KAKUSHU GAKKO: A STUDY OF THE NON FORMAL
- MISCELLANEOUS SCHOOLS OF JAPAN

Dissertation for the Degree of Ph. D.
MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY
JERRY L. VANPELT
1975

  
  

  

_ L 13R A R Y
Michigan State
University ,;

m 7 \

IIIIII IIIIIIIII IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII \

3 1293 10482 4622

  

 

This is to certify that the

thesis entitled

KAKUSHU GAKKO: A STUDY OF THEANON-FORMAL
MISCELLANEOUS SCHOOLS OF JAPAN

presented by

Jerry L. VanPelt

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for

Ph.D. Education

degree in

 

Lag/M

Major professor

0-7639

ABSTRACT

KAKUSHU GAKKO: A STUDY OF THE NON FORMAL
MISCELLANEOUS SCHOOLS OF JAPAN

By

Jerry L. VanPelt

Currently, there has been a growing interest in educational
modes outside of the regular or formal educational structures found
in most countries. This interest has centered around non formal
education, which usually exists outside of the formal school system
and is more concerned with specific purposes and trainings than the
formal schools have been.

There exists in Japan, a group of schools called the miscel-
laneous schools which fit this non formal category. During the
summer of 1974, a descriptive, analytical, and evaluative study was
undertaken on these schools in Japan.

Interviews were conducted with miscellaneous school owners
as well as officials of the National Association of Miscellaneous
Schools, the official organization of the miscellaneous schools.
Written materials both in English and Japanese were collected,
examined, and included in the study.

The miscellaneous schools have a long history. Their origin

can be traced back into the feudal ages of Japanese history. Official

Jerry L. VanPelt

recognition of the miscellaneous schools at the governmental level came
during the Meiji period as the Japanese government began laying the
foundation of a modern formal educational structure.

After World War II, the miscellaneous schools were again given
government recognition. The miscellaneous schools have served as sup-
plemental educational institutions to the formal educational system.
As such, they offer programs in vocational preparation, tutoring for
the rigid university entrance examinations, and domestic arts and
enrichment programs primarily for women.

Though recognized by the governmental authorities, the miscel-
laneous schools do not belong to the formal educational structure and
therefore have little status as education institutions. The National
Association of Miscellaneous Schools has sought to improve this status
and get formal school recognition and governmental financial support
for the miscellaneous schools.

The miscellaneous schools as non formal modes, have been
important educational institutions in the total realm of Japanese
education.

The miscellaneous schools have several points in their favor:
they (I) offer programs of educational training not available else-
where, (2) help to carry on the cultural heritage, (3) are flexible
to meet changing needs, (4) offer further education and training to
those not capable of university training, (5) offer training which
can be taken at any period during one's life, (6) offer practical
and directly usable skills, and (7) offer domestic arts and enrichment

education to women for self improvement.

Jerry L. VanPelt

The miscellaneous schools also have several disadvantages:
They (I) contribute to discrimination, against women, (2) contribute
to the "examination hell" of the university examination system, (3)
cover too wide an educational spectrum for adequate supervision and
co-operation, (4) have possibly lessened reform of the formal education
system, (5) have lacked trained teachers, (6) have not established
uniform curriculum standards, (7) have finances which are uncertain,
and (8) have few controls over the schools which causes lack of direction

and duplication of services.

KAKUSHU GAKKO: A STUDY OF THE NON FORMAL
MISCELLANEOUS SCHOOLS OF JAPAN

By

Jerry t: VanPelt

A DISSERTATION

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of Secondary Education and Curriculum

1975

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The author wishes to give thanks to Dr. George Ferree, Dr.
Stanley Wronski, and Dr. Herbert Jackson for serving on his doctoral
committee and for their general support and encouragement during his
stay at Michigan State University.

To Dr. Carl Gross, goes special gratitude for his counsel
and advice as chairman of the committee, as instructor and friendly
critic and for his encouragement of the author's efforts over the
past two years.

To the author's family, Joanne, Korinne, and Suzanne, thank
you for putting up with an absentee father and husband.

Finally, special thanks must be given to Mr. Tatsutoshi Kiyomiya
and Mrs. Hanoko Regier for their efforts as interpreters and translators

without which this work might not have been completed.

ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
LIST OF TABLES

Chapter
I. NON FORMAL EDUCATION AND MISCELLANEOUS SCHOOLS

Introduction
Research Design . .
Categories of Miscellaneous Schools

II. HISTORY OF MISCELLANEOUS SCHOOLS

Feudal Period.
Meiji Period . . .
Formal School Structure .
Miscellaneous Schools
Post- War Development of Miscellaneous Schools

III. MISCELLANEOUS SCHOOLS OF TODAY .

Introduction .

Vocational Schooling .

Medical, Health, Education .and Welfare
Industrial Technical Education .
Business and Commercial Education . .
Dressmaking, Design, and Cooking Schools .
Cultural- Enrichment Education .
Preparatory Schools .

IV. MISCELLANEOUS SCHOOL REGULATIONS AND THE ATTEMPT TO
IMPROVE MISCELLANEOUS SCHOOL STATUS .

Regulations
Administration
Financial Support

Page

ii

Chapter Page

Senshu Gakko Bill . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Teacher Training Program . . . . . . . . . . lOl

V. SUMMARY, EVALUATION, AND CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . 108

Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lO8
Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . llO
Further Questions in Research . . . . . . . . ll7

SELECTED RESOURCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122

iv

Table

OmNO‘UT-th

10.
11.
12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

LIST OF TABLES

Ownership of Miscellaneous Schools .
Dominate Subject Areas .

Total Subject Area

Formal School Attendance

Number of Schools and Teachers in Japan 1973
Total Student Enrollment

Private Schools in Japan

Private/Public Education

Types of Miscellaneous School Classes by Size 0f
Enrollment

Percentage of Classes by Length of Offering .
Secondary and Higher EduCation by Sex .

General High School Course for Employment 3 Years
(3,570 Hours) . . . . . . . . .

Machine Course in Senior High School 3 Years
(3,885 Hours)

General Training Course: Junior High Level 1 Year
(1,700 Hours) .

General Training Course: High School Level 6 Months
(850 Hours) . . . . . . . . . .

Advanced Training Course: High School Level 2 Years
(3,400 Hours) . . . . .

Miscellaneous Industrial Training Schools 1 Year
(1,107 Hours) . . . . . . .

Page
27
27
28
28
42
43
43
44

46
48
51

54

54

57

57

58

60

Table
18.
19.

20.

Prefectural Spending in Yen

Prefectural Spending Paid Directly to Individual

Schools in Yen .

Prefectural Loan Funds in Yen

vi

Page
94

95
96

CHAPTER I

NON FORMAL EDUCATION AND
MISCELLANEOUS SCHOOLS

Introduction

 

In talking about education and such topics as the role of
education in economic and cultural development, we start with
schools. Then we may say "Of course, schools are not the only
educational agencies," and then return to our talk of schools.
If someone asks about the educational system of a nation or a
community we take them on a tour of schools. We do not take
them into homes where language acquisition and primary-group
socialization takes place, nor into the streets and country
side where self concepts and socialization roles are acquired
and tested, nor into market places where consumer skills and
attitudes are formed, nor into the work places where occupa-
tional capabilities, class consciousness and patterns of
economic thinking are formed. We do not take them to play-
grounds, union meetings, shopping centers, cocktail parties,
craftsmen's shops, military installations, farms, factories,
courts of law or the other many places with major identifiable,
educational dimensions. '

Many learning situations take place without an awareness or
intent on the part of the learner and are commonly thought to be
"natural" or even "inherent." Despite this unknowingness, learning
is, or was taking place under these conditions. This kind of
learning has come to be called incidental learning by some of the
writers in the field of non formal education.2

On the other hand, experiences, similar to the above may
be furthered or put forth in an examined and deliberate method by

conversation, explanation, interpretation, instruction, discipline,

and the use of examples from elders, employers, and peers. These
activities may be intended to be educative in a limited sense, and

have been referred to as informal education.3

 

The "schooling" that most people think about, more often
brings to mind visions of grades, classrooms filled with teachers,
and students interacting through a hierarchy of step-like processes
of many years duration, beginning at an elementary level of edu-
cation and continuing on through the university level. For some,
it may not include the university, and for still others, it may not
include secondary education. The process is the same and is
exemplified by the established educational system that these persons
attend at one time or another.

This schooling might have taken place in public or private
schools, but in both cases the structure was much the same. At
the elementary level a general curriculum of basic skills was mastered.
It included reading, writing, calculating, and some teaching of the
cultural heritage.

At the middle and secondary levels, new focus puts students
into different categories as they are either forced or allowed to
select programs of a vocational, general, or college preparatory
nature. The whole process is extremely time consuming and the
training or education is usually of a general nature not being
directly related to job placement. This type of education is generally

referred to as formal education.

 

Recently, a great deal of interest has focused on schooling

which takes place outside of the formal educational structure. The

Agency For International Development for example, has put investi-

gation of non formal systems of education at the tap of its list of

 

priorities.4

Non formal education has been defined as ”any intential and

 

systematic educational enterprise (usually outside of traditional
schooling) in which content, method, time units, admission criteria,
staff, facilities, and other system components are selected and/or
adopted for particular students, populations, or situations in order
to maximize attainment of the mission and minimize constraints of
the system."5

The Agency For International Development defines non formal
education as; "That portion of the learning system within a society
which is not organized within graded classrooms, not oriented toward
fixed younger age categories, and not usually operated by the Ministry
of Education or its equivalent agency of government."6

Non formal education is distinguished from incidental and
informal education by the fact that it is intentional and systematic.
It is distinguished from formal education by its focus on purpose
over form or structure.7

Non formal education seems to be that education which is
planned for, but which operates and exists outside of the regular
formal schools and is not confined by the various internal and
external restraints that have to be coped with by formal systems.

Concern for non formal education seems to be coming from
at least two different sources. One source is a growing number of

educators, economists, developers, and planners who are involved

with education in the developing nations of the world. The second
source of concern seems to be from critics like Ivan Illich who are
attacking formal educational structures in all nations of the world.

The developing nations of the world find themselves in the
difficult position of trying to provide education for all their
people on limited financial budgets. Formal schools are expensive
to build and take many years to develop. Alternatives have to be
found to formal education in these countries if they are to educate
and grow economically and socially in the years to come. Thus, non
formal education is seen as one way of reaching more people in a
shorter period of time and providing them with the skills needed
for economic survival.

Ivan Illich sees formal education as institutional-
discrimination which does not provide useful skills to consumers,
but instead builds up useless credentials which can be traded for
jobs.8

Illich, in Tools For Conviviality, states that universal

 

education through compulsory schooling is not possible. Alternative
devices for the production and marketing of mass education are
technically more feasible and ethically less tolerable than com—
pulsory graded schools. Such new educational arrangements are on
the verge of replacing traditional school systems in rich as well

as poor countries. They are potentially more effective in the
conditioning of job holders and consumers in an industrial economy.
Illich feels these new educational arrangements are more attractive
for the management of the society, more alluring to the people, and

more destructive to the fundamental values of the society.9

Whether one agrees or disagrees with much of what Illich has
to say, one thing does seem clear. Programs of non formal education
have provided, and are increasingly going to provide helpful and
needed schooling to people of different nations in various stages
of economic growth and social development. Too often this fact has
been overlooked by writers in the field of comparative and inter-
national education who have focused attention on the traditional
and formal aspects of education in the different countries of the
world. It is with this inadequacy in mind that this study is being
made of the Japanese miscellaneous schools.

The present constitution of Japan, which was adopted in
1946, defines the basic right and duty of the people to receive
education. "All people shall have the right to receive equal edu-
cation correspondent to their abilities, as provided for by law.

The people shall be obligated to have all boys and girls under their
protection receive general education as provided by law. Such
compulsory education shall be free."10

To meet these educational aims the Japanese government
established the following types of schools.

Elementary Schools (Sh59akk5): Children who have attained
the age of six years must attend a six year elementary school.

This elementary school education is designed to give children (from
the ages of six to twelve) a very general type of education.]]

Lower Secondary Schools (Chugakka): Children who have

completed elementary school are required to go on for another three

years in a lower secondary school. They attend this school until

graduation or the end of the school year when they reach age
fifteen.12

Upper Secondary Schools (Kétégakkfi): Children who have
completed lower secondary school may go on to an upper secondary
school. Mandatory education stops at the lower secondary level
and examinations are required for upper secondary entrance.

There are three types of upper secondary courses: full
time, part time, and correspondence courses. The full time courses
last three years. The part time and correspondence courses last
four years or more. Part time courses consist of a day course and
a night course.

According to content, upper secondary schools can be divided
into two categories: general and specialized. The general courses
provide education for those who want to attend institutions of
higher education and those who will be seeking employment.

Specialized courses are intended to provide vocational or
other specialized education for those students who have chosen a
particular vocational area as a future goal. Courses are divided
into such classifications as technical, commercial, agricultural,

13

fishing, domestic arts (home care), and other areas.

Universities (Daigaku): To attend a university, one must

 

have completed upper secondary school or its equivalent and have
passed college entrance examinations.

These schools offer four year bachelor's degree programs
and many have graduate schools offering master's and doctor's

degrees.14

Junior Colleges (Tanki-daigaku): These schools provide upper
secondary graduates with two or three year programs in varying fields
of study. Most courses offered are in the field of humanities,
social sciences, and home economics. Most of the junior college
students are women.15

Technical Colleges (K5t5-senmon-gakk5): Technical colleges
require lower secondary school completion and offer a five year
program for the training of technicians.

These schools offer courses in mechanical engineering,
electrical engineering, chemical engineering, civil engineering, and
16

in other technical areas.

Kindergartens (Y5chien): These schools aim at helping pre-

 

school children. They admit children from three to five years of
age. Kindergarten education is not compulsory. Most kindergartens
are privately owned and operated and are under control of national
and local education authorities.

In addition to kindergarten, there are day nurseries (hoiku-jo)
which also serve as pre-school institutions. This institution falls
under the control of national and local welfare authorities.

Day nurseries care for children from birth to five years of
age who need institutional care. Children from three to five years
of age get about the same education as those attending kindergarten.
Most day nurseries are run by the local government.]7

Special Schools_(Tokushu-ky6iku-gakk5): These schools aim

at giving physically or mentally handicapped children special

education adapted to their particular needs. There are schools
18

for the blind, deaf, and mentally handicapped.
Miscellaneous Schools (Kakushu-gakko): In addition to

the afore mentioned schools, the law allows for the development

and institution of a variety of educational establishments known

19 The greater majority of these

as "miscellaneous schools."
schools are privately controlled and provide pe0ple with vocational
and practical courses in'a host of courses including dressmaking,

cooking, bookkeeping, typing, and drivers training.20

Research Design

 

In the summer of 1974, research was undertaken in Japan on
these miscellaneous schools. Two months were spent in Tokyo and
Kanagawa Prefectures interviewing owners of these schools and
officials of the "National Association of Miscellaneous Schools,"
an organization to which most of the miscellaneous schools hold
membership. Written materials were gathered from the various
schools, usually in the form of phamplets and brochures, explaining
the various programs, curricula, entrance requirements, goals, and
general information about the schools, teachers, administration,
and students. A second source of written materials were publications
in the form of books and periodicals published by the National
Association of Miscellaneous Schools. A third source of written
materials were gathered from the Japanese Government Printing Office
in Tokyo. These are the only materials that were printed in English,

and dealt with the general educational setting in Japan. Some

information in these materials did deal with the miscellaneous
schools to a limited extent. A final source of written information
were books and articles printed in the United States dealing with
the formal education setting, history, and culture of Japan.

The interviews and written materials form the basic data
from which this research was written. Little has been written about
the miscellaneous schools outside of Japan. In Japan itself, the
miscellaneous schools as<a distinct educational enterprise has
received little attention except for the materials published by the
National and the various Prefectural Associations of Miscellaneous
Schools. Yet, miscellaneous schools are present practically every-
where. The Japanese are like the rest of the world in this sense.
For many, the term schooling or education brings to mind the formal
educational setting although forms of non formal education exist
all around them carrying out their educational tasks largely un-

noticed.

Categories of Miscellaneous Schools

These miscellaneous schools provide the Japanese society
with a variety of educational experiences, many of which cannot be
achieved through the formal public school sector.

In a broad and inclusive sense, miscellaneous schools can
be divided into three separate categories. First, there is the area
of vocational training. One of the functions of some of the miscel-
laneous schools is to train their students in particular skills with

an emphasis on practical training that can be used directly by the

10

labor market. These skills are generally middle range in nature

and include such things as typing, and bookkeeping. In addition
many students receive professional training in areas of nursing, and
architectural design. Some of the schools provide students with
training as technicians of various sorts. Therefore, a wide range
of vocational, professional, and technical training is available

in the miscellaneous schools.

A second category that miscellaneous education falls under
is that of university preparation. Miscellaneous schools in some
instances help students at various levels of their formal school
learning, through enrichment, refresher and examination preparatory
classes, all of which are designed to aid students in higher
achievement and in being more successful in the race to get into
the better (in terms of social prestige) universities.

The third category might be termed cultural enrichment or
adult education. Life long education, adult education, and con-
tinuing education are all familiar terms to American educators.

In Japan, social education, is a term used to describe a

 

similar educational philosophy. Social education means organized
eduCational activities, mainly for youth and adults, other than
those provided for in the curricula of elementary and secondary

2] The purpose of social

schools or institutions of higher learning.
education is fivefold in nature: enrichment for the older adult
population, handling of leisure time, developing a sense of com-
munity cohesion, supplementing knowledge to outmoded education,

and creating social awareness.22

11

Though not a part of the government's social education pro-
gram, miscellaneous schools are involved in the social education
concept and classes are offered by the miscellaneous schools for
the personal growth and development for those of various age levels.

Not all offerings of the miscellaneous schools fall into
only one category. For example, into what category does a class
in English language fall? One person may take the language class
for his or her own enjoyment and enrichment. A second person may
take the language class because it will aid that person in getting
a job. A third person may take the English language class to
supplement the regular school English language class with the idea
of improving his test scores. Therefore, an English language class
may fall into each of the three categories depending upon the purpose
of the person taking the class. Despite the problem of overlap,
the three categories are useful ways of viewing the educational
activities and goals of the miscellaneous schools.

