u. I \. .. . .. madammflw...sflumiumflflmfifihfiguafiflukmmflw§fimml "a: u _. 1. O , . . . I. («II . -I III. .FIIIIIIII 3...!th [IT . ... ix... : . In “RUPYLE I #0.“: l ‘IIIF. uh-IICII 1' I‘ll I. . I 15"! .. PIvhiluIIII: . I- ... ”ll-.IIIIIIIIFIII l u... I 15.419... . I. IIIoIrHNmunuIIIII . ll|I|. I! II v Ill ’IYGIIIHOIII..““:V...I‘I abs-.vlshlI'ri‘vllnliiffllll l‘l'hu 1 IQIIOlt‘lII Bill! I . HF. (-1 .. l ‘ OI n I ..... .ol ........ III-I..I. yO‘lIvlllll‘nrl , 'Il I’ll-l. [III Ill! o It: i . 11?; ii .\v|~4lbkl|il.Ivv”u2 .ro After Doxiadis \ Figure 2.3 17 Table 2.l.--Rainfall. . Standard Range of 95% Stations Period of Data mga2x;n Deviation Values inm(S) x125inmn Benghazi 1881-74 (57 yrs) 252.9 97.0 68.9 - 446.9 1915-74 (33 yrs) 247.3 88.0 71.3 - 423.3 Benina 1915-74 (29 yrs; 260.8 69.2 112.4 - 399.2 1956-74 (18 yrs 248.6 66.2 116.2 - 381.0 Ar-Rajma 1915-74 (21 yrs) 325.8 112.2 23.8 - 472.6 Fuwayhat 1915-74 (36 yrs) 247.9 91.3 65.3 - 430.5 Kuwaifia 1915-74 (44 yrs) 276.8 111.7 53.4 - 500.2 SOURCE: Libyan Arab Republic, Secretariat of Dams and Water Resources, General Water Authority (Benghazi Branch), Investigation of the Municipal Well Field, Benina Area, p. 42. The rainy season continues for about eight months, from September to April; the remaining four months (May to August) consti- tute the dry season. In most years, the highest rainfall amounts in Benghazi are recorded in January, but this peak sometimes occurs in December or February. In 1966, for example, the peak (196.0 mm) was in December, and in 1964 the peak (99.0 mm) was in February.4 The amount of rainfall increases rapidly between October and December. After February it decreases gradually until it ceases completely in May. March rains have a special significance to agriculture in the Benghazi area. This is because March is the heart of the growing 4Hajjaji, p. 32. l8 season; hence any excess or shortage of rainfall affects the agri- cultural production, particularly of wheat and barley, which are almost entirely cultivated by the dry-farming system. Temperature. The monthly mean temperature in the Benghazi area varies from 12.5° to 26.7°C, but the maximum temperature recorded was 45.6°C in June 1969 at the Benina Station, 18 km east of Benghazi. The minimum temperature was O.6°C in March 1949 at the same station. The summer season usually starts in May and extends to late September or early October; the winter season starts in November and continues into April. The hottest months of the year are June, July, August, and September, and the coldest months are December, January, and February. However, altitude and the presence of the sea influence temperatures and cause variations in the isotherms of the Benghazi area. The high temperature in summer has a serious effect on human and thus an agricultural activities--at times, work in the field is completely stopped. Thus, grains are generally harvested before summer starts. Crops in the Benghazi area are in no danger from frost but must be able to tolerate high summer temperatures. Relative humidity in the Benghazi area is remarkably high and uniform throughout the year. It is, however, affected by variations in local climatic conditions. The hot Gibli winds, for example, which blow from the desert to the Mediterranean Sea, act to decrease the relative humidity. At some weather stations, such as al-Aguria, the records show that the relative humidity drops under 10 percent during the Gibli season. l9 Higgs, Generally, winds in the Benghazi area are not of critical importance because sand storms are not involved, since the Jabal al-Akhdar and neighboring plain are essentially rocky. Also, the Ar-Rajma Escarpment protects the Benghazi area from sand storms. Winds in the Benghazi area are very frequent and to a great extent come from the Mediterranean Sea. About 45 percent of the winds in the area come from the northwest and northeast and are relatively cold. Although representing only 17 percent of the winds in the Benghazi region, the Gibli winds have the most devastating effects on vegetation and agriculture. They are warm and extremely dry. They occur in an average of three weeks per year, mostly during the spring and fall. If the Gibli winds blow during the period of plant growth, the yield may be completely lost. A hot Gibli during the milk stage of grains can make the difference between a good or bad season. A Gibli during the flowering period of fruit trees may also dras- tically reduce the crop. Soil Types The terra-rossa type of soil. The terra-rossa type of soil is widespread at different levels of the northeast part of Libya, on the Jabal al-Akhdar plateau, and on the terraces of the Benghazi coastal plain. Terra rossa, which is transported primarily by water, is found in vast areas around Benghazi and was brought in through the Wadi al-Qattara. It is found also in the area between Deriana and Bu Jarrar, probably having been brought in by the Wadi Zaza. 20 The relatively heavy texture of terra rossa gives it a reasonable moisture-holding capacity. This indicates that this soil type is capable of retaining an adequate quantity of water for summer cul- tivation.5 Alluvial soils and lithosols. Alluvial soils and lithosols are formed in wadi beds on alluvial fans. Consequently, their tex- ture is nonhomogeneous. Alluvial soils are found throughout the coastal zone. Different places in the Benghazi area are covered by alluvial deposits. The most important of these are the flood plains of Wadis al-Bab (about 16 km southeast of Suluq), al-Ahmar, al-Qattara, and Zaza. These soils are also of considerable depth and contain much less organic matter and nitrogen than other soil types such as terra rossa. However, these soils could be used for the cultivation of many agricultural crops if good-quality water were available. Reddish brown soils. Reddish brown soils occur in the semi- arid regions. They are formed in warm, temperate climates with hot summers. They consist of compact sod that is covered by low, grassy vegetation and scattered dwarf shrubs and small trees. The soil surface is usually reddish brown to red and loose in structure. These soils have high fertility, but dry farming on them is usually impos- sible because of the arid climate.6 5Ibid., p. 63. 6D. G. Vilenski, The Russian School of Soil Cartographyyand Its Influence on the Soil Cartography of the World (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department OfiAgriculture, 1945), p. 48. 2l Solonchak soils. The Solonchak soils form one of the main groups of saline and alkaline soils that have a high salt content. Saline solonchak soils are common immediately north of al-Aguria, behind the coastal sand dunes, and along the shoreline where the saline marshes are commonly seen. There are also less important types of soils in the Benghazi area, such as reddish yellow steppe soils, sand-dune soils, and crust. Soil classifications according to their agricultural values are shown in Figure 2.4. Natural Vegetation Taking into consideration several factors such as distribu- tion and frequency of rainfall, the quality, depth, and distribution of soils, and relief, two major generalized types of vegetation can be identified in the Benghazi area: maquis (Mediterranean vegetation) 7 The first can be subdivided into wood forest and brush and steppes. forest, and the latter can be subdivided into coastal and semi-desert steppes, littoral and sand-dune vegetation.8 Cultural Characteristics In order to show the importance of cultural traits in agri- cultural land use not only in the Benghazi area but also in the social and economic development of Libya in general, it is necessary to discuss the basic cultural characteristics of the study area. 7William B. Fisher, The Middle East, A Physical, Social and Regional Geography (London: *Methuen’COT] 1971), ppT’75-84. 8Hajjaji, p. 85. ~-~«...—...a 22 Benghazi Area Soil Classification According ~95” to its Agricultural Value 32w- Percentage of Land Suitable for Crop Cultivation - more than 70 I 70-40 E] less than 40 10 MI. (’1 ‘ «3“? I! awa- égévw "" if" After Italconsult Figure 2.4 23 .Among cultural factors, population distribution and land-tenure systems are most significantly related to variations in the spatial pattern and intensity of land use. Cultural influences, however, are seldom independently linked to the areal pattern of agricultural land use. Rather, they must be analyzed in relation to a number of physical and institutional considerations if a meaningful interpretation of the geographic arrangement of land use is to be made. Population Size and Past’GFowth With more than 364,000 inhabitants, the Benghazi area ranks second in population among Libyan regions. Only Tripoli in the northwest, with 735,000 inhabitants, is more populous than the Benghazi area.9 As shown in Table 2.2, from 1963 to 1970 the population of the Benghazi area increased steadily. The growth after 1970 was remarkable; in only one decade (1969-79) the popu- lation of the area was doubled, growing from 179,689 in 1970 to 364,500 in 1979. This increase was mainly due to a natural growth rate. According to Kikia, the average natural growth rate is about 3.5 percent per year, whereas migration Contributes about 2.5 per- cent per year.10 Benghazi City is the central market of the area 9Libyan Arab Republic, Ministry of Planning and Scientific Research, The Statistical Abstract 1974 (Tripoli: Department of Statistics, 1975), p. 10. 10Mansour al-Kikia, "Distribution and Growth of Population ‘in the Benghazi Area" (paper presented at the First Geographical (Zonference on the Geography of Libya, Benghazi, University of Gar \(unis, 1975), p. 58. 24 aand the major center of population. More than 62 percent of the population of the Benghazi area lives in the city. The density in Benghazi City is about 2,640 inhabitants per square kilometer. Most «of the remaining 38 percent of the population of the area lives in other medium-sized urban areas such as Gaminis, Suluq, and al- Aguri a. 'Table 2.2.--Popu1ation of the Benghazi municipality, 1963-1979. Year Population Year Population 1963 122,553 1973 267,534 1964 137,295 1974 280,045 1965 144,233 1975 315,936 1966 151,734 1976 328,512 1967 157,994 1977 341,073 1968 164,496 1978 355,089 1969 172,894 1979 364,500 1970 179,689 1971 234,082 1972 263,788 SOURCE: Libyan Arab Jamahirya, Secretariat of Municipalities, Municipality of Benghazi, Evolution of Population and Human Movements (unpublished document, Benghazij'l979), p. 1. A population pyramid, based on sex and age, drawn from the 1973 lJopulation census, is shown in Figure 2.5. This figure appears normal 25 Benghazi Area Age—Sex Pyramid 1973 70. Males ' I. Females Percentage of Total Population After Doxiadis Figure 2.5 26 and smooth. This age-sex structure resembles that of the developing nations. The young represent the large base of the pyramid, while the cfld represent a small portion near the top. The Benghzai area, like any other area in Libya, contains a number of non-Libyans, most of them Egyptians, Palestinians, Sudanese, and Tunisians. They came as workers in agriculture, in blue-collar .jobs, and in services. In 1973, there were 45,999 non-Libyans in the Benghazi area, most of them between 15 and 40 years of age.]] Illiteracy in Libya was greatly reduced during the 1964-73 period. In fact, illiteracy in the Benghazi area is substantially lower than the averages either for the Benghazi region, which includes all of northeast Libya, or the nation as a whole. Of the total popu- lation of the Benghazi area, 39.78 percent were illiterate in 1973 12 compared to 50.9 percent in Libya as a whole. However, illiteracy among females is more than double that among males (see Table 2.3). Land-Tenure Systems One of the major cultural factors influencing the character of agricultural land use, particularly in the Benghzai area, has been disputes over land ownership. Disputes, especially in the southeast portion of the study area, occur almost daily during the plowing season, which usually starts during September and October. When a piece of land is under dispute, it cannot be cultivated. In some cases, the nDoxiades Associates International, Ben hazi Re ion, Master fflan and Layout Plan Areas, Vol. 5, No. 2 (Athens: Doxiadis, 1979), D. 23. 12 Ibid., p. 31. dispute is settled by local authorities. nent intervenes to resolve the dispute. In other cases the govern- Nevertheless, until recently many of the disputes were protracted, resulting in land lying unused for a long period. Table 2.3.--Population of the Benghazi area ten years and older by sex and level of education, 1973. Educational Males Females Total LEVEI Pop. % Pop. % Pop. % Illiterate 16,712 23.7 35,694 58.2 52,406 39.7 Read only 873 1.2 294 0.5 1,167 0.9 Read and write 29,971 42.5 17,066 27.8 47,037 35.7 El‘l'fiiiviifli‘é‘ 12,531 17.8 5.417 8.9 17,948 13.6 Preparatory, secondary school, 9,138 12.9 2,591 4.2 11,729 8.9 or equivalent Post-secondary 154 0.2 14 -- 168 0.1 University 932 1.3 115 0.2 1,047 0.8 Graduate school 155 0.2 13 -- 168 0.1 Undefined 129 0.2 127 0.2 256 0.2 Total 70,595 100.0 61,331 100.0 131,296 100.0 SOURCE: Libyan Arab Republic, Secretariat of Planning, Eigal Results of the Population Census (Libya: 1973), p. 27. ‘MH I ._.. 