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I .I I I i. flu}: éIIIIIIIIHII/‘Irl II. .II..II.III....’.IIIIII. I I- I I II. ‘lll-IIIIIII II III 3?? I . I I I .. I..»I.| . I III . -.IInI I II . .. I. IIIHIMrl I I I I”: I II I‘lnul I. . ..III I III I I .IIII .I . III. .III IlIrIIIIIIIIIInr. JIIII .. I . - I.In u- H- ..I I I.I I; K. Wu I I ”WW .I. IW " ' I ‘ I 1| I I " ' .' 3* U News!” This is to certify that the thesis entitled DIET—fig? C/lLCle/i {pub ,qmzmg’aé W/fC‘J iWCflLiS REQu/MMEUD cf q‘rLcustNG Aw) ’ch/tLT' 121A“) -mé‘chD PfiE/‘b’rio-MT)‘ presented by Racwrnu) DOUGLAJ‘ EEYAJ/JELLj has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for fll. D degree in IDOLALTTCY SgtEA/Ct' 4/1 71744» / /Major professo/ Date (7 (/l {/77 0-7 639 :ngnllggylllfi/LIJI/7 Ill/ll! 515 OVERDUE FINES ARE 25¢ PER DAY PER ITEM Return to book drop to remove this checkout from your record. i l MS \ L51?" fil DIETARY CALCIUM AND AVAILABLE PHOSPHORUS REQUIREMENTS OF GROWING AND ADULT RING-NECKED PHEASANTS By Richard Douglas Reynnells A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Poultry Science ABSTRACT DIETARY CALCIUM AND AVAILABLE PHOSPHORUS REQUIREMENTS OF GROWING AND ADULT RING-NECKED PHEASANTS BY Richard Douglas Reynnells Factorial-design experiments were conducted to better define the dietary calcium and available phosphorus levels and ratios for the growing and adult pheasant (Phanianus colchicus). Growing pheasant's dietary calcium levels were: 0.6; 1.2, and 1.8 percent; the available phosphorus levels were: 0.2, 0.4, and 0.6 percent; giving nine treatment combinations. The adult dietary calcium levels were: 1.5, 2.1, 2.7, and 3.3 percent; the available phosphorus levels were: 0.3, 0.4, 0.5, and 0.6 percent; resulting in sixteen dietary treatment combinations. The birds were confined in batteries (growing), individual cages (adults) or on the floor (all ages). Standard hatching, brooding, growing,and laying house practices were employed. Caged layers were artificially inseminated with approximately 0.025 ml of pooled semen (100 x 106 spermatozoa). For the growing pheasants, the treatment combinations with 0.2 percent available phosphorus were anorectic, rachitic, and lethal. Changes in chick body weights paralleled their Richard Douglas Reynnells feed intake. Feed intake of chicks was depressed with 0.4 percent dietary phosphorus and a Ca:P ratio or 3:1 or greater. Maximum tibia mineralization occurred with dietary calcium: available phosphorus ratios of 2:1, 3:1, or 1.5:1 in that order; with adult levels of tibia mineralization being reached between four and eight-weeks of age. The tibia calcium and phosphorus concentrations were not readily changed by the treatment combinations. The lowest mortality of chicks over all levels of calcium was for those consuming the 0.6 percent available phosphorus diets. No deficiency or excess of available phosphorus was indicated by measurements of adult egg and tibia parameters. However, 1.5 percent dietary calcium was not adequate as in— dicated by lowered tibia dry fat-free bone and ash, lowered eggshell thickness and eggshell weight as a percentage of total egg weight, and the decline in plasma calcium with higher plasma phosphorus. Only replicate effects were noted for feed consumption and the overall change in body weight of the hens. Mortality of adults fed any treatment was insignificant; while mortality of chicks from the hens consuming these feed treat- ments was significantly greater (P i 0.05) for chicks from hens fed the 3.3 percent calcium treatment combinations. Conclusions were that adult hens housed in cages or on the floor required at least 2.1 but not greater than 2.7 per- cent dietary calcium; 0.4 percent available phosphorus was adequate. A Ca:P ratio effect was not apparent. For the Richard Douglas Reynnells growing birds, the optimum response, as measured by all para- meters, was to the treatment combination of 1.2 percent Ca:0.6 percent available phosphorus. Treatment combinations of 1.8 Ca:0.6 P and 0.6 Ca 0.4 ) also produced favorable results. TO MY FAMILY AND PARENTS II ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS There is not enough space to specifically thank all those who have aided me over the last few years; so if I do not men- tion everyone, that does not mean the help was not appreciated. Cal Flegal has been an excellent major professor and I want to thank him for his help and moral support. Also, Charlie Sheppard should be thanked for his suggestions and guidance. Theo Coleman has been a friend for several years and has helped me more times than I can remember. I especially want to thank Bridget Grala and Sulo Hulkonen for their technical help in Anthony Hall; and Sue Simon for her help with the thesis and other projects. John Gill deserves a lot of credit for all the publications I have, for his invaluable and patient statistical help. I am indebted to Howard Zindel for my opportunity to attend graduate school and his well-intended advice. I also want to thank by at least listing, several others who significantly contributed to this work, their importance is not necessarily reflected in the order of their names: Glenn Carpenter, Nancy Down, Mike Huley, Lloyd Champion, Roger Neitzel, Charles Stine, Duane Ullrey, Melvin Yokoyama, Kit Ubersax, Mark Ubersax, Larry Dawson, Pao Ku, Phyllis Whetter, Pam Ryan, June Messner, Deby Rhodes, Bill Rhodes, Sandy Ambrus, Dick Aulerich, Samson 0gundipe, Joe Muiruri, Kathy Howell, Mike Teifer, Jenny Blough, Rich Balander, and the P.S.R.T.C. staff. III IV But most important of all, my thanks to Estela, Kathy, Mike, and Steve for their understanding and support under much less than adequate conditions. This work was partially funded by the National Institute of Health GMO Grant #1818, the State of Michigan Department of Natural Resources,and the Michigan State University Poultry Department. TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE Introduction 1 Literature Review 3 Calcium and Phosphorus Requirements 5 METHODS AND MATERIALS l4 PHEASANT BREEDERS 14 1. Experiment one (El) 22 2. Experiment Two (E2) 24 3. Experiment Three (E3) 24 STARTER/GROWER PHEASANTS 26 l. Day-old through 16 weeks of age reared on the floor 28 2. Battery-reared chicks (SC I, II, IIIC) 28 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 29 ADULT DATA 29 Egg apparent Fertility 29 Hatchability 36 Hen-day Percent Egg Production 40 Egg Weight in Grams 50 Eggshell Weight as a Percentage of Total Egg Weight 56 Eggshell Thickness (in mm.) 58 Eggshell Membrane Thickness 69 Blood Calcium and Phosphorus 70 1. Calcium 7O 2. Phosphorus 74 Adult Feed Consumption 76 Adult Bone (Tibia) 80 1. Percent dry fat-free bone (dffb); in mg dffb/100 mg tibia 80 2. Percent ash in mg ash/100 mg dffb 82 3. Ash percent calcium in mg Ca/lOO mg ash 89 4. Ash percent phosphorus in mg P/ 100 mg ash 93 Adult Body Weight (as the percentage change) 96 F1 Mortality 100 STARTER/GROWER DATA 102 Feed Consumption of Battery-reared Chicks (SG Ic and SG IIc) 102 Comparisons of Starter-, Grower-, and Flight—Aged Bird's Feed Consumption (SG If, and SG IIf replicates, only 105 VI Body Weight (in grams) 1. Day-old through four-weeks of age Body Weight through Sixteen—weeks of Age Starter/Grower Bone Determinations 1. Two-week-old Pheasant chicks Tibia dry fat-free bone (dffb) Dry Fat-free bone percentage ash Ash percentage calcium Ash percentage phosphorus 2. Two- and four-week old chick bone values for replicates SG If; SG IIf; SG Ic; and SG IIIC Tibia percentage dry fat-free bone (dffb) Dry fat-free bone percentage ash (from two— and four-weeks of age chicks) Ash percentage calcium (from two-, and four- weeks of age chicks) Ash percentage phosphorus (from two-, and four-week of age chicks) 3. Two-, four-, eight-, and twelve—week old pheasant chick tibiae values for replicates SG If, and SG IIf Tibia percentage dry fat-free bone (dffb) (two- through twelve-week data) Dry fat—free bone percentage ash (two— through twelve-week data) Ash percentage calcium Ash percentage phosphorus STARTER/GROWER MORTALITY Day-old through four-weeks of age SUMMARY Adult Pheasants Growing Pheasants CONCLUSIONS Adult Pheasants Starter/Grower Pheasants APPENDIX A APPENDIX B APPENDIX C APPENDIX D BIBLIOGRAPHY PAGE 111 111 116 119 119 119 122 126 126 131 131 133 134 136 136 139 139 142 147 147 147 154 154 155 157 157 157 158 161 170 217 220 TABLE 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 LIST OF TABLES Calcium effect on pheasant egg apparent fertility Effect of treatment combinations on pheasant egg apparent fertility Effect of time on percent egg fertility and hatchability Effect of treatment combinations on pheasant egg hatchability Replicate effect on the percent hen—day egg production Effect of dietary phosphorus on egg production Effect of time on egg production and egg weight Replicate effect on egg weight Effect of dietary calcium on egg weight Effect of dietary calcium on percent eggshell Effect of time on percent eggshell and eggshell thickness Effect of treatment combinations on percent eggshell Effect of dietary calcium on eggshell thickness Effect of treatment combinations on eggshell thickness Effect of treatment combinations on eggshell membrane thickness Effect of dietary calcium on plasma calcium Effect of dietary calcium or phosphorus on plasma phosphorus Effect of treatment combinations on plasma phosphorus Feed consumption of adult males Calcium effect on adult dry fat—free bone Effect of treatment combinations on adult dry fat-free bone Calcium effect on adult tibia ash Effect of treatment combinations on adult tibia ash Calcium effect on adult ash percentage calcium Effect of treatment combinations on adult ash percentage calcium Calcium effect on adult tibia percentage phosphorus Effect of treatment combinations on ash percentage phosphorus Replicate effect on adult body weight change VII PAGE 31 32 35 37 41 43 47-48 51 52 57 59 60-61 66 67-68 71 73 75 77 79 81 83-84 86 87-88 90 91-92 94 95 97 TABLE 29 3O 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 VIII Effect of treatment combinations on adult body weight change Effect of dietary calcium on F1 mortality Effect of treatment combinations on feed consumption of pheasant chicks Effect of treatment combinations on feed con- sumption of battery-reared pheasant chicks Dietary calcium effect on feed consumption of four-week old growing pheasants Effect of treatment combinations on growing pheasants Feed consumption by pheasant growth period Effect of dietary calcium on growing pheasants body weight Dietary calcium by phosphours by period effect on growing pheasant body weight Effect of treatment combinations on the growing pheasants body weight Body weight averages for pheasant chicks at day-old through sixteen-weeks of age Effect of treatment combinations on two-week old pheasant chicks tibia percentage dry fat-free bone Effect of dietary phosphorus on two-week old pheasant chick tibia percentage dry fat-free bone Dietary calcium by phosphorus interaction effect on the two-week old pheasant chick dry fat—free bone percentage ash Effect of treatment combinations on the two- week old pheasant chick tibia dry fat-free bone percentage ash. Growing pheasant's tibia ash percentage calcium Effect of treatment combinations on two-week old pheasant chick tibia ash calcium Dietary calcium by phosphorus interaction effect on two-week old pheasant chick tibia ash percentage phosphorus Effect of treatment combinations on the two- week old pheasant chick tibia ash phosphorus Effect of treatment combinations on the two- and four-week old pheasant chick tibia percentage dry fat-free bone Effect of treatment combinations on the two- and four-week old pheasant chick tibia dry fat-free bone percentage ash Effect of treatment combinations on the two- and four-week old pheasant chick tibia ash percentage phosphorus PAGE 99 101 103 104 106 108 109 112 113 115 117 120 121 123 124 127 128 129 130 132 135 137 TABLE 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 IX Effect of dietary calcium on two- and four— week old pheasant chick tibia ash percentage phosphorus Effect of time on growing pheasant's tibia percentage dry fat-free bone and the dffb percentage ash Effect of various dietary calcium and phosphorus combinations on the grower pheasant tibia percentage dry fat-free bone Effect of various calcium and phosphorus combinations on the grower pheasant's tibia dry fat-free bone percentage ash Dietary calcium by phosphorus interaction effect on grower pheasant Chick's tibia dry fat-free bone percentage ash Effect of time on growing pheasant chick tibia ash percentages of calcium and phosphorus Percentage mortality of starter/grower chicks through four-weeks of age, by replicate Effect of dietary calcium on the percentage mortality of pheasant chicks from all replicates through four-weeks of age Effect of dietary phosphorus on the percentage mortality of pheasant chicks from all replicates through four-weeks of age Effect of treatment combinations on the percentage mortality of pheasant chicks through four-weeks of age PAGE 138 140 141 143 144 145 148 150 151 153 APPENDIX A-D LIST OF TABLES TABLE PAGE APPENDIX A 1. National Research Council Calcium and Phosphorus 158 Requirements 2. Summary of total pheasant eggs used for the 159 determination of egg apparent fertility/hatchability 3. Percent hen—day egg production of Ring-necked 160 pheasants. APPENDIX B l. Ca:P ratios and treatment designations for 161 treatment combinations for adult and growing pheasants 2. Feed ingredient analysis restrictions used in 162 the computer formulation of these rations 3. Vitamin-trace mineral premixes for pheasants 163 4. Pheasant rations used at M.S.U. 164 5. Starter ration composition used in this study 165 6. Grower ration composition used in this study 166 7. Flight ration composition used in this study 167 8. Breeder ration composition used in this study 168 APPENDIX C This appendix consists of the Analysis of Vari- 170 ance Tables which were the basis of the statistical analysis of these studies. They are in the order in which they were discussed in the text, see the Table of Contents for this order. APPENDIX D 1. Period averages of feed consumption for starter 217 (weeks 1-6), grower (weeks 7—12), and flight-aged (weeks 13-16) pheasants from the floor replicates FIGURE 1. Expected hen-day egg production for S.C.W.L. 218 laying hens FIGURE LIST OF FIGURES Effect of time on pheasant egg apparent fertility and hatchability Effect of time on pheasant hen-day egg production Effect of time on egg weight Effect of time on eggshell weight as a percentage of total egg weight and eggshell thickness XI PAGE 38-39 45-46 54-55 62-64 E1 E2 E3 SC IF SG IIF SG Ic SG IIc SG IIIc Ca dffb ash Group 1 Group 2 ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS Experiment one - Laying Hens, first floor experiment Experiment two Laying Hens, second floor experiment Experiment three= Laying Hens, caged layer experiment Starter/Grower birds, first floor replicate Starter/Grower birds, second floor replicate Starter/Grower birds, first caged replicate Starter/Grower birds, second caged replicate Starter/Grower birds, third caged replicate Dietary available phosphorus Dietary calcium Tibia percentage dry fat-free bone dffb percentage ash Data of LH c was totaled and considered as a replicate for statistical analysis with the two floor replicates The LH c data was statistically analyzed alone, using the existing replication. The same statistical model (the simple ANOVA or the split-plot ANOVA) was used to evaluate data of either Group 1 or Group 2. All treatment numerical designations are defined in Appendix B, Table l. XII INTRODUCTION Because of an expanding population and a decline in the number of acres around metropolitan centers which are suitable for pheasant hunting, several states and individual gun clubs have sponsored programs to provide an opportunity for city/ suburban dwellers to hunt pheasants. In the state of Michigan this is the Put-and-Take Program, which was started in 1972. During the 1978 season, about 100,000 adult pheasants (Eggs;- anus colchicus) were released in selected areas for Michigan hunters who had purchased special licenses. An undetermined number of pheasants are reared annually in Michigan for private or commercial gun club release. The game bird industry in Michigan and the U.S.A. is a repidly growing economic enter- prise which has need of specific information regarding the nutrient requirements of game birds. Due to a need for in- creased economic efficiency, it is no longer adequate to assume that pheasant has requirements that are "close enough" to the chicken or turkey so that their rations may be freely sub- stituted for pheasants. Earlier investigators have noted that excessive levels of calcium in the rations of laying hen pheasants seem to result in depressed egg production (Hinkson 35 gl., 1970; Flegal g3 g1., 1973; Flegal, 1978). The National Research Council (1977) (N.R.C.) guidelines in the Nutrient Requirements of Poultry do not include phosphorus or calcium requirements for pheasants, with the exception of the starter/growers. The objective of this work was to add information to the existing knowledge about the calcium and phosphorus require- ments of adult pheasants so that acceptable dietary amounts and ratios of these minerals may be provided. In addition, an attempt was made to determine if growing pheasants could be maintained on dietary calcium and phosphorus concentrations somewhat less than the National Research Council recommendations. Various parameters which may be affected by different amounts of dietary calcium and/or phosphorus were evaluated in adult and growing pheasants. These included: tibia percentage dry fat-free bone (dffb); dffb percentage ash; ash percentage calcium; and ash percentage phosphorus. Mortality, feed con- sumption and body weight values were also recorded. Hen-day percent egg production, egg apparent fertility and hatchability were also measured as well as the eggshell thickness and the eggshell weight as a percentage of the total egg weight. Adult blood plasma calcium and phosphorus levelsxwere determined. LITERATURE REVIEW Hinkson 35 31. (1970) and Anderson and Stewart (1973) gave Leopold (1931) credit for initiating scientific research on the calcium requirements of pheasants. Leopold suggested that "the distribution of pheasants in the United States may be associated with soils of recent glaciation". Dale and DeWitt, in a paper about the vegetative sources of protein (see Hinkson, 1971), suggested'that calcium deficiency may be more serious to the pheasant'. Leopold (1933) (see Vance, 1971), and McCann (1939) proposed that grit was a major source of minerals for pheasants and other gallinaceous birds. Jones (1968) (see Vance, 1971) calculated 'that as much as 99 percent of a pheasant's dietary Ca might come from calcitic grit'. The work of Leopold (1931) apparently stimulated a number of other investigations about the grit (calcium/mineral) requirements of pheasants (Skoglund, 1940; Dale, 1954; Harper, 1963; Harper, 1964; Harper and Labisky, 1964; Korschgan g; 31., 1965; Kopishke and Nelson, 1966; and Anderson and Stewart, 1973). Skoglund (1940) may have been the first to define specific calcium and phosphorus requirements for young pheasants (see Hinkson 33 gl., 1971). Callenback gt 31. (1933) and Norris g5 31. (1936) were among the first to establish protein re- quirements for growing Ring-necked pheasant chicks. Sunde and Bird (l956)reported very little data was available about the phosphorus requirements of the young pheasant, that being Skoglund's work in which he only had two references. Wilcox 33 31. (1953) did calcium and phosphorus work with turkey poults and included an extensive literature review. Scott 33 31. (1958a) produced a series of experiments on the nutri- tion of pheasants which was based on work done by Scott and Reynolds (1949). Primarily during the early nineteen-seventies, the pheas- ant was used to determine the effect of various hazardous chemicals on wild populations of these game birds (Scott 33 31., 1954; Gill 33 31., 1970; Janda and Bosseova, 1970; Dahlgren and Linder, 1970; Dahlgren 33 31., 1972a; Dahlgren 33 31., 1972b; Huckabee 33 31., 1972; Dahlgren and Linder, 1974; Messick 33 31., 1974). An insufficient amount of work has been conducted to warrant the establishment of calcium and phosphorus guidelines by the N.R.C. for pheasant breeders (see Appendix Al). The N.R.C. values are generally considered as the acceptable ones, especially in cases of conflicting evidence (Waibel 33 31., 1961). Flegal (1978), based on the work of Flegal 33 31. (1973), stated that some of his breeder pheasant hens prematurely ceased production of eggs when fed a ration containing cal- cium at 3.3, and phosphorus at 0.8 percent of the ration. Calcium and/or phosphorus was suspected to be out of the physiological range for these breeder pheasants. For the data available in 1973, and in the 1977 publication, the N.R.C. has not established recommendations of mineral require- ments for breeder hens. Calcium and Phosphorus Requirements Andrews 33 31. (1972) concluded that a large portion of the total organic phosphorus was available for utilization by turkey poults. Their best treatment was a degerminated corn meal basal diet that contained 0.59 percent total P or 0.32 percent available P. Nelson 33 31. (1960) (see Waible 33 31., 1961) recently reported that after eight weeks of age, calcium and phosphorus levels of 0.5-0.6 percent of the diet each resulted in good turkeys. Waible 33 31. (1961) stated that excellent turkeys were produced both on range and in confinement, with reduced calcium and phosphorus levels during the growing period. Between 8-14, 14-20, and 20-24 weeks-of—age, the calcium levels were 1.24 percent of the ration (from 1.63 percent), 0.89 per- cent (from 1.36), and 0.62 percent (from 1.13), and the total phosphorus levels were 0.75 percent (from 0.84), 0.58 percent (from 0.72), and 0.48 percent (from 0.58), respectively. Balloun and Miller (1964) reported on the calcium require- ments of turkey breeder hens but made no recommendations. They found that 2.0 percent dietary calcium was best as meas- ured by egg hatchability but later in the laying season 2.5 percent dietary calcium resulted in the best hatchability. Hatchability was depressed by both the 1.5 and 3.0 percent dietary calcium levels, with the latter being more severe. In broiler experiments by Lillie 33 31. (1964), the chicks fed rations with 0.5 percent total phosphorus and 0.9, 1.0, 1.1, and 1.2 percent calcium, developed rickets by about 3 1/2 weeks into the experiment. The rickets were more pronounced with the higher calcium levels. These authors referenced several papers to support their findings that the dietary energy level had no effect on the calcium and/or phosphorus