Most of the miscellaneous schools are established to provide
education in only one of the three categories of offerings, since
most are small educational operations. For example, the Asahi
Cultural Center, although not small, is a cultural enrichment-
social education type of school in which students can learn a
variety of things including different types of cooking, traditional
dance, tea ceremony, and various types of art-craft type skills.23
Occasionally, some of the larger miscellaneous schools might be
classified as "comprehensive" in that they include activities in

the three categories just discussed. The Yokohama Academy is such

12

a school. It offers a variety of vocational classes and includes
preparatory and enrichment-social education types of classes.24
The description of the miscellaneous schools to this point
has been a discussion of function based on observation of what kinds
of things miscellaneous schools do. Trying to define the miscel-
laneous schools in a legislative-legalistic sense is a little more
difficult, because the legalistic definition of these schools has
historically been vague. The School Education Act I, which was
initiated after World War II, established the basic framework for
publically supported, regular, school structure. It was established
on the American model of a 6-3-3-4 system; meaning there are six
years of elementary education, three years of lower secondary or
middle school, three years of upper secondary, and four years of
education at the university level. As previously stated, there
are in addition to this, various other schools such as technical
colleges, junior colleges, and "special schools" which deal with
such areas as retardation and physical handicaps. The purpose and
function of these schools have been clearly defined and spelled out
in Article I. This has not been true of the miscellaneous schools.
The miscellaneous schools have fallen under the vague legalistic
position of being those schools which engage in educational activities
not of the kind belonging to the Article I schools. Thus, the title

25 As such, miscel-

miscellaneous schools; they are what is left over.
laneous schools do not perform as part of the formal educational
system. They fall under the previously discussed non formal edu-

cational category.

13

In the descriptive and analytical study to follow the legal
status problems, legal regulations, history, contemporary activity,
and the role of the miscellaneous schools in the Japanese educational

and social setting of today will be discussed.

FOOTNOTES: CHAPTER I

1Marvin Grandstaff, "Educational History and Non Formal
Education: A Methodological Strategy," Non-Formal Education Dis-
cussion Papers, No. 3, NFE And The Structure of Culture (East
Lansing: Michigan State University, 1974), pp. 13-14.

2Russel F. Kleis, Case Studies in Non-Formal Education
(East Lansing: Michigan State University Institute for Inter-
national Studies in Education, 1974), p. 6.

31bid., p. 7.

4Agency For International Development, Priority Problems
in Education and Human Resources Develppment--The Seventies (Bureau
for Technical Assistance, Office of Education and Human Resources,
November, 1970), p. 1.

5

6Harry Case, "Paper on Educational Planning," Paper presented
at Seminar on Educational Planning, East Lansing, Michigan State
University, Summer, 1971, p. l.

7

8Ivan Illich, "Abolishing Schools," New York Times, May 3-4,
1971, pp. L37, L47.

9Ivan Illich, Tools for Conviviality (New York: Harper and
Row, 1973), pp. 9-10.

 

Kleis, Case Studies in Non-Formal Education, p. 8.

 

Kleis, Case Studies in Non-Formal Education, p. 8.

 

 

10Agency for Cultural Affairs, Outline of Education in Japan
(Japan: Government of Japan, 1972), p. l.

HIbid., p. 3.

12Ibid., p. 3.

‘3 bid.. pp. 3-4.

‘4 bid., p. 4.

151b1d., p. 4.

H

 

H

14

15

 

onhese schools might be compared in the American educational
setting to barbers schools, mechanic schools, business training
schools and a host of other private educational institutions outside
of the formal educational structure. Some of these schools also
offer programs which are similar to the "community schools" concept
of the American public school sector.

211bid., p. 8.

22Ministry of Education, Education in 1968-70: Japan (Japan:
Government of Japan, July, 1971), p. 25.

23Interview with Staff, Asahi Cultural Center, Tokyo, Japan,
July, 1974.

24Interview with Kiyoshi Sakai, Yokohama Academy, Yokahama,
Japan, July 16, 1974.

 

25National Association of Miscellaneous Schools, Kakushu
Gakko Management Reference Book (Teikoku Chiho Gyosei Gakkai, July 20,
1973), p. 48.

 

CHAPTER II

HISTORY OF MISCELLANEOUS SCHOOLS

Feudal Period

 

The miscellaneous schools were legally established during the
Meiji period (1868-1911) of Japanese history. The roots of the
miscellaneous schools did, however, exist for many years before
official recognition was granted.

The Japanese feudal period existed for over three hundred
years prior to the Meiji Restoration. This feudalism is reminiscent
of the European Middle Ages. There were large numbers of feudal
lords under the control of the Shogunate. The Shogunate was a
military dictatorship that controlled Japan, during this period,
under the guise of authority granted by a powerless figurehead
monarch. Feudal lords held feifs, called hapg, The most numerous
of the feudal royality were the samurai. The samurai did not hold
lands, but lived in settlements around the castle of the lord
(Daimyo) and received support in the form of a stipend.1

The society was arranged into four horizontal social classes.
The samurai were the top social class; they were followed by the
farmers, craftsmen, and the merchants in order of prestige.2

The Shogunate government, with its absolute power had

eliminated much of the warring between various Daimyo and their

16

17

samurai. Eventually, the warring ways of the samurai decreased. The
samurai became a group of "literate" and studied the Chinese classics
and some of the Japanese writings. The major learning of the samurai
was the Doctrine of Confucius. The Confucian way became the way of
the samurai.3
Education came to be encouraged of all samurai children.
At first, scholars were invited by feudal lords to teach them the
Chinese classics.4 Then schools were established to serve the edu-
cational needs of the young samurai. Occasionally, schools were
put under the control of the hans, where military arts and literary

5

arts were taught. Schools were developed in the hans by the Shogunate

and through private initiative. This was a forerunner of the public
and private educational conglomerate of today.6
The Shogunate government had its schools as well as the hans.

The most successful was the Prosperous Peace School (Sh5hei-k5). It

 

became the center of the "orthodox" teachings of the empire. This
school was the forerunner of the present Tokyo University. There
were, as well, many other schools run by the Shogunate government
for the education of the samurai.7

Education for the masses did exist during this feudal era.
Farmers, though ranked second highest in feudal society, found
themselves in the poorest situation educationally. Merchants and
townspeople had it somewhat better in this regard. Though of lower
social position, they had more freedom than the farmers, and were
able to accumulate large sums of money. Education was seen by them

as a practical necessity for their children if they were to carry

18

on trade responsibilities. The merchants in large towns used private
schools as well as the few han schools which were open to them.8
The formation of two distinct philosophies of education
can be seen developing at this stage. The samurai schools of the
government were classical or liberal arts in their orientation.
The lower social classes education was vocational and practical in
their orientation.
The Terakoya schools were at first temple centered education.
However, laymen eventually ended up teaching the three "R's" in
these schools to merchants and interested townsmen. As farmers
prospered, they would send their children to these schools.9
Occasionally, samurai attended Terakoya schools, but not the same
ones attended by the other youths. Boys and girls were taught
separately and paid fees for the service. Merchants, after sending
their children to Terakoya schools would usually send their children
to be apprenticed under merchants, a system similar to that found
in Europe during the Middle Ages. Farmer's children learned their
10

trade at home.

The Needle School (Ohariya) was a school which taught girls

 

sewing, flower arranging, and tea ceremony. It was generally
attached to the Terakoya school and was an important source of girls'

1] It could be argued that this type of

education of the time.
schooling was a direct forerunner for contemporary miscellaneous
schools which still engage in the same type of activities.

The latter part of the Shogunate or feudal period saw some

changes that were to be furthered during the Meiji Restoration.

19

Common education and desegregation of the different social classes

was tried to a limited extent. The géggkg_were schools where commoners

and samurai attended together.12
The practical-liberal arts dichotomy mentioned earlier is

an example of further changing emphasis in the later feudal period.

There had been complaints that the Confucianists were nothing but

"rice eating dictionaries."13

The Dutch, who visited Japan during
this period, may have had something to do with this change for it
was they who referred to science, experiment, observation, and
technical training as practical education.14 Practical-vocational
education had by this time spread among the common people, and
merchants and artisans had already set up and supported practical
education.

The pre-Meiji, feudal Japan had set the scene for the
modern Japanese educational situation. Millions of Japanese families
had by the restoration assimilated routines needed to form the modern
system. These routines included spending several hours a day for
part of the year away from the home with non-kin, entering into
relations with special adults, and following a sequence of educational
steps.15 In fact, what was happening was that education had long
been changing over from an incidental and informal system to that
of a formal and non formal type with the development of government

and privately supported schools and with general and vocational

learning taking place.

20

Meiji Period

 

In July of 1853, Commodore Perry steamed into Tokyo Bay and
delivered a letter from the President of the United States requesting
the inauguration of trade relations. The Japanese government was
thrown into a crisis. Two factions emerged; conservatives, who
wanted to expel the foreigners, and the realists, who saw that there

was not much Japan could do but to give in.16

Under the threatening
guns of the American ships, the Edo government signed a treaty with
the United States. Other European powers soon made similar agree-
ments, and the once closed off Japan was now open.17
The Tokugawa government realized that it was because of
their military impotence that they could do nothing to stop the
foreigners. They then initiated reforms to modernize their army

18 A cry was heard throughout the Empire to get rid of

and navy.
the foreigners. The Tokugawa regime ruled (in theory) as the
military arm of the Emperor's government. However, the Shogunate
was now unable to defend the government. A rebellion broke out in
1866 in which rebels beat the Shogunate forces. The Tokugawa
Shogunate had been swept away.19
The rebels and new leaders were a small group of court

nobles and samurai from a few of the Western domains and had no
eXperience in running a national government. The government
centered around the Emperor, for it had been the revived theory

of empirical rule which had caused the overthrow of the Tokugawa

rule. This event became known as the Meiji Restoration, and

 

21

officially started in 1868.20

The young fifteen year old emperor
posthumously was given the name Meiji.

The Meiji emperor came to be an influential force in the
government, but as before, he and those to follow, were basically
symbols of authority. The real authority was in the hands of the
young samurai who led the rebellion from the Satauma and Choshu
provinces.2]

The new leaders wanted a Japan capable of defending herself
against Western powers. To do this, they would need to create a
strong military and bring about political, economic, social, and
intellectual changes. The Meiji leaders did away with the feudal
system, initiated universal military service, decreed legal equality
for all Japanese, and initiated many other reforms.22

Educational reform ranks as one of the key measures in the
transforming of Japan from a feudal to a modern unified national

23

state. The Japanese decided that their hope lay in adopting the

learning and methods of the Western powers if they were to be free

24

of their economic, military, and political control. These goals

may be summarized in terms of national unification, loyalty, the
acquisition of modern scientific and economic techniques, and the
perfection of national defense.25
On April 6th, 1868, the Emperor Meiji took the "Imperial
Oath of Five Articles" which established the principles by which
the Imperial rule was to be guided.
I. Deliberative Assemblies shall be established and all
measures of government shall be decided by public opinion.

II. All classes, high or low, shall unite in vigorously
carrying out the plan of the government.

22

III. Officials, civil, and military, and all common people
shall, as far as possible, be allowed to fulfill their
just desires, so that there may not be any discontent
among them.

IV. Uncivilized customs of former times shall be broken
through, and everything shall be based upon just and
equitable principles of nature.

V. Knowledge shall be sought for throughout the worgd so
that the welfare of the Empire may be promoted.2
Article V. became the guide to educational policy from the

date of its inception and acceptance by the Emperor.27
The first years of the Meiji period were years of experi-
ment. In 1870, the schools that had existed were closed by the
government while it established a new department to handle educational
matters. Monbusho, or the Ministry of Education, was given full
powers relating to public education and the supervision of private
schools. Monbusho controlled all levels of education. It had the
power to make and change regulations, open, close, unite, construct,
hire teachers, and regulate expenses. The Monbusho also controlled
the licensing and regulation of publishing books and periodicals.28
The administrative model for the new educational system was
taken from France. The French system seemed to fit the centralized

29

ideas of the young Meiji leaders. Under this centralized control

of the Ministry of Education, the country was divided into eight
university sectidns. Each university was to control thirty-two middle

sections. Each middle school was to control two-hundred and ten

30

primary schools. At a ratio of one school for each six hundred

people, a tremendous financial burden resulted and the desired

educational goals were not met.31

23

Monbusho as originally set up was divided into the following

three bureaus.

I. Bureau of Special Education

Imperial Universities
Kato Gakko higher schools or colleges preparatory

 

to the Imperial Universities
Senmon Gakko or special colleges

 

Miscellaneous schools of same grades

Students and teachers sent abroad

Libraries and museums

Astronomical and meterological observatories
Encouragement of arts and sciences

Earthquake investigation commission

Imperial Academy

Scientific, literary and other learned societies
Degrees and honorary titles

Medical and pharmaceutical honors examinations

II. Bureau of Common Education

1.

III. B

Cowman-puma: tomNO‘U'l-DWN

Normal Schools

Middle Schools

Elementary schools and kindergarten

Girl's high schools

Schools for blind and deaf-mutes
Miscellaneous schools of lower grades
Educational museums

Popular education and educational societies
School attendance

reau of Technical Education

Industrial and technological education

Agricultural education

Commerical education

Public and private navigation schools

Apprentice schools and technical supplementary schools
Miscellaneous schools of similar grades

Government subsidies to technical schools 32

Training of teachers for technical schools.

It can be noted that miscellaneous schools were included in

each of the departments. Under the School Education Law #83, section

II, the miscellaneous schools were recognized in the category of

others to be established in addition to the formal educational

structure.

was used to designate the schools that this study is focusing upon.

It was at this time that the term miscellaneous schools

33

24

Formal School Structure

During the first few years of the Meiji period the Japanese
copied and borrowed educational practices from the United States.
As time progressed, however, this pattern was changed at the secondary
level of education. The secondary level of education developed into
a highly selective system of the European type rather than the American
pattern.34

After 1908, six years of elementary school was provided for
all the students. This was followed by one of several different
channels. The higher schools lead to the universities. Girl's high
school prepared them to be wives, mothers, and eventually clerks
and teachers. Normal schools prepared teachers. Technical schools
gave vocational training and from 1935 onward youth schools provided
full and part time vocational and military training for manual
35

workers.

Academic track for boys: The academic track was most prestigous.

 

It consisted of a 6-5-3-3 ladder leading from the regular 6-year

elementary school to the preferred 5-year middle school, to the

selective 3-year high school and finally to the 3-year university.36

Only 10 percent of the elementary school graduates passed the
examinations which allowed them to enter the academic track. The

middle school program was most often a terminal course for 72 percent

36

of the students. Yet, the curriculum was still academic which left

them unskilled for positions in the work world that most would fill.

Most became clerks or went into small businesses.38

25

Girls track: In Confucian—oriented Japan, girls formed a

 

separate educational track. From the third year of elementary school
on, the curriculum for girls differred. They were almost completely
barred from the higher educational levels. Education beyond the
elementary level usually meant a girl's high school for 4-5 years.

Only a small percentage of the girls went this far.39

The emphasis
was on national morality and womenly virtue.

Though there were institutions of higher and advanced
learning for a very small number of Japanese women, it was generally
believed that girls had little need or desire for academic training.
Their roles were to be good wives and mothers. Later toward the
beginning of World War II, it was recognized that the additional
purposes of making women loyal patriots and skilled workers was also
needed.40

Normal school track: A separate track was devoted to teacher

 

training. The government paid the expenses and expected ten years

of service for men and five years of service for women as repayment.
This was later dropped to 4 1/2 years for both men and women. These
teachers taught at the elementary and generally less academic middle
schools.41

Technical school track: Despite pressure for technical edu-

 

cation, the Japanese inherited an attitude that common labor, which
dirtied the hands, was lowly and demeaning. The lower classes were
responsible for doing the drudgery. Because of this attitude,

vocational and technical education was never held in high esteem.42

26

This attitude is still evident today and is in part responsible for
the lower status of miscellaneous schools.

At the secondary level, these schools consisted of a five
year vocational school for middle grade technicians. These schools
included agricultural, commerical, industrial, and fisheries.43

At the higher levels, the technical institute (senmon gakko)
was a three to five year college to prepare skilled technicians.44

Youth school track: This fifth track was that of the youth

 

schools. They provided a two to seven year part time or full time
continuing education for laboring youth who had completed the ele-
mentary level of education. Generally the classes were practical

and vocational in focus.45

Miscellaneous Schools

In 1880, Monbusho published a report describing the status
of the miscellaneous schools of this period. These schools were
defined as being small and limited educational enterprises which
did not meet the qualifications to be included in the regular formal
system of education.

The major disqualifying factor for the miscellaneous schools
seemed to be the fact that they did not offer a wide enough curri-
culum by not offering the total range of offerings found in the
formal elementary, middle, and higher school curriculums.47

This 1880 report goes on to state that there were 433

miscellaneous schools which were publicly financed by local authori-

ties, and 883 miscellaneous schools which were under private control.

27

Further, the report indicates that only a few miscellaneous
schools offered studies beyond what would be classified as an ele-
mentary level of education. They did offer many of the same kinds
of classes or subjects as did the formal schools, and in some cases,
had good reputations for quality. But, these schools were not
granted formal school status because of their limited curriculum.48

In 1882, a Monbusho report indicated the ownership and

control of miscellaneous schools (see Table 1).

TABLE l.--Ownership of Miscellaneous Schools.

 

Prefectural operated miscellaneous 4
Locally operated miscellaneous schools 8
Privately operated miscellaneous schools 1131

 

Source: National Association of Miscellaneous Schools, Kakushu Gakko

 

Management Reference Book, p. 43.

 

Within the miscellaneous schools several subject areas

dominated the curriculum (see Table 2).

TABLE 2.--Dominate Subject Areas.

 

Chinese study 346
Reading 251
Calligraphy 147
Homemaking 163
Preparatory schools few
Blind/deaf few'

 

Source: National Association of Miscellaneous Schools, Kakushu Gakko

 

Management Reference Book, p. 43.

 

28

In addition, several other courses were offered (see Table 3).