28 According to Gannaus, disputes over land and water have existed for a long time. But the effects of these disputes were much less serious economically in the past than they are today, when intensive farming systems have become so important for supporting the growing 13 The major matters involved urban centers with agricultural products. in the disputes have to do with issues of descent or of kinship rela- tionships. Although these continue to be immediate causes, what is fundamental in the present situation is that changes have been taking place in the area since 1963 because of technological developments based on huge oil revenues. Because of these changes, it is necessary that land ownership, rights of usufruct, water rights, and so on be given far greater precision of meaning than was ever necessary in the past. Although land-tenure systems in the Benghazi area are still not clear today because of the occasional intervention of the authori- ties to redistribute land, Gannaus and Hajjaji have classified the land, based on the Turkish Land Registration Act, into five broad categories: Hglk, The land is owned by individuals or groups. The owners have full rights to benefit from the income from their land. These lands can also be sold or bought, mortgaged, or inherited by the owner's children. Most of this land is found in the rural parts of the Benghazi area. 13Subhi M. Gannaus, "The Social Structure of al—Abiyar ‘Township" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Manchester, 1977), I). 212. 29 2- A:9_gl;fliri or state land. This land can be leased to indi- viduals for a long period of time, but it cannot be owned indefi- nitely by one person, inherited, or mortgaged. Very often this kind of land includes agricultural land, but also sites that were earmarked for summer camping, wooded areas, and other lands are included. 3. Ard al-wagf. These are lands that are dedicated to religious or cultural purposes. The waqf land can be utilized on either rental or Sharecropping bases. The income derived from this land may be assigned for religious purposes such as building a mosque or sponsor- ing religious celebrations. 4. Two other classes of land are found in the Benghazi area: Hgtrgk_(abandoned) and mayat_(wasteland). The first is developed for the public interest; the latter are waste lands that have not been cultivated before. Both classes have limited value for agricultural uses:l4 There were four land registration acts passed by the Libyan government in the last three decades to regulate land ownership in the country. However, the problem of determining the land-tenure system is still far from being resolved. This stems from the fact that farmers did not follow what the government told them to do. In the last ten years, the government has concentrated on high-cost planned agricultural projects; little attention has been paid to the 14For more details on land-tenure systems, see Fouzi Eid . Sahawneh, "Irrigation and Irrigated Agriculture in Jordan: An Econom1c Geographic Appraisal" (Ph.D. dissertation, Michigan State University, 1970 . 30 private farms, which, as we will see, depend on unorganized, irregular assistance from the government. The land-tenure systems, which will be analyzed in terms of their effects on agricultural land use, are those systems defined by the field survey and personal observation as well as by the Land Registration Act of 1970. These systems are as follows: a. Wada Yad (squatter's rights). In this system, the farmer usually does not initially own the land, but because he uses it for a long period of time (at least ten years), he owns it by squatter's rights. b. ngath_(inheritance). In this case, the farmer inherits a farm from his father, brother, or other relatives. c. SHg3a_(purchase). The farm in this category is paid for. d. Musharaka (Sharecropping). In this system, the owner usually furnishes the agricultural inputs and the sharecropper is responsible for labor. The annual net return is divided between the two according to an agreement. e. Ijar_(rent). In this category, the farmer rents use of the farm from the owner on a monthly or yearly basis. An agreement is signed between the owner and the tenant to specify the rental period, the amount of payment, and whether the rent is paid on a monthly or yearly basis. The Economic Base There are a number of economic indicators that define present economic activities in the Benghazi area. An understanding of the 31 roles of income and employment and their effects on the pattern of agricultural production is basic to a meaningful interpretation of areal differences and relationships in land use. It is true that most of the population in the Benghazi area, including the city of Benghazi, depends directly or indirectly on agriculture for their living. However, for many farmers, the farm is more a symbolic rather than a real source of income; other sources of income are necessary. 0f the 250 farmers surveyed in 1980, 99 (40 percent) had off-farm jobs: 14 percent were school teachers in villages or towns near to their farms; 70 percent were government employees; and 16 percent were private-enterprise workers. Thus, there are two sources of income for most of the farmers in the Benghazi area: farm income and off-farm income. Farm Income Because farmers need much of their produce for home consump- tion, they do not sell all of their agricultural products in the market. In some cases, farmers save some of the crops as seed for the next year's cultivation season or as a hedge against drought years. This usually occurs in the dry-farming system in the southeastern part of the Benghazi area, for example in the districts of Suluq, Annawwagia, Gaminis, and Swani Ti ka, where cereal cultivation predominates. It has been found that the most important source of farm income comes from vegetables, especially for those farms located close to Benghazi City or near an access road into the market. 32 The 250 farmers surveyed in the Benghazi area were asked to give an approximation of the annual income value of what they derived from their farms. It was found that 73 of them (32 percent) earned less than $5000 per year and only 52 farmers (23 percent) earned more than $15,000 per year (see Table 2.4). (In 1980 the value of l Libyan dinar = 3.29 U.S. dollars.) Although these figures are probably not very accurate, they give an idea of the farm-income variations in the Benghazi area. Table 2.4.--Distribution of farm income in the Benghazi area, 1980. Farm Income in Dollars Number of Farms Percentage Less than $5,000 73 32% $5,000-$10,000 70 30% $10,001-$15,000 35 15% More than $15,000 52 23% Off-Farm Income Since farm income represents only a symbolic rather than a real source of income for many farmers in the Benghazi area, income from off-farm jobs becomes an important part of the net income of the farmer. In many cases a farmer can also get assistance from members of his family who work in off-farm jobs such as government agencies or the army. Almost half of the farmers surveyed reported a farm income insufficient to support their families, and 75 percent 33 of them received support from off-farm jobs or from members of their families. There are two other major sources of off-farm assistance: credits (interest-free) from the National Agricultural Bank of Libya (established in 1957) and loans from private creditors (mostly from friends and relatives). Between 1957 and 1965, the National Agricultural Bank of Libya, because of its limited capi- tal, granted only short- and medium-term loans for the purchase of engine pumps, tractors, and other farm inputs. After 1965 it started granting long-term loans for the improvement and establishment of new farms.15 Unfortunately, many farmers spent their loans on pri- vate and/or nonagricultural purposes, such as building homes for rent, buying cars, and even financing the marriages of their sons or remarrying themselves.16 Consequently, the bank reduced the number of farmers who could benefit from the interest-free loans and increased the subsidization of agricultural inputs such as machinery, fertilizers, and seeds. Generally speaking, the per capita income in the Benghazi area is 24 percent higher than the national average,17 a fact that is partially correlated with the high educational population and with 15David Lalenic, Agriculture in Libya and a Plan for Its Development (Tripoli: Government Press, 1967), p. 112. 16Hajjaji, p. 305. 17Libyan Arab Republic, Ministry of Planning and Scientific Research, Settlement Pattern Study, Benghazi Region, 1976, p. 56. 34 a relatively high proportion of foreign population.18 The area also has received a relatively high proportion of investments in the past, indicating the priority given to its development by policy makers. However, a rapid development of services has not been able to keep pace with recent population increases. After the discovery of oil, a large migration of young farmers moved from their farms in the rural areas to urban centers such as Benghazi City. These centers provided nonfarm employment opportunities in various types of construction and development projects for the oil companies as well as various positions in government departments. Consequently, farming was left to the older people, women, and children. This situation led to stagnation in the agricultural sector, especially during the 19605 and the early 19705. Thus, the Libyan government adopted a program to develop the agricultural sector by increasing expenditures, by encouraging foreign laborers to migrate and work in the agricultural fields, and by engineering a number of planned agricultural projects. Related Literature Literature Concerning, Libya in General Several studies of the general conditions of agricultural land use in Libya provided essential background information and valuable insights into the problems of the agricultural sector. 18According to Doxiadis, in 1978, 17.3 percent of the popu- lation in the Benghazi area were foreigners. 35 Undoubtedly, the most important of these was a report issued in June 1976 by the Secretariat of Planning.19 This report condensed the results of more than three years' work by an interdisciplinary team from Italconsult, an Italian consultant company. This study was begun in 1973 to obtain more factual documentation on the living conditions of those segments of the national population who live in isolated villages and oases scattered over the vast Libyan desert or who roam the unin- habited steppe land. In addition to an account of the present situation of these people, the government wanted clear guidelines about how to spread the benefits of the new national prosperity to these marginal populations and also policy suggestions about how to make these people into active participants in the national development process. Another reason for the study was the increasing awareness by the Secretariat of Planning of the importance of spatial dimensions in the develop- ment process and of the need for achieving greater urban-rural balance and interregional equity. Although the report yielded a great deal of information and statistics, it has been criticized by agricultural planners of the Secretariat of Planning for its unreliable analysis and poor organization. A number of articles have appeared in both geographic and nongeographic journals during the last three decades that shed addi- tional light on agricultural problems in Libya, in general, and in the Benghazi area in particular. Allan and McLachlan emphasized the 19Libyan Arab Republic, Ministry of Planning, Settlement .Egtterns Study: Libya (Rome: Italconsult, 1976). 36 Libyan government's role in agricultural development.20 They gave an historical account of the discovery of oil and its impact on diversification of the economy, including the agricultural sector. Monetary allocations to agriculture in the First Five-Year Plan (1963-68), as Allan and McLachlan reported, were substantial, amount- ing to 17 percent of the country's development budget. But monetary allocations in the Second Five-Year Plan (1969-74) to the agricultural sector amounted to only 13.1 percent. This reduction in expenditure was a result of severe overuse of groundwater resources in the country. Groundwater levels were declining at over one meter per year in some areas, particularly in the coastal plain. After the 1969 revolution, a group of executive administra- tors came to power with perceptions of what was possible in various sectors of the Libyan economy that were very different from those that had guided decisions of the authorities in the prerevolution (years of rising oil revenues. One major accomplishment was the allo- cation of 25 percent of the budget to the agricultural sector, an allocation almost double that of the First Five-Year Plan. Lawless was concerned with new agricultural projects in 21 Libya. He discussed the social, cultural, and environmental prob- lems that faced these projects. 20d. Allan and K. S. McLachlan, "Agricultural Development in Libya After Oil," African Affairs (July 1976): 331-49. 