include a variety of two-year
technical and public health degree programs, along with a broad range
of community service activities. No longer is the college primarily
a transfer college, but has become a multifaceted program reaching
out into the community it serves. The college philosophy and objec—
tives outlined in the Lakeside Community College Faculty Handbook
(1979) reveal a community-based, yet strongly traditional, program.

Philosophy and Objectives--Lakeside Community College seeks
a level of distinctionTTn its faculty, its student body and
its educational programs which will provide quality higher
education for the youth of this community. To this end, all
of the College activities, curricular and co-curricular, are
directed; and to this central purpose, the College devotes
its resources—~human, financial and organizational.

The College believes that modern society requires of its
leaders not only the basic human understandings, knowledge,
and values which a liberal education is intended to supply
but also the professional and applied skills which an increas-
ingly complex civilization demands. In specific objective,
therefore, the College endeavors to help the student prepare
himself/herself for the inevitable broad range of his/her
responsibilities and accordingly develop a vocation or pro-
fession.

The liberal arts and pre-professional curricula are intended
to develop and stimulate the student's understanding of the
scientific, social, and cultural forces among which he/she
will live, and to acquaint him/her with the significant ways
men have interpreted these forces. This exploratory educa-
tion provides a sound basis for intelligent living and citi-
zenship. And the applied arts and sciences curriculums offer
many one and two-year specialized programs for those who wish
to prepare for positions in business, industry, and community
serv1ce.

The educational programs of the College, then, provide a
solid foundation for advanced study at senior educational

56

institutions, and provide opportunities in both vocational
and community service training.

In keeping with this statement of general objectives, and
in performance of its functions, Lakeside Community College
recognizes clear obligations to its students, its alumni,
and the community, and will constantly seek more effective
ways of meeting these commitments. (p. 2.1)

The quality of students graduating from Lakeside has long been
recognized both in the community and among four-year institutions

accepting transfer students (A Self-Analysis, 1974). Unlike some

 

community colleges, Lakeside is not considered a "last chance," but
a "smart beginning" to a college career.
I'm glad I stayed at Lakeside for my first two years. Many
of my friends had problems adjusting to a large school.
Two dropped out--one went to a small four-year school, the
other is back at Lakeside. The small classes were impor-
tant to me. (Informal student interview, 3-17-81)

The school is located in the center of a large metropolitan
area. The urban campus consists of seven large buildings in the city
center and several satellite educational centers. Recently the col-
lege has embarked on a building construction and renovation program.

A new multipurpose fieldhouse, learning center and library, and

recently completed student center have given the campus, serving
over 4,500 full-time and 5,000 part-time students, a much-needed
facelife.

In a recent report (President's Report, 1981; Appendix F),
it was revealed that the total number of metropolitan residents served
by all college programs and services number almost 38,000 individuals.
Included in this number were traditional college students, appren-

ticeship students, community service participants, and people attend-

ing workshops and seminars.

57

Lakeside's values are expressed in its motto, "A tradition of
excellence." The College has endeavored to hire high-quality faculty
and maintain a high ratio of full-time to part-time instructors.
Full-time faculty and administration number 245, while the number of
part-time faculty, although rising in recent years, numbers 158.

This ratio is reversed from that of many community colleges (Office
of the Budget, 1980) and has traditionally, along with small class
size, been a selling point for the College. Recently the President
of the College has appointed a task force to study ways of maintain-
ing the "excellence" in light of drastic funding cuts. In the 1981-82
State of the College address, the President emphasized the impor-
tance of the instructor in the educational process.
Lakeside Community College is known for its excellence. . . .
You as individual faculty members have created that reputation
by the way you teach, the way you listen, the way you care for
your students. . . . There is a perception of excellence about
the College which is consistently spread by word of mouth
throughout the entire community. . . . Without exception, the
number one compliment I receive about the College year in and
year out centers directly on a compliment for an individual
instructor and his or her positive influence on a student at
a critical time in his or her development. . . . (p. 23)
Clearly, the relationship between teacher and student is an important

aspect of the Lakeside Community College program.

The Actors

 

Three instructors.--Although the study involved over 180

 

students, the focal research participants were three life science

instructors: John Masters, Edward Jennings, and Margaret Cooper.1

 

1Pseudonyms.

58

Although one instructor, John Masters, was the primary focus of the
study, Edward Jennings and Margaret Cooper were selected for the
study to allow comparison and triangulation. It became important in
the study to observe a variety of individual interpretations of
role, management, and ultimately teacher-student interaction in the
laboratory. Edward Jennings was selected because he taught the same
course, thus the same "student type," but in a very different manner.
Margaret Cooper was selected because her setting was similar to the
other instructors, while her course and students electing the course
were quite different.

1. John Masters. At 30, John is the youngest of the instruc-
tors observed--in fact, the youngest in the life science department of
sixteen full-time teachers. With his wife and young son, John lives
in the historic area of Lakeside. He is actively involved in the
local heritage group and is restoring his nineteenth-century home.

He is tall and good looking, with a dignified air that belies his
age. Graduating with an M.S. from a large state university, his
experience included a graduate assistantship in anatomy and work for
a public health agency before coming to Lakeside Community College.
In his seventh year of college teaching, he is currently in charge

of coordinating the human anatomy and physiology curriculum for the
life science division. In conjunction with his newly begun Ph.D.
program, he has prepared an illustrated lecture guide for students.
With an eye toward an administrative position in the health-education
field, he is also enrolled in nursing classes with an additional

degree in nursing a possibility. He has a desire to be knowledgeable

59

in all facets of health care and feels a nursing degree would expand
career possibilities. Although taxing at times, his daily shift from
the role of teacher to that of student has been, in his opinion, most
rewarding.

Philosophically, John is conmitted to providing a very posi-
tive learning environment for his students. He, although younger
than many of his students, plays the role of mentor especially to the
returning student (Figure 6). He often remarks that "the older stu-
dent needs self—confidence builidng and understanding." With encour-
agement, many of these students come to his office for personal or
academic help, and some even call his home for the support they need.
When asked about the reasons students seek him out, he commented,

Some of the older ones [students] are a little bit insecure and
don't know what's going on, so I tend to pay more attention to
them and I think that gives them the feeling I'm a little bit
more interested in them, so they tend to open up more. A lot of
these people are just dying for someone to talk to. (Interview,
3-6-81)

When questioned about the phone calls he received at home,
he continued,

Usually they don't call for a Specific thing; usually it's
for a kind of hand-holding thing: I'm just beside myself,
or I just don't know where to begin to study for these bones,
where do I start? It's not specific things like: Is our
test next week at 8:30? or What's the difference between this

and that? Generally, it's more of an emotional thing. (Inter-
view, 3-6-81)

60

 

Figure 6.--John--Interacting with older students.

2. Edward Jennings. In his late thirties, Ed is married and
has four adopted children. Tragically, his son was permanently han-
dicapped in a tractor accident several years ago. Ed is an avid
horseman, and with his family lives on a farm about twenty minutes
from the city. He is very active in the4~+lprogram and a prime mover
in the handicapped riding program. Before moving to Lakeside, he
taught physical science in a high school outside Chicago.

Ed is a very sociable person, which is reflected in his
philosophy of teaching. He enjoys joking with students and maintains

a light atmosphere in the classroom. Committed to the community

61

college, Ed feels that the quality teaching and size of the classes

are important in his success. Ed takes time after class or during

office hours to explain or clarify concepts (Figure 7).

 

Figure 7.--One-to-one explanation after lecture.

Ed has taught both general biology and anatomy and physiology
for the College but currently spends most of his teaching load in the
year-long anatomy-physiology program. Although anatomy and physi-
ology were not Ed's original subject area, he has become the staff
expert in CPR training. Recently, he teamed with John to present a
very successful inservice program for the College staff on "the heart"

and CPR procedures.

62

3. Margaret Cooper. One of three women in the division,
Margaret Cooper is one of the most highly respected instructors in
the College. She holds a Ph.D. in biology as does her husband, who
also teaches in the department. Her husband teaches general biology
for nonscience majors, while Margaret teaches the pre-med and pre-dent
students both Comparative Vertebrate Anatomy and Embryology. An avid
gardener and skier, Margaret is very energetic for a woman in her
late fifties. Originally from the East Coast, Margaret has been with
the College twenty-two years. Her pre-professional medical and dental
students have little trouble getting into medical or dental school
with her favorable recommendation.

Margaret's philOSOphy of education is tied to a strong tradi-
tional standard of excellence, and her presence in the classroom is
commanding. Although known as a "tough" teacher, she has the respect
of her students, who often, later in their careers, list Margaret
Cooper's classes as one of the reasons they succeeded. In her classes
she sees herself as a "guide." When interviewed, she remarked that
"the instructor knows exactly what the student should learn, and
sees to it that they master the material" (Informant survey, 5-15-81).

Although slim and of average height, she presents an imposing
figure in the classroom. Donning a white lab coat and surgical gloves
(Figure 8), her image is one of a professional expert often impressing

students with her comprehensive scientific knowledge.

63

 

Figure 8.--Margaret--Professional expert.

The Students
Like pebbles on a beach, all students may seem alike until
one looks closer and finds each one unique. Despite the uniquenesses,
broad categories will be used in the study to describe the students of
Lakeside Community College. Although it is difficult to define the
typical student at Lakeside, two larger groups include the "older
returning student" and the "traditional high school matriculate."
Unlike many large four-year institutions, the student popula-

tion of connmnity colleges is typically older. In the case of Lakeside,

64

. the average age of students is approaching thirty. Many of the older
students enrolled are married or returning students whose education
after high school was delayed. Whether full or part-time, these
students often have special pressures or outside commitments that
influence their college career choices. Some have delayed their
education for three or four years, while others may not have been in

a classroom for fifteen years or more. Time, family, age, economics--
one or more of these very special factors may influence a returning

student's college career. In a recent Lakeside Community College

 

Update published by the President's office, the following "student
profile" facts were given:

Students range in age from 17-71 years old, with the median
age approaching 30.

The student body is almost evenly split between residents
and non-residents.

Over half of our student body take at least one course
through the Evening College.

More than 55% of the students take additional academic work
at a four-year institution.

More than 75% have at least a part-time job; many working
in a full, 40 hour per week job while attending the College.

The College enrolls over twice the number of State Tuition
Scholarship students as any other State Community College.

Women have outnumbered men students over the past three
yea rs .

More students are college raduates seeking training for a
second career. (1981, p. 31

Lakeside also has a large number of what are called “tradi-
tional students"--those continuing their education directly out of

high school and planning to transfer to foureyear schools upon

65

graduation. Again, these students cannot be easily categorized. For
some, economics keeps them in their own community for the first two
years of college. For others, the larger universities may not have
accepted them due to grades or other deficiency. But for many,
Lakeside offers a quality two-year program with small classes taught
by highly qualified teachers. Many parents in the community choose
to have their sons or daughters move into the college experience
through the highly respected two-year program. Although the glamour
and social life are not as alluring for many students, the academic
offerings at Lakeside are judged equal to, and for some students
better than, the freshman classes at large universities (Field notes,
4-20-81).

The last large group of students is those who may fall into
either of the two categories listed above but are enrolled in a tech-
nical or two-year terminal-degree program rather than a transfer
curriculum. These students comprise one of the fastest-growing popu-
lations of the comnunity college and are rapidly changing the defini-
tion of the typical community college student.

The preeprofessional science student.--The students observed
in the study were all pre-professional science majors both in terminal
and transfer programs. Those taking Human Anatomy and Physiology are
largely in the health-related curricula, including advanced degree
and licensed practical nursing, X-ray technology, radiology, pre-dent,
and pre-med; biology and other science transfers also take the class,

but they are always in the minority. Embryology and Comparative

66

Anatomy students are traditionally pre-med or pre-dent, with an
occasional biology major electing the courses.

At Lakeside, from 250 to 300 students are enrolled in the
year-long Anatomy and Physiology sequence, while only about thirty
to forty students elect the more specialized Embryology and Compara-

tive Anatomy.

The Laboratory

The life science laboratory classrooms at Lakeside Community
College are very similar in design. The number of lab stations limits
all classes to twenty-four students, in comparison to lecture classes,
which may run as high as forty (small compared to the ZOO-plus lecture
classes at many universities). Figure 9 illustrates the general
layout of the laboratories observed in the study.

Designed about six years ago with input from the teaching
staff, the human anatomy and physiology areas of the life science
division occupy what was once the college library. The classroom and
instructors' offices sill have the ornate woodwork, although otherwise
they are modernized. The new lab is supplied with updated equipment
as well as furniture.

The comparative lab is housed in an older wing just down the
hall. The lab tables are of the older style, but are very functional.
(Figure 10). Many specimens and models are on display in the wooden

cabinets that fill the side wall.

2'
§ ' STUDENT STATIONS / FOUR EACH 5
a — — — —
. \ 5
Comparative _, :5: - "’
Lab 5
3 g -
3
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g _
8
5
3 I
= l
8 L.
j; .. PREP ROOM
, L .J
(- TO OFFICE/LECTURE HALL
F L A ' 0 BOARD i 1-—-—-

Human Anatomy-
Physiology Lab

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

DEWNSTRATION

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

PREP ROOM

 

 

_ C
Q

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C

 

 

 

DEMONSTRATION [j
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STUDENT STATIONS (24)

 

 

 

 

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DC

 

(En—5 <__‘b {—75 (“T—

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WINDOWS

Figure 9.--Comparative anatomy lab and human physiology lab.

 

68

 

 

Figure lO.--Comparative anatomy and embryology lab.

In each laboratory a large instructor's demonstration table
with blackboard and projection screen is located at the focal front
of the rooms. The focal front of the newly designed anatomy-physiology
lab is toward the long side of the room, while in the older labs such
as used in the comparative classes, the focal front is located at the
end of the room. An array of biological specimens, charts, and other
related teaching aids is located on the walls or in cupboards along

the sides of each room. A large bank of windows stretches across the

69

length of each room. A prep room for storage of chemicals, preserved
specimens, and equipment is attached to each laboratory for easy access.
A short distance down the hall are both the instructors' office
and lecture room. The close proximity of the instructors' Office to
lecture and labs of both classes allows for greater potential student-

teacher interaction (Figure 11).

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Prep Room Office
.1.-
.. “T 4:
qb
.1.
Comparative
Lab
it
Office Human Anatomy Prep Human Anatomy
Lecture Room Lab
If a.
all- qu-

 

 

 

 

 

 

Figure 1l.--Floor layout.

70

The anatomy and physiology prep room becomes a second home for
students reviewing or making up work before every test. As many as
fifteen people may be crowded into the 8 x 10 foot room on test days.
When any Of the four anatomy instructors enters the prep room, he/she
is deluged with questions, not only from their students but also
from those of other instructors. Some instructors have been known
to avoid these areas around test time, while others make themselves
available for questions. Students have commented, "We appreciate
the time some instructors will take to answer our questions," or
"Just having the correct structures pointed out to us helps us remem-
ber later" (Student survey, 5-12-81). In contrast, because no other
students use the comparative anatomy lab, those students rarely use
the prep room, which is reserved for the instructor or lab assistant.
They instead may be found in the lab itself, reviewing or working
independently.

At the individual lab tables, which usually number six with
four stations at each table, students have available to them the
materials and equipment necessary for each exercise. Depending on
the exercise, they range from microscope and slides, preserved speci-
mens, and dissecting kits to stethoscopes, chemical test kits, and
live specimens.

Live specimens in human anatomy and physiology are limited to
one lab partner being the "guinea pig" for the other, as illustrated
in Figure 12. Here the student is listening for water to pass through

the cardiac region of her lab partner's stomach (Field notes, 2-18-82).

71

 

 

Figure 12.--Lab partners as "live specimens."

Students also come up with their own laboratory "science"
equipment. During the Urinalysis Exercise, with encouragement from
their lab instructor, the anatomy-physiology students brought in
unique containers for their individual urine samples. Included were
a "Mellow Yellow" can, a transformed salad dressing jar labeled
"Piss and Vinegar," and what students considered the most creative,

a squirt gun (Field notes, 4-6-81).
The very “professional" comparative anatomy students also had

their day of fun when preparing their preserved cats for dissection.

72

The cats were dripping wet after their new owners washed off the
noxious preservative. The instructor provided each student with old
"found combs" so that they could part the hair along the dorsal side
of the cat. It was important that the initial cuts were in the cor-
rect location to facilitate later observation of underlying tissues.
Several students hurried off to the chemistry lab for hair dryers,
and within minutes future doctors and dentists were blow-drying the
wet fur Of the cats, creating a meticulous part down the back. The
instructor commented that “every once in a while a bit of fun helps
to lighten the mood of the otherwise demanding course" (Informal

interview, 2-5-81).

The Office

The office is a personal as well as professional space for
instructors. As Hall (1966) described the dynamics of space, he noted,
"Individual patterns of use and need for space are of particular
interest when analyzing relationships in any setting." Most instruc-
tors in the life science division share office space with their
fellow staff members. Shared offices are divided into two to five
separate areas, some locked cubicles, others a more open arrangement.
Although one might sUspect the three instructors who occupy private
Offices nay have higher status, in fact, for most, the arrangement
has evolved due to sociability or subject-matter Openings. Most of
the instructors enjoy the company of their peers, for the shared
offices offer a time for both social and professional intercourse.
It is interesting that even the department chairman shares one of the

five smaller offices on the main floor.

73

Margaret Cooper occupies one of the largest private offices
adjacent to her laboratory classroom. In Margaret's case, the
arrangement is due, in part, to professional status, but also to her
very private nature. The office could easily accommodate two instruc-
tors, but no one would intrude on her well-defined space. In contrast,
Ed and John share their open office with the third anatomy-physiology
instructor in their group. The 15 x 15 foot office is divided only
by book shelves, allowing a great deal of interaction. The decora-
tions on the walls reflect the personal taste of each instructor.

Ed's corner is filled with family mementos, a painting done by a
former student, and plants. John's reflects his love for the art_
nouveau of the thirties.

Because the office of Ed and John is located next to the
lecture and laboratory rooms, students move freely between the spaces.
Because they have been encouraged to come to the instructor's office
for both academic and personal needs, both John and Ed often are
visited by students. It is common for students who have graduated to
return to share personal successes or frustrations with the real
world. All instructors at Lakeside are required to be available for
five scheduled Office hours. However, all three instructors are in
their offices more than the required time, and students were welcome

to drop in at any time.

The Lounge

"Keep Out! Teacher's Lounge!".--The hand—painted sign on

the door makes it clear that the makeshift science teacher's lounge

74

is off limits to students. In reality, the zoology prep room and
storage space for audiovisual equipment, the "lounge" is a meeting
place for ten O'clock coffee break. Crowded into one end of the

10 x 15 foot room are a table, six chairs, and one over-stuffed
swivel chair. The ten O'clock group varies from six to ten partici-
pants out Of a total department of sixteen full-time instructors.
Three of the nonparticipating staff will drop in on occasion, while
two never are seen. Originally formed to help staff communication,
the group was noted for a grand display of desserts. Each group
member would provide "goodies" for the week, until recently, when the
department chairman suffered a mild heart attack. Since then, the
group has dropped the daily goodies in favor of an occasional cookie
for health reasons.

Each of the three instructors in the study participates in
the group, but in very different ways. Margaret is an occasional
visitor, for most of her duties are in the afternoon and she often
arrives around the ten o'clock hour. Ed, on the other hand, rarely
misses the social break. He often was observed in the center of the
conversation telling stories of his farm or 4-H exploits (Figure 13).

John visits the group about three times per week and remains
on the fringe of the conversation, choosing to listen. As he sits
on the corner cabinet, he only occasionally makes a comment on the
social banter. When asked about his involvement in the group, he
commented that he dislikes coffee and is concerned about his "boyish
figure," but he is very aware of the need to maintain visibility.

"I have little to say to the group," he confessed, "for they are

75

philosophically and personally very different than I" (Informal inter-

view, 3-17-81).

 

Figure l3.—-Ten O'clock coffee.

The conversation, although for the most part social, occa-
sionally is directed toward common student problems and unusual class-
room events. Academic frustration and school politics are discussed
more Often at contract times. The Dean of Arts and Sciences occa-
sionally drops in on the group to share a cup of coffee and extend
his visibility to the otherwise isolated staff. Both he and the
department chairman see the social peer-group interaction as vital

for morale and department unity.

76

The Actors in the Setting

Margaret.--For Dr. Margaret Cooper, embryology and comparative
vertebrate anatomy occupy the major teaching load fall and winter
semesters, respectively. Lecture is scheduled for two one and one-half
hour classes, immediately followed by two three-hour labor sessions.
Teaching both the lecture and lab sections, Margaret spends the better ,
part of her teaching day with the same group of students. There is a
sense of community that develops among the group, especially the lab
groups. They study and suffer together through the year-long sequence,
and most are involved in the extracurricular pre-med club. The two
afternoons a week they meet, they can be seen taking their break as
a group in the cafeteria. Easily recognized by their long white
"doctor's" coats, they mix little with other students on these days
(Figure 14).

Typically, there is no visible behavior change on the part of
students when Margaret enters the lab until she moves to her stool
in front of the room and asks the class to turn to the appropriate
page in their lab manual. The social conversations and academic
chatter quickly break as the students turn their attention to the
instructor.

The time between the lecture and laboratory portions of the
comparative anatomy class gives Margaret a chance briefly to get
away from the students and have an often-solitary cup Of coffee,

for the staff coffee room has few late-afternoon visitors.

77

 

Figure l4.--Pre-med lab partners.

As we sat one spring afternoon over a cup of coffee, Margaret
shared with me some of the personal perspectives that guide her
teaching. "My students are going to be professional people one day,“
she commented, "and image and attitude are very important for prospec-
tive doctors" (Field notes, 3-12-81). She continued to share examples
of how she attempted to influence her students. She did not hesitate
to suggest that a student needed a haircut or clean lab coat to pro-
ject a better image, but always with a professional tone rather than
one that put the student down. "My course is very difficult for many

of the students," she continued, "and I try to guide the students

78

through the materials to be studied." She wanted to be certain that
every student observed and understood the intricate laboratory dissec-
tions. She called it "verbally guiding students," and following up
the verbal directions by going from student to student to see that the
students Observed exactly what was supposed to be seen. In the
informants survey (Appendix E), she also commented on the reasons
for the methodology employed:

Much of the material is too difficult to expect the students

to understand on their own. Lab manuals usually don't give

enough help, nor do students care to read a lot of directions.

[Sample in Appendix B.] Laboratories are most important in

courses like Embryology and Comparative Anatomy. Students

need hands-on experience to tie in what has been said in lec-

ture (Survey, 3-12—81).

As Margaret returns to her lab from her short break, the stu-
dents have already donned their long white lab coats and are preparing
the materials for the day's dissection. Most of the students have
been in the class the previous semester and need little direction in
preparing their own materials for the day's dissection.

Each of the laboratory sessions is similar in format. Margaret
reads the manual and the students follow along (Figure 15). Methodic-
ally reading and pronouncing the often utterly complex scientific
terminology, Margaret's dry sense of humor many times makes the seem-
ingly impossible possible. Students' eyes dart from text to specimen,
checking the comparable parts. After completing one part of the exer-
cise, Margaret then goes from table to table asking questions and

pointing out the relevant structures. She calls the students by their

surnames--"What is that structure, Mr. Rypma?"--or when addressing the

79

“entire class, usually uses the tenn "folks"-—"Okay, folks, find the
optic pedestal. . . . It looks like a golf tee!" (Field notes,

2-5-81).

 

Figure 15.--IntrodUcing the day's lab.

1

Directing the class to find a structure such as the reproduc-
tive organs in the shark, her methods is clearly illustrated:
T: "First feel for the ishialthial bar.“
S: (Each student checks his or her shark, noting the sex.)

T: (Instructor begins moving around from table to table to
double-check the sex.

"Any siphon sac?" she continues as she moves to the next
table.

80

"Okay, feel the metatyrigion in the male?"
"00 you see it?"
"Okay, no feel . . . see and feel."

S: (The students nod as they find the structure, cross-checking
between students at the same table.)

1: "Anyone having trouble?"

(The teacher then moves to one student to check the structure

and answer his question, then moves back to her stool in

front to continue.) (Field notes, 2-5-81)

Margaret's strong emphasis on the use of student senses--

"to see," "to feel"--is consistent in all lab exercises. Because each
student dissects his or her own specimen, they are forced into hav-

ing a truly "hands-on experience.“ She also gives a great deal of
personal reinforcement: "That's the way," or "There you are . . .

fine . . . that's good." But the reinforcement is not given in a warm,
maternalistic mode, but in the cooler, professional manner of an
expert rewarding a correct response from a protégé (Field notes,
2-5-81).

Margaret's classes normally contain academically oriented
students who are highly motivated (characteristics many educators do
not equate with community college students). As she walks about the
room checking the students' progress, her erect posture and demeanor
give her a very formal appearnace. The pre-professional science
students also have special needs to which Margaret, as lab and lecture
instructor, attends. Although the students are often academically
oriented, they are not always as mature as they might seem. Her

management Of the class is modified to account for the demands of the

81

curriculum and the needs of the students. When new scientific ter-
minology is introduced, she spends a great deal of time emphasizing
correct usage and pronunciation.

In addition, there is another factor that greatly influences
the management of her class. Margaret has a reputation to uphold,
in terms of the quality of student transfers from her class to medical
or dental school. Her recommendation is praised. For with an out-
standing recommendation from her, students have little trouble
transferring into state medical or dental schools. Many local doctors
received their first training with Margaret and now send their duaghters
or sons to Lakeside, even though they could go directly into larger
four-year institutions.