TABLE 3.--Total Subject Area.

 

State Shinto (Emperor Worship)
Languages:
English
French
German
Chinese
Law
Medicine
Ship Building
Navigation
Commerce
Shushin (Morals)
Arithmetic
Bookkeeping
Painting
Teacher Preparation
Handicraft

 

Source: National Association of Miscellaneous Schools, Kakushu Gakko

 

Management Reference Book, p. 43.

 

The enrollment in these schools was a total of 56,029. Of

49

these, 10,430 were women and 45,599 were men. Compare this 56,029

figure to that of the formal school attendance (see Table 4).

TABLE 4.--Formal School Attendance.

 

Primary School 300,000
Middle School 1,388
Voc/Tech School 6,922
University 1,675

 

Source: National Association of Miscellaneous Schools, Kakushu Gakko
Management Reference Book, p. 43.

 

 

29

Of the 59,029 enrolled in the miscellaneous schools, only
about 6,000 were enrolled in subjects or classes which would compare
to the primary level of education. This shows that at least 50,000
persons were enrolled in upper level classes in miscellaneous schools
compared to about 10,000 enrolled in the formal middle school,
vocational and university schools. Many more Japanese were receiving
some type of post elementary education from miscellaneous schools
than from formal schools.50

From the end of the Meiji period until the beginning of
World War II, the miscellaneous schools grew and developed. They
began to focus more and more on technical, vocational, specialized
programs, and women's education.51

The development of the miscellaneous schools can be seen

to be changing in focus from the Meiji period to World War II.

Kangaku (Confucianism and Chinese Philosophy): These schools

 

have long histories going back to the Tokugawa era and continued into
the Meiji period. During the Edo period, Confucianism was the primary
focus of study for the ruling class. As formal schools developed
during the Meiji period, Confucianism was carried into the private
miscellaneous schools.52
As the Meiji period progressed, there was doubt and conflict
as to the proper kind of education to be offered. The conflict
centered around three different groups; the Confucianists, the

53

National scholars, and the Western scholars. The Meiji government

decided to go with the Western style of learning.54 This decision

30

had its effect on the miscellaneous schools, for after 1879 the

Confucianist miscellaneous schools faded in importance.55

Foreign language and Preparatgpy schools: After the Meiji

 

restoration and with the greatly increased foreign contact and
borrowing of ideas, language schools became a very important area
of miscellaneous school development. They made significant contri-
butions to the teaching of English, German, French, Russian, and
Chinese.56
In the Meiji period from 1887 to 1897, preparatory schools
began to take on the function of getting students into good
secondary academic schools and universities. Many of these schools
were attached to private universities. In the Teisho (1912-1925)
and Showa (1926-) periods, entrance examinations were getting more
difficult. Preparatory schools to tutor students to pass the entrance
57

examinations, thrived.

Specialized and professional schools: Some of the miscel-

 

laneous schools of this period did provide professional education

in certain fields. However in 1903, a Bill of Specialized Schools

 

was passed and many of these miscellaneous schools were promoted to
special school status. These schools trained professionals in medicine,
pharmacology, dentistry, art, music, and in physical education. Many
of these schools, which started as miscellaneous schools, became
universities after World War II. Tokyo Women's Medical University,
Nippon Medical University, Tokyo University of Pharmacology, Nihhon

Physical Education University are all examples of this transformation.58

31

Women's Education: During the early Meiji period, Christian
Missionary schools, women's schools, and miscellaneous schools
contributed to women's education. However, in 1899, the government
passed a decree against religious education. Christian missionary
schools were required to change their names. Some became miscel-
laneous schools of post elementary level. Other of the miscellaneous
schools became famous schools for women today. Such schools include
Atomi Women's School, Aoyama Women's School, Likkyo University, Koran
High School, and Ferris High School.59 .

Industrial Schools: A part of the drive during-the Meiji
era was to modernize Japan economically and industrially. Many
of the industries needed middle level technicians, but there were
no schools to produce them. In 1899, the Meiji government issued
a decree aimed at producing middle level technicians, special skill,
and lower skill technical schools. The miscellaneous schools began
to offer training in the industrial-technical field and provided
large numbers of semi-skilled personnel. Many of these early techni-
cal schools became well known and exist today as Tokyo Technical
School, Kogakuin University, Iwakura Railroad School, and Akaike
60

Mining School.

Commercial and Business Education: As of 1877, there were

 

no formal, public business or commercial schools in Japan. The
schools of this type that did exist were operated as private schools.
In 1877, some public business school education began to develop at
the middle school level. It was not until 1899 that the government

passed a law which established business education in the public

32

schools. The supply was not enough to meet the demand and the
miscellaneous schools of the period produced skilled people especially
in the fields of bookkeeping and abacus. This continued into the

Taisho period with shorthand being added to the list of subjects.61

Girls Vocational Schools: From the Meiji period until today,

 

the miscellaneous schools have made many contributions to women's
vocational education. In 1877, dressmaking schools began to develop.
The Wayo Dressmaking School which existed in Tokyo at this time is
still in existence. By 1887, dressmaking schools had spread through-
out Japan. By 1897, one half of the miscellaneous schools in some
prefectures were devoted to dressmaking. With the great Western
influence, the end of the Meiji period saw Western style dressmaking,
crocheting, handicrafts, and cooking being introduced into the
miscellaneous schools.62
Women have never shared equal status and traditionally have
been limited in Japan to certain occupations. In Meiji Japan women's
professions were limited except for such areas as teaching, midwifery,
nursing, and nursery schools. Miscellaneous schools were set up to
offer training in these fields. In 1877, the first nursing schools
were started and contributed greatly to the training of nurses. By
the later part of the Taisho period, women's vocational training in
miscellaneous schools included beauticianry, home economics, typing,
and nutrition.63
Although miscellaneous schools are mentioned in the Article

on Education of the Meiji period, miscellaneous schools had no clear

regulations or standards under which they operated. In 1898, an act

33

was passed which dealt with private schools which could be applied

to miscellaneous schools, but nothing was directly related to them.
By 1935, there were 1,900 miscellaneous schools and a 1941

survey indicated there were 400,000 students attending these schools

at this time. Many of these schools became colleges after the war.64
The enrollments in miscellaneous schools once beyond compulsory

education levels, were more than in the formal schools by the middle

of the Meiji period for boys, and by the end of the Taisho period

for girls.65 This means that miscellaneous schools have been playing

an important role in supplementing the formal education system since

the Meiji period.

Post-War Development of
Miscellaneous Schools

 

 

The general nature of the type and content of the miscel-
laneous schools following World War II was much the same as before
the war. The new public education system provided greater opportunity
for all students. An examination of courses offered since World
War II indicates that the miscellaneous schools have provided pro-
fessional and specialized learning skills not available in the formal
Article I schools as the miscellaneous schools have risen to meet
rapidly changing social demands.66
In 1948, the statistics on miscellaneous schools show a drop
from the pre-war figures; in that there were 1,400 schools with
some 220,000 students. However, as the occupational forces became

more settled and social conditions in Japan began to normalize with

the efforts of rebuilding, miscellaneous schools began to rapidly

34

increase. Surveys show that in 1949 there were 3,400 schools and
450,000 students. In 1956, even greater gains were made with 7,500
-schools and 1,000,000 students. From 1957 to 1973, the number of
schools grew from 7,800 to 8,000. The peak enrollment was in 1968
when there were 1,470,000 students in the miscellaneous schools.

The 1971 enrollments dropped to 1,300,000, still an impressive number
when seen in the light of enrollment of other educational insti-

67

tutions.

Dressmaking: After the war, dressmaking, home economics,

 

and crocheting made up the largest number of miscellaneous schools.
From 1950 to 1955, enrollment increased from 300,000 to 480,000 in
these three areas.68
Immediately following the war, dressmaking was the largest
enroller of students. About forty percent of all miscellaneous
Schools were engaged in dressmaking. This boom lasted until around
1964, when dressmaking dropped to about thirty percent of the schools.
Dressmaking was important because of the need to provide education
for girls and the lack of clothing after the war. In recent years,
more girls are going on to high school for their education. In
addition, industrialization has created low cost ready-made

69

clothing. Dressmaking schools of today have come to include

professional design as their goal more than the old bride preparatory

 

function.
Medical and Health Schools: After the war greater restrictions
and controls were put on medical and health occupations. For example,

nurses, dieticians, and beauticians were required to have diplomas.

35

In 1947, licenses were required for barbers, beauty operators,
dieticians in schools, child welfare nurses, and those involved
in massage, acupuncture, fire treatment, Judo, and orthopedic work.70
In 1948, visiting nurses, midwives, nurses, and dental technicians
were added to the licensing act. The government appointed schools
to do this licensing and many miscellaneous schools were given the
power to grant diplomas in the above areas.7]
Following the war and up to the present, a wide range of
miscellaneous schools developed to handle the newly developing
health and medical professions. These professionals include x-ray
technicians, dental technicians, laboratory technicians, food service,
therapists, and clinical technicians. These schools are primarily
for girls and the Department of Health and Welfare has established
strict standards regulating their training. This is quite different
from the lack of direction found in other types of miscellaneous
schools. Since 1965, health related training has increased.72

Industrial and Technical Schools: With the rebuilding of

 

Japan, a great demand arose for semi-skilled technicians in industry.
Miscellaneous schools spread out in all directions as industry grew
and developed. After 1955, radio schools grew rapidly. These later
became television schools and now many of them are electronic schools.
These schools have become more narrow and advanced in focus with

73

increased training lasting two to three years.

Business and Commercial Schools: This type of training as

 

handled by the miscellaneous schools can be achieved in a relatively

short period of time. After the war, the demand for these skills

36

increased rapidly. In 1949, there were 20,000 students enrolled in
bookkeeping and abacus schools. In 1957, that number increased and
has remained at around 130,000 students.74
Typing has seen a similar trend with 5,000 students in 1949,
increasing to 30,000 students in 1964 and leveling at that point.75
Today many of the traditional business subjects have either
stabilized or decreased in numbers. Part of the explanation for this
is because of the better organization and increased technology which
has decreased the numbers of people needed.76
However, a new phase (called the third industry by the
Japanese) of business training and education is taking place today.
This is the service industry. Schools in the business-commercial
fields are branching out. They are preparing tourist guides, sight
seeing directors, hotel managers, hostess-receptionists, and other
types of occupations as increased leisure time and affluence have
become more widespread in Japan.77

Art and Cultural Schools: Before the war, these activities

 

were learned under a master-student arrangement or tutor. Since

the war, these activities have become a part of miscellaneous school
activity. These activities are recognized as contributing to the
betterment of the individual. These schools fulfill social education
functions and reflect the desires of the society for enrichment types
of education. Cooking, sewing, religion, and dance fall into this

category. It is a category that is rapidly expanding.78

FOOTNOTES: CHAPTER II

1Mamoru Oshiba, Four Articles on Japanese Education (Tokyo:
Maruzen, 1963), p. l.

N

Ibid., p. 1.

31bid., p. 2.

41bid., p. 3.

51bid., p. 3.

 

6Martin D. Shipman, Education and Modernization (London:
Farber and Farber Limited, 1971), p. 205.

7

 

Oshiba, Four Articles on Japanese Education, p. 4.

8Shipman, Education and Modernization, p. 206.

 

9Oshiba, Four Articles on Japanese Education, p. 5.

101616., p. 6.

1Match, p. 6.

12Herbert Passin, Society and Education in Japan (Columbia
University: Teachers College Press, 1966), p. 50.

13

 

Ibid., p. 50.

 

141616., p. 51.

Ibid., p. 54.

16Edwin Reischauer, Japan: The Story of a Nation (New York:
Alfred A. Knops, 1970), p. 115.

17

 

Ibid., p. 116.

181616., p. 116.

191616., p. 120.

 

201bid., p. 121.

 

37

38

21Ibid , p. 124.

I id., p. 121.

22

23Passin, Society and Education in Japen, p. 63.

 

24Hugh Keenleyside, History_of Japanese Education (Tokyo:
Hokuseido Press, 1937), p. 71.

 

 

29Passin, Society and Education in Japan, p. 69.

 

30

 

Keenleyside, History of Jepanese Education, p. 84.

3‘Ibid., p. 85.

321bid., pp. 85-86.

33National Association of Miscellaneous Schools, Kakushu
Gakko Management Reference Book, p. 43.

34Shipmen, Education and Modernization, p. 227.

 

351bid., p. 227.

36Ronald Anderson, Japan: Three Epochs of Modern Education
(Washington: U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare:
Office of Education 11, 1959), p. 36.

371616., p. 36.

 

381bid., p. 36.
39191g , p. 38.
4°;p1g , p. 38.
4lgpjg , p. 39.
421pjd,, p. 40.
43Ibid., p. 40.

39

National Association of Miscellaneous Schools, Kakushu
Gakko Management Reference Book, p. 43.

 

47;p1g,, p. 43.
48;pjg,, p. 43.
491p1g , p. 44.
SQIpig , p. 44.
S‘lpig,, p. 44.
521919 , p. 43.

53Passin, Society and Education in Japan, P- 53-

54Ibid., p. 66.

55National Association of Miscellaneous Schools, Kakushu
Gakko Management Reference Book, p. 43.

 

 

 

561919,, p. 44.
57Ipig,, p. 44.
581bid , p. 45.
Sglpjg , p. 45.
5°;_1g , p. 45.
6]Ibid , p. 46.
621919 , p. 46.
63;_1g., p. 46.
64Ibid., p. 47.

65Central Council for Education, Basic Guidelines for the

 

 

Reform of Education (Japan: Ministry of Education, June, 1972),
p. 93. .

661bid., p. 93.

 

67National Association of Misscellaneous Schools, Kakushu
Gakko Management Reference Book, p. 49.

 

681bid.,

40

p. 49.

69Interview with Mitsuo Gate, National Association of
Miscellaneous Schools, Tokyo, July 19, 1974.

70Fire treatment is like acupuncture except that hot coals

are used to burn

nerve centers. Judo instructors also set bones

and do minor physical therapy.

71
Gakko Management

National Association of Miscellaneous Schools, Kakushu

Reference Book, p. 49.

 

721bid.,

73Ibid.,

741616.,

 

 

. 49.
. 53.
. 53.

. 51.

P
P
P
p. 53.
p
p. 51.
P

. 51.

CHAPTER III

MISCELLANEOUS SCHOOLS 0F TODAY

Introduction

 

In the miscellaneous schools of today, several new trends
are taking place. This is perhaps a result of changing occupational
roles for men and women in Japan of today and rapid technological
and economic growth.

Traditionally, male enrollment in clerical courses of study
was high. Today male enrollment in these courses has decreased

1 On the other hand, male enrollment in the newer technical

greatly.
courses for industry, automobile manufacturing, medical technology,
agriculture, and many others has increased.2 Another area of male
enrollment increase is that of preparatory schools, which tutor
students for entrance examinations for the university.3
In the area of female enrollment, home economics ranks
first, though it has decreased somewhat from its historical
dominance.4 Female enrollment in such technical courses as hair
dressing, nursing, and midwifery have been increasing rapidly.5
The miscellaneous schools have a large number of facilities
available, with over 8,000 schools. However, the size of the miscel-

laneous schools is small. In comparing numbers of teachers who are

41

42

TABLE 5.--Number of Schools and Teachers in Japan 1973.

 

 

Type of No. of Full Time School Part Time School
School - Schools Teachers Average Teachers Average
Kindergarten 11,564 72,797 6 3 7,731 0.7
Elementary 24,325 381,591 15.3 2,037 0.1
Junior High 10,686 225,836 21.1 11.202 1.0
Senior High 4,810 207,204 43 1 31,774 6.6
Technical
College 63 3,513 55.8 2.071 35.1
Junior
College 491 14,677 29.9 18,365 37.4
University 397 80,959 203.9 47,753 120.3
Miscellaneous 8,045 47,226 5.9 61,312 7.6

 

Source: National Association of Miscellaneous Schools, Miscellaneous
School Education,36 (Tokyo, Japan: National Association of
Miscellaneous Schools, March, 1974), p. 7.

 

 

a part of the regular faculty, the 5.9 average of full time teachers
for miscellaneous schools is the smallest average for all the schools
examined. This indicates the smallness of these educational enter-
prises. It is also interesting to note that the miscellaneous schools
have the largest tptgl_number of part time faculty with 61,312. In
fact there are more part time faculty than full time faculty. This
situation is shared only by the junior colleges. This is one way
miscellaneous schools have been able to keep costs low. Many of
these part time people cost nothing. They volunteer their services
(see Table 5).

The smallness of the miscellaneous schools is also shown in
the number of pupils. The miscellaneous schools have an overall
average of 157.1 students per school. They also have the largest

class size with 26.7 pupils per classroom (see Table 6).

43

TABLE 6.--Tota1 Student Enrollment.

 

 

Type of Total Pupil/Teacher Pupils Per
School Pupils Ratio School
Kindergarten 1,842,458 25.3 159.3
Elementary 9,696,233 25.4 398.6
Junior High 4,688,444 20.8 438.7
Senior High 4,154,647 20.1 863.8
Technical
College 47,853 13.6 759.6
Junior
College 287,974 19.6 586.5
University 1,529,163 18.9 3,851.8
Miscellaneous 1,263,772 26.7 157.1

 

Source: National Association of Miscellaneous Schools, Miscellaneous
School Education, p. 7.

 

 

 

TABLE 7.--Private Schools in Japan.

 

 

Percent
Type of of Total Percent of Number of
School Enrollment Pupils Students Schools
Kindergarten 40.8 1,425,005 25.5 7,164
Elementary 0.9 56,076 1.0 162
Junior High 3.2 174,171 2.6 567
Senior High 7.0 1,291,794 23.1 1,224
Technical
College 0 7,812 0.1 7
Junior
College 2.4 260,944 4.7 423
University 1.7 1,159,217 20.8 290
Miscellaneous 43.9 1,236,935 22.1 7,699

 

Source: National Association of Miscellaneous Schools, Miscellaneous
School Education, p. 7.

44

In the area of private education, miscellaneous schools make
up 43.9 percent of all private schools in Japan. This includes some
7,699 schools. 0n the basis of student population, miscellaneous
schools rank a third behind kindergartens and senior high schools.
In actual fact, private education in Japan is popular and widespread

as Table 8 will indicate.