21R. I. Lawless, "New Agricultural Projects in the Libyan Arab Republic" (paper presented at the First Geographic Conference on the Geography of Libya, Benghazi, March 15-17, 1975 37 In another study, agricultural production and its value in the whole country was analyzed in an economic survey of the Libyan economy in 1971-72 and was issued as a supplement to The Arab Economist.22 _ Three well-known general studies of agricultural development in Libya are worthy of mention. The report of the Ministry of Plan- ning, Agriculture in Libya and a Plan for Its Development, was based on the stated objectives of three agricultural experts. It consisted of three parts: an analysis of the existing human and natural possi- bilities of Libyan agriculture, a comprehensive program for agricul- tural development, and recommendations to policy makers for planned measures of agricultural development.23 Although most of the statis- tics and information in this work are outdated, the description of the agricultural situation in Libya is still valid. Libya: Agricultural and Economic Development by Allan, McLachlan, and Penrose was the result of the London-Libyan Universi- ties Joint Research Project.24 Economic and geographic considerations were foremost in the analysis of changes in land use. The volume concluded with 22 computer maps based on a questionnaire survey taken throughout the settled area of western Libya. 22"Libya: The Three-Year Agricultural and Development Plan 1972/73-1974/75," The Arab Economist (Beirut) 59 (December 1973). 23Libyan Arab Republic, Ministry of Planning and Development, Agriculture in Libya and a Plan for Its Development (Tripoli: Govern- ment Printing Press, 1966). 240. A. Allan, K. s. McLachlan, and E. T. Penrose, Libya: Agricultural and Economic Development (London: Cass, 1973). 38 Johnson dealt primarily with contemporary pastoral ecology, both in its traditional context and in the changes experienced in this century.25 Johnson also investigated the use of ecological insights to illuminate an area's settlement history. The relation- ship of agrarian and pastoral modes of livelihood in eastern Cyrenaica, a term used to refer to northeastern Libya, was also discussed. The study was more historical than geographic, giving a great deal of information about the region's past. Literature Concerning the Benghazi AFea In general, research concerning agricultural land use in Libya refers to the Benghazi area only briefly. However, there are a few significanl;works that concentrate on the area. Hajjaji's study of the Benghazi Plain was the most comprehensive study of the Benghazi area.26 The plain covers an area extending from al-Dersia in north- east Benghazi to Sidi Abdul Ati, south of the city, a distance of about 240 kilometers, varying in width from about 200 meters to about 50 kilometers. Although Hajjaji's study was not scientific in its approach, it provided much information about the area on such topics as land-use patterns, the land-tenure system, and dry- and irrigated-farm crops. 25Douglas Johnson, Jabal al-Akhdar, Cyrenaica: An Historical Geo rapHyyof Settlement and Livelihood. Research paper 148 (Chicago: University BTTChicago Press, 1973). 26 Hajjaji. 39 In 1977, a study was conducted by a group of engineers from Italy.27 They found that the shortage of water is the basic limiting factor for agricultural development not only in the Benghazi area but throughout Libya. Only 5 percent of the country receives more than 100 mm of rainfall, an amount considered to be the absolute minimum for marginal dry farming. Thus, after the 1969 revolution, the General Water Authority was established with branches in Tripoli and Benghazi. The Ministry of Dams and Water Resources was also estab- lished. The objective of these agencies was to facilitate searches for new underground water resources for agricultural development. The purpose of the Lotti study was to carry out investiga- tions to (1) define hydrogeological conditions and to assess the groundwater potential of the Benghazi area, (2) define additional groundwater resources that could be exploited for agricultural develop- ment of the area under consideration, (3) to find drilling locations for establishing a network of exploitation wells, and (4) provide blueprints for well construction. The study yielded a multivolume technical report with geological and hydrological maps for an area of 1900 km2 located north of Benghazi City. The report evaluated ground- water resources, the recharge of groundwater flow, the discharge of the aquifers, and also recommended limited agricultural development in the Benghazi Plain. 27Lotti and Associati, Consulting Engineers, in collaboration with Hydrogeo of Pisa, Investigation for Water Resources Development in the Area Between Sidi Khalifa andTTolmetha in the Project of Benghazi Plain (Rome: Lotti, 1977). 40 During the period of 1957-58, Dogel and Maguire investigated 2 the water resources of an area of approximately 300 km that lies on 28 This work was the coastal plain east and south of Benghazi city. done under the direction of the United States Army Corps of Engineers. The study indicated that water in sufficient quantities for additional public supplies could probably be produced from wells in some areas, but since the water is moderately to highly mineralized, it would require desalination treatment. Much of the available water could be used directly for irrigation, but careful attention would have to be given to cultivation, drainage, and cropping practices. Between 1959 and 1961, Newport and Haddor investigated the groundwater resources of an area extending northeast from Benghazi to al-Marj.29 Their research included reconnaissance hydrogeologi- cal studies and the drilling of 21 exploratory wells. They reached conclusions that were nearly the same as those of Dogel and Maguire. Geozavod carried out a groundwater field-research project in a 800 kmz 3° portion of the Benghazi area. The study included hydro- geological mappings, water-quality determinations, geophysical surveys, exploratory drilling, and test pumpings. 28W. W. Dogel and F. J. Maguire, "Groundwater Resources of Benghazi Area, Cyrenaica, United Kingdom of Libya" (unpublished paper, United States Geological Survey, Benghazi, 1964). 29T. G. Newport and Y. Haddor, "Ground Water Exploration in al-Marj Area, Cyrenaica, United Kingdom of Libya" (unpublished paper, United States Geological Survey, Benghazi, 1963). 30Geozavod, "Investigations on Groundwater Tapping Possibili- ties in the Localities of al-Fuwayhat, Sidi Mansur and al-Kuwa1fia Caves" (Belgrade: 1966-68). 41 A French company, the Groupment d'Etude Francais EL-Libye, studied almost all of the Benghazi Plain during a survey of water resources in the northern flank of the Jabal al-Akhdar.3] The study was of a reconnaissance nature since the company covered a large area in a relatively short time. Finally, since the study of agricultural land use is part of the general study of agricultural development, the most widely known text is by Mellor.32 Despite the fact that this research focuses on Specific issues, Mellor's work could be of benefit to land-use- distribution studies. Conclusion To conclude, the physical features of the Benghazi area appear less heterogeneous than expected. The area is mostly a plain; there are no high mountains. Variations in precipitation are limited since the area is located between 150 mm isohyets in the south and 300 mm isohyets in the north and since most of the rainfall occurs during the winter months. Although soil types vary in the Benghazi area, terra rossa or red soil predominates, especially in the cultivated areas. The review of cultural characteristics in the Benghazi area indicated that the population structure and land-tenure systems are the most important cultural traits to be analyzed in relation to 3lGroupment d'Etude Francais El-Libye, Soil and Water Resources Survey for Hydro-Agricultural Development, Eastern Zone, Libya. Water Resources Survey, Vol. II (France: GEFLI, 1972). 32John W. Mellor, The Economics of Agricultural Development (New York: Cornell University Press, 1974). 42 agricultural land use. Although the region has different economic resources, agriculture is the income base for most of the Benghazi people. Unfortunately, literature related to agricultural land use in Libya in general or to the Benghazi area in particular was limited. Most of the studies were either descriptive or reports from consulting companies. It is the purpose of this study to provide specific research on the role of selected cultural factors in relation to agricultural land uses in the Benghazi area. CHAPTER III THE DESIGN OF THE STUDY In this chapter the research design is presented in relation to some previously developed agricultural land-use theories. Also, methods employed in selecting samples, research assistants, and pilot work carried out before the field survey was conducted are discussed. The analysis procedures and statistical methods are also presented. At the conclusion of the chapter, certain factors that complicated the field work are briefly mentioned. Theoretical Considerations Geography is a distinct discipline in the sense that its primary concern is spatial patterns or the relationships of physical and cultural factors in earth space. Since the earliest geographic research, spatial variation has been the unifying theme. Griffin pointed out, however, that geographers have shared this concern for spatial variations with others.1 During the nineteenth century, for example, economists became involved in analyzing the relationship between geographic locations and land-use patterns to determine which factors affected such economic characteristics as the intensity of land use, competition between land uses, and the 1Ernst C. Griffin, "Agricultural Land Use in Uruguay" (Ph.D. dissertation, Michigan State University, 1972), p. 17. 43 44 locations of enterprises. Many agricultural land-use theories developed from these early studies.2 A discussion of some of these theories follows. The Land-Use Model of von Thunen Today, most geographers work with several theories. Agricul- tural geographers, for example, try to explain the location of dis- tinctive agricultural types with an agricultural-location model formulated by Johann Heinrich von Thunen, a nineteenth-century German agricultural economist. Von Thunen (1783-1850) is credited with for- mulating the first theory of location in modern science. He was a pioneer in the theoretical analysis of relationships between agricul- 3 tural land use and geographic location. In simplified terms, von Thunen, in his book Isolated State (1826), envisioned one central city, the market, and around it a plain of tillable land, uniform in its physical characteristics, served by only one mode of transportation, and inhabited by farmers. These farmers supplied the central city and had no difficulty in adjusting the use of their resources to any economic conditions that might evolve. In Isolated State, von Thunen explained the relationships among (1) the distance of farms from the market, (2) prices received by farmers for their products, and (3) land rent. The relationship between the first two was very simple. The price that a farmer 2Raleigh Barlowe, Land Resource Economics (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1958), pp. 32-33. 3Griffin, p. 18. 45 received for a given unit of commodity, von Thunen argued, was equal to its market price minus the cost of shipping it to the market. This cost of transportation increased with the distance from the market. The third factor, land rent, was defined as the return from investment in the land. This rent decreased for any given crop as the distance from the market increased because of the increased cost of transportation (see Figure 3.1). The formula given below indicates how land rent for any one product can be derived: R = YP - E - Yfk in which: R = land rent per acre E = production expenses per acre Y = yield in units of commodity per acre P = market price per unit of commodity f = freight rate (the cost of shipping a unit of commodity over the distance of one mile) K = number of miles from the market In Isolated State, von Thunen hypothesized that land use and agricultural production were the result of three forces: (1) the types and quantities of agricultural products needed in the central market, (2) the technology employed in the production and transporta- tion of such commodities, and (3) the endeavor of each farmer to maximize his land rent by producing commodities for which the location of his land relative to the market offered the greatest advantage.4 4Andreas Grotewold, “Von Thunen in Retrospect," Economic Geography 48 (1962): 349. _.m «tamed cowuw>wemo mmcwx owepcmocou new pcwm can; 46 mic—.mm .9; E o ov Eam— mstmz 3:ch E0: 8:820 Eon ov on om\ o— \52 Du _ I 3 n m o w. 3 H a U 1 cos ood— _.m aazmwa cowum>wemo mmcwm owepcmucou use “cox c:MA 46 dictum emc< E Gov Eomp .9222 fizcoo Eo: coca—m5 Eom a, on owx o_ \\\\\.et_ _ 8 u I: _ 18 w _ _ 3 on n on". w M O on H 3 8.