Ed,--Recently, Ed Jennings has taught the first lab section of
the week, which has meant setting up the equipment for the eight
o'clock Monday morning group. Having taught the lab for many years,
he is very familiar with the need of every lab session. As the group
drifts in on Monday morning, he is busily moving from the prep room
to the lab, setting up slides, charts, and other equipment. He
engages in social conversation (in contrast to academic conversations)
with several of the students before class, sharing with them some of
the ongoing events on his farm. One day, for example, a steer escaped
just as Ed was attempting to load him onto a truck for the slaughter
house, resulting in a "Keystone Cops" chase. Another frantic weekend
was spent rescuing a valuable horse from drowning in a muddy creek.

The trauma was as great for Ed as it was for the terrified horse.

82

Most of the casual conversation centers on the activities of the
instructor but occasionally includes students' exploits (Field notes,
1-26-81).

Ed conducts his class in a social, conversational style, often
using personal or everyday examples and common language rather than
purely scientific language to explain concepts. His tone Of voice
and relaxed posture add to the easy conversational style. Typically,
he gives a very complete introduction to the day's activities. This
may include a set of 35mm ectachrome slides that complement the
microscope slides or dissection, a mini-lecture on the anatomy or
physiology concepts that may not have been covered in lecture, or
a demonstration of equipment or test procedures. The introduction
lasts from fifteen to thirty minutes at the beginning of the two-
hour lab session; then the students are expected to work independently
on the day's tasks. Ed is available to answer questions during the
remaining time. Because most of his students are in nursingcn~health-
related curricula, Ed contends that "it is important for them to
learn how to follow written direction and work independently on the
assigned tasks." He is available for questions and makes it known
he will help when asked, but he does not often initiate help to
students. When asked what he sees as his major role in the lab, he
commented:

My role is to introduce the laboratory material and outline
the procedure, then provide assistance with student questions.

My students are going to be expected to follow directions and
work independently in their future jobs. Lab gives them an
opportunity to work in small groups or solve problems alone;
it's all good experience for when they're out in the

83
real world. Failure here [in lab] can be a learning experi-
ence; failure out there can be fatal. (Field notes, 2-2-81)
Among students, Ed is known for his wry sense of humor.
During one lab exercise, students were asked to measure their partner's
rib cage diameter at several locations and also get up on the lab
tables, then lie down to have their blood pressure taken. He joked
that all chest sizes were confidential as he demonstrated the procedure
on himself, then continued his instructions by hopping up on the lab
table to demonstrate the dignified way to lie down--especially if
students wore skirts. That particular morning he only received a few
chuckles, and he commented that "it really is early!" Because there
always is a variety of students in classes, some approve of his humor,
while others feel he could be more serious (Field notes, 2-23-81).
Unlike Margaret Cooper's lab, students in Ed's lab are not

held accountable for the day's lab material, except on tests. In
all the anatomy physiology classes, the previous week's answers to
the exercise are posted so that students can correct their work. A
few students always leave the lab early and rely on the posted
answers rather than completing the exercises themselves. They must
attend class, but little is said if they leave early. While Margaret's
labs meet six hours a week, the anatomy-physiology classes only meet
for one two-hour session. Ed shared one of his major concerns with
lab:

Some lab experiences are limited by what I'll call "repeata-

bility." We are moving through [the lab] large numbers of

students, and our time is limited to two hours. We have

little time for open-ended work or technical demonstrations.
(Interview, 5-12-81)

84

Not only Ed, but also students, believe that having the same
instructors teach both the lecture and laboratory classes results in
a great deal Of coordination between the two experiences. Ed was
part of the original team that planned and wrote the lab exercises
and feels that this has helped to strengthen both the program and the
teaching quality.

Because Ed encourages independent work, the students either
develop strong working relationships with their lab partner or part-
ners, or else tend to be loners. It is very Often the loner who

leaves the lab early, while the lab partners tend to "suffer it out

together," relying on the strength of group knowledge to help them

through (Figure 16).

 

\"
‘1’
v

°' 1 5",!J
1 " ‘

 

Figure 16.-—Four heads are better than two.

85

Jphn.--One of the best descriptions of John Masters' teaching
is "highly orchestrated." His labs are organized, controlled, and
highly interactive, both in terms of teacher-student and student-
student contact. The learning environment he creates is highly
supportive while challenging. He is seen by students as an expert

and facilitator who is also willing to counsel or just sit down and

talk to students, as seen in Figure 17.

 

 

Figure l7.--Informal professional counseling before class.

The amount of introductory material and interaction varies
from lab to lab in relation to the complexity or technical nature of

the material presented. To clarify troublesome parts, he often

86

demonstrates to small groups, encouraging questions and providing
moral support.

The two-week lab sequence on bones exemplifies the typical
strategy John uses in the laboratory. As lecture instructor as well
as lab instructor for the Friday afternoon anatomy-physiology lab,
John determines the amount of introductory material based on what
has been already covered in lecture. To introduce the lab, John
sits at the demonstration table directing students seated at the

lab stations to follow along in their lab manuals or to note the

models either at their own tables or on display (Figure 18).

 

Figure 18.--John--Introducing lab.

John:

87

Start with the axial skeleton [each team had its own
one-half skeleton]. I want you to interact with your
classmates. . . . Teach it to someone else, it's going
to be more fun.

Please use pointers [he continued]. They're real bones,
no pencils or“ pens, please! [Noting the difference
between real and plastic bones.] Please be careful,
lacrimal grooves become lacrimal craters [laughter].
(Field notes, 2-13-81)

During each lab, John helps students clearly identify tasks,

warns of problem areas, and encourages group work (Figure 19).

Student: We'll never learn all these bones! [Many students

John:

nod agreement.]

[Grinning sympathetically] Expect a lot of work.

It only takes four to five weeks to 1earn--but the
test is in two weeks. [Laughter] You'll be surprised
you can do it. I'll see you in the prep room, but 65
percent can be done at home. (Field notes, 2-13-81)

After several more minutes of background instructions, he

turned the class over the students to identify individual bones and

structures.

Cycling around the room, stopping at each table, he

engaged both in academic and social conversation with groups. Although

he might leave the room for short periods of time, John made himself

available to students and checked each group at least two times dur-

ing the period.

lab:

At lunch one day, he shared what he saw as his role in the

I want to develop self-confidence in my students. The material
is difficult and requires a lot of memorization. I want to
reduce the frustration level--attitude is very important. I
enjoy working with women and feel I understand some of their
special needs. It makes me feel good to help them succeed--
that's what it's all about. (Informal interview, 2-13-81)

      
 

bay-e.

I ,"

Figure 19.--C1arifying a point.

The Researcher in the Setting

One of the major goals of the laboratory experience is to

expose students to the tools of science and reinforce specific con-

cepts introduced in lecture. The physical setting of the instructional

laboratories varies in relation to course needs. The lab may be a

89

collection of physical paraphernalia--microscopes, test tubes, and
preserved specimens, but it also is-people--teachers, students, and

in the case of ethnography, the field worker (Figure 20).

 

Figure 20.--Researcher in the setting.

No researcher can deny that there is some effect of the
researcher on the situation Observed. The researcher effects on the
labs observedwereas varied as the personalities of the instructors.
The role the researcher played in Margaret Cooper's lab was primarily

that of an observer, whereas in the labs of Ed Jennings and John

90

Masters, there was a dual participant-observer status. Although
there were times when the researcher mingled with Margaret's stu-
dents during lab, because of the highly structured nature of the
exercises, the opportunity for real participation was limited. This
very fact helped to distinguish their different teaching styles.

There seemed to be little behavioral effect on either students
or the teacher as a result of the presence of a researcher. They were
so engrossed in their tasks, they paid little attention to the
researcher. Their behavior was cOnsistent throughout the semester's
observations.

In contrast, the involvement in both Ed's and John's classes
was highly interactive. Moving freely from the role of Observer to
participant, the researcher was privy to more of the subtle nuances
of the setting.

Each of the instructors was familiar with the general purpose
of the study--observing interaction in the laboratory. To triangulate
the data further, students from previous semesters were interviewed
to uncover possible behavior changes due to the presence of the
“researcher.

As might be expected, Margaret's format was unchanged, but
there was an initial increase in student-teacher interaction in Ed's
lab. This increased interaction returned to a more typical mode
after several weeks of observation. Ed would announce to the whole
class several times during the lab exercise, "If you have any ques-

tions, I'll be here to help." When encouraged, students did ask for

91

more help. After several weeks, Ed actively sought out interaction
less frequently, returning to student-initiated interaction.

In John's lab, which was more interactive by design, there
also was an initial increase in interaction. A former student
reported that John, in a previous semester, had left the room more
often. When asked whether his behavior changed due to the presence
Of the researcher, he said, "Yes," and commented, "I enjoy having you
(the researcher) around." John later reflected he also was more con-
scious of his interaction but had not really changed his mode of
interaction. Realizing the positive effect interaction can have,
he used a great deal of interaction in all his labs. He contended
that "leaving a class at the proper time was important to encourage
students to work independently at times, but it also is important to
be available for students when they need help" (Informal interview,
9-10-81).

None of the behavior modifications, such as the conscious
effort to interact or encourage interaction, was contrary to the goals
or basic method of the teacher, but in some cases enhanced the teacher's
ability 'UO-evaluate and/or examine personal teaching techniques. In
the exit survey, Ed reported:

Q: DO you feel the interaction between teacher and student
could be improved? Please explain.

A: Yes, often we assume that if students do not request help,
that they are having an adequate experience. Poss1b1y dur-
ing the time [lab] we could move about more asking d1rect
questions and spot checking scopes, etc. (Append1x E)

In the previous section, the laboratory environment of three

community college instructors was examined. The rich qualitative

92

data reveal a complex social setting jointly created by the teacher
and students. In the following section, a theoretical model of
teacher-student interaction derived from the qualitative data will

be described.

Descriptive Model Of Teacher-Student Interaction
To develop an explanatory model of what is happening in the
laboratory, the native's interpretation of the events should be
interfaced with the research's view of the events (Lutz, 1981). As
observable patterns emerge from the actual phenomenon, grounded
theory can be applied and tested (Glazer & Strauss, 1975; Yinger,
1978).

Role

 

The importance of examining roles within the framework of an
organization has long been recognized (refer to Role, Chapter Three).
The institution defines roles with inherent obligations and expec-
tations; however, institutions are created by human consensus. Once
established, they provide a framework or context subsequently occu-
pied by participants. Roles then provide places for living, breathing
individuals to act.

Because role is a dynamic social process, it becomes a highly
interactive phenomenon Often shaped by the personality of the occu-
pant. When individuals assume a role, they do so in an individual
style. Because the forces that shape role are dynamic rather than
static, the interactive processes that create and shape role are

ongoing. Roles do not exist in vacuums but in highly interactive

93

social contexts. The relation between role and social context is
mutually constitutive in that roles are prescribed to some degree
by social institutions and created in face-to-face interaction by
individuals who assume them (Cicourel, 1972). Consequently, by the
very nature of these individuals--their needs, personalities, values,
and past experiences--institutional roles are humanly refined and
shaped. We can see the setting, we can observe behavior, but the
transaction that occurs between creates the "ethnos" (Getzels &
Thelen, 1960).

The major focus of the study was the teacher-student interac-
tion in the laboratory setting. Role as a theoretical construct and
an instructor's variation or improvization within a role guided the

analysis, for through observation the teacher's perception of the role

 

seemed a pivotal factor determining leadership and management patterns

and ultimately teacher-student interaction. Although each student in

 

a laboratory has a well-defined set of tasks presented in the labora-
tory exercise (Appendix B), the instructor plans for what will happen
in the setting and becomes the manager of the social and academic
interaction.

College instructors, as professionals, have a degree of free-
dom in the management of the learning environment. Introductory
science lecture classes, which contain a large volume of factual and
conceptual information, are most often taught by lecture. Questions
and discussion are often limited both by time constraints and the

number of students in the class.

94

Laboratories, on the other hand, provide an environment where
the personality and needs of the instructor can play a dramatic role
in determining varied management and interaction patterns. Just as
a seasoned actor improvises within a role, teachers play out varia-
tions of their role within the laboratory setting. Richard Burton
and Sir Lawrence Olivier are not the same Hamlet with every perform-
ance, nor are three seasoned college instructors the same actors on
the laboratory stage. Beyond that, these instructors are not working
from anything quite so prescribed as a Shakespearean script.

With qualified, experienced teachers, it is not normally a
matter of right or wrong management scheme, but it is a matter of
maximizing the effectiveness of the role within any management pat-
tern to meet the needs of both the teacher and students. For the
three teacher informants, the role of laboratory instructor varied
with the individual. As the descriptions demonstrate, John saw him-
self as a mentor/facilitator, Ed saw his role as resource person,
while Margaret saw herself as an expert/guide. But what factors
caused three experienced teachers to see their role so differently?
The answer is clearer as the process of role formation is examined
more closely. For the purpose of this study and the model, [gle_is
the dynamic realization of social status with inherent rights, obli-
gations, and behavior expectations.' Although commonly institutionally
defined, roles are in fact complementary and interlocking, deriving
meaning from related roles (Griffith, l979; Guba, 1958). Because
role is not static, an individual's style within a role is continually

negotiated. And for that very reason, roles can change through time.

95

This is of particular interest to educators, for it is possible to
intervene to change or modify role to meet situational needs.

What follows is a theoretical model of teacher-student inter-
action that examines role along with the resulting leadership-
management patterns as they relate to teacher-student interaction in

the laboratory setting (Figure 21).

 

LEADERSHIP/
ROLE MANAGEMENT
PATTERNS

 

 

Figure 21.--Linking role to interaction.

Role Influences and Formation

 

Role is both intricate and unique--intricate in that a myriad
Of factors influence the ultimate expression of the role and unique
because individuals occupy the roles (Goffman, 1967). Figure 22
illustrates how the external/extrinsic factors of the social setting
and the internal/intrinsic factors of the individual are interfaced
to collective create the role of a college instructor.

In education, roles are defined by the institution, perceived
by the instructor, and modified by other external or internal forces.

The expressed role is the outcome of the myriad of factors that shape

 

it (Figure 23).
The study suggests the following examples of external and

internal forces operating within the college setting that directly or

96

indirectly influence the expression of teacher role. Although some
of the forces are Specific to Lakeside, many others are common to

college environments in general.

INSTITUTION

INSTRUOTORS
STUDENTS "“95/ cURRIOULUN

PERSONALITY

 

SETTING

Figure 22.--Extrinsic and intrinsic role influences.

_§xtrinsic forces.--The EXTERNAL or EXTRINSIC FORCES that
impatt role include the institution, curriculum, setting, and students.
(Refer to Figures 22 and 23.)

l. Institution. The institution contributes to one defini-
tion of role by means of the following:

Mission and goals of the college

Vocational or academic standards

97

Instruction as major focus
Negotiated contract

Department autonomy and evaluation
ROLE--Defined by Role—-Perceived by
Culture/Institution Instructor
EXTRINSIC FORCES INTRINSIC FORCES
Students Needs
Setting Personality

Curriculum Knowledge
Institution

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

      
   
    

EXPRESSED
ROLE

 

LEADERSHIP/MANAGEMENT
PATTERNS

Figure 23.--Role formation.

With a philosophical aim of maintaining a "tradition of excel-
lence" within the broad framework of the college mission and goals, the

administration and staff of Lakeside are faced with a variety of dilerrlnas .

98

The student population in general is changing. The tradi-
tional programs and modes of instruction do not always meet the more
varied needs of the shifting student population. Many instructors
have voiced concern with working with the "new traditional" student.
Complaints like "students aren't prepared" or "they lack responsi-
bility" are common over morning coffee (Field notes, 4-24-81).

Maintaining academic standards for both the transfer and
vocational student is also a challenge for the institution. Pressure
from four-year institutions and from professions such as nursing
groups and hospitals to maintain standards is reflected in the pro-
gram requirements. Lakeside has done a follow-up study of graduates
(A Self-Study, 1974) to determine the success of graduates, with
positive results. (Refer to Table 1.)

As primarily a teaching institution, Lakeside places the
quality of instruction high on the list of priorities. The number of
full-time staff and the resulting high instructional costs place the
institution in a position of limiting program growth to insure job
security. With continued funding reductions, the institution will be
faced with the choices of hiring more part-time faculty, laying off
tenured staff, raising already high tuition rates, and/or cutting
programs. Each of these options would ultimately affect instruction
and the face of the institution.

Department autonomy and self-evaluation impact instruction.
For example, seniority often influences who teaches courses. In the
past, the way courses and hours were assigned was not always “fair"

or "consistent" between and within departments (Field notes, 11—17-81).

99

Table l.--Follow-up study of graduates.

 

l.

ASSOCIATE DEGREE NURSING

Admissions by year for the past five years:

 

 

 

Year Number;égmitted
1969 33

1970 44

1971 60

1972 66

1973 64
Graduations by year for the past five years:
Year Number Graduated
1969 15

1970 16

1971 28

1972 28

1973 45

Number of students passing or failing state board examinations each
year for the past five years, comparisons with national means.
(National mean is 500)

 

Year Statistics
1969 15 wrote Fifty-two (521) percent of the tests taken
14 passed by the graduates were above the national
1 failed mean.
1970 16 wrote Seventy-eight (782) percent of the tests
16 passed taken by the graduates were above the
national mean.
I971 28 wrote Seventy-eight (782) percent of the tests
27 passed taken by the graduates were above the
I failed national mean.
1972 28 wrote Seventy-five (752) percent of the tests
28 passed taken by the graduates were above the
national mean.
1973 4S wrote Eighty-four (842) percent of the tests
42 passed taken by the graduates were above the
3 failed national mean.

Total Number Who Wrote - 132 Of the total number of tests taken by

Total Number Who Passed —- 127 the graduates in the four years, seventy-
one (712) percent were above the
national mean.

Total Number of Failures -- 5 Of these five (5) students four (4)
failed one sectional test and one (I)
failed two sectional tests of a total of
five (5) sectional tests taken. Each
passed the failed sectional test(s) the
second time.

100

Today, the contract plays a greater role in assigning hours and
establishing individual reSponsibility. For example, teachers are
assigned a full-time load Of thirty contract hours per year; addi-
tional hours are considered overload. Instructors are expected to
have at least five scheduled office hours per week and to attend spe-
cific department functions (Appendix F). The contract and Faculty
Handbook specifically spell out the responsibilities Of all instruc-
tors, while the department determines specific roles within that
larger framework.

2. Curriculum. The college laboratory curriculum contributes
to the definition of role by means of the following:

Team laboratory concept

Technical or conceptual information

Link with lecture and lab material

Observation clearly demonstrates how roles of instructors are
influenced by the curricula. By the very nature of the laboratory
setting and student-centered experiences, instructors are often bound
by pre-determined lab exercises, team-taught lab sections, or faced
with coordinating lab with lecture content.

Several laboratory courses at Lakeside use commercial lab
materials as is the case in both embryology and comparative anatomy.
But many other laboratory classes use exercises developed and written
by a team of instructors.

The anatomy classes use teacher-prepared laboratory exer-

cises (Appendix 8). Margaret, using a publisher's manual, often adds

101

to the already technical dissection materials and finds it necessary
to "walk" students through the exercise to insure they can properly
identify each structure (Field notes, 2-5-81). She also "talks"
them through the terminology to insure proper pronunciation.

In anatomy, the exercises are written to allow more student-
centered activity. The instructors introduce the day's lab, then
expect students to read through and do each task outlined. The labs
are often broken down into two exercises for each system-~one related
to anatomy, the other to physiology. Each lab instructor is expected
to move students through the day's pre-arranged exercise. There is
little time within the time framework to add, but several instructors
have chosen to delete portions; for example, the introductory Slides.
When students realize they are missing a portion of the lab, they
Often feel "cheated" and complain. Students surveyed shared these
feelings:

It [lab] could be improved if the instructor would have showed
us the slides he was supposed to and explain things more, and

if he would have stayed in the room instead of leaving so that
when we had a question, he was not there.

It was noted that in other labs that I occasionally visited--
the instructor was available and involved with the students.
This close working relationship provides an atmosphere of
incentive and learning. Each instructor should meet course
requirements--if slides are available and scheduled to be shown--
then this is the desired mode of instruction that should be met.
(Student survey, 5-12-81)

When labs are team taught (several instructors teaching the
same lab but at different times), there is yet another external pres-

sure On the instructor. Material must be prepared for the week's

exercise, clean-up, and other housekeeping tasks must be attended to

102

for the next instructor's lab, and tests must be team written and
set up. For example, there may be as many as four different
instructors in the same anatomy-physiology teaching lab during any
given semester. Instructors must plan and work together to insure
a smooth transition from one group to another.

John, being the technical leader of the anatomy-physiology
team, orders materials and assigns individual tasks to other instruc-
tors. Ed, having the first 1ab on Monday, is in charge of setting up
the week's lab.

The problem of coordinating lecture and lab is yet another
external concern and is most Often attended to by the lecture instruc-
tors. But several times throughout the year, that task is shifted to
the lab instructors. If the lab and lecture are not synchronized,
the task of introducing new concepts becomes part of the duties of the
lab instructor. This means a greater amount of time has to be spent
in teacher-centered orientation and lecture, producing a Shift from
the more typical student-centered format.

This shift rarely occurs in Margaret's class because she
teaches all course components. But it does occur several times in
the courses Of the anatomy-physiology class. Certainly the curriculum
does influence teacher role, but outside of an occasional need to
introduce additional material, the format is predetermined and con-
sistent.

3. Setting. The actual laboratory setting contributes to

the definition of role by means of the following:

103

Good basic equipment and materials
Small classes

Location near offices and lecture rooms

As an external force, the setting also influences teacher
role, but unlike the other factors, once defined, the physical com-
ponents (e.g., the lab, equipment, and other physical structures) and
time frame change little week to week. The instructors feel the
laboratories are well designed and adequately equipped. Lab classes
are limited to twenty-four, which allows ample time for teachers to
interact with students in a two- or three-hour time frame. This was
demonstrated during heart and sheep-brain dissections when John was
able to interact with each lab group at least twice, first identifying
the basic structures and then returning to each group to have the
students identify the structures and to answer questions (Videotape,
9-10-81). The physical layout of the classrooms, laboratories, and
Offices allows teachers and students to move easily from one setting
to another, maximizing the Opportunity for interaction. Students
frequently call or drop in during scheduled office hours. It is not
unusual for students working in the prep room to ask their instructor
or any other available instructor for assistance. John and Ed
jokingly commented that at times it was diffficult to get any "work"
done because of the frequent interruptions (Informal interview,
2-27-81).

4. Students. The laboratory students also contribute to the

definition of role by means of the following:

104

Heterogeneity--age, academic background
Career orientations

Outside Obligations

The students at Lakeside were described earlier as a hetero—
geneous group. This is particularly true of the Human Anatomy-
Physiology student. Many Older students have special needs that
must be addressed. They tend to be insecure about returning to school
and are very competitive about grades. Students must receive good
grades either to qualify for or remain in the nursing or other career
programs. The backgrounds of students in the class also run the
entire range from those with a strong science background to those who
have never had a laboratory course and cannot even spell "laboratory.“
For many, the Anatomy course is very demanding, and they are anxious
to get through it and move on to their professional courses. For
others, the goal is to learn as much as possible, and these indi-
viduals question and demand attention constantly.

For the pre-med and pre-dent students, the task is to get good
enough grades to qualify for acceptance into a professional school.
The competition is stiff. Most of the students are directly out of
high school with a relatively good background; therefore, there is
less need to address individuality, but there is a need to prepare
students for the rigorous courses yet ahead of them.

For most students at Lakeside, even the younger students,
college is not a full-time job. They have many outside obligations
such as a family and full- or part-time jobs. The high percentage

of older returning females is particularly evident in the

105

anatomy—physiology classes. John even keeps several children's toys
in his office for his students when they bring little ones to school
with them. It's not unusual to find children playing at their
mothers' feet in the prep room (Figure 24) as they review for an

upcoming test.

a

1
l
1

.
. t...
7- . -
.¢, .
, ,_

 

Figure 24.--Classroom visitors.

Intrinsic forces.--the INTERNAL or INTRINSIC forces that
impact role include the instructor's individual needs, personality,

and knowledge (refer to Figures 21 and 22).

106

l. Instructor's needs. The instructor's needs contribute
to the definition of role by means of the following:

Recognition

Self-esteem, acceptance

Self-actualization

The needs of the instructor are key in determining behavior.
Most often the salary and working conditions meet basic needs of
professional educators, but other needs that help enlarge the role
also must be met. For example, John was concerned about his visi-
bility after not being recognized by the Vice-President of the college
at a school function early in the year. To improve his visibility,
he then became actively involved in the inservice program, which
resulted in a later committee appointment. This recognition was very
important to John. At the end of a course, he received the following
note from a grateful student. As he showed it to me, his pride was
obvious (Field notes, 3-18-81).

John,

I have enjoyed this class very much. You have a very effec-
tive way of blending "caring" and "authority." This "blend“
has been instrumental in making my re-entry into education
a positive one. Thank you much. Hope to see you in the
fall.

Marlene

John often commented about the number of students who were
grateful for his encouragement. The sentiments were echoed by three
students who joined me for lunch one afternoon. The three older

women who were in the nursing program drove in daily from a small

107

town thirty miles away. Their praise of John's teaching methods and
genuine concern for his students was nonstop.

The personal need to grow intellectually is demonstrated by
both John's and Ed's willingness to continue their own professional
growth either by taking classes or by attending seminars.

All three instructors bring with them into class a broad range
of professional experiences they Often share with students both during
lecture and laboratory. The need to feel successful is important
to each instructor, while the source of the feeling clearly varies.