requirements for growth and feed efficiency of broilers. Wozniak 33 31. (1977) used phosphoric acid (assumed to be 100% available) as the reference standard to study the bio-availability of feed phosphates to broiler chicks which were fed a practical diet. These authors confirmed that the chick tibia bone ash assay was a sensitive and reproducible method to determine phosphorus bio-availability from inorganic feed phosphate. They did not make specific recommendations, but the highest ash was from chicks fed diets with 0.73 per- cent total phosphorus. Calcium was supplied at 1.0 percent of all diets. Dicalcium phosphate produced significantly higher bone ash (42.2 percent) than defluorinated rock phosphate (39.0 percent). Christmas and Harms (1978), when using three-week old cockerels, reported a strain difference in the phosphorus requirement and stated that these differences should be con- sidered when making recommendations regarding dietary phos- phorus levels. Watts and Davis (1960) concluded that 0.75-1.2 percent dietary calcium levels for broilers produced satisfactory growth when the total phosphorus was 0.7 percent (0.45 percent inorganic) of the diet. In their study, soft phosphate, dicalcium phosphate, or a mixture of the two were equally effective as a source of phosphorus. Waldroup 33 31. (1963) concluded that broiler require- ments for either calcium or phosphorus cannot be stated with- out specifying the level of the other element. Biely and March (1967) found that calcium could be reduced to 0.75 percent without decreasing broiler growth rate if vitamin D was adequate (600 ICU/Kg diet). Dietary phosphorus levels used were variable. They found no advantage to feeding less than 1.0 percent calcium and that calcium up to 1.3 per- cent was well tolerated with no indication of growth inhibition or decreased feed efficiency. Tibia calcification decreased with 0.75 or 0.85 percent of the diet as calcium, but was increased at these levels if vitamin D3 was increased to 600 ICU/Kg diet. Increasing dietary protein and fat reduced tibia calcification. Atkinson 33 31. (1967) reported that for breeder turkeys, dietary calcium levels of 1.24-3.95 percent "did not appear to have any particular effect on feed consumption, feed efficiency, body weight loss, mortality, fertility, egg weight or the percentage of broken and soft-shelled eggs". Dietary inorganic (available) phosphorus was 0.64 or 0.78 percent. There was a trend for decreased hatchability with dietary calcium at 3.95 percent. The Broad Breasted Bronze (BBB) hens in cages required at least 1.90, and the Broad Breasted White (BBW) hens required at least 2.66 percent dietary calcium. Floor-housed BBB hens required a minimum of 1.67 percent dietary calcium. Criteria used for evaluation were egg production, egg fertility, and hatchability. Maximum response was with about 3.0+% dietary calcium. Balloun and Miller (1964) reported on the calcium require- ments of turkey breeder hens but made no recommendations. They found that 2.0 percent dietary calcium was best as measured by egg hatchability but later in the laying season 2.5 percent dietary calcium resulted in the best hatchability. Hatch- ability was depressed by both the 1.5 and 3.0 percent calcium levels, with the latter being more severe. Anderson (1967) looked at the effect of chicken pre-lay dietary mineral concentrations on subsequent laying hen performance. He concluded the growing (10-22 week-old) chicken has a changing requirement for dietary Ca and/or Ca:P ratio. These needs were inversely related to the stage of sexual maturity, and directly related to a decreased rate of growth. The 10—14 week-old chicks needed about 0.8%, and the 14-15 week-old chicken needed about 0.6% dietary calcium. He used chick starter with 1.17 percent calcium and 0.5 percent avail- able phosphorus to ten weeks of age. Then the various levels of calcium (0.6, 0.8, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, and 2.5 percent) with available P at 0.5 percent of the diet were fed to 22 weeks of age. In one experiment with caged hens, he found no signif- icant difference in reproductive performance from feeding pre- laying diets of calcium levels from 0.6-2.6 percent. But in another experiment he reported a positive reproductive response to increasing pre-lay dietary calcium up to 2.6 percent for caged hens on wire and litter boxes within the cage. He concluded that the reproductive responses of these adult females was influenced not only by the level of pre- laying dietary Ca and/or Ca:P ratio and the type environment, but were also in part dependent on the rate at which growth and endocrine development are proceeding during the pre-laying adaptation period. In 1937, Titus 33 31. reported that 4.05 or 5.40 percent dietary calcium adversely affected the hatchability of chicken eggs, and the effect was greater with 0.9 vs. 1.2 percent dietary phosphorus. However, in 1963, Titus 33 31, (see Atkinson 33 31., 1967) reported the best reproductive perfor- mance of laying chickens was obtained when the diet contained 6.0 percent calcium. They reported that the phosphorus level for the laying chicken appeared to be relatively unimportant as long as it was not too low, with the optimum phosphorus level being approximately 0.75 percent. Sanford and Alder (1969) implied that the best Ca:P ratio was 3.0:0.7 (in percents), as measured by production parameters of the laying chickens. However, the best specific gravity of eggs was with the 3.0:0.6 (in percents) dietary Ca:P ratio. Scott 33 31. (1958a) found the minimum dietary calcium level appeared to lie between 0.93 and 1.33 percent for five- week-old pheasant chicks. There was no (growth) inhibitory effect when 1.6 percent dietary Ca was fed for this time period. They concluded that apparently the calcium requirement of 10 growing pheasants is not critical and can be met with safety by dietary calcium level within the range of 1.3 to 1.6 per- cent. Sturkie (1965) discussed the results of a dietary calcium deficiency for chicken layer-breeders. He stated the final cessation of egg production was due to an inhibition of pituitary gonadotropin secretion. He also stated that there apparently is no relationship between plasma inorganic phosphate and shell production even though several workers have found that levels of plasma inorganic phosphate increased during shell production. Owings 33 31. (1977) stated that their results indicated relatively low dietary phosphorus levels can fulfill the chicken laying hen's requirement for egg production provided that about 0.19% or more available phosphorus is present in the ration. To maintain livability, the available phosphorus requirement was thought to be at least 0.28 percent. Part of the available phosphorus should be inorganic in origin. Avail- able phosphorus levels of 0.19, 0 28, or 0.37 percent of the diet supported a high level of egg production during the 140 days of their experiment. Harms 33 31. (1965) reported that although high dietary phosphorus (above 0.44 percent Av. P) will depress perfor- mance of caged chicken hens, they tolerated high dietary phosphorus better than floor hens. They postulated that the difference is due to a higher phosphorus requirement of caged hens. They used inorganic phosphorus levels of O 44-1.44 percent of the diet. ll Harms and Waldroup (1971) found that levels of calcium up to 5 percent of the diet did not prove to be significantly deleterious to S.C.W.L. laying hens as measured by egg produc- tion, weight, or shell thickness, or feed consumption, over a four month period. Dietary phosphorus was 0.80 percent. These hens would even tolerate 10 percent dietary calcium for up to 28 days before the production parameters were affected. Scott 33 31. (1658a, b) used growth and calcification of the tibia as criteria for determining the phosphorus requirements for pheasants and Bobwhite quail. Scott 33 31. (1958b) reported the total phosphorus requirements for the Bobwhite quail to be 0.6 percent for the starting period (0-6 weeks) and no higher than 0.48 percent for the growth period (6-12 weeks of age). Skoglund (1940) (see Scott and Reynolds, 1949) showed the incidence of perosis was increased markedly when the level of dietary calcium for pheasant chicks was greater than two percent. In one study, 0.87 percent dietary calcium and 0.78 percent dietary phosphorus produced the best results. Skoglund concluded that the best pheasant starter ration calcium and total phosphorus levels were 1.5 and 1.0 percent of the diet, respectively. The former values are slightly higher than the requirements for young chickens (see the NRC pamphlet, or Scott and Reynolds, 1949). Scott and Reynolds (1949) concluded that except for the protein requirements, which resemble those for the turkey poult, their studies indicated that the nutrition of the 12 pheasant resembles that of the domestic chicken more than it does that of the turkey poult. McCann in 1939 stated that adult pheasants seem better able to maintain themselves on grit deficient in calcium than young birds, this is undoubtedly due to their greater reserve of, and smaller demand for calcium. Another point of interest is that experimental birds were found able to select between types of grit, preferring glacial gravel. This latter statement was confirmed by Sadler in 1961, Harper in 1963, and Harper and Labisky in 1964. Sunde and Bird (1956) implied that a lesser amount of total phosphorus was required for two-week-old vs. four-week- old pheasants (0.86 and 0.96 percent, respectively). They reported the chicks with 0.66% total (about 0.2% available) dietary phosphorus developed leg weaknesses after about one week. Optimal performance was achieved with 0.5% dietary available phosphorus (0.96% total phosphorus). Up to 1.46 total dietary phosphorus did not result in decreased growth or an increase in the evidence of leg disorders. The calcu- lated calcium content for all rations was 1.51 percent. Sunde and Bird stated that apparantly the phosphorus require- ment of the pheasant chick is high. For this reason, they believed the pheasant chick to be an experimental animal for determining the bio-availability of phosphorus in various types of feedstuffs. Soares 33 31. (1978) in their literature review stated that some reports have indicated that the chick and turkey poult can utilize various phosphorus (particularly 13 organic) sources more efficiently with age. Soares 33 31. (1978) used monobasic sodium phosphates as the reference standard (assumed to be 100% available) for their defluori- nated phosphate experiments. They used a dietary Ca:P ratio of 1.25:1 for all their broiler chick experiments. Labisky and Jackson (1969) measured egg production and egg weights of individual pheasant hens over three years and found that egg production and egg total mass was better for the two-year-old hens, than either the yearling or third year hens. Dale and DeWitt (1958) (see Greeley, 1962) reported that approximately 1.2 percent of the diet as calcium was sufficient for production of eggs and offspring by penned pheasants if they had not been subjected to a deficiency of calcium or phosphorus during the previous winter. The re-nesting phenomenon of pheasants was studied by Chambers 33 31. (1966). They found breeder hens fed a calcium-deficient diet did not produce a second clutch of sufficient size to adequately maintain the population of an area. In Appendix A, Table 1, are listed the dietary calcium and phosphorus requirements of chickens, turkeys, and pheas— ants according to the National Research Council. METHODS AND MATERIALS Experiments were conducted with adult and growing Ring- necked pheasants in an attempt to determine their dietary calcium and phosphorus requirements, as they related to the levels and ratios of these minerals. The specific experi- mental designs and other information will be discussed for each experiment separately, after any general comments. The Michigan State University diagnostic clinic performed all necropsies of pheasants to determine their health status. PHEASANT BREEDERS Two different management systems were evaluated (floor vs. caged breeder pheasants) for their effect on these dietary mineral requirements, in addition to the 16 dietary treatments which were of primary concern. The numerical designations of all treatment combinations are defined in Appendix B, Table 1. Due to lack of space, the two experiments of the floor-housed laying hens were done in consecutive years (May-August, 1977; and February-May, 1978), and in two different buildings. The second floor experiment and the cage layer experiment were con- ducted nearly simultaeously. Any differences in numbers per treatment in the floor or caged experiments were due to the availability of pheasants. Obviously, these seasonal con- straints tend to increase the uncertainty of valid comparisons between experiments (Anderson, 1967). 14 15 For all adult experiments, the allocation of birds to each of the 16 dietary treatments and of treatments to pens or cages was done randomly, with the restriction that all treatments received similar numbers of heavy and light hens. All birds were from stock that was not selected for any of the traits studied except that all birds were from stock selected for increased egg numbers. The source of the adult birds was not the same for all replicates. The floor-housed pheasants used in experiment one were from different genetic experiments here at Michigan State University. The original stock was derived from contributions from a private gamebird farm and the Michigan Department of Natural Resources. The floor-housed adult pheasants of experiment two and all the caged layers and males were progeny of experiment one breeders that were fed rations which were considered adequate in all nutrients. All adults were weighed before being assigned to a treat- ment. The birds were also specked (specks are plastic eye- shields to inhibit cannibalism) and wing-clipped at this time. For the pheasants in the first experiment, these operations were completed during the adjustment period, which lasted approximately ten days. The same amount of time was given birds in experiment two for acclimation. No pre-treat- ment period was allowed birds of any experiment regarding the feed treatments. The duration of all adult experiments was 90 days. 16 The composition of the vitamin/mineral premix, and a list of the ingredients used in the ration formulation are in different tables in Appendix B. The calculated analyses of pheasant rations currently used at Michigan State Univer- sity are also listed in Appendix B. The dietary Ca:P ratios, levels, and respective treatment combinations are listed in Appendix B, Table 1. In addition to the specks for the floor birds, red lights were used to aid in preventing cannibalism. Incandescent 15- watt light bulbs were spray painted red (OSHA Red). During the production period, lights for all replicates were on 14 hours per day and were increased to 17 hours per day after the peak egg production was reached (Hinkson 33 31., 1967; Woodard and Snyder, 1978). Sixty-watt incandescent light bulbs were used in the caged layer room. For all laying hen experiments, eggs were collected once each day. Eggs were recorded as intact, broken, or softshell, and marked to allow specific identification of each egg. All eggs were then individually weighed (in grams) and stored at 60°F (15.600) until they were brought to room temperature before being placed in the incubator. Eggs were not fumigated. On the same day once each week, the eggs were broken open, rinsed of albumen and air dried. These dried eggshells were stored for further processing. These eggshells were weighed individually (i 0.01 grams), and the eggshell thickness was * determined (1 0.05 mm.), using a micrometer . The average of Federal brand, model P6I manufactured by Federal Products Corp., 1144 Eddy Street, Providence, RI 02901 17 two eggshell thickness values taken at the equator of the egg were used for the statistical analysis (Hinkson 33_31., 1970). For three consecutive weeks, eggshell membrane thickness was directly determined from the total egg production for one day by using the micrometer that was used for measuring the eggshell thickness. This was done for only the caged layers and replicate two of the floor birds. For all adults, feed consumption was determined every 28 days and for the final week. The first statistical analysis (Group 1) of feed consumption was performed on the weighted treatment totals for each experiment disregarding the replica- tion within the caged layer treatments. The caged layer treatments were subsequently analyzed as a separate entity (Group 2). Feed consumption data for birds housed on the floor included the feed eaten by the males. Male breeder feed consumption was determined for the 48 individually caged males used for artificial insemination of the caged layers. A single batch of feed was prepared for hens of each treatment of the first floor replicate. A second single batch of feed, according to the treatment ration specifications, was pre- pared that was sufficient for the caged layers and experiment two of the floor birds. For all layer/breeders, heparinized blood was collected from each pheasant at the end of the experiment and pooled according to treatment and sex. jThis plasma was analyzed for calcium and phosphorus by atomic absorption spectroscopy and with a light transmittance spectrophotometer, respectively. 18 The blood plasma inorganic phosphorus was analyzed using the Gomorri modification of the Fiske and SubbaRow colori- metric technique and calcium via the atomic absorption spectrophotometric technique; both as given in the working laboratory procedures outlined by Ullrey. Artificial com— posite serum standards were prepared and diluted 1:4 with 12.5% TCA, the same as the plasma samples. The TCA de- proteinized the plasma samples. After centrifugation, an aliquot of the supernatant was mixed with an MS (molybdate- sulphuric acid) and elon (p-methyl-amino-phenolsulfate) solution, and read after 45 minutes of incubation at room temperature. For plasma calcium the deproteinized super- natant was diluted 1:2 with 20,000 ppm Sr, and read. For the breeders of experiment one, no tibia samples were taken. For experiment two (floor birds) two females and one male were killed and frozen for later removal of the tibia. Tibia data of the males were similar to the data of the females so the data were pooled for statistical analysis. For the cages layers (experiment three) one female from each replicate was killed (four per treatment) and one male from each replicate was killed (four per each of the two feed replicates), and likewise stored for later removal of the tibia. The tibiae were removed and processed along with the tibiae from the starter/grower pheasants for tibia per- centage dry fat-free bone (dffb), dffb percentage ash; and ash percents calcium and phosphorus. 19 For all tibiae, the following procedure was used. The bone was placed in boiling water for about two minutes, then the remaining tissue was mechanically removed. The air-dryed individual bones were then weighed, wrapped in cheesecloth, tagged, and crushed. These bones were then extracted with absolute ether and then 200 proof ethanol for 24 hours each. The bone packages were air-dryed between extractions. After these extractions the bones were considered dry and fat-free and were individually weighed into a tared, pre-ashed crucible. The amounts of dffb and ash were determined by difference. The bones were aShed at about 600°C overnight in a muffle furnace. Weighed portions of the ash were analyzed for calcium and phosphorus by dissolving in 6N HCL, diluting to 100 ml with distilled deionized water, then storing at room temperature. Working standards and sample aliquots of the diluent were diluted with SrClz. The calcium concentrations were then determined using an atomic absorp- tion spectrophotometer. The ash phosphorus concentration was determined by further diluting an aliquot of the pre- viously discussed diluent, plus working standards as described for determinations of plasma phosphorus. The calcium and phosphorus determinations were made using the previously discussed equipment procedures. At the time of hatch, all chicks of treated adults were banded and kept separated by dam treatment; they were then weighed as a group. Random hatches were collectively brooded for three weeks. For these randomly selected hatches, 20 mortality records were kept to determine the effect of dam treatment on subsequent liveability of the offspring. All chicks (including starter/growers) were brooded under gas brooders with supplemental infra-red lamps. These lights were on constantly. Heat was provided as needed, starting at about 90°F (32.20C). A cardboard brooder ring was used to confine the chicks for the first five to seven days. Depending on the availability of Plasson or other mechanical waterers, chicks were provided with water from the automatic waterers and/or one-gallon waterers for the first seven to ten days. They were then all changed over to 'automatic' waterers. At least one one-gallon waterer was provided for each 50 chicks during those first few days. During the brooding period, feed was provided in a tube or trough-type feeder, each chick having at least one linear inch (2.54 cm.) of feeder space for the first week, then at least 3 linear inches (7.6 linear cm) throughout the growing period. In the battery brooders the feeder space was at least 1.0 linear inch (2.54 cm) per bird with at least 0.5 linear inches (1.3 cm) water space per bird. Dimensions of the Petersime battery brooder cage were 40" x 28" x 9" (101.6 x 71.1 x 22.9 cm). Adult data were statistically analyzed in two basic ways. In one, the caged layer experiment totals were con- sidered as a replicate and evaluated along with the data of the two floor experiments (this has been defined as Group 1). In the other analysis the data from the caged females were 21 analyzed separetely (this has been defined as Group 2). One caged layer replicate (of four) was deleted for the statistical analysis of data from some parameters in an effort to avoid unequal replication at some time periods (egg fertility and hatchability). In those cases where the data in a treatment were complete, the replicates with the largest number of eggs were chosen. If no deletions were necessary all four replicates were used. The stat4 computer statistical program was used for evaluation of all adult and starter/grower data, except those with unequal replication (e.g. adult body weight per- cent change), for which a special ANOVA program was used. The stat4 program is a split plot analysis if there are period effects, otherwise it is the regular ANOVA. All linear, quadratic or cubic effects were determined using orthogonal polynomials. If the averages of any model component were linear, then all the points on the line could be considered significantly different. All statistical tests are described by Gill (1978). Differences between means were determined by using the Bonferroni t-test, unless otherwise stated. Exceptions are the tables where the treat- ments were ranked according to their degree of influence on a parameter, in which case the significance level was deter- mined using the Tukey test of means. In there was homogenous variance among the means, as determined by the f—max test (SLz/SMZ), the standard error of the mean (SEM) was calculated asfMSE/No. observations per mean. For the means with 22 heterogenous variances, the conventional square root of the variance divided by the number of observations per mean was used as the SEM. The values for all egg fertility and hatchability results are in percentages, as re-transformed from the arcsin. The arcsin transformation (i.e., arcsinyproportidh) of all original egg fertility and hatchability data was used for the statistical analysis of this data. The resulting arcsin mean values were converted back to percentages after statis- tical evaluation. Conversion of the SEM from arcsin to percentages is not correct statistical procedure. For each parameter discussed with a statistical analysis, the analysis of variance table is in Appendix C, in the order in which that subject appears in the text. 1. Experiment one (El) The pens of this replicate measured 7' x 10' (2.13 x 3.05 meters). There were 14 females and 2 males in each of 16 dietary treatments, each having 4.4 sq. ft. (0.41 meters) floor space. Pine shavings were used as litter for all adult and starter/grower floor birds. All adults of the first experiment were maintained during the growing period at six hours light per 24 hour period. They were brought into egg production by increasing the light duration in three two-hour steps, which were four days apart, to 14 hours total light. Males were lit about two weeks prior to the females. 