TABLE 8.--Private/Public Education.

 

 

Type of Public Private Public Private
School Students Students Schools Schools
Kindergarten 1,715,779 1,425,005 11,180 7,164
Elementary 9,595,032 56,076 24,540 162
Junior High 4,694,249 174.171 10.839 567
Senior High 4,170,501 1,291,794 6,007 1,224
Technical
College 46,707 7,812 63 7
Junior
College 275.256 260.944 486 423
University 1,468,538 1,159,217 389 290
Miscellaneous 26,837 1,236,935 356 7,699

 

Source: Agency For Cultural Affairs, Outline of Education in Japan,
p. 11. National Association of Miscellaneous Schools,
Miscellaneous School Education, p. 7.

 

Private education at the kindergarten level and levels of
higher education come close to approaching those of the public edu-
cation sector. Private education is an accepted part of the total
educational scene in Japan. In some cases private schools have

developed outstanding reputations and prestige.6

45

There are some publicly operated miscellaneous schools.

These have been established by the prefectural governments and the
national governments, to train nurses and other publically needed
occupations.7

Today miscellaneous schools offer a large number of programs
of varying lengths of training (see Table 9).

The most popular courses for women are: Western dressmaking,
nursing, handicraft, cooking, abacus, Japanese-Western dressmaking,
enrichment, Japanese dressmaking, driving, and foreign language.

These top ten courses of study for females show great emphasis
on home economic and enrichment types of education. Only nursing,
within this top group, clearly indicates a vocational goal. It
would seem that the bridal preparatory function of Japanese edu-
cation still exists to a certain extent in these schools.

The most popular courses of study for the males are: college
preparatory, driving, abacus, foreign language, foreign national
schools, surveying, chef, electricity, design, and computer. In
contrast to the female enrollment, the male enrollment clearly shows
a vocational orientation toward skills usable outside of the home
in business and industry.

The miscellaneous schools offer programs from a few months
in length to several years in length (see Table 10).

There are a few areas in which the majority of the classes
are less than a year in length. Driving is a class that obviously

requires a short period of time to master. Typing is another short

46

TABLE 9.--Types of Miscellaneous School Classes by Size of Enrollment.

 

 

No. of Total
Course Classes Enrollment Male Female
Western Dressmaking 4,718 203,628 1,408 202,148
Preparatory 311 159,381 134,074 25,307
Driving 579 113.183 80,036 33.147
Abacus 999 84,583 35.542 49.041
Nurse 816 71,682 1,321 70,361
Handicraft 2,085 56,223 25 56,198
Foreign Language 215 55,031 25,489 29,542
Cooking 642 52,613 231 52,382
Japanese/Western
Dressmaking 623 45,301 424 44,877
Enrichment 287 41,949 2,398 39,551
Foreign National Schools 132 40,855 20,036 20,819
Japanese Dressmaking 1,135 35,766 20 35,746
Typing 312 19,083 602 18,481
Chef 188 18,052 9,787 8,265
Surveying 54 17,135 16,277 858
Design 70 15,619 9,052 6,567
Home Economics 137 13,634 16 13,618
Beautician 187 13,393 1,821 11,572
Teacher Training 85 12,779 257 12,552
Bookkeeping and Abacus 139 12,211 5,375 6,836
Tea Ceremony Flower
Arrangement 278 11,057 239 10,818
Bookkeeping 105 10,657 5,911 4,746
Computer 86 10,487 8,397 2,090
Nursery School 69 10,290 2 10,288
Electricity 51 9,315 9,279 36
Accounting 99 7,827 4,272 3,556
Telegraphy 20 6.953 6.551 402
Music 95 6,901 1.481 5.420
Acupuncture/Massage 39 6,667 4,260 2,407
Business 98 6,455 1,927 4,528
Industrial-Technical 44 6,080 5,488 592

TABLE 9.--Continued.

47

 

 

No. of Total

Course Classes Enrollment Male Female
Machine 34 4,968 4,876 92
Art 54 4,959 2,546 2,413
Traditional Dance 67 4,723 251 4,472
Auto Repair. 55 4,366 4,275 91
Caligraphy 79 4,102 1.132 2,970
Radio-Television 29 3,431 3,397 34
Dental Hygiene 38 3,419 2,825 594
Dietician 18 3,288 617 2,671
Dental Technician 59 2,841 75 2,766
X-Ray Technician 21 2,633 2,456 177
Barber 122 2,618 1,079 1,539
Medical Technician 35 2,555 875 1,680
Laboratory Technician 23 2,544 755 1,789
Judo-Therapy 22 2,170 1,929 241
Religion 35 1,490 1,091 399
Stenography 15 1,370 233 1,137
Agriculture 19 865 799 86
Public Health Nurse 27 849 -- 849
Midwife 31 650 -- 650
Legal 6 623 566 57
Speech Correction 4 385 293 92
Drama 6 295 128 167
Chemistry 4 193 182 111
Hat Making 2 3O -- 30
Business Management 2 20 15 5
Others 165 14,490 9,782 4,708
TOTAL 15,670 1,245,668 432,227 813,441

 

Source: National Association of Miscellaneous Schools, Miscellaneous

School Education, p. 23.

 

48

TABLE 10.--Percentage of Classes by Length of Offering.

 

 

Less than 1 to 2 2 to 3 over 3
Course 1 year years years years
Western Dressmaking 13.6 59.2 20.4 .
Preparatory 26.0 70.7 2.0 1.3
Driving 100 -- -- --
Abacus 34.7 53.5 8.7 3.0
Nurse 0 O 70.4 29.6
Handicraft 30.2 54.7 11.5 3.6
Cooking 33.1 61.5 3.9 1.5
Foreign Language 38.0 32.6 13.4 6.1
Enrichment 11.6 13.7 15.4 59.3
Japanese/Western
Dressmaking 7.6 48.8 19.5 24.2
Foreign National Schools 2.6 4.3 5.8 87.2
Japanese Dressmaking 14.8 54.7 20.6 9.8
Chef 24.3 70.9 2.4 2.4
Typing 72.2 20.3 2.2 .3
Home Economics 4.7 17.5 17.0 60.8
Surveying 6.0 26.5 61.4 6.1
Design 11.0 18.9 63.7 5.8
Bookkeeping and Abacus 38.1 49.4 10.6 1.9
Beautician 10.2 86.2 3.5 0.1
Teacher Training 1.1 19.6 75.4 3.8
Tea Ceremony Flower
Arrangement 25.0 34.7 14.1 26.2
Electricity 2.8 20.5 73.3 3.6
Computer 4.9 21.4 73.7 0
Nursery 0 14.6 69.9 15.8
Bookkeeping 76.1 22.4 0.8 1.6
Accounting 25.4 52.9 14.4 7.3
Business 10.0 29.3 31.7 29.0
Telegraphy 2.1 10.2 86.8 .09
Music 27.2 26.5 27.9 18.5
Acupuncture/Massage O 7.2 45.9 46.9
Industrial-Technical 4.1 11.0 54.4 30.6

49

TABLE 10.--Continued.

 

Less than 1 to 2 2 to 3 over 3

 

Course 1 year years years years
Machine 4.3 19.3 46.0 27.0
Auto Repair 10.1 65.0 13.2 11.7
Art 26.4 39.0 20.2 14.4
Traditional Dance 25.1 20.8 22.0 32.0
Barber 15.3 80.6 4.0 O
Dietician O 21.1 76.2 2.7
Dental Technician 0 O 50.6 49.4
Calligraphy 26.1 35.0 16.8 22.1
Radio-Television .08 27.9 62.6 8.7
Dental Hygiene 0 56.3 41.4 2.3
X-Ray Technician 0 O 72.0 28.0
Laboratory Technician 14.1 9.0 76.9 0
Judo-Therapy 1.1 33.9 65.0
Medical Technician 19.1 20.0 31.9 28.9
Religion 23.3 33.3 43.3 0
Stenography 17.2 20.1 39.8 22.9
Agriculture 0 6.3 8.7 85.0
Law 4.5 95.5 0 0
Public Health Nurse 9.9 90.1 0 O
Midwife 50.9 11.4 19.8 17.9
Drama 60.0 40.0 0 0
Speech 10.9 69.5 19.6 0
Hat Making 0 81.9 18.8 0
Chemistry 10.1 4.7 84.6 0.4
Business Management 30.8 33.1 27.2 4.9
Others 26.8 40.5 19.3 13.4

 

Source: National Association of Miscellaneous Schools, Miscellaneous

 

School Education, pp. 18-19.

 

50

training course, if the students want merely to pick up the funda-
mentals and then proceed to practice on their own.

Midwifing is to assist in the delivery of babies and does
not require a full nurse's training. Drama and bookkeeping are
other classes which offer the bulk of their training in less than
one year.

In the category of more than one year but less than two
years, the following courses offer most of their training within
this time slot: Western dressmaking, university preparatory, abacus,
handicraft, chef, beautician, accounting, auto repair, barber, dental
hygiene, law, speech, and hat making.

In the category of more than two years but less than three
years there are classes offering training in: Nursing, surveying,
design, teacher training, electricity, computer, telegraphy,
industrial-technical, dietician, radio-television, X-ray, laboratory
technician, and chemistry. These courses are for the most part
technically oriented requiring greater training periods to accom-
plish the required skill levels and knowledge.

There are only a few areas of education which offer courses
of over three years in length. The areas themselves are quite
surprising. It might be expected that they would be highly technical
types of endeavors, but this is not the case. These areas are
enrichment, home economics, and agriculture. The home economics
and agriculture courses, in many cases, are a substitute for regular
formal education for many students and serve as a non formal secondary

type education. The enrichment classes are often offered over a long

51

period of time and include many types of different activities which
keep students coming back. Dancing, learning to play musical instru-
ments, and other like areas require long periods of training.

An examination of male and female enrollment in secondary
schools and higher education reveals some interesting facts (see

Table 11).

TABLE ll.--Secondary and Higher Education by Sex.

 

 

Total

School Enrollment Percent Percent

Type 1000's Male Female
Upper Secondary 4,170 50.7 49.3
Higher Education 1,791 72.1 27.9
University 1,469 81.7 27.9
Junior College 275 16.7 83.3
Technical College 47 97.9 2.1
Miscellaneous 1,309 32.2 67.8

 

Source: Agency for Cultural Affairs, Outline of Education in Japen,
p. 13.

 

University education is dominated by male students. This is
reflected in the high number of males taking preparatory classes in
the miscellaneous schools. Junior colleges are dominated by female
students. These schools appeal to girls who want a general liberal
arts education or a short commercial education which will provide
them with employment until they get married.8

The miscellaneous schools perform a similar role to that of
the junior colleges. The miscellaneous schools of today have a

larger number of women than men, and generally appeal to the women's

52

need to improve herself in the homemaking skills or to get a short

commercial training which will prepare her for a temporary job.

Vocational Schooling

 

Actually, all of the miscellaneous schools are considered
to be vocational schools. However, not all of the miscellaneous
schools prepare students for vocations. Many miscellaneous schools
are, however, vocationally oriented and train students in professional,
technical, and commercial areas. I

To get a better understanding of the role the miscellaneous
schools play in the vocational area, they must be compared to other
vocational programs in Japan.

The role the miscellaneous schools play in the area of
vocational preparation is difficult to measure because of the wide
range of programs and the lack of uniform standards among these
schools. However, some general patterns can be evaluated against
the vocational education offered under the Ministry of Education

and vocational training offered under the Ministry of Labor.

 

Within the Department of Education, vocational education
is carried out at the junior high and the high school levels.
Vocational education in the junior high school is a general edu-
cation which aims at cultivating the character required of a
prospective molder of the nation and the society, cultivating the
fundamental knowledges and skills of occupation necessary for
society, including willingness and respect for work, and the ability

to lead ones self successfully in the future.9

53

In the curriculum, this is accomplished through vocational
subjects such as techniques of homemaking, industry, commerce,
fishing, and general subjects such as Japanese language, and mathe-
matics. The vocational subjects usually come at ninth grade.10

The senior high school is divided into two courses: a
general course aimed at college or university preparation, the
other aimed at specialized education in which vocational education
is conducted. Agriculture, fishery, industry, and commerce are the
main vocational programs.]]

Recently, some of the high schools have been designated for
special vocational areas such as commercial high schools, and techni-
cal high schools.12

Vocational education at these two levels of secondary edu-
cation is aimed at teaching social and economic knowledge necessary
for occupation.13

Tables 12 and 13 indicate the breakdown of time spent on
specific areas at this level of education.

Within the general course of study there is a program
designed for employment directly after graduation from high school.
This program is much like the college preparatory program, but it
is somewhat more general and does include some vocational education.

As can be seen from table 12, this program allocates little
time to developing skills in the vocational areas, but instead gives

the student a general introduction to the areas of vocational edu-

cation. It is basically a liberal arts program.

54

TABLE 12.--General High School Course for Employment 3 Years
(3,570 Hours).

 

Academic subjects 2,435 hours
Vocational subjects 535 hours
Home room and electives 490 hours

 

Source: Agency for Cultural Affairs, Outline of Education in Japan,
p. 23.

TABLE l3.--Machine Course in Senior High School 3 Years (3,885 Hours).

 

Cultural subjects 1,890 hours 49%
Practice 560 hours 15%
Technical subjects 1,330 hours 34%
Home room ‘ 105 hours 2%

 

Source: Vocational Training Bureau, Ministry of Labor, Vocational
Training Jepen 1973, p. 14.

 

 

55

t

Table 13 reveals that almost one-half of the time is allocated
to education which is non-technical or vocational. Little time is
spent on actual practice of skills or applied learning. This program
does offer considerably more vocational preparation than does the
general program. This program does offer specific training along
with a general type of education.

Vocational training in contrast to vocational education,
has come about as the result of regulations established by the
Ministry of Labor. Vocational training has been defined as: "planned
and systematic activity which is provided for workers or those who
are to become workers, in order to enable them to acquire knowledge
and skills necessary for the trades."14

Vocational training has the objectives of training useful
workers, securing stable employment, improving the status of workers,
and securing economic and social deve10pment.15

In 1969, a Vocational Training Law was introduced to meet
problems of labor shortages and changes in skills needed for jobs
due to technical change. A major feature of the training law is
the attempt to develop lifelong training under which people would
be able to receive suitable vocational training when needed through-
out their working lives.16

Programs of vocational training are classified into basic
training, upgrading training, occupational capacity redevelopment
training, updating training, and instructor training.17

Basic training is for recent junior and senior high school

graduates and employment seekers to acquire knowledge and skills

56

for work. This basic training is divided into general training for
a short period of time, six months to one year, and advanced training
for longer periods of time, one year to three years. These courses
are further divided into junior and senior high levels.18

Upgrading training is for those who have completed basic
training or have the skills necessary in the trades to benefit from
advanced skill development.19

Occupational capacity redevelopment training is designed
for those who need to change jobs. This includes all age levels;
young, middle and old age groups. Specifically, this program was
designed for the middle aged and elderly unemployed coal workers
and workers who have been displaced because of industrial relocations.
It is also for those who simply want to change jobs.20

The updating training program is designed to quickly readapt
skills which have become outdated. This would keep tradesmen at
high skill levels in their particular fields.21

The instructor training program is designed to help those
who either wish to become vocational training instructors by learning
the necessary skills, or to improve the skills of those who are
already training instructors.22

Vocational training consists of two different programs at
each level of training. There is a level for junior high school
graduates which is longer and includes more general or cultural
subjects (see Table 14).

The high school graduate program is generally shorter with

the cultural subjects eliminated (see Table 15).

57

TABLE 14.--General Training Course: Junior High Level 1 Year (1,700

 

Hours).
Technical Subjects 300 hours 17.6%
General Subjects 200 hours 11.8%
Applied Practice 1,200 hours 70.0%

 

1,700 hours

 

Source: Vocational Training Bureau, Ministry of Labor, 1972
Vocational Training Japan (Japan: Ministry of Labor, 1972).
p. 59.

TABLE 15.--General Training Course: High School Level 6 Months
(850 Hours).

 

 

Technical Subjects 240 hours 28.2%
Applied Practice 610 hours 71.8%
850 hours

 

Source: Vocational Training Bureau, Ministry of Labor, 1972
Vocational Training Japan (Japan: Ministry of Labor, 1972),
p. 60.

58

The advanced course is much longer and trains very skilled

tradesmen (see Table 16).

TABLE l6.--Advanced Training Course: High School Level 2 Years
(3,400 Hours).

 

Technical Subjects 700 hours 20.6%
General Subjects 300 hours 8.8%
Applied Practice 2,400 hours 70.6%

 

3,400 hours

 

Source: Vocational Training Bureau, Ministry of Labor, 1972
Vocational Training Japan (Japan: Ministry of Labor, 1972),
p. 60.

 

Therefore, vocational training programs run from six months
to three years in length depending upon the level of training sought
whether general or advanced.23

It can be seen from Tables 12 through 16 that Vocational
training in contrast to vocational education, offers more practical
and applied instruction. Students become well founded in the basic
skills. General or academic work is kept to a minimum.

The most popular programs inthe vocational training centers
are: automobile maintenance (9,790), building in wood (5,520),
electric work (4,325), woodworking craft (4,760), electronic

appliances (4,055), piping (2,540), and concrete block building
(2,150).24 '

59

In 1962, the government established technical colleges aimed
at teaching professional knowledge to students and cultivating their

25 Today there are about sixty-six technical colleges in

abilities.
Japan. Each college is composed of three or four departments of
professional fields such as: mechanical engineering, electrical
engineering, civil engineering, industrial chemistry, architecture,
metallurgy, and aeronautics.26

Students come from the junior high level and spend five
years at these institutions becoming highly skilled and advanced
professional people.

In addition, there are technical junior colleges in Japan
which offer advanced training programs.

Some comparative value can be demonstrated through a survey
of 583 vocational miscellaneous schools which offered industrial
training. This survey produced some averages which might be used
to compare with the previous programs.

Industrial and machine operation miscellaneous schools offer
programs of less than one year in length to programs which train
students for over three years. Just like the vocational training
centers, different levels of skills are developed during the training
program. The example used in Table 17 indicates the training program
for a course, one year in length.