2. Instructor's personality. The individual instructor's

 

personality contributes to the definition of role by means of the
following:

Values, beliefs

Social interests

Family, background

The individual instructor's personality has a definite way
of creeping into each facet of an instructor's role, giving it a
unique quality. The belief about student outcome is not uniform even
among teachers who teach the same course. While one instructor may
feel it is a lab instructor's job to make people think, asking many
probing questions, another may feel teaching students to follow direc-
tions and Observe is more appropriate. Ed, commenting on the heart-
dissection lab, felt the less pre-explanation the better, for his past
experience had shown students understood the material better if they
read the lab sheet as they worked (Field notes, 2-2-81). Values and

personal beliefs about a teacher's role in shaping student behavior

108

may be as simple as demanding correct spelling or as complex as
demanding abstract reasoning and problem solving using the concep—

tual information learned. Students "pick up" on what they perceive is
important to the teacher and the most successful "feedback" appropriate
behavior.

Personality interacts with aspects of the social setting to
shape the face-to-face encounters in the classroom. While John
actively encourages group interaction and sharing tasks, often choos-
ing one student to demonstrate to others, he also socializes with
students during lab. He often Sits down before lab to chat with a
group or takes time in his office just to sit and talk to students.
(Interestingly, John considers himself a very "private person," but
is very willing to listen and attend to students' social and personal
needs.) Margaret's socializing most often occurs outside the formal
classroom in more relaxed nonacademic settings. She Sponsors the
pre-med and pre-dent club and annually takes groups on field trips or
invites them to her home for a party at the end of the year. Ed,
on the other hand, jokes and socializes in class with the entire
group but rarely on an individual basis or outside school. His horse
stories and 4-H experiences are the key to many of his social
encounters.

Just as background and family demands affect student behavior,
so too do they impact teacher role. While Margaret has no children,
John with a two-year-old and Ed with four adopted children bring with
them family experiences and an expanded awareness of the demands of

students with family pressures, but also their own family frustrations.

109

When the pipes broke in Ed's house this winter, many of the problems
related to this two—week ordeal crept into the classroom. Telephone
calls, repairmen, and a multitude Of details were on his mind as he
went through his daily instructional duties. Frustrations from out-
side the job can and do affect anyone's performance on the job. Stu-
dents were aware of his frustrations as well. On St. Patrick's Day,
Ed received a small flower arrangement with a "pipe" attached. The
note read: "Hope this finds all your pipes holding water now!"
(Field notes, 3-18-81). An empathetic student was well aware of the
teacher's needs in this case.

3. Instructor's knowledge. The instructor's knowledge also
contributes to the definition of role by the following:

Training

Experience

Most college instructors bring with them to the classroom a
strong academic background in their area of specialization. Although
they may know the subject-matter content, the ability to teach that
information to others is not as universal in the college classroom.
Even an outstanding teacher in one environment may not always be as
effective if the environment changes. Margaret's instructional
approach is very successful with the homogeneous student population
she teaches, but would that same method work for the human anatomy
group? Experience working with any curriculum or student group seems
a key factor in how a teacher behaves in the laboratory. Teachers

learn what "works" or "doesn't work" for individual lessons and groups

110

of students. Learning the "trouble spots" and how to recognize and
address them comes with experience. Therefore, change in teacher
role or behavior is a result of adjusting to ongoing needs of both
the curriculum and students, and ultimately those of the teacher.

Each of the above intrinsic factors is set within a larger
cultural and conmunity framework. Culture influences the array of
external forces and certainly plays a major role in the development
of the individual.

The extrinsic forces of the institution, curriculum, setting,
and students individually and collective impact the role of the
instructor. Interfaced with the INTRINSIC FORCES--the instructor's
individual needs, personality, and knowledge--the interaction results

in the expressed role that can be Observed in the laboratory.

Role Variations

Roles are dynamic, for there are many variations instructors
can play within the institutionally prescribed role (Garrison, 1968;
Goffman, 1961; Knapp, 1962; McKeachie, 1962). Role, Goffman contended,
is the "typical response of individuals in a particular position,
while the actual role performance of an individual in that position
will depend on the complex forces working on the individual" (p. 93).
Role variations or expressed roles (see page 98) often go beyond the
typical or normative aspects of the teacher role. Although not
intended to be exhaustive, the variations may include:

AUTHORITY--AS the arm of the college or university, the instructor
has the power to set up the learning environment.

EXPERT --With a knowledge of subject matter, the instructor is
regarded as an expert in the field.

111
FACILITATOR--The instructor facilitates the learning within
the learning environment.
PROFESSIONAL AGENT--Instructors let students know what and why
learning is important, including what it's like in
the field.

EGO IDEAL --Instructors are role models; students think of the
instructor as a professional in the field.

MENTOR --The instructor is a friend as well as a counselor
and teacher.

PERSON --Involving the most risk, the instructor reveals
himself as a person.

The role variations of authority, expert, and facilitator are
expected by the institution, while expanding role by including the
others is more dependent on the character of the individual in the
role. Role seems to be defined not only in response to institutional
and instructor needs, but also, at least for some instructors, is
influenced by needs of individuals or groups of students.

The instructors in the study saw their major rights and
duties in lab as follows:

John--To reinforce with hands-on types of experiences the
lecture material, and to go into more detail where lab
is more appropriate, such as identification of muscles,

organs, etc.

Ed --TO introduce laboratory material, outline procedure, and
provide assistance as student questions arise.

Margaret--To guide the student through the materials to be
studied. (Teacher survey, 5-12-81)

Each instructor's view of the teacher role and its expressions
was congruent with his/her actual behavior in the lab. Observation
supported John's perceived role as a mentor/facilitator, Ed's as a

resource person, and Margaret's as an expert/guide.

112

However, the students surveyed had a complementary yet more
diverse perception of what the teacher's role should be in the lab-
oratory. They offered the following characterizations:

Supervise--give help when needed, circulate through lab.

Guidance--point out "physically" the things we've learned
in lecture.

. to guide, but not to lecture.

. to explain things thoroughly and to stay in lab and help
with questions.

. learning facilitator.

Present the material, define unclear points, participate with
students.

. to assist the student in meeting lab objectives.

. to encourage and stimulate students' own thinking, but
to "givg answers" if absolutely necessary. (Student survey,
5- 12 81

When interviewed, John discussed his feelings about socializ-
ing with students (Appendix C).

Q: Do you socialize with your students--purely social, like
going out for a glass of wine?

A: Not very much. I have in the past; I've gone out to the
bar with the girls [students]. We have a good time, but
most of them want you in a particular role. A few people
you can do that with, but I'm cramped for time so I really
don't do a lot of socializing. The majority of them, even
though they call me "John," are very friendly. . . .You' re
here [in school] and there is something about being here,
and being in a defined situation. They can come and talk
here, where if you go out and socialize with them, you're
intruding on this other life of theirs. I think it would
be like socializing with your therapist. Kind of like that.
I have a certain role and it's defined, and I think they
find some security in it. . . . Maybe I do.

113

Finding security and satisfaction in a role appears to be a
key factor influencing both management patterns and ultimately
teacher-student interaction. For John the role of "mentor“ to the
older student includes developing orchestrated student-centered
activities during which teacher-student interaction is maximized dur-
ing individual and small-group activities. Figure 25 illustrates
how positive feedback from the student-teacher interaction reinforces

the role as "mentor" for John.

   

 

  
       

 

 

 

 

ROLE MANAGEMENT INTERACTION
Mentor Orchestrated Small group
Student Centered one-to-one
T a contact
I
L. ______ <6 _.._._ _L ______ <9.._._N/

POSITIVE FEEDBACK

Figure 25.--Role feedback-~John as a mentor.

In a descriptive model of interaction, feedback is an impor-
tant consideration. Whether the feedback is positive or negative,
it allows information to return to the instructor. This information
can either reinforce existing roles or management patterns, or even
cause adjustment in behavior. If the feedback is positive, the
interactive behavior may increase, while if the feedback is negative

an adjustment in behavior may be necessary.

114

Leadership-Management Patterns

The development and enactment of the teacher role is a com-
plex process and is the foundation for the leadership and management
patterns constructed in the laboratory setting. (Refer to Figure 25.)
These various patterns ultimately create learning environments where
the majority of teacher-student interaction will occur. In this sec-
tion the various leadership management patterns will be examined as
they operate within actual classrooms. The management patterns are a
result of shifting "participation structures." The participation
structures (after Phillips, 1972, p. 377) are the possible variations
in structural arrangement of teacher-student interaction within the
teacher-controlled framework of classroom interaction.

Experienced teachers develop instructional routines, or roles,
based on successful past experience; "what works" for them influences
future strategies. As with the three instructors observed, the
choice of teaching modes reflects the basic needs of the individual
instructor expressed as actual behavior in the setting.

Social scientists like Weber (1942; Wrong, 1970) and others
have characterized leadership style as autocratic, democratic, or
laissez-faire. It would appear these narrow categories are too
rigid, while the nomothetic, idiographic, and transactional styles
of the Getzels-Guba Model (Getzels et al., 1968) are more appropriate
to describe leadership because they interface the individual with the
social structure. The Getzels-Guba model suggests three leader

types:

115

NOMOTHETIC LEADER --normative control, with emphasis on insti-
tutionally defined requirements, rules, and
procedures.

IDIOGRAPHIC LEADER--personal style, with emphasis on needs and
personality of each member, e.g., human rela-
tions, satisfying individual needs.

TRANSACTIONAL --leadership varies with circumstances, exhibit-
ing characteristics of both a nomothetic and
idiographic leader, depending on situation.

The model of teacher-student interaction presented here is
based on the premise that role and leadership style are more dynamic
processes. Like any life system, there is constant feedback adjust-
ment and potential change. Getzels et al. suggested a transaction,
but it appears necessary to go even further explaining not only what
role and style are but why and how they are negotiated within a set-
ting. In most life systems, a dynamic equilibrium exists; there is
interaction and change, yet also a stability. An important outcome
of the model is the ability to produce a multifaceted picture of what
is happening and to potentially examine ways to intervene to improve
teaching.

The success of a leader (e.g., teacher) Often lies in the
ability to adapt their behavior to meet the demands of each unique
environment (Gates, 1976). Leader behavior refers to specific acts
that a leader engages in while directing or coordinating the work of
his group. Leadership style is related to the underlying needs of
the leader that motivate his behavior (Fiedler, 1969).

Participation structures constituting management patterns.——

From the data gathered in the study, distinct management patterns

evolved, but the pattern established by an instructor varied little

116

between labs. The patterns are produced by shifting participant
structure during the class session. Management patterns were closely
linked with leadership style and ultimately teachers' needs. The
patterns were important to examine because they also influenced
teacher-student interaction. Figure 26 shows the three typical
participation-structure variations used by the instructors in the
laboratory, and the three participation-structure types are character-
ized in Table 2.

The following examples from the study illustrate the three
participation structures:

1. Type 1--teacher centered. Occurring most Often during
the formal lecture class, the teacher-centered format also occurs in
the orientation frame of the laboratory class. The instructor,
usually at the demonstration table (Figure 27) commands the atten-
tion of the group. Although there are a few questions, joking com-
ments, or laughter, the function of this pattern is academic or
procedural. Both John and Ed use this strategy at the beginning of
each class, although Ed's orientation tends to be lengthier. The
teacher is the center of the interaction.

2. Type II--teacher-student interplay. The controlled
interplay between teacher and student is used most often by Margaret
in her labs. The teacher-student interplay is characterized by the
teacher controlling the flow of the exercise. Margaret reads the
manual and describes the task, then asks students to identify the
structure on their own specimen. The transitions from "listening" to

"search and find" are smooth. This strategy is useful for the complex

117

PARTICIPATION STRUCTURES

TEACHER-CENTERED
:n1

 

TEACNER-STUOENT
INTERPLAY
STUDENT- CENTERED
INTERACTION INTERACTION
MAXIMIZEO MINIMIZEO

Figure 26.~-Participation structures constituting management patterns .

Table 2.--Three participant-structure types.

 

TYPE I - TEACHER CENTERED

FOCUS:
on the teacher;lecture.
introduction or proced-
ural directions; one-

way interaction dominant.

INTERACTIONAL ROLES:
Teacher - Set stage for
lab; prepare students;
demonstrate

Student - listen to
instructor; ask ques-
tions; take notes

TYPE II - TEACHER-STUDENT INTERPLAY

FOCUS:
exchanges between teacher and
students; teacher directed

student activities; whole group

activities.

INTERACTIONAL ROLES:
Teacher - guide learning;
control flow of exercise

Student - listen to teacher;
Tollow directions as given

TYPE III - STUDENT CENTERED

FOCUS:
on students; individual or
small group activities.

TYPE 111-] Interaction maxi-
mized; small group or
one-to-one interaction;
teacher involvement high.

TYPE 111-2 interaction mini-
mized; independent student
work; student initiated
interaction only.

lNlERACTlONAL ROLES:
Teacher - serve as a facili-
‘TTETEF'or resource person

Student - learn independently;
Be a team member

 

 

Figure 27.--Teacher-centered management.

task at hand. Even when students are given a more lengthy task,
Margaret hovers over the groups, reinforcing and spot-checking
progress (Figure 28). Although there is an interplay, the teacher
remains center to the interaction. Margaret appears dominant in her
labs but feels the interaction occurring is student centered (Inter-
view, 3—12-81). Certainly, her focus is continually on the students
and their assigned tasks.

3. Type III-—student centered. Probably the most variable
of the participation structures, the student-centered context allows
for the greatest variation in teacher role. Teacher involvement or

interaction might range on a continuum from highly interactive

119

 

Figure 28.--Teacher-student interplay.

(Type III-l) to little or no interaction at all (Type III-2).

Whether an instructor maximizes or minimizes their interaction, the
focal center of this frame is the individual student or student group
(Figure 29). On the continuum, John tends to maximize the interac-
tion, while Ed tends to minimize it. The varied behavior appears a

function of their perceived roles and personal needs.

Three Management Patterns

As previously stated, observation reveals that instructional
strategies are manifest in patterns of the aforementioned participa-
tion structures, varying greatly between instructors but showing

little variation day to day within an instructor's lab.

 

Figure 29.--Student-centered management.

examining the complete cycle of participation used in the classroom
(Figure 30), individual management patterns emerge. Management
patterns are created as instructors shift from one participation
type to another during a laboratory session. Each instructor demon-
strates a distinctive pattern, and variations deviate only slightly
from exercise to exercise and these patterns are internally related
to the ones that these teachers negotiate for themselves.

During any laboratory exercise, there are shifts from one
participation type to another. Both teacher and student behavior is
adjusted as the focus changes. Both verbal and nonverbal signals may

be used to initiate and/or maintain the shift, e.g., sitting on a stool

121

in front of the class or moving from behind the demonstration table.
Students early in the course learn to interpret context cues and
adjust their behavior according to established norms (Gumpertz, 1971).
Although each instructor develops basic patterns, these patterns

were shown to be altered as a result of either external or internal
influences such as curriculum or past experiences with the lab exer-
cises. Clearly, teachers and students collectively create the patterns

within the framework of the learning environment.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Pattern A
"John. I 1 111-1
Pattern B 't
\> .Margaret. Llllll 1 [II II 111-1 I 11 111-1 1
Pattern C
.Ed. - I I 111-1 111-2 I
Time

TYPE - I Teacher Centered

TYPE - II Teacher-Student Interplay

TYPE - III Student Centered - 1 interaction maximized
,.ews 2 interaction minimized

Figure 30.--Three patterns of lab instruction--produced by
participant-structure shifts.

To illustrate the three patterns shown in Figure 30 more
clearly, it may be helpful to examine the three patterns as they
actually occur in lab. Pattern A occurs most frequently in John's

lab, PatternB in Margaret's lab, and Pattern C in Ed's lab.

122

Pattern A.--The following management pattern, which occurred

during the "heart dissection" lab, was the typical pattern of John's

lab (Videotape, 9-16-81).

Type

2:00-2:12

2:12-2:28

2:28-3:12

3:12-3:35

3:35-3:45

 

 

 

T I r III-l T

2:10 3:00 4:00

 

 

 

Figure 31.--Pattern A--John's lab.

TRANSITION: Teacher prepares for day's lab, brings in
specimens and models.

Students wander in slowly, socialize and get material
out for dissection.

TYPE I: Teacher gives brief procedural directions for
dissection (most of the structures were just discussed
in lecture), then announces, "I'll be around to each
group."

Students listen and ask questions.

TYPE III-l: Teacher moves from demonstration table (cue)
to the first group on his left, then moves from group to
group pointing out structures and givin dissection point-
ers (average time 3-4 minutes per group).

Students working in pairs, follow along in lab manual
finding structures (?). Some students listen in to the
instructor as he orients other groups, but most are
involved in student—centered investigation.

TYPE III-l: Teacher makes quick second round of groups;
length of contact variable, depending on number of student
questions.

Students either ask for additional clarification (mostly
older students) or work independently.

TYPE III-l: Teacher available as needed; carries on both
academic and social conversations. Gives general proce-
dural directions to whole group.

Students continue dissections and socialize.

123

3:45-3:50 TRANSITION: Teacher socializes and continues to answer
questions, begins clean up.
Students leave as they finish; some remain and socialize.

Pattern B.--This constantly shifting pattern was typical of
Margaret's laboratories. Note how the role of the instructor creates
a very different instructional pattern. The lab is a three-hour dis-
section of the "nervous and muscular systems of the shark" (Field

notes, 2-5-81).

 

Type T I I 11 1 l I II I T II III-l T

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

2:10 3:00 4:00 5:00

Figure 32.--Patern B--Margaret's lab.

2:00-2:12 TRANSITION: Teacher prepares for the day's lab, hands
out models and coments casually with student groups
about specimen.
Students put on lab coats and gloves, pick up specimen
for dissection (in pairs). Socialize.

2:12-2:15 TYPE 1: Teacher moves to stool (cue) at front of room
and announces, "Okay, let's go!"

Students sit down and begin to direct attention toward
the instructor.

2:15-2:30 TYPE I: Teacher directs students' attention to page in
lab book, reads direction for dissection, and comments
on each anatomical part, directing students to ”look"
and "feel."
Students follow along in lab manual and glance at each
part as directed.

2:20-2:25 TYPE 11: Teacher walks around table to table to check dis-
section progress, asking general questions and directing
students to point out each structure previously listed.
Students nod as they point to structures and cross-check
Between other students sitting at the same table.

2:25-2:41

2:41-3:00

3:00-3:30

3:30-3:35

3:35-3:51

3:51-3:55

3:55-4:45

4:45-5:00

124

TYPE I: Teacher after asking, "Anyone having trouble?"
holds up model of next structure and reads on in the manual
again, directing observations. Teacher moves around the
room reading and directing, constantly checking progress.
Verbal reinforcement common.

Students follow along, dissecting and observing as they

go. Quiet conversation between students.

TYPE I: Teacher draws diagram on the board for entire
class, then reviews structures previously covered, writing
larger words on the board and gives definitions using

terms like "remember" or “can you find . . ."; teacher uses
large shark jaw (20" across) to point out structures.
Students attend to board and compare their specimen with
the model.

TYPE II: Teacher moves to window and begins reading from
manual (cue). She reads, directs, then moves around to
check progress and repeats sequence. Teacher constantly
checks to see if students are finding structures, comments
like "that's good,“ "everyone got it" common before she
moves on in the text.

Students follow along but now move around the room to
chech other students' work; quiet conversation. Very
intense concentration, some frustration at finding dif-
ficult structures.

TYPE 1: Teacher lightheartedly gives students a way
biologists memorize the cranial nerves using a funny
saying.

Students listen but can't quite understand the connection
and start laughing.

BREAK: Teacher takes a break in teacher's lounge.
Students either go to cafeteria or socialize.

TYPE II: Teacher using model directs students to pull
off skin to ohserve muscles, lists structures to observe.
Students follow directions as they are given.

TYPE III-l: Teacher moves from group to group, occasionally
making a comnent to the entire group.

Students work more independently in pairs; several follow
along as the instructor dissects and comments with other
groups. Students may help each other and move around
freely.

TRANSITION: Teacher announces clean-up but continues to
work with students.
Students clean up and leave a few at a time.

125

Pattern C.--This pattern, most often employed by Ed, is

illustrated in the summary of the two-hour exercise on "digestion"

(Field notes, 2-2-81).

Type

8:05-8:11

8:11-8:14

8:15-8:50

8:50-9:00

9:00-9:45

 

 

T I I I III-2 T

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

8:10 9:00 10:00

Figure 33.--Pattern C--Ed's lab.

TRANSITION: Teacher prepares lab materials and slide pro-
jector; socializes occasionally.

Students socialize and read over lab materials as they
arrive.

TYPE I: Teacher moves to demonstration table, begins to
take roll, then announces "slides will begin."

Students help pull shades and give full attention to
screen and teacher.

TYPE 1: Teacher gives introductory lecture using slides;
discusses structure and function of each structure.
Students listen and a few take notes; toward the end of
the slides, attention wanes.

TYPE 1: Teacher gives procedural directions, clarifying
lab exercise directions.

Students listen and a few take notes, ask few questions.

TYPE III-2: Teacher moves from front table (cue to shift)
announcing "Any questions? Okay, cats are in back . . .
go to it."

Students move from their lab tables as the instructor
talks or begins to prepare materials for observation.
During the remainder of the lab, the instructor occasionally
gives a procedural direction to the whole group but other-
wise is involved with personal tasks. Students work inde-
pendently or in small student groups. Some begin to clean
up and leave at 9:30 and most have left by 9:45. The
instructor answers an occasional question when students
initiate interaction and brings in hand-outs and other
instructional aids during the class.

126

9:46-10:00 TRANSITION: Teacher socializes with several students.

Students clean up or socialize; students from next lab
arrive early.

Although Ed's lab management patterns were generally consis-
tent, there were times when groups of students demanded more attention
by asking many questions. In the physiology lab on the heart, which
is activity oriented (Field notes, 1-26-81), Ed was kept very busy
answering questions and interacting with one group of four students
sitting together at a lab station. Five times during the lab session
he moved to their table to respond to questions. Other groups not
requesting information or help were not approached. It would appear
that the leadership managementgpatterns once established create a
milieu and, although influenced by other factors (curriculum, stu-
dents), this milieu creates the basic learning environment. The
importance of the learning environment will be explored further in the

subsequent analysis.

Situational Leadership Style

 

Situational Leadership Theory (Hersey & Blanchard, 1976)
suggests that leadership style is based on an interplay of two types

of behavior: Task Behavior--unidirectional instructions from leader,

 

and Relationship Behavior-~two-way communication between teacher and
student providing socio-emotional support. These independent factors
range from high to low and can be applied together in a learning
situation depending on the task-level maturity and needs of the

learner. Some learners need more task direction, while others need

127

more support. The more effective leaders manage the two, depending
on the situation.

John, in particular, adjusts his interactive behavior to
accommodate heterogeneous student needs. He often attends to the
special social and emotional needs of the older returning student.
Margaret, who views her students as needing less emotional support but
requiring a great deal of scientific task directions, uses a more
homogeneous task-oriented instructional approach. The following
are examples of each instructor's style:

John's style.--John is particularly adept at using student
group leaders. Often the group leader would ask a question or respond
to John's offer for assistance. The following sequence, Figure 34A-E,

illustrates the interaction (Field observation 4-10-81).

128

 

Figure 34-A.--Approaching the group.

John approaches the group to answer a question on
location of a muscle group. His posture indicates
a position outside of the group. He is gaining
entry. He frequently used comments such as: "How
y'all doing?" "Need some help?" or “Let's see what
you know so far."

129

 

Figure 34-B.--Small-group lecture.

He then moves into the group, and several other
students join in to listen. Mary, to John's
right, is the group leader. A returning student,
Mary is at ease asking questions and helping the
others in her group.

130

 

 

Figure 34-C.--Personalizing small-group interaction.

John explains a simple way to remember the muscle
group, based on his college experience. He repeats
it several times slowly and succinctly.

131

 

 

Figure 34-D.--Role transition.

He then asks Mary to repeat the sequence. The
group helps if she gets stuck. Only after the
sequence is understood does John leave the group.
Before he calls on Mary to teach others, he is
confident that she not only is able, but also is
willing to undertake the task.

 

Figure 34-E.--Student as teacher.

Mary then is asked to help with identification of
the muscle group for another student from outside
her group.

The skillful use of teacher-student, then student-student
interaction is common in John's teaching strategy. John's interac-
tions are not chance encounters but planned interactions to build
confidence and enhance learning.

Although not the basic question of the study, student role
shifts in John's class were interesting during the student-centered
frame. Some students assume a passive independent-learner role,

while others become either group leaders or followers (Figure 35).

 

Figure 35.--Student role shift to group leader.

Ed's style.--Ed's strategy of encouraging independent work
during the student-centered portion of the lab minimizes the teacher-
student interaction. Although Ed is very knowledgeable and comfort-
able with the content of the lab, he does not seem as comfortable
initating interaction. Often he jokes and comments on social events to
the whole group during the introduction, but he rarely engages in
extended interaction during the student-centered frame. Although he
asks for student questions, he does not encourage them either by
initiating contact or by his physical presence. Often he avoids

contact (e.g., eye contact, moving from table to table) by becoming

134

busy with other tasks or paper work. when asked a question, he always

answers in a helpful, friendly manner (Figure 36), but then moves away

quickly. Rarely does he engage in small-group demonstrations.

 

Figure 36.--Answering student questions.