23 Total egg production from six days each week was incubated in 1977 and from five days in 1978. Due to crowded conditions on the incubators, these eggs were candled at 10-12 days incubation in 1977. Apparent infertiles and early deads were removed at this time. Eggs were transferred to the hatching incubator at day 21 of incubation and chicks were removed from this incubator on day 26. Adult pheasant data that were collected are summarized in outline form: A. Egg data 1. percent hen-day (intact eggs) egg production by lO-day period 2. egg weight of all eggs except softshell and broken (including non-leaking cracks) 3. eggshell weight and thickness determined once a week 4. apparent fertility and hatchability-~for intact eggs from five days each week (10 weeks) a. mortality through three weeks of age for the chicks from these eggs; data were summarized according to the treatment of the dam B. Body weight percentage change over the 90 day experi- ment C. Feed consumption in grams per bird per day D. Adult blood calcium and phosphorus levels E. Tibia dry fat-free bone, ash, and ash percents calcium and phosphorus 24 2. Experiment two (E2) There were ten females and two males in each treatment of the second experiment. The pens used for the birds of the second experiment measured 10' x 15' (3.05 x 4.58 meters), giving 12.5 sq. ft. (1.16 sq. meters) per bird. During the maintenance period all pheasants that were used for experiment two and the caged layer experiment were specked and housed in a 38' x 24' (11.6 x 7.3 meter) room. Only four hours light was used during the major portion of this time. Specks were removed from the birds only when they were transferred to cages. These birds also had both wing feathers and tail feathers clipped to aid in the movement within the cage. Data were collected using the same procedures during the second experiment as in the first experiment. The type data collected in experiment two and the caged—layer experi- ment were the same as in experiment one with the exception of the additional information for the eggshell membrane thickness and bone data of experiments two and three. Also, for experiment two, all incubated eggs were only candled at the time of transfer to the hatching incubator. Again, all apparently infertile eggs and early deads were removed and recorded as such. 3. Experiment three (E3) The caged pheasants were given about six weeks acclima- tion time. Some pheasants would not adjust to this environ- ment and killed themselves by repeatedly jumping and hitting 25 the cage top or by not eating. The caged layers were confined individually in 8" x 14" x 12" (20.3 x 35.6 x 30.5 cm.), numbered cages; giving a space of 112 sq. in. (722.7 sq. cm.) per bird. One inch (2.54 cm.) mesh 14 guage wire was used to construct the cages. These cages had a two inch (5.08 cm.) sloping wire floor and a four inch (10.2 cm.) wide egg tray which was divided according to cage number by a piece of wire. The mono-Flo watering system.was used. The cage doors were constructed to swing 'in' for ease of catching and returning the hens or cocks for/after artificial insemination or semen collection. The feeders were attached to the outside of the cage, par- tially blocking the door. Door fasteners had to be used for a portion of the cages to prevent the pheasant's escape. All birds were weighed and had the wing feathers clipped before treatments started. Specks were removed from all caged birds. The caged birds had the feathers clipped on both wings and the tail. There were four hens per replicate and four replicates per treatment, with replicates randomly allocated throughout the room but also ensuring a replicate from each treatment in all sections of the room (two sides and the middle). Forty-eight males were randomly allocated to one of two feed replicates of the same commercial layer breeder ration. The males were used as the source of the semen for the artificial insemination part of the experiments. The secondary purpose of these male feed replicates was to determine the average feed consumption of caged male pheasants. 26 All males were kept in the center cages, at the end opposite the females of the center section. For the artificial insemination, a glass tube 'straw' was calibrated to hold approximately 100 million spermatozoa (0.025 ml semen). This was done using a light transmittance spectrophotometer and a standard curve. The sperm count of the standard curve was established with a hemocytometer. Males were lit about three weeks prior to the females and about five weeks before the need for semen (Woodard and Snyder, 1978). Hens were initially inseminated three times in eight days, and weekly thereafter. Within 15 minutes after collecting the pooled semen in a glass or plastic vial, the semen was deposited at the UV junction of the everted female's oviduct by blowing it through a straw/rubber hose assembly. STARTER/GROWER PHEASANTS As for the adults, two types of management systems were evaluated (floor-reared chicks through l6-weeks of age vs. battery-reared chicks through four-weeks of age) for their effect on these dietary mineral requirements. These data were in addition to evaluating the nine dietary treatments, which were of primary concern. Again, differences in numbers per replicate were due to the availability of chicks. The source of chicks was the same for all replicates (from hens of experiment one that were being fed the conventional pheasant rations) except the chicks of the first floor replicate. The chicks from the first floor replicate came 27 from extra eggs from breeders at the Department of Natural Resources gamebird farm at Mason, Michigan. Ingredients used and the calculated analyses for the dietary treatments are listed in Appendix B. Enough feed (starter or grower or flight) was mixed at one time so all replicates at a particular age were fed with feed ingredients from the same source. There were two replicates for the floor-reared chicks and three for the battery-reared chicks. However, there was a problem with one replicate of the battery-reared chicks in that some chicks initially could intermingle to a limited degree between treatments, but not later. Therefore, the only data used from this replicate was for the bone data from chicks in the correct group at four-weeks of age. The tibiae from the developing pheasant chicks were proCessed as discussed for the adult bones. Samples were taken at two, four, eight, and twelve-weeks of age. Due to excessive mortality in the 0.2 percent dietary phosphorus treatments, the tibia data were analyzed in three different ways: 1. all floor and caged replicates and using all treat- ments at two weeks of age 2. two and four week data comparisons for all replicates except SG IIc 3. two, four, eight, and twelve week data for only the floor replicates. In an effort to decrease experimental error (and to create enough ash for calcium and phosphorus determinations) 28 both tibiae were combined and processed as one, for the two- and four-week old chicks. Otherwise one tibia, chosen randomly, was used for the various determinations. The now- calcified cartilage cap was included for all eight-week and older birds. 1. Day-old through 16 weeks of age reared on the floor Replicate one had 52 chicks and replicate two had 45 chicks in each of nine dietary treatments, respectively. Replicate one was conducted from June through September, and replicate two from August through December, 1977. Data collected from these chicks were: A. body weight for day-old through four-, eight-, twelve—, and sixteen-weeks of age B. Feed Comsumption 1. Starter: day one through six-weeks of age 2. Grower: seven through twelve-weeks of age 3. Flight: thirteen through sixteen-weeks of age C. tibia determinations as previously described for the adult tibiae 2. Battery-reared chicks (SG I, II, IIIc) Replicates one, two, and three had 22, 26, or 25 chicks, respectively, in each of nine dietary treatments. The duration of these experiments was day-old through four-weeks of age. These replicates were terminated after the 28th day due to the vertical space limitations of the Petersime battery- brooders. 29 All starter/grower experiments were conducted during July and August, 1977. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Data from the adults will be presented first, then the starter/grower information, and then an overall summary/ discussion. Treatment numerical designations are defined in Appendix B, Table 1. Groups 1 and 2 are defined on the Abbreviations and Symbols page. ADULT DATA Egg Apparent Fertility For Group 1 the experiment means for egg apparent fertility were: E1 = 61.2; E2 = 73.7; E3 = 86.8 percent, respectively. All these means significantly differed from each other (P i 0.05). These levels of fertility are similar to the ones from.natural mating experiments as reported by Woodard 33 31. (1970). The Chukkar Partridge egg fertility averages for four successive production periods was: 77; 74; 83; and 79 percent, respectively. The different pheasant mating systems may be a reason for these differences between means of pheasant egg apparent fertility. The inherent vari- ability of the mass mating system vs. artificial insemination could have had an influence on these values. Also, it should be remembered that the present experiments were done over two years and at different seasons (E1 = May through August, 1977; E2 and E3 = February through May, 1978). 30 In Group 1, increased concentrations of dietary calcium caused a linear (P i 0.01) decline in egg apparent fertility (P i 0.035), see Table 1. Only the extremes of this range of means were significantly different from each other (P i 0.05), even though the relationship of increasing dietary calcium and decreasing egg apparent fertility was obvious. The egg apparent fertility reported in Table 1 is not much lower than the pheasant egg fertility of 85-91 percent reported by Woodard and Snyder (1978). However, there was no indica- tion of any calcium effect for Group 2 egg apparent fertility data (P 3 0.52). For Group 1 (Table 2) the 80-86 percent egg apparent fertility from hens fed diets with the lowest calcium: phosphorus ratios (2.5 to 4.2:1) was marginal but acceptable. According to Jordan (1977), standards for egg apparent fertility and hatchability are: 90 percent of all eggs set should be fertile and 90 percent of all fertile eggs should hatch. For Group 1 data, 47.3 percent egg apparent fertility (a 3.3% Ca treatment) was not different from 84.7 percent (P 3 0.20), but was possibly different from 85.6 percent (P i 0.2) egg apparent fertility. The latter two values were from 1.5 percent Ca treatments. These data are listed in Table 2. For Group 2, there was no difference between any of the treatment combination averages of the egg apparent fertility, which ranged from 89 to 97 percent. Only some of the high or low extremes of the treatment combinations (Ca:P dietary ratios) were consistent in their relative ranking (see Table 2) between the two groups of data. 31 Table 1. Calcium effect on pheasant egg apparent fertility. * Percent Dietary Calcium Mean as a percentage 1.5 82.8b 2.1 77.7ab 2.7 73.1ab 3.3 63.98 Means with different superscripts are significantly different (P i 0.05). Data are from Group 1 (combined floor- plus caged-hens) Data are converted from the arcsin transformation which was used for the statistical analysis. The SEM can not be transformed from the arcsin. 32 Table 2. Effect of various dietary calcium and phosphorus combinations on the pheasant egg apparent fertility. (A) P (B) P * greater than greater than trt. mean .20 .10 .05 trt. mean .10 .05 4 85.6 f l n/a 15 96.9 n/a n/a 3 84.7 4 96.8 2 84.0 14 96.8 7 82.7 12 96.7 14 80.7 13 96.2 8 80.6 9 95.8 10 80.1 10 95.3 1 76.1 3 94.8 6 75.8 11 94.3 9 74.8 8 94.0 5 70.8 5 91.6 15 70.0 6 89.9 11 68.9 7 88.9 12 68.0 2 89.4 16 55.5 1 89.4 13 47.3 16 88.9 * Means within the range of a line are not significantly different for each level of significance. (trt.) are defined in Appendix B, Table 1, and Table 1 of the text. Treatments Data are percentages as converted from the arcsin trans- formation. converted. Abbreviations and Symbols page. The standard error of the means could not be (A) data are from Group 1, and the (B) data are from Group 2; these Groups are defined on the 33 As shown in Table 2, the range of means of pheasant egg apparent fertility from Group 2 data was higher than the means from Group 1. Obviously, these differences between the egg apparent fertility means were probably primarily due to the previously discussed different mating systems. A summary of the total eggs incubated, the number of these that were apparently fertile, and the number of fertile eggs that hatched are listed in Appendix A, Table 2. These overall percentages of fertility and hatchability for each treatment (listed by experiment) are different from the data presented in the text. A reason for these differences is that the data within the text was from three selected replicates of experiment 3 but all four caged layer replicates were included in the appendix summary, for Group 2. Also, for all these data, the data within the text is from ten period observation summaries, and so reflects period variability, while the appendix summary is an overall mean. Perhaps there was an adverse effect of temperature on the hens of experiment one (Group 1) which would partially account for the lower value in experiment one--see above and Woodard and Snyder (1978) Thomason 33 31. (1978) did not find such a temperature effect to 28°F (82°F) with turkeys. Also, the in-house temperature during experiment one was often greater than 80°F. Above 82°F there is embryonic development (see Winter and Funk, 1956). The storage period then could have killed or weakened the embryo, resulting in a lowered egg apparent fertility and hatchability 34 for the two floor experiments. The floor birds had the opportunity each day to incubate the eggs; this elevated egg temperature could have been a contributing factor in the decline in egg apparent fertility and hatchability, as has been discussed above. There were no replicate means (zero fertility) for this Group 2 data at some time periods. Therefore, as described earlier, the same three replicates (out of four) were used for the statistical analysis of the egg apparent fertility and hatchability data. This is an explanation of the differences between Group means listed in Table 3; also, between the means of Group 2 of Table 3 and the overall mean of experiment 3 of Group 1. Males used in the caged management system were fed a commercial pheasant layer/breeder ration with 2.6 percent dietary calcium and 0.6 percent available dietary phosphorus. One might also speculate then that the lower egg apparent fertility of the (Group 1) floor replicates could have been a dietary effect on the males, but not on their capacity to produce semen if semen production was effected by high dietary calcium, the high fertility of Group 2 could not have been attained. Additional work should be done in this area. None of the males were rested for a week or two as suggested by Jordan (1977), and perhaps this made a difference in the overall lower apparent fertility levels of eggs of the (Group 1) floor experiments. The period (time) effect of egg apparent fertility from 35 Table 3. Effect of time on percent apparent egg fertility and hatchability of pheasant eggs. Group 1 Group 2 Percent Percent Percent Percent Fertility Hatchability Fertility Hatchability Period mean* mean* mean* mean* 1 58.58 58.9ab 89.8a 68.53b 2 68.5b 57.93 90.38 63.63 3 72.2bc 70.2Cd 95.4ab 69.7abc 4 76.3dee 69.3Cd 96.0ab 86.3de 5 77.6Cde 66.6de 95.4ab 76.1de 6 82.9e 65.8ade 97.4b 78.6dee 7 79.5Cde 61.9abc 95.2ab 87.0e 8 77.1Cde 62.0abC 92.3ab 81.8de 9 76.9Cde 72.5d 92.7ab 84.2de 10 75.1de 64.9ade 92.1ab 86.7e Means within a column with different superscripts are significantly different (P i 0.05). Standard deviations are not presented because this infor- mation could not be converted from the arcsin along with the means. All statistical analyses were done with the data as the arcsin transformation. These period averages of all treatments are from five consecutive days egg collection during each week. Groups 1 and 2 are defined on the Abbreviations and Symbols page. 36 the first Group was primarily due to the differences in the first four periods (Table 3, of Figure 1). The egg apparent fertility period averages during the last seven periods ranged from 75-83 percent, which was an increase over the first periods (Figure l, or Table 3). Hatchability Hatchability of pheasant eggs from both Groups 1 and 2 was not affected (P 3 0.05) by dietary treatments. These data are ranked in Table 4, for both Groups. The same selection procedure as described in the section on egg apparent fer- tility was used here to compensate for the missing data of Group 2. The same three replicates were used for fertility and hatchability data in this second Group. There was a significant (P i 0.002) experiment effect on the hatchability of pheasant eggs from hens in Group 1. These experiment averages for egg hatchability were: E1 = 57.5; E2 = 63.5; and E3 = 73.8 percent. The mean hatchability of eggs from the caged hens was significantly different from the means of both floor experiments (P i 0.05). There was a significant (P 1 0.0005) period effect on hatchability of pheasant eggs from hens of both Groups 1 and 2 (Table 3 or Figure l). Woodard and Snyder (1978) reported hatchability values of 69-74 percent for recycled pheasant hen's eggs, which is similar to many of the results of this study. For both Groups 1 and 2, the period effect on hatchability was primarily due to the lower egg hatchability levels in the first three weekly periods, after which these values plateaued. 37 Table 4. Effect of various dietary calcium and phosphorus combinations on pheasant egg hatchability. (A) P (B) P * greater than * greater than trt. mean .20 .10 .05 trt. mean .20 .10 .05 14 73.5 ) 1 n/a 14 91.0 ‘ 8 72.5 5 82.9 i 7 68.9 9 82.8 2 68.1 13 82.2 12 67.8 16 82.1 3 67.4 4 81.7 5 67.0 3 79.7 1 66.3 15 79.2 11 66.0 6 77.3 6 65.1 10 76.6 10 64.8 7 76.4 4 64.3 12 76.2 15 63.6 11 74.6 9 62.8 2 71.9 16 58.4 . 1 71.5 l 13 42.7 i 4 8 70.0 A . Means within the range of a line are not significantly different for each level of significance. Treatments (trt) are defined in Appendix B, Table 1. ‘ ' ' ' ‘ Data are percentages as converted from the arcsin transfor- mation. The standard error of the means could not be converted from the arcsin. (A) data are from Group 1, and the (B) data are from Group 2; these Groups are defined on the Abbreviations and Symbols page. Figure l. 38 Effect of time on pheasant egg apparent fertility and hatchability. Each period mean represents the fertility or hatchability of all eggs from all treatments that were laid on five days per week for experiment one, but from six days for experiments two and three. Experiments and Groups 1 and 2 are defined on the Abbreviations and Symbols page. Periods are from consecutive weeks. p 39.0 is ODE—mm >h_.:m 0.20) of the calcium by phosphorus interaction (these are the specific treatment combination averages). The range of these means in Group 1 was 58-74 percent and 51-76 percent hen-day egg production in Group 2; this data is listed in Appendix A, Table 3. For both Groups 1 and 2, the appearance of the hen-day egg production graph was normal (Figure 2) but shifted down- ward when compared with the expected production curve for chickens (Appendix D, Figure l; DeKalb 231 Management Guide). A possible reason for the lesser egg production, other than species differences, from the pheasants versus the chickens is that the pheasant data was summarized over all dietary treatments. All these treatments were not meant to be optimum for any production parameter, as was the case for hens generat- ing the DeKalb data. The data from the present study are presented in Table 7 and Figure 2. Shown in Table 7 and Figure 2 is the significant period effect on the hen-day percent egg production (P 1 0.0005) for hens in both Groups 1 and 2. The data are of the natural increase and decrease of egg production with time (compare with Appendix D, Figure 1). Data from the first period for Group 1 were eliminated because hens of the experiments did not start producing at a uniform rate after administration Figure 2. 45 Effect of time on the hen-day percent egg production. Each period represents the egg production from all treatments for each consecutive ten-day collection period. Groups are defined on the Abbreviations and Symbols page. The first period was deleted for Group 1 because hens of all experiments did not all start production of eggs immediately after the treatments were fed. 10_com p o. o _ up w. aaoco I ..._ m... 000 Q 3 O.— o IIIIIIIIIII - 00 00 I. llmill... . I 0'00 - 0*000 " 0...... I I :4..