As can be seen, there appears to be a great deal of overlap
in these programs. The vocational programs at the high school are

three years in length and devote a great portion of their time on

general information. The vocational training centers, offer programs

60

TABLE 17.--Misce11aneous Industrial Training Schools 1 Year (1,107

 

Hours).
Technical Subjects 470 hours 42.4%
Applied Practice 393 hours 35.5%
Related Subjects 33 hours 3.0%
Cultural Subjects 211 hours 19.1%

 

Source: National Association of Miscellaneous Schools, Kakushu Gakko
Management Reference Book, p. 75.

 

 

from six months to three years in length and offer much more applied
practice to their students. The vocational miscellaneous schools
offer one to three year programs which closely parallel the vocational
training centers but which are definitely more concerned with applied
and technical knowledge than the high school program.

The technical college and junior colleges generally train
more advanced personnel, though some of the miscellaneous schools do
offer similar training to these schools.

One of the primary differences in these programs is that
the vocational education and vocational training programs are taken
in the high school or its equivalent in the vocational training
center. While the vocational miscellaneous school training is
generally taken after high school graduation. Therefore, many of
the miscellaneous school students have already completed a high
school degree and are seeking some kind of vocational training in

addition to their high school training.

61

There are some areas of overlap between vocational miscel-
laneous schools and vocational training programs. However, the
vocational training programs are more concerned with the training
of skilled tradesmen, while the miscellaneous schools seem to prepare
more white collar workers or people of business-commercial preparation.
Although the overlap does exist to a certain extent, the emphasis
is somewhat different.27

Vocational education on the other hand gives a much more
general or comprehensive training. In the commercial area for
example, the high school student might become acquainted with a host
of practices and procedures used in the business and commercial
world. The vocational miscellaneous school would, however, train
the student in a specific skill usable in the business-commercial
world such as typing or abacus. The miscellaneous school focus is
much narrower, but a higher specific skill level is reached.

In the area of vocational preparation, miscellaneous schools
may be broken down into several categories. These categories are:

(1) Medical, Health, Education, and Welfare, (2) Industrial-Technical,

(3) Business and Commercial, and (4) Dressmaking, Design, and

Cooking schools.

Medical, Health, Education and Welfare
In the present period of time, these schools train students
for vocations as: nurses, hygiene instructors, midwives, therapists,
massage, acupuncture, burn treatment, judo, technicians, hair dressers,

dieticians, bakers, nursery-kindergarten teachers, and social welfare

62

workers.28 These schools generally have stricter entrance require-
ments than other types of miscellaneous schools because of the
important public welfare nature of the position. This type of
training is generally absent in the Article I schools. These areas
of training are dominated by females.29

The Ebara Nursing School, is a miscellaneous school devoted
1 30

 

to nurses training and is attached to the Ebara Hospita Students
receive three years of training and then must pass a government
nursing examination. This appears to be no problem as 99 percent

31

of the students from this school pass the examination. The school

offers only general nursing courses and almost all of the students

who attend the school are women.32
If the students pass the government examination, they receive

the same salary scale as a university or prefectural nursing school

33 They cannot, however, do post-graduate study or

graduate.
additional training in the universities since these schools are not
considered the equal of the universities by the universities them-
selves.
Despite the lower prestige, this school of 240 students
has nearly three times the demand for graduates than the school
can provide.34
To gain entrance into this school, the students must pass
a written examination, take an oral interview, and get a physical
examination. Upon acceptance to the school the students generally

live in the dormitories provided by the school.35

63

The faculty are required to be registered nurses and must

have three years of experience. Most of the teachers are nursing

college graduates and a few have university degrees in nursing.36

The Central Barber College trains new barbers and also
37

 

provides in-service education to existant barbers. The in-service

education reaches about 800 graduate barbers each year. The number
of new barbers trained each year is about 150.38
There are governmental requirements established for barbers
and the school must operate its program in accordance with these
regulations. Barbers must have at least one year training and serve
a one year internship. The third year students must pass the national
barbers' examination before they receive a license to practice.39
The program of instruction is rigorous. The first year
requires the students to take 650 hours of practical skill training,
510 hours of sanitation, health, and psychology, and finally forty
hours of various liberal arts type of instruction.40
The second year requires students to complete 800 hours of
instruction. This instruction is divided into 400 hours of applied
theory of cutting, drying, styling, and wigs, 200 hours of practice
in a barber shop, and 200 yours of applied instruction and preparation
for the barber examination. To become an instructor, the student
must take an additional 100 hours of training.41
Ninety-five percent of the students are high school graduates.
There is an entrance examination which attempts to test the students

ability and knowledge of science and Japanese language. Nearly

eighty percent of the students are male. At the present time, the

64

demand for graduates of this barber school is about equal to the

supply that the school graduates.42

The Tokyo Professional Baking School offers training in

 

Western and Japanese style pastry making. The major emphasis of
the school is to train professional bakers, although there are
some domestic baking classes offered for women.43
Ninety percent of the students who attend this baking
school are high school graduates. The students must pass a written
and oral examination to be accepted.
The school has 250 students in their day course program and
100 students in the night course section. Seventy-five percent of
the students come from pastry shop backgrounds; usually a family type
concern. The day program is 1 1/2 years in length, while the night
program is one year in length. Officials felt that the night students
were generally more conscientious and hard working, therefore requiring
less time to complete the course of study.44
Seventy percent of those students enrolled in the night
program are men. In the day program the opposite is found with men
making up only twenty-five percent of the student enrollment.45
Once students complete the course requirements, they spend
one to two years in an intern program. After the intern period is
over, they go on to open their own shops or in many cases return to
the family business.46

The school employs but a few full time teachers. A great

deal of instruction comes in the form of guest lecturers. Graduates

65

of the school are sometimes sent to Europe to study and then are brought
back as teachers.47
Students must pass written and practical tests to become
accredited by the school. The classwork is eighty percent practical-
applied and twenty percent theory and lecture. The school provides
some dormitory space for students who do not come from the immediate

area . 48

Industrial Technical Education

 

Today's Japanese society needs large numbers of people, with
knowledge and ability to perform duties of a technical nature. The
Article I formal schools have provided some of this need, but not
all of it. Miscellaneous schools have supplemented the formal schools
in this technical area.49

These technical-industrial miscellaneous schools usually
accept high school graduates and put them through two years of
training in a specific area of study. The miscellaneous school
officials feel many of these courses are equal to that received at
a technical junior college. The miscellaneous school students do
not get the additional liberal arts education and usually receive
more direct and practical training and instruction.50

Included in this category are corporate schools for employees.
These schools are run by individual companies for the benefit of
up-grading their own personnel. They generally handle middle school

graduates who work in the company and provide them with a two to

three year course in industrial techniques and some specialized

66

training in the type of work they are involved in at that time.
Upon completion of the program of study, these students achieve the
status of a semi-skilled worker.5]
School offerings in the industrial-technical area include
electric machinery operation, general machinery operation, building
and construction, metal working, electronics, computer, industrial
drawing and photography, auto repair, shipping, and aviation related
skills. These skills are classified as middle range skills which
require a more specific training than found in the formal Article
I schools.52

The Tokyo School of Design and the Tokyo Photographic College

 

 

is a joint school operation. The motto of the school is, "Not head
to mouth, but head to hand," an indication of the practical nature
of the learning philosophy of this school and most of the miscellaneous
schools.53
Entering students must have a high school degree and pass
an entrance examination. The programs are two years in length. To
practice in their chosen fields, students must pass the government
licensing examination.54
The emphasis of the school is on practical and applied
training. In the design school of 1,100 students, the complete
process of design is taught, including the use of equipment and
machinery for production. Students serve an internship at local
industries to get further practical application. There is some
general or liberal arts course work required of the students as

we11.55

67

Petitions for enrollment are approximately twenty percent
greater than the school can accommodate adequately at the present
time. There is a 100 percent-plus demand for the graduates. These
two schools have achieved excellent reputations and graduates receive
incomes that compare with junior college and technical college gradu-
ates.56

In the design school, sixty percent of the students are
males. There are dormitories available for those students who come
from the outer areas surrounding Tokyo.57

The Photographic Cellege has 900 students enrolled in its
programs which includes both day and night sessions. Students can
enroll in commercial photography, documentation photography, and
broadcasting photography. Eighty-five percent of the students in
the photography school are males.58

The photography school has a total teaching staff of sixty-
eight teachers, twenty of whom are full time instructors. The design
school has over 200 faculty members of which forty have full time
positions. The schools have excellent reputations and require their
teachers to have teacher certification from a college or university.
This is done to keep the school on a standard equal to that of the
Article I schools.59

The school has enrolled approximately forty-four foreign
students from all over the world with the greatest proportion coming
from Asian countries. These students are provided with Japanese

language training at the school.60

68

The Chuo Engineering School offers a variety of high skill
training programs. There are five basic programs from which students

6] First, there is a girls drawing and tracing course.

may choose.
Second, there is a boys' and girls' surveying course which qualifies
the students for a government license. Third, is a two year machine
design course in which students specialize in manufacture design,
tool design, or engine design. Fourth, there is a girl's two year
architectural design course for housing and interior design. This
program also qualified students for the government licensing exami-
nation along with college and university students. Last, there is
a two year architectural design course for boys which is aimed at
industrial architecture. It deals with large building construction.
To qualify to take the government architectural license examination,
students must receive an additional two years of training as an
assistant to a registered architect.62
This School requires students to be high school graduates.
There are both written and oral examinations required for entrance.
Secondary school records are also examined. The school has many
more applicants for the architectural design course than the school
can accommodate. The other areas of training appear to be in balance
at the present time.63
The day school architectural design course costs approxi-
mately 200,000 yen ($700) which school officials state as being
about one-half the cost of the private university programs.64

There are 3,300 students enrolled in the day school program

and 1,600 students in the night school program. The school offers

 

 

69

extension and post-graduate refresher courses as well as its regular
program. Finding jobs upon graduation appears to be no problem for
the graduates.65
The school has 120 full time teachers and 140 guest in-
structors. Teachers must be experienced and concerned with edu-
cation. Teachers must also have good recommendations to be able to
teach there. Approximately one-half of the teachers are former
students of the school who have returned. The school has an
excellent reputation and students do very well on the various

government licensing examinations.66

Business and Commercial Education

 

The formal Article I high schools do have commercial programs,
but they are general in nature and do not provide their students
with directly applicable skills needed in the economic job market.
The miscellaneous schools provide a great deal of training in this
area. The increase in leisure and recreation in Japan has created
a third "service" industry. This new development has been picked
up by the miscellaneous schools and a number of offerings of this
type are included in their courses.67
Training in business and commercial programs includes:
bookkeeping, accounting, management, economics, abacus, typing,
stenography, secretarial training, tour leaders, stewardesses,
68

hotel managers, and hostesses.

The Ochamomizu Typing School offers three different programs
69

 

to over 1,000 students. There is a Japanese typing course, an

70

English typing course, and a consolidated course of study. The
English and consolidated courses require that entering students have
a high school degree. The Japanese typing course requires middle
school completion.70
The typing courses require nine hours a week of training
for a four month period. The consolidated course is aimed at
producing highly skilled typists. Therefore, this program requires
twenty-four hours of study and practice a week for a period of one
year. Demand to get into the consolidated typing course is greater
than the school can accommodate.71
The Japanese American Conversation Institute offers a
variety of language training programs including secretarial school,
languages school, interpretation schools, and schools of inter-

73 The focus of the course is to train people who

national studies.
will be involved in international business situations which require
the efficient use of the English language.

The school takes high school graduates and students from
higher educational institutions. Many of the students have uni-
versity degrees. Many businessmen attend the school if they are to
represent their companies overseas.74

The school offers both day and night classes, and in
addition to the language training, students receive education in
social sciences and comparative cultures.75

The school has a total of 735 day students and 981 night

students. The night classes are made up of sixty percent males

71

while the day classes are sixty-five percent female. Programs vary

in length; lasting a maximum of two years.76

Dressmaking, Design, and Cooking Schools

 

This is an area in which both vocational and cultural en-
richment takes place; depending upon the goal of the individual.
Dressmaking schools, for example, offer two year programs to develop
teachers, designers, and marketing skills needed by dress manu-
facturers. On the other hand, they offer basic sewing courses of
77

shorter length designed for women wishing to make their own clothes.

The Living and Cooking School was originally designed as a

 

bride preparatory school offering domestic cooking, tea ceremony,

and other course offerings.78

The schools now offer professional
cooking as well as domestic cooking.
There are 200 students enrolled in the domestic cooking
classes, all of them women. They attend school twice a week for
1 1/2 hours over a period of two years. There are sixty students
enrolled in the professional cooking class, forty-four of whom are
males.79
The students have completed high school although the
school only requires middle school graduation. Dormatories are
provided for the professional cooking students and the school has
many more applications than it can accommodate. No entrance exami-
nations are required, although officials do review students' past

records. All the graduates are placed into jobs without difficulty.80

72

The school trains its own teachers and gives postgraduate
assistantships to students to continue their training. In addition,
teachers are sent to the miscellaneous school teacher training pro-
grams.81

Oda Cooking and SewingpSchool is another former bride

 

preparatory school which has expanded into the professional training

realm.82

At present, the school has three programs: Western dress-
making, kimono making and wearing, and a cooking program.83

The school has 1,400 students in the dressmaking schools,
of which thirty students are male. There are 400 students in the
cooking classes. The professional cooking class is sixty-eight per-
cent male.84

Students in the cooking school attend classes for a period
of one year. Western dressmaking students attend for three years
and kimono making and wearing students attend for one year. The
professional cooking school offers Western, Chinese, and Japanese
style cooking. These students must have 1,200 hours of training
and internship to get a government license from the Department of
Health and Welfare.85

Students in dressmaking are thoroughly trained in all the
processes of dressmaking and design, and usually go to work for
dress manufacturers. The demand for these students is very high and
all who want jobs are easily placed. Those students who are inter-
ested in the domestic aspects, drop out of the classes after one

86 The school trains most of its own teachers who

87

year of training.

do post-graduate work to develop their teaching skills. These

73

students are given scholarships and usually act as teacher assistants

before becoming regular teachers.

Cultural-Enrichment Education

This area of education is not the main function of the
miscellaneous schools, but it is an area of future importance as
leisure time and adequate incomes come to be more widespread in the
Japanese society.88

Schools which offer this type of education are open to a
large variety of people. These schools are practical, requiring
only a few months of training or attendance. From this initial
experience, the student is expected to go on to develop the skill
by himself. There are no entrance requirements or minimal education
requirements. These schools provide a community school type concept
in the Japanese setting. As mentioned previously, the formal Article
I schools call this type of education social education, meaning
organized educational activities for youths and adults within the
formal elementary, secondary, and institutions of higher learning

89 Social education refers only to the formal schools, the

in Japan.
miscellaneous schools carry on their cultural enrichment activities
outside of the Article I schools.

Programs for social education are organized by governmental
and non-governmental bodies. The major public facilities are
citizens public halls, youth houses, children's nature centers,
museums, and public libraries.90

Citizen public halls are operated by over ninety percent

 

of the municipalities. They offer many educational activities

74

designed to improve intellectual and cultural life of adults and
children living in the community. They provide different kinds of
courses, lectures, art exhibitions, film shows, and meetings for
physical training and recreation.91

Youth houses are public facilities for providing young

 

people with residential group training. In so doing, they provide

a variety of short-term training courses for young people and youth
leaders, and give assistance to groups of young people in organizing
their educational programs. Assistance is provided in the form of
facilities and equipment to youths, as well as providing professional
92

staff to aid in various sports, recreation, and musical activities.

Children's nature centers are designed to acquaint children

 

with nature. Located in rural areas of healthy natural environment,

these centers provide observation and study of nature and assist in

the development of cooperative attitudes.93

Public libraries are run by the local governments and are
94

 

open for use by the public for their benefit.
Museums can be classified into general museums, historical

museums, fine arts museums, science museums, aquariums, zoological

gardens, and botanical gardens.95
Physical education and sports facilities are not limited to

institutions of formal education. They have been promoted under

the Sports Promotion Act as well as the Social Education Law. These

facilities include, playgrounds, swimming pools, gymnasiums, base-

ball games, tennis courts, and athletic fields.96

75

The miscellaneous schools offer a variety of programs of an
expanded social education nature including: bookkeeping, typing,
dictation, abacus, stenography, English conversation, drivers training,
cooking, sewing, dressmaking, crocheting, handicraft, tea ceremony,
flower arranging, music, art, and traditional dance.97

Corporations (usually textile firms) occasionally have
miscellaneous schools which offer classes to female employees of
middle school backgrounds. The schools generally offer dressmaking,
knitting, crocheting, cooking, and other kinds of home economic or
bride preparatory training. General culture classes are also

conducted.98

These classes are made to appeal to young women so
that they will come to work in these areas.

The Asahi Cultural Center is perhaps the most outstanding
example of this type of miscellaneous school. The school was founded
in June of 1974, by the Asahi Newspaper Corporation and is found in
the highest building in Japan.

Over 10,000 students have gone through the schools 240 classes
in the short time that it has been opened.99

The goals and aims of the school generally indicate the
purpose of cultural-enrichment education in all the schools.

1 To develop the individual for future happiness.
2. To provide for a lifetime of continuous study.
3. To have a place where people can communicate and express

themselves. . . . 100

4 to expand ones v1s1on from the home to the whole soc1ety.

In meeting these goals, the center offers a variety of

classes including; counseling services for home life, which includes

legal and health advice, and lectures on timely topics or special

76

presentations. Classes meet for varying periods of time. The short-

est class meets once a week for a two to three month period, and

cost 3,500 yen ($12) month or 10,000 yen for the three months (530).]01

'The classes are borken up into twelve main categories.102

1. Humanities There are thirteen classes offered covering

 

such topics as: sex education, helping with school work, child
psychology. and helping your preschooler all designed for mothers.
Others include: philosophy, religion, and family systems of Japan.

2. Communication There are twelve classes offering such

 

topics as: how to express yourself, video direction, advertising,
8mm movies, and photography.

3. Music and Dance There are sixteen offerings including:

 

Noh plays, traditional songs, Koto playing, and traditional Japanese
flute.