Judy's a very sociable woman of about 27. Like Ed, she had an
interest in horses. She would often try to engage Ed in conversa-
tion on various topics, with mixed results. In the cafeteria one
afternoon (Informal interview, 4-10-81), she confessed she thought
perhaps she was too demanding and made Ed uneasy. She said it was
nothing personal, she just enjoyed people and felt bad that he might

feel uncomfortable. Figure 37 shows Ed and Judy discussing a

135

laboratory procedure. Ed's body indicates a "pulling back" stance,

H

Hall would suggest Ed's personal space may be threatened, and

which may reinforce Judy's evaluation.

 

Figure 37.--Personal space.

because of personality and needs, for Ed it may be important to
preserve the appropriate distance. Ed's use of personal space is
reserved, in contrast to his joking, friendly manner when engaging
the whole group.

Margaret's style.--In Margaret's case, posture and, to a
lesser extent, proxemic shifts contribute to an air of authority and

control. With some groups, her posture and control, which appear

136

rigid and aloof, may not be appropriate, but with the pre-med stu-
dents the interactive role of expert-authority is accepted and
respected. Figures 38 and 39 show various postures and attitudes.
Note her critical stance as she double-checks student work. She is
commanding and demanding, just as her course is, and just as the

nedical and dental professions will be for students.

:‘g'b' - b.F; n '

"-'.-II
*w--\
‘llh.

s -‘ ‘-
\4: —'

'/

 

Figure 38.--0verseeing dissection,

Hands on hips, she often gives students an oral quiz covering
the new anatomical structures to be identified in the day's lab

exercise. In Figure 39, Margaret double—checks the sex of the shark

137

(Field notes, 2-51-81). She guides them through the steps: "Any
siphon sac?" "Do you feel the metatyrigian in the male?"--constantly

reinforcing them with comments like, "That's good"; "That's the way,

folks."

 

Figure 39.--Quizzing students.

. These examples illustrate the fact that leadership management
patterns and style do create very different interactive settings.
The association of participation structure and teacher—
student interaction can be illustrated by plotting the two factors

of interaction and management (Figure 40).

138

HIGH-—-

   

 
      
 

if
A

  

INTERACTION

II III-1 III-2

.’-———~—D

P-‘ - -

 

l

TEACHER CENTERED-~ STUDENT CENTERED
PARTICIPATION-STRUCTURE TYPES

 

Figure 40.--Levels of interaction in the laboratory setting.

Linking Participation Structure to Interaction

As we have seen, the shift from one participation-structure
type to another is often characterized by definite shifts in posture
and spatial position by both teacher and student. Students learn to
recognize proxemic shifts as cues to change in social context and
immediately adapt their role within the setting. In Margaret's class
it may be when she sits down on the stool in the front of the room.
In Ed's and John's class, it is often when they move from behind the
demonstration table into the students' arena. The shifting of the
teacher's role from expert-authority to that of facilitator-resource
is recognized immediately. As teacher roles and tasks change, so,

too, do those of the student.

    

139

In the first two parts of the analysis, the instructor's role

WDRKTW”TW‘-ah '.

and leadership-management patterns wereexplored. Role created

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‘fir;;;.—t‘~“v

r. was Jun-jmuvlzrn'w if. . . ’-
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jdintly by the myriad of external and internal factors was expressed
in the actual management patterns, typically called "style." This
style is more than an attribute of personality; it is also a function
of the situational context and negotiated teacher-student interaction.
Although variations on the management theme did occur, the three
instructors observed each had his/her own individual style, and over
the two semesters demonstrated consistent leadership-management
patterns.

Both role and management are important, for they create the
setting within which interaction occurs. In the last section of the
analysis, the focus will be the interaction that occurs in the lab-

oratory setting (Figure 41).

 

LEADERSHIP/
MANAGEMENT
PATTERNS

 

 

 

Figure 4l.--The setting for interaction.

Brophy and Good (1974) examined student-teacher interactions
and suggested the need for "more research in which the investigator
works cooperatively with the teacher . . . by observing him natural-

istically and then discussing events with him" (p. ix). To be most

140

useful, according to Brophy and Good, research, however theoretical,
should be useful to the teacher.

To examine teacher-student interaction in the laboratory
setting, it was necessary first to explore the dynamics of role for-
mations and resulting leadership-management patterns with the three
teacher informants, for it is within this complex social structure
that interaction occurs. Although the patterns of interaction that
occur in lab are primarily shaped by the teacher, students influence
the teacher's behavior in the interactive process.

Observation and participation in the laboratory as teachers
and students were engaged in day-to—day activities revealed general
patterns of interaction that were created by the teacher. Within the
general patterns, however, more subtle patterns were jointly created
by the teacher and individual students or groups of students.

The opportunity to observe the collaboration of teacher and
students in face-to-face interaction occurred most often during the
student-centered portion of the laboratory session. Although the
opportunity for students to interact with instructor was theoretic-
ally equal, variations occurred due to both teacher and student needs.
For example, John's conscious effort to interact with the older stu-
dents, building their confidence and giving moral support when needed,
created a teacher-initiated variation within the pattern. During
Ed's lab, the variations were most often initiated by very outgoing
students or groups of students who demanded more attention and inter-

action.

141

To summarize the model and its implications, the following
portrayal of actual teaching is offered from field notes. The fol-
lowing are snapshots of interaction in the laboratory. The first
scenario is an example of orchestrated interaction in John's laboratory

(Field notes, 4-10-81).

"Sheep Brain Dissection"

John recognized that the sheep brain laboratory exercise
posed special problems for the students, which he addressed both in
his method of presentation and planned interaction. During the intro-
ductory lecture and procedural directions, attention was given to
listing the anatomical parts of the central nervous system, emphasiz-
ing unique qualities of each part. He advised the groups to do a
very complete external identification before attempting the dissec-
tion of the brain, warning, "You must learn the superficial structures
well before you cut the brain, or you'll become disoriented.“ He
then announced to the group, "I will come around to help you with the
identification." Although he did want the lab groups to attempt to
find all the structures, past experience had proven that most groups
needed guidance through this exercise. John said he purposely made
himself unavailable or did not encourage interaction after giving the
procedural directions, to allow the students an opportunity to at
least attempt the identification. Those students who did find the
structures would be used as group leaders to help reinforce identifi-
cation while quizzing the groups. But as one frustrated student
complained, "All those white stringy things sticking out of the grey

brain look alike."

142

After the groups worked independently for about fifteen
minutes, John announced that he would be coming around to the groups
and began to do the circuit from table to table. The teacher-student
interaction during the small-group lecture was carefully planned and
orchestrated. Selecting the beginning group carefully, he moved into
one of the slower groups, which included two older women. (In his
judgment, returning students often need special attention.) Fortu-
nately, they were sitting at one of the end tables of the lab so
that the selection of their group was not obvious to the class. By
starting with the slower group, John knew that they would have addi-
tional time to join other groups and hear the identification as many
times as needed. Although John spoke very distinctly, he said that he
tried not to talk above a normal voice for two reasons. He did not
want to disturb the other groups, but also he wanted the students to
move into the discussion physically. After doing an initial identi-
fication of all the structures and functions, he repeated the
sequence, quizzing the students as he proceeded through the task.
Students who could identify the structures repeated the names or
functions. Occasionally there was a choral response. While quiz-
zing the students, an attempt was made to reinforce correct answers,
making sure that each student saw and heard the description.

Mara, who was typical of the younger nursing students, said,
"He's so intelligent. If the teacher shows the groups what they are
supposed to see, it really helps. Some students 'sneak' into other
groups to hear the explanation more than once. Those standing behind

can't always see, but at least they can hear" (Field notes, 4-10-81).

143

After the circuit of the lab tables was complete, John
repeated some of the more difficult structures for another group of
older women with whom he had also been working closely. According to
John, many of the older returning students who came into the class
four months earlier with many problems were progressing very well
with the special attention they were receiving.

Although John did not provide such a controlled teacher-
centered identification for most labs, on several occasions the nature
of the laboratory exercise and experience demanded that he modify his
teaching strategies to meet the students', and ultimately his own,
needs.

In the next scenario, the focus of the interaction shifts from
student groups within the formal laboratory to the interaction that
occurred primarily outside class between John and an individual stu-

dent who had very special needs (Field notes, 2-20-81).

"Tears and Bones"

Sitting alone at the base of the human skeleton, Phyllis
leafed through her notes. Tears welled up in her eyes as the frustra-
tion grew. Not only did she have to recognize and name over 100
bones, but also identify all those "funny markings" called processes.
As John approached her, the tears began to flow. Like so many older
students with families and other obligations, the challenge of return-
ing to the role of student was almost overwhelming. "How can I learn
all these?" she pleaded as she held up the stack of pages. John

comforted her with both words of encouragement and an empathetic hug.

144

Although three years her junior, John maintained a professional, yet

fatherly, attitude as he reassured Phyllis. Listening to both her

academic and personal problems, his concern was genuine.

When interviewed, John explained that the problem started when

Phyllis's lab partner, Jan, no longer could tutor her. As a result,

Phyllis felt hurt, abandoned, and frustrated. John described his

role in the interaction:

Q:

Tell me about the two women that you have in your afternoon
class; the one that was having health problems and overwhelmed
by1the other woman asking her for too much help--How did that
a start

Well, they were lab partners and lab partners generally get

to know each other a little bit better and sometimes study
together. The studying for lab kind of went over into study-
ing for lecture. They compared notes, got together and
studied together. It just kind of snowballed. Jan, who is a
better student, found it was sapping time from her other
obligations--her family and her studyin . It was bringing her
down, so she had to gracefully get out of the situation] with-
out hurting Phyllis's feelings. I think we accomplished that;
between the three of us we kind of worked around that. They
are still lab partners and are still being friendly and in a
working relationship; it's just not such a time-consuming
thing for Jan.

What did you see your role in helping to solve the problem?

My focus was to keep the one woman's self-esteem up. Because

I could see that if she was dumped by Jan, it would have just
crushed her. When I walked into-the lab and found her sitting
on the floor half in tears at the foot of a skeleton, she
didn't know where to begin. She was lost. She couldn't study
with Jan because she said, "Hey, I'm gonna be busy today, I
can't." So she was just kind of beside herself, lost, forlorn.
I could see that if she felt that way it was just gonna inter-
fere with her learning. So I sat down on the floor with her
and we talked about not being able to study with the other
person. I ex lained that Jan had a health problem and had to
have surgery Ewhich made those look like they were the really
big things and that it wasn't her]. It was these other things,
to try to build up her self-confidence a little bit.

145

Q: Did it make you feel good as a teacher--that's part of your
ro e.

A: I feel that's part of my role with these people because I
can't teach them unless I can put them in a mental state so
that they can learn. I could stand up there and talk to them
till I'm blue in the face, and it would just go in one ear and
out the other if they don't have a good positive image of
themselves and a good attitude. Somehow I think I perceive
that better in some of the older women and older students.
They express their needs better. For instance, some of the
younger women will come up to me and they'll just blush.

They try and talk to me and they can't, they just blush.

They can't talk to me; I kind of scare them, I think. I'm
an authority figure, yet I'm not as old as they're used to in
college instructors. They are just out of high school; they
think all faculty are old croney people.

0: You're not an old crone? [laughter]

A: No, not yet. [laughter] (Interview, 3-6-81)

Phyllis not only finished the class, but finished with an A
on her last laboratory exam. Although many of her personal problems
still remain, she shared with me an "increased self-confidence" that
carried over to her microbiology class and her new part-time job in
the college administrative offices (Informal interview, 11-8-81).

Both the orchestrated whole-grdup interaction and the one-to-
one interaction that are so much a part of John's management style
create a learning environment where both student and teacher benefit.
Students gain in the areas of confidence and attitude, which appears
to affect student academic maturity and grades. For John, his role
of mentor and facilitator is reinforced, which is an important factor
in reinforcing his management style. John is reaping some of the

intangible benefits in his expanded role of teacher in the laboratory.

146

Feedback

John's personal desire to act as mentor and counselor to the
older student, and the resulting pride in being able to effect a
positive change in both their attitude and academic accomplishments,
make him feel successful in his chosen role (Informal interview,
11-9-81). The resulting positive feedback reinforced not only his

role but also his management patterns (Figure 42).

 

 

 

TEACHER ’ miElésgg
' - (3M
ROLE PATTERNS
7 '
I I
I | '
FEEDBACK

Figure 42.--Reinforcing role and management patterns.

John was very candid about his interaction with the older
students and was quick to report when they did well on tests. "I'm so
proud," he said, "they are so much more confident--they know they can
do it." However, because of the "extra attention" given to the older
students, he had to be especially careful not to ignore the needs of
more typical students. There seemed to be no resentment; in fact,
the younger and older students often worked in lab groups as peers
(Informal interview, ll-9-81).

To support the notion that the interaction may be having not

only a positive effect on attitude, but also may be reflected in

l47

grades, the final grades of John's students in one anatomy lab were
compared. The grades of five returning students whom John identified
early for supportive interaction were compared with those of the rest
of the class. Although the entire class average improved throughout
the semester, the improvement of the five was more dramatic. They
began with a 0 average (below the class average) and finished the
semester with a solid B average (above the class average) (Field notes,
12-15-81).

Clearly, interaction between teacher and student is jointly
produced, and this interaction results in feedback to both teacher and

student as illustrated in Figure 43.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

TEACHER _ l LEADER5“1P STUDENT
ROLE ' "ANAGEMENT BEHAVIOR
PATTERNS
I A
I 1 I l
I l l l l l
FEEDBACK FEEDBACK

Figure 43.--Model of teacher-student interaction-~two-way
feedback.

The study suggests the behavior of both teacher and student
can be reinforced in either a positive or negative way. In either
case, behavior is adjusted depending on the feedback. For example,
John encouraged students to ask for help, expanding the opportunity
for interaction. When students did ask for help and John met the

request in a positive way, the students requesting help, as well as

148

those too shy to initiate the request, felt free to interact. As
the semester passed, the teaching and learning interactions became
commonplace for all participants.

It is erroneous to assume that the teacher-student interac-
tion is the only interaction factor impacting students. For some
students, the student-student interaction and resulting support system
is as important as the teacher—student interaction. Linda and Joan
were good examples of two older students who found support in one
another. Both Linda and Joan were among the group of returning stu-
dents John focused his attention on, and often visited John's office

to ask questions or just socialize.

"Together We Struggle"

 

Rarely seen apart, Linda and Joan were co-workers at the
nursing home. Working as aides, together they decided to return to
college for nursing degrees. Although they both felt the lab envi-
ronment John created was very helpful and supportive, they agreed
that the most beneficial interaction for them was that of student-
student. They commuted, studied, struggled, and faced frustration
together.

Both teacher-student and student-student interaction helped
both women feel positive about their lab experience. In an inter-
view (ll-lO-Bl), Linda and Joan described their "terror" in their first
days in lab. They both shared a feeling of frustration not only
working with laboratory equipment, but also being in competition with

"young gals who knew what they were doing." Because John had

149

announced to the whole class his willingness to discuss problems and
answer questions not only during class but also during office hours,
the two frustrated women went together to discuss their plight.

They were not certain they could have approached John alone, but
together they dared visit John in his office.

John sat down with the women and listened to their problems,
then reassured them they were not alone. He then followed up by con-
tinuing to build their confidence. In time, working as a team, Linda
and Joan became more independent in their laboratory, relying more on
each other than on reinforcement from John, but they never were afraid
to ask a question or seek out John's help when needed.

It is important to note that teacher-student interaction,
however beneficial, cannot meet every student's needs. Because there
is only a limited time for teacher—student interaction both during
class and outside class, other interactive relationships such as those
that occur between friends or lab partners can also enhance learning.
John's encouragement of teamwork and promoting student leaders
expanded interaction beyond the laboratory. Joan and Linda were
friends before they took anatomy, but many friendships between lab

partners developed in each of the classes observed.

Importance of Interaction
There is general agreement between both teachers and students
interviewed that interaction is beneficial. Both peer interaction
and teacher-student interaction are important components of the labs

taught by the instructors in the study.

150

When surveyed, 139 anatomy students responded to questions
regarding their perception of laboratory interaction (Appendix D).
Although they saw small-group and individual instruction as most
beneficial, they saw lecture/introduction type of interaction occuring
most often. The student survey supports the notion that a variety of
interactive patterns is beneficial to students; however, different
students have different needs.

Each of the instructors also saw small-group and one-to-one
as the most valuable teaching modes in the lab but treated interaction
very differently by the very nature of their management strategies.
The instructors saw a positive interaction as influencing both the
knowledge gained and attitude toward the laboratory experience. By
improving attitude, the knowledge gained could also be enhanced

(Figure 44).

KNOWLEDGE

INTERACTION <————> STUDENT T
\ATTITDDE

Figure 44.--Student interaction--attitude-knowledge loop.

Once the attitudinal problems such as lack of confidence and
fear of a new environment were reduced in John's students, they were
better able to approach the task Of learning. This pattern supports
the Situational Leadership Model of Hersey and Blanchard (1979). By

helping students over attitudinal hurdles, learning is facilitated.

151

The amount Of task versus relationship behavior on the part of the
teacher is in direct relationship to student maturity. The "hand
holding" early in the year in John's class later was replaced by inde-
pendent learning as student "maturity" increased.

One might think most teacher-student interaction is positive,
but the research demonstrated that this is not always the case. One
Of the values Of ethnographic methods is that the "serendipitous
effect" Of field work may expose important information not written
into the study. The following scenario (Field notes, 4-18-81) is

such a case.

"You're on Your Own"

 

A fourth teacher, whom I shall refer to only as Ron, became
important in the study as a source Of disconfirming evidence to the
notion that all interaction was beneficial. Because his interaction
was minimal and directed at only a few select students, it seemed to
be a negative influence in the laboratory.

Ron was teaching anatomy-physiology lab due to an overload
of classes. He was not part of the regular teaching team usually
teaching general biology or a one-semester anatomy class. Being
thrust into a new social setting with students already "conditioned"
by one of the regular lab instructors the previous semester, the fol-
lowing situation developed.

Although rumors and student comments on teachers and teaching
methods are not unusual, those surrounding Ron were increasingly

troublesome as the semester evolved. Students in his lab began to

152

compare their class with those of other instructors, expressing a
growing frustration and dissatisfaction. Ron did not teach any of
the lecture sections, so his students complained to their lecture
instructor.

According to reports, Ron presented a brief introduction at
best, then turned the lab over to the students. He often wandered
the halls or busied himself with work for other classes. He rarely
interacted with his students, except on a social basis with what he
referred to as "bright" students. The frustration was evident not
only in students, but in Ron as well. One morning he dropped in to
John's and Ed's Office to socialize during his lab. He commented to
John, "Those students are so dumb. . . . They can't follow simple
directions. I can't believe what a mess they're making of their
urinalysis tests!" (Field notes, 4-18-81).

Leadership and guidance of any kind seemed lacking in Ron's
classes. Student frustration was high and had a decided impact on
the students' attitudes, as demonstrated by these responses on the
student surveys (Appendix 0):

He never shows the introductory slides like the rest of the
labs get. We might as well not even have an instructor.

The instructor wasn't in the room very much. I found it [lab]
quite useless. I really didn't learn anything.

There was no instruction or assistance.

The lab material is very beneficial--but without proper instruc-
tion, no knowledge is gained.

When interviewed, a student expanded on her personal experi-

ence in Ron's class (Field notes, 5-2-81):

153

Student: Lab is a waste of time!

Interviewer: Why do you say that?

Student: He's never there to help. Even when he is, you ask
him a question and he'll say, "If I tell you, it's
like doing your work--find it on your own."

Interviewer: Isn't that true?

Student: Sure if it was all the time. All we want is help
when we can't do it ourselves.

Interviewer: What have you done about it?

Student: Oh, I either sit in on another lab or don't bother
to go to class and do it on my own.

Interviewer: Can you do it?

Student: Well, my lecture grade is an A, but lab is B- or
C+; it's hurting.

Although Ron's classes scored several points lower than the
other instructors' groups on an average, the significance Of the lab
scores may or may not be statistically valid, for the variables were
not controlled. But certainly the descriptive, survey, and inter-
view data are strong. The attitudes of students toward lab were
definitely affected. In contrast, from all the other labs, students'
comments were far more positive:

I enjoyed lab. The teacher did a nice job of explaining and
helping me understand.

When there was a problem with identification, the instructor
pointed out what was supposed to be Observed.

It [lab] is important because it clarifies, expands on, and
completes what is presented in lecture.

It really helped in lab tO have the instructor right there--
explaining things if need be, chatting with you to make you
feel comfortable. As far as my lab went, It was just super.

154

Ultimately, the effect on student attitude may have longer-term
impact than that of test scores. Student attitude is reflected not
only on the class, but may also influence the students' perception Of
the program and school. The students' self-concept and attitude
toward learning in the laboratory setting also can be influenced.

Both the quality and quantity of interaction are important. TOO
little interactioncn‘inappropriate interaction as demonstrated in
Ron's class may result in negativefeedback.

Because no teacher works in a vacuum, many outside pressures
and/or internal insecurities can influence the instructor's role and
management of the classroom setting. Whether Ron lacked experience
teaching the course content, did not feel part Of the regular anatomy
team, or just had a very different philosophical outlook concerning
his role in the laboratory setting, the learning environment he
created made sense to him. However, for his students the interaction
Often produced a negative, rather than positive, feedback loop while
it reinforced Ron's perception of the students and course (Figure 45).
What is important is not just the quantity but the gualjty_of interaction,

as evidenced by the negative feedback.

MANAGEMENT w ‘ BEHAVIOR
1 A

I l
I
l | l
POSITIVE FEEDBACK NE ATIVE FEEDBACK

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

_ _ , _ .I

Figure 45.--Positive and negative feedback.

155

As students became frustrated with the lack of interaction
or refusal on Ron's part to give Specific help in doing the exer-
cises, they began tO exhibit one or more of the undesired behaviors:

leave class early

stop asking for help

request transfer to another lab

seek help from other instructors

stop attending lab

lose respect for equipment

gripe about course or instructor

The resulting behavior of students only reinforced Ron's
perception of the students as "dumb" and "immature." Just as John's
perception of role and management was reinforced by feedback from
students, so too was Ron's--but with very different results.

With growing concerns about Ron's management Of the laboratory,
the department chairperson finally intervened. Working with Ron and
the other anatomy instructors, he helped Ron clarify his role in lab.
Working more closely with students, soon the complaints and other
related problems were dramatically reduced (Field notes, 3-18-82).

Roles and management patterns may change, depending on the
myriad Of variables in the environment. The study suggests that there
may be less change as a teacher develops a "teaching style." The
importance Of helping inexperienced teachers or new teachers identify
the most productive role and management patterns is a challenge not

only for administrators but also teaching institutions.

156

Summary of Findings

Interaction in the laboratory is not an accident but a com-

plex social encounter. In the study we moved from an examination Of

role, to management patterns, and finally to teacher-student interac-

tion. From an analysis of the qualitative data and an expansion Of

other models of interaction, the study suggests:

That role is a function of the transaction between the extrinsic
factors--institution, curriculum, students, and setting; and the
intrinsic factors of the instructor's personality, needs, values,
and attitudes;

that the individual instructors' perception of role is a major
factor in determining leadership/management pattern in the
laboratory setting;

 

that the role-determined leadership/management pattern affects
the amount and type Of teacher-student interaction;

 

thus the amount and type of interaction is a function Of the
instructor's perception of his/her role in managing the learn-
ing environment.

 

In addition:

that the value of interaction is recognized by both teachers
and students.

that increased teacher-student interaction may have a positive
effect on students both academically and psychologically.

that interaction may increase if there is a positive feedback
to the instructor's needs.

that small-group and one—to-One interaction is perceived to be
the most beneficial type of interaction both by teachers and
students.

that (insufficient or inappropriate) interaction may also result
in a negative effect, particularly on attitude.

that feedback from teacher-student interaction can modify behavior
in the role.

157

The qualitative data suggest the importance of interaction
but also reveal the broad range of interactions possible within a
very complex social setting. Certainly, it is not just the quantity
of teacher-student interaction, but the quality of the interaction.
Further, the study suggests the importance Of a clear definition of
role for both teacher and student, the adoption Of a leadership-
management pattern with which the instructor feels comfortable, and
the use Of good context cues. The implications for both practitioners
and institutions involved in teacher training as well as possible

areas for further research are the focus of the concluding chapter.

CHAPTER FIVE

DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS OF THE RESEARCH

Discussion of the Findings

 

Recently, my daughter Michelle, who is a junior at one Of the
large state universities, came home for a break. Being aware of my
research, she occasionally shared "professor stories" with me, and
she shared the following:

A standing ovation is a rare event in the college classroom,
but Michelle said one of her professors received such lauds from his
large-group lecture at the end of the term. What the students
appreciated was that he communicated on a personal level, even with a
group Of well over a hundred. Unfortunately, Michelle's other
instructors, both professors and T.A.'s, didn't receive such high
grades. In her Opinion, many Of her professors, particularly the
T.A.'s, didn't know "how to teach." She commented that in the final
exam in physics lab, many of her classmates left after ten minutes
because the exam didn't even cover the material they studied in lab
(Field notes, 4-20-82).

Certainly, both good and bad teachers can be found at any
level of education. Yet, because many college instructors are never
schooled in teaching methods, a need for improving teaching exists
on most campuses today. Whether the problem is an inexperienced
teacher, an experienced teacher out Of step with studentsor changing

158

159

curricula, or a good teacher who wants to become better, knowledge
about what is happening in the teaching and learning environment
would be helpful in improving teaching in higher education.

The college Science laboratory is a special teaching and
learning environment because Of its unique potential for interaction.
Although the methods or instructional strategies Of the three teacher
informants in this study may or may not be generalizable to other
instructors or settings, the Model of Teacher-Student Interaction
developed here could be used as a heuriotic to examine the teaching
of other instructors in other settings. The study suggests a broad
range of interactive possibilities, each of which "makes sense" to
the actors involved.