-) P I III (I l u u — _ _ 1 “ mt on no I! K) uouanpmd 653 Kop uaH jUGDJad 05 mp Om 47 Table 7. Effect of time on pheasant hen-day percent egg production and egg weight (in grams). Part 1 Group 1 Percent Hen-day Egg Weight*** Egg Production (in grams) Period mean 3 SEM* mean 1 SEM* 1 ---** 29.0 i 0.2a 2 64.8 : 1.3bc 29.6 0.2b 3 71.9 1.2d 30.3 0.2C 4 69.8 1.2Cd 30.7 0.2d 5 68.9 1.2de 30.9 0.2de 6 69.0 1.7Cd 31.1 0.2ef 7 65.1 1.8bC 31.2 0.2f 8 62.0 2.3b 31.2 0.2ef 9 54.8 2.5a 31.2 0.2f * Means within a column with different superscripts are significantly different (P i 0.05). * The egg production data of Group 1 are menas of the last eight ten-day periods of egg production. are defined on the Abbreviations and Symbols page. Groups 1 and 2 All means are a summary of all treatments for that ten- day period. *** Data are means of the nine ten—day periods. 48 Table 7. Effect of time on pheasant hen-day percent egg production and egg weight (in grams). Part 2 Group 2 Percent Hen-Day Egg Weight Egg Production*** (in grams)*** Period mean 3 SEM* mean 3 SEM* 1 47.8 i 1.38 28.3 : 0.05a 2 64.7 1.3b 28.7 0.05b 3 68.6 1.3de 29.1 0.05C 4 73.0 1.3d 29.6 0.05d 5 73.5 1.38 29.9 0.05e 6 73.9 1.3e 30.3 0.05fg 7 72.5 1.3de 30.2 0.05f 8 71.8 1.3Cde 30.4 0.05gh 9 67.9 1.3bC 30.5 0.05h * Means within a column with different superscripts are significantly different (P i 0.05). *‘k* Data are means of the nine ten-day periods. For other information, see Part 1 footnotes. 49 of the dietary treatments. Greeley (1962) reported that pheasant egg production reflected the level of dietary calcium. He used a range of dietary calcium of 0.37 to 2.34 percent. Egg production figures for the treatments of the pheasant study were all higher than those for pheasants reported by Hinkson 33 31. (1970), who reported an ll-51 percent hen-day egg production range for all treatment averages. They stated that all their treatment egg production means were low because of the cold winter temperatures. However, the pheas- ants of this study were more productive during the spring versus the summer months (Table 5). Holcombe 33 31. (1977) found that for chickens selected as producers of high or low specific gravity eggs, diets containing 3 or 5 percent calcium did not result in deleter- ious effects on egg production, egg weights, body weight, or feed consumption. Owings 33 31. (1977) reported that 0.1 percent available phosphorus would substantially reduce the egg production of S.C.W.L. laying hens, but that egg production was maintained if the dietary available phosphorus was 0.19 percent and was best if the dietary available phosphorus was 0.28 percent. Anderson (1967) reported data from a second experiment which indicated that production of caged chicken layers was in- creased if during the pre-lay period, dietary calcium was raised to 2.6 percent. However, the first experiment results were that there was no difference in various pre-laying dietary calcium levels (0.6-2.6%). 50 Balloun and Miller (1964) evidently found turkey breeder hens not to be as sensitive as other previously mentioned species to calcium level in the diet. They reported levels of calcium of 1.5; 2.0; 2.5; and 3.0 percent of the ration to have no effect on egg production or egg size. Egg Weight in Grams For Group 1, the experiment effect on egg weight was highly significant (P 1 0.0005), see Table 8. The caged layers produced lighter eggs than did hens from either of the floor experiments. Also, the floor experiment hen's egg weight means differed from each other (P i 0.01). Consider- ing the hotter weather, the egg size of the first floor experiment would not be expected to be greater that that of eggs produced in the spring (Woodard and Snyder, 1978; Thomason, 1978). High dietary calcium had a significant (P i 0.026) negative effect on egg weight in Group 1, and this effect was linear, see Table 9. This same effect was only a trend (P i 0.12) for the data of Group 2. In Group 1, the hens fed the 1.5 percent dietary calcium laid significantly heavier (P i 0.05) eggs than the other groups of hens. The dietary calcium effect on egg production was a trend toward decreasing production if calcium in the diet was low or high for both Groups 1 and 2. For both Groups 1 and 2, the average of all values during period one were the lowest, the egg weight increased and gradually plateaued at around the sixth period (Table 7 or 51 Table 8. Pheasant egg weight averages (in grams). Data are summarized by experiments of Group 1. Experiment mean 1 SEM* One (floor) 31.4 : 0.10a Two (floor) 30.6 0.10b Three (cage) 29.7 0.10C * Means with different superscripts are significantly different (P i 0.05). Experiments and Group 1 are defined on the Abbreviations and Symbols page. 52 Table 9. Effect of dietary calcium on pheasant egg weight (in grams). Data is from Group 1. Percent Dietary Calcium mean 3 SEM* 1.5 31.3 i 0.13a 2.1 30.5 0.13b 2.7 30.5 0.13b 3.3 30.1 0.13b * Means with different superscripts are significantly different (P 3 0.05). Treatments are defined in Appendix B, Table 1. Group 1 is defined on the Abbreviations and Symbols page. Group 2 data was not significant (P i 0.12). 53 Figure 3). The orthogonal polynomials indicated a linear and quadratic shape of the response curve of this time effect. In contrast to these data, Hinkson 33_31. (1967, 1970) reported the level of dietary calcium did not affect egg weight or eggshell-plus-membrane thickness of pheasant eggs. Their data on egg weight averages were very similar to the data of the present study. Hinkson 33 31. (1970) fed dietary calcium treatments of 0.9, 1.8, 2.5, and 3.7 percent and 0.6 percent available phosphorus. They reported average egg weights of 30, 31, 30, and 31 grams/egg, for the respective calcium level treatments. Labisky and Jackson (1969) reported the weight of eggs laid by yearling and 2-year-old pheasant hens did not decline significantly toward the end of the laying season. Average weights of eggs from one-, two-, and three- year-old pheasant hens was 28.7, 28.5, and 28.3 grams, respec- tively. Greeley (1962) reported pheasant egg weight averages of 31.2, 29.2, 30.4, 32.8, and 32.8 grams for hens fed dietary treatments of 0.37, 0.63, 1.09, 2.01, and 2.34 percent calcium, respectively. The dietary available phosphorus was 0.53- 0.73 percent. Atkinson 33 31. (1967) reported that dietary calcium did not affect turkey egg weight, among several other parameters. Anderson (1967) suggested that chicken egg size and egg- shell thickness are related to independent physiological mechanisms which apparently responded differently to calcium and/or phosphorus balances or imbalances during the growing period. 54 Figure 3. Effect of time on the egg weight (in grams) of pheasants over consecutive ten-day periods. Groups are defined on the Abbreviations and Symbols page. totem pm NM $111019 56 For Group 2 there was a significant (P i 0.029) phosphorus by period interaction. For both Groups 1 and 2 the calcium by phosphorus interaction effect on the egg weight was not significant (P > 0.05), and the specific averages within this effect were not significant (P > 0.20). The approximate totals of intact eggs produced by hens of all treatments during the experiments were: E1 - 11,506; E2 = 9,013; and E3 = 14,524. All these eggs were weighed 1 0.01 gram. This information was then summarized by periods for statistical analysis. Eggshell Weight as a Percentage of Total Egg Weight Again, the replicate effect of Group 1 was primarily caused by the lower (P i 0.01) mean for experiment one data. The experiment averages :_SEM were: E1 = 9.06 i 0.04; E2 = 9.50 i 0.03; E3 = 9.58 i 0.03 percent. These data are similar to that reported by King (1978). The cause of the lower value for replicate one is unclear, especially because the eggshell thickness average was not low for the first floor replicate. gn both Groups 1 and 2, calcium at 1.5 percent of the ration resulted in a significantly lower (P i 0.01) eggshell weight as a percentage of the total egg weight (Table 10). Thus, 1.5 percent calcium may represent a dietary calcium level which was below the practical lower limit for laying hen pheasants. Hinkson 33 31. (1967) reported that 1.8 percent dietary calcium may be approaching the marginal level for pheasant egg production. The relationship of eggshell percentage of total egg weight response to dietary level or 57 Table 10. Effect of dietary calcium on pheasant eggshell weight as a percentage of the total egg weight. Group 1 Group 2 Percent Dietary 34 * Calcium mean 3 SEM mean 3 SEM 1.5 9.07 : 0.04a 9.28 10.09a 2.1 9.43 0.04b 9.56 0.09b 2.7 9.49 0.05b 9.74 0.09b 3.3 9.53 0.05b 9.73 0.09b * Means within columns with different superscripts are significantly different (P i 0.05). 58 calcium was linear and quadratic in Group 1, see Table 10. In both Groups 1 and 2, time adversely affected the eggshell weight percentage values (Table 11 and Figure 4). A deficiency of calcium or an extended period of lay would be expected to bring about a gradual thinning of the egg- shell, followed by a cessation of egg production (Sturkie, 1965); see Tables 7, ll, 12, 13, and Figures 2 and 4. The dietary treatments, as summarized in Groups 1 and 2 are ranked in Table 12 according to their effect on the percentage egg- shell. King (1978) concluded that 2.2-2.6 percent dietary calcium to be the optimum range for proper eggshell quality of pheasant eggs. Eggshell thickness (in mm.) All eggshell thickness values represent the air-dried eggshell plus the shell membranes. Experiment effects on eggshell thickness were highly significant for eggs from hens in Group 1. These thickness values were significantly different but were in opposite order to that expected (E1 = 0.302; E2 = 0.295; and E3 = 0.294; and SEM was 0.001 for all means). When comparing these data with the eggshell percentage of the total egg weight, the first floor experiment would have been expected to have the thinnest eggshell (the eggshell percentage and thickness are obviously measures of eggshell quantity). An explanation of this anomoly would be that the eggshell thickness data was subject to rounding errors. The micrometer used for all egg measurements was only accurate to one decimal place with the second place estimated. Therefore, Table 11. 59 Effect of time on pheasant eggshell weight as a percentage of the total eggshell weight; and on eggshell thickness (in mm.). Means within a column with different superscripts significantly different (P _ 0.05). Group 1 Group 2 SheIITPct.@ Shell $7 Shell Pct.@ Shell 3 Period Thickness Thickness 1 9.8 : 0.07c 0.302de 10.0 : 0.09e 0.301d 2 9.8 0.05C 0.308e 9.9 0.07e 0.302d 3 9.6 0.06bc 0.305de 9.6 0.12de 0.293Cd 4 9.6 0.06bc 0.304de 9.8 0.07de 0.299d 5 9.4 0.07abC 0.299d 9.6 0.09de 0.293Cd 6 9.5 0.06bc 0.304de 9.6 0.07Cd 0.296Cd 7 9.4 0.06abC 0.299d 9.6 0.08Cd 0.295de 8 9.1 0.09ab 0.291bC 9.6 0.08de 0.295de 9 9.1 0.09ab 0.288ab 9.5 0.09bc 0.291bc 10 9.1 0.07ab 0.291bC 9.4 0.08abc 0.287ab 11 9.1 0.05ab 0.287ab 9.3 0.09ab 0.282a 12 8.9 0.078 0.2848 9.2 0.088 0.2838 7': are Groups 1 and 2 are defined on the Abbreviations and The 12 periods represent the average for all data from treatments on one day each week, for 12 consecutive weeks. Symbols page. of the total egg weight mean 3 SEM. $ Represents the eggshell thickness means (in mm.). to homogenous variances all SEM = 0.002. Shell Pct. represents eggshell weight as a percentage Due 60 Table 12. Effect of various dietary calcium and phosphorus combinations on the pheasant eggshell weight as a percentage of total egg weight. Part 1. Group 1 Ca:P Treat- * P greater than Ratio ment mean 1 SEM 0.20 0.10 0.05 9.0 1 9 9.64 i 0.09 1 7.0 1 5 9.59 0.09 5.5:1 16 9.59 0.09 6.6:1 15 9.58 0.08 6.8 l 10 9.57 0.09 ' 8.3 l 14 9.52 0.08 ' 4.5 l 12 9.42 0.09 5.3 l 6 9.42 0.07 11.0 1 13 9.41 0.10 4.2:1 7 9.41 0.06 5.4:1 11 9.33 0.10 3.5:1 8 9.27 0.09 l 3.0:1 3 9.09 0.09 3.8 1 2 9.07 0.08 2.5:1 4 9.06 0.08 5.0:1 1 9.06 0.08 * Means within the range of a line are not significantly different for each level of significance. Treatments are defined in Appendix B, Table 1. Data are on two pages; Groups 1 and 2 are defined on the Abbreviations and Symbols page. 61 Table 12. Effect of various dietary calcium and phosphorus combinations on the pheasant eggshell weight as a percentage of total egg weight. Part 2. Group 2 Ca:P Treat- * P greater than Ratio ment mean 1 SEM 0:20 0.10 0.05 6.6:1 15 10.04 i 0.10 l l 4.5:1 12 9.93 0.11 9.0 1 9 9.89 0.07 ’ 5.5:1 16 9.71 0.06 3.5 l 8 9.67 0.10 11.0 1 13 9.64 0.10 4.5:1 10 9.58 0.09 4.2 l 7 9.56 0.07 5.4 1 11 9.56 .0,12 7.0 l 5 9.65 0.10 8.3 1 14 9.53 0.09 2.5:1 4 9.49 0.10 5.3:1 6 9.45 0.09 3.0 l 3 9.32 0.10 3.8 l 2 9.24 0.11 l 5.0:1 l 9.07 0.13 * Means within the range of a line are not significantly different for each level of significance. See notes in Part 1 for other information. 62 Figure 4. Effect of time on the eggshell as a percentage of the total egg weight; and on eggshell thickness (in mm.). Data from each period represent the total eggs collected on the same day on 12 consecutive weeks. Data are from all experiments. Data are on two pages, one for each Group. Groups 1 and 2, as well as experiments are defined on the Abbreviations and Symbols page. o kud mou.o .uou.o anuAvn1< 0.20). The range for Group 2 treatment combinations was 23-37 mg Ca/100 ml plasma. Miller 35 31. (1977a, b) reported on the daily cyclic nature of chicken plasma calcium and phosphorus levels rela- time to oviposition. In the 1977a paper, they reported ranges of 33.2—34.6 mg Ca/lOO ml serum and 4.55-6.71 mg phosphorus/ 100 ml serum for the laying hen chicken. In the 1977b paper, they reported similar values for serum phosphorus (4.88-6.08 mg. percent). 73 Table 16. Effect of dietary calcium on adult hen-pheasant plasma calcium concentration (mg calcium/100 m1 plasma). Percent Dietary Group 1 Group 2 Calcium mean : SEM* mean 1 SEM* 1.5 26.0 i 1.38 25.5 : 1.8a 2.1 26.4 1.9a 28.0 1.8ab 2.7 29.8 1.83 33.8 1.8C 3.3 28.6 1.18 30.9 1.8bC Means within a column with different superscripts are significantly different (P i 0.05). Treatments are defined in Appendix B, Table 1. Groups 1 and 2 are defined on the Abbreviations and Symbols page. '74 Anderson and Stewart (1973) reported blood of juvenile pheasants to have a concentration of 49 :_10 or 60 i 5 micro- grams calcium/lOO grams wet weight and the blood of adults to have 110 i 4 or 145 :.43 micrograms calcium/100 grams wet weight. Blood phosphorus for juveniles was 546 i 79 or 684 i 27 micrograms, and adults 687 i 79 or 741 i'28 micrograms phosphorus/gram wet weight. These values appear to be differ- ent from the levels of these plasma minerals determined in the present experiments. 2. Phosphorus The blood phosphorus concentrations as determined for Group 1 only had an experiment effect. The plasma phosphorus concentration averages for the three experiments were: E1 = 5.6 i 0.3; E2 = 5.7 i 0.2; and E3 = 7.1 i 0.4 mg phosphorus/ 100 ml plasma : SEM. For Group 2 data there was a significant effect of the four replicates (P i 0.012), as well as a significant dietary calcium and dietary phosphorus concentration effect (both P 1 0.0005) on the plasma phosphorus levels. This replicate effect of Group 2 was due to the chance allocation of hens to treatments, as these means represent the average over all treatments, for a particular replicate. Shown in Table 17 are the Group 2 averages of plasma phosphorus as summarized by the dietary calcium or phos— phorus treatments. The 3.3 percent dietary calcium treatment resulted in depressed plasma phosphorus levels. The lowest (0.3 percent) dietary phosphorus treatment resulted in elevated plasma phosphorus levels. 75 Table 17. Effect of dietary calcium or phosphorus on the adult hen-pheasant plasma phosphorus concentra- tion (mg P/100 ml plasma). Percent Dietary * Percent Dietary Calcium mean : SEM phosphorus mean : SEM* 1.5 7.62 : 0.43bC 0.3 8.64 :0.70b 2.1 8.27 0.61C 0.4 7.01 0.47a 2.7 7.11 0.61b 0.5 6.59 0.303 3.3 5.39 0.29a 0.6 6.16 0.50a * Means within a column with different superscripts are significantly different (P i 0.05). Treatments are defined in Appendix B, Table 1. Data are from only Group 2, which is defined on the Abbreviations and Symbols page. 76 There was no difference between treatment combinations of Group 1 (Ca by P interaction). However, in Group 2 there was a difference among treatments due to this effect. Shown in Table 18 is the ranking of treatment combination averages of Group 2. Adult Feed Consumption In Group 1 the experiment totals (El, E2, and E3) for each treatment combination were used for statistical evalua- tion of the adult feed consumption as measured in grams of feed consumed/bird/day, (g/b/d). There was no difference between the treatment combination averages (Tukey test, P f 0.20). The range of means :SEM was 69.9 to 74.5 g/b/d. In Group 1, only the experiment effect was significant (P | A 0.017). These experiment averages were: E1 = 67.4; E2 = 71.0; and E3 = 69.8, all :0.85 g/b/d. The value of the caged hens of Group 1 was between that of the floor-housed birds so the effect of the different management systems was apparently a random one. There was a trend for the phosphorus effect of Group 1 toward significance (P i 0.085) probably due to the greater feed consumption of hens consuming feed with 0.3 percent dietary available phosphorus. These hens also laid more eggs (Table 6). There was not a similar trend in Group 2. This may be an internal compensating mechanism for the lower dietary phosphorus or merely an increased need for nutrients due to a higher egg production of these hens (Table 6) or to a combination of these. 77 Table 18. Effect of various dietary calcium and phosphorus combinations on the adult pheasant's concentra- tion of plasma phosphorus (mg P/100 ml plasma). Group 2 Ca:P Treat- * P greater than Ratio ment mean : SEM 0.20 0.10 0.05 7.0 l 5 10.75 i 1.34 ' 1 9.0 1 9 9.8 0.89 1 ‘ 5.0:1 1 8.35 1.36 1 1 5.3:1 6 7.85 0.66 1 1 3.5:1 8 7.80 1.15 3.8:1 2 7.73 0.97 3.0:1 3 7.30 0.53 6.8:1 10 7.13 1.29 2.5:1 4 7.13 0.68 1 4.2:1 7 6.68 0.38 5.4:1 11 6.28 0.90 6.6 l 15 6.10 0.51 11.0:1 13 5.65 0.60 8.3 1 14 5.35 0.45 4.5:1 12 5.23 0.61 5.5:1 16 4.48 0.60 * Means within the range of a line are not significantly different for each level of significance. Treatments are defined in Appendix B, Table 1. Group 2 is defined on the Abbreviations and Symbols page. 78 Supplemental information obtained from the caged male breeders was that of their level of feed consumption. The averages of feed consumption of these caged males (in grams of feed consumed/male/day) are presented in Table 19. For Group 2, the data were treated as those of Group 1 (in this case using the replicate experiment totals of each treatment combination). There were no significant ANOVA F—statistics. The range of treatment combination averages was 62.9 i 2.7 to 75.0 i 3.1 grams/bird/day. In addition, the data evaluated using the replicate values of each period. There was only a significant period effect for the latter statistical analysis. These means 1 SEM were: 61.4 i 0.7; 72.7 i 0.9; 75.3 i 0.9; and 69.9 i 1.2 grams/bird/ day. These data represent the three 28-day periods and the value for the last week. All were significantly different from each other (P i 0.05). These averages paralled the egg production curve pattern (Table 7, Figure 2). Treatment combination means were not significantly different from each other (Tukey; P > 0.20). Hinkson gt a1. (1970) reported a range of floor-reared pheasants feed consumption from 96 to 111 grams/bird/day. These values included the feed consumed by the males. Their means were about 30 grams/bird/day greater than the averages determined in these experiments. Perhaps Hinkson 35 a1. (1970) had a feed wastage problem, which is very easy to do with pheasants. 79 Table 19. Average feed consumption of caged adult male Ring-necked pheasants (in grams consumed/male/ day). Period Replicate 1 Replicate 2 l 55 57 2 70 68 3 68 69 4 59 67 weighted mean 64 65 There were three (periods 1-3) 28-day periods with the fourth period lasting for seven days. There were 24 males per replicate. The feed for both replicates l and 2 was a commercial pheasant layer-breeder ration. 80 Hurwitz gt g1. (1969) reported that high (4.5 percent) dietary calcium suppressed feed intake of chicken laying hens but improved the feed conversion, and lowered the body weight of the hens. This effect tended to be greater in the presence of dietary fat. Gleaves gt gt. (1977) indicated that feed intake of adult chicken laying hens was not influenced by dietary calcium. They used dietary calcium levels of 1.8; 3.6; and 5.4 percent. Gleaves gt g1. (1977) reported these chicken laying hens which consumed the low-calcium rations laid eight percent fewer eggs and consumed as much feed as their better producing counterparts. This would indicate that in the experiments by Gleaves gt g1. (1977), that there was possibly a dietary calcium effect on feed consumption in that the hens may have attempted to compensate for the low dietary calcium by consuming more feed. Adult Bone (Tibia) 1. Percent dry fat-free bone (dffb); in mg dffb/100 mg tibia. In Group 1 the caged layers, on the average, had a greater percentage of dffb than did hens of the second floor experiment (E3 = 71.2 i 1.36 and E2 = 66.4 i 0.76) (P i 0.01). No samples were taken from hens of experiment one. There was a significant linear response of tibia dffb to dietary calcium concentration (P i 0.05) in both Groups 1 and 2--see Table 20. In both Groups 1 and 2 the 1.5 percent dietary calcium treatments resulted in lower tibia dffb means than the other 81 Table 20. Calcium effect on adult pheasant tibia percentage dry fat-free bone (dffb), in mg dffb/100 mg tibia. Percent Dietary Group 1 * GrouptZ Calcium mean :_SEM mean 1 SEM 1.5 63.7 i 2.88 63.8 : 1.3a 2.1 70.0 1.2b 73.2 1.3bC 2.7 69.5 1.4b 71.4 1.3b 3.3 72.1 1.8b 76.5 1.3C Means within a column with different superscripts are significantly different (P i 0.05). Treatments are defined in Appendix B, Table 1. Groups 1 and 2 are defined on the Abbreviations and Symbols page. 82 dietary concentrations of calcium. The dffb means from birds receiving the other levels of higher dietary calcium were similar to each other in Group 1 but not Group 2 (Table 20). Using either grouping of the data would indicate the 1.5 percent dietary calcium was not adequate, but that 2.1 per- cent and greater dietary calcium was adequate, as measured by the plateau of tibia dffb (Table 20). Dietary phosphorus was not low enough to affect a change in dffb using either grouping of the data (Groups 1 or 2). Shown in Table 21 are the significant treatment combina- tion averages as determined for Groups 1 and 2. 