“ w ood— 47 Naturally, von Thunen assumed that the conditions of his time would be valid for all times and situations. During von Thunen's time, the only means of tran5portation was the horse and wagon. Multiple freight rates depending on the commodities shipped did not exist. Refrigeration in transit had not yet been invented. Under such conditions, the land nearest the market produced milk, vege- tables, and commodities that had high economic rents and were expen- sive to transport because of their perishability. Next, there was a zone devoted to wood products, which were bulky and expensive to haul to the market. Beyond this area, there were rings of land given over to grain production. The outermost areas were zones of grassland used for grazing and highly transportable industrial crops5 (see Figure 3.2). Von Thunen discovered and examined the laws that gov- erned patterns of agricultural land use in his time. He recognized that land-use patterns depended on competition among the various types of agricultural land use possible for a particular piece of land. Although the present research is not an application of von Thunen's theory, it is interesting to note certain basic parallels. In the Benghazi area, there is a central market, Benghazi, a surround- ing plain, and, as mentioned before, relatively homogeneous physical and cultural features. In this study, a pattern of agricultural land use similar to the pattern in von Thunen's model is apparent. How- ever, the factors affecting these patterns are different from those in van Thunen's model. In this research, emphasis is given to 5William Norton, "Land Use Theory and the Pioneering Economy," Geografiska Annaler 56-8 (1975): 44. 48 a small city with its own production zones Horticulture and dairying 0 Central city Wood product --- Navigable river Grain production-intensive Grain production-moderate D Grain production-extensive Livestock raising After Chisholm Variations in Zonal Patterns in the Land-Use Model of von Thunen Figure 3.2 49 cultural factors such as distance from the market, the land-tenure system, government agricultural policies, and farmers' characteris- tics, whereas transportation cost was the only factor affecting agricultural land-use patterns in van Thunen's model. Agricultural Patterns Developed by Robert Sinclair Another method of describing agricultural land use was developed by Robert Sinclair. Although this theory was developed through empirical observations in the United States, these patterns may also be found in agricultural land use in the Benghazi area. In Sinclair's model, the effect of urban encroachment on investment of labor and capital in land is shown. In his article, "Von Thunen and Urban Sprawl," Sinclair distinguished his model from von Thunen's in this way: Land near urban areas is subject to an air of anticipation of urban encroachment. The degree of this anticipation has a direct influence upon agricultural land use practices, particularly upon the intensity of agriculture. For, obvi- ously, the greater the chances of urban land uses taking over, the less practical it becomes for the owner to invest highly in capital and labor for agricultural purposes. The degree of anticipation declines with distance from the encroaching city. Hence, distance from the city again becomes the factor which determines the agricultural land use pattern. However, whereas in van Thunen's Isolated State distance was meaningful in terms of transportation costs to the market, it is hare meaningful in terms of anticipation of urban encroachment. The effect of distance from the city is expressed in the fol- lowing simple relationship: as the urbanized area is approached from 6Robert Sinclair, "Von Thunen and Urban Sprawl," Annals of the Association of American Geographers 57 (March 1967): . 50 a distance, the degree of anticipation of urbanization increases and the relative value of the land for agricultural use decreases. Conse- quently, the intensity of use of agricultural land decreases. The result of this process is the development of a basic agricultural land-use pattern that is the opposite of von Thunen's (see Figure 3.3). Patterns of A ricultural Land Use Developed by ster Boserup As noted above, von Thunen used the cost of transportation of agricultural products to the central market as an indicator of the intensity of agricultural land use, whereas Sinclair's indicator was the anticipation of urban encroachment. For Boserup, population growth was the major factor determining agricultural land use around the urban areas.7 She classified the agricultural land-use system based on intensity as follows: (1) forest-fallow cultivation, (2) bush-fallow cultivation, (3) short-time-fallow cultivation, (4) annual cropping, and (5) multicropping. Boserup noted that, with increasing population pressures, there has been a shift from more extensive to more intensive systems of land use, particularly in underdeveloped regions. In some parts of the world, cultivators in the forest-fallow system have been unable to find sufficient secondary forest. They have had to recultivate 7Ester Boserup, The Conditions of Agricultural Growth: The Economics of Agrarian Change Under Population Pressure (Lond0n: George Allen and Unwin, 1965), pp. 15-16. Value for Agriculture 51 Variations in Zonal Patterns in the Land-Use Model of Sinclair Figure 3.3 52 areas not yet bearing fully grown forest. Thus the forest has receded and been replaced by bush. Again, in bush-fallow areas, the culti- vators have changed to short-time-fallow systems or annual cropping with or without irrigation. In densely populated regions, there has been a rapid spread of multicropping.8 Many economists criticized Boserup's theory because it did not take into consideration the income of the population or the elas- ticity of land in many portions of the world. Population growth in some regions may not affect agriculture without also changing per capita income. Boserup's position was that subsistence agricultural communi- ties are dynamic and subject to continual changes in agricultural technology because of population pressure. In Libya in general and in the Benghazi area in particular, the population in the urban areas and per capita income have increased dramatically. But it is not clear how these increases in population and income affect agricul- tural land use around the urban areas. Other Approaches to the [and-Use Problem Writers on agricultural land use have cited many empirical applications of classic and modern theories for determining agricul- tural patterns and farm practices. In 1969, Richard Peet proposed a Ibid., p. 17. 53 type of agricultural system similar to the von Thunen system that appeared in Britain, Western Europe, and northeastern North America in the nineteenth century. Peet described a central market area sur- rounded by a series of large concentric agricultural zones. However, he linked the boundaries of these zones to growth in food demand and raw materials in the market rather than to land rent and transporta- tion costs, as von Thunen's model had hypothesized. Peet explained the outward expansion of these zones as follows: A rise in demand for any crop, or group of crops, will lead in the short run to a rise in price. This will have two main effects on supply: (1) it will be profitable to intensify production within the zones already raising the crop; (2) both higher prices and the resulting intensification raise the rent yielded by the crop, and this creates pressure for zonal expan- sion. The contiguous zones resist such expansion and contrac- tion in their supplies through prices and rent rises. Eventually, a new equilibrium is reached in which the zone producing the 9 newly-in-favor crop is usually wider and the total agland larger. Horvath found locational patterns similar to von Thunen's in present-day Ethiopia. These patterns center on the principal urban market of Addis Ababa.10 Similar distance-crop relationships have been noted in Japan, where fresh vegetables and fruits needed in the 11 Tokyo market are drawn from areas close at hand. Chisholm cited 9J. Richard Peet, "The Spatial Expansion of Commercial Agri- culture in the Nineteenth Century: A von Thunen Interpretation," Economic Geography_45 (March 1969): 288. 10Ronald J. Horvath, "Around Addis Ababa: A Geographical Study of the Impact of a City on Its Surroundings" (Ph.D. disserta- tion, University of California, Los Angeles, 1966), Chapters 3 and 5. 11John D. Eyre, "Sources of Tokyo's Fresh Food Supply," Geographical Review 49 (October 1959): 455. 54 many cases of adjustment of land use to distance in the Netherlands, Finland, Italy, and Spain.12 In his analysis of the relationship between distance and size of the farm, Edgar Dunn observed that farms closer to the market are smaller than those farther away. Dunn's theory was based on classical theories of agricultural land use wherein farms closer to the market are intensively cultivated and those farther away are extensively cropped.13 Despite the fact that no theory will be tested in this research, the spatial concept of the agricultural land use in the Benghazi area will be determined. Also, comparison between the actual land-use pattern of the area and the agricultural land-use model of von Thunen will be thoroughly explained. Methodology The research for this study was divided into three phases: (1) background research, (2) the field survey during which interview schedules were conducted with 6 percent of the 4,150 farmers who live in the Benghazi area,14 and (3) analyses of the data. Most of the background research was completed in the summer of 1979. During _ leichael Chisholm, Rural Settlement and Land Use (London: Hutchinson University Press, 1962), p. 50. 13Edgar Dunn, The Location of A ricultural Production (Gaines- ville: University of Florida Press, 19 4 , p. 45. 14According to Margaret Peil (1972), the primary difference between questionnaires and interview schedules is that questionnaires are self-administered, whereas interview schedules are administered by an interviewer who asks the questions and writes down the answers. 55 this period, an attempt was made to collect, read, and evaluate as much of the English and Arabic literature as possible concerning not only the area of the study but also relevant literature of all kinds. A number of individuals in institutions such as the University of Gar Yunis at Benghazi, the Benghazi Plain Agricultural Project Headquarter at al-Marj, the al-Gawarisha Settlement Project, the General Water Authority (Benghazi branch), the Secretariat of Planning, and the Secretariat of Agrarian Reform and Land Development supplied useful information and valuable suggestions. The researcher had no diffi- culty making contact with officials in the study area because he had lived in this region and had known these officials before conducting the research. The background materials obtained in this period were revised and classified, and additional materials were gathered from the Michigan State University and University of Michigan libraries. It is not surprising, however, that few materials dealing directly with the Benghazi area and considerably fewer referring to agricul- tural land use and its problems were found. The actual field survey lasted approximately four months, commencing on June 26, 1980, and terminating on October 28, 1980. The research effort, as mentioned later in this section, was greatly facilitated by the Faculty of Education at the University of Gar Yunis at Beida and by the Secretariats of Planning and Agrarian Reform and Land Development at Benghazi. During this period, the interview schedules prepared for this study were carefully translated into the local Arabic dialect (see Appendix), and the total farm population in the study area was determined. 56 The method used to determine the total farm population in the Benghazi area was to list the farmers by their names and the locations (mahallat) of their farms as shown in the records available in the Secretariat of Agrarian Reform and Land Development, Benghazi 15 branch. Then these lists were cross-checked with the 1974 agri- cultural census and with records of the agricultural cooperatives in each administrative unit.16 The field study was primarily concerned with private farms in which variations in acreage and crop patterns can be identified and analyzed. Thus, public farms or farms resulting from agricul- tural projects, such as those distributed by the Wadi al-Qattara Agricultural Project, the Benghazi Plain Agricultural Project, and the al-Qawarisha Land Settlement Project, were eliminated from the study. These government or agricultural-project farms are identical in size, and allowable crops are specified by the government. There- fore, the importance of these farms in this study was limited. Farms located within the Benghazi city limits were also left out of the 15In 1974, the Secretariat of Agrarian Reform and Land Development adopted a new system of register farmers and their farms-- Hasr al-Hiazat Azzera'Aih (Determination of the Agricultural LafidS). According to this system, each farmer reports to the secre- tariat his agricultural land and animals. In return, the secretariat opens a file with complete information about his farm and also issues a book containing this information called Kutaib al-Hiaza Azzera'Aih (Book of Agricultural Lands). Any change in the farmer's agricultural land or animals is reported to the secretariat immediately. 16Each administrative unit in the study area has its own agri- cultural cooperative. It is also a unit of distribution for seeds, fertilizer, and pesticides. Thus, each farmer should sign his name and indicate the number of animals and amount of his agricultural land to his cooperative. 