The importance of studying the classroom as a social unit has
been demonstrated by Florio (1978) and Cooper (1980), exploring the
instructor's roles in the interrelationship between teacher and
students, the instructional process as well as the importance Of
contextual shifts contribute to our expanded understanding of what
is happening in the classroom. In this study, ethnographic methods
were used to look at teacher-student interaction in terms Of a
grounded analytical model that could be used to explore other labora—
tory classrooms as well. Improving instruction through improving
interaction can be accomplished only with a full understanding Of what
is happening and why. The next step then could involve development Of

strategies for change.

160

The Interactive Model

To develop a descriptive model of interaction that occurs
between teachers and students in a college laboratory setting, it
has been necessary to examine the factors that shape the dynamics of
interaction. The social context includes not only the physical
setting and curriculum, but the jointly produced rights and Obliga-
tions Of teacher and students. Thus to examine fully what is happen-
ing in lab, the key factors of teacher role and leadership-management

patterns become essential components Of the model (Figure 46).

 

 
 
 
    
 

 

 

 

   

TEACHER LEADERSHIP STUDENT
ROLE ' ‘ "‘"AGE"E"T BEHAVIOR
PATTERNS ‘A
' I | I
I l I I I l
L. .. ...‘;._... ..l.. ...‘P ..._..J' ‘1. .. ._ .,... ._ .L .. .. g. .. .J
FEEDBACK FEEDBACK

Figure 46.--Model of teacher-student interaction.

Role, which is shaped by a myriad Of factors, including both
intrinsic and extrinsic forces, influences specific behavior within
the setting. The teacher's perception of role shapes the leadership
style and management patterns in lab. For the student encountering
the setting, learning how to behave and interact in lab is an impor-
tant part of the learning process.

Leadership—management patterns that teachers employ in lab

influence both the amount and type of interaction. The patterns

161

identified in this study range from a very teacher-centered lab where
the instructor talks or walks students through exercises, to a
student-centered lab in which students are basically on their own.

The study suggests most instructors develop their own management pat-
tern; in addition, variations on the basic pattern occur as a result
Of adapting teaching strategy to situational variations. The experi-
enced and most adpative teachers take into account students, curricula,
and, of course, their own needs.

The science laboratory setting offers college instructors an
opportunity to interact with students in a variety Of ways. The
interaction can benefit students and teachers alike as they jointly
create the teaching and learning environment. Although the study
supports the notion that there is no None best way" to teach a
laboratory or interact with students, it does suggest the importance
Of maximizing interaction between teacher and student(s) within any
management style.

Since individual instructors may create teaching and learning
environments that are, in fact, very different, the amount and type
of interaction does vary. What seems important for both teachers and
students is a clear definition Of role and adopting a leadership-
management pattern with which the instructor feels comfortable. How-
ever, it also follows that if the instructor wishes to maximize the
interaction in the setting, students should also have a clear picture
of not only their role, but also that Of the teacher. The teacher,
as leader and manager Of the environment, can help clarify roles,

rules, and expectations for the students.

162

There are many ways to play the role of teacher in the lab-
oratory. A teacher may be a model, mentor, facilitator, or other,
depending on her/his individual personality and needs and on the
instructional purposes at hand. Helping students overcome the initial
insecurities so Often part Of student-centered learning, "turning
students on" to the wonders Of science, or just "being there" to
guide or facilitate the learning process, instructors can be an
important part Of the science laboratory. This appears especially
true for the introductory courses observed, although one might expect
it is true for most undergraduate courses as well.

Unfortunately, many instructors are not actively engaged in
"teaching" in lab, thus are missing Opportunities to interact with
students in meaningful ways. Perhaps this is a result Of a narrow
view of what a teacher's role is in lab, employing a leadership-
management strategy that limits interaction, or simply Of inexperi-
ence. Whatever the case, the study suggests instructors whg_dg_
interact frequently with students enhance the learning environment
not only for their students, but also for themselves. The three
instructors who were the informants in this study were of the Opinion
that one-to-one and small-group interaction was vital to the lab
experience. The three seasoned instructors, although employing very
different management strategies, each interacted with students in
meaningful ways. What was important about their interaction was
that it was congruent with their individual perceived roles and goals
for their classrooms. Equally important was the fact that the instruc-

tors established guidelines (e.g., rules, expectations, goals) for

163

not only the students but also for themselves. Each instructor let
his students know immediately what the teaching-learning environment
would be like, including basic participation guidelines. Yet clearly,
as in John's lab (pp. 127-33), room for flexibility based on student
needs or maturity was also allowed for. The difference between a
teacher leaving the room and the students feeling "abandoned," and a
teacher leaving the room and students cuing in to "We're on our own
now, but help is available if a real problem comes up" was established
by the instructor early in the course.

The problem of managing the teaching and learning environment
is more different for the neophyte than it is for the seasoned
instructor. For the new teacher, discovering "what works" may take
time. For many new teachers or T.A.'s, laboratory instruction is
based only on previous college laboratory classes. Unfortunately,
many college laboratory courses are not taught by experienced teach-
ers but by other students, so models Of effective laboratory instruc-
tion are often lacking.

Two very different problems exist for the seasoned teacher.
First, the "sense Of the setting" may by crystal clear to the instruc-
tor, but for students unless the Signposts of verbal and nonverbal
communication are made clear, the "sense Of the setting" may take
longer to acquire. It would appear that if the goals of the learning
environment and lines of communication are established early, both
teacher and student might move on to teaching and learning more quickly

and effectively. The second problem for experienced teachers lies

164

in expecting "what worked" in the past with one group Of students
to work as well today with the shifting student population now enter-
ing college.

An additional problem for higher-education teachers is the
peculiar nature Of their clientele, i.e., the Older, returning stu-
dents. These students have needs that must be addressed by higher-
education teachers. In the Journal of Science Teaching (Webb & Carras,
1981), a general profile Of the "Older students" describes some of
the specific characteristics. In summary, older students lack con-
fidence and experience considerable anxiety early in their college
experience. In addition, Older students appreciate well-defined
Objectives and spend more hours in formal study than others, achiev-
ing a higher level Of performance in final course assessments.
Bringing with them a greater social maturity, they become active
participants in the classroom, and importantly, they do not see them-
selves as problems.

The community college has experienced the influx Of Older
returning students perhaps more dramatically than the large univer-
sities. The terminal one- and two-year programs are attractive to
Older students seeking rapid entry into the work force. John and Ed,
teaching the nursing and health-related students, are faced with this
group most dramatically. Through conscious interaction and a sup-
portive teacher and learning environment, John has been particularly
adept at addressing the needs Of the mature student. The master
teacher "opens doors" to learning. McKeachie et al. (1962), in a

review Of research on laboratory instruction, concluded that the

165

effectiveness of laboratory teaching depends on the particular way in
which the laboratory is taught. They also concluded that the research
suggests that decisions about teaching methods do have an effect on
total climate.

Another problem facing higher-education teachers and adminis-
trators is that when economic times put pressure on instructional
budgets the tendency has been to relegate the laboratory to a sec-
ondary instructional setting either by using T.A.'s or reducing
instructor contact credit. To assume there is no need for instruction
in lab because it is supposed to be a "student-centered" setting is
erroneous. The study supports the notion that instruction and inter-
action in lab are important and that the teacher should not be
replaced by T.A.'S or, if T.A.'s must take on this responsibility,
they should be trained (perhaps by apprenticing with seasoned labora-
tory teachers).

It would appear for both teachers and students to partici-
pate most effectively in lab, a clear picture of not only what the
participation structure will be, but also why, is essential. Through
the use Of a descriptive model, a picture of both "what is happening"
and "why it is happening" from the point Of view Of participants can
be explored. The goal would be a better understanding of the event
with an eye toward improving teaching and learning. Certainly, self-
analysis or peer analysis could provide instructors a valuable tool
for creative professional growth. Even a master teacher can improve,
especially in light of an ever-changing educational milieu. A

descriptive analysis of the learning environment through use of the

166

model has implications for both teacher training (including T.A.'s)
and professional staff development. In the following section, the

implications for teachers, teacher trainers, and educational research-

ers are explored.

Implications for Teacher Education

Analyses of both the rich qualitative and quantitative data
provide support for the Model Of Teacher-Student Interaction. Teacher
perception Of institutionally defined roles does result in a variety
of leadership/management and behavior patterns. These patterns allow
for a variety of teacher-student interaction possibilities. The
interaction, perceived as important both by teachers and students,
does have implications for improving both student attitudes and aca-
demic success; however, it also has implications for not only improv-
ing laboratory instruction, but also increasing job satisfaction.

What are the implications for science laboratory teachers?
The study suggests through analyzing the classroom setting using the
model of interaction:

1. A better understanding Of role in terms Of both external
factors and internal personality and needs would be helpful
in clarifying role expectations in terms of personal needs.

2. A variety of leadership/management patterns can be used
effectively in the laboratory setting. The choice should be
a function Of the multiple factors of teachers' perceived

role, curriculum demands, and student needs.

3. Each leadership/management pattern, if clearly defined, pro-
vides unique opportunities for teacher-student interaction.

4. The value Of the interaction can be reflected both in student
academic progress and attitude, and by interfacing Objectives
with interaction, both the teacher and student can enjoy
positive feedback or satisfaction.

167

5. Ultimately, if the laboratory instructor can identify what

is happening in the setting, strategies for improving the

teaching and learning within the setting can be recognized

and, it is hoped, applied.

The researcher, especially the ethnographic researcher
because of the intimate relationship developed with the natives
he/she studies, has an obligation to share the implications Of the
findings. In doing so, the natives can benefit from a multidimensional
picture Of the setting. Rich in the nuances of setting, ethnography
provides an increased awareness of the classroom life. The goal of
analysis is not necessarily to change management patterns in the lab-
oratory, for they "make sense" in terms of the natives, but to improve
in strategies for interaction within the situational frames created
by individual instructors.

TO share the findings with the informants, in the case of
this study, meant not only the three teacher informants but also the
other instructors at Lakeside who were interested in improving labora-
tory instruction. During both the fall and winter inservice programs,
the findings were presented in a presentation on "Effective Laboratory
Instruction." The Interactive Model, a segment of videotape from
John's class, and an exercise on management style were included. The
use Of the Interactive Model as well as related exercises for analy-
sis Of "what's happening" in lab also has implications for teacher
training as well as further research.

Based on experience in sharing the findings at Lakeside, a
model for inservice education has been developed. Figure 47 graphic-

ally illustrates the potential outcomes of a teacher inservice based

168

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169

on the research reported here. The inservice might include explora-
tion of role, management patterns, and interaction, but also tech-
niques of how tO look at what is happening from an expanded perspective.
For experienced teachers, an inservice would focus on their own lab-
oratory environment. For prospective teachers or T.A.'s, an inservice
could help clarify role, explore various management patterns that

work for experienced instructors. The desired outcome from such an
experience would be a greater awareness Of the complex social setting
that exists as teachers and students interact in lab, and planning

strategies for improving interaction and instruction.

Implications for Further Research
The college science laboratory setting is an environment
that demands further research. The study was limited to life science
laboratories in a community college. There appears to be a need for
continued research in the following areas:

1. Descriptive studies that focus on other science areas, i.e.,
physics, chemistry, earth sciences.

2. Descriptive studies in four-year institutions, particularly
the large universities where laboratories are taught by
instructors with varied backgrounds.

3. Additional studies that focus on community college instruc—
tors in the laboratory setting.

4. Studies that focus on the factors that affect the quality
Of interaction.

5. Application and testing of the Model of Teacher-Student
Interaction in any Of the laboratory settings above.

Continued research can not only help the researcher develop

the working model into a tool for use by the practitioner, but could

170

also explore other facets of the social context of the laboratory
setting such as student-student interaction or controlled studies that
explore the effect Of interaction on grades or attitude. Finally,
such research will contribute tO our understanding of the complex

processes of teaching and learning in their social contexts.

The Next Step

One of the most exciting aspects Of research, particularly
ethnographic research, is the intimate relationship that develops
between the researcher and both the subjects and the setting. Not
only to help the teacher informants see their setting more completely
but to share the findings with other instructors at Lakeside has given
the study more meaning.

Because the model is just emerging from the data, continued
research is necessary to support and refine it for future application.
Recognizing the validity Of this direction in research, Lakeside
Community College has funded a continuation Of the research into other
labs throughout the college.

The next step for the researcher is to develop strategies for
applying the Model of Teacher-Student Interaction. To take that step,
however, it will be necessary to take time to think and reflect. What
better way for the researcher to do this but to rent a wooden boat and

go fishing with her father at Angel Lake.

APPENDICES

171

APPENDIX A

SAMPLES OF FIELD NOTES

172

173
DATE: l/26/80, TEACHER CODE: 01, OBSERVATION CODE: Ol02
COURSE: Human Anatomy and Physiology, TOPIC: The Heart,
NO. STUDENTS: 22

 

TIME: Observation 8:00 - 10:20 a.m.
Class 8:05 - 10:00
0N

Setting: Anatomy Lab (see illustration)

Newly designed lab (teacher designed) with a variety
Of instructional models and materials. Four students/
lab table - 24 maximum. Difficult to see screen/
overhead from front table seats (1, 2 - 5, 6).

Students: Twenty-two - female
Age range 18 - 50 (approx. 4+ 30); majority
Nursing or alied health majors
Second semester students
Students familiar with laboratory proceedures

Instructor: Male, approx. 40 M.A. Biology
Has taught this course several years
Outside interests - 4H Handicapped Program,
raising horses and working his farm

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175
TEACHER CODE 01

. mas;

Students drifting in. Social conversation at two
tables, discussing nursing experiences. Most are
using this time before class to read over lab
materials.

Teacher enters room and gets out instructional
materials (slide projector and models). Little
reaction from students observed. Students continue

to enter room. Instructor turns on slides and darkens
room. NO formal beginning, teacher moves to front
table shile talking and begins.

Instructor asks class tO excuse him today - had to

pull horse out of mud in his creek - he explains
tramatic experience (both for he and the horse) (he
appears a bit tired and disorganized). Social/personal
exchange.

1. Heart Diagram ' Slides related to lab

exercise

2. Pluck - internal
chest organs teacher
points out structure
On the diagram of
internal organs

3. Heart - black lung Some reaction

4. 3/4 turn Of heart Part of thoracic aorta

5. Posterior

6. Open view heart Students Observe intently -

few questions. One
student enters late. All
focus on screen.

7. Aortic semi lanars
8. Bi cespid value
9. Cx heart

Heart slides continued All very interested in

slides.

10. Damaged heart -
hypertrophy Instructor points out

structures - reads

ll. Myocardial infaretion scientific information from

script.

 

8:30

12.
13.

14.
15.
16.

176

Hypertrophy of lumen

Cardiac muscle
(micro)

Cx aiterics
Artery occlusion

Artery - coronary -
arterio sc.

Student changes slides as
directed by instructor -
"next slide"

Points out that heart
damage isn't just a
problem of Old age.

A few students take notes
as instructor talks, but
most just listen.

l7. Starvation Instructor lectures and
expands on information

18. Aorta related to health problems
and unique characterists Of

19. Opened aorta slides. Students loosing

some interest.

 

20. Damaged aorta — as.

21. Aorta wall

22.-24. Tunica

25. Artery/vains

26. Staining techniques

27. Artery/vein/nerve

28. Staining walls

29.-30. Artery

31. Lymph vessle with
valve

32. __ Omit

Directions for Dissection:

Sheep Hearts - Instructor gives basic directions for
dissections. Keeps the directions specific yet
"light". Directs students to lOOk at models.

Follow lab exercise guides; l heart/2 students.
"Don't cut yourself - we only have one bandaide!"
(humor)

Teacher continues to give directions as students
begin to move around the r-om gathering materials
for exercise. "We will also look at the cat... look
at demos from previous faculty demonstrations
(inservice)."

8:42

8:44

8:45

9:05

9:10

177

Demos include "veal pluck" and dissected hearts with
lables. Good variety Of materials available to
students.

Groups begin to work immediately either Observing
specimen to be dissected or those on display.
Students read over prepared materials and directions.
Conversation quiet and On task.

Instructor leaves room to put on lab coat. Goes
from group to group to point out heart structures.
Students very attentive in small groups.

Instructor asks whole group to observe location of
vena cava then returns to group demonstration.

 

Instructor moves on to second group. Points out to
small group variations in sheep heart - continues
process.

Groups of 2 or 3 probe heart using dissecting
tools. Most attaching project without reservation.
With heads and bodies, students show an intense
interest and involvement with dissection.

Social conversation in one group centers around the
type of tests this instructor uses. The room is
quiete quiet.

Students are tentative about cuting into the heart.
Some find descrimination Of vessles difficult.
Directions are read and re-read (evidence of inde-
pendent work). A few groups begin cutting but

most are exploring the surface structures. Instructor
passes a heart around. As I walk about the room
students ask questions.

Instructor... "If you need any help, jast ask".
He points out models which might help in locating
structurs. "Cut, look, cut, look!" Instructor
very willing to help..

 

Instructor moves in and out Of the lab. Students
very intent on Observing structors. In several
groups one person assumes a leader role, in others
a team effort (student status).

Instructor... "You may take hearts with you... here's
seran wrap - be careful with cuting edge! You may
have enough sheep parts to make a bionic sheep".

Students may or may not hearing the whole group
announcements? As teacher moves around the room

9:20

9:25

9:30

9:39

9:42

9:50

178

he discusses the problem he encourntered with his
horse (social) and answers academic questions.

Students seem relaxed with atmosphere and begin to
joke a bit and remark On eachothers dissecting
technique.

Fingers probe the heart. Most have made major
cuts and examine the internal structure. One group
gets the cats out tO compare structures.

Instructor... "Put unwanted hearts in green bucket!"
Some students begin clean up while others still
working intently. Students name structures out
loud and quiz eachother (student-student interaction).

There is a tremendous number of resources - models,
demos, charts and written instructions.

Students seem willing to share information and
free to ask questions.

Transition time for some, Others continue to work.
Instructor begins to show structures (ductus

arteriosis) to individual students (1 to l). H§_
makes himself very available to his students.

' Instructor reminds students to look at slides as

some prepare to leave. Two students leave.
Instructor puts another heart on display.

It is Obvious students have had a great deal Of
experience both with lab materials and dissection.
(NO overacting to specimens etc.)

Clean up begins in earnest (with nO specific
directions). Others leave quietly when finished.

Students remaining (15) are looking at slides and
filling in notes on the lab sheets.

Instructor... "The horse will live... the owner
will die". Continuing conversation on the horse
incident. Teacher continues to give eneral
directions on microscopic techniques Imix social/
academic).

Noise level in hall increases as classes begin to
change.

9:59

10:00
10:05

10:20

179

Teacher continues long social conversation with
group of four.

More of the "Older student" remain tO the end of
the class.

Several students have wrapped up hearts to take
home.

Students ask researcher questions - there seems to
be little Observer affect on either the teacher or
students Observed.

Students are continuing to work - there is a
free lab after this so there is no rush to leave.

Eleven students remain. Teacher also remains.

Teacher leaves for break - tells students to clean
up when ready.

Last students leave.

APPENDIX B

ORIENTATION MATERIALS AND SAMPLES 0F
LABORATORY EXERCISES

180

181

COURSE ORIENTATION and INFORMATION SHEET

COURSE:

TEXT:

LAB MANUAL:

RECOMMENDED BOOKS:

ATTENDANCE:

ASSIGNMENTS:

EVALUATION:

BIOLOGY 121-122

HUMAN ANATOMY and PHYSIOLOGY

Three hours lecture and two hours lab weekly

Human Anatomy and Physiology by John Hole, lst edition,
1978

A Manual of Anatomy_and Physiology by Donnersberger,
Lesake and Timmons

The Anatomy Coloring Book by Kapit and Elson
John Hopkins Atlas of Human Functional Anatomy by
Schlossberg and Zuidema

 

Any student with 9 or more absences during the semester
will be automatically dropped from the course. In the
event that a class is missed, it is the student's obli-
gation to obtain that material.

The entire unit reading is assigned at the beginning of
each unit. Students are eXpected to read the material
prior to coming to class, therefore having some basic
knowledge of the subject matter. It is the responsi-
bility of the student to study the material even though
classes may be cancelled. The reading assignments are
listed in the Lecture-Lab Information Sheet.

Unit exams will be used to test material presented in
lecture class. These exams are not cumulative although
some concepts will reappear in successive units and
could possibly be tested again. These units exams will
comprise 2/3 rds of the final grade.

Laboratory test will be given to test material presented
in lab. The laboratory grade will comprise l/3 rd
of the final grade.

Oral quizzes or “pop" quizzes may be given in either
lecture or lab if the instructor deems it necessary.

A tentative examination date for each unit is included
in the Lecture-Lab Information Sheet.

In the event a student is absent for a unit exam, an
opportunity will be given to make it up during final
examination week. Full credit will be given for the
unit exam. The instructor will select a time that is

182

mutually agreeable to all concerned. No Opportunity
will be given to make up a second exam. The grade
for that test will be zero.

In the event of an emergency, the instructor might be
willing to allow the student to take the exam with
another class if possible, or reschedule the test at
a different time that same day.

1233

May,'1979

DIVISION: Life Sciences

COURSE TITLE: Biology 251 - Comparative Anatomy of Vertebrates (II,h)

HOURS REQUIRED:

Lecture 3, Laboratory 6

DESCRIPTION: Comparative study of the major taxonomic groups of chordates; dissection
of amphioxus, lamprey, shark, mudpuppy, turtle, bird and cat.

PREEEQUISITES: Biology 10h (Zoology); Biology 282 (Embryology) highly recommended.

SOphomore standing.

INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES: Since the course is designed to prepare the student interested

in the fields of medicine, dentistry, biology teaching, and biOIOgical
research with the basic knowledge of the anatomy of vertebrate animals,
he should be able to perform the following behavioral objectives:

1. Dissect any vertebrate animal and identify most of its parts.

2. Effective use of dissecting tools and operative technique.

3. Follow the directions and procedures for dissection as given in
an anatomy laboratory manual.

II. Correct usage of anatanical terminology.

TEXTBOCKS: A.S. Rome: 5 T.S. Parsons., The Vertebrate Romy, W.B. Saunders CO.,

REFERENCE
BOOK :
COURSE OUTLINE:
LECTURE:
1.

8.

5th edition, 1977. Atlas and Dissection Guide for Omaruive Anatomy,
by Saul Wischnitzer, 11.3. Freeman and Co., 1967.

Atlas of the Cat Anatomy by Field and Taylor, 3. of Chicago Press

Introduction - course organization and aims, attendance, grading, lab-
oratory work

Comparative approach to study and methods of study

Review of taxonany and classification of animals
Classification and characteristics of the Phylum Chordata
Ecology and distribution of animals; zoogeographical realms
Review of embryology of the vertebrates

Integumentary system - comparative

a) Skin and epidermal structures

b) dermal structures

c) glands

d) teeth

Skeletal system - canparative

a) dermal skeleton

b) endoskeleton

c) Types of bone developnent and histology of bone

d) canparision of skulls, vertebral colmnns, girdles, and appendicular

skeletons of representative Classes

Huscular system

a) Structure and function

b) Nanenclature

c) Animal muscle groups compared

184-

12. Develonment of and parts 0 the organ systems in the amphibian, reptile,
bird and mammal.

a.

b.
c.
d.

LABORATORY:

Digestive system ‘ ‘ ‘ .

1. Regions of tube, mesenteries, and body cavities.
2. Glands

3. Pharnyx and derivatives

Excretory system - kidney types and their structure
Reproductive system

Vascular system

1. Embryonic and extra embryonic circulation

2. Changes at birth

3. Heart formation, chambering, circulation'

h. Fate of aortic arches

5. Types of circulation in vertebrates: single, double, semi-double
6. Hemopoiesis

Skeletal system

1. Types of bone formation

2. Formation of long bones, skull, vertebral column

Mascular system

1. Development and fate of myotomes

2. Histological types .

3. Krjor muscle groups in mammals.

Integumentary system

1. Skin and structure derived from the skin: hair, nails, scales, etc
Respiratory system

1. Formation of gill arches and gills

2. Formation of trachea, lungs and blood supply

Nervous system

1. Formation of central nervous system

2. Peripheral nervous system: cranial nerves and spinal nerves
3. Autonomic nervous system

General histology

Lab work consists of two 3-hour sessions a week. Exercise direction
sheets are issued to the student at the beginning of each exercise. Labs are sche-
duled for M-w' or T-Th afternoons. The following schedule lists the exercises and
the time spent on each. '

EXERCISE HOURS
1. Hitosis - Ascaris. Salamander skin, root tip 3
2. Spermiogenesis - Grasshopper and squash bug 6
3. Cvogenesis - Ascaris eggs. whitefish 6
h. Fertilization, Cleavage - Ascaris, starfish 3
5. Structure of Ann frog embryo 6
6. Structure of 7mm frog embryo 9
7. 3h - hour chick embryo 9
8. Development of chick to 3b - hours 3
_9. BB - hour chick to study 9
10. 72-hour chick 15
11. Examination and fixation of living chick embryos 3
12. 11mm pig embryo, general histology; micro-technique, slide
making'and tissue sectioning 18

Drawings are required and graded for each exercise. These are turned in at the end

185

of the day On which a quiz for that part’ ular exercise is given.

RLITODS OF EVALUATION:

All examinations are graded on an absolute scale based on the percen-
tage of correct answers.