2. Percent ash in mg ash/100 mg dffb There was a significant experiment effect in Group 1 on the dffb percentage ash (P i 0.031). These means were: E2 = 66.0 i 0.4; and E3 = 65.1 i 0.6 percent. These significant effects of experiments on tibia dffb and the dffb percentage ash were probably due to chance because they are opposite each other. Hinkson gt g1. (1970) found no differences between means of dffb percentage ash due to dietary calcium treat- ments of 0.9; 1.8; 2.5; and 3.7 percent. Their means for the pheasant hen femur dffb percentage ash ranged from 62.99 through 65.17 percent, which is similar to the values for ash determined in the present study. King (1978) also found no difference in the bone ash of the femur and tibia of adult female pheasants fed rations with calcium at 1.4-3.8 percent. 83 Table 21. Effect of various dietary calcium and phosphorus treatment combinations on the adult pheasant tibia percentage dry fat-free bone (dffb). Part 1. H H Group 1 Ca:P Treat- * P greater than Ratio ment mean i SEM 0.20 0.10 0.05 6.6:1 15 73.9 i 3.8 1 1 1 5.5 1 16 73.4 3.6 4.5:1 12 71.5 3.1 6.8:1 10 71.5 1.0 .0:1 13 71.3 4.5 4.2 l 7 70.8 2.4 5.3:1 6 70.7 3.2 8.3:1 14 70.1 5.7 7.0 1 5 69.5 4.3 3.5:1 8 69.1 2.6 5.4 1 11 68.6 5.2 9.0:1 9 66.4 1.4 5.0:1 1 65.2 1.5 2.5:1 4 64.9 1.9 3.0 1 3 64.5 3.8 3.8:1 2 60.3 0.1 * Means within the range of a line are not significantly different for each level of significance. Treatments are defined in Appendix B, Table 1. Data are on two pages; Groups 1 and 2 are defined on the Abbreviations and Symbols page. 84 Table 21. Effect of various dietary calcium and phosphorus treatment combinations on the adult pheasant tibia percentage dry fat-free bone (dffb). Part 2. Group 2 Ca:P Treat- * P greater than Ratio ment mean i SEM 0T207 0.10 0.05 6.6:1 15 77.7 i 3.3 5.5 l 16 76.9 1.7 11.0:1 13 75.8 3.6 8.3:1 14 75.7 2.4 4.5 1 12 74.5 1.9 5.3 l 6 74.0 2.0 ‘ 5.4:1 11 73.7 3.3 7.0:1 5 73.7 5.3 4.2:1 7 73.2 0.9 6.8:1 10 72.5 2.5 3.5:1 8 71.7 3.4 3.0 1 3 68.2 3.2 ' 9.0:1 9 65.0 4.0 5.0 l 1 63.7 3.5 2.5:1 4 63.0 1.3 3.8:1 2 60.4 3.1 * Means within the range of a line are not significantly different for each level of significance. See notes in Part 1 for other information. 85 In both Groups 1 and 2, calcium at 1.5 percent of the ration resulted in a lower amount of bone ash than the other calcium treatments (P i 0.01), see Table 22. The calcium by phosphorus interaction (treatment combina- tion) averages of dffb percentage ash are ranked in Table 23. For both Groups 1 and 2 the lower (1.5 percent) dietary calcium treatments resulted in the least dffb percentage ash. Chambers gt g1. (1966) reported femur percentage ash levels of 62.73-71.57 percent, with no difference between the sexes, which is similar to the data from this study. Greeley (1962) reported ash percentages of pheasant femurs and tibias. The femur data was three to four percentage points greater than that of the tibia (pre-laying hen's femur was 66.77, and the tibia was 63.54 percent). Final means of the tibia percentage ash were about 60.5; 60.4; 61.3; 62.4; and 64.2 percent for dietary calcium levels of 0.37; 0.63; 1.09; 2.01; and 2.34 percent, respectively. These data are similar, as is the response to dietary calcium, to the tibia data reported in the present study. Greeley (1962) stated there was a direct relationship of ash content in the bone to the amount of calcium in the diet, and this difference was more evident after 51-53 days than after 10 days being fed the experimental diets. However, Chambers gt g1. (1966) reported no such relationship. Anderson and Stewart (1973) reported the adult pheasant femur to have 78.7 i 1.61 to 79.6 i 1.16 grams ash/100 grams dry fat-free bone, which is somewhat greater than the data reported in the present study in which the tibia was evaluated. 86 Table 22. Calcium effect on adult pheasant tibia dry fat- free bone (dffb) percentage ash (mg ash/100 mg dffb). Group 1 Group 2 Percent Dietary significantly different (P i 0.05). Treatments are defined in Appendix B, Table 1. Groups 1 and 2 are defined on the Abbreviations and Symbols page. * 9: Calcium mean : SEM mean : SEM 1.5 63.2 : 0.6a 61.8 : 0.7a 2.1 66.3 0.3b 66.0 0.7b 2.7 66.0 0.5b 65.6 0.7b 3.3 66.7 0.4b 66.8 0.7b * Means within a column with different superscripts are 87 Table 23. Effect of various dietary calcium and phosphorus combinations on the adult pheasant tibia dry fat- free bone (dffb) percentage ash. Part 1. Group 1 Ca:P Treat— * P greater than Ratio ment mean : SEM 0.20 0.10 0.05 5.5:1 16 67.3 :09 ’ 4.5:1 12 67.2 0.9 6.6 l 15 67.2 —-- 7.0 1 5 67.0 0.2 6.8 1 10 66.9 0.1 11.0 1 13 66.8 0.9 5.3 1 6 66.3 0.3 4.2 l 7 66.2 1.1 3.5:1 8 65.9 0.2 8 3:1 14 65.7 0.6 5.4:1 11 65.5 0.2 9.0:1 9 64.4 0.8 2.5:1 4 64.3 2.2 5.0:1 1 63.1 1.9 1 3.0:1 3 62.9 0.6 . 3.8:1 3 62.5 0.9 . * Means within the range of a line are not significantly different for each level of significance. Treatments are defined in Appendix B, Table 1. Data are on two pages; Groups 1 and 2 are defined on the Abbreviations and Symbols page. 88 Table 23. Effect of various dietary calcium and phosphorus combinations on the adult pheasant tibia dry fat- free bone (dffb) percentage ash. Part 2. Group 2 Ca:P Treat- * P greater than Ratio ment mean 1 SEM 0.20 0.10 0.05 11.0:1 13 67.3 i 1.8 6.6:1 15 67.2 1.1 7.0:1 5 67.1 2.3 6.8:1 10 67.0 1.3 5.5 l 16 66.4 1.2 8.3:1 14 66.2 1.5 4.5:1 12 66.3 1.7 5.3:1 6 66.0 1.0 3.5:1 65.7 1.5 5.4:1 11 65.6 1.7 4.2 1 7 65.1 0.9 9.0:1 9 63.5 0.4 3.0 l 3 62.3 2.0 2.5:1 4 62.1 1.0 3.8:1 2 61.6 1.3 5.0:1 1 61.2 2.3 * Means within the range of a line are not significantly different for each level of significance. See notes in Part 1 for other information. 89 Branion (1938) (see O'Rourke gt gt., 1955) stated the absolute amounts of calcium and phosphorus were important for optimal growth (of chickens) and for their bone ash; but the Ca:P ratio could vary from 1:1 to 3:1 with an optimum of 2:1 if the Vitamin D was present at an optimum level. O'Rourke gt gt. (1955) could not determine the requirement of dietary phosphorus for the laying pullet as the practical rations employed were not sufficiently low in phosphorus to demonstrate a deficiency. Apparently, that was the case with the adult pheasants of the present study. Waibel gt gt. (1961) reported that 8 through 24-week-old turkeys averaged 64.8 mg ash/100 mg dffb, which was similar to the data reported in this trial. They reported a decreased requirement for calcium and phosphorus with increased age. 3. Ash percent calcium;in mg Ca/100 mg ash The ash percentage calcium response to dietary calcium levels was only cubic (P i 0.001) in both Groups 1 and 2. Basically, this means there was no consistent dose response of the ash calcium content to levels of dietary calcium (Table 24). In both Groups 1 and 2 the hens fed the 2.1 percent dietary calcium treatments had the lowest concentrations of calcium in the tibia ash. Even though statistically signifi- cant, in no case were the means different by more than 1.4 percent. The averages of tibia percent calcium for the treat- ment combinations are ranked in Table 25. The ranking of specific treatments were similar for both Groups 1 and 2. For aired-dried femurs'(Chambers gt gti, 1966) reported calcium 90 Table 24. Calcium effect on the adult pheasant tibia ash percentage calcium (mg calcium/100 mg ash). Percent Dietary Group 1 * Group 2 * Calcium mean : SEM mean : SEM 1.5 37.7 : 0.3b 36.8 :02b 2.1 36.8 0.4a 35.9 0.38 2.7 38.2 0.6b 36.6 0.2b 3.3 37.9 0.5b 36.7 0.2b Means within a column with different superscripts are significantly different (P i 0.05). Treatments are defined in Appendix B, Table 1. Groups 1 and 2 are defined on the Abbreviations and Symbols page. 91 Table 25. Effect of various dietary calcium and phosphorus combinations on the adult pheasant tibia ash per- centage calcium. Part 1. Group 1 Ca:P Treat- * P greater than Ratio ment mean 1 SEM 0.20 0.10 0.05 5.4:1 11 38.5 i 1.40 ; 6.8:1 10 38.5 1.30 4.5 l 12 38.3 1.35 5.5:1 16 38.1 1.35 5.0:1 1 38.1 0.95 8.3:1 14 37.9 0.95 6.6:1 15 37.9 0.75 11.0:1 13 37.7 1.50 3.0 1 3 37.7 0.80 2.5:1 4 37.6 0.65 9.0:1 9 37.5 2.15 3.8:1 2 37.3 1.00 3.5:1 8 37.1 1.20 4.2:1 7 37.1 0.75 7.0:1 5 36.9 1.20 5.3:1 6 36.3 0.50 . . 1 * Means within the range of a line are not significantly different for each level of significance. Treatments are defined in Appendix B, Table 1. Data are on two pages; Groups 1 and 2 are defined on the Abbreviations and Symbols page. 92 Table 25. Effect of various dietary calcium and phosphorus combinations on the adult pheasant tibia ash per- centage calcium. Part 2. Group 2 Ca:P Treat- * P greater than Ratio ment mean i SEM 0.20 0.10 0.05 6.8:1 10 37.2 i 0.3 1 n/a 5.0:1 1 37.1 0.2 5.4 1 11 37.1 0.1 6.6:1 15 37.1 0.1 2.5:1 4 36.9 0.6 8.3 l 14 36.9 0.4 3.0:1 3 36.9 0.4 4.5:1 12 36.9 0.3 5.5:1 16 36.7 0.2 3.8:1 2 36.3 0.1 4.2:1 7 36.3 0.3 11.0:1 13 36.2 0.4 3.5 1 8 35.9 0.9 5.3:1 6 35.8 0.6 7.0:1 5 35.7 0.6 1 9.0:1 9 35.3 0.2 1 . * Means within the range of a line are not significantly different for each level of significance. Treatments are defined in Appendix B, Table 1. See notes in Part 1 for other information. 93 levels of 23.77 to 27.31 percent, with no difference between the sexes. If the estimates of Chambers are converted to the dffb ash percentage calcium of the present study, the data are comparable. Anderson and Stewart (1973) reported that adult pheasant femurs have about 282,400 : 8,200 to 289,100 1 8,000 micrograms Ca/gram of dry fat-free femur bone, which is slightly higher than the results of this study. This difference between the femur data of Anderson and Stewart (1973) and the tibia data of the present study might be expected (Greeley, 1962). 4. Ash percent phosphorus;in mg P/100 mg ash The calcium treatments as determined for Group 1 were not statistically effective in altering the bone phosphorus levels (ANOVA, P > 0.164). This trend in Group 1 of the lowest (1.5 percent) dietary calcium treatment resulting in the highest adult hen pheasant tibia ash percentage phosphorus was signifi- cant (ANOVA, P i 0.005) in Group 2, see Table 26. The specific calcium treatment effects were significant, according to the Bonferroni test of means (Table 26), but these effects were not consistent between Groups 1 and 2. The treatment combina- tion averages of tibia ash percentage phosphorus were not significantly different in Group 1 (P > 0.20), but were in Group 2 (Table 27). The range of means of Group 1 was: 18.0 i 1.0 to 19.2 i 0.2 SEM. The relative treatment rankings of this data were not consistent between the two Groups. For air-dried frmurs, Chambers gt gt. (1966) reported the 94 Table 26. Calcium effect on adult pheasant tibia ash per- centage phosphorus (mg P/100 mg ash). Percent Dietary Group 1 * Group 2 * Calcium mean : SEM mean i SEM 1.5 19.2 i 0.05b 19.1 :012b 2.1 18.6 0.24a 18.8 0.12b 2.7 18.9 0.09a 18.9 0.12b 3.3 18.7 0.158 18.3 0.12a Means within a column with different superscripts are significantly different (P i 0.05). Groups 1 and 2 are defined on the Abbreviations and Symbols page. Table l. Treatments are defined in Appendix B, 95 Table 27. Effect of various dietary calcium and phosphorus combinations on the adult hen-pheasant tibia ash percentage phosphorus (mg P/100 mg ash). Group 2 Ca:P Treat- * P greater than Ratio ment mean 1 SEM 0.20 0.10 40.05 5.0 l l 19.28 i 0.14 1 9.0 1 9 19.18 0.24 5.4 l 11 19.13 0.24 3.0:1 3 19.10 0.29 2.5:1 4 19.05 0.48 5.3:1 6 18.98 0.08 7.0:1 5 18.95 0.13 3.8:1 2 18.95 0.05 4.2:1 7 18.90 0.15 4.5:1 12 18.75 0.12 6.8:1 10 18.70 0.25 11.0:1 13 18.55 0.17 3.5:1 8 18.50 0.35 6.6 1 15 18.40 0.22 8.3:1 14 18.25 0.13 5.5:1 16 17.98 0.26 \ . 1 * Means within the range of a line are not significantly different for each level of significance. Treatments are defined in Appendix B, Table 1. Group 2 is defined on the Appendix and Symbols page. 96 phosphorus was 10.84-12.28 percent, with no difference between the sexes. If this data were converted to the dffb ash per- centage phosphorus, the two sets of data are similar. Anderson and Stewart (1973) reported adult pheasant femurs to contain 84,800 : 3,700 to 85,900 : 5,100 micrograms phosphorus/gram dffb. These data are slightly lower than the results of the present study. Salem and Reda (1955) showed, with balance studies, that body retention of phosphorus was depressed by high calcium levels in the diet. The data from this experiment apparently support the findings of Salem and Reda (1955). In these adults the bone was already formed at the beginning of the experiment so the final value of bone ash and mineral contents would be an indicator of the degree of depletion/repletion of the bones due to egg production. Pheasant hens have the ability to lay eggs at least sporadically when fed diets with 0.9 percent of the ration as calcium (Hinkson gt gt., 1970), but not when the dietary calcium is 0.63 or 0.37 percent (Greeley, 1962). Adult Body Weight (as the percentage change) Body weight change was measured as a percentage of the initial body weight. Only data combined as Group 1 were used for the statistical analysis. Only an experiment effect existed for the adult body weight percent change (P i 0.001). Only hens of experiment two showed an overall gain in body weight (change = + 2.4 i 0.11 SEM percent). The overall change of all experiments was negative 0.4 i 0.4 SEM percent of the initial body weight (Table 28). 97 Table 28. Adult hen-pheasant body weight percentage change over the 90-day experiment. Data are summarized by experiment. Experiment change 1 SEM* One (floor) -l.18 : 0.91 Two (floor) +2.35 0.11 Three (caged-layer) -1.46 0.56 Total -0.40 0.44 Data are means : SEM over all the treatments of that replicate. 98 The hens in experiments two and three were from the same parent stock and were kept in the same growing pens. The statistics only tested the percentage change in body weight and not actual body weight. No treatment affected a greater than four percentage point change in body weight (Table 29). Owings gt gt. (1977) reported similar negative changes in chicken S.C.W.L. laying hen's body weight over the experi- mental laying period. Likewise, Hinkson gt gt. (1967) found no effect of calcium level on overall change in pheasant breeder hen's body weight at the end of 18 weeks egg production. In 1970, Hinkson gt gt. reported all female pheasants gained weight over the reproductive period during which they were fed rations with different calcium levels. Woodard gt gt. (1977) reported weekly body weights, through 20-weeks of age, for Chinese and Mongolian Ring-necked male and female pheasants. The values presented are similar to the data collected in this study for growing and adult pheasants. 99 Table 29. Adult hen-pheasant body weight percentage change over the 90-day experiment. Data are summarized by treatments over all experiments. Trt. * * * Change No.* Comb. Pct. D. Ca Pct. D. P mean : SEM hens l 1.5 0.3 +4.12 1 2.32 38 2 1.5 0.4 -2.58 2.14 35 3 1.5 0.5 -3.44 1.38 39 4 1.5 0.6 +0.15 1.85 35 mean of the 1.5 percent dietary calcium effect -0.43 0.99 147 5 2.1 0.3 -l.08 2.63 39 6 2.1 0.4 -0.96 1.32 40 7 2.1 0.5 +0.71 1.82 40 8 2.1 0.6 +0.99 2.69 38 mean of the 2.1 percent dietary calcium effect -0.09 0.95 157 9 2.7 0.3 -0.26 1.31 38 10 2.7 0.4 +0.78 1.93 38 11 2.7 0.5 +1.58 1.72 38 12 2.7 0.6 -2.12 1.89 40 mean of the 2.7 percent dietary calcium effect -0.03 0.87 154 13 3.3 0.3 +0.86 1.46 38 14 3.3 0.4 -3.12 1.54 39 15 3.3 0.5 -1.88 1.36 40 16 3.3 0.6 +0.03 1.34 40 mean of the 3.3 percent dietary calcium effect -1.04 0.72 157 Treatment combinations are also defined in Appendix B, Table l. Trt. Comb. represents treatment combination; Pct. D. Ca represents the percent dietary calcium; Pct. D. P represents the percent dietary phosphorus; the no. hens represents the total of the hens left at the end of the 90 days, from all experiments of the adults experiments (E1, E2, E3). 100 F1 Mortality The F1 mortality is the percentage mortality of chicks hatched from eggs laid by hens which were fed the different dietary treatments. The eggs and chicks were pedigreed by dam and wing banded at the time of hatching. The chicks were raised through three weeks of age and the number of deaths were recorded for this time period. Only Group 1 data were used for this statistical analysis. One of the more interesting pieces of data from this research was the significant (P i 0.016) effect of the hen's dietary calcium concentration on the livability of these chicks through three weeks of age (Table 30). Chicks from the hens fed diets with the highest levels of calcium (2.7 and 3.3 per- cent) had higher mortality than the chicks from the lower calcium content treatments. Only the mortality of chicks from hens fed the 3.3 percent dietary calcium treatments was dif- ferent from chicks whose parents were fed rations with the two lower calcium concentrations. The chick mortality from hens fed the 2.7 percent calcium diets was not different from the mortality of groups of chicks from hens fed any of the other levels of dietary calcium, (Table 30). No explanation will be proposed at this time for these results as more work should be done to determine if this is a true effect. 101 Table 30. Effect of dietary calcium on percentage mortality of offspring of pheasant hens fed rations with various calcium and phosphorus concentrations. ** * Percent Dietary Calcium mean 1 SEM 13.3 i 0.9"”1 13.0 1.3a 15.1 0.6ab 16.9 0.9b 7': Means with different superscipts are significantly different (P i 0.05). ** This is the dietary calcium concentration in the diet of the dam. Data is the mortality through three weeks of age. 102 STARTER/GROWER DATA Feed Consumption of Battery-reared Chicks (SC 1c and SG IIc) The replicate effect on the feed consumption of battery- reared chicks was significant (P i 0.012). The four-week average of feed consumption for the SG Ic replicate was 14.9 and for the SG IIc replicate it was 13.0, both SEM=0.35 grams/ chick/day. There was a trend for higher dietary calcium to inhibit feed consumption (P i 0.27) as well as a trend for low dietary phosphorus to inhibit feed consumption (P i 0.07) of these battery-reared chicks. These averages :SEM of feed consump— tion as summarized by the level of dietary calcium were: 0.6 percent = 14.4:0.8; 1.2 percent = 14.0:0.9; and 1.8 percent = 13.3:l.2 grams/chick/day. Averages :SEM for the dietary phosphorus effect were: 0.4 percent = 13.3ip.82; and 0.6 per— cent = l4.5:0.6l percent. Table 31 shows this data as evaluated by the Bonferroni t-test of means. As shown in Table 31, at the 0.4 percent level of dietary phosphorus, the two higher levels of calcium inhibited feed intake. This inhibition was not evident with 0.6 percent dietary phosphorus. From this data (Tables 31 and 32) there was obviously a relationship between a wider Ca:P ratio, the level of available phosphorus in the ration and the resulting levels of feed intake. These relationships were exhibited in the significant interaction (P i 0.02) effect of calcium and phosphorus on feed consumption of these pattery-reared chicks (Tables 31 and 32). The specific ratio of Ca:P may have had a more pronounced effect on consump- 103 Table 31. Dietary calcium by phosphorus interaction effect on the feed consumption of battery-reared pheas- and chicks through four-weeks of age. Data are in grams/bird/day. Percent Dietary Phosphorus Pct. D. Ca** 0.2 0.4 0.6 mean* 0.6 6 *** 15.4 i 0.7 13.5 1.0 5 14.4b 1.2 5.3*** 12.6 0.1 15.5 0.3 14.0b 1.8 5 *** 12.1 1.2 14.6 1.2 13.33 mean* 5 *** 13.3a 14.5b * *7? **~k Means within a column or row with different superscripts are significantly different (P i 0.05). Pct. D. Ca represents percent dietary calcium. Not used in the statistical analysis. Data are means + SEM, of replicates SG Ic and SG IIc. These replicate? are defined on the Abbreviations and Symbols page. 104 Table 32. Effect of various dietary calcium and phosphorus combinations on the feed consumption of battery- reared pheasant chicks through four-weeks of age. Data are in grams/bird/day. Cafp Treat- mean : SEM* P greater than Ratio ment 0.20 0.10 0.05 2.0 l 6 15.5 i 0.32 1.5 l 2 15.4 0.74 3.0:1 9 14.6 1.17 1.0 1 3 13.5 0.53 3.0 1 5 12.6 0.14 4.5 1 8 12.1 1.17 1 3.0:1 l ---- 6.0 1 4 ---- 9.0 l 7 ---- )4. Means within the range of a line are not significantly different for each level of significance. Treatments are defined in Appendix B, Table l. The statistical analysis did not include treatments 1, 4, or 7. 105 tion than the absolute levels of dietary calcium or phosphorus. Treatment one (0.6 Ca:0.2 P) of the second floor replicate had three birds left for ashing at the twelfth week, but all other starter-grower replicates of this treatment only lived until about the fourth week of age. Therefore, not all the 0.2 percent dietary phosphorus treatments were as anorectic (all were rachitic) as they appeared. Comparisons of Starter-, Grower-, and Flight-Aged Bird's Feed Consumption (SG IF, and SG IIF replicates, only) Totals of starter (day old-6 week), grower (7 wk-12 wk), and flight (13 wk-16 wk) feed consumed included neither treat- ments one, four, or seven, nor data from the caged chicks. For the replicate effect on feed consumption through 16- weeks of age, the means found to be statistically different from each other (P i 0.038). These means were: SG IF = 38 grams/chick/day; and SG IIF = 42 grams/chick/day. Over the course of the 16 weeks of the experiments, many factors could be responsible for this difference. Possible the colder weather the chicks of the second floor replicate were reared in played a role in this overall difference in feed consumption means. Also, the chicks of SG IF were from a dif- ferent source than the chicks of SG IIF. There was a trend toward high dietary calcium and low dietary phosphorus inhibi- tion of feed consumption of battery-reared chicks according to the ANOVA F-statistic. In contrast to the battery-reared chick data, high dietary calcium (Table 33) levels resulted in a significant decline (P i 0.045) in feed consumption over 16- weeks. The dietary available phosphorus effect again approached 106 Table 33. Effect of dietary calcium on feed consumption of growing pheasants. Data are in grams consumed/ bird/day. Percent Dietary Calcium mean i_SEM* 0.6 42.5 i 3.83 1.2 41.6 4.061 1.8 36.4 3.4b Means with different superscripts are significantly different (P i 0.05). Data from treatments 1, 4, and 7 were not included in the statistical analysis due to the nearly total mortality of chicks fed these rations. Treatments are defined in Appendix B, Table 1. Data are means of feed consumption over the sixteen weeks of the experiment. Data are from only the floor-reared replicates (SG IF, SG IIF). 