57 study because they are few in number and have little relation to agricultural patterns in the study area. Methods of Selecting the Sample V With limited time and facilities at the writer's disposal, it would have been difficult to interview all the farmers in the Benghazi area. Therefore, sample methods were used for selecting the number of farmers to be interviewed. Berry and Baker pointed out that if the spatial distribution of any phenomenon being studied is random, any of four probability sampling methods--random, systematic, stratified, or a combination of any two--will give unbiased estimates with approximately equal varia- tions.]7 Thus, because the farm population in the Benghazi area is randomly distributed, stratified simple random sampling was used. According to Blalock, a stratified sampling method can be used to improve the efficiency of the sampling design. Hence, in a stratified sample, all the individuals are divided into groups or categories, and then independent samples are selected within each group or stratum. In the simplest and most frequently used types of stratified sampling, either a simple random sample or a systematic sample within each stratum is taken.18 ‘7J. L. Berry and Allan M. Baker, "Geography Sampling," in S atial Anal sis, ed. 8. J. Berry and Duane F. Marble (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1967), pp. 91-100. 18Hubert M. Blalock, Jr., Social Statistics, 2nd ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1972), p. 516. 58 The total farm population in the Benghazi area at the time of the survey, according to the records of the Secretariat of Agrarian Reform and Land Development, was 4,150 farmers. This number was divided into 21 groups according to the district (mahalla) in which the farm was located (see Figure 3.4). Then 6 percent of each group was randomly surveyed. Thus a total of 250 farmers was surveyed. Therefore, the number of farmers interviewed in each district was proportional to the total number of farmers living in that district and proportional to the total number of farmers living in the study area (see Table 3.1). The administrative units shown in Figure 3.4 are not neces- sarily mahallat; in some cases they are municipality branches, and in other cases they are a combination of mahallat and branches. These units were established basically for the purpose of the sampling and are used throughout the study. Research Assistants Although the study area was relatively small and the sample size was manageable, it would have been difficult for the writer to conduct the interviews without assistance. Therefore, field assistants were chosen for interviewing purposes. Assistants were selected based on their previous experience in field surveys, their knowledge of the region, their ability to speak the local Arabic dialect, and their ability to devote substantial amounts of time to the field survey. 59 20:00' 20-15 20130 . '_ . 1:2]; ' " Benghazi Area ' -.:-.'--"'-"' . / . . _ _ . al Agun Administrative Districts 'rda - "W 1980 Bu rrar amo- Mediterranean Sea Deriana . I Sidi Suwaker Dar-al- Araibat new aris- Sidi Khalifa al-Kuwaitia Benina al-Oawarisha L -w. 52-004 al-Faakat \ N ‘ . L. l . Annawwagia L ‘9 Mi' - 23 T“ 0 10 Km. . y- Swani-like \ Attaria .,,.', al-Khadra Gaminis Suluq 11 L I Source: Municipality ol Benghazi, 1960 Figure 3.4 59 who 20515 20:30 Benghazi Area Administrative Districts rrm’ 1980 issue” Bu 8W NH Mediterranean Sea Deriana >919 Sidi Suwaker Dar-al- Araibat r" Sidi Khalifa l-Kuwaiiia 32'15‘4 al-Oawarisha uno- al-Faakat F akhra i.~ Annawwagia Swani-Tika Attaria 10 Mi. 0 10 Km. ”‘3‘3” al-Khadra 1' 31‘45" / | Gaminis Suluq Source Municipality olBenghazu 1980 Figure 3.4 59 Benghazi Area . . _ _ . ' 1‘. 1 Administrative Districts ° ‘9'" lrda . p.» ~*“' 1980 ”m“ V Bersis aI-Mabni Mediterranean Sea . 1’ " Sidi Suwaker I Dar-al- Araibat ~aa-is' /‘ 32‘15" Sidi Khalifa al-Kuwaitia al-Oawarisha l ~32'00'_ 32mm .43. al-Faakat \. _ 1.: \i N Fakhra l Annawwagia ‘L ‘9 M'- 3 Swani-Tika R‘ 0 10 Km. Adana ~affp' al-Khadra Gaminis Suluq .31..“ . l Source: Municipality ol Benghazi. 1960 Figure 3.4 Table 3.1.--Farm survey of the Benghazi area: and number of farms surveyed. 60 districts, total farms, Number of Farms District (Mahalla) Total Farms Surveyed al-Faakat 141 8 al-Kuwaifia 173 ll al-Mabni 123 7 al-Qawarisha 166 10 Annawwagia 331 20 Attaria 138 8 Benina 166 10 Bersis 178 9 Bu Atni 89 5 Bu Jarrar 64 4 Dar al-Araibat 111 7 Deriana 334 20 Ganfuda-Gar Yunis 53 3 al-Khadra 256 16 Gaminis 397 21 Sawani Tika 101 6 Sidi Bu Fakhra 55 4 Sidi Khalifa 207 13 Sidi Suwaker 86 5 Suluq 789 47 al-Aguria-Irdano 192 13 Total 4,150 250 61 Despite the fact that all the assistants (a high school teacher and four university students) were from the Benghazi area and had experience in conducting field surveys, an intensive one-week interviewer-training program was conducted by the writer at the begin- ning of the research project. In addition to introducing the inter- viewers to the principles of interviewing and the methods of sample design, the training period provided time for detailed instructions to be given on how to complete the interview schedules. During the interview period, the writer worked in the field with the assistants. Thus, if problems arose, they were solved in the field and did not interfere significantly with conducting the interview schedules. Pilot Work The importance of a careful pilot study or pretest was stressed by some staff members of the Faculty of Education at Beida before the final field survey, for pilot work helps with the design of letters of introduction, the final wording of interviews, the order- ing of question sequences, and the reduction of nonresponse rates. Because of time limitations, most of the pilot work was done by the writer. It included a review of the interview shcedules, talks with knowledgeable Libyan administrative officials, and study of relevant literature. Then, 35 randomly selected farmers from different loca- tions in the study area were interviewed. Their answers were helpful as a basis for modifying or eliminating many questions in the inter- view schedules. 62 The survey team used the offices of the Secretariat of Agrarian Reform and Land Development at Benghazi as headquarters. Letters of introduction were issued from the University of Gar Yunis and the Secretariat of Agrarian Reform and Land Development. The team obtained a large-scale topographic map of the study area from the municipality of Benghazi. The letters of introduction and the map were helpful in the field survey and in administering the inter- view schedules. Transportation facilities were furnished by the Faculty of Education and the Secretariat of Planning. I Analysis Procedures Although supervision of the interviews carried out in the field was rigorous, it was necessary to edit the completed interview schedules. The forms were checked and double-checked for complete- ness and consistency. In about 15 cases, it was necessary to have a follow-up field visit to obtain necessary information or more accurate data. In other cases, replacement of a farmer in the sample was necessary because of a change in his status or because he had migrated to another district outside the study area. The replacement was accomplished by the same random-selection method as used for the original sample. The editing was carried out in Libya. The construction of coding instructions, which made it possible for all responses to be key-punched on computer cards as numerical values, was done at the Michigan State University Computer Center, East Lansing, Michigan. 63 Methods of Data Analysis For initial familiarity with the data, such simple measures as determining means and frequency distribution and cross-tabular survey responses were used. Since the major part of the analysis was based on data taken from tabulation of the answers of the inter- view schedules, two basic analyses were applied to test the main hypotheses. First, an analysis was performed to determine the actual agricultural land-use patterns of the Benghazi area. Second, an analysis to determine factors that influence these patterns was com- pleted. Determination of the existing agricultural land-use patterns is an important objective of this research. Its importance stems from the fact that determining the patterns of agriculture in the area was the first step in testing the factors influencing agricultural land use. Thus, special care had to be taken to insure that descrip- tions of actual land-use patterns reflected the greatest degree of accuracy. Since this research was based on analysis of data tabu- lated from the interview schedules, the degree of accuracy was measured by the reliability of the sampling design and the method used in com- pleting the interviews. This method, which was described in the fore- going sections, yielded accurate data. Then, the data were broken down to produce a description of subpopulations based on districts. The distribution results were mapped, resulting in a series of crop- and livestock-distribution maps based on acreages or livestock numbers. 64 Three statistical methods were used in the second portion of the study. Pearson correlation analysis yielded coefficients of correlation to indicate the strength and weakness of pair-wise associations or relationships between the variables. A one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to test for differences among the means. This kind of test can generally be used to test for a relationship between nominal and interval data. The chi-square test was also used especially for variables that were nominal and categorized. The chi-square test is a very general test for evaluating whether frequencies that have been empirically obtained differ significantly from those that would be expected under the research hypotheses. All of the routines were conducted using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS). These statistical techniques are appropriate for small samples, as is the case in this study. Limitations of the Study In a less-developed country such as Libya, in which a researcher often has to work with limited and unreliable data, per- sonal observations, questionnaires, and interviews become important devices for research. However, the accuracy of these devices is limited because of political and cultural restraints. Even though the writer has field experience in the Benghazi region, was born and raised in the region, speaks the local Arabic dialect, and is acquainted with the local people and their culture, some unexpected problems did occur. These complications and consequent limitations of the scope of the study are described below. 65 The farmers of the study area, especially in the districts of Suluq and Annawwagia southeast of Benghazi, are not familiar with research inquiries and are always prone to confuse field surveys with taxation measures, despite the fact that taxation in Libya was abolished in 1963. Because of this confusion, some of the farmers questioned were reluctant to reveal facts about their farms, fearing that such information might be used against their interests. The lack of paved roads made it difficult to reach farmers whose fields were located off the major coastal highway, the only paved access road in the study area. There are some short roads connecting settlements and towns in the area with Benghazi, such as the road connecting Suluq, Annawwagia, al-Khadra, and al-Hawwari with Benghazi. Most of these roads, however, are either still under con- struction or are in bad condition. For this reason, the survey team spent hours, sometimes on foot, surveying the distant farms. (The survey team's car twice became stuck for hours in the sand dunes of the Deriana district.) TWo of the new agricultural projects, the Benghazi Plain Agricultural Project and the Southwest Benghazi Project, were designed to modify farm size and the type of crops produced in the area. Although this study concentrated only on private farms, many of these private farms were located in areas allocated for the two above- mentioned projects. Unfortunately, during the field survey there was a rumor that, because of a water shortage in the Benghazi area, the Secretariat of Agrarian Reform and Land Development would limit the size of individual farms in the area allocated for the agricultural 66 projects. Thus, the survey team found it difficult in some cases to convince farmers that this survey was completely different from inquiries related to the agricultural projects. Farmers were very careful in their responses to some questions, especially those dealing with the size of their farms and the number of their animals. Farmers often gave low estimates of the size of their farms. Some measures, which are discussed below, were incorporated to obtain correct answers. In the tribal (communal) agricultural lands, especially in al-Khadra, Suluq, part of Annawwagia, and Gaminis, the survey team had difficulty determining the size of dry farms. Many farmers had no clear idea of the size of the land they cultivated, for there are no permanent boundary lines between these lands. Since this land is cultivated only once each year with only wheat or barley, the writer adopted the following technique to estimate the size of these farms. Using the quantity of grain that the farmer cultivated each year and the quantity of grain cultivated on one hectare, the size of the cul- tivated land was estimated using the following equation: in which: S = the size of the cultivated land Qy = total quantity of grain planted each year on = quantity of grain needed to plant one hectare This technique was used in some cases, particularly in the Suluq district, in which farmers usually know how much grain is needed to plant one hectare. 