Usually h lecture tests are given Counting toward 2/§ths of final grade.
Final exam counts 15th; lab 2/Sths of final grade. Brief answers or
discussion type questions are used in the lecture tests. Lab tests

or quizes are microscooe spot, diagrams to label, drawings to make
and short answer questions.

VISUAL AIDS:

Models, Kodachrome slides, micro projector, micorscope slides, sound films.

186

Laboratory Directions Circulatory System Name
Lab. Ex. # Part III Anatomy Sec. Date

Part I. Introduction,_ijectives and Reguired Materials

A. Introduction

The human circulatory system is an extremely important transport mechnism of
the body. It is reSponsible for the movement of gases, nutrients, hormones,
enzymes, and waste products of the metabolism. The system includes the heart and
blood vessels. These together are known as the Cardiovascular §2§£EE' Also
included in our study of circulation will be the lymphatic §ystem, including the
lymphatic (lymph vessels) and lymph nodes. The laymphatic system is responsi-
ble for the return of tissue fluid, etc. and plasma proteins to the cardiovascu-
lar system.

B. Objectives

At the completion of this exercise the student should be able to accurately
identify the following:
1. The structures present in the heart and major vessels entering and leaving
the heart using preserved specimens, models, and drawings.

 

2. The listed blood vessels (both arteries snd veins) using preserved speci-
mens, models, snd diagrams of the circulatory system.

3. The anatomical structure of veins, arteries and lymphatic vessels and re-
cognize these as shown on the microscopic histology slides.

C. Required Materials

 

Text book

Laboratory Msnnusl

Histology Slides: arteries, veins, and nerve, lymphatic vessels, and heart
muscles

Model of the circulatory system and heart

Cat for blood vessel identification

Heart (Sheep)

Part II Anatomy of the Cardiovascular System

A. Heart Anatomy

The heart is s muscular organ which serves as a pump to drive blood through
the blood vessels. You will study the heart of the sheep and should be able to
identify the listed structures. Your study will slso include models of the hu-
man heart. You should be able to identify the same structures on the model.
The lab dissection guide will aid you in your dissection. Also, see Chapter 17
pp. 572-582 in your textbook.

1. Right ventricle 14. Aorta
2. Left ventricle 15. Papillary muscles
3. Right strium 16. Aortic semi-lunar valve
4. Left atrium l7. Coronary blood vessels (veins 6 arteries)
5. Mitrsl (bicuspid) valve 18. Brschiocephslic artery
6. Tricuspid valve 19. Right 5 left suricles
7. Interventriculsr septum 20. Opening to coronary sinus
8. Interstrisl septum 21. Parietal pericardium (if present)
9. Chordse tendinse 22. Visceral pericardium-epicsrdium
10. Pulmonary srtery 23. Myocardium
ll. Pulmonary semi-lunar valve 24. Endocardium
12. Pulmonary vein 25. Ligamentum srteriosum (ductus srteriosus)

13. Superior & inferior vena cave 26. Forsmen ovsle (fossaovalis model only)

187

2}.

B. Blood Vessel Identification
Blood vessels are conducting tubes which serve to connect the heart with the
rest of the body. There are three types of blood vessels:

1. Arteries: which carry the blood away from the heart. This is usually
oxygenated blood. The exception to this will be the pulmonary arteries.

2. Qmmillaries: which serve to connect the arteries to the veins. These
are microscopic vessels important in the exchange of gases, nutrients and
waste between the blood and the tissues of the body.

3. Veins: which carry blood back to the heart.

This portion of the laboratory exercise will be concerned with the identifi-

cation of the major arteries and veins. Refer to your laboratory dissection man-
ual. In textbook see pp. 589-93.

Remember: The arteries can be identified by the color of latex with which they
have been injected. Red latex is used in arteries and blue in the veins.

Identify the following blood vessels on the cat:

1. Arteries 2. Veins
a. Aorta a. Inferior & superior vena cava
l. Ascending aorta b. Brachiocephalic v.
2. Aortic arch c. Internal jugular v. (not often
b. Common carotid identifiable)
c. Subclavian a. d. External jugular
d. Axillary a. e. Subclavian v.
e. Brachiocephalic a. f. Hepatic v.
f. Brachial a. 3. Renal v.
g. Celiac a. 5 branches - hepatic, h. Common iliac v.
splenic, and gastric 1. Internal 5 external iliac v.
h. Anterior mesenteric a. j. Femoral v.
1. Renal a. k. Azygos v.
j. Internal 5 external iliac a. 1. Gonadal v.
k. Femoral a.
l. Gonadal a. (ovarian or spermatic)

3. Hepatic Portal System
Study the diagram in your lab dissection guide and read the description on
p. 608 of your textbook. Identify the following (on diagram only):

Anterior and posterior mesenteric v.
Splenic v.
Gastric v.

4. Human Blood Vessels
Use the model of the human circulation and identify the above vessels on this
model.

Part III Histology of the Cardiovascular System

You have now completed a study of the gross anatomy of the cardiovascular sys-
tem. The following deals with histology of this system. You are to study the following
slides and make drawings of each.

B.

188

is.
Heart Muscle Slide - Study the slide which is similar to or the same as the one
you studied last semester. Note the intercalated discs, branching appearance of

the muscle fibers, and cross-striations. This muscle is also involuntary. Make
a sketch for your reference.

Now obtain the slide that shows a vein, artery, and nerve in cross-section.
Distinguish between each of these. Note characteristic structures of each.

Artery - On this slide note the tunica intima, tunica media, tunica adventitia,
and fat cells. Refer to p. 589 in your lecture text, and make a diagram.

Veins - On this slide note the tunica intima, tunica media, tunica adventitia,
and fat cells. Refer to p. 593 in your lecture text, and make a diagram.

Obtain the slide that shows a longitudinal section of a lymphatic vessel. The
lymphatic is the vessel of the lymphatic system that is concerned with the re-
turn of body fluids (tissue fluid) and the smallerplasmaproteins, etc. to the

cardiovascular system. Be sure to note the valve. Refer to pp. 628-629 in
your text book.

Fill in the following chart, noting structural differences between veins and

arteries and lymphatics.

189

 

Vessel layer

Vein

Artery

Lymphatic

 

Tunica intima

 

Tunica media

 

Tunica adventitia

 

Other structures

 

 

 

 

 

 

190

Laboratory Instructions Circulatory System Name

 

Lab. Ex. 0 Part IV Physiology Sec. Date

Part I. Introduction, Objectives and Reguired Material

 

A. Introduction

This laboratory exercise is planned to acquaint you with some of the clinical
methods for studying the physiology of the cardiovascular system. You will be
listening to your heart beat, taking your pulse and blood pressure and doing several
tests to determine physical fitness.

B. Objectives

At the completion of this exercise, the student should be able to:
1. Identify the major sights for taking the pulse.

2. Locate the heart sounds at the apex of the heart and determine the rate of
the contraction of the heart for 1 (one) minute.

3. Accurately determine the blood pressure reading and identify the factors which
exert an influence upon blood pressure.

4. Determine physical fitness by interpreting the data collected through per-
formance on prescribes tests.

C. Required Material
Sphygamomanometer
StethoscOpe
Textbook

Butterfly swabs

191

27.

Part 11. Heart ngpds, Pulse, and Blood Pressure
A. Heart Sounds and Best

Use the stethoscOpe to listen to heart sounds. Place the stethoscope on the
chest over the heart. Listen for the sounds.

1. How many sounds did you hear per beat?

2. Describe these sounds

 

3. How many beats per 30 seconds? Per minute?

 

a. what do the heart sounds signify?

 

 

B. Pulse Rate

Place your finger tips lightly over the radial artery and notice the palpations.
Count for 30 seconds; double the figure for a per minute rate. Repeat using the
brachial, subclavian, carotid, and superficial temporal artery and record your find-
ings for each of these on the chart below.

 

.mmtery Pulse Readimg
Radial
Brachial
Subclavian
Carotid
Tmmporal
1. Did you notice a difference in the rate in the various locations?

If yes, explain

 

Take your pulse simultaneously in two different locations.

2. Were the rates different or the same? If different, explain

 

Using your radial artery, determine pulse rate under the following conditions:
Lying (reclining) beats per minute

Sitting beats per minute

Standing beats per minute

192

28.
After mild exercise beats per minute
After strenuous exercise beats per minute
5. Did you notice a difference in the pulse rate under the various conditions?

If yes, explain

 

6. Are your heart and pulse rate the same? Explain

 

 

C. Blood Pressure

 

Blood pressure is the direct result of the pressure exerted by the blood as
it passes through the blood vessels. The measurement of the blood pressure pro-
vides us with important information relative to the efficiency of the hearts'
pumping action as well as the condition of the blood vessels. The systolic read-
ing indicates the force of the contraction of the heart. The diastolic pressure
reflects the condition of the systemic blood vessels. Increased diastolic pres-
sure is an indication of decreased elasticity of the blood vessel.

An accurate determination of the pressure is an important part of any thorough
physical examination. The results of such a test furnish the physician with val-
uable information concerning the condition of the vascular system and in addition
is often an indication of other body disorders.

The change in blood pressure with age is usually caused by the generalized
loss of vessel elasticity, partly due to arteriosclerotic changes (hardening of the
arteries) and partly due to atherosclerosis ( the increased accumulation of choles-
terol and other lipid substances in the blood vessel walls).

Each student should be familiar with the principles of the sphygamomanometer
before attempting to use it in the laboratory.

Practice taking the blood pressure on your partner until you are able to detect
the systolic and diastolic sounds. This may prove difficult on some individuals,
especially if the arteries are located deeper in the tissue.

The following procedure is recommended by the American Heart Association and
has been used with excellent results by many physicians and medical workers.

1. Seat the subject in a comfortable position at the table or desk. Flex the arm
and see that it is supported on the table at approximately heart level.

2. Wrap the deflated Pulse cuff of the instrument snugly, not tightly, around the
arm with the lower edge of the cuff about one inch above the antecubital space
(anterior part of arm opposite the elbow).

3. Palpate the radial pulse and also ascertain the position of the brachial art-
ery at the approximate level that it bifucates into radial and ulnar arteries. With
no air in the cuff, no sounds will be heard.

193

29.

4. While palpating the radial pulse, inflate the cuff to about 80—90 mm. above
diastolic or about 30 mm. above the level at which the pulse can be felt. In-
crease the pressure to about 160 mm Hg. Deflate slowly and listen with the steth-
oscope for the systolic sound. The first sound is known as Korotkow's sound. The
bell of thestethoscope should be held lightly against the skin at the bifurcation
of the brachial artery. The highest point at which the sound is heard with each
heart beat is considered to be the systolic pressure. If the radial pulse can be
felt at a higher level than the sound can be heard, the pulse level should be
accepted.

5. Gradually deflate the cuff and notice that the sound grows increasingly louder.
As the pressure is reduced, it suddenly becomes muffled and disappears. This is

the diastolic pressure. Usually the change in soundintenisityand the disappearance
of the nomad will coincide. If there is a difference between the two, bothShould be
recorded. (128/86/78). Pulse pgessure may be computed by subtracting the diastolic
from the systolic pressure. Mean pressure is the average of the systolic and dia-
stolic pressure.

Do not leave the air in the cuff over 2 minutes as it will be uncomfortable to
the individual and will cause a marked increase in the blood pressure. If you must
repeat the activity, deflate the cuff, wait a few minutes and try again for a read-
ing determination.

6. Check the blood pressure three times; in sitting, standing and reclining posi-
tions. Record the results. At least two minutes should be allowed between each
reading since the relaxation of the arterial tonus will cause the reading to be
lower each time unless the subject is rested. Record the results on the following
chart:

 

I

7. Were there differences in the blood pressure readings in the various positions?

If yes, explain

 

 

8. Five factors that have the greatest influence upon arterial blood pressure are:

a. The force of the heartbeat.

b. The peripheral resistance of the walls of the arteries.
c. The elasticity of the arteries.

d. The volume of blood.

e. The viscosity of the blood.

However, the pressure may vary according_to the individual's sex, height, weight,
etc. In addition to the above factors, it may also be modified by such factors as

194

f:
U.

the time of day, exercise, body position, excitement, and digestion. For these
reasons, one blood pressure reading is of little value, and repeated readings are
required to eliminate transitory factors. Recent investigations have resulted in
many modifications of the older concepts with their limited ranges of normal arter-
ial pressure. Today many doctors no longer speak of normal blood pressure, but
instead use the term normal range to indicate the widened limits into which the
bleod pressure readings may fall and still be considered normal.

Part III. Cardiovascular tests
A. The Schneider Test for Physical Fitness

The Schneider test or cardiovascular grading system is often employed to deter-
mine an individuals state of health or physical condition. By means of a simple
step-up exercise, one can obtain an idea of how well the heart is able to adjust to
sudden increased demands on the circulatory system.

PROCEDURE: With the aid of your partner, make the following tests. Score points

as indicated on the chart at the end of this exercise.

1. Reclining Pulse Rate: Recline for 5 minutes and obtain at the end of the time
a resting pulse rate. Recheck your pulse rate in the reclining position. Score
points as indicated by the following chart. Record points on summary score
chart, Column A.

 

2. Standing Pulse Rate: Recheck your standing pulse rate and score points as
indicated by the following chart. Record on summary score chart, Column B.

21-1
‘14 " l

 

3. Pulse Rate Increase on Standing: Recheck your pulse rate in the reclining
position and then using chart C below, note the increase in pulse rate on
standing. Score points as indicated. Record on summary score chart, Column

26 27-34

 

 

195

Systolic Blood Pressure Comparison: Recheck and compare your systolic (top
figure) blood pressure readings in the standing and reclining positions. Note
the changes in mm Hg and score points accordingly. Record points on summary
score chart, Column D.

CHART D. Systolic Blood Pressure Comparison of Standing
Rec P.

      

POINTS
Rise of 8 or
Rise of -

No rise
F of -
0 or re -1

Harvard Step Test: This test is a valid measurement of general endurance.
Exercise by placing your right foot on a bench about 16" in height. Have your
partner stand behind you. Raise your body slowly at the rate of 30 steps per
minute for as long as possible, (not to exceed 5 minutes), without touching any
object, so that the left foot comes to rest by the right. Keep your right foot
in position and return to the original position. Immediately upon completion of
the exercise, be seated and have your partner check your pulse for 30 seconds and
multiply the figure obtained by 2. Record this information on the chart E. Also
record on this chart your normal standing pulse rate. Repeat taking your pulse
at 30 seconds, 60 seconds, 90 seconds, and 120 seconds after completion of the
exercise.

1. Note the point on this chart when your pulse after exercise and normal stand-
ing pulse are the same. Go across to the points column and score accordingly.
Record points earned on summary score chart, Column E.

E S No

sec
- ec
l-90sec
-l

 

e
- ‘

2. Pulse Rate Increase Immediately after Exercise: Compare your standing pulse
rate (B) with the increase in pulse rate immediately after exercise (chart E,
0-30 sec). Score points accordingly. Record on sun-nary score chart, Colunm F.

F t e
O— 0 - O ' -

 

Sulllllst'y Score Sheet: Record your point data and that of a few of your classmates,
Add up your total number of points and compare to the standard below. Columns
APP refer to the preceding sections.

196

u..-
.'
l—O

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

STUDENT'S NAME A B D E TOTAL
1. l
2. g . g
1 ; E 1
3. ‘ 3 £
1 .
lo. 1 1
Standard: Perfect record - 20 points

Very Good -
Good -
Pair -
Poor -

19—17 points
16-14 points
13-8 points
7 and below points

 

197

ANATOMY OF TH E

DOGFISH SHARK

 

Skeletal
System

The skeleton ofthc dogfish shark (Fig. 2-l) is entirely
cartilaginous. It can be subdivided into axial and ap-
pendicular parts. The axial skeleton is made up of the
skull and vertebral column. The skull consists of the
chondrocrsnium, which encloses the brain and sense
organs. and the Splanchnocranium. which is the frame-
work of the jaws and gill arches. The appendicular
skeleton consists of thc cartilaginous supports of the
median (dorsal and caudal) fins, the pectoral and pclo
vic girdles, and their fins.

The skeleton of the dogfish, like that of other verte-
brate forms, supports or protects the softer parts of
the body, such as the brain. spinal cord, sense organs,
and gills. The skeleton also facilitates locomotion—
both indirectly, by providing the basis for the stream-
lincd cxtcrntil body shape, and directly. by providing
the structural framework for thc tins. Thus in a broad
scnscthc skeleton dcfincsthc modcol'lifc ofthc dogfish.

 

 

 

Prepared specimens of the sk eletnn will be studied.
Because than: skeletons are very delicate and easily
damaged by careless handling, they are usually stored
in glass jars that are filled with 5C; or 10' ’, formalin.
It is preferable to study the specimens in their glass
containers. If they are removed from the containers.
place them in shallow trays It'll/l enough preservative
to cover them. When moving the specimens will: in-
struments, take cure not to perforate or tllSllI'lll‘ll/(llt‘
the cartilaginous skeleton.

 

 

 

 

 
  

 

 

    

Appsndiculsr skeleton
Axial skeleton r— A ‘—
M Anterior dorsal fin
Skull vm'br'l column Pectorsl girdle and [in Cauda/ fin
Chondrocram‘um Splsnchnocrsnium Pelvic girdle and fin Posterior dorsal fin
. .. " c ‘4
...... f 3 ‘N I I" r71!"

 

FIG. 2-1. Profile of entire skeleton.

.. _—.—_‘ .'.

H.— 0".

198

18 . ANATOMY OF THE DOGFISH SHARK

 

A. Axial Skeleton

1. SKULL: CHONDROCRANIUM

This part ofthe skull consists ofa single irregularly
shaped cartilaginous mass. the neurocranium. which
encloses the brain. The olfactory and otic capsules
are fused with the neurocranium.

On the dorsal side ofthe chondrocranium are the
following features (Fig. 2-2).

rostrum. Scoop-like anterior projection of the
chondrocranium enclosing the precerebnl cavity. This
cavity, which opens dorsally, is in life filled with a
gelatinous material. The two large apertures located
at the base of the rostrum are the rostral fenestrae.

olfactory capsules. Rounded swellings located on
either side of the base ofthe rostrum. Their thin walls
are readily damaged during preparation and thus
may be found to be incomplete.

orbits. Located on both sides of the neurocranium
Their anterior limit is demarcated by an antorbital
process that continues backward as the supraorbital
crest and terminates as the postorbital process.

otic capsule. lrregularly shaped masses, protecting
the inner ear that are fused posteriorly to the neuro-
cranium. They are bounded dorsolaterally by the
supraotic crest, which is a backward continuation of

the postorbital process. Each crest terminates in a

very small posterolateral projection of the cranium.

epiphyseal foramen. Located in the median line
just behind the precerebral cavity. Through it passes
the stalk-like epiphysis (pineal body).

eodolymphatic fossa. A large deep depression lo-
cated in the median line in the region of the otic
capsules. It contains a pair of small anterior endo-
lymphatic foramina and a pair of larger posterior
perilymphatic foramina.

On the ventral side of the chondrocranium are the
following features (Fig. 2-3).

rostral carina. Keel-shaped structure located on
the mid-ventral surface of the rostrum.

antorbital shelf. Ridge that demarcates the anterior
boundary of the orbit.

infraorbital shelf. That portion of the floor of the
chondrocranium that extends back as a median ridge
from the antorhital shelves.

basal plate. Expanded posterior part of the neuro-
cranium extending back from the inl‘raorliital shell.

carotid foramen. Located in the median line at the
junction of the infraorbital shelf and basal plate.

postotie process. The ring-shaped process located

at each posterolateral corner of the ventral surface of
the chondrocranium. The openings in these processes
are known as the postotie fenestrae.

On the lateral side of the chondrocranium is one
definite structure. the optic pcdicel. and a number of
foramina (Fig. 2-4).

optic formen. A large opening. located antero-
ventrally in the orbit, that provides passage for the
optic nerve (N.ll).

oculomotor foramen. Located just above the root
of the optic pcdicel. it is the opening through which
the oculomotor nerve (N.lll) gains entrance into the
orbit.

trochlear foramen. A small anterodorsally located
Opening that lies a short distance above the optic
foramen. The trochlear nerve (NJV) emerges into the
orbit through it.

superficial ophthalmic foramina. A series of small
Openings located parallel to and a little below the
supraorbital crest. They can also be seen on the
dorsal side of the chondrocranium (see Fig. 2-3)
Through them pass the branches of the trigeminal
(NV) and facial (N.Vll) nerves.

deep ophthalmic foramen. Located just in front ol’
the most anterior of the superficial ophthalmic fora-
mina. A branch of the trigeminal nerve passes into
the orbit through this foramen.

trigcminofacial foramen. A large foramen located
at the posterior border of the orbit behind the optic
pcdicel. Through it passes the main branches of the
trigeminal and facial nerves. This opening is also
known as the orbital fissure.

hyomandibular foramen. Located in the otic capo
sule slightly behind the trigeminofacial foramen.
Through it passes a branch ofthe facial nerve known
as the hyomandibular nerve.

On the posterior side of the chondrocranium are
the following features (Fig. 2-5):

foramen magnum. Large median opening through
which the spinal cord passes.

occipital condyles. Processes located \cntrolatcrally
on either side ofthe foramen magnum that articulate
with the lirst trunk vertebra.

vagus foramina. A pair ofopcnings located laterally
on each side or the occipital cuntlylcs. lilt' \’;l:..'tl.\
nerve (N.Xl. passes through each.

glossopltaryngeal foramina. Another pair of open.
ings, each of which is located near the postero-
lateral corners of the chondrocranium. The glosso-
pharyngeal nerves (N.|X) pass through them.

199

Exercise 2. SKELETAL SYSTEM . 19

Rostrum

   
    
  

Precerebral cavity
Rostra/ carina

 

Olfactory capsule 1.
Rostral lenestra ‘1
Epiphyseal .115; “ ‘__
loramen 5' " .g
.«s'.-} ‘ t a ' 7‘ An .
Antorbiul . all-3% . sh tzrbrtal
process ."“fi 3?}! 0
"L jig".-.
i}? Izlryforbita/
s e
Supraorbt'tal crest
? Carotid
Postorbital " "3' Ioramen
process ' "D“:
Endolymphatic lossa 4.
Basel plate

Endolymphatic foreman ’ _
Perilymphatic Ioramen .' r‘fiq‘é‘bvg.’ ,yA-ran ;= 2‘
. .+ . ,

_‘,‘,3 ”gain. um“
Supraotic crest " "3‘: :;5§§}‘¢;“W ( Postotic process
«we .ggg'efi-c eggs-.34.”? '4
. (1% ~' i-' , Postotic lenestra

Otic capsule

FIG. 2-2. Chondrocranium (dorsal view). FIG. 2-3. Chondrocranium (ventral view).

Superficial ophthalmic foramina

 

Deep ophthalmic loramen Trochlear loramen
m " ’ f--¢‘ - ~
._ en‘.»t*;?_,"..;g,,. . - :t-léh
.ijfiv fl _~ .. ,x ‘1. 3‘ ' ' '55". ‘7“ V" . .,.,. J .yi. " 1' 'f
2‘ .' V 7:! p.37. _ :5 -r . ‘ r¢<r5* f?“ :.-("
.-7 Q ...f‘t~. _' i . Jay
R}. :4» Jr’s}: . i 4
.' ". ‘ t .. ‘I‘ ‘ ’ d .' _
‘ ~ ‘~ ' \ -‘ Hyomandtbular loremen
Trigeminolacial Iorarnen
Optic foramen Oculomotor loremen
Optic pedicel

FIG. 2-4. Chondrocranium (lateral View).

200

70 - ANAIIIMY (ll Tlll llllCll'ill rill/Hits

2. SKULL: SPLANCHNOCRANIUM'
(Figs. 2-6. 2-7)

The splanclinoeranitim is the visceral skeleton of
the skull. It consists of seven cartilaginous visceral
arches.

mandibular arch. This is the first. the most anterior.
and the largest of the visceral arches. it is modilied
into two teeth-bearing parts. The dorsal part consists
of the two palatuptcrygoquadratc cartilages. which
have fused in the anterior midline and have formed
an arch that conStitutes the upper jaw. Each of the
palatopterygoquadrate cartilages bears an orbital
process, which projects up into the orbit. and a quad-
rate process. which projects up from the lateral end
of this cartilage. The ventral part of the mandibular
arch consists of the two Meckel's cartilages fused at
the midline. which together constitute the lower jaw.
Arched spine-like labial cartilages project forward on
each side at regions where the two jaws meet.

hyoid arch. The second visceral arch consists of
five cartilages. Laterally. a pair of short hyomandib-
ular cartilages articulate with the posterior end of the
chondrocranium. These articulate at their ventral
ends with a pair of J-shaped ceratohyal cartilages
whose long arms lie beneath the chondrocranium.
They are connected across the midline to a short car~
tilaginous bar. the basihyal cartilage. '

visceral arches three to seven (Fig. 2.8). Each of
these gill or branchial arches consists dorsally of
pharyngobranchial cartilages that articulate laterally
with short epibranchial cartilages. The general pat.
tern for these arches is for epibrancliial cartilages to
connect with the following series of ventral carti-
lages: ceratobranchials. hypobranchials, and finally
median basibranchial. Individual dilTerences in the
arches are these: the third arch has a single basi-
branchial: arches four through seven have a common
basibranchial cartilage; the sixth and seventh arches
also lack hypobranchials and their pharyngobran-
chials are fused dorsally. Cartilaginous spine-like
processes known as gill rakers and gill rays project
from opposite sides of the cpibranchial and ccrato-
branchial cartilages of the gill arches.