107 significance for this floor-reared chick data (P i 0.08). The Dunnett t-test was used to evaluate these specific feed con- sumption means because there were not enough degrees of freedom to use the Bonferroni t-test. Overall means :SEM for the dietary phosphorus treatments were: 38.4 i 3.0 and 41.9 i 3.0 grams consumed/chick/day, for phosphorus levels of 0.4 and 0.6 percent of the diet, respectively. High calcium and low phosphorus rations (wide Ca:P ratios), as defined in the textbook by Scott gt gt. (1978), possibly resulted in a depressing effect on the feed intake (Table 34) of these floor-reared pheasant chicks. The averages in Table 35 represented the significant (P i 0.0005) period effect on feed consumption through sixteen weeks of age. Total feed consumed by period is also listed in this table. Appendix D, Table 2 is a summary, by treatment, of the average feed consumption by chicks of these floor replicates for the three periods. This summary includes treatments one, four, and seven; but these treatments were not included in any statistical analysis of feed consumption. Hinkson gt gt. (1971), reported that for pheasant chicks three to five weeks of age, the feed consumption increased with increasing levels of calcium to 0.9 percent. But there was no difference between the 0.9 percent treatment and those through 1.62 percent dietary calcium. Their information differs somewhat from the data presented in this report. The pheasant chicks of the present experiments appeared to be more sensitive to dietary calcium and phosphorus ratios and levels than the pheasants of Hinkson gt gt. (1971) or the 108 Table 34. Effect of various dietary calcium and phosphorus combinations on the average feed consumption of growing pheasants during the starter, grower, and flight age periods (day-old through l6-weeks of age). Data are in grams feed consumed/bird/day. Treatment mean : SEM* P greater than 0.20 0.107 0.05 44.2 i 42.8 42.3 39.1 38.6 1 34. h‘ P4 14 H‘ r4 ta «3 \o \o u: \o 1o \l-DD—‘CDOU'INLAJO‘ Means within the range of a line are not significantly different for each level of significance. Treatments are defined in Appendix B, Table l. The SEM are the same due to homogenous variance (f—max test). Data are in grams consumed/bird/day. The statistical analysis did not include treatments 1, 4, 0r 7. 109 Table 35. Feed consumption by growing pheasants (in grams), according to the growth period. Data are in grams consumed/bird/day. Period Week Feed* No. total gm. total feed Consumed of feed pounds/ mean : SEM days consumed bird/period Starter 1-6 19.6 i 0.6a 42 814.8 1.80 Grower 7-12 45.9 1.7b 42 1927.8 4.25 Flight 13-16 55.2 1.3c 28 1545.6 3.41 Total 4288.2 9.46 * Means with different superscripts are significantly different (P i 0.05). Starter data are from day-old through six weeks of age; Grower data are from weeks seven through twelve; Flight data are from weeks 13 through 16. 110 chickens of Nelson gt gt. (1965) (see Tables 31, 32, 33, 36, and 37). Waldroup gt gt. (1963) indicated that broiler chicks are more sensitive to the dietary calcium:phosphorus ratio if the levels of these minerals is low, which in general is what the results of the present study indicated. Nelson gt gt. (1965) found a 4:1 (vs. 2:1 Ca:P ratio) caused a significant decline in body weight and decreased feed consumption of chicks. Biely and March (1967) indicated that up to 1.3 percent dietary calcium was well tolerated by broilers with no indication of any growth inhibition or de- crease in feed efficiency. Scott gt gt. (1976) listed broiler feed consumption at 11.8 grams/bird/day at one week of age to 135 grams/male/day, or 110 grams/female/day at eight-weeks of age. The combined sexes averaged about 90 grams/bird/day at six-weeks of age, which is about double that of pheasants (Table 35). 111 Bogy Weight (in grams) l. Day-old through four-weeks of age Statistical comparisons were made only on data from replicates SG IF, SG IIF, SG Ic,and SG IIc. Chicks from treat- ments one, four, and seven also were not evaluated because there was excess mortality within these treatments, with few survivors. The numbers reported for the significant replicate, dietary calcium and phosphorus averages were of negligible quantitative value because they represented the average between day-old average weight and the weight of the chick at four weeks of age. However, a comparison of means within the calcium effect (Table 36) may be of value. The significant calcium effect (P i 0.035) on body weight averages of day-old and four-week old pheasant chicks is presented in Table 36. In Table 37 the initial group average weight at day-old was 20-22 grams/chick; this weight was with the wing band included in the total weight of each chick. The four-week old chick body weights reported in Table 37 are similar to those reported by Fuentes (1978). As summarized in this analysis, the replicate effect on body weight means was significant (P i 0.035). The major function of this part of the ANOVA was to evaluate the effect of cage versus floor-rearing of pheasant chicks. The range extremes of this body weight data are of averages of the floor- reared chicks. Therefore, this replicate effect was probably due to chance. The body weight averages for these replicates were: SG IF = 102.8; SG IIF = 116.8; SG Ic = 115.1; and SG IIc = 112.6 grams. 112 Table 36. Effect of dietary calcium on pheasant chick's body weight averages (in grams). Data are the average between day-old and four-week-old chick body weights Percent Dietary Calcium mean : SEM* 0.6 115.4 :_l.60a 1.2 110.9 1.60ab 1.8 109.1 1.60b 7% Means with different superscripts are significantly different (P g 0.05). Due to homogenous variances (f-max test) all SEM = 1.60. Data are from all starter/grower replicates except SG IIIc. Replicates are defined on the Abbreviations and Symbols page, and the calcium levels are defined by treatment in Appendix B, Table 1.‘ Data from treatments 1, 4, and 7 were not included in the statistical analysis due to the nearly total mortality of chicks fed these rations. 113 Table 37. The dietary calcium by dietary phosphorus by period effect on growing pheasant chick's body weight (in grams). Period Percent Dietary * * Phosphorus Day-old Four-weeks old Percentage Dietary Phosphorus by 0.6 Percent Dietary Calcium b b O 0.4 21.0 i 0.6 21.8 .48 211.0 : 7.7 .50 208.0 2.6 O Percentage Dietary Phosphorus by 1.2 Percent Dietary Calcium 185.5 5.98 b 0.4 21.3 C u) 0.6 21.3 0 U1 215.8 7.0 Percentage Dietary Phosphorus by 1.8 Percent Dietary Calcium 179.8 9.1a 213.5 9.9b 0.4 21.5 0.6 21.5 00 Law Means within a column with different superscripts are significantly different (P i 0.01). Data are a summary of body weights from day-old and four- weeks of age. The body weights of the day-old chicks included the weight of the wing band. 114 The phosphorus effect on body weight average was highly significant (P 1 0.0005). The average body weight of chicks at day-old and four-weeks of age was lower for the 0.4 percent (106.7 1 1.3 grams) vs. the 0.6 percent (117.0 1 1.3 grams) dietary phosphorus treated chicks. The period effect is a summary of the average body weight for all chicks at day-old (21.4 i 0.15 grams) and at four-weeks of age (202.3 1 4.0 grams). Also the phosphorus by period effect for body weight was significant (P i 0.004) but with the ten-fold differente in body weights from day-old through four- weeks of age, these should be significant. The calcium by phosphorus by period effect was significant for body weight averages-see Table 37-(P i 0.039) but more importantly, it reremphasized the high dietary calciumzlow dietary phosphorus (wide ratio) effect of lowering feed con- sumption and therefore body weight of these pheasant chicks. At the 0.6 percent dietary calcium level, the effect of the level of phosphorus (0.4 or 0.6 percent) on the average chick body weight was insignificant. With the treatmentrcombinations using calcium at 1.2 percent of the ration, the high dietary calcium:low' dietary phosphorus interaction effect on feed intake was supported by its significant effect (P i 0.002)- see Table 38-on these body weight means (Tables 31, 33, 36, 37, and 38). Hinkson gt gt. (1971) reported the dietary calcium re- quirement of pheasant chicks for optimum body weight and bone mineralization at four and five weeks of age to be between 115 Table 38. Effect of various dietary calcium and phosphorus combinations on the growing pheasant body weight in grams. Ca:p Treat- mean 1 SEM* P greater than Ratio ment 0.20 0.10 0.05 2.0:1 6 118.5 f 2.3 3.0:1 9 117.5 2.3 1.5:1 2 116.0 2.3 1.0:1 3 114.9 2.3 3.0 l 5 103.4 2.3 4.5 l 8 100.6 2.3 1 I 1 3.0:1 1 ----- 6.0 1 4 ----- 9.0:1 7 ----- * Means within the range of a line are not significantly different for each level of significance. Treatments are defined in Appendix B, Table 1. SEM are the same due to homogenous variance (f-max test). Data are averages of day-old and four-week old growing pheasant's body weight in grams. The statistical analysis did not include treatments 1, 4, or 7. Data are from all starter/grower replicates except SG lllc. 116 0.90 and 1.06 percent. Dietary phosphorus was about 0.79 per- cent in their three studies. Body Weight through Sixteen-weeks of Age The replicate averages of pheasant chicks are for body weights from day-old through l6-weeks of age for starter/ grower floor replicates one and two. Chicks in floor replicate one gained less body weight as an average, over the course of the experiments, than did chicks of replicate two. This dif- ference may have been due to the variation of the chick sources or to other factors, such as weather, which were discussed under feed consumption. Period effects on body weight are summarized in Table 39. A significant response for the period effect should be expected because this data is of the rapid growth phase of a biological system. The larger variation after four-weeks of age was probably due to the males and females not being separated for the statistical analysis of body weight. Woodard gt gt. (1977) reported the body weights of pheas- ants from one-through 20-weeks of age. His data on weight gain were similar to those reported in this study. However, the birds used by Woodard gt gt. (1977) were fed adequate diets. Woodard gt gt. (1977) also reported data for less than optimum dietary protein concentrations and stated that there was a sub- sequent decline in body weight. 117 Table 39. Body weight averages (in grams) for pheasants at day-old through sixteen-weeks of age. Time Period mean 1 SEM* Day-old 21.7 i 0.2 4-weeks of age 197.9 5.8 8-weeks of age 528.6 15.8 12-weeks of age 908.3 17.5 16-weeks of age 1062.3 13.2 * Means at all ages include the weight of the wing band. Data are from floor-reared replicates (SG IF, SG IIF) and do not include data from treatments 1, 4, or 7 due to the nearly total mortality of chicks fed these rations. 118 In the present study, when using rations with similar levels of calcium and phosphorus (low Ca:P ratios) there was essentially no difference between the effect of the two higher dietary levels of phosphorus on body weights (Table 38). As the CaEP ratio widened, the chick apparently required a higher dietary level of phosphorus to maintain a higher (optimum) body weight. Waldroup gt gt. (1963) reported similar results for broiler chicks. They found that the calcium:phosphorus ratio significantly affected the body weight gains and feed utilization of those chicks. 119 Starter/Grower Tibia Measurements l. Two-week-old Pheasant Chicks These data are from tibiae taken from two-weeks-old pheasant chicks. Data are from all replicates and all treat- ments . Tibia dry fat-free bone (dffb) The dietary calcium treatments had no effect on the amount of tibia dffb, but the low dietary phosphorus treated chicks consistently had a much lower concentration of dffb when compared relative to all calcium levels. The ranking of individual treatment combination means are shown in Table 40 and help to illustrate this point. The phosphorus effect was linear (P i 0.01) for the range of dietary phosphorus studied (see Table 41). The same relationship between dietary calcium and phosphorus combinations existed for this dffb as it had for all other parameters (see Tables 31, 32, 34, 38, 42, and 43). The treatment combination rankings exhibited in Table 40 of the effectiveness of the various treatment combinations was rather constant over all parameters studied. Treatment 6 was usually the most effective, followed by treatments 9 and 2, and then always 5 and 8, for most parameters. 120 Table 40. Effect of various dietary calcium and phosphorus combinations on the two-week-old pheasant chick tibia percentage dry fat-free bone (dffb). Ca:p Treat- mean : SEM* P greater than Ratio ment 0.20 0710 0.05 2.0:1 6 51.6 i 3.2 1 1.5 l 2 50.4 3.6 3.0:1 9 50.2 2.6 1.0 l 3 47.5 2.9 4.5:1 8 42.9 2.7 1 3.0:1 5 42.6 1.2 3.0:1 1 36.8 2.3 9.0 1 7 36.4 2.4 6.0:1 4 36.0 2.2 1 3(- Means within the range of a line are not significantly different for each level of significance. Treatments are defined in Appendix B, Table 1. Data are from all replicates (floor and battery-reared) and from all treatments. 121 Table 41. Effect of dietary phosphorus on the two-week old pheasant chick's tibia percentage of dry fatdfree bone (dffb). Data are in mg dffb/ 100 mg tibia. Percent Dietary Phosphorus mean 1 SEM* 0.2 36.4 i 1.30a 0.4 45.3 1.30b 0.6 49.8 1.30C * Means with different superscripts are significantly different (P i 0.05). Data include all starter/grower replicates and treatments. Because of homogenous variance (f-max test) all SEM=1.30. 122 Treatment combination calcium and phosphorus ratios and levels are defined in Appendix B, Table 1. Dry fat-free bone percentage ash As measured by the ANOVA F-statistic, a higher calcium concentration of the ration tended to have a negative effect on the dry fat-free bone percentage ash (P i 0.064). As can be seen in Table 42, of the calcium effect (Bonferroni test was sig. P i 0.05) was probably due to the very low value for treatments.seVen and eight (1.8 Ca:0.215 and 1.8 Ca:0.4 P, respectively). Therefore, this tendancy for a calcium effect on dffb percentage ash was possibly more a result of the wider Ca:P ratio than a specific calcium effect on the bone ash. The phosphorus effect was highly significant due to the very low values for the 0.2 percent dietary phosphorus treatments (Tables 42 and 43). The specific rankings of the treatment combinations of Table 42 are in Table 43. All remaining birds in these 0.2 percent phosphorus treatments (except a few in treatment one of the second floor replicate) were dead within two-weeks post-treatment. All chicks that were fed diets with 0.2 percent dietary phosphorus were anorectic and rachitic. The reason data from the second week were collected was because so many chicks fed these 0.2 percent dietary phosphorus treat- ment combinations had died prior to that time. The calcium by phosphorus interaction was also significant (P i 0.002) due to these same low values (Table 42). The phosphorus effect on dffb percentage ash was more pronounced as the Ca:P ratio 123 Table 42. Dietary calcium by phosphorus interaction effect on the two-week old pheasant chick's tibia dry fat—free bone (dffb) percentage ash (mg ash/100 mg dffb). Percent Dietary Phosphorus J Pct. D. Ca** 0.2 0.4 0.6 meanw 0.6 38.9 i 0.6 54.9 i 0.9 52.1 t 1.7 48.6b 1.2 37.9 1.4 50.5 1.6 58.4 0.5 48.9b 1.8 35.7 1.2 47.4 2.1 56.1 1.1 46.48 mean* 37.58 50.9b 55.5C * Means within a column or row with different superscripts are significantly different (P i 0.05). ** Pct. D. Ca represents percent dietary calcium Data are mean : SEM. Treatments are defined in Appendix B, Table 1. Data are from all starter/grower replicates, as defined on the Abbreviations and Symbols page. 124 Table 43. Effect of various dietary calcium and phosphorus combinations on the two-week old pheasant chick's tibia dry-fat-free bone percentage ash. Ca:p Treat- mean i SEM* P greater than Ratio ment 0.20 0.10 0.05 2.0:1 6 58.4 i 0.53 3.0:1 9 56.1 1.10 1 1.5 l 2 54.9 0.86 1 1.0:1 3 52.1 1.67 1 3.0:1 5 50.5 1.56 4.5:1 8 47.4 2.12 3.0 1 1 38.9 0.55 6.0:1 4 37.9 1.44 9.0:1 7 35.7 1.16 )1. Means within the range of a line are not significantly different for each level of significance. Treatments are defined in Appendix B, Table 1. Data are from all starter/grower replicates (floor- and battery-reared) and from all treatments. 125 widened; also see Waldroup gt gt. (1963). For three-week old cockerels, Christmas and Harms (1978) found tibia ash values of about 39-41 percent, depending on the dietary treatment. Branion (1938) (see O'Rourke gt gt., 1955) concluded that the ratio of dietary calcium to phosphorus was not of prime importance to the growing chicken when vitamin D3 and reasonable levels of calcium and phosphorus were in the ration. With adequate vitamin D3 the Ca:P ratio could vary from 1:1 to 3:1 with an optimum of 2:1. However, the absolute amounts of calcium and phosphorus were important for optimal growth and bone ash. The results of this study agree with these other reports. Nelson gt gt. (1965) also found a Ca:P ratio effect on the percentage of chick bone ash. They reported ash means of about 33-41 percent for the 2:1 ratios and 20-43 percent for the 4:1 Ca:P ratios for various phosphorus supplements which is similar to but lower than the results of the present study. Wilcox gt gt. (1955) reported that four-week old poults had tibia bone ash values of 43.41 and 43.37 percent for practical type rations with 0.8 or 1.0 percent total phosphorus and 2.0 percent dietary calcium. The ash values that resulted from feeding the purified rations ranged from 24.95 to 47.99 percent. The data of Wilcox gt gt. (1955) were from different experiments and are comparable to the data of the present study. 126 Ash percentage calcium Only the replicate means of the ash calcium content of these two-week-old chicks were significantly different (P i 0.024) from each other (Table 44). Only the range extremes of these replicate means were significantly different from each other. The floor-reared chicks average ash percentage calcium was lower than that of their caged counterparts (35.18 i 0.08 and 36.2 i 0.34 SEM percent, respectively). The treatment combination averages, as summarized by the calcium by phosphorus interaction, were not significantly different from each other (P i 0.05); all these values were between 35-36 mg Ca/100 mg dffb (Table 45). Ash percentage phosphorus For the significant replicate effect (P i 0.005) on pheasant chick tibia ash percentage phosphorus, the SG Ic chicks had the greatest amount of phosphorus (20.6 mg P/100 mg ash). All other replicate effect means were 19.8 or 19.9 mg P/100 mg ash. The significant calcium (P i 0.001) and phosphorus (P i 0.001) effects may be better visualized by looking at Tables 46 and 47. Shown on these tables are the treatment combina- tion means of the calcium and phosphorus interaction, either summarized by dietary mineral level or ranked according to their effect on the ash percentage phosphorus. The low (0.6 percent) dietary calcium treatments all had the higher ash percentage phosphorus in their respective dietary phosphorus catagories. 127 Table 44. Growing pheasant's tibia ash percentage calcium (mg calcium/100 mg ash). Data are summarized by replicate. Starter/Grower * Replicates mean :_SEM First floor 35.2 i 0.3":1 Second floor 35.0 0.4a First battery 36.9 0.4b Second battery 35.8 0.5ab Third battery 35.9 0.2ab * Means with different superscripts are significantly different (P i 0.05). Replicates are defined on the Abbreviations and Symbols page. Data are from all replicates and all treatments at two-weeks of age. 128 Table 45. Effect of various dietary calcium and phosphorus combinations on the two—week old pheasant chick's tibia ash calcium concentration (mg calcium/100 mg ash). Ca:p Treat- * P greater than Ratio ment mean i SEM 0.20 0.10 0.05 9.0 l 7 36.1 t 1.20 n/a n/a 1.5 1 2 36.1 0.32 3.0 1 9 35.9 0.40 4.5 l 8 35.9 0.40 3.0:1 5 35.8 0.41 3.0:1 1 35.6 0.37 6.0:1 4 35.5 0.64 1.0:1 3 35.4 0.83 2.0:1 6 35.4 0.50 >1- Means within the range of a line are significantly different for each level of significance. Treatments are defined in Appendix B, Table 1. Data are from all starter/grower replicates (floor- and battery-reared) and from all treatments. 129 Table 46. Dietary calcium by phosphorus interaction effect on the two-week old pheasant chick's tibia ash percentage phosphorus (mg P/100 mg ash). Pct. D. Ca** 0.2 Pegcgnt Dietary Pgogphorus mean* 0.6 20.0 i 0.2 20.7 t 0.2 20.6 i 0.3 20.4a 1.2 19.3 0.5 20.1 0.1 20.3 0.2 19.9b 1.8 19.4 0.2 19.9 0.1 19.9 0.2 19.7b mean* 19.68 20.2b 20.3b Means within a column or row with different superscripts are significantly different (P i 0.05). Treatments are defined in Appendix B, Table 1. Data are from all starter/grower replicates. * Pct. D. Ca represents percent dietary calcium. Data are means + SEM. Replicates are defined on the Abbreviations and Symbols page. 130 Table 47. Effect of various dietary calcium and phosphorus combinations on the two-week old pheasant chick's tibia ash phosphorus concentration (mg phosphorus/ 100 mg ash). Ca:p Treat- * P greater than Ratio ment mean i SEM 0.207 0.10 0.05 1.5:1 2 20.7 i 0.16 1.0 1 3 20.6 0.29 2.0 1 6 20.3 0.19 3 0:1 5 20.1 0.09 ' 3.0:1 1 20.0 0.17 1 4.5:1 8 19.9 0.10 1 3.0:1 9 19.9 0.14 1 . 9.0:1 7 19.4 0.22 6.0:1 4 19.3 0.51 1 )1. Means within the range of a line are not significantly different for each level of significance. Treatments are defined in Appendix B. Table 1. Data are from all starter/grower replicates (floor- and battery- reared) and from all treatments. 131 As the level of dietary calcium was increased to 1.2 percent and 1.8 percent within each level of dietary phosphorus, the bone phosphorus declined. The effect of dietary calcium on the ash percentage phosphorus was linear (P‘: 0.05). This phenomenon was also consistent for the two-week old chick's data, not 2-12 wk data. 2. Two- and four-week old chick bone values for replicates SG IF; SG IIF; SG Ic; and SG IIIc. Tibia percentagg dry fat-free bone (dffb) The 0.2 percent dietary phosphorus treatments (1, 4, 7) were not included in the statistical analysis for any of the data in this section because of missing data from these groups. Chicks fed the 0.4 percent phosphorus rations had less dffb (P i 0.027) than did the chicks fed the 0.6 percent phosphorus rations (47.9 i 1.3 and 51.2 i 1.5 percent, respec- tively). This indicated that 0.4 percent dietary phosphorus was not adequate over all levels of calcium fed, for optimum dffb. The tibia percentage of dffb at two weeks of age (48.2 i 1.5 SEM) was similar to that at four weeks of age (50.9 i 1.0 SEM) (P i 0.05), but less when compared to the eight-week old floor-reared chicks tibia percentage dffb (Table 52). The calcium by phosphorus interaction was significant (P i 0.015). These treatment combinations are ranked in Table 48. The chicks tended to deposit minerals in the skeleton in adequate quantity only if the Ca:P ratio was low and if a 132 Table 48. Effect of various dietary calcium and phosphorus combinations on the two— and four-week old pheas- ant chick's tibia percentage dry fat-free bone (mg dry fat-free bone/100 mg tibia). Ca:p Treat- * P greater than Ratio ment mean i SEM *0l20 0.10 0.05 3.0:1 9 53.3 i 2.3 1.5:1 2 51.8 2.4 2.0:1 6 51.5 1.9 1.0 l 3 48.8 2.0 3.0:1 5 46.0 1.9 4.5 l 8 45.8 1.9 3.0:1 1 ---- 6.0:1 4 r--‘ 9.0:1 7 ---- x. Means within the range of a line are not significantly different for each level of significance. Treatments are defined in Appendix B, Table 1. Data are from all starter/grower replicates except SG IIc. Data from treatments 1, 4, or 7 were not used for the statistical analysis. 