67 The survey was carried out in the late summer and early fall of 1980. Unfortunately, at this time, most of the seasonal farmers had already gathered their crops and left for permanent residences, usually in Benghazi or the nearby towns and villages. Therefore, they were not available for direct interviews in the field, and the survey team spent much time trying to locate farmers at their permanent resi- dences. Most of the field survey was done during August and September. These two months are the warmest of the year in Libya and are subject to the unusually dry, hot winds from the south, the Gibli. The presence of these climatic factors during the survey period restricted the team's movement. The amount of time needed to collect necessary data and library materials and to conduct a field survey for this study was estimated in the proposal to be no less than six months. However, the Libyan cultural section of the Libyan People's Bureau in Washington, D.C., allows students in the United States to return to Libya to conduct field studies for only three months. Considering the above limita- tions, this period of time was not enough to carry out adequately a field survey of this type. Despite all of these difficulties, the writer followed a plan that minimized their effects on the results of the research. This plan was to visit each district (mahalla) more than once. On the first visit, the survey team was introduced to the local administrative officers and the Secretary of the People's Committee of the district. The team discussed with these officials the scope and nature of the 68 study, and letters of introduction were presented. During the second visit, the selection of farmers for interviewing was determined by the sampling method discussed previously. The local administrative officer or the Secretary of the People's Committee of the mahalla usually accompanied the survey team. As a security precaution, but in order not to influence the respondent's answer, the officer was not allowed to participate in the interview. CHAPTER IV AGRICULTURAL LAND-USE PATTERNS Although the Benghazi area is relatively small compared to other Libyan agricultural areas, it has several crop zones with dis- tinguishable characteristics. These distinct characteristics are identifiable as agricultural land-use patterns that can be delimited, defined, and analyzed. In general, the intensity of agricultural land use is meas- ured by the presence of irrigation, type of crops, application of chemical fertilizers, and the level of farm income. Based on these factors, the greatest intensity of agricultural land use is found in districts close to Benghazi City. Farther from the city, the inten- sity of land use generally decreases. There are two intensive agri- cultural 1and-use zones in the Benghazi area in which crop cultivation greatly exceeds livestock in importance. Each is dominated by a dis- tinctive crop combination or agricultural system. The vegetable-and- fruit area supplies the Benghazi market daily with valuable, bulky, perishable truck crops and horticultural produce. To the south and east of the fruit-and-vegetable-growing areas is an area of somewhat less intensive land use that furnishes the Benghazi market with about 60 percent of its wheat and barley needs. To the east and southeast of the grain area is the grazing and animal-husbandry land. Despite 69 70 the fact that some grain is grown here, the area can be distinguished by the greater number of animals and the decreasing area per farm allocated to grain cultivation. Before the existing patterns of agricultural land use in the Benghazi area are discussed in detail, it is important to determine the relative amount of cultivated land and to differentiate between irrigated, semi-irrigated, and dry-farming systems. Most irrigated land is cultivated with vegetables and fruits, whereas dry-farming areas are planted with grain (mainly wheat and barley) or left for grazing animals. The agricultural land use in the study area is also affected by available water, since the government sometimes limits the amount of water available for irrigating or prevents cultivation of specific kinds of vegetables, such as tomatoes, which consume more water. Water availability for irrigation is often taken into consideration in the planned agricultural projects in many parts of the study area. Size of the Cultivated Land According to the 1974 agricultural census, more than 233,000 hectares in the Benghazi area were farmed.1 However, of this cultivated land, only 143,785 hectares were devoted to vegetables and fruits2 in small gardens around towns and 1This number includes land not in the study area. 2Libyan Arab Republic, Secretariat of Planning, Final Results of the General Agricultural Census, Benghazi, l974 (Tripoli: 1979), p. 34. 71 villages such as Gaminis, al-Gawarisha, Sidi Khalifa, and Benina. The remaining cultivated land was dry or under a semi-irrigated system (see Table 4.1). Irrigated Farming_ f Because of the long, dry summer season, which dominates the Benghazi region, irrigation has become very important, especially in the cultivation of cash crops. Irrigation permits intensive use of land and a wider choice of crops than does the dry-farming system, in which cultivation of wheat and barley occurs in only one crop per year. However, if additional suitable water were available, increased yields on the existing cropland would be possible, and new areas could be brought into cultivation of cash crops with a consequent increase in agricultural production. Despite the fact that irrigation in the Benghazi area is important, the 1974 agricultural census showed that only 2 percent of all farms in the area were completely irrigated; another 11 percent of the farms were partially irrigated3 (see Table 4.2). The irrigated area, however, increased since the 1974 agricultural census. 0f the 250 farms surveyed in the summer of 1980, 66 farms (27 percent) were less than 10 years old, and most of them had areas under irrigation. More than 60 percent of the farms in the districts of al-Gawarisha, Sidi Khalifa, Bersis, and Bu Atni were under irrigation, whereas fewer than 20 percent of the farms in the districts of Gaminis, Suluq, al-Khadra, Annawwagia, Sidi Suwaker; land al-Aguria were under 31bid., p. 16. .mppezes one can» egos weapo:_ ans» muuweemwom .mm .a .Amnmp "Ppoawehv asap .wumcmeomiamzmcou Fees“ upsngm< _mgo=wo one co mapsmmm Pecan .mcmccm—a mo umwgmpmeumm .uvpnsgom nac< cmanwg “mumzom moo.~ cup.p mpc.p mwo.Fep www.cm— upw.m mom.~ Payee ow mac ms mo¢.~¢ mmm.~¢ «up omm agumgxipm mmp mm Nap omm.- “mm.- mm mum capsm an an ap emm.pp mm~._p Fm com ampcpsew Pop mm mm mum 0mm mNF map newpmgx Puwm mpm mum mam Nom.op mmo.w “mm.~ mmm enmmemzmcipm mum he NmN mmF.¢ ¢F~.m omm NAP amcwcmm emw em com sem._ upm.P pme pmp mw~mcmcmm mmN om map mom mam omm amp unawag mefiuu poveumwo .enmp .emge Puegmcmm us» ca muvagm use mmpnaummo> not umumuoppm oce— to m~Pmii.~.e mpnmh .memng wco saga egos weapon? «as» muuweumvom .ep .3 .Aaam_ "apoa_ehv cam. .aNagmcam .mzmcau .aaae ipauwsm< pmgmcmw 9.9 $0 mun—Emma chwm .mcwccmz “—0 nutmumgumm .uwzaamm no.2 293.5 "mumzom 73 ~e~.wp cam mpm.o¢_ cam._ pme.m mme _ae6h epn._ SN em~.~e mew -- -- aaaeanx-2a amo.P a m_o..~ mac -- F a=_=m emu om ~m~.~F awn m m macasau 5mm em 3mm _m mm om aca_a;¥ seam mam.e em_ ~m~.e mam mom.F o~_ acmaaazao-,a mom Pm Nam mm ope mm aw~agm=6m mm» A“ .e up mam om paaaat<-_a can 3mm ma amp._ ~N. emm Ne aacaaaao upm.P we Nam.mm Na “me as aaaaam<-2a notepad: gossaz mwemuom: gmnsaz moemuom: consaz cw eoe< pouch cw aoe< Page» cw amg< peach mEfin— saga MFFMF—MZ LO HUPLHWWD use umummpgea apco magma xgo x—co waged vowemreem .enmp .mwgm Pngacom on» =_ mamamxm mmziucep pagaupauwsme mo o~wmii.~.¢ mpaeh 74 irrigation. In the districts of Benina, al-Faakat, al-Kuwaifia, Attaria, and Ganfuda-Gar Yunis, 40 to 60 percent of the farms were irrigated (see Figure 4.1). In many districts, irrigation is limited first because of the water shortage and second because the consumption of water per unit of land is smaller in the coastal area because of the influence of the Mediterranean Sea, which brings greater rainfall than in the inland areas. The consumption of water is higher in the semiarid districts, such as Annawwagia, al-Khadra, and Suluq in the southeast part of the study area, where rainfall is less than 200 mm per annum, than in those districts located in the northern part, where rainfall is more than 300 mm per annum. Dry Farming Dry farming occurs in 66.3 percent of the Benghazi area and covers 146,513 hectares.4 Most of the farms included in this system are watered only with rainfall. Thus, wheat and barley and unirri- gated vegetables such as tomatoes and watermelon are the main crops. Unirrigated vegetables are confined to the coastal sand-dune areas such as Deriana, Attaria, and Ganfuda-Gar Yunis districts, where underground water for irrigation is low in quality and contains a high percentage of salt. Most dry farming is found in the districts of Suluq, Gaminis, al-Khadra, Annawwagia, and al-Aguria-Irdano, where more than 80 per- cent of the cultivated land is under the dry-farming system. There 41bid. 75 Benghazi Area Irrigated Land w 1980 Mediterranean Sea Gaminis al-Khadra Suluq 6) 3715" Average Percentage per Farm, by Districts - more than 60 74 60-40 O 10 Mi, .fi, fi, 0 10 Km, >Z l.‘ :1 ur- . 9‘4 (K 7% ‘ gvtjégivw~ __,- AK m. :1 “0“" arena Figure 4.1 Based on the author'a mp1. survey. 76 are also unirrigated farms, which produce fruits such as grapes, figs, palms, and almonds, which have been included in this system. This type of farming dominates the districts of al-Gawarisha, al-Kuwaifia, Deriana, and Benina. According to Hajjaji, other arable areas could be brought under dry farming such as those areas in the northern part of Benghazi, notably between Deriana, al-Aguira, and the Ar-Rajm Escarpment. This area, which has relatively fertile soil, receives an annual rainfall ranging between 250 mm and 350 mm.5 Semi-irrigated Farmipg_ The semi-irrigated system of agriculture is still practiced in large areas of Libya, particularly in the coastal plain. Unfor- tunately, there is no reliable information or data available for the amount of land under this system. However, it is mixed in the irri- gated and dry-farming areas and represents no distinguishable pattern of agriculture. This type of farming differs from dry farming in that a small amount of water is applied to the crop (mainly vegetables) at the planting stage until the first rainfall or at critical times, such as delayed rainfall, in order to give the cr0p advantages it would not have under an entirely dry system. Watermelons cultivated in the Ganfuda-Gar Yunis district and tomatoes planted in Deriana are grown primarily in this way.6 5Hajjaji, p. 134. 61bid., p. 135. 77 Crops produced under the semi-irrigation system are very costly because water has to be brought long distances in tanks. However, the system is very successful, and its yields are high enough to justify high production costs. Farm Fragmentation Fragmentation in the Benghazi area refers to the fact that a single farm may consist of more than one piece of land. In many cases, fields of the same farm are separated and cultivated by brothers or relatives. These pieces of land are identified in this section of the study as plots. There is a vast contrast in the size of farms and the degree of fragmentation in the Benghazi area. Fragmented farms range from those with a very small single plot (less than one-half a hectare) to very large farms with five or six plots (more than 500 hectares). The degree of farm fragmentation shows little relationship to the physiography of the Benghazi area but rather is influenced by social customs. In the Islamic Law of Inheritance, fixed or equal shares are required, with every heir demanding his or her due. Usually each farm is divided accordingly. However, in the tribal areas, especially in the southeast part of the study area, land is not divided, but each farmer knows the areas he cultivates each year. According to the 1974 agricultural census, of 4,521 farms of the Benghazi area, 3,051 farms (67.4 percent) consisted only of one plot, 904 farms (20 percent) had two plots, 311 farms (14.3 per- cent)had three plots, 129 farms (2.3 percent) had four plots, 75 farms 78 (1.6 percent) had five plots, and 51 farms (1 percent) had six or more plots (see Table 4.3).7 Since water is the vital factor in agricultural practices and since it is very scarce in the Benghazi area, the pressure for land where water is found increases steadily; there is intense competition for lands on which water is found. Frequently these plots are small in size and patchily distributed. Vegetable- and Fruit-Cropping Pattern As previously mentioned, vegetables and fruits are inten- sively cultivated in the Benghazi area. Farmers consider vegetables to be the most profitable cash crops throughout the year, especially early-harvested or off-season vegetables such as tomatoes, cucumbers, green chili peppers, and lettuce.8 The outstanding characteristic of the vegetable-and-fruit zone is the area dominated by fruit trees--citrus, date palms, figs, almonds, pomegranates, olives, and other fruits grown in combination with grapes. Approximately one-third of the area under cultivation in this pattern is dedicated to fruits. However, since the land between fruit trees is exploited for vegetable cultivation, it is difficult to determine the amount of land allocated to each crop. These crop combinations produce an intensive agricultural system, which distinguishes this cropping pattern. 