4. Flower Arranging, Tea Ceremony, Japanese and Regular Chess
There are thirteen of these classes.

5. Heelth_ There are five classes offering yoga, Chinese
medicine, and Chinese breathing exercises.

6. Daily Living, There are eight classes which offer legal

 

education, home science, economics, and counseling.

7. Literature There are eight classes which offer study

 

of various periods and types of literature such as the Tanka and
Haiku.

8. Languages There are twenty-one classes offering a wide
variety of beginning and advanced modern languages.

9. Art. There are fifteen art classes offered.

77

10. Dressmaking-Handicraft There are sixteen classes

 

dealing with modern and traditional dress and dressmaking..
11. Cooking There are seven classes which offer Japanese,
French, and other types of cooking.

12. Japenese Tradition and Culture There are six classes

 

which fall into this category of study.
In addition to the twelve categories of subjects offered
at Asahi Culture Center, special lecture series are also presented.

For example, there is a film study series on Selected American Movies

 

and one on Japanese Films After the War. These cost 6,000 yen ($20)
103

 

for the series of six films.

Figures gathered by the Asahi center show that eighty per-
cent of those who attend the center are females and generally are
in the twenty to forty year old age group. Most of the women are

housewives.104

Preperatory Schools

 

To understand the popularity of these schools requires an
understanding of certain facts of life in Japan. The major part
of Japanese industry and commerce is under the control of some
twelve to fifteen corporations known as zaibatsu. These industrial
groups were decentralized after the war, but have grown back to

105

great power and influence. These cartels have grown to include

manufacturing, distributing, retailing, banking, and supply of raw
materials"?6
In addition, the paternal role, carried over from feudal

times, has had its effect in the comtemporary society. Once a

78

student finishes his or her education and enters a firm, this is
analogous to marriage in that it is generally a lifelong association.
Few people move around to other firms even in the skilled profes-
sions. Employers tend to treat employees as though they are a part

107 This extends downward from the corporation

of an extended family.
to the universities, for each of the major private universities seem
to be associated with one of the large zaibatsu industrial-commercial
corporations through the boards of directors which its alumni

‘08 This university-corporate tie creates a situation in

directs.
which the corporation takes graduates of only particular universities.
There is a tremendous demand to get into the powerful universities.
This excessive demand for places in higher education and in particu-
lar those which control entry into the best positions, has lead to
a multiplicity of preparatory schools and tutors specializing in
cramming students for the entry examinations.109 About a quarter of
a million students annually fail their entrance examinations.
Many set about to study for next years examination. The repeaters
are called pggjg, the name given to the leaderless samurai who
roamed Japan during the feudal period.”0
The miscellaneous schools have stepped in to meet this
need. Certain miscellaneous schools function as institutions which
"prep" students to pass the rigid entrance examinations. These
schools provide the ronin with a place of study for the next year.111
This also applies to lower levels of education. There are

miscellaneous schools set up to get middle school students into

better secondary schools. Public education is mandatory only through

79

middle school or ninth grade, and entrance examinations must be

112 Better high schools

passed to get into the various high schools.
lead to better universities, so the race for success starts early.
The pressure starts even at the elementary school level. Visitation
to the Yokohama Academy brought to witness elementary age students
on summer vacation taking additional classes to put them ahead of

their classmates.”3

Most miscellaneous schools operate to prepare
post secondary students.

The Yokohama Academy is a miscellaneous school which offers

 

a full range of activities, including the preparation of students
for the entrance examinations of various universities. A great
deal of this preparatory work is done during the summer while
students are on vacation from the regular schools.

There are, first of all, courses designed to prepare students
for National University examinations in the fields of science-
technology and humanities-liberal arts fields. These are comprehensive
classes covering the total range of subject areas and the subject
matter students will be expected to know.114

The students attend classes from 8:30 until 2:15 every day
for a period of sixteen days. This program costs the student 15,000
yen ($50) and is aimed at seniors in the high school who intend
taking the examinations soon.115

There are similar class arrangements for students taking
private university examinations. These are split into upper and

lower status private universities in the areas of science-technology

or humanities-liberal arts. The classes are aimed toward the type

80

of university and the field of study the student is seeking to
undertake.”6
There are individual classes in math, science, literature,
and many other areas for those students who wish to "brush-up" in
only one area or a limited number of courses rather than make a total
review.]]7
There are classes which review the work taken in grades ten,
eleven, and twelve for students who wish to review. Actually review

118 Students can,

work goes down as far as the fourth grade level.
at a very early age, begin to ready themselves for eventual university
entrance.

It has been shown that miscellaneous schools offer their
students a wide variety of programs. These programs include various

vocational instruction, enrichment education, and the preparation

of students for university entrance examinations.

FOOTNOTES: CHAPTER III

1Central Council for Education, Basic Guidelines for the
Reform of Education, p. 93.

21bid.,
3

4

 

 

. 93.
93.
94.
. 94.

Ibid.,

 

Ibid.,

 

U‘U'UU

5

H

bid.,

 

6Edmund J. King, Other Schools and Ours (New York: Holt,
Rinehart and Winston, 1967), p. 304.

7Interview with Kayoko Shimizu, Ministry of Health and
Welfare, Tokyo, Japan, August 23, 1974.

8

 

King, Other Schools and Ours, p. 302.

 

9Vocational Training Bureau, Ministry of Labor, Vocational

 

 

Training Japan 1973 (Japan: Ministry of Labor, 1973), p. 12.
Ibid., . 12. '

Ibid., 13.

 

13.

 

13.

 

H
u-l
Q.
0
'U ‘U 'U 'U ‘U U 'U 'U ‘U
\l

 

O—I
U
and
Q.
a

'U
(I)

81

82

23Vocational Training Bureau, Ministry of Labor, 1972
Vocational Training Japan (Japan: Ministry of Labor, 1972), p. 58.

24Interview with Osamu Yoshida, Overseas Technical Co-
operation Division, Vocational Training Bureau, Ministry of Labor,
Tokyo, Japan, August 22, 1974.

25The National Technical College of Tokyo, Brief Information
of National Technical College of Tokyo (Tokyo, Japan: National
Technical College of Japan, [undated]), p. 1.

26Ibid., p. 1.

27Interview with Osamu Yoshida, Overseas Technical Co-
operation Division, Vocational Training Bureau, Ministry of Labor,
Tokyo, Japan, August 22, 1974.

28National Association of Miscellaneous Schools, Kakushu
Gakko Management Reference Book, p. 3.

29Ibid., p. 3.

 

30Interview with Otsuko Hara, Ebara Nursing School, Tokyo,
Japan, August 24, 1974.

31

H

bid.
32 .

H

l

bi

D.

33

H
D.

34

H

bi

Q.

 

35 bi

36Ibid.

H
0.

37Interview with Mitsuo Fukushima, Central Barber School,
Tokyo, Japan, August 12, 1974.

 

83

 

43Interview with Ichiro Fukushima, Tokyo Professional Baking
School, Tokyo, Japan, July, 1974.

44Ibid.

 

 

 

 

49National Association of Miscellaneous Schools, Kakushu
Gakko Management Reference Book, p. 37.

5°Ipid., p. 37.

5‘Ipid., p. 6.

521bid., p. 37.

53Interview with Kunitake Endow, Tokyo School of Design and
Tokyo Photographic College, Tokyo, Japan, August, 1974.

54Ibid.

 

 

 

 

59Interview with Atsushi Omori, Chuo Engineering School,
Tokyo, Japan, August, 1974.

60Ibid.

Ibid.

62Ibid.

61

84

64 b1

651bi

63Ibid.

H
D.

Q

 

6516i

(1

67National Association of Miscellaneous Schools, Kakushu
Gakko Management Reference Book, p. 3.

68Ibid., p. 3.

69Interview with Shiehishi Oikawa and Hiromichi Matsuyama,
Ochanomizu Typist School, Tokyo, Japan, August, 1974.

7°Ibid.

7‘Ibid.

721bid.

 

73Interview with Eiichi Hasegawa and Mrs. Merner, Japanese
American Conversation Institute, Tokyo, Japan, August, 1974.

74Ibid.

 

7516id.

761bid.

77National Association of Miscellaneous Schools, Kakushu
Gakko Management Reference Book, p. 38.

78Interview with Mr. Watanaba, Living and Cooking School,
Tokyo, Japan, August 14, 1974.

7916id.

80Ibid.

811bid.

 

82Interview with Tomoaki Oda, Oda Cooking and Sewing School,
Tokyo, Japan, July, 1974.

83Ibid.

84Ibid.

851bid.

 

85

861bid.

87Interview with Mitsuo Goto and Tadashi Sekiguchi, National
Association of Miscellaneous Schools, Tokyo, Japan, July 25, 1974.

 

 

 

881bid
9 89Agency for Cultural Affairs, Outline of Education in Japan,
p. .

90191g_, p. 8.

9]I_jg,, p. 9.

9?;_1g , p. 10.

93;_1g , p. 10.

94Ibid., p. 10.

951bid , p. 10.

96

Ibid., p. 10.

97National Association of Miscellaneous Schools, Kakushu
Gakko Management Reference Book, p. 5.

 

98Ipid., p. 6.

99Asani Culture Center, Activities Since the Openin : Special

 

Picture Edition (Tokyo, Japan: Asahi Cultural Center, 1974 , p. l.

 

 

 

1“maid.

105King. Other Schools and Ours. P- 298-

 

'0516i6., p. 298.

1(”Ibid., p. 298.

108Ipid., p. 305.

86

109Shipman, Education and Modernization, p. 248-
110Ibid., p. 248.

1"National Association of Miscellaneous Schools, Kakushu
Gakko Management Reference Book, p. 6.

112Interview with staff of Tokyo Junior High School. TOKYO:
Japan, July, 1974.

H3Interview with Kiyoshi Sakai, Yokohama Academy,
Yokohama, Japan, July 16, 1974.

H4Yokohama Academy, 1974 Summer School Bulletin (Yokohama,
Japan: Yokohama Academy, 1974 , p. 23.

n516id., p. 23.

 

n516id., p. 23.

n7Ibid., pp. 2-3.

'lgibid., pp. 4-9.

 

CHAPTER IV

MISCELLANEOUS SCHOOL REGULATIONS AND THE ATTEMPT TO
IMPROVE MISCELLANEOUS SCHOOL STATUS

Regulations

 

One of the major concerns, if not the_major concern, facing
the miscellaneous schools is the lack of a concrete definition and
delineation of the role miscellaneous schools are supposed to play
in the total educational setting of the Japanese society.

The situation is intolerable to the Japanese who seek concrete
relationships. The past Japanese society was definitely a vertical
society with clearly established hierarchies, rules, and regulations.
This attitude has carried over into relationships today in Japan.

One must belong somewhere or to someone, or to something so that
responsibility, respect, and prestige can be properly established.1

Therefore, the vague definition of the miscellaneous schools
causes great uncertainty among owners of the schools and leaders of
the National Association of Miscellaneous Schools. They feel they
have no established place and therefore have no status.

The miscellaneous schools were officially established during
the Meiji period, during which the miscellaneous schools played a
more prominent part in the total educational structure. Their status

remained much the same until the end of World War II. At the close

87

88

of the war, a whole new public education system was developed by the
Occupation Forces. This new system largely neglected the miscellaneous
schools.

It was the School Education Law, of March 31, 1947, which

 

created and established the new formal educational structure for
Japan. It is under Chapter VIII entitled "Miscellaneous Regulations“
that the miscellaneous schools are discussed.2

Article CXXXIII, defines the miscellaneous schools as "other

 

than those mentioned in Article I which give education . . . similar

3 Although the miscellaneous schools offer a

to school education."
type of education similar to the formal Article I schools, they can-
not use the name elementary, middle school, or high school in their

names.4 This is to clearly distinguish them from the formal system

of education.

The various regulations determine that miscellaneous schools
fall under the control of the prefectural governor who has the power
to create, abolish, or change the operations of the miscellaneous
schools within his prefecture.5 The prefectural governor may close
schools because of violation of laws, prefectural requests, or cases
where miscellaneous schools have not conducted classes for a period

of six months.6

In addition, the governor may order miscellaneous
schools to make changes when they do not meet established standards
for their operation.7

Miscellaneous schools must have a principal and at least
three teachers, and they must offer a program one year in length

consisting of at least 680 hours of instruction.8

89

Restrictions are placed on the school as to who shall not
be allowed to become principals or teachers. Persons who have been
judged incompetent, sentenced to prison for a serious crime, had
their teacher certification canceled within the last two years, and
those who propose to violently overthrow the Japanese government,
shall not be allowed to be a principal or teacher.9 A11 appointments
of principals shall be reported to the prefectural governors.10
The buildings out of which the miscellaneous schools operate
must be school-like in atmosphere and be a minimum of approximately
1,260 square feet, or must provide at least twenty-five square feet
per student.]]
Miscellaneous schools are responsible for their own financial
matters and may establish tuition fees to raise money for the operation
of the schools. This is subject to approval by the prefectures.12
The miscellaneous schools may establish rules for student
behavior and students may be punished for violation of school rules
which are approved by the prefecture. Corporal punishment is not
allowed.13
Many of the rules and regulations which apply to private
schools also apply to private miscellaneous schools. It should be
noted here that private schools carry out regular formal programs
of education similar to the Article I schools, except that this is
done by private persons not by governmental authorities. Miscellaneous
schools do not carry out equivalent kinds of elementary, middle, and
secondary education. Miscellaneous schools may be established as a

school juridical person.14

 

90

A school juridical person is a corporate, non-profit,
organization which runs and operates a school. The formal Article
I Schools are an example of a school juridical person. Miscellaneous
schools may also function as a school juridical person if the owners
desire to turn its operation into a public-non-profit Operation.

This type of school enterprise is referred to as a Gakko Hojin.15

 

In addition, miscellaneous schools may become incorporated
but still make profits. This is similar to the incorporation process
of any company. In this case, it applies to a school being operated
as a corporate profit making enterprise. These schools are known
as flgjjgschools.16

Finally, there are the vast majority of noncorporate, indi-
vidually owned and profit seeking miscellaneous schools.]7

The problem with these laws and regulations for the miscel-
laneous schools is that they do not establish the miscellaneous
schools as a definite part of the formal educational structure, nor
do they define the role of the miscellaneous schools in the edu-
cational setting and its relationship to the other types of schools
defined in the School Education Law.

This lack of direction is compounded at the governmental
level. Although the other schools defined in the General Law on
Education have been organized and put under the control and super-
vision of separate departments, the miscellaneous schools do not
fall under the administrative leadership of any one department,

organization, or committee. Monbusho has under its control, depart-

ments for each of the areas of elementary, middle, upper secondary,

91

university, and special schools. It is within these department
divisions that the miscellaneous schools are managed at the national

level.18

For example, in the Department of Lower Secondary Education,

there is a section for miscellaneous schools offering education

which would parallel this level of learning. The same situation

holds true for the other departments of the Article I schools. Each

has a section for miscellaneous schools.19
In addition, the Department for Private Schools has a section

for miscellaneous schools, and the Vocational Education Office gives

help and advice to miscellaneous schools who offer training to middle

and high school graduates.20

Administration

 

Miscellaneous schools find themselves included in many
departments and levels of administration in Monbusho's bureaucratic
hierarchy. This offers little control or help to miscellaneous
schools as a group since these departments usually do not know what

2] Direction comes from several different

to do with these schools.
sources and therefore, no one has a clear idea of what is going on
in relation to the miscellaneous schools as a whole.

The greatest control comes at the prefectural level. All
miscellaneous schools receive permission to start programs from the
governor of the prefecture. The department in control of private
school administration examines requests for establishment and reports
back to the governor. If approved by the governor, the new school

is allowed to open.22

92

Financial Support

 

Financially, the miscellaneous schools receive little direct
aid from the national government. The Japan Private School Develop-
ment Association originally gave some aid for medical, technical,
and commercial education. Most of this went to the larger schools

23

because of the restrictions placed on this aid. The aid was in

the form of long-term, low-interest loans. It was not until 1965
that an amendment allowed miscellaneous schools to get money under

24 Some 50,000,000 yen ($160,000) was set aside

this loan program.
for this purpose. This aid was limited to incorporated schools and

since the majority of miscellaneous schools do not fit this category
they received little of the money.25

In 1970, the New Japan Private School Develppment Foundation

 

Agt, placed the Private Development Association under the control
of Monbusho. This act creates new areas to which loans might be
given. This act has been extended and new courses of study have
been brought within the boundries of the act.26
In addition, new requirements have been established for loans
from the foundation. Schools are to provide at least one year of
training. Separate training must be given to middle school and high
school graduates. If more than one subject is taught, a two year
attendance would be required of students. The training must include
at least 750 hours of training in one year. An adequate number of

instructors must be present to insure proper education. Courses must

be taught for fixed periods of time with established starting and

93

ending dates. Finally, tests and grades must be recorded and each
student shall receive a copy of his grade certificate.27
These restrictions have limited the number of miscellaneous
schools which qualify. The Foundation sends out applications to
those schools who would meet the requirements and these in turn are
sent to the prefectural governor to sign.28
Of the schools that meet the initial requirements, additional
limitations are to be overcome. This includes a list of conditions
under which the loans will not be granted. These conditions include
such categories as: the school was in debt or has been delinquent.
in paying back debts, there has been unrest at the school, the school
appears to be failing, and enrollments are dropping. The school
has to be well established and the loans cannot be used for profit
making.29
If all requirements are met, schools can borrow money at a
rate of 6 1/2 percent interest. During the first two years, nothing
has to be paid on the loan. The loan is then to be paid back over
a ten year period.30
Some aid is received from the local and prefectural levels.
Prefectural aid is available to miscellaneous schools as part of
the prefectural private school policy. Miscellaneous schools are,
however, at the bottom of the list and receive small amounts of aid
compared to other private schools.31

Aid to the miscellaneous schools at the prefectural level

is of two kinds: aid to the Associations of Miscellaneous Schools,

94

and aid or loans directly to individual schools through the Private
School Development Foundation.32
Generally, aid goes for the training of teachers, or in-
service, and research on problems associated with the miscellaneous
schools.33
Almost all of the prefectures give some aid. In 1971-72,
forty-three out of the forty-six prefectures gave some assistance.
In 1971, there was a total of 34,240,000 yen ($114,000) given in aid.
In 1972, 38,270,000 yen ($120,500) was given. The top ten prefectures

for the giving of aid is in Table 18.