133 certain minimum amount of phosphorus was available in the diet. The Ca:P ratio apparently plays a role in determining that minimum level. As can be seen in Table 48, treatments two and six re- sulted in very similar tibia dffb. Specific treatment com- bination calcium and phosphorus levels and ratios are defined in Appendix B, Table 1, Treatment three was less effective in the deposition of bone minerals than treatments two, six, or nine; but was more effective than treatments five and eight. These differences were not statistically significant, see Table 48, but were consistent for these measurements (Tables 40, 48, and 53). Evidently a Ca:P ratio of greater than 1:1 was needed by pheasant chicks for maximum bone development. The response of the two- and four-week-old chicks to wide Ca:P ratio treat- ments, as measured by the chick dffb and ash, are generally as reported in this study for the two-week through lZ—week-old chicks (Tables 40, 43, 48; 49, 53, and 54). Dry fat-free bone percentage ash (from two-and four-week of age chicks). Chicks fed the rations with the 0.4 percent level of phosphorus had less bone ash than those fed rations with the 0.6 percent phosphorus level (P i 0.002). These means were 54.2 i 1.5 percent and 58.7 i 0.9 percent, respectively. Similarly, chicks at two weeks of age had less bone ash than those at four weeks of age (P i 0.005); these means were: 52.2 i 1.3 and 60.0 i 0.6 percent, respectivly. By two-weeks of age, the bone was not completely calcified but by four to 134 eight weeks of age the adult levels of the percentage dffb and ash had been reached (see Table 52 for the floor-reared chick data); which indicated that full mineralization had occurred. In each set of tibia data, the values from the younger chicks were more variable and more responsive to die- tary mineral levels than when the chicks were eight to twelve weeks of age. The phosphorus by period interaction showed a strong trend toward significance (P i 0.054). The averages of treatment combinations are shown in Table 49. This calcium by phosphorus interaction was not significant (P i 0.12). Sunde and Bird (1956) have reported similar bone ash values for four-week old pheasant chicks. For total dietary phosphorus levels of 0.66, 0.76, 0.86, 0.96, 1.06, 1.16, and 1.46 percent, they reported percent bone ash averages of 37.92, 45.71, 49.20, 52.93, 51.74, 51.76, and 51.94 percent, respec- tively. The dietary calcium level was 1.51 percent. Biely and March (1967) reported tibia dffb percentage ash values for six or seven—week old broilers that were slightly less (about 45-48 percent) than the data from the pheasants of the present study. Anderson and Stewart (1973) reported juve- nile pheasant's femurs to have 64.9 i 8.57 to 81.6 i 1.29 grams ash/100 grams dry fat-free bone, which is somewhat greater than the data reported from this study. Ash percentage calcium (from two- and four-week of age chicks) Only the replicate effect was significant (P 1 0.0005). The first battery replicate averaged 36.96 i 0.18 percent; while the second battery replicate averaged 35.08 i 0.19 per- 135 Table 49. Effect of various dietary calcium and phosphorus combinations on the two- and four-week old pheasant chick's tibia dry fat-free bone (dffb) percentage ash (mg ash/100 mg dffb). Treat- P greater than C) n) "d Ratio ment means : SEM* 40120 0.10 0.05 2.0:1 6 60.9 i 1.04 3.0:1 9 59.0 1.35 1.0 l 3 56.2 1.88 3.0:1 5 55.2 2.26 1.5 l 2 55.1 2.94 4.5 1 8 52.4 2.72 1 3.0:1 l ---- 6.0:1 4 ---- 9.0:1 7 ---- x. Means within the range of a line are not significantly different for each level of significance. Treatments are defined in Appendix B, Table 1. Data are from all starter/grower replicates except SG IIc. Data from treatments 1, 4, or 7 were not used for ' the statistical analysis. 136 cent which was about the midway point between the averages of the two floor replicates (SG IF = 34.74 i 0.18; SG IIF = 35.62 i 0.21). The 35 percent value was constant for all averages of the growing pheasant ash percentage calcium (Table 44); and similar to the adult levels (Table 24). The Ca:P interaction was not significant (P x 0.05). Ash percentage phosphorus (from two- and four-week old chicks) The percentages of calcium and phosphorus in the ash did not show a period effect. The best ratio of the calcium by phosphorus interaction effect on percentages of ash phosphorus (Table 50) was approximately 2:1. The lowest dietary calcium level (0.6 percent) resulted in the highest (P i 0.01) chick tibia ash percentage phosphorus (Table 51). The calcium concentration had a linear (P i 0.05) effect on the ash percentage phosphorus (Table 51). These data agree with previously discussed two—week old pheasant chick data of this study (Table 46) and the results of balance studies of Salem and Reda (1955). Salem and Reda (1955) showed that body retention of phosphorus was depressed by high dietary calcium. The adult bone of this study showed the same relation- ship between dietary calcium concentration and bone minerals. 3. Two-, Four-, Eight-, and Twelve-week old Pheasant Chick Tibiae Values for Replicates SG IF, and SG IIF There was not sufficient data for the 0.2 percent dietary phosphorus treatments (1, 4, 7) to be included in the statis- tical analysis. 137 Table 50. Effect of various dietary calcium and phosphorus combinations on the two- and four-week old pheas- ant chick's tibia ash percentage phosphorus (mg P/100 mg ash). Ca:p Treat— * P greater than Ratio ment mean 1 SEM 0.20 0.10 0.057 1.5:1 2 20.5 t 0.18 1.0:1 3 20.5 0.24 2.0:1 6 20.3 0.15 3.0:1 9 19.9 0.11 4 5:1 8 19.9 0.11 3.0:1 5 19.8 0.08 3.0:1 1 ~--- 6.0:1 4 ---- 9.0 1 7 ---- * Means within the range of a line are not significantly different for each level of significance. Treatments are defined in Appendix B, Table 1. Data are from all starter/grower replicates except SG IIc. Data from treatments 1, 4, or 7 were not used for the statistical analysis. 138 Table 51. Effect of dietary calcium on pheasant chick tibia ash percentage phosphorus. Percent Dietary Calcium mean : SEM* 0.6 20.5 : 0.148 1.2 20.1 0.10b 1.8 19.8 0.07C 7': Means with different superscripts are significantly different (P i 0.05). Data are from two- and four-week old pheasant chicks. The means represent mg phosphorus/100 mg ash. 139 Tibia percentage dry fat-free bone (dffb) (TWO-through Twelve- week Data). The ANOVA F-statistic indicated that floor replicate one had a lower (P i 0 025) dffb percentage of total bone than floor replicate two (56.0 t 1.9 SEM vs. 60.0 i 2.2 SEM percent, respectively). The phosphorus effect on tibia percentage dffb approached significance (P i 0.056). The trend was for the chicks fed the 0.4 percent dietary phosphorus treatment to have less dffb as a percentage of the total bone than those fed the diets with 0.6 percent phosphorus (56.2 i 2.1 and 59.6 i 2.1 SEM percent, respectively). The significant (P i 0.0005) period effect was because the first readings were from two-weeks of age, then at four-, eight-, and twelve weeks of age (Table 52). Feeding treatment six (1.2 percent Ca:0.6 percent P) resulted in the highest tibia percentage dffb. Treatments nine (1.8 Ca 0.6 P), two (0.6 Ca 0.4 P), and three (0.6 Ca: 0.6 P) chicks had a lesser amount of, although not signifi- cantly different, tibia percentage dffb (Table 53) than treat- ment six chicks. Dry fat-free bone percentage ash (Two-through Twelve-week data). There was a significant phosphorus effect (P i 0.001) on the dffb percentage ash. Bones from the 0.4 percent phos- phorus treatments had less ash than the bones from the 0.6 percent dietary phosphorus treatments (58.6 i 1.2 SEM and 140 Table 52. Effect of time on growing pheasant's tibia per— centage dry fat-free bone (dffb), and the dffb percentage ash. mg dffb* m ash* Time Period 100 mg tibia 100 mg dffb 2-weeks of age 47.8 : 2.3a 53.5 : 1.5a 4-weeks of age 53.3 1.5a 60.4 0.9b 8-weeks of age 68.6 2.4b 63.0 0.4b 12-weeks of age 62.4 0.5b 62.2 0.4b >(_ Means within columns with different superscripts are significantly different (P i 0.05). Data are from floor-reared pheasant chicks at two, four eight, and twelve weeks of age. These replicates are defined on the Abbreviations and Symbols page. 141 Table 53. Effect of various dietary calcium and phosphorus combinations on the grower pheasant's tibia per- centage dry fat-free bone (dffb). Data are mg dffb/100 mg tibia. Ca:p Treat- * P greater than Ratio ment mean i SEM 0.20 0.10 0.05 2.0 l 6 61.8 i 4.1 3.0:1 9 59.5 3.4 1.5:1 2 58.0 3.2 1.0:1 3 57.6 3.1 4.5:1 8 55.9 4.4 3.0:1 5 55.5 3.9 1 3.0:1 l ---- 6.0:1 4 ---- 9.0:1 7 ---- Means within the range of a line are not significantly different for each level of significance. Treatments are defined in Appendix B, Table 1. Data are from two-, four-, eight-, and twelve-week old pheasant chicks. Data from treatments 1, 4, or 7 were not used for the statistical analysis. 142 61.0 i 0.7 SEM percent, respectively). There was an interaction of the calcium and phosphorus levels (P i 0.005) on the dffb percentage ash (Tables 54 and 55). The reason why treatment two (0.6 Ca:0.4 P) averages were consistently different (Dunnet t-test = P i 0.05) from the other averages at this phosphorus level is not known, see Tables 42, 49, and 55. However, this could be related to an altered intestinal absorption due to the imbalanced Ca:P ratios as described by Scott gt gt., 1978, who suggested that the 0.4 percent dietary phosphorus was adequate only at a low Ca:P ratio (i.e. 1.5 or 2:1). The highly significant (P i 0.005) period effect (Table 52) can also be explained by the lower ash values for chicks that are maturing; and subsequently increasing the percentage of mineralized cartilage as measured by the percentage dffb and ash of the tibia. The tibia ash concentration had pla- teaued by four-weeks of age. Ash percentage calcium Chicks of replicate one had a lower percentage of tibia ash calcium (P i 0.003) (35.7 i 0.27) than those of the second replicate (36.7 i 0.27 percent). Calcium in the bone ash increased over the four periods (Table 56). After reviewing the previously discussed data, one would also expect these values to plateau with maturity, which they did, between four- and eight-weeks of age. Anderson and Stewart (1973) reported juvenile pheasant 143 Table 54. Effect of various dietary calcium and phosphorus combinations on the grower pheasant's tibia dry fat-free bone (dffb) percentage ash. Data are in mg ash/100 mg dffb. Ca:p Treat— * P greater than Ratio ment mean SEM 0.20 0.10 0.05 |+ 2.0 1 6 62.3 i 1.0 3.0 1 9 61.2 1.2 1 1 1 1.5 1 2 60.1 1.2 1 1 1.0 1 3 59.4 1.5 1 1 4.5 1 8 57.9 2.4 3.0 1 5 57.9 2.4 1 3.0 1 1 ---- 6.0:1 4 ---- 9.0 1 7 ---- Means within the range of a line are not significantly different for each level of significance. Treatments are defined in Appendix B, Table 1. Data are from two-, four-, eight-, and twelve-week old pheasant chicks. Data from treatments 1, 4, or 7 were not used for the statistical analysis. 144 Table 55. Dietary calcium by phosphorus interaction effect on grower pheasant chick's tibia dry fat-free bone (dffb) percentage ash. Data are in mg ash/ 100 mg dffb. Percent Dietary Percent Dietary Phosphorus Calcium 0.4 0.6 mean*— 0.6 60.1 i 1.2 59.4 i 1.5 59.7a 1.2 57.9 2.4 62.2 1.0 60.08 1.8 57.9 2.4 61.3 1.2 59.6a mean* 58.68 61.0b Means within a column or row with differnet superscripts are significantly different (P i 0.05). Treatments 0.2 percent dietary phosphorus (l, 4, and 7) were not included in the statistical analysis due to the nearly total mortality of chicks fed these rations. Data are from chicks from the two floor-reared replicates (SG IF, SO IIF) at two-, four-, eight—, and twelve-weeks of age. Treatments are defined in Appendix B, Table l. 145 Table 56. Effect of time on growing pheasant chick's tibia ash percentages of calcium and phosphorus. Part 1. Period , mg calcium/100 mg ash 2 weeks of age 35.16 i 0.18 4 weeks of age 35.20 0.28 8 weeks of age 37.11 0.18 12 weeks of age 37.37 0.39 146 Table 56. Effect of time on growing pheasant chick's tibia ash percentages of calcium and phosphorus. Part 2. Period mg phosphorus/100 mg ash 2 weeks of age 20.16 i 0.14 4 weeks of age 20.07 0.15 8 weeks of age 19.44 0.25 12 weeks of age 19.40 0.18 147 femurs to have 243,600 to 277,000 micrograms calcium/gram dry fat-free bone and 76,900 to 122,900 micrograms phosphorus/ gram dry fat-free bone. These data are similar to the data from the present study. Ash percentage phosphorus According to the ANOVA table, the only significant part of the analysis was the period effect. The phosphorus of the bone declined in a linear fashion (P i 0.01) over the 16 week experimental period (Table 56). However, the range of means was not different (P > 0.05). STARTER/GROWER MORTALITY Day-old through Four-weeks of Age Data are from all replicates and treatments. Although not significant, the two floor replicates had less mortality than did battery-reared chicks (Table 57). Raising pheasant chicks in battery-brooders, even with conventional starter diets, is difficult because they are still a wild species. Their instinctive reaction when frightened is to try to fly. When in battery-brooders, if they are frightened, they frequently beat themselves to death trying to fly out of the six-inch—tall sections. During this four-week growing period, the chicks would also naturally start trying their wings and often damage themselves during this process. Flegal (1978) stated that in a conventional battery- brooding situation, up to 40 percent of the chicks killed them- selves in this way. 148 Table 57. Percentage mortality of starter/grower chicks through four-weeks of age. Data are summarized by replicate. Starter/grower Percent Number/ Total replicate mortality treatment chicks First floor 36.6 52 468 Second floor 36.6 45 405 First battery 38.9 22 198 Second battery 43.3 26 234 Third battery 45.1 25 225 Data are means, using all treatment. Treatments are defined in Appendix B, Table l. Replicates are defined on the Abbreviations and Symbols page. 149 For these experiments, the batteries were in rooms which were partially secluded from the main activity areas. Excreta was not removed until necessary and all unnecessary work around the birds was avoided, especially as the chicks grew older. A very minimal number of deaths were due to this panic-stricken attempt to escape. Some chicks did develop abscesses on their heads where they were hit on the section ceiling. The chicks fed the rachitic rations did not live long enough to die from head/neck injuries. They died from starva- tion, primarily. They refused to eat the highly imbalanced calcium/phosphorus diets (see Appendix D, Table l, or Table 31 of the text). The MSU diagnostic laboratory determined the cause of death of these chicks. Hinkson gt gt. (1971) reported high (42-48%) mortality due to rickets with lower (0.22-0.58 percent) dietary calcium levels, and dietary phosphorus at about 0.79 percent. They reported no treatment to have less than 10% mortality, but their data was confounded with deaths in all treatments due to mechanical hock damage. Apparently, the use of higher levels of calcium in the ration (wider Ca:P ratios) significantly increased the chick mortality through four-weeks of age. Shown in Table 58 is the mortality as summarized by the dietary calcium level. The effects of dietary phosphorus (Table 59) were opposite to and more severe than dietary calcium at the levels used in these experiments. The response to both calcium and phosphorus dietary levels was linear (P i 0.05). 150 Table 58. Effect of dietary calcium on the percentage mor- tality of pheasant chicks from all replicates through four-weeks of age. Percent Dietary Calcium mean : SEM* 0.6 34.1 i108a 1.2 42.0 11.2ab 1.8 44.2 10.9b Means with different superscripts are significantly different (P i 0.05). Data include the 0.2 percent dietary phosphorus treat- ments (1, 4, 7) which resulted in nearly total mortality of chicks fed these ration. 151 Table 59. Effect of dietary phosphorus on the percentage mortality of pheasant chicks from all replicates through four-weeks of age. Percent Dietary Phosphorus mean : SEM 0.2 96.213.2a 0.4 14.9 3.1b 0.6 9.2 2.3° * Means with different superscripts are significantly different (P i 0.05). Data include the 0.2 percent dietary phosphorus treat- ments (1, 4, 7) which resulted in nearly total mortality of chicks fed these rations. 152 Phosphorus at 0.4 percent of the ration was adequate if dietary calcium.was also low (0.6 percent), but rapidly became a marginal phosphorus level if the dietary calcium level increased. Phosphorus at 0.2 percent of the ration was severely anorectic, rachitic and lethal over all calcium levels used. The effectiveness of the 0.4 and 0.6 percent phosphorus rations was similar if the Ca:P ratio was kept low for the lower phosphorus rations. The response to phosphorus levels was linear and quadratic (P i 0.01). Shown in Table 60 is the ranking of the treatment combinations according to their effect on the chick mortality through four-weeks of age. 153 Table 60. Effect of various dietary calcium and phosphorus combinations on the percentage mortality of pheas- ant chicks through four-weeks of age. Treat- C) m. 'u P greater than Ratio ment mean i 8814* 0.20 0.10 0.05 1.5.1 2 6.4 i 2.0 1.0.1 3 7.2 3.6 3.0:1 9 9.2 3.6 2.0:1 6 11.2 5.4 3.0.1 5 14.8 4.9 4.5:1 8 23.4 5.9 1 3.0:1 1 88.6 9.2 6.0:1 4 100 9.0:1 7 100 Means within the range of a line are not significantly different for each level of significance. Treatments are defined in Appendix B, Table 1. Data are from all starter/grower replicates (floor- and battery-reared) and from all treatments. SUMMARY Adult Pheasants 1. For both Groups 1 and 2, calcium at 1.5 percent of the diet of laying pheasants was not as effective as the three higher levels of dietary calcium as compared using eggshell thickness, tibia percentage dry fat-free bone, dry fat-free bone percentage ash, plasma calcium and phosphorus. 2. Phosphorus minimum or maximum values for adult hen pheasants were not determined, as measured by egg production. 3. Laying hen pheasants are very adaptable to wide ranges of dietary calcium and phosphorus levels and ratios, as judged by egg production. 4. In Group 1, increased dietary calcium concentration caused a linear decline in egg apparent fertility. 5. High (3.3 percent) or low (1.5 percent) dietary calcium showed only a tendency to cause an inhibition of egg production by the pheasant hens. 6. There was a possible relationship between the higher dietary calcium concentrations and lowered shell membrane thickness (Group 1). 7. Pheasant hens kept in cages laid a smaller egg than hens kept in floor pens. 8. As indicated by blood plasma calcium levels, 1.5 or 2.1 percent of the diet as calcium may not be adequate levels. 9. Mortality of chicks from eggs laid by hens fed the 154 155 various treatment combinations was measured. The group of chicks from the dams that received the 3.3 percent dietary calcium treatment combinations experienced more mortality than the groups of chicks whose dams received the 1.5 or 2.1 percent dietary calcium treatment combinations. Growing Pheasants 1. Available phosphorus at 0.2 percent of the diet, fed at all dietary calcium levels, was rachitic, anorectic, and lethal. 2. Phosphorus in the diet at 0.4 percent, and at a Ca:P ratio or 3:1 or 4.5:1, caused a slight depression in feed intake and body weight at all ages. 3. Pheasant chick body weight averages fluctuated in a manner parallel to the chicks average feed intake response to the various treatment combinations. 4. The same groups of chicks that showed the most positive response to treatments as measured by feed intake and body weight were also highest in dry fat-free bone (dffb) and dffb percentage ash. 5. The maximum response to starter/grower treatment combinations, as measured by the chick tibia mineralization, was when there was a small excess of dietary calcium (1.5 to 3:1 vs. a 1:1 ratio of dietary calcium: phosphorus). 6. The highest pheasant chick tibia percentages of dry fat-free bone (dffb) and dffb percentage ash content resulted from their eating feed with 2:1, 3:1, or 1.5:1 dietary Ca:P 156 ratios, respectively. 7. Mineralization of pheasant chick's tibiae reached adult levels of mineralization, as measured by the percentage of dffb, or dffb percentage ash, between four and eight-weeks of age. 8. Pheasant chick tibia percents calcium and phosphorus were not readily changed by treatment combinations. 9. Mortality at four weeks of age was least for chicks fed rations with calcium and phosphorus at 0.6 and 0.4 percent of the diet, respectively. However, 0.6 percent dietary phosphorus resulted in the lowest overall mortality (as summarized over all levels of dietary calcium). CONCLUSIONS Adult Pheasants In this study, adult laying hen pheasants were shown to require at least 2.1 percent dietary calcium for optimum egg production. There was no beneficial influence on these pheasant hen's egg production from increasing the dietary level of calcium about 2.7 percent. In addition, 3.3 percent of the diet as calcium was detrimental to egg apparent fertility as measured in Group 1. Based on the criteria studied, a phosphorus deficiency was not demonstrated in these pheasant laying hens, but 0.4 percent available dietary phosphorus would provide a margin of safety. Starter/Grower Pheasants Available phosphorus at 0.4 percent of the diet was adequate only with a low Ca:P ratio; in this case, if the dietary calcium was 0.6 percent. The optimum response by chicks to dietary treatments, as indicated by the values for all parameters, was to the treatment combination of 1.2 percent Ca:0.6 percent available phosphorus (treatment 6). Treatment combinations of 1.8 Ca:0.6 P (treatment 9) and 0.6 Ca:0.4 P (treatment 2) also produced favorable results. 