3. VERTEBRAL COLUMN
(Figs. 2-9 and 2-10)
The vertebral column consists of two distinctive
vertebral types localized in either the trunk or the tail.
trunk vertebrae. Each typically consists of a hicon-
cave ccntrum. 'l he sniall canal running longitudinally
through each ccntrum and the diamond-shaped

 

spaces between two articulating ecntra are tilled
with the gelatinous notocliord. The fused cartilag-
inous plates above the ccntrum form a neural arch
from which projects a neural spine. Between adjacent
spines arc triangular intercalary plates of cartilage.
The roof and sides of the vertebral or neural canal
are formed by neural arches, neural spines, and inter-
calary plates, and the floor is formed by the tops of
ccntra. The spinal cord lies within the neural canal.
Dorsal roots of each spinal nerve emerge through
foramina in the intercalary plates. and ventral roots
emerge through foramina in the neural arches. From
the ventrolateral border of each ccntrum project
transverse processes to which the rib cartilages are
attached.

caudal vertebrae. Each consists of a ccntrum, neu-
ral arches. and a neural canal. Attached to the ventral
surface of each ccntrum is an additional pair of fused
cartilaginous plates that form the hemal arch. The
hemal canal formed by these arches contains the
caudal artery and vein. Projecting ventrally from each
hemal arch is a hemal spine.

B. Appendicular Skeleton

The appendicular skeleton in the dogfish consists of
the median fin cartilages and the pectoral and pelvic
girdles and their fins. The girdles in the dogfish do
not articulate with the vertebral column.

‘I. MEDIAN FIN CARTILAGES

These consist of the skeletal supports for the two
dorsal fins and a caudal fin.

dorsal fins (Fig. 2-1 I). Each fin has as its skeletal
framework a basal cartilage to which are attached
radial cartilages that bear ceratotrichia (fibrous der-
mal fin rays). A fin spine is located at the anterior end
of the basal cartilage.

caudal fin (Fig. 2-I2). Consists of the many caudal
vertebrae whose hemal arches are elongated. This
fin is also supported by ceratotrichia.

2. PECTORAL GIRDLE AND FINS
(Fig. 2-13)

The anterior paired tins are supported by a U-
shaped cartilage located just posterior to the splanch-
nocranium. The ventral part of the girdle consists of
the coracoid bar from which a scapular cartilage ex-
tends dorsally on each side. The latter ttfllCtthths‘
with the skeleton of the pectoral fin at the glenoid

201

IlttltJfiti 2. SKELLIAL SYSTEM 0 21

 

 

Foreman magnum

 

Giossopheryngeel Ioremen Vegas foremen

FIG. 2.5. Chondrocrenium (posterior view).

Orbital process Ouedrete process Hyomendibuler cartilage
Ceretohyel cartilage

; uranium

jar hyoid erch

'mm1

   

' 51»th It

‘ -
. lit". p‘ _ J (1%
J’E'I‘ . i r a j.‘ i

Viseerel arches three to seven

   
 

 

Mendibuler arch

FIG. 2-6. Sp/anchnocrenium (lateral view).

Pelatopterygoquedrete cartilage '
I {Wyn::: \ n

Labial cartilage
Basihyel cartilage

Meckel's cartilage

 

FIG. 2-7 Splanchnocrenium (ventral view).

202

'17 - ANAlIIMY ()l' llll". UUGIISII SHARK

 

 

surface and has a medially projecting suprascapular
cartilage attached to its free end.

The skeleton of the pectoral fin consists of three
basal cartilages: the smallest and outermost cartilage
is the proptcrygium; adjacent to it is a wide triangular
cartilage. the mesopterygiant; the innermost carti-
lagc. the metapterygium. is long and narrow. Small
radial cartilages. arranged in rows. articulate with the
basals. Distal to the radials are ceratotrichia that pro-
vide additional support to the tin. The basal and
radial cartilages are collectively known as pterygio-
pbores.

3. PELVIC GIRDLE AND FINS
(Figs. 2-14. 2-15)

This girdle consists of a transverse ischiijpubic bar
from the end of which a short iliac process extends
dorsally. The pelvic fin has two basal cartilages. One,
the long. curved metapterygium, articulates at the
acctabular surface with the bar. The other, the small
propterxgium, lies anterior to the metapterygium. The
metapterygium articulates with numerous radial car-
tilages, which, in turn. bear the ceratotrichia. Modified
radials form the elasper cartilages in the male.

Pheryngobrenchiel certiiege

Epibrenchiel certilage

  
 

C eretobranchie/ certiiege
Hypobrenchiel certiiege
Besibrenchiel cartilage

FIG. 2-8. Third visceral erch

lntercelery plete

Neurel spine
Neurel cenel

  
 
  

Neurel arch

C entrum

Transverse process

FIG. 2~9 Trunk vertebrae.

. .e-V
~/.. ‘ / 4.5K
.. j. ., \ .- :- A

I"
_/W'—=\-
.. 2:. Gill rey
KECX
a;

Gill raker

haw

o (.’

V
e

 

‘.
{7

4“.
.0 ”I“.
yfi “"11
b_ i #33.

I' C entrum

‘
I

p
.

'. s, Heme] erch
. in: .4 ‘34
'1’ ”4“" ‘ Heme! cenel
. .12 ,_-7
‘ Heme! spine

FIG. 2-10. Ceudel vertebree.

203

l'auri'imt 7. SKELCTAL SYSTEM . 23

,4
Basal "
cartilage

   
  

.: r- C eretourchra
4’ ' . ’ ".6: ._

.-
—,v .. .

 

FIG. 2-11. Dorsal lin (lateral view).

FIG. 2-12. Caudal [in (lateral view).

11”“ . ,. ‘ , ‘ _
. fa"? .. iii/I" VIII/":3! :. . 1,5,3 Metapterygrurn
’ ' ; 4 H ' "I I‘III‘. f‘! "' - -
'. {f l ,1.” a I." ‘/ ",ff 1" Mesopteryglum 883’, c'n’lages
' r

   
    
     
   
     

‘ £7: .4 l1}, ,
. {1 i . fl Propterygrurn

r’
‘ l
I i“
/ it“ . .
Suprascapular cartilage—[f " .

‘

Scapular cartilage

Glenoid surface

Coracoid bar

 

Radial cartilages
FIG. 2-13. Pectoral girdle and fins.
lschiopubic bar lschiapubic bar
Acerabular (x. J, . ll' lliac recess
surface\ rac process ’ D
Proprerygium Acetabular surface \" ' “ ’
Metapterygium Prontervoium ,- ‘7; ‘
. /
Metaplerygium ‘ A
r .1 ,,

     

[ii/l 9.? \/ ‘ .

ill/(fir: /

\."'-’.l-m.« El .

‘ [Iii'l’iift HI“
’l’h‘iii- i'
ll‘ Ii.
4 s/

C la sper
cartilage

FIG. 2-14. Pelvic girdle and fins. male. FIG. 2-15. Pelvic girdle and fins. female.

APPENDIX C

INFORMANT INTERVIEWS

204

205

TEACHER INTERVIEW (Formal or Informal)

 

Probe Questions

 

..The laboratory setting in the community college seems
different than that of the large universities - Professors
vs. T.A.

..Do you feel that makes a difference?

..As a professional do you help council or direct students
in career areas?

..How about the social interaction in the lab - do students
seem to interact well?

..what kind of concerns do they share with you?

..Do you feel the interaction between student and teacher
is beneficial? How so?

..Do students seek your advise in areas other than academics?
(e.g. personal, professional)

..Do you do active modeling of students in the lab setting?

..There seems to be unique opportunities for interaction
between students and instructors in a lab setting. How
do you use this time related to your goals?

..what are laboratories for?

..Learning to think and/or learning to follow directions.

..Preparing students for their professional environments.

..Do you relate to different groups differently? (e.g.
nurses vs. x-ray tech., pre-med. vs. pre-dent.)

...Are instructors aware of needs in the field? What skills
are needed to succeed?

..How could the laboratory be used to even more advantage in
community college?

..Do you feel inservice might be a way of exploring potential
use of improving laboratory interactions?

..Nhat are some of your personal goals for the lab classes?

..How much direction do students need?

206

STUDENT INTERVIEW (Formal or Informal)

Probe Questions
..What laboratory classes have you taken in college?
..Were the teachers professors or teaching assistants?

..What type of role did the instructor play? (e.g. manager,
guide, lecturer, monitor, combination)

..what type of interactions did you have with your lab
instructor? (e.g. academic, social, personal, counselor,
other)

..Were the interactions beneficial to you?

..Compare your college or community college labs with those
taken elsewhere.

..Did you ask questions in lab?

..Did you work well with your lab partner?

..Did you have the same instructor for lecture and lab?
..Did instructors treat different students the same? (e.g.

older or younger students, male and female, brighter
students and those who needed more help)

207

INTERVIEW: JOHN MASTERS

March 6, 1981

 

Question: Basically what I want to talk to you about is some
0 t e interactions that you have with some of the students
that you have been telling me about, especially with some

of the older women. How you feel about that and also how
it got started?

Response: I think that I first started doing that because
my first class I ever taught was with adult people; and I
was a junior in college and the students were all in their
thirties, fourties, and fifties.

Question: And where was this?

Res onse: I taught behavior modification at State Home
and Training School.

Oh.

I started out there, and that was a good experience, but it
was a little bit frustrating in that the peOple were not
academically oriented. They were taking care of the
mentally retarded people or "residents" as you called them
there. We were trying to teach them behavior modification
techniques that they could use in dealing with their
problems and there was a lot of reluctants on their part

to learn something new. They didn't like some young wipper—
snapper coming in and telling them how to do their job so I
had to learn how to break that barrier; the age barrier; and
the subject content barrier, to get to these peOple. (I'm
not sure that I was real successful.) I got a good feeling
with working with older people.

Question: You use those same techniques then in your
c asses now?

Res nse: Well, yes; but modified; just more experience with
deaIing with people and learning their problems that they have
to keep remembering that school is not always their primary
focus. That they have families that are their primary focus;
particularly women who are raised in a traditional setting,
their primary focus is their family and their husband.

School is kind of a secondary thing to them anddthey have
always viewed it that way, and I think that they were raised
that way.

Question: What other special problems do you see in that
they have families?

208

Res onse: I think they have a self-image problem, that they
donEt think they are capable of becoming whatever it is

they are trying to become. They may like to be nurses

but they just don't know how they could possibly be smart
enough or be intelligent enough or have the abilities to be a
nurse. I think they're being pressured by society to get

a job, have a career, also their kids are gone, they have
nothing to do, the economic situation is saying: "Hey,
you'd better get a job"; and a lot of them, their marriages
are very unstable and they tend for being independent and
having no means for support.

Question: You see that as part of this "Mission" to the
College then, serving these kinds of people?

Response: Yes, I think so. I think that is important.

Question: You taught in a four-year institution at ?
Response: Yes, at , as a graduate student.

Question: Do you see any difference in the students that you
have here, as compared to the ones you had at ?

Resppnse: Agewise there certainly is a difference, but also
when I was teaching at , most of my students were
"pre-med" which is a totally different thing than my nursing
students, and the nursing students that I did teach, (I
taught several quarters of Anatomy and Physiology for the
nursing students but they were working for a "Bachelor of
Science Degree".) The students here have an "Associates
Degree" which is a two-year program, rather than a four-year
program, which is considerably more academic work.

Question: Is there a difference in the ages; are there more
younger girls going into a four-year degree program vs. the
older women going into a two-year program? Because of goals?
(Do the older women tend to choose a two-year program?)

Response: I think that because of the economic situation they
tend to choose the two-year program. They have got families
to support, they have obligations, and they want to achieve
their goal in a minimal amount of time. They want to get
out into the workforce - because their primary goal is to
make money. (They don't have as much time to work on it.)
They aren't so career oriented that they don't think in
terms of achieving and continuing to achieve in their
career, they want to get in and do a job, leave the job
there, go home to their responsibilities and home. They
don't want to climb-up the ladder. hhey don't want to
become "head nurse" and then "supervisor-this-and-that"

and then "director of nursing". They aren't into that.
Their self-esteem level at this point is "I want to be a
nurse, if I can; I don't think I can, but I'm gonna try".

209

Question: Who initiates most of the (I know there is a lot
of personal interaction between you and your older students),
at the beginning of the year, I wasn't here to see it, but
who initiates this? Do you create an atmosphere where they
tend to come to you with this, or do you encourage them to
talk to you? How do you handle that?

Res onse: I think it's a mutual thing that occurs. I tend
to Iike teaching to the older people, so I tend to focus

on them in class. When I'm lecturing, I'm focusing on them
in class because usually the younger ones, in my experience,
catch on a little bit quicker and I know that I can sample
the group. If some of the older ones are a little bit
insecure, don't know what's going on, then I can figure that
I need to work more on that. So I tend to pay more attention
to them and I think that gives them the feeling that I'm

a little bit more interested in them, so they tend to open
up a little bit more. A lot of these people are just dying
for)somebody to talk to. (They don't have anybody to talk
to.

Question: Do you encourage them to come in here and talk
to you in your office? And what about calling at home?

Res onse: Yes, sometimes they do and usually it is not for

a spethic thing. Usually it's for kind of a hand-holding
thing; (I'm just beside myself or I just don't know where

to being and study for these bones, where should I start?).
It's not specific things like (is our test next week at 8:30?,
what is the difference between this and that?). Generally
it's not specific things, it's more of an emotional thing.

Question: Tell me about how the two women that you have in
your afternoon class; the one that was having health
problems and overwhelmed by the other women asking her for
too much help - how did that all start?

Res nse: Well, they were lab partners and lab partners
generally get to know each other a little bit better and
sometimes study together. Their studying for a lab kind

of went over into studying for lecture. They compared notes,
got together and studied together. It just kind of snow-
balled. Jan, who is a better student, found it was sapping
time from her other obligations - her family and her studying.
It was bringing her down, so she had to gracefully get out
of (the situation) without hurting Phyllis's feelings. I
think we accomplished that, between the three of us we

kind of worked around that. They are still lab partners

and are still being friendly and in a working relationship,
it's just not such a time consuming thing for Jan.

Question: What did you see your role in helping to solve
pro ems?

210

Response: My focus was to keep the one women's self-esteem
up. Because I could see that if she was dumped by Jan, it
would have just crushed her. When I walked into the lab
and found her sitting on the floor half in tears at the
foot of a skeleton, she didn't know where to begin, she was
just lost. She couldn't study with Jan because she said
"Hey, I'm gonna be busy today, I can't". So she was just
kind-of beside herself, lost, forlorn. I could see that

if she felt that way it was just gonna interfere with her
learning. 50 I sat down on the floor with her and we
talked about not being able to study with the other person.
I explained that Jan had a health problem and had to have
surgery (which made it look like this was the really big
think and that it wasn't her). It was these other things,
to try to build-up her self confidence a little bit.

Question: Did it make you feel good as a teacher - that's
part 0 your role?

Response: I feel that's part of my role with these people
because I can't teach them unless I can put them in a

mental state so that they can learn. I could stand up

there and talk to them till I'm blue in the face, and it
would just go in one ear and out the other if they don't
have a good positive image of themselves and a good attitude.
Somehow I think I perceive that better in some of the older
women and older students. They express their needs better.
For instance, some of the younger women will come up to me
and they'll just blush. They try and talk to me and they
can't, they just blush. They can't talk to me, I kind of
scare them, I think. I'm an authority figure, yet I'm not as
old as they're use to in college. They are just out of

high school, they think all faculty are old croney people.

Question: Your not an old crone? (laughter)
Response: No, not yet! (joking - and more laughter)

Question: Do you have students come back to see you after
gra uation?

Res onse: I have a unique experience also, in that since-
I'm in the nursing program and I see my former students in
the hospital. For instance, the person who is head nurse
on the floor I'm working on at "Ferguson's" is a former
student of mine. So now, she is teaching me, and its just
a really nice relationship. Many people over there are
former students of mine; some of them make the transition
real well and they'll call me "Bob" and "What can I do

for you? What can I teach you today?" Some of them are
still a little bit — "hello Mr. Long".

211

Question: There is a difference between first name and Mr. Long?

Response: Yes, it's a real significant thing. Maybe I
exaggerate it, I'm not sure. I seem to think it's a barrier
"Mr. Masters“ "John or Jack".

Question: Do you socialize with your students at all;
purely social? (You know, go out and have a glass of wine.)

Resppnse: Not very much, I have in the past. I've gone
out to the bar with the girls, we have a good time, but
most of them want you in a particular role. A few peOple
you can do that with, and I'm kind-of cramped for time so

I really don't do a lot of socializing. The majority of
them, even though they call me "Robert" and are very friendly,
your here and there is something about being here and being
in the defined situation. They can come and talk here
where as if you go out and socialize with them then your
intruding on this other life of theirs. I think it would
be like trying to socialize with your therapist. I have

a certain role and it's defined and I think they find some
security in it, maybe I do.

Question: What about pre-professional modeling - they're
gonna be nurses, do you actively work with them in class

or in the laboratory to let them know how they are supposed
to behave - what will be expected of them, that sort of
thing?

Resppnse: What else would I find valuable about being in the
nur51ng program because prior to being in the nursing program
I didn't know that stuff. So now that I've been in the
hospital and I have received the heavy indoctrination. You
know, being a nurse is more than just a job, it's belonging
to a cult - it really is. It's an interesting concept too,

I think. Nursing is very cult oriented. There are traditions:
pinning Ceremonies, capping ceremonies and not so much in

the public schools but in the diploma schools where a lot

of the nurses came out of a lot of ritual went on in the daily
lives from the dress, when I talked to people who had

been through these programs, the older women describing the
clothes they had where they were made to look very simple.
They wore hair nets, they wore these gown sort of things that
had bibs on them, the candy stripe looking thing. They were
grey, no life - drab. They were all onelength regardless

of the real tall or the real short nurse. That was the
length that they came in , and that's what you wore. So

if you were five foot it hung down around your lower calves,
and if you were six feet it was real high. That's why

caps were such a significant thing because the older women
weren't allowed to wear the cap until they got their "RN";
then they got their cap. Where as the younger nurses,

they hate those caps. In fact Grand Valley doesn't even

212

have the caps. They're losing ritual I think because the
public schools and it's not so much of a ritual anymore.

Question: Have they asked your advice on career? That sort
of thing? I know most of them that are in nursing are in
pre-professional.

Response: A lot of them do, for some reason three or four of
them this semester have been into that. We sit down and we
talk about it. In lab, when it's getting toward the end
of the hour, they'll kind of drift up and I find that very
rewarding, it's been very frustrating though because their
experiences and my experiences are quite different. When

I went to school I took eighteen to twenty hours a semester
all lab courses and I took heavy course work all the time
and got through. Many of these people are living at home
and taking a few classes here and there and for some reason
or another I think it's a lot easier to completely emerse
yourself in it and get it all done. It just seems easier
to me. Also thinking about divergent instead of convergent
plans. Like a lot of people will converge on a single
career, prepare themself for just a single career and
exclude everything else, just narrow down on that thing.
The way I do things is a divergent thing: build a base and
continue to build a stronger and stronger base so that it
prepares you for a number of different things. Different
options: plan A, plan B, and plan C. To me that gives me
a sense of security that I have a variety of different
things that I can branch into. We talk about that, the
different plans. Both of them, I think, are lagitimet

but maybe it never occurs to a person that there are a couple
of different ways to look at it and I think that the essay
that I wrote: "The advantages of a Liberal Arts education"
helped me to cement some of those ideas and bring them
together.

Question: How would you feel about taking the teachers out
of the lab setting and putting a teaching assistant in there?

Res nse: Well, I've always thought that was a great
advantage of the small school. When I went to school at

I had the same lecture and lab instructor and I felt that
was a great advantage over having a teaching assistant.
Even though I was a teaching assistant for two years, I'd
still have to say that I prefer it that way. I know that I
wasn't able to give my students the same quality education
that their other instructor could have.

Question: Your mind was on what?
Resppnse: My mind was on my own studies, in fact the first

meeting that we had they got us all together, we were up
at , we were teaching Biology classes from lOl

213

up through Anatomy and Physiology. All undergraduate classes
and their first comment was: "Your first responsibility is
your education. Then your responsibility is your research
and all that stuff, and finally your responsibility is

your teaching assignment."

They came right out and said that, and I thought thatzat the
time that it was a little bit different, but as I got into
the system I saw that he really meant it.

Question: Was this the philosophy of the institdtion?

Response: That is the philOSOphy, of that department
anyway. As much as I experienced it, it seemed that way.
It seemed that way in Chemistry and every place. I think
that generally it's pretty true.

Question: What would you say the philosophy of this
institution is?

Response: I would say that the philosophy of this institution
TS strictly an educational institution. When we don't have
research, the legislature has not defined our roll in those
terms. We are an educational facility and we are not
concerned with publishing research - this and that. I

think the worst education I had was in graduate school,

the very worst.

The worst lecture, the worst laboratory experience. It was
really a very bad experience because the instructors were
not at all interested in teaching - even teaching their
lecture! In fact, the man that I worked under, I took
classes from and he was probably one of the worst teachers I
had. Mainly because I knew where he had been just before
class; (laughter) knew that he was a heavy drinker. You
could see him leaning back against the black board - he
wasn't resting, he was holding himself up. I knew what

(was going on, I had been in the lab working until four
o'clock in the morning, went home and slept’for two hours,
came to a class knowing that he had too! Knowing that that's
what he was functioning on.

I've had instructors that I couldn't understand a thing they
were saying - because they spoke a different language.

Question: You prepare a lot of your own material and you
do a lot for your own classes, so you see your own role more
as a teacher.

Res onse: A teacher - yes that's our role here. It would
Be nice if we could get involved in research and things like

that, that were directly related to teaching.

214

Research on teaching, I think that that's where the
legislature should be going for.some4funding.« I think that
that is an area that really would be great for us and I
think that's what state universities are supposed to be
doing in their education, they are supposed to be doing

it for us.

Question: There is research on teaching in the elementary
apd secondary level, but the College teaching is another
t ing.

Res onse: "Higher Ed" - isn't doing much, they're doing more
than what we are doing and they are supposed to be; My
impression is, that they are supposed to be finding these
things out and then clueing us in on all the new stuff -

I don't see that happening, I have never seen state
universities coming here and holding seminar's and things
(updating-type seminars).

Question:‘ For the instructors, that would be very helpful?
Resppnse: I think so! If indeed there is something to update.

Question: Do you relate to different groups differently?
You've got x—ray people, you've got nursing people - because
their careers are going to be different, their demands are
going to be different in their program. Do you relate a
little differently to each of your students depending on
what they are going to do?

Response: I think I probable do, I'm not sure that that's
a good thing to do. In the past, I've found that the

nursing students are the better students and the x-ray
students and the 0.T. people are traditionally poor students.
Admittedly, by their own programs this is true. The
standards that they have are lower and they attract pe0ple
with poor backgrounds.

When you have a lab full of x-ray students, very frequently
what you have is: people leave early, they do very poorly
on tests, they don't always grasp the information as well
as some of the other people do. So I think that because

of that, I form prejudices. I don't think they're bad
prejudices (when I say prejudice, I mean - relate to them

a little bit differently than I do others).

Question: Your seeing them as populations?

Response:‘ Yes, I feel like "I'd better really explain this
in real simple terms."

Question: It's not always a conscious thing?

215

Res onse: Yes, that's true. But you know that your dealing
with a little bit different group. Now if I had a whole
group of "Hospital X Students" I would figure: "Oh let's
do this kind of, there might be a few snotty ones in here.
For some reason it attracts the people who think that they
are much better than the 'ADN Students' and they are

gonna let you know." And if I had a whole class of them,

I would know that there are some real "creackjack students"
real smart students but, there are also a couple of slower
ones in there. Your on guard a little bit more; somebodies
gonna throw you a question that is designed to be a little
bit snooty. You have got to handle that so that you don't
loose space.

Question: They test you?

Res onse: Oh, yes! They test you a little bit more. Some
of the other groups - your "head hauncho" - and they don't
question you. "ADN Students" basically are that kind of
student. They are sharp students but their not snooty.

Question: It's not only YOUR perception of THEM, but THEIR
perception of YOU and YOUR ROLE!

Response: Agree

Question: You know all of the different people on the faculty,

you know they use the laboratory differently. Do you think
that there is a need for inservicing, and training people

on how to use the laboratory most effectively as instructors?
go you see any need for that, or do you feel that there would
e a...

Res onse: It seems to me that the lab is such a personal
thing, a personal expression; lecture is the same thing. It
would kind-of be like almost going in there and saying
"well, now this is what we would like you to do and what
your doing, we don't care for the way your doing it - we
want to change what you are doing." It is awfully hard to
do in a persons' domain - your classroom is your place.

Question: You see some resentment there - intrude on that?

Res onse: In education, they're really protective about their
classroom. That's their domain, and you don't cross that
line. I think that you have to really do it in a very subtle
way and a very non-threatening way. It would really have
to be presented really well! I would think that the best
way to do that would be by demonstration. To have every-
body go through a lab that you designed using your techniques

216

the way you think it should be done. They'll pick-up off
that and take what THEY think is valuable out that and how
THEY can adapt it into their own situation. To sit them
there and say "This is how we think it should be done", I
think would antagonize and infuriate them.

Question: What about sharing some techniques, if you got
a group of people together to share some of the things that
work for them rather than...

Res onse: Well, I don't know if we all have it that well
defined.

Question: You don't know what your doing? (laughter)

Response: Yes. I think that it's a personal thing. You

go in there and its a "gut-level" sometimes with these people
and its not always even what you say it's sometimes when

you don't say something. Like I'll sit there and listen to
these people struggle. You know they'll be mispronouncing
it - they'll say the wrong thing and then I'll check to

make sure it's done right then I've got to catch them if
they don't. Then I have to step in there and say "hey

wait a minute, that Was wrong!" But I'm gonna try and

let their lab partner straighten it out first, before I have
to.