TABLE 18.--Prefectura1 Spending in Yen.

 

Tokyo 6,700,000 Kanagawa 1,700,000
Shizuoko 5,000,000 Niigata 1,500,000
Osaka 4,000,000 Kyoto 1,100,000
Hokkaido 3,000,000 Hiroshima 1,100,000
Aichi 2,150,000 Gifu 1,000,000

 

Source: National Association of Miscellaneous Schools, Kakushu Gakko
Manegement Reference Book, p. 34.

 

 

In some cases the aid is given directly to the schools and
not given through the miscellaneous school association. This money
is to be used mainly for physical plant, facilities, and personnel.
Nearly half of the prefectures give aid directly to individual

miscellaneous schools.34

95

Kanagawa prefecture is the largest contributor of individual
aid to schools. In 1972 this prefecture gave 85,000,000 yen in aid

35

to permit schools. The amounts given directly to individual

schools by prefectures is included in Table 19.

TABLE 19.--Prefectural Spending Paid Directly to Individual Schools

 

in Yen.
Aichi 45,000,000 to 47schools
Chiba 8,776,000 to 24 schools
Yamagata 6,970,000 to 16 schools
Akita 6,710,000 to 16 schools
Gunma 5,290,000 to 23 schools

 

Source: National Association of Miscellaneous Schools, Kakushu Gakko

 

Manegement Reference Book, p. 34.

 

As of 1972, nine of the prefectures established loan funds
from which miscellaneous schools could borrow. Included in Table 20
is the prefecture, the amount allocated for loans, and the repayment
schedule.

Miscellaneous school teachers can receive some assistance
from the Private School Teachers Co-operative. This is a privately
sponsored program. It is nationally organized to provide various
forms of social insurance benefits to its members.36

Any private school teacher can become a member of the co-
operative if he is a salaried teacher. The benefits include compen-
sation for illness, injury, disability, death, birth, retirement,

natural disasters, and layoff.37

96

TABLE 20.--Prefectural Loan Funds in Yen.

 

Hokkaido 100,000,000 6 year repayment
Fukushima 162,000,000 5 year repayment

Kanagawa 64,000,000 10 year repayment

Gunma 27,000,000 5 year repayment

Aichi 40,000,000 7 year repayment

Osaka 12,500,000 1 year repayment (maintenance)
6,000,000 5 year repayment (improvement)

Tattori 5,500,000 9 year repayment

Niigata some

Shizako some

 

Source: National Association of Miscellaneous Schools, Kakushu Gakko
Management Reference Book, p. 33.

Some social benefits come from the government in that they
provide sixteen percent aid toward retirement and provide some
assistance for long term disability and for death.38

As of 1973, 825 miscellaneous schools belonged to the co-
operative and this included 14,615 miscellaneous school teachers
out of a total of over 196,000 miscellaneous school teachers.39

Only schools which are incorporated as juridical persons
or school juridical persons can apply to the co-operative. This
limits the number of miscellaneous schools and teachers that can
join.40

In 1968, the National Association of Miscellaneous Schools
formed its own teacher co-operative. In 1970, it covered such

areas as retirement, death, and long term disabilities. Anyone

97

can be a member of this co-operative, but only a few members belong
at present.41

To try to clarify the legal definition, establish more finan-
cial aid, and in general try to improve the social and legal status
of the miscellaneous schools has become the major task of the National
Association of Miscellaneous Schools.

This organization started in 1948 as a friendly association
of miscellaneous school owners. At first there were two different
organizations. The one was for Hojin schools and the other was for
private miscellaneous school owners. In 1958, the Ministry of
Education suggested that the two organizations merge into one
association.42 The merger took place in 1960.

Of the 8,000 miscellaneous schools in Japan, 5,000 belong
to this National Association of Miscellaneous Schools.43

The present purposes and goals of the Association are:
to carry out research and investigations on the miscellaneous schools
and their administration, and to improve the quality of miscellaneous
schools and the education they offer.44

In order to accomplish these goals, the association has
established seven objectives.

To investigate miscellaneous school education

To collect data

To sponsor seminars on miscellaneous schools

To publish materials on miscellaneous schools

To give awards and recognition

To lobby and work with government agencies and departments

All other activities which would improve the miscellaneous
schools.45

\JO‘U'l-bWN—I'
o o o o o o o

98

Presently, the National Association of Miscellaneous Schools
has several officials including: a president, twelve vice-presidents,
a chairman of the board of directors, a board of directors of less
than twenty members, and three auditors or financial advisors.46

In addition to the preceeding officials, a council advisor
may be selected by the board of directors. His function is to counsel
and give advice. The position is largely an honorary one.47

The term of office for these national officials is two
years, but they are all eligible for re-election. Officials who
resign their positions must stay until a new official can be
appointed. The individual serves only the unfinished portion of
the original term.48

The general assembly is made up of the national officials
and the heads of the various prefectural branch offices.49

Assembly representatives are chosen by the miscellaneous
school owners. For every thirty schools, the owners are allowed
to elect one assemblyman. These assemblymen cannot be board members
of officials. They serve for one year, but can be re-elected.50

The individual, local branch offices have their own meetings.
In addition, they are usually broken down into specific areas such
as dressmaking or technical schools. This means that at the local
levels there are interest area meetings as well as meetings of the
entire group.51

For purposes of administration, the National Association of
Miscellaneous Schools has divided Japan up into large regional blocks.

Each block has a representative on the board of directors and carries

99

out the business of the association in that region.52 These blocks
are:
Hokkaido Block (whole island)

North East Block
Aomori, Iwate, Miyagi, Yamagata, Akita, Fukushima

 

North Kanto Block
Tochigi, Gunma, Ibaragi, Yamanashi, Nagano, Niigata

 

South Kanto Block
Saitama, Chiba, Tokyo, Kanagawa

 

Central Block
Toyama, Ishikawa, Fukui, Gifu, Aichi, Mie, Shizuoka

 

Kinki Block
Shiga, Kyoto, Osaka, Hyogo, Nara, Wakayama

 

Chugpku Block
Tottori, Shimane, Okayama, Hiroshima, Yamaguchi

 

Kinki Block
Shiga, Kyoto, Osaka, Hyogo, Nara, Wakayama

 

Chugpku Block
Tottori, Shimane, Okayama, Hiroshima, Yamaguchi

 

Shikoku Block (whole island)

 

Kyushu Block (whole island)

 

Senshu Gakko Bill
Over the past twenty years, it has been the Association of
Miscellaneous Schools that has been trying to get legislation enacted
which would give miscellaneous schools a more definite role in the
formal educational structure of Japan. A great deal of this work

has revolved around Senshu Gakko legislation.

 

Historically, a great deal of the discussion has revolved

around the concept of Senshu Gakko, or special skill schools. In

100

the past, Monbusho has wanted to designate appointed miscellaneous
schools as Senshu Gakko, while the National Association of Miscel-
laneous Schools has been trying to get improved status for all the
miscellaneous schools, not just the few.53
At present, a Senshu Gakko Bill, which is an amendment to
.the School Education Law, seems to have the best chance of being

54 It barely missed being passed in the last Diet session.

enacted.
This Senshu Gakko Bill would create three basic changes in
the school structure. First, it would create schools for middle
school graduates to attend. Second, it would create schools for
high school graduates to attend. And thirdly, it would create
schools that would deal with general education at the adult edu-
cation level. It would provide that Senshu Gakko schools would
offer a minimum of one year training of at least 680 hours of work.55
These Senshu Gakko schools would provide high school and
college level education to the middle school and high school graduates.
This education would be of a practical vocational type and would
provide these graduates with an alternative education to the tradi-
tional educational structures.56
At the secondary level, the law would allow these special
miscellaneous schools to use the name high school in their title

57 This

and to be the only ones to use the Senshu Gakko title.
would give these Senshu Gakko miscellaneous schools recognition as

regular Article I schools.

101

The same situation would also apply to post-high school
education. Senshu Gakko schools offering post-high school work
would be allowed to use the name junior or technical college.58

In the area of general adult education, these schools
would be the only miscellaneous schools to use the name Senshu
Gakko, which would separate them from miscellaneous schools which
did not meet Senshu Gakko standards.59

By getting the Senshu Gakko Amendment passed, the miscel-
laneous schools would hope for several things. The act would put
those schools which qualify, under national control rather than
prefectural. This would enable the miscellaneous schools to get
larger amounts of financial aid. Greater or stricter requirements
would be established for teachers who would supposedly improve
education and status of the schools. The graduates of these schools.
would receive recognition as being graduates of a Senshu Gakko,

which would bring them formal school recognition.60

Teacher Training_Program
In order to prepare for the anticipated Senshu Gakko Bill
Enactment, there have been efforts to develop teacher training
courses for teachers in the miscellaneous schools. Although not
all prefectures are working toward this teacher preparation, about
one-half of the prefectures are at this time.61

The object is to provide miscellaneous school teachers with

education classes similar to the under-graduate teacher training

102

programs at the universities. The students receive twenty hours
of education during a one year program.62

Tokyo has been the prefecture most involved in the teacher
training program. In 1971, the Tokyo miscellaneous schools initiated
a program for the preparation of teachers in miscellaneous schools
to upgrade their quality and position.63

The Senshu Gakko Bill would demand better preparation of
teachers in those miscellaneous schools which would hope to achieve
Senshu Gakko status.

The Tokyo Association has established qualifications and
accreditation for two kinds of instructors. The first certificate
is a beginning certificate. The second is a regular certificate.64

The beginning certificate holder must be a high school
graduate or its equivalent, and have finished the basic education
classes. The regular status includes the above restrictions and
includes one year of teaching or its equivalent and completion of
the advanced education seminars.65

Teachers who have teaching certification from the Article
I schools do not have to go through the process.66

Both beginning and regular certificate holders must take a
series of seminars. The topics of the seminars are reviewed by
the National Association of Miscellaneous Schools every three years.
At present, the curriculum includes:
education and society (general principles)
history of education
administration (laws and rulings)
psychology of youth
methods of teaching

guidance and coungeling (morals)
practice teaching

Vow-puma

103

In some cases students or teachers can receive accreditation
by doing acceptable research within the seven seminar areas of study.
The Board of Accreditation has final say on whether or not research
is acceptable.68

Those teachers who are presently employed or were employed
before the accreditation act was initiated, can be accredited by
the committee if the teacher wants to appeal the case on the basis
of on the job training or equivalent experience.69

The miscellaneous schools have generally been dissatisfied
with the non formal status they have found themselves in according
to the laws dealing with education in Japan. But it can be seen that
the miscellaneous schools have taken definite steps to improve their
position in the educational structure of Japan through activities

largely supported and initiated through the National Association

of Miscellaneous Schools.

FOOTNOTES: CHAPTER IV

1Dr. Kazutaka Watanabe, Views From the East (Fuchu Air
Station; Japan: Department of Defense Overseas Dependent Schools,
1966), p. 224.

2General Headquarters Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers
Civil Information and Education Section, Education Division, Post-
War Developments in Japanese Education, Vol. 11 (Tokyo, Japan:
Allied Command, April 1952 , p. 125.
Ibid., p. 129.
Ibid., p. 129.
I id., p. 130.
I id., p. 130.
I id., p. 131.

8National Association of Miscellaneous Schools, Kakushu
Gakko Management Reference Book, p. 2.

9General Headquarters Supreme Commander for the Allied
Powers Civil Information and Education Section, Education Division,
Post-War Deve10pments in Japanese Education, p. 130.

10Ibid., p. 130.

HNational Association of Miscellaneous Schools, Kakushu
Gakko Management Reference Book, p. 2.

12General Headquarters Supreme Commander for the Allied
Powers Civil Information and Education Section, Education Division,
Post-War Developments in Jepanese Education, p. 130.

13Ibid., p. 130.
14 .
Ib1d.. pp. 189-190.

15Interview with Mitsuo Goto, National Association of Miscel-
laneous Schools, Tokyo, Japan, August 21, 1974.

104

105

O

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

16Ipid.
< 171919:
18National Association of Miscellaneous Schools, Kakgghg_
Gakko Management Reference Book, p. 10.
Iggpig , p. 10.
qupi_., p. 10.
2‘;_1g , p. 10.
22Ibid., p. 10.
23Ibid , p. 31.
24Ibid , p. 32.
251219 , p. 32.
26ij_,, p. 32.
27;_1a., p. 32.
28Ibid , p. 32.
29161d , p. 32.
BQijg , p. 33.
311 1d., p. 33.

I id., p. 33.

33Interview with Mitsuo Goto of the National Association of
Miscellaneous Schools and Shotaro Morita of the Tokyo Miscellaneous
School Association, Tokyo, Japan, August 7, 1974.

34National Association of Miscellaneous Schools, Kakushu
Gakko Management Reference Book, p. 34.

35Permit schools are those who have meet the various regu-
lations and standards established for miscellaneous schools. There
are many schools who do not meet these standards who still call
themselves miscellaneous schools.

36Ibid., p. 33.

37Ibid., p. 33.

106

 

Ibid., p. 33.

42Interview with Mitsuo Goto and Tadashi Sekiguchi, Tokyo,
Japan, July 25, 1974.

43

44National Association of Miscellaneous Schools, Rules and
Regulations of the National Association of Miscellaneous Schools
(Tokyo, Japan: National Association of Miscellaneous Schools,
September, 1972), p. l

45

Interview with Mitsuo Goto, Tokyo, Japan, July 19, 1974.

 

Ibid.,
Ibi .,

 

501bid.,

 

P-
P
P
Ibid., p.
P-
P
P

Ibid.,

 

2
2
3
2
4.
4
6
6

I id ,p.

 

53National Association of Miscellaneous Schools, Kakushu
Gakko Management Reference Book, p. 12.

54Interview with Mitsuo Goto, Tokyo, Japan, July 19, 1974.

5516id.

56National Association of Miscellaneous Schools, Bill for
New Senshu Gakko Schools, No. 2:3 (Tokyo, Japan: National Association
of Miscellaneous Schools, May 15, 1973), p. 3

 

57Ibid., p. 3.

5816id., p. 3.

59Interview with Mitsuo Goto, Tokyo, Japan, July 19, 1974.

107

6OIbid.

GIInterview with Mitsuo Goto, Tokyo, Japan, August 21, 1974.

62Ibid.

63Tokyo Hojin Private Miscellaneous School Association,
Accreditation for Miscellaneous School Teachers (Tokyo, Japan:
Tokyo Hojin Private Miscellaneous School Association [undated]),

p. l.

 

 

641p1g., p. 2
65Ibid., p. 2
661p1g,, p. 2
57;_1g., p. 2
681919., p. 2
691 1d , p. 3

CHAPTER V

SUMMARY, EVALUATION, AND CONCLUSIONS

Summar

The Japanese miscellaneous schools have a long history.
They extend backward into the Japanese Feudal period. They have
since then, been an important, though not often recognized, part
of the total educational setting of Japan.

The miscellaneous schools, as a separate category of
schools, were officially recognized during the Meiji Period; as
government officials tried to establish a formal public education
system in Japan. Official recognition was again granted after
World War 11.

Despite official recognition, the miscellaneous schools
are not a part of the formal Article I schools of the publiclly
financed school sector and have been left on their own to establish
standards of quality, develop curriculum, finance, and develop their
own goals of education. They really are non formal educational
institutions, with more specific rather than general educational
goals.

In spite of this lack of direction, control, and support,
the miscellaneous schools have grown into an important part of

the present day educational scene in Japan. In doing so, they

108

109

have developed programs of vocational training, tutoring and pre-
paratory courses to help students pass the rigid entrance examinations
for the university, and various programs of domestic arts and en-
richment.

The miscellaneous schools have been playing an important
supplementary role to the formal Article I schools in Japan. Being
private institutions, they have had to rely on public demand to
make their programs successful. Attendance at miscellaneous schools
is not compulsory. Students must pay their own way. Therefore,
these schools must meet the educational needs of the people they
serve or they will cease to exist.

To understand this supplemental role and to evaluate the
success of the miscellaneous schools in recent times requires an
understanding of Japanese society and the adoption, after World
War II, of the American 6-3-3-4 educational system.

Comparative and international educators have long recognized
the relationships which exist between the society and the educational
system. They have known that one educational system cannot be
transferred completely into another culture without adjustments or
strain. This is especially true in a country such as Japan which
had developed its own highly organized formal education structure
many years before the war.

The Occupation Forces, along with Japanese officials,
adopted the American educational plan without major changes to
fit the Japanese setting. Normal channels for various types of

vocational and girls' education did not exist. A gap was created

110

between what the Japanese society needed educationally, and what
the new education system could produce. This situation had an
effect on the rapid growth of miscellaneous schools; in that the
miscellaneous schools began to provide some of the missing edu-
cational programs. This has always been somewhat true, but it
became even more true in certain types of middle skill level voca-
tional programs and in programs of domestic arts for women.

Despite the fact that the pre-war educational system was
undemocratic and sexually biased, it did meet the various needs
of the Japanese society to allocate certain kinds of needed training
and skills. The miscellaneous schools, have come to serve as a
substitute for some programs dropped by post-war educational
structures.

This does not mean, however, that miscellaneous schools
just live in the past. Miscellaneous school programs have been
growing in relationship to new needs which are not being met
lsatisfactorily in other educational settings.

In carrying_out this supplemental role, the miscellaneous
schools have been trying to provide practical and directly useful
training to their students. This type of training has generally
attempted to be directly related to practical needs and has been

short term in length when compared to the formal educational system.

Evaluation

 

In an evaluation of the Japanese Miscellaneous Schools,

several points can be made in their favor.

111

1. In the total educational perspective, the miscellaneous
schools are providing education not adequately handled by the formal
educational structure of Japan. Miscellaneous schools charge their
students tuitions and fees. Yet, a 1,300,000 student enrollment
indicates that there must be a benefit received. As such, they
are making a contribution to the Japanese society.