157 APPENDIX A 158 0.0 0.0 x mumEHumm .nmumm m 5.0 0.H x mumfiflumm .Qmumm mo xmoz 0~10 mxomz 010 com mcfimmq Hmzouo nmuumum Bzmmdmmm 0m.0 05.0 5.0 0.0 .m m5.m mm.m 0.0 N.H “sou Hmpwmum mumpmmnm xmmz m xmmB 010 Hmhmq Hm3ouw Hounmum waxmae Hm.0 v.0 5.0 m mm.m 0.0 0.0 no Com mcflwmq uozouw Hmuumum zmMUHmU mfiOguMpcmEEooom unmamuwnvmm m5h0£amosm cam EDHonU Hwoasoo noummmmm HmGOHumz .H< mHQMH 159 ¢5 ¢5 00 00 05 05 H5 N5 H5 H5 N5 05 05 05 05 m0 nouns N 0¢m 0Nm 00m 0HN 5mm NON 0mm N00 000 HNm NHm 5N0 mom mmm 00H HNN Soumn N Nw ¢w 0m 05 00 H0 mm 00 00 H0 mm mm 50 mm 55 N0 mHHuHmm N 00¢ m¢¢ ¢0¢ 00m 00¢ omm 05¢ N0¢ 0N¢ 0¢¢ ¢m¢ ¢m¢ 50¢ w¢¢ 50N mmm oHHuHom N 000 0N0 mmm 00m Nmm 0m¢ H50 H00 00¢ mmm 0N0 0N0 00¢ 0N0 0¢m 0N¢ umm N m HZMZHMmem 00 H0 00 00 05 00 H5 05 00 00 ¢5 N5 mm H0 mm Hm noums N ¢0H ¢HH 50H 5¢H HOH 0NH 00H 5NH NOH N5H nHN 00H mHH 00H 50 00H noumn N 0¢ 55 55 m0 00 H5 05 5¢ 05 mm mm N0 00 00 H0 N0 mHHuHom N 05H 0NN H¢N 0¢N N5N 0NN 00N 00H ¢MN HmN HON 0NN 00N 00N NMN 00N wHHuHom N H00 ¢0N HHm own mm¢ mom mmm 0mm 0HN 00N H00 050 HmN 050 00N Nwm pom N N Hzmszmme om mm 00 N0 mm ¢0 ¢0 00 05 m0 5¢ 00 m0 05 05 00 Soumfi N N0 00 5¢N mm 00H NNH 50N 0cm 00N 00N ¢0 0HN 5NN 05N mom 0HN Soumn N on 0m 00 0H m¢ ¢¢ N5 05 m0 N5 0¢ ¢0 N5 mm Hm ¢5 oHHuHmm N 00H HOH 000 m0 00N 00N HNm 05¢ mom MH¢ NON 000 00m 00m 5H¢ N00 mHfluHmm N 5¢m 000 000 000 050 00¢ ¢¢¢ 50m Nw¢ N50 o¢¢ 500 N00 ¢m¢ 0H0 0N0 uom N 0H 0H ¢H 0H NH HH 0H 0 w 5 0 0 ¢ 0 N H QOHmmm H HszHmmmxm .udmfiauomxo 53 pmuuommu mum mama unoummmm wwm mo coaumcwauwumu wow wow: wwwm ucmmmosm Hmuou mo 5nmaasm .Nuaaanmaoumn 6am suaafiuumm .N 64069 .< xawamaa< 160 Appendix A, Table 3. Percent hen-day egg production of Ring- necked pheasants. Data are : SEM. Ca:P Group 1 Group 2 Ratio Treatment mean : SEM mean : SEM 5.0:1 1 67.5 i 2.3 62.8 i 3.1 3.8:1 2 59.2 1.7 51.4 4.0 3.0:1 3 65.8 3.4 68.4 2.4 2.5:1 4 63.0 2.4 66.0 2.3 7.0:1 5 68.9 2.5 70.1 2.3 5.3:1 6 64.5 2.9 68.9 3.5 4.2:1 7 65.5 2.9 75.1 1.8 3.5:1 8 63.1 3.0 69.6 2.8 9.0:1 9 72.6 2.3 76.5 2.7 6.8:1 10 67.0 3.0 75.3 2.4 5.4:1 11 58.4 2.1 59.5 4.3 4.5:1 12 74.1 1.9 72.2 2.3 l.l:l 13 71.8 1.8 63.8 2.5 8.3:1 14 63.0 2.7 72.9 3.1 6.6:1 15 61.8 2.1 65.6 2.5 5.5:1 16 66.3 2.5 72.9 2.4 Groups 1 and 2 are defined on the Abbreviations and Symbols page. Means were not significantly different from each other (P>0.20). Data are from the last 80 days egg production as summarized by Group 1. Data are from the nine ten-day periods of egg production as summarized by Group 2. APPENDIX B 161 Table Bl. Ca:P Ratios of Treatment Combinations for Adults. Percent Percent Dietary Available Phosphorus Dietary Calcium 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 1.5 5:1 3.8:1 3:1 2.5:1 (1) (2) (3) (4) 2.1 7:1 5.3:1 4.2:1 3.5:1 (5) (6) (7) (8) 2.7 9:1 6.8:1 5.4:1 4.5:1 (9) (10) (11) (12) 3.3 llzl 8.3:1 6.6:1 5.5 l (13) (14) (15) (16) The treatment numberical designation is in parenthesis. Ca:P Ratios of Treatment Combinations for Growing ,. Pheasants. Percent Percent Dietary Available Phosphorus Dietary Calcium 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.6 3:1 1.5:1 1:1 (1) (2) (3) 1.2 6:1 3:1 2:1 (4) (5) (6) 1.8 9:1 4.5:1 3:1 (7) (8) (9) The treatment numerical designation is in parenthesis. o.“ m.8 om. NH. 8H. Hm. 0m. 0H. 0.5H omw mwcaHeeaa wumuamum ummsz 0.0H 0.¢ 0N. NH. ¢H. 00. H¢. HH 0.0H 0H0 noun ummnz ¢.N 0.H 00. 0H. 00. 0H. 00. 0N. 0.0H 00¢H wumn .ummsz 0.0 0. 00. ¢N. 0N. ¢5. 0¢.H 05. 0.0¢ 00HH N0¢ .Hmma amon5om 0.0 0. ¢0. 0N. 0N. 00. N0.H 00. 0.¢¢ 0NOH N¢¢ .Hmma amon5om --- --- oo.mm --- --- --- --- --- --- --- “Ham --- --- 0H. 00.0H oo.HN --- --- --- --- --- asHonuau 2 .manonmmOLm 6 11 --- --- --- --- --- --- 00.00 oo.wm 0.0¢ --- an .machHnumz 0.N 0.0H 05. 00.0 00.0H 00. 0H.H 00. 0.00 0HOH Hmoa moon 0 ummz nun :1: In: In: 00.00 nu: nu- In: nun an: oaoumoEHH --- 0.50 --- -u- ---- --- --- --- --- 005m mHnmumwm> 0 Hmaacm 0mu5H0H055 .umm 5.N 0.0 N0. 00. N0. 00. ¢0. 0H. 0.0 000H Hmanoa .cnoo 0.¢N 0.N 00. 0N. 00.H 0¢. 00. 0N. 0.5H 0H0 N5H .mMHmmH< 3.0 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 30 .50 0.50 0.50 A A: “5:32 wmmm mo 680 .82 .6600 .80 .0565 .m o + .sumz mo \Hmumv .Ham>< .aumz m2 5HuHsom CH Hmoaa¢ cmo umsu .mcowumm wuwm mama 0cm mucsoe< co mGOHuoHHuwom 0cm mfim5Hma< ucmfivouwcH wowm .Nm mHan 163 Table B3. Vitamin—Trace Mineral Premixes for Pheasants Per 10 lbs. Premix Starter-Grower Ingredient Maintenance Breeder Vitamin A, I.U. 6,000,000 8,000,000 Vitamin D3, I.C.U. 1,500,ooo* 2,ooo,ooo** Riboflavin, mg. 4,000 7,000 Pantothenic acid, mg. 8,000 12,000 Niacin, mg. 20,000 24,000 Choline chloride, mg. 400,000 400,000 Vitamin B12, mg. 10 12 Vitamin E, I.U. 3,000 5,000 Menadione sodium bisulfite, mg. 1,500 1,500 Manganese, gm. 54 54 Iodine, gm. 1 1 Cooper, gm. 2 2 Cobalt, gm. .20 .20 Zinc, gm. 25 25 Iron, gm. 18 18 * There were 750 I.C.U./lb. starter-grower ration. * *There were 800 I.C.U./lb. breeder ration. 164 Table B4. Pheasant Rations Used at M.S.U. PS-75 PG-75 PF-75 PB-75 Calculated Starter Grower Flight Breeder Analysis 0-6 wks. 6-12 wks. 12 wks-Flight (Pelleted) Crude protein, % 28.00 22.00 14.00 17.50 Fat, Z 2.29 2.80 3.70 3.36 Fiber, % 3.34 4.82 5.33 5.10 Calcium, % 1.46 1.32 1.30 2.34 Phosphorus, avail, % .66 .56 .54 .63 ME, Cal/1b. 1236 1220 1282 1210 ME, Cal/kg. 2725 2690 2826 2668 165 m: 00 uom\cowumu no pun m< % 0¢o.o\00.o N0o.0\0¢.o 0H0.0\0N.0 0¢o.o\00.o N00.o\0¢.o 0H0.o\oN.o 0¢o.0\00.o N0.0\O¢.0 0Ho.o\0N.o «mnuozamosm 0¢H.o\ow.H 0¢H.0\ow.H 0¢H.o\00.H 00o.0\0H.H 500.0\0N.H 500.0\ON.H 0¢0.o\00.o 0¢0.o\00.o 0¢o.o\o0.o NESHUHNU 50.N\0N.0N 00.N\0N.0N N0.N\00.0N 00.N\¢H.0N 00.N\NH.0N N0.N\00.0N H0.N\00.0N 00.N\No.0N H0.N\00.0N *nfimuoum mvsuo 0N5N 0N5N 0N5N 0N5N 0N5N 0N5N 0N5N 0N5N 0N5N .wx\HmoM 00NH 00NH 00NH ¢0NH 00NH 00NH 00NH 00NH 00NH .nH\HmoM "CH 5wuwcm mHnmuHHonmumz coauHmOQEOU uanuusz amuH 00.¢00H 00.000H 05.HO0H 00.000H 0H.000H 5¢.000H 00.NO0H 0N.000H 00.NO0H sum 0 0 0 . 0 0 0 0 0 0 .35 .0; 05 0NH 00 00N ¢N0 0¢N ¢H0 ¢N0 0¢¢ N¢¢ .Hmma ammnhom 00¢ 0¢0 N0¢ 0HN 05H 05N NNN 00.H 00H N0¢ .Hmoa cmmn5om 0¢.0 0¢.0 0N.¢ 0¢.0 00.0 0N.¢ H0.¢ 00.0 00.¢ uHmm 00.H 00.H 00.H 00.H 00.H 00.H 00.H H0.H 00.H an .mcHGOHnuoz 00 5¢ 5 00 0¢ H0.¢ II N¢ 00.N Hmms 0:00 0 ummz 0H II II 0H II II 0.NN II II asflonofin 0N N0 N¢ 0H 5H 5N II 00.0 HH oGOummENH H0¢ 00¢ 00¢ 0N¢ 5N¢ 00¢ 00¢ ¢N¢ 00¢ auoo 0 0 5 0 0 ¢ 0 N H cofiuafiuomma comm unmaumoue cowuwmomsou coaumm umuumum .00 mHan 166 mHH 00 you Nfico «* 0: 0o uoa\cONumu mo pom um 0¢o.o\00.o 0No.o\00.0 HOH.0\05.H HOH.0\05.H 0¢o.o\N0.o 0No.o\00.o 50o.0\0H.H 00o.o\HN.H 0¢0.0\00.0 0No.o\0¢.0 0H0.0\0N.0 .HHm>m .msuonmmonm 0¢omo\00.o 0¢o.0\00.o ¢¢0.0\00.o Esonmo 00.H\N.HN 00.H\H.HN 00.H\H.HN 50.H\H.HN 00.H\H.HN 00.H\0.HN 00.H\H.HN camuoua mvsuo 000N 000N 0000 HO0N NO0N 5N00 0000 8 .03\HmoM ¢00H 000H 000H 0¢0H 000H 050H 000H .nH\HmoM "CH 00umcm mHnmNHHonmuoz cowuHmOQEoo ucmfiuusz EwuH 0N.0HOH ¢0.0HOH 00.0HOH N0.0HOH 05.NHOH 0N.¢00H 05.000H 8:0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 .cfiz\.ufi> 00H 0NH 00H 05H 00H ¢HN 00H ummnz wumm NON 00N 0¢N ¢¢N N00 ¢0N 05N N0¢ .Hmma ammnhom 05.¢H 00.NH ¢.0 0.0 50.0 I: an mHnmuowm> 0 HmEHam 00N5Hou05£ .umm 0¢.0 0¢.0 5N.0 0N.0 0H.¢ 00.0 05.0 uHmm NH 00.H 0H.NH 00.H 0N HH.N II EnHonoHn 00.0 00.0 00.H ¢0.H 00.0 00.H 00.H an .mcaaofisuoz 00 00 00 00 In 0¢ ¢H Hmma mcon 0 ummz 0N N0 0 0H II II 0H wcoummawq 000 000 0000 0H0 0H0 0H0 00¢ H00 snow 0 0 5 0 0 0 N ««H coHuQHuommo wmmm ucmaummuH coaufimoaaoo GOHumm umBouu .00 mHan 167 m: 00 uoa\aofiumu mo uoa m< « 0¢0.0\00.0 000.0\0¢.0 ¢¢0.0\00.0 000.0\0¢.o ¢¢0.0\00.0 0N0.0\0¢.0 «msuonqmonm 00H.0\05.H ¢0H.0\05.H 000.0\0N.H 000.0\0N.H 0¢0.0\00.0 0¢0.0\00.0 «BDHono 5H.H\00.0H 5H.H\00.0H 0H.H\00.0H 0H.H\00.0H ¢H.H\H5.0H 0H.H\05.0H *chuoum mvsuu mmam qum mwom moon 0mom Noon .wx\HmoM 0NOH ¢00H 000H 000H 550H 000H .0H\HmoM "aw zwumam mHnmNHHonmumz coaufimoaaoo uannuzz amuH ¢¢.000H 0¢.000H H¢.000H 0¢.NO0H 00.¢00H ¢.NO0H 8:0 0 0 0 0 0 0 .cflz\.ufi> mom ¢¢N mom new mom HON qu .Hmma ammamom ¢0.¢ 00.¢ 00.¢ 00.¢ 00.¢ 00.¢ uHmm 0N 0H 0N 0H 0N 0H aafionon 00.0 00.0 0¢.0 5¢.0 0¢.0 0¢.0 HQ .mcHGONnqu H0 50 0H HN II 0 maoDmmafiq RH NH 0H 0H ma ¢H NNH .m0H00H< 0H5 0H5 0mmm N05 005 005 005 0mon upon 0 0 5 0 0 0 N H :OHuawuommn 000m ucmaummue cOHuflmoaaou coaumm unwfifim .Nm mflnme 168 H.0.ucoov .02 mo uua\a00umu mo uoa m< « 0¢0.0\00.0 0¢o.0\00.0 N00.0\0¢.0 ¢N0.0\00.0 0¢0.0\00.0 0¢0.0\00.o N00.0\0¢.0 ¢N0.0\00.0 *msuonamonm 5H.0\00.N 5H.0\0H.N 5H.0\00\N 5H.0\00.N NH.0\0¢.H NH.0\0¢.H NH.0\0¢.H NH.0\0¢.H «asHonu ¢¢.H\0.5H ¢¢.H\0.0H ¢¢.H\0.5H ¢¢.H\0.5H ¢¢.H\0.5H ¢¢.H\0.5H ¢¢.H\0.5H ¢¢.H\0.5H «afimuoua mvsuo m¢m~ Hahn mqnm mqfim m¢m~ m¢- m¢NN mqum .mx\amum 0¢NH 0¢NH 0¢NH 0¢NH ¢¢NH 0¢NH 0¢NH 0¢NH .£H\HmoM ”GH mmumam mHnmNHHOAMumz coauwmanou uamwuusz EwuH 00.000H 00.HO0H 50.000H 00.000H 00.¢00H N0.000H H0.000H H0.000H 5:0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 .aHz\.uH> 0N om qm mm mm um H0 m0 mmafiaunfia 00003 H0 00 00 50 00 ¢0 00 00 swan ummn3 mam MNN NNN 0NN ¢HN mam HHN mom N0¢ .Hmma ammnxom 0 0 0 0 00.¢ N0.¢ 0.¢ 00.¢ uHmm 0N 0N 0H 0H 0N 0N 0H 0H stonoHn 00.0 00.0 50.0 00.0 00.H 00.H H0.H N0.H 4Q .mawaofinumz 00 H¢ ¢¢ 5¢ 0N 0N 0N N0 maoummaHH HN HN HN HN HN HN HN HN N5H .mem0H< ¢00 N00 H00 000 000 H00 000 050 cuoo w B 0 m s m N H :Ofluafiuomwa ummm ucweummue .H upmm u GOHuHmoaaoo cOHumm “000000 .00 mHan .mz mo uoa\cowumu mo pom m< « 0¢0.0\00.0 0¢o.0\00.o N00.o\0¢.o ¢N0.o\00.o 0¢o.o\00.o 0¢o.o\00.o N0o.0\0¢.o ¢No.o\00.o *msuosamonm 0N.0\0N.0 0N.0\0N.0 0N.o\0N.0 5N.0\0N.0 NN.0\5.N NN.0\5.N NN.0\05.N NN.o\05.N «EsHono 0¢.H\H.0H 0¢.H\H.0H 0¢.H\0.0H 0¢.H\0.0H ¢¢.H\0.5H ¢¢.H\0.5H ¢¢.H\0.5H ¢¢.H\0.5H «afimuoum muauu 0¢5N H05N 0¢5N 0¢5N 0¢5N 0¢5N 0¢5N 5¢5N .0M\HmoM 0¢NH 0¢NH 0¢NH 0¢NH 0¢NH 0¢NH 0¢NH 0¢NH .nH\HmoM "ca 00pme mHnmeHonmumz 169 coflufimoaaoo ucmHuusz amuH 00.NO0H N0.HooH 00.NooH 00.NO0H H0.NO0H Ho.mooH m0.NOOH mm.NO0H saw 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 .aHz\.uH> I- u- u- I- u- 00.N N HH mchchNa 06603 a ¢H 0H NN 0N N¢ mq m¢ smug ummaz NqN mQN ¢¢N NQN 0NN ¢NN NNN HmN N0¢ .Hmms ammpmom m m m m m m m m UHmm 0N oN mH OH 0N oN mH oH asHonUHm 00.0 Nm.o 00.0 00.0 Hm.o No.0 No.0 m0.o an .mcHaoHnumz oN NN 0N 0N 4m N0 00 m0 maoummaHH NN NN NN NN HN HN HN HN NNH .00H00H4 NHO 0H0 0H0 0H0 0H0 «H0 NHO 0H0 auoo 0H 0H ¢H NH NH HH OH 0 aOHuaHuummn ummm ucmEumonH .N pumm a cOHDHmomaoo :ONumm umvwmgm .00 mHan APPENDIX C . Analysis of Variance Tables. Groups are defined on the Abbreviations and Symbols page. 170 0N0 00.0¢0HNH H0509 mNmmoH.mm 00N N0.000NN 06000 Hmsonmm NHN. 00000000. NNNN00.00 H0 mmHm.mN00 06N000«0«00 NmN. 00000H.H 00N0.00H NN N0HN.0H0N 06000000 000. 00000000. 0HH¢NN.0m NN NHmm.HmmH 060000«mo 0000.0V NNNON0.0 N00H.0H0 0 000¢.HOH0 06H000 N0¢¢.000H 00 00.00N00 H 06000 NHN. 0NmN¢000. 0N00.000 0 00N0.NNN0 0000 00N. 0NH000.H H00N.0HmH m ¢NON.0qu 0 000. NONO0N.m 000H.00N0 N 00H0.0000 mu 0000.0v NON000.HH 0H.000HH N 00.0HO0N unmeNumaxm 6003080 .0 .46 600030 0 08.80 802 808.40 0% mo 90 880.5, 06 8.560 .noum .000 08.804 mo .mwmm H 0:600 - >0NHH0000 000 .H0 «Hana 171 05¢ H0 . 0500NH .298. ¢050 . 5HN 00N H¢ .¢00N0 Hounm HmHHHonmm 000 . 0 00NHO0N0 . N¢00 . 00N H0 00 .¢0NOH HooflwmflHNmo 000 . 0 00HN5H05 . 5500 . NOH 5N HOH0 .0HH¢ gummynm 000 . 0 500000 . H 000¢ . 0 0N 5N 0¢50 . 0000 gummynmu 000 . 0 055000 . N H000. 5¢¢ 0 N000 . 0No¢ 09.5mm N005 .005 00 00 . 0HO0N H Houhm N00 .0 H0¢00N¢0 . 5000 . 00¢ 0 HHNO .¢500 000.8 050 .0 0HH50050. ¢00000 . 00 0 000N . 00H m HNO .0 00500005. 0¢¢H .0H0 0 000¢ .000H mo N00 . 0 ¢0¢N50¢0. 500¢ . 00 N 0000 . 05 9:0qu 00% 0330030 .0 03.0330 .0 mud—.50 :82 060me 0.9.8500 mo :50 8§Hm> mo 8.900 mo .00 .xoumnz mo .003 .N 0:80 - 023.80 000 .N0 3an 172 05¢ 00.0305 .209. 000N00.00 00N H0.00NON H05 Hmdemmm 500 . 000 500N0 . 50NOHH . H0 H0 0000 .0005 8300x9500 555 . 00NH0005 . 00¢N¢0 . 05 5N 0000 . 000N 00.300050 NHN . NHHNNN . H 0050 . 0HH 5N 0005 . 00 N0 0350.100 0000 . 0V 00500H . q 0000 . 0H0 0 530 .0000 00.300 00.00.00 00 +0.0.H000H H 90.80 000 . 0N000000. 05NH . H00 0 000H . 003 00,00 000 . 0¢00N0 . H 053 . 000 0 0H3 . 0 00H m 000 . 0000: .H 5055 . H00 0 HNHO . 055H 00 N00. 500H00 .5 305 . 0.80 N 0500 . H000 uggfl 0.330000 .0 00 0330000 .0 05300 0002 80000.00, 000.0500 00 :50 00§Hm> mo 00.500 .005 .0H0 .0833 mo .0000 .H 380 - 0330603 .8 flame 173 05¢ O5.NH5H~H 00909 NmHH.5o~ 00N mm.omwmm “chum Hmsuflmmm moa.o 00005H.H 055N.qq~ 00 00.00500 00000000000 000.0 5HM5oo.H 5qm0.mON 5N 5mmH.mmom uoflumg«m m55.o mmoommam. 0000.000 5N 0000.0000 uoflumgxmu mooo.o mmmawm.N Hmam.mqoa m ¢0.om5¢H 000000 mom¢.m¢m om 0H.HmNOH H 00000 NmN.o mmmmmm.fi moam.qoq m O5¢~.¢000 0000 000.0 woomommm. H~00.oHH m Nomq.~mm 0 000.0 ooammm.~ maqm.005 m oqmo.mom~ m0 8.0.0 N385. 0030.00 N 33.52 382.30. 303080 .0 3.53080 0, 88$ 082 888.0 8350 00 :50 880.5, 05 8050 00 .000 08.33 mo .0000 N 95.0 - 0333300 .8 «ES 174 mwm 05.05000 00000 550055.00 000 00.00000 00000 00000000 000.0 00000000. 050000.00 m0 0005.0000 00000000000 000. 00000005. 00080 .00 00 0.000 .000 00000000 000.0 00505050. 000000.00 0N 0000.000 000000000 0000.0v 000500.00 0000.0000 5 50.00000 000000 0000.000 om 00.00000 0 00000 000. 00055000. 0000.00m 0 0000.0000 0000 mmo. 000000.N 0000.0000 m 0000,0000 0 000. 00000005. 0000.000 0 0000.000 00 0000.00 000000.00 0m00.0omm N 50.00000 0000000000 000000000 0 00 000000000 0 000000 0002. .0000000 0000000 00.000 0000000>.00 000000 .0000 .000 08.009» 00 .0000 .0 0:000 - 0000000000 000 000.800 0000.000 .8 00000. 175 050 00.000500 00000 0000.000 000 00.00000 00000 00000000 000.0 00000005.0 500000.50 00 5005.0000 00000000 000.0 00000000.0 0505.000 00 0500.0000 000000000 0000.0 000000.00 0000.0000 0 50.05500 000000 «500.0000 00 00.00005 0 00000 000.0 000000.0 0000 0000 0 00.05000 0000 000.0 00000000.0 0005.500 0 0000.000 0 000.0 000000.0 0000.0500 0 0000 0005 00 000.0 00000000 .0 0000.000 0 0000.000 0000000000 000000000 0 000000000 000000 0000000 0000000 0000000> .w0m .qumg 00 000.02 0%me whm mo WWW/00m .0 00000 - 0000000000 000 000-000 0000000 .00 0000.0. 176 qu mmwo.own A.mo mounom .noum .wflm .xoumg< mo .mwmn A 35 .. “flaws wwm .5 Same 177 qu 935.33 E oommmwwmd omm 0.3503 Hog Hmnfiflmmm Hon . o mmmmowmm . o mmmomwmn . 0 Nu mommmo . mm vowummypmumo mmo . 0 Edge . H Noagmwm . o «N 3003 . mm wowummxm 0mm . O «33.30 . o «mammmmm . o «N ommoflu . m woumvmynmu mooo . o ommmom . .3 gang . om w chum . Ndm 83mm $83.3 0m $365 H HOE mod . o mmmmmwwm . o 33% . NH m qwmm . 0.: “W8 mow . o mmowqmqm . o 3ng . m m 33mm . m m HNH . o @330 . N omnofl . mm m momog . mm mm 00.H . o nmmqmq . N mmammm . on N and? . om \. magnum oflmfifim m oflmflfim mg gmfi 85.8 8335/ mo .wwm 90.3%. .m 9.“..va mo .mwmn mo 85m mo 830m .N 95.6 - “53¢: mwm .8 flea. 178 mum mmam.m©a Agaca ommmHNOH. Nmm ooomm~.~m uoypm Hmswflmmm mmw. mmmmommw. «Hmofiflmo. mm Hfiowuo.m woaummxfi*nu Hmw. muoaNoom. mHomHNmo. mm ¢¢¢HH~.~ woflumgxm 00H. «mmNmN.H Hmwqumfl. mm Howmmq.¢ weapmg«mu mooo.0v owmmaw.mm Nmmoo~.¢ HH ommomm.oq wowumm mmfihmomm. om wqaoo~.oa H “chum mom. nommmN.H monmmmqq. a ¢maomm.m A«mu ¢mm. mmoqqaon. OHquomN. m mmmnmomn. m mooo.0v ma¢mom.ma Hquom.o m NNnmoa.mH mo 88.? .883? RS: .2 N $88.3 pfifiumea ofimflfim m we ufimflflm m $33 5 58¢ 8% mo :8 Sang mo 88% .aonm .wwm .xcumm< mo .mwma .H n385 - fiwfimz wwm H809 mo “806m 29% .8 £an 179 mum H¢NN.mN~ 459. $3336 Nmm wRNoo.mw Hog HmnfiHmmm ohm . 0 £398 .0 meOHmmm . o mm Homes . mm vogwnwwo NHw . o SHEER . 0 33:3 . o mm 3185 . o 8.3me qmm . o wmmowo . H mmooHHoN . 0 mm 0330 . w nowuwmynmu mooo . 0 No.3? .3 odomoo . N HH H308 . mm woumd omHmHN.H om 533.9». H HOE Nmo . 0 05293 .0 Kimono . o m 3080 . w #3 ohm . o mmmmmm . H NwmQuo . H m Sung .q H 30 .0 330m . m $3.3m .o m Nmommo . 3 mo Smd 88m: 8884 N 888a 3835 oUmHumum m QHumHumum 981% :8me mmHmsvm mocmflflg mo .me Roman? .H ammz Ho .mwmm we saw me 8.50m .N 955 - ”Ewfimz wwm H88. mo ufioumm 59m .20 3an 180 mum wmoonmwa. A¢BOH mmmHHooo. Nmm ommmmoqo. Houum Hmsvwmmm mom. qummmaw. omamoooo. mm unnoauoo. womeA¥A«wo mum. oammmomm. oomooooo. mm mmooamoo. U0HH¢A¥A wmm. wHonH.H oaamaooo. mm mmommqoo. wownmfiwmo mooo.0v mmmmmm.om wqomomoo. Ha ooaqwmmo. wowuwm HmNmmooo. om wNanHHo. H “ovum Rea. mmawmm.a omwmmooo. m omwmmmoo. mwmu «Hm. wmquN.H mmooqooo. m mammmaoo. m mooo.0v mmH¢mm.NH Nmmmmqoo. m mmmmmmao. mo mooo.0v mmammm.oa Hommmmoo. N mmmmwmoo. unmaflummxm oaumflmum m mo owumfiumum mud—6m 9mm: 568$ 83m mo gm mu§> mo 8.50m .noum .wwm .xoumg< m mo .mwmo .H 805 - $333 2%me .5 33 181 mum Hmmqfloma.o q mo .wflm .xwuag< m cwmz Ame .mwma mo 55m we monsom N agape - mmmcxoflsw HHmsmmwm .NHo mflama 182 no ¢mmm~ooo. qaaoa ommooooo. Nm mommaooo. “chum Hmacfimmm mam. mmmmmmom. NHHooooo. ma maamoooo. woflump«p+mu mom. mmumm¢mm. «Hmooooo. o mwNHoooo. wofiumpxm mmo. mmnemm.m “Noaoooo. o ooHooooc. woaumfiwmu moo. namm~m.m ohmmoooo. N o¢mqoooo. woflumm mHNHoooo. ma NmeHooo. H Houum mmq. Moham558. NmHHoooo. 8 omnoaooo. A«mu Hmo. mo~¢~w.~ «ommoooo. m HHmOHooo. m coo. aqummm.m m¢omoooo. m ommmoooo. mo Rm. m8m88. H8888. 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NONmmm.v N nHvomh.m mu mNo. mmmmmm.m NHON.mmH H mHoN.mmH mam 0HumHumum m H0 oHumHumpm mHmsvm sccmmym mmumswm mocmHHm> .non .mHm .xoummm H cams. Ho .mmmo Ho sum Ho monsom .HHH ~HH mBSHHmmm ‘38 x83 93%. noBHfi 0% 28H Em #888 .80 mHan. 213 b¢ mmum.aoaa HdHOE NNNNNN.H NH NNNN.NNH Hounm HmschmH NNN. NonNN.H HNNNHH.N N NNNNHN.NN NoHHmHNHNNO NNN. HNNNHN.N NNNNNH.NN N HNNNNN.NN coHHmHNH NHH. HHHHNNNN. NNNHNN.N N omHNNN.mN NOHHmHHNU mooo.ov HHHNNN.NN NNNN.NNN N NNNH.NHN NoHHmH NNNNHN.H N HNNHNN.H H HOHHH moo. NNNHNH.NH NNHNNN.NN N HHNNNN.NN HNmo HNN. NNNHNH.NN NNNNHN.HN H NNNNHN.HN H NNN. HHNNHNNN. NNNNNHNN. N HHNNNN.H mo NHN. NNNNNNNN. NNNNNNNN. H NNNNNNNN. Hum 0HumHumum H H0 0HumHumum mumsvm anxwer mmumswm mocmHHm> .noHH .mHm .xoaHHH H cams. Ho .mmma Ho esm Ho mougom .HHH .HH BSHHHmH “B8 E 985 smponfi 05. 28H :3 H838 .30 2an 214 NH NNNNNH.NN .HHNHH NNNNHHNN. NH NNNNNN.NH Hopum HmstmmH NNN. NNNHNNNH. NNNNNNNH. N NNNNNNHN. NOHHNHNHHNU NNN. NHNNNNNH. NNNNNNNH. N NNNHNN.H NoHHwHHH NNN. NNNNNNHN. NNNNNNNN. N NNNNNN.H NoHHmHHmo Nooo.ov NNNNNN.NN NNNNNN.NH N NNNHNN.HN NoHHmH NNNNNHHH. N NNNHNN.N H HOHHH HNH. HNNNNNNN. NNNNNNNN. N NNNNNHNN. HHNU NNN. NNoNHNNo. HNNNNNHN. H HNNNNNHN. H NNH. NNNNHN.N NNNNNN.H N NNNNNN.N mo NNN. NNNHNN.NN NNNNoN.HH H NNNNNN.HH Hmm oHpmHumuN H H0 0HumHumuN mumsvm :onwer mmamswm mocmHHm> .noHH .NHN .xOHHHN H cams” Ho .mmmo Ho sum Ho monsom .MHH NMH mmpwoflmmmm “38 E gag £05993 03H. 809m SHOE £80me £2 .96 magma. 215 NH hmwmwa.vm HHHOB NNNNNNNH. NH NNNNNN.N Houum HmschmH HNN. HHNNHNHN. NNNNHHNH. N NNNNoNNN. NoHHmHHHHmo NNN. NNNNNNNH. NNNNNNNH. N NNNNNHNN. NOHHHHHH NNN. NNNNNNNN. NNNNNNNN. N NNNHNH.N NOHHNHHNU NNN. NNHHHN.N NNNNNN.H N NNNHNN.N NoHHmH NNNNNNNH. N NNNHNH.N H HOHHH HNN. HNNNNNNH. NNNNHHNo. N NNNHNNHH. HHNO NHN. NNNNNNNH. NNNNNNHN. H NNNNNNHN. H NHH. NNNNNN.N NNNNNN.H N NHHNHH.N mo HNN. NNNNHNNN. NNNNNNNH. H NNNNNNNH. HmH 0HpmHumum H H0 oHumHumum mnmswm suawmnH mmnmswm moamHHm> .nogH .NHN .onHHH H cams. Ho sum Ho saw Ho mousom .MHH .HH mmumoHHmmm “wand xwmz m>Hm3H. 590.3.» 05. Eoum mPHosmmoNE usmoumm de .80 game 216 HH HN.NHNNN HNHQH NNNN.NoH NN NNNN.NNHN H HonHH HHN. NNNHNNNN. NNNNNN.NN H NNNH.NHN HHmu Nooo.ov NNNN.NNN NN.NHNNN N HH.HNoHN H NNN. NNNNHN.N NNNH.NNH N HHHN.NNN mo NNN. NNNNNN.H NNNN.NNH H NNNH.NNN HmH oHumHumum H H0 oHumemuN mnmswm anmmmaH mmHmswm mocmHHm> .gonH .NHN .xouHHH H cmmz‘ Ho .mmmo Ho gum Ho monsom .mNHnHoumHmmz HBH H985 BHHSHQH x36 HBHBN .nvu mHQmH APPENDIX D . 217 m.mo m.mm v.mH HHH 0m m.mm m.ov m.HN MH mm m N.Nh b.0o h.HN HHH Gm m.Hm m.mm m.VH MH 0m w II II m.m MHH 0m II II m.m NH 0m 5 N.hm H.mm m.HN HHH Gm N.mm m.mw m.mH HH mm m o.mm m.Hm 5.5H HHH 0m N.hv 0.0¢ N.mH HH mm m II II m.m MHH 0m II II H.m NH Um v m.Hm m.mm H.mH HHH Um v.m¢ m.hv w.mm HH Om m m.mm o.vm H.0N HHH Om m.Nm v.wv m.om MH 0m N II 5.0m h.HH HHH mm II II m.m MH Om H NHIMH NHIN NIH mumoHHmmm uswEummHB mvfimmg .>MQ\UHHm\mEmuo CH .mmumoHHmmm HOOHH Scum mpcmmmmnH .HNHINH mxmmzv NNNH-NNNHHH Nam .HNHuN mxmmzv Hmzouw .HNIH mxmwzv Hmpumum How :oHumesmcoo wwmm m0 mmmmnw>d ooHHmm "mm30m0\mmemdem 218 Appendix D, Figure 1. Expected hen-day egg production for S.C.W.L. laying hens. Reproduced from the DeKalb Management Guide. 2.. Oh co on No< ”.0 8.33 0* on ON on O? Om .lNEIDHSd 00 an on 00 00.. BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY Anderson, D. L., 1967. Pre-laying nutritional and environ- mental factors in the performance of the adult fowl. 2. Influence of environment on the clacium require- ment and adaptation of Single Comb White Leghorn females. Poultry Sci. 46:52-63. Anderson, W. L. and Peggy L. Stewart, 1973. Chemical elements and the distribution of pheasants in Illinois. J. Wildl. Mgt. 37:142—153. Andrews, T. L., B. L. Damron and R. H. Harms, 1972. Utilization of plant phosphorus by the turkey poult. Poultry Sci. 51:1248-1252. Atkinson, R. L., J. W. Bradley, J. R. Couch and J. H. Quisenberry, 1967. The calcium requirements of breeder turkeys. Poultry Sci. 46:207-214. Balloun, S. L. and D. L. Miller, 1964. Calcium requirements of turkey breeder hens. Poultry Sci. 43:378-381. Biely, J. and B. E. March, 1967. Calcium and vitamin D in broiler rations. Poultry Sci. 46:223—232. Branion, H. D., 1938. Minerals in poultry nutrition. Sci. Agr. 18:217-420. 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Kohlmeyer, and G. F. Gastler, 1953. Calcium and phosphorus requirements of poults fed purified diets. Poultry Sci. 32:1030-1035. Winter, A. R. and E. M. Funk, 1956. Poultry Science and Practice. 4th ed. p. 145. Published by J. B. Lippincott Company, Chicago, Philadelphia, New York. Woodard, A. E., H. Abplanalp, and W. O. Wilson, 1970. Induced cycles of egg production in the Chukkar Partridge. Poultry Sci. 49:713-717. Woodard, A. E., P. Vohra, and R. L. Snyder, 1977. Effect of protein levels in the diet on the growth of pheasants. Poultry Sci. 56:1492-1500. Woodard, A. E. and R. L. Snyder, 1978. Cycling for egg production in the pheasant. Poultry Sci. 57:349-352. Wozniak, L. A., J. M. Pensack, V. Stryeski, and R. D. Wilbur, 1977. Biological availability of feed grade phosphates using a corn-soybean basal diet. Poultry Sci. 56:366- 369. VITA Richard Douglas Reynnells was born on May 19, 1947 in Paw Paw, Michigan. With his younger brothers (Russ, Bob, and Tom), he grew up working on the family farm in nearby Lawrence. The farm had grown from about 80 to 160 acres and had changed from dairy to chickens, corn,and tart cherries by the time he graduated from Lawrence High School in 1965. After one year at Lake Michigan College, Rich joined the Air Force as an aircraft mechanic. While in Hawaii, Okinawa, and the Philippines he worked on C-124 aircraft. While in the Philippines in 1969 Rich married Estela Chavez. They now have three children: Kathy, Mike, and Steve. After transfer to Grand Forks AFB, ND, an early-out allowed Rich to attend Southwestern Michigan College in 1970. When the Applied Science degree requirements were completed in 1972, they moved to married housing at Michigan State University. By winter term of 1974, the Poultry Science Bachelor degree requirements were completed. Rich then worked as a technician on the Poultry Department anaphage experiments and then received a Training Fellowship from the National Institute of Health while he worked on the Master and Ph.D. degrees. The M.S. degree was completed in June of 1976. Rich then started on the Ph.D. program with Cal Flegal as the major professor. The subject of the Ph.D. dissertation was the determination of the calcium and available phosphorus requirements of growing and adult Ring-necked Pheasants. This was completed in June of 1979.