7Libyan Arab Republic, Secretariat of Planning, Final Results of the General Agricultural Census, Benghazi, 1974, p. 37. 8Hajjaji, p. 302. 79 Table 4.3.--Degree of farm fragmentation in the Benghazi area, l974.a Siggrin Agmglr Number of Plots Per Farm Hectares of Farms One Two Three Four Five Six <1 91 89 1 - - 1 - l 175 162 9 2 1 - 1 2 235 210 23 2 - - l 3 184 161 16 7 - - - 4 369 330 31 5 3 - l 5 741 554 145 30 4 4 4 10 601 407 146 32 9 5 2 15 309 192 89 22 l 3 2 20 454 273 110 46 19 4 2 30 289 154 74 29 12 13 7 40 234 120 55 29 18 9 3 50 147 71 41 17 13 2 3 60 126 66 31 13 8 3 70 72 33 23 5 4 2 80 77 34 18 ll 7 3 4 90 21 6 6 7 1 l - 100 178 71 43 30 18 10 6 150 45 19 11 8 2 3 2 200 88 57 15 4 6 l 5 300 27 14 6 4 1 2 - 400 19 10 5 2 1 - 1 500 26 16 4 1 l l 1 >500 13 2 2 4 1 l 3 Total 4,521 3,051 904 311 129 75 51 SOURCE: Libyan Arab Republic, Secretariat of Planning, Final Results of the General Agricultural Census, Benghazi, 1974 (Tripoli: 1979), p. 73. aIncludes farms not in the study area. 79 Table 4.3.--Degree of farm fragmentation in the Benghazi area, 1974.a 51:2”?n igiglr Number of Plots Per Farm Hectares of Farms One Two Three Four Five Six <1 91 89 1 - - l - 1 175 162 9 2 l - l 2 235 210 23 2 - - l 3 184 161 16 7 - - - 4 369 330 31 5 3 - l 5 741 554 145 30 4 4 4 10 601 407 146 32 9 5 2 15 309 192 89 22 l 3 2 20 454 273 110 46 19 4 2 30 289 154 74 29 12 13 7 40 234 120 55 29 18 9 3 50 147 71 41 l7 l3 2 3 60 126 66 31 13 5 8 3 70 72 33 23 5 5 4 2 80 77 34 18 ll 7 3 4 90 21 6 6 7 l l - 100 178 71 43 30 18 10 6 150 45 19 11 8 2 3 2 200 88 57 15 4 6 1 5 300 27 14 6 4 l 2 - 400 19 10 5 2 1 - l 500 26 16 4 1 1 l 1 >500 l3 2 2 4 l 1 3 Total 4,521 3,051 904 311 129 75 51 SOURCE: Libyan Arab Republic, Secretariat of Planning, Final Results of the General Agricultural Census, Benghazi, 1974 (Tripoli: 1979). p. 73. aIncludes farms not in the study area. 80 Another distinctive characteristic of the vegetable-and-fruit areas is the small size of the farms. Throughout this area, the average farm size is less than ten hectares.9 A farm that is small usually uses major inputs of manual labor provided chiefly by the farmer's family or agricultural workers receiving daily wages. In addition to raising crops, family members commonly market their fruits and vegetables at the Benghazi market (al-Funduk al-Baladi). As shown in Figure 4.2, in the districts of al-Faakat, Bu Atni, Sidi Khalifa, Ganfuda-Gar Yunis, and al-Gawarisha, which represent the core of the vegetable-growing area, the average farm size is less than ten hectares. In contrast, the average farm size in the districts of Suluq, al-Khadra, Swani Tika, and al-Aguria, where a small portion of the farms are devoted to vegetables, is more than 50 hectares. Although the labor inputs in the Benghazi-area farms are still largely manual, the level of technology employed is moderately high by Libyan standards. A large proportion of farms are fertilized and sprayed with herbicides and pesticides. It was found that out of 250 farms surveyed in the Benghazi area, 88 (35.2 percent) used both chemi- cal and organic fertilizers. Ten farms used only chemical fertilizers, and 67 used only organic fertilizers. Fertilizers of one type or the other were thus used by 66 percent of the farms in the study area. Most farms using fertilizers were located in districts close to Benghazi City and to the north, where rainfall is more reliable, 9Some large truck farms exist in the Benghazi area, especially in the districts of Benina, Annawwagia, al-Gawarisha, Bu Atni, and Sidi Khalifa. These farms contribute about 30 percent of the fresh fruits and vegetables to the Benghazi market. 81 I 20'00' 20- i 5- 20’30‘ Benghazi Area Farm Size w 1980 .2... Mediterranean Sea Deriana .32-15' 32‘15'< Average Farm Size in Hectares. by Districts - larger than 50 [:1 299-10 less than 10 4200’. 3200‘- 10 Mi. 10 Km. '. 115-i \‘5 =1» - 1;.4", V L? \ . n: rf Based on the author's eunple eurvey. Figure 4.2 82 whereaS'hidistricts relatively far from the city, a lower percentage of the farms used fertilizers (see Figure 4.3). The more intensive the agriculture, the greater the use of fertilizer. Grains and Shifting Crop Pattern Grains (mainly wheat and barley) have always been a principal staple crop in Libya, particularly in the northeastern part (Cyrenaica). This is basically due to physical conditions (see Chapter II). Grains are the principal foodstuff of the urban as well as the rural popula- tion in the Benghazi area. This fact explains why the largest and most extensive cropping pattern in the area under consideration is planted in grain. This pattern was practiced by 70 percent of the 250 farms surveyed in 1980. According to the 1974 agricultural census, about 40 percent of the total land farmed in the Benghazi area was cultivated with grains. However, data available in the same census showed that the area from which crops were harvested was less than 21 percent of the total cul- tivated land in the area under consideration in this study. This means that large areas planted with grain in the Benghazi area were not har- vested in the census year. The reason for this could be either drought, which affects the germination of seeds and the plants during the growing season, or that some areas were devoted to livestock feed instead of to food production. The latter type of cultivation is usually practiced in districts where animal husbandry is more profit- able than grain cultivation, such as Annawwagia and Sidi Khalifa. TO Km -89.9 by Districts [HIM] less than 50 70- 79.9 - more than 90 D 5059.9 60-69.9 mm Percentage of Farms. 83 Annawwagia Benghazi Area Distribution of Chemical Fertilizers 1980 Mediterranean Sea any NA 1 .. .9 . . “233‘ 1.. '3‘? “’b \ .‘l iii... Based on the author's sample survey. hil-I lllt ' . . .l. \ ii iiiiii ii i i \ \\ l i i ii \ iiiiiifi i 111" 111.1 11“ \ll i i 84 In the southeastern districts of Suluq, al-Khadra, and Annawwagia, more than 90 percent of the area under cultivation was planted with wheat and barley. In the districts of al-Gawarisha, Bu Atni, and al-Kuwaifia, less than 10 percent was planted with wheat and barley. Farmers close to Benghazi practiced less grain cultiva- tion than did farmers at a greater distance (see Figure 4.4). Modern versus Traditional Methods of Grain’Cu1tivation To show the impact of technology on grain cultivation, it is necessary first to show how the method of sowing grain affects the quantity and quality of production. In the terra-rossa red soils, e5pecially in the north and in the sloping areas near the Ar-Rajma Escarpment, for example, shallow plowing is preferable for both wheat and barley. In the yellowish red soils of the southern part of the study area, shallow plowing is not suitable because grains here are usually sown early in the plowing season, early fall, and seed ger- mination might occur after an early rain. Then if rain is delayed or early Gibli winds blow, the small plants wither and die (see Chapter 11). Therefore, deeper plowing of 10 to 15 centimeters is more desirable.10 It has been found that no fertilizers are applied to grains except for that obtained by pasturing livestock on the ground after harvesting or during grazing when the land is fallow. After the area has been sown, it receives little or no attention, because as soon as loHajjaji, p. 277. 85 minor 26% Benghazi Area Grain Cultivation Mediterranean Sea 0‘. .0: 03‘ a", .13" 00' O O O .. i i I ii ill will!" i ii in i. ii ||illllii|ill|li|lll||l|ll1lli i i Pilll H by Districts mm more than 90 [:190-70 VA 69.9-50 W 299-10 - less than 10 32'1 5" Average Percentage per Farm, 10 O 10 Km. N A ill |""" a ll 9' (1‘? ama- N ‘72" a 7 (‘K’E "l l . 55" (:3th ---’ "1555‘s; . re kr Figure 4.4 Based on the author's sample survey. 86 the sowing is over, the cultivators return to permanent residences either in Benghazi City or in nearby towns and villages. The majority of the cultivators return to their fields in late spring and early summer to harvest their crops. The harvesting of wheat and barley starts in April or May and sometimes extends to July. It was customary for farmers to be accompanied by their families in the harvesting season to collect their crops, but this is no longer necessary because of the availa- bility of machinery, which shortens the harvesting season. Another important change affecting the traditional ways of harvesting is the increase in available transportation vehicles, such as cars and trucks, and an increase in all-season paved roads. Both of these factors have made farms more accessible. The traditional method of harvesting the grains was very primi- tive, time consuming, and wasteful. Ripe grain was either pulled out of the ground by hand or with a simple sickle (manjal). However, since 1965, when the oil revenues began to bring income for economic development, the primitive methods of sowing and harvesting have gradually disappeared from most Libyan agricultural territories, especially from the coastal plain. The wooden or iron plow drawn by animals and the simple iron sickle for harvesting have been replaced by planting and harvesting machines. These machines are more profitable than traditional methods, for they reduce labor needs by about 80 percent. Hajjaji pointed out that modern sowing of seven hectares takes only three 87 days, whereas, when done in the traditional way, it takes about 40 days.11 The writer witnessed the 1980 sowing season, when most of the sowing in the districts of Annawwagia, al-Khadra, Suluq, and Gaminis was done in only one week. Mechanization is widespread in the grain-producing areas. Topographically suited to mechanical farming, the gentle slopes and relatively large average size of farms further enhance the economic feasibility of mechanization, as does the relatively limited supply of agricultural labor. As a result, most farm operations for wheat and barley production are mechanized. Most farm machinery is owned by agricultural cooperatives as public-sector property. During plowing or harvesting season, the farmer hires machinery from the agricultural cooperatives of the dis- trict and pays in cash or in kind. Because of a lack of spare parts for the machinery and the limited supply of agricultural labor, many farmers suffer delays in sowing or collecting their produce, which, of course, affects the yields. In general, the average yield of wheat and barley in normal years is about 21 quintals12 for each quintal sown. However, grain yield varies from district to district and from year to year in the Benghazi area, due mainly to climatic and soil limitations. The 1974 agricultural statistics for the Benghazi area showed that the average yield of wheat and barley was about 3.8 quintals per hectare. 11 12 Ibid., p. 278. One quintal = 100 kilograms. 88 Even though rainfall determines the ultimate yield, productivity is usually high in the headwaters of the wadis so that a nominal out- put can be expected in all but the worst years.13 According to Hajjaji, the most common local varieties of wheat are maghrabia, dbaka, and idkeer. The latter, despite its small seeds and relatively low yield, is the most widespread variety grown in the Benghazi area, mainly because of its good adaptation to low- rainfall areas such as southern Benghazi.14 Some of the soft-wheat varieties grown in the Benghazi area have, however, outyielded some of the famous hard-wheat varieties.15 Although local wheat varieties were traditionally satisfactory in adaptability and production for local environmental conditions, they are to some extent no longer satisfactory. An intensive research project to discover new high-yield varieties has been carried out since the early 19605 by the Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) and by agronomists from the United States at the agricultural research station at al-Hawwari, six kilometers southeast of Benghazi. As a result of this project, a new high-yield variety has been developed and introduced to farmers not only in the Benghazi area but throughout 16 the Cyrenaica region. In recent years, a Mexican variety has also 13 14 15Inas Abu Sharr, "Crop Agronomy and Improvement in Cyrenaica," Report No. 1577 (Rome: Food and Agricultural Organization, 1962), p. 4. Johnson, p. 50. Hajjaji, p. 146. 16The most cultivated variety of hybrid wheat in the Benghazi area is mahmodi D 981. 