2. The miscellaneous schools have been playing an important
role in carrying on the cultural heritage of the Japanese. Areas
such as the tea ceremony, kimono making and wearing, and traditional
dance are important parts of the Japanese culture which give it
richness and set it apart from other cultures. After World War II,
many of the normal family processes for carrying forth these
traditional learnings were interrupted or lost. The miscellaneous
schools, to a certain extent, have revitalized this heritage and
have helped to keep it going.

3. The miscellaneous schools have the flexibility to meet
new and changing educational demands. As non-formal modes of edu-
cation, they can address themselves to specific needs more easily
than formal systems of education with their more generalized programs
and long periods of schooling.

This has enabled the miscellaneous schools to work closely
with business and industry, fitting their manpower needs with programs
offered by the miscellaneous schools. Because of this situation,
miscellaneous school students easily find employment after leaving

the school.

112

4. The miscellaneous schools offer vocational training and
further education to those who could not or did not want to go on
to the university after high school. Many students take the general
high school curriculum which does not give them the specific skills
needed for employment.

Some students are not capable of university education. The
miscellaneous schools can therefore provide further education and
the chance to develop marketable skills to these students. Their
talents are then put to use instead of going undeveloped. Costs
are kept low enough so that most students can afford to attend these
schools.

5. Miscellaneous school training can be taken during any
period of one's life. With the exception of minimum levels, no
age limits or sequence of education must be followed as in the
formal educational pattern. Students can enter when they feel the
need for the educational programs the miscellaneous schools offer.
This allows the student great flexibility to come and go, pick and
choose to suit his purposes.

6. The vocational training offered by the miscellaneous
schools is practical and skill related. These students need little,
if any, additional training once they have become employed. They
can immediately take on the responsibility of the position they
have secured.

7. Miscellaneous schools are providing domestic arts and

enrichment education, not available to women in the formal educational

113

structure, or which might have been missed while going through the
formal educational system.

Many middle aged women in Japan are attending enrichment
programs to occupy and improve themselves (within the Japanese
context) as their lives become less strenuous with modern con-
veniences and decreased family responsibility. These schools
provide outlets for their energies.

Criticisms of the miscellaneous schools come from two
different perspectives. One is an overall philosophical area which
deals with the total educational policy in Japan. The other is
more operational and relates more directly to miscellaneous school
function.

The Law of Education Act of 1947 sets forth the basic aims
and principles of education in accord with the "spirit" of the

1

Japanese Constitution. The central aim of education is to produce

self-reliant members of a peaceful and democratic community with

2 To this end, the law establishes specific

respect for human values.
national principles of education including equal opportunity, co-
education, non-partisan political education or sectarian religious
education.3 The law specifically prohibits discrimination according
to race, creed, social status, economic position, and family back-
ground.4

1. Largely by omission, rather than commission, the miscel-

laneous schools aid in discriminating against women in the Japanese

educational and social setting. The author in Chapter III, noted

114

that the university was largely attended by male students and the
junior colleges and miscellaneous schools were attended by women.

Certainly Japanese women have as much intelligence as do the
men, yet they do not go on to the university in equal numbers. The
reasons for this fall under the customs and traditions which dis-
criminate against women in Japanese education and society.

In part, the miscellaneous schools perpetuate this discrimi-
nation. One of their prime focuses, past and present, has been
women's education. Examination of this focus shows that classes
are primarily domestic art, enrichment, or programs for typists,
nurses, and other traditionally female occupations.

The miscellaneous schools offer JapaneSe women growth and
education, but only within culture bound areas, not in the democratic
sense put forth in the Japanese Constitution.

2. The miscellaneous schools also contribute to the
"examination hell" that hopeful university aspirants have to go
through to become admitted to the prestigous universities in Japan.

The author in Chapter III, discussed the tremendous pressures
to pass these entrance examinations. Life's success is seen as
making it to a prestigous university and then to a large corporation.
If the student fails, he becomes a ronin or he feels rejected and
loses face. This produces a great wastage of talent, time, and money.

The miscellaneous schools contribute to this problem by
tutoring students in the preparatory schools to take the examinations.
These preparatory courses have a heavy enrollment of male students.

The miscellaneous schools are aiding this unfortunate situation.

115

3. The miscellaneous schools as a group of schools, are too
broad in scope to be adequately understood by any one agency, depart-
ment, or person. They have so many different facets, being a col-
lection of anything that is not covered by Article I status, these
schools are a jungle of purposes and cross-purposes. It is under-
standable why the Ministry of Education does not know exactly what
to do with these various schools.

This contributes to a definite lack of direction and co-
ordination with other educational programs in Japan. For example,
miscellaneous schools overlap some programs offered by the
Vocational Training Centers and even some of the vocational edu-
cation programs of the public school sector. This duplication is
costly, and causes conflict between various educational programs.

If there is an over-all goal or philosophy of education
for the miscellaneous schools, it would be to offer any kind of
program which might be profitable or is not being done by anyone
else. This might be helpful to Japanese education, but really puts
forth a negative not positive direction or purpose. The miscellaneous
schools deserve much better. It is questionable if even the proposed
Senshu Gakko legislation will give this direction.

4. An additional, broad criticism of the miscellaneous
schools might be that they have been too successful in supplementing
the formal educational structure of Japan. Perhaps reform of the
formal education system has been slowed by the fact that the miscel-
laneous schools have been providing the needed education. A report

by the Central Council For Education states that:

116

. . it is not only necessary to evaluate the unique functions
that are being filled by the miscellaneous schools and to take
measures furthering their development, but also to consider
the extent to which such vocational training might be intEo-
duced into the curr1culum of the formal school educat1on.

Formal school officials are beginning to recognize the
important role miscellaneous schools have been playing.

A More specifically, there are some criticisms which can be
made of the way the miscellaneous schools function at the operational
level.

5. Miscellaneous schools have suffered to a certain extent,
from lack of trained teachers. Until recently, there was no attempt
to hire trained teachers. Teachers had skills in their particular
areas of teaching, but lacked professional education training. In
addition, many of the miscellaneous schools have in the past and
still do use part time teachers and guest lecturers. This may prove
economically beneficial, but has lowered both the quality of edu-
cation and the educational status of the miscellaneous schools.

6. Lack of standards in curriculum is another fault of the
miscellaneous schools. Miscellaneous schools offering the same
kinds of classes will vary in curriculum and length of training.
Some controls are enforced by various governmental agencies, such
as in health training or nurses training. But in many areas there
are no guidelines to follow. Some schools may have good programs,
others may not. This denigrates the status of the miscellaneous
schools as a whole.

7. The miscellaneous schools depend on students for their

financing. Too many schools in one area spreads thin the financial

117

support for any one institution. There appears to be no control
over this. The situation is made worse by schools which call them-
selves miscellaneous schools but do not really qualify. These are
usually backroom establishments ruh, owned, and taught by one person.
There appears to be little enforcement of laws and regulations in
this regard. These backroom schools not only weaken the financial
base of the legitimate schools but also causes a lowering of status
to the miscellaneous schools, because of poor quality or standards.
8. Miscellaneous school students must take examinations to
enter many trades and professions that Article I school students
or vocational training students do not have to take. This is an
indication of the lower academic status of the miscellaneous schools.
9. Lastly, private financing has several drawbacks for the
miscellaneous schools. It limits future planning, for funds are
always unsure. In addition, needed training may not be provided
because students lack finances. The miscellaneous schools have
attempted to keep student costs down, but there are, perhaps, many
students who could benefit from the miscellaneous school programs,
but cannot afford them. As economic situations worsen, the real
advantages of miscellaneous school training might have to be forgone,
preventing even greater numbers of students from receiving the

training they need.

Furtherpguestions in Research
At present there are a whole series of questions which remain

unanswered concerning the miscellaneous schools. The report by the

118

Central Council For Education would indicate that the formal educational
structure might be considering taking over some of the educational
programs that the miscellaneous schools have been involved in. This

is not a new occurrence for the miscellaneous schools. The writer

in Chapter II, on the history of these schools, indicated that during
their development, miscellaneous schools have been absorbed into the
formal educational structure when the need existed. How would this
effect the future of the miscellaneous schools?

The present Senshu Gakko Bill is likely to cause a split in
the schools which qualify for the Senshu Gakko status and those which
do not qualify. The Senshu Gakko Bill is primarily concerned with
the vocational miscellaneous schools and not the host of other miscel-
laneous schools that exist.

The National Association of Miscellaneous Schools has been
concerned about this situation. They have sought upgrading and
Article I status for all the miscellaneous schools, not just some

6 Will this cause a schism in the schools or the

of the schools.
formation of separate associations?

Another question is what will happen to these non formal
miscellaneous schools if they become a part of the formal educational
structure? Will they lose their ability to adapt? This is tied
into the additional question of financial support. The drive to
achieve Article I status is also tied into the quest for financial
support from the Japanese government. With financial support and

Article I status, there are likely to develop some controls. These

controls might hamper the ability of the miscellaneous schools to

119

be flexible to changing needs. With financial support assured, the
concern for making programs responsible to public demand might be
lessened. To exist, the miscellaneous schools have had to reflect
popular demand. With their existence somewhat assured, would they
feel as concerned with meeting the educational needs of the people
they have answered to in the past?

When questioned about the future status of the miscellaneous
schools with the Senshu Gakko Act being passed, school and association
officials were somewhat hesitant to reply. They appear to be un-
certain as to what the future will bring.7

These are questions that cannot be answered at the present
time but may provide content for future research on the miscellaneous
schools.

To make the best use of this further research and the present
research, studies need to be done in other countries in which there
are various non formal types of education. This is especially true
of the advanced nations of the world where the formal educational
structure has so overwhelmed the research in these countries that
most of the population are not aware of the valuable non formal
educational services that may be going on.

If this further research were done, then the miscellaneous
school experience in Japan could be compared to the experience of
other nations. This would establish whether or not the Japanese
experience is isolated or whether there tends to be some similarities

or general patterns which can be discovered from these studies.

120

Despite the problems that the miscellaneous schools have
faced and are facing at present, they are continuing to provide
needed education to the people of Japan. They exist today because
of cultural and educational forces effecting each other. They exist
because at the present time the formal educational system of Japan
does not meet all the educational needs of the people of Japan.

They exist because cultural forces put pressure on students to go

to universities, to take general high school programs, and not to
seek more realistic vocational goals and education. They exist today
because social forces have created enrichment and vocational needs
for women in Japan which the formal educational program has not

been responsive to. And, it appears, miscellaneous schools will
continue to exist in one form or another as the educational needs

of the Japanese people continue to fluctuate with changes in the

society, the economy, and the formal educational structure.

 

FOOTNOTES: CHAPTER V

1Agency for Cultural Affairs, Outline of Education in Japan,

2

w

Ib1

4

Q.

Ibid., p. 1.
' ., p. l.

I 1d., p. 1.

5Central Council for Education, Basic Guidelines for the
Reform of Education, p. 80.

6
7

Interview with Mitsuo Goto, Tokyo, Japan, August 21, 1974.
Ibid.

121

SELECTED RESOURCES

PRIMARY RESOURCES

Interviews

 

Endow, Kunitake. Tokyo School of Design, Tokyo Photographic College,
Tokyo, Japan. Interview, August, 1974.

Fukushima, Ichiro. Professional Baking School, Tokyo, Japan.
Interview, July, 1974.

Fukushima, Mitsuo. Central Barber School, Tokyo, Japan. Interview,
August 12, 1974.

Goto, Mitsuo. National Association of Miscellaneous Schools, Tokyo,
Japan. Interview, July 19, 1974.

Goto, Mitsuo. National Association of Miscellaneous Schools, Tokyo,
Japan. Interview, August 21, 1974.

Goto, Mitsuo, and Morita, Shotaro. National Association of Miscel-
laneous Schools and Tokyo Association of Miscellaneous
Schools, Tokyo, Japan. Interview, August 7, 1974.

Goto, Mitsuo, and Sekiguchi, Tadashi. National Association of
Miscellaneous Schools, Tokyo, Japan. Interview, July 25,
1974.

Hara, Otsuko. Ebara Nursing School, Tokyo, Japan. Interview,
August 24, 1974.

Hasegawa, Eiichi. Japanese American Conversation Institute, Tokyo,
Japan. Interview, August, 1974. -

Neguro, Katsumi. Ministry of Health and Welfare, Tokyo, Japan.
Interview, August 23, 1974.

Oda, Tomaaki. Oda Design and Cooking School, Tokyo, Japan. Inter-
view, July, 1974.

Oikawa, Shiehishi, and Matsuyama, Hiromichi. Ochanomizu Typists
School, Tokyo, Japan. Interview, August, 1974.

122

123

Omori, Atsushi. Chuo Engineering School, Tokyo, Japan. Interview,
August, 1974.

Sakai, Kiyoshi. Yokahama Academy, Yokohama, Japan. Interview,
July 16, 1974.

Shimizu, Kayoko. Nursing Section, Medical Affairs Bureau, Ministry
of Health and Welfare, Tokyo, Japan. Interview, August 23,
1974.

Staff. Asahi Cultural Center, Tokyo, Japan. Interview, July, 1974.

Staff. National Technical College of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan. Interview,
July, 1974.

Staff. Tokyo Junior High School, Tokyo, Japan. Interview, July, 1974.

Watanabe, Kuzutaka. Living and Cooking School, Tokyo, Japan.
Interview, August 14, 1974.

Yoshida, Osamu. Overseas Technical Co-operation Division, Vocational
Training Bureau, Ministry of Labor, Tokyo, Japan. Interview,
August 21, 1974.

Books

Agency for Cultural Affairs. Outline of Education in Japan. Japan:
Government of Japan, July, 1972.

General Headquarters Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers Civil
Information and Education Section. Education Division.
Post-War Developments in Japanese Education, Vol. II.
Tokyo, Japan: Allied Command, April, 1952.

Kamiyama, Jun-ichi; Kuranchi, Shiro; and Sekiguchi, Tadashi. Miscel-
laneous School Students Self Image Census. Report 28. Japan:
Noma Education Study Center, 1972.

Ministry of Education. Education in Japan: A Graphic Presentation
1971. Japan: Government Printing Bureau, March, 1971.

Ministry of Education. Education in 1968-70 Japan. Japan: Government
of Japan, July, 1971.

National Association of Miscellaneous Schools. Kakushu Gakko Management
Reference Book. Japan: Teikoku Chiho Gyosei Gakkai, July’20,
l973. ‘

 

Oshiba, Mamoru. Four Articles on Japanese Education. Tokyo:
Maruzen, 1963.

124

Reports

Agency for International Development. Prioritprroblems in Education
and Human Resources Development in the Seventies. Bureau for
Technical Assistance, Office of Education and Human Resources.
November, 1970.

Asahi Cultural Center. Activities Since the Opening: Special Picture
Edition. Tokyo, Japan: Asahi Cultural Center, 1974.

Ministry of Health and Welfare. A Brief Report on Public Health
Administration in Japan 1971. Japan: Government of Japan,
September, 1972.

 

National Association of Miscellaneous Schools. Bill for New Senshu
Gakko Schools, No. 2-3. Tokyo, Japan: National Association
of Miscellaneous Schools, May 15, 1973.

 

 

National Association of Miscellaneous Schools. Rules and Regulations
of the National Association of Miscellaneous Schools. Tokyo,
Japan: National Association of Miscellaneous Schools,
September, 1972.

 

 

Tokyo Hojin Private Miscellaneous School Foundation. Accreditation
for Miscellaneous School Teachers. Tokyo, Japan: Tokyo
Hojin Private Miscellaneous School Foundation, (undated).

 

 

Yokohama Academy. 1974 Summer School Bulletin. Yokohama, Japan:
Yokohama Academy, 1974.

 

Journals

National Association of Miscellaneous Schools. Miscellaneous School
Education, 36. Tokyo, Japan: National Association of
Miscellaneous Schools, March, 1974.

 

SECONDARY RESOURCES

Books

Illich, Ivan. Tools for Conviviality. New York: Harper and Row,
1973.

 

Keenleyside, Hugh. History of Japenese Education. Tokyo: Hokuseido
Press, 1973.

 

Kikuchi, Dairoku. Japanese Education. London: John Murray, 1909.

 

125

King, Edmund J. Other Schools and Ours. New York: Holt, Rinehart
and Winston, 1967.

 

Passin, Herbert. Society and Education in Japan. Columbia University:
Teachers College Press, 1966.

Reischauer, Edwin. Japen: The Story of a Nation. New York:
Alfred A. Knopf, 1970.

Shipman, Martin 0. Education and Modernization. London: Farber
and Farber Limited, 1971.

Spencer, Carmelia. Understanding the Jepanese. New York: Aladdin
Books, 1949.

Varley, Paul. A Syllabus of Japanese Civilization. New York:
Columbia University Press, 1972.

 

Varley, Paul. Japanese Culture: A Short History. New York:
Praeger Publishers, 1973.

 

Reports

Anderson, Ronald. Japan: Three Epochs of Modern Education. Washington:
U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Office of
Education 11, 1959.

 

Case, Harry. "Paper on Educational Planning." Paper presented at
seminar on Educational Planning, East Lansing: Michigan
State University, Summer, 1971.

Grandstaff, Marvin. "Educational History and Non Formal Education:
A Methodological Study." Non-Formal Education Discussion
Papers, No. 3, NFE and the Structure of Culture. East
Lansing: Michigan State University, 1974.

Kleis, Russel F. Case Studies in Non-Formal Education. East Lansing:
Michigan State University Institute for International Studies
in Education, 1974.

The National Technical College of Tokyo. Brief Information on
National Technical College of Tokyo. Tokyo, Japan: National
Technical College of Tokyo, (undated).

Vocational Training Bureau. 1972 Vocational Training Japan. Japan:
Ministry of Labor, 1972.

Vocational Training Bureau. Vocational Traininngapan 1973. Japan:
Ministry of Labor, 1973.

126

Watanabe, Kazutaka. Views from the East. Fuchu Air Station, Japan:
Department of Defense Overseas Dependant Schools, 1966.

 

Nepepapers

 

Illich, Ivan. "Abolishing Schools." New York Times, May 3-4, 1971.

 

HICH G

I AN STATE UNIV. LIBRARIES
I 111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111
1293104824622

23