Now maybe somebody else doesn't do that, maybe somebody

else stands right over them and says "this, this, this, this,
this, this!" For that person, that might be the best way
that they teach.

Question: Do you handle different labs differently as far
as epending on the content?

Response: Maybe in a subtle way, but not drastically.

Usually I have a pretty modulous group of people (agreement).
A few people from here a few people from there.

Question: Mixtures?
Response: Agree

APPENDIX D

STUDENT SURVEY

217

May 12, 1981 218
Dear Students,

As part of my doctoral dissertation research at Michigan State
university, I am studying the interaction of pre-professional science
students and their teachers in a laboratory setting. I would appreciate
your comments on your J.C. lab experience this year.

Please do not include any names in your comments to maintain confident-
iality. The findings, which will be used as part of a larger research

project, will be available upon request.

Thank you for your time,

éq/ é\

Kay T. Dodge

1. Curriculum or major field

 

 

2. Age Group Under 20
21-35
36-50
over 50
3. Sex Male
Female

4. How many other college labs have you had?

5. What do you see as the major role of the instructor in lab?.

 

 

6. Which of the following types of interactions have you experienced with
your lab instructor this year (either in lab or office).Check as many
as you wish.

lecture / introduction

small group instruction

individual instruction

professional or career counseling

personal counseling

social (non-school discussion, coffee, etc,)

other :

 

 

219

7. Which of the interactions listed in question 6 oceured most often?

 

8. Which of the interactions listed in 6 were most helpful or beneficial to
you and why? (you may list more than one)

9. Compare the interaction with other students with the interaction
with your instructor?

10. What is your general evaluation of the laboratory portion of the

science class.

11. In your opinion, how could the laboratory instruction or interaction
be improved?

May 12, 1981

220

Dvnr CIHJanu,

As part of my doctoral dissertation research at Michigan State

University, I am studying the interaction of pre-professional science

students and their teachers in a laboratory setting. I would appreciate

_ your comments on your J.C. lab experience this year.

Please do not include any names in your comments to maintain confident-

iality. The findings, which will be used as part of a larger research

project, will be available upon request. °

Thank you for your time,

«ée/ a\

Kay T. Dodge

tjauuhnzthr fixthnan; .AbwzJeflaq? “;a&$fi$”¢€777
Curriculum or major field W @cufc/

Age Group Under 20 70 - 50%

21-35 60 - ¢3%

36-50 8 - a};

over 50 i - c/%

I
Sex Male (4 - 7a

Female 029— ?5y 9 “1% 9“ 3%
‘-"' ‘ / ¢fi99$ vrv'I”V$

How many other college labs have you had? ‘22 3879’:

What do you see as the major role of the instructor in lab?

 

 

Which of the following types of interactions have you experienced with
your lab instructor this year (either in lab or office).Check as many

as you wish.

&_ lecture 57%
ii small group instruction 69%
.85.. individual instruction 4.0%
.2 professional or career counseling ..5’93

/ personal. counseling - 25' 70

o-— a .—

/4 social. (non-school discussion, coffee, etc,) [2%

other : (ms/r. ’14:}??va 4 erg/g
/¢é Mature/3 /

221

Which of the interactions listed in question 6 occured most often?

 

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Which of the interactions listed in 6 were most helpful or beneficial to

you and why? (you may list more than one)
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Compare the interaction with other students with the interaction

X‘

with your instructor?

xlu 417.41%; mfg.

What is your general evaluation of the laboratory portion of the

science class.

at ’7‘” we

In your Opinion, how could the laboratory instruction or interaction

lw ilupr‘nvc-cl?

21a ij‘za

APPENDIX E

TEACHER QUESTIONNAIRE

222

223

May 15, 1981
Dear Collegues,

For my doctoral dissertation at Michigan State University, I am doing

an ethnographic study of the interactions of community college instructors
and their students in a laboratory setting. I would appreciate your comments
on the use and management of your labs. This survey will be used as part

of a larger study employing the techniques of participant observation,
interview, and survey. Upon completion, the findings will be available

upon request.

To maintain confidentiality, please do not include your name on the survey.
Please put the completed survey in my box in the main office, or in the inter-

school mail
Thank you for your time and help in this project.
Respectfully,

év 7’27;

Kay T. Dodge

Life Science Division
213 Main J.C.

224

1. What science classes do you teach?

 

 

 

2. What are your general science goals for your laboratory classes?
(check those appropriate and add others you include in your lab)

teaching independent thinking skills

teaching students to follow directions

 

teaching students to manipulate science equiptment
teaching students science concepts

3. What do you see as your major role in the laboratory?

4. What types of interaction between students and instructor occur within
your lab setting? (check as many as you wish) (office applies also)

Academic-lecture

Small group instruction
Individual instruction
professional or career counseling
Personal counseling

Professional modeling

Social
Other

 

 

5. How do you rank community college lab experiences as compared to those at
four year institutions? Why?

6. What advantages or disadvantages do you see in having a full instructor in
lab, rather than a teaching or graduate assistant?

7.Hhat are the most effective types of interactions in your lab?

L.)

‘.

225
01

What science classes do you tea:h? Aneiamu gnd Phubiozogg
Geneaat Btotoqg

 

What are your general science goals for your laboratory classes?
(check those appropriate and add others you include in your lab)
teaching independent thinking skills

teaching students to follow directions

teaching students to manipulate science equiptment

x
J.
x

teaching students science concepts

0
I

What do you see as your major role in the laboratory?

1. Intnoduce tabonatoay mateatat outttne paoceduae.
2. Paovtde assistance as student quuttom me.

What types of interaction between students and instructor occur within

your lab setting? (check as many as you wish) (office applies also)

Academic-lecture

Small group instruction
Individual instruction
professional or career counseling
Personal counseling

Professional modeling

Social

H‘lllH‘f‘

Other

 

 

How do you rank community college lab experiences as compared to those at

four year institutions? Why? I wou£d hank them veay high becaube 05
Amati numbeas tn tab. Atbo out tab tnatnuctont have bettea backgnound

What advantages or disadvantages do you see in having a full instructor in
lab, rather than a teaching or graduate assistant?

. Bettea coondtnetton between teetuae matentat and tab.
. Futt tnttaucton usuatty has a bettee backgtound.

MN

Huat are the most effective types of interactions in your lab?

Smatt gaoup and one-to-one.

‘0

b—s
I

11.

226

“0 YOU feel the interaction betleen teacher and student in the laboratory

could be improved? Please explain

Ves. Ogten we assume that t6 students do not nequest hetp, etc.,
that they ane hautng an adequate expentence. Posstbty duntng the
time we coutd move about mone ashtng dtnect questtons and spot
chechtng scopes, etc.

How much does nature of the material being taught influence your

role and management of the lab? The It ,e 06 the mati" E

onty modenatetg tnétuences the tab due to tab,erenctses betng‘
wnttten as a gnoup egfiont. Schecute, onden 05 toptc ts atso a
gnoup efigont. ‘

which description applies to the majority of your lab classes:
______ Teacher centered or directed investigation

______ Student centered investigation

..JL__ Student centered with some teacher interaction

Student centered with a great deal of teacher interaction

Do you feel that a workshop exploring the ways to use laboratories

more effectively would be helpful to either new or experienced

lah instructors?
Yes.

Other comments on your attitude toward.or use of,the community college
laboratory setting.

Some tab expentences ane ttmtted by what I'tt tenm "nepeatabtttty".
we ane movtng thnough tange numbens 06 students, oun tame ts
ttmtted to two houns. we have ttttte oppontuntty 60a any open
ended wonh, ttttte chance 60a mone techntcat demonstnatnon on

tab expentences.

227 ”5

1. That science classes do you tea h? Embnyo£oqg
‘ Companattue Anatomy
Zootogy

IJ

That are your general science goals for your laboratory classes?

(check those appropriate and add others you include in your lab)

X teaching independent thinking skills
X teaching students to follow directions
__5 teaching students to manipulate science equiptment
X teaching students science concepts
3. Chat do you see as your major role in the laboratory?

Guide the student thnough the matentats to be studied.

L. What types of interaction between students and instructor occur within

your lab setting? (check as many as you wish) (office applies also)

..X... Academic-lecture

_1L__ Small group instruction
_1L__ Individual instruction

_2L___ professional or career counseling
Personal counseling

Professional modeling

X Social

 

 

5. How do you rank community college lab experiences as compared to those at
four year institutions? Why?

Good. Smatt ctasses, fiumy atmosphene.

o. What advantages or disadvantages do you see in having a full instructor in

lab, rather than a teaching or graduate assistant?
The tab tnstnucton knows exactly what the student shoutd teann
tn tab and sees to it that they masten the mate/mot.

7.3hat are the most effective types of interactions in your lab?

Venbaf’ty gutdéng the students thnough the antmat dds/sections
on sude examination and then gotng gnom student to student

to see that he to seeing what he is supposed to see.

228

30 YOU feel the interaction betJeen teacher and student in the laboratory

could be improved? Please explain NO- I fitnd the appnoach I ube
to be veny e55ecttve.

9. How much does nature of the material being taught influence your

role and management of the lab?

Much 05 the mate/(tat ts too dtfifitcutt to expect the student‘
to undenstand on hts own. Lab manuats‘usuatty don't gtve
enough hetp non do students cane to nead atot 06 dtneettons.

1. Uhich description applies to the majority of your lab classes:

Teacher centered or directed investigation

Student centered investigation

Student centered with some teacher interaction

 

X Student centered with a great deal of teacher interaction

 

11. Do you feel that a workshop exploring the ways to use laboratories
more effectively would be helpful to either new or experienced

lab instructors? N0.

p...
IJ
e

Other comments on your attitude toward.or use of,the community college
laboratory setting. Labonatontes ate most tmpontant tn counses
tthe Embnyotogy and Companattve Anatomy. Students need hands-on
expentence to tte tn what has been satd tn tectunes.

l.

b.

1.

229 we

What science classes do you tea h? Anatomy and Phqstofloqu
127-722

 

What are your general science goals for your laboratory classes?
(check those appropriate and add others you include in your lab)
teaching independent thinking skills

teaching students to follow directions

><

teaching students to manipulate science equiptment

X teaching students science concepts

Teachtng students how to wonfz wtth othens tn a tab.

what do you see as your major role in the laboratory?

To netnfionce, wtth hands-on types 06 expentences, the tectune' .
matentat and to go tnto mone detatt whene tab ts mone appnopntate
such as tdenttfitcatéon 06 musctes, ongans, etc.

What types of interaction between students and instructor occur within

your lab setting? (check as many as you wish) (office applies also)

Academic-lecture

Small group instruction
Individual instruction
professional or career counseling
Personal counseling

Professional modeling

Social

Other ngé—ganégdgncg building

HH‘I HI

How do you rank community college lab experiences as compared to those at

four year institutions? Why? Whene the same tnstnucton teaches both
tectune and tab thene ts much mane conttnux'ty.

That advantages or disadvantages do you see in having a full instructor in

lab, rather than a teaching or graduate assistant? Futt tnstnuctons ane
most uhety channetttng most 06 theén eéfionts tnto teachtng whene as
gnaduate asststants have thein own educatton tafung top pntouty.

7.What are the most effective types of interactions in your lab?

One to one.

Id.

11.

'4
IQ
e

230

DO YOU feel the interaction betJeen teacher and student in the laboratory

could be improved? Please explain Yes. Getting student to take mane
advantage 06 thetn tab expentence tthe; ashtng mone questtons, dotng
att the nequtned wonh tn the time pnovtded.

How much does nature of the material being taught influence your

role and management of the lab?

Much, some matentat nequtnes exptanatton and ctose obsenuatton whtte
othen expentences shoutd be mone setfi-dtscoveny.

Which description applies to the majority of your lab classes:
Teacher centered or directed investigation
Student centered investigation

Student centered with some teacher interaction

lf‘ll

Student centered with a great deal of teacher interaction

Do you feel that a workshop exploring the ways to use laboratories
more effectively would be helpful to either new or experienced

lab instructors? Yes,

Other comments on your attitude toward,or use of,the community college

laboratory settins- It ts good that most tab noom can onty
accomodate 24 students.

APPENDIX F

COLLEGE DOCUMENTS AND CONTRACT

231

FACULTY

The College has eleven major instructional divisions - Business Studies,Fine
Arts, Health Education, Language Arts, Life Sciences, Physical Education,
Physical Sciences, Social Sciences, Counseling, Educational Development, and
Technology. Full-time and part-time faculty share the instructional respon-

sibilities within this structure.

Faculty are classified into the following categories:
1) regular full-time
2) temporary full-time (one or two semester appointments)
3) part-time adjunct day college faculty
4) Continuing Education
a) part-time adjunct faculty: on-campus
b) .part-time adjunct faculty: off campus
c) part-time adjunct faculty: Weekend College
d) part-time adjunct faculty: Business & Industry

e)‘ part-time Community Education

In addition to instructors, faculty positions include librarians, counse-
lors, instructor-coordinators, counselor-coordinators, instructor-directors,
counselor-directors and such faculty who are given released time to perform

duties as faculty-coordinators or faculty-directors.

233

Students transfer to.
to escape 4-year hassles

by. Ulester Douglas

Doug Brooks. a sophomore,
attended Michigan State Uni-
veristy for one year and a term.
Last 'year he had to~drop out
because he was unable to pay
his tuition.

Brooks was no longer
eligible for a scholarship he
received. and his grant was not
enough to cover all his
expenses. He transferred to _ _,
this semester because, “It is less
eXpensive.” .

Many students are faced
with this problem each
semester, but there are reasons
other than financial, that cause
students to drop out from four-
year institutions and enroll at

According to Diana Pace, a
counselor at Grand Valley
State Colleges, “Pressures put
on students by the. changes in

Source:

the job market,” also account
for students coming back to

LuAnn Logendyke. asopho-
more, is a typical example of
this situation.

' Logendykc attended Central '

Michigan University for two
and a half years. She was
working toward a major in
psychology and business and
had hoped to work for a while
before pursuing her post-
graduate studies.

But “she said that she realized
that “it would be difficult to
find a job in these areas with
only a bachefor’s degree,” and
decided to change her major.

Logendyke transferred to
the following semester and en-
rolled in the nursing program.
“There are more job Oppor-
tunities in nursing,” she said.

College newspaper, 2-l7-82.

Mike Keller of Students’
Relations, Aquinas College,
explained that students also

_ drOp out of four-year insti-

tutions because of academic
deficiencies.

There are students who
graduate from high school and
even junior college and are still
not well equipped for the bigger
schools.

“If I were taught more
English at high school I would
not have had any problems at
Western." said Barbara
Vaughn. a Creston High
graduate.

Vaughn switched to ‘ “in.
order to get a new start.”

: location and reputation
of providing a quality edu-
cation, are also some n0ted
factors that have attracted
four-year schools drapouts.

A.

B.

234

Teaching conditions from current contract.

ARTICLE VI

GENERAL WORKING COSDITIONS

 

CALENDARS (see memo of understanding dated 12/4/80)

WORK LOADS

The normal work loads' for faculty members for the l980-83
contract are as follows:

'"Normal work load" is defined as the aggregate of the
number of hours assigned a faculty member within a given
academic work year within the prescribed limits stated in
B. l-3. The assignment of a given number of hours in one
(1) semester shall not be construed to be a necessary
determinant for assignment of hours in a succeeding semester.
"OVerload“ shall be defined as the aggregate of the number
of hours assigned a faculty member beyond his/her I'normal
work load". Determination of overload shall be made at the
bezinnine of the second semester. (sne memo of understanding
dated 1254/80) '

Cotfensatiun to any fasuity member for a:tuil hours emnloved
u '32 {all ntnenrtr shall be Glbfllbutr” tntcuchou: the I
, L-rrcl 13y day: in that FPTQSTCT at tne foodlty membrr's
request. If no sn:h request is made, compensation for fall

day overload will be paid no later than the third pay day of
the spring semester.

1. Librarians and counselors--3S hours or its equivalent in
the academic calendar year. (See Appendix A-l, A-Z, A-B,

2. Instructors in the LPN Program--50 (20-20-10) contact
hours or its equivalent in the 44 week program.

3. All faculty members other than 1 and 2 above - 30 con-
tact hours or its equivalent.

4. Cooperative Education shall be equated at five (5)
students per contact hour.

CONDITIONS

The general working conditions shall be maintained as in
effect at the time of the signing of this Agreement except
where improvements are provided by the Board. (Alleged
violationls) of this section shall be pursued under the
Type A grievance procedure only).

However, no faculty member shall be reassigned from one
division and/or department to another without a discussion
of the proposed reassignment with the faculty members.
During such discussion, the faculty members have the option
of having the presence of the President of the Association
or a designee.

SENIORITY LIST

A master seniority list indicating length of satisfactory,
continuous full-time service at College
shall be prepared by the appropriate administrators and
issued to the Faculty Association no later than 30 days after
the beginning of the school year.

235

E. STUDENTS AND RECORDS

1. Faculty members shall not allow unauthorized persons in
their classes for more than one (1) class session.
Unauthorized persons are those who have no evidence of
having paid their tuition.

2. Records of individual student absence and academic per-
formance shall be maintained by each faculty member.
Such records will be retained by the faculty member in
accordance with the statute of limitations (seven (7)
years). Upon termination of services. said records
shall be left with the registrar for record keeping
purposes. To facilitate Such record keeping, faculty
members will be supplied wit: appropriate grading and
record materials. record book. class list, and grade
cards. Faculty will hare at least one week's notice
prior to submiSSion of Approprt.:r records.

3. No class which is appropriately scheduled shill be dis-
missed without prior approval of the appropriate admin-
'S'rator (Dean of Arts and Seinuros, Dean of Occupational

Education, Dean of Continuing Education) or designee.

4. Faculty members shall follow accepted course outlines
except in those instances where authorized to do other-
wise by the apprOpriate administxator, and divisional
chair.

if . le‘f'l C3}? ll()l} if?

1. Teachinc faculty (full-time) shall be on campus a mini-
mum of tive (5) office hours per week (for student con-
sultation) in addition to their norm 1 teaching load.
Said hours shall be scheduled where flppftpriatc in both
a.m. and p.m. modules. The faculty member shall also
be available additional time each week on campus for
preparation, attendance at meetings as scheduled by the
Dean or his/her dosionee or additional activities re-
lated to his/her teaching function.

2. So as to best serve the students. office hours will be
scheduled in units no less than i0 Minutes in length.
pasted. and adhered to by the faculty member. Such
schedule shall be submitted to the Instructional Dean
upon his her request.

236

SOME FACTS ABOUT THE COLLEGE

 

NUMBERS SERVED - HEADCOUNT

Traditional College Students 8.905
(Fall Semester l980-8l)
Men:
Full-time 2,252
Part-time 2.084
Women:
Full-time 1,924
Part-time 2,645
Apprenticeship 893

Community Service
(School Year 1980-81) 21,622

Those taking classes which .
qualifyufor.state funding 14,065

Those taking classes which
do not qualify for state
funding 7,557

Participants at WorkshOps. Seminars,
and Reviews 5,000+

Total Number of Metropolitan Residents Served
by the College 1980-81 37,292

237

SOME FACTS ABOUT THE COLLEGE
(CONTINUED)

mm

For state-aide purposes, Michigan equates thirty-one credit hours as the
equivalent of a full-time student. On this basis. J.C. serves approximately
6.400 Fiscal Year Equated Students.

 

 

 

FULL-IIME FKCULTY AND AEMTNISWEKTIUN 245

m 158

CLASSES OFFERED Approximately 1300 Sections
On Campus

Seven days a week from 8:00 a.m. to 10:00 p.m., excepting Saturday
evening and Sunday morning.

Off Campus

Locations at Ottawa Hills and Grandville High Schools, business and

industry locations, Occupational Training
Center serving 500 students at Leonard and Ball N.E. location.

238

SOME FACTS ABOUT THE COLLEGE
(CONTINUED)

UI ION T S
$24.00 per credit hour for School District residents
$40.00 per credit hour for non-resident students
$60.00 per credit hour for out-of-state students

(Typically. a full-time student takes 30 credit hours per academic year;

$720 for a resident, $l,250 for a non-resident. Books and fees average
$l50 per year.)

239

SOME FACTS ABOUT THE COLLEGE
(CONTINUED)

 

MAJOR FACILITIES
Main Building - 1923

Apprenticeship Training

Fine Arts and Foreign Language Division
Home Economics Department

Life Science Division

Physical Science and Mathematics Division
Technology Division

Social Science Division

Administrative Offices

Music Center - 1923 (2 million dollar remodeling completed August 1980)
Music Department

Practice Rooms
Performance Rooms
Rehearsal/Lecture Rooms

Performing Facility for Community use

Nest Building - Acquired 1966 (currently in process of sale/lease to
Kendall School of Design)

Language Arts Division
North Building - 1971

Business Division

Dental, Nursing, and Radiology Division
Student Commons and Activity Office
Public Service Division

Small Auditorium

Social Science Division

Learning Resource Center - 1971
Library
Listening Laboratories
Photography Program
Television Studio
Computer Laboratory

Ford Building - 1976

Physical Education Division

240

SOME FACTS ABOUT THE COLLEGE
(CONTINUED)

225 Space Parking Ramp Addition - Completed November 1980
60,000 Sq. Foot Student/Community Center - Completed August, 1981

3 Floors - Each floor built in three equal "pods" East-west circulation
on North side of building (Bostwick) vs. middle of building. 20
foot enclosed mall - calder red steel and glass.

Top Floor

Counseling

Educational Development Center
Dean's Office

Lounge

Building Manager

Foods Director

Middle Floor

Cafeteria

Dining Room

175-seat Multi-Purpose Room
Small Group Meeting Rooms
Public Restaurant

The Heritage

Lower Floor

Student Activities Office
Newspaper

Student Congress Meeting Room
Health Services

Recreation Room

Bookstore

Security

241

SOME FACTS ABOUT THE COLLEGE
(CONTINUED)

 

fiNANCIAL INFORMATION"

The College operates on an annual budget of $16,250.00. Sources of
revenue are as follows:

State Aid ....................... $6,600,000.
Tuition ........................ 6,100,000.
Local Taxation .................... 2,534,000.

Other ......................... 600,000.

242

SOME FACTS ABOUT THE COLLEGE
(CONTINUED)

COLLEGE FOUNDATION

The Junior College Foundation, established in 1964 as part of the 50th
anniversary celebration of the College, has three purposes:

1. To provide increased student financial assistance.
2. To encourage improvement in the academic programs.

3. To broaden faculty education and training.

A five-year community campaign, begun in 1979, has the following goals:

1. To secure $150,000 in donations to the Foundation by the
end of 1979.

2. To secure $200,000 worth of capital outlay gifts by the end of
1980.

,3. To secure $1,000,000 worth of Direct-Investment-Return gifts
by the end of 1983.

McCabe-Marlowe House - Conference Center

1. Please refer to the brochure in this packet which offers an
overview of this exciting renovation project of a 125 year old
Heritage Hill home formerly owned by two of
College Science faculty, Miss McCabe and Miss Marlowe

BIBLIOGRAPHY

243

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Anderson, Charles N. "Classroom Observation Studies in Science Edu-
cation: A Critical Review." Unpublished paper, July 1979.

Argyris, Chris. "The Individual and Organization: Some Problems of
Mutual Adjustment." Administrative Quarterly 2 (June 1957).

Astin, Alexander N. Studyin College Impact: Four Critical Years.
San Francisco: Jossey- ass Pflblishers, 1978.

Axelrod, J. The University Teacher as Artist. San Francisco:
Jossey-Bass Publishers, 1973.

Balzer, Al; Evans, T. P.; and Blosser, P. E. A Review of Research
on Teacher Behavior-~Re1ated to Science Education. C6lumbus:
The Ohio State University, 1973.

 

Barth, Fredrik. The Problem of Comparison: Models of Social Organi-
zation. Royal Anthropological Institute Occasional Paper No. 23.
Great Britain and Ireland: Royal Anthropological Institute, 1966.

Bee, Robert L. Patterns and Processes: An Introduction to Anthro-
pological Strategies—for the Study of Sociocultural Change.
New York: The Free Press, 1974.

Bogue, E. G., and Saunders, Robert L. The Educational Manager: Artist

 

and Practitioner. Belmond, Calif.:T_Nadsworth Publishing Co.,
1976.

 

Brophy, Jere E. Recent Research on Teaching. Occasional Paper No. 40.
East Lansing: Institute for Researchlon Teaching, Michigan State
University, 1980.

 

, and Evertson, C. "Context Variables in Teaching." Educa-
tional Psychologist 12 (1978): 310-16.

Brophy, Jere E., and Good, Thomas L. Teacher Student Relationships:
Causes and Consequences. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston,
1974. '

 

 

Carroll, Mary Ann, and Tyson, James C. "Good Teachers Can Become
Better." I.C. & U.T. 29-2 (1981): 82-84.

 

244

245

Chickering, Arthur. The Modern American Collgge. San Francisco:
Jossey- Bass Publishers, 1981.

Cicourel, A. V. "Basic and Normative Rules in Negotiation of Status
and Role. " In Studies in Social Interaction, pp. 229- 58. Edited
by D. Sudnow. New York: Free Press, 1972.

Clark, Christopher M. Five Faces of Research on Teaching_. Occasional
Paper No.24. EastLansing: Ihstitute for Research on Teaching,
Michigan State University, 1979.

Cohen, A. M. College Responses to Community Needs. ERIC Clearing-
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