89 been introduced. The introduction of these hybrid varieties not only changed the practice of wheat cultivation, but also increased yields by almost 50 percent. New varieties of barley were also introduced to farmers in the Benghazi area, although the local variety (baladi) still dominated cultivation. This was probably because the local variety was more resistant to drought and could be used in a number of ways. Extensive Livestock Farming The landscape of the Benghazi area as well as of most of northeast Libya is dominated by extensive livestock grazing. There are four native kinds of animals that the Cyrenaicans graze: sheep, goats, cattle, and camels. Behnke pointed out that a study of man-land relationships in Cyrenaica must begin with a consideration of needs, productive capabilities, and technical processes associated with each kind of animal.]7 Since the focus of this chapter is on the agricultural land- use patterns in the Benghazi area, it is necessary to emphasize that agriculture and pastoralism are not separate or alternative produc- tive systems but rather mutually supportive and interdependent parts of a single system. Similarly, no pure grazing has been found in the Benghazi area, but livestock raising is an integral part of the agri- cultural system, although its importance is considerably less than grain cultivation. 17Roy H. Behnke, The Herders of Cyrenaica: Ecology, Economy, and Kinship_Among the Bedouin of Eastern Libya (Urbana: University of IllinoisTPress, 1980), p. 26. 90 Although livestock are found everywhere in the area under consideration, sheep and goats are more numerous than cattle in all districts of the Benghazi area (see Table 4.4). The total number of sheep in the Benghazi area, according to the 1974 agricultural census, was about 250,000; there were about 62,000 goats. Cattle are less desired in the area because they require daily watering in all seasons. Most native cattle are raised for meat, but there is an increase in the use of imported cattle for both milk and meat, resulting in a decrease in importance of local species. However, there were about 14,600 cattle in the Benghazi area in l974. Camels were once used extensively by herders and farmers for transportation over long distances. But with an increase in the number of cars and construction of paved roads in the Benghazi area, the number of camels has decreased dramatically in the last decade. In 1980, the writer found only 15 camels being prepared for sale in the camel market of Suluq, the largest in the Benghazi area. Furthermore, the 1974 agricultural census showed only 5,177 camels roaming the area under consideration. Livestock-Grazing Areas The feed and water requirements for the four major animal types in the Benghazi area are shown in Table 4.5. Sheep prefer and need an abundant supply of grasses. They are watered every third day in the sunmer only. Sheep do not graze at great distances, as goats will, and thus need pastures in which to feed. This is why sheep grazing has been concentrated in southeastern districts of the study 91 .uowepm$u one can» egos mowapocHa .mm .a .Amamp "wpoaaepv cam. .SNagmcam .mamcau Passe ipaumsm< pmgmcmw 05 $0 $253. $5.... .mcwccm: $0 umtmpmgumm .0_._.n=qm~_ no.3 :93: "mumsom “No.4P Nep.m mmm.Pe moo.me~ «mo.a _apop Pam amp Nan.m mec.am mam meaa;¥-Pa emm Noe.e mm~.m~ ama.mm man aanm cam ooF mmm ame.¢_ mNe macasam 33,.2 a mpe aoa.op mmm seepage warm Nem._ an mpo.m ase.m~ wee agmaazaw-ea was.0 map mmm.m mmm._~ woe acecam can A, mo“ _m_.~F w_N aCNagmcam mam m mm¢.~ mea.ep CNN canaaaa_< one e_m mm mom.w m-.mp 3am aacapeoo mae.m Pm “mm.“ eeo.op Nae aaaazm<-_a up...“ up...“ 2 .3“ as“ .enmp .mogm wchmcwm 0;» cw mpmewcm $0 co$p=nwgpm$oii.¢.e oFAMH 92 area, where grasses are available and n0 trees are found. In the districts of Suluq, al-Khadra, Annawwagia, Swani Tika, and Benina, the average number of sheep per farm exceeds 100, whereas in districts close to Benghazi and along the coastal plain, the number of sheep per farm decreases to fewer than 50 head (see Figure 4.5). The only two districts in the northern part of the study area where the average number of sheep per farm is more than 100 were Deriana and Sidi Suwaker. This is probably because farms in these two districts are less impor- tant for vegetable cultivation due to salinization and salt-water intrusion. Table 4.5.--Feed and water requirements of animals in the Benghazi area. Livestock Feed Water Sheep Annual grasses Watering every third day in summer only Goats Trees and shrubs Watering every third day in summer only Cattle Fodder and feed Daily watering in grains all seasons Camels Perennial shrubs Watering every one and seasonal to two weeks in vegetation summer only SOURCE: Modified from Roy H. Behnke, The Herders of Cyrenaica: Ecology,yEconomy, and Kinship Among the Bedduin of Eastern Libya (Urbanainniversity ofiIllinois Press, 1980), p. 27. 93 Benghazi Area Distribution of Sheep ~*” 1980 Mediterranean Sea drie- 3215“ Average Number per Farm, by Districts [:3 less than 50 W'- 10 Mi. 10 Km. a ems-- a, .39 3‘" — 935£fi§y~0vi 4” in“ Based on the author's mole eurvey. Figure 4.5 94 Goats can travel long distances daily in search of food, and although they depend on trees and shrubs for food, the water requirement for goats is the same as for sheep. The average number of goats per farm varied from district to district. In the districts of Suluq and al-Khadra, the average exceeded 30 head, whereas in the irrigated districts around Benghazi, the average decreased to fewer than 10 head. In the northern districts, where trees are dominant, the average number of goats per farm was between 20 and 30 head (see Figure 4.6). Because of the large water needs of cattle and the regularity with which they need it, cattle are tied closely to a plentiful supply of water. For this reason, although cattle wander around on a daily basis searching for food, they spend the entire year in one location and do not migrate seasonally. Most of the cattle are found in the northern districts of the Benghazi area, such as Sidi Khalifa, Sidi Suwaker, Bersis, and Bu Jarrar, where the average number per farm exceeded 10 head. The only district in the south of Benghazi that had sizable numbers of cattle was Swani Tika (see Figure 4.7). Thus the cattle area is located between the irrigated-farming areas around Benghazi and the dry-farming districts in the south. Although camels represent no major pattern in the Benghazi area, their importance increases to the south, because camels can resist drought, in summer needing watering only twice a month. Formerly, camels were used as draft, baggage, riding, and dairy animals. Because of the rise in meat prices and the introduction ““75. >919 Medi' Gaminis Swani-fl ka Benghazi Area 95 1 Distribution of Goats 1980 terranean Sea al-Kuwaifla aI-Oewarieha al-Faakat . / I / / (.2. . I 1 .57 z . O : , ' K: . g 3115:- 3 ‘1 “Ox/x ' ’— / .3393 spa-av 5.4 f L? a: \ ”SB-u if” Sidi Suwaker r" 5 32’15" Average Number per Farm, by Districts [:1 lesslhan 10 - 20-30 more than 30 0 10 Mi, 0 10 Km Figure 4.6 Bleed on the author's sample survey. 96 Benghazi Area DbumufionofCaflb ~ww 1980 um“ Mediterranean Sea 4715' aria- al-Kuwelfie Average Number per Farm, by Districts [:1 less than 5 W'- 10 Mi. Gaminis Beeed on the author's ample eurvey. Figure 4.7 97 of mechanized transport, camels are today raised for sale as butcher animals. In concluding this discussion, the cultivated land in the Benghazi area was divided into three main patterns: irrigated, dry, and semi-irrigated. The irrigated land appears to occupy the dis- tricts that are located closer to Benghazi City, whereas dry farming is practiced in districts farthest from the city. However, there are no distinguishable patterns for the semi-irrigated area. It is inte- grated with the other two patterns. Three main patterns of agriculture are practiced in the study area: vegetable and fruit, grain, and extensive livestock farming. Vegetables and fruits are dominant crops in irrigated agriculture, which is characterized by intensive land use, small farms, and loca- tions closer to Benghazi City. The grain cultivation is the largest and most extensive pattern in the area. It occupies almost all of the dry-farming area and is distinguished by its extensive land use, large farms, and locations away from Benghazi City. The pattern of livestock farming is not separate from other patterns of agriculture. It is mutually supportive and is an interdependent part of a single pattern. It was found that sheep, goats, cattle, and camels are the dominant animals in the Benghazi area. Sheep, goats, and camels appear to dominate districts away from Benghazi; cattle represent no distinguished distributional pattern. CHAPTER V SELECTED CULTURAL FACTORS AFFECTING AGRICULTURAL LAND USE IN THE BENGHAZI AREA The spatial pattern of agricultural land use in the Benghazi area is causally related to a number of physical, cultural, and economic factors. Because the area is relatively small, there are no significant variations in physical features that affect the agri- cultural landscape. Thus, four cultural and institutional factors were selected to be analyzed in relation to different types of agri- cultural land use. These factors were farm location in relation to the Benghazi market, land-tenure systems, government agricultural assistance, and farmers' characteristics. Various methods were used to analyze the relationships among these factors and the agricultural land-use variables. In the first section of this chapter, a general idea of the association between variables is presented as it is defined by the Pearson correlation. By this method, the direction and strength of the relationship between two variables is ascertained as well as whether the relationship is positive or negative, weak or strong. In subsequent sections of the chapter, the four factors are each discussed in terms of the research variables. The one-way analysis of variance was used 98 99 to test the first six hypotheses, and chi-square was used to test the seventh hypothesis. The Pearson Correlation Analyses The Pearson correlation coefficients are presented in Table 5.1. The table can be easily interpreted. Its range is from 1.0 to -l.0. A correlation coefficient (indicated by the letter r) has limits of 1.0, which indicates a perfect positive relationship, or -1.0, which indicates a perfect negative relationship. If the r_value is zero, no relationship is indicated. The better the fit, the larger the magnitude of r, The second rows in the correlation-coefficient table show the levels of significance. The level of significance in this study was .05, meaning that any relationship lower than .05 was statistically significant. For this research, the Pearson correlation coefficient was used to analyze 15 variables in relation to each other. Stated dif- ferently, each one of these variables was correlated with each of the remaining 14 variables. The variables included in the correlation analysis were as follows: distance of farm from the Benghazi market in kilometers (DISFBM), size of each farm in hectares (SIZOFARM), area cultivated in grain on each farm in hectares (ARALGRIN), area cultivated in vegetables on each farm in hectares (ARALVEG), area on each farm planted in fruits in hectares (ARALPCP), area on each farm allocated for grazing and animal husbandry in hectares (ARALFGRZ), area of irrigated land on each farm in hectares (IRRAREA), amount of 1(N) .mo_nm_em> omaincm_ .mczu_:o_cmm ecu $o co_umcm_axo Lo$ .0. can mm .aa comm om..n -.H.S=au...cm.m <=az.<. ..oo.. ..3. (zauzo .oo~.. .Nm... eoo.- mac.- (eta; .mma.. .cen.. .o.~.. .oc.- o.c.- .mo. S.u==z .m.m.. ...o.. ..oo.. ...... moc.- Na..- “as. 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NM..- .n.. .56.- mmo.- «Ne. can. .Nm. «N..- saw. au>3<¢< ..co.. ..co.. .m~o.. .¢3~.. ..c°.. ..oo.. .aae.. .mam.. ..cc.. ..co.. .~.o.. .~.°.. om~.- .-.- 43.. one. can. m.o. mmo. moo.- mac. .9”. as..- m...- z.¢a.<¢< ..o°.. ..oc.. .mo... .mm... ..co.. ..co.. ..oo.. .oeo.. ..mc.. ..oo.. ..mm.. .nse.. ~a~.- m-.- ~c.. mo.. mSN. ~NG. m~.. ~... .me. new. ceo.- sac. ze<.o~.m ..cc.. ..oo.. ..c°.. .omo.. ..°o.. ..oo.. .a.~.. ..n... .mwm.. ..o°.. .e.o.. ..oo.. ..co.. oca.- .m~.- .Nm. me..- sou. «on. ~.°. mm..- .eo.- m.n. em..- am~.- team.n e<¢< z.¢ue<¢< zmaaoN.m :m.m.o maggovtoou 5529.58 concede-57m e22. 1(N) .mo_nm_cm> panacea. .muau_:o_cmw 030 $0 co_umcm_axo Lo$ .0. can mm .aa comm om..a - N.S=au...=m.m <:N2.3<¢< ..o°.. ..oo.. .mNc.. .eeN.. ..oc.. ..oo.. .mae.. .mNa.. ..oo.. ..co.. .N.o.. .NNc.. mmN.- .NN.- .e.. ewe. om”. N.o. mac. m°°.- mac. .NN. on..- m...- z.¢a3<¢< ..°°.. ..oc.. .mo... .Nm... ..ce.. ..oo.. ..oo.. .ooc.. .NNc.. ..c¢.. .Nmm.. .mNe.. NeN.- «NN.- Nc.. me.. meN. NNa. mN.. NN.. .Ne. moo. oeo.- Geo. =a<.c~.w ..°°.. ..oo.. ..o¢.. .cmo.. ..co.. ..o°.. .NNN.. ..N... .mNm.. ..oo.. .e.c.. ..c°.. ..c°.. can.- .NN.- .NN. me..- oeN. ”an. NNc. Na..- Nec.- mNm. em..- amN.- zNNm.a 55...... 5:26 5...: 55.. ”.95.. $95.. .358... :55 5.3.... NEE... N835: 8.3.. 2:352 558; sew... u.mu:~.o_$$ooo copuepeggou :omNemN-.—.m o—nuh 101 chemical fertilizers used annually per farm in kilograms (CHFERT), annual income per farm in dollars (INCOMFAR), number of sheep per farm (NUMSHP), number of goats per farm (NUMGTS), number of cattle per farm (NUMCTL), number of other animals per farm (NUMOA), amount of chemical fertilizers used annually on each farm in kilograms per hectare (CHEFHA), and annual farm income in dollars per hectare (FAINPHA). These variables were chosen for two reasons: first, they were the most important variables in this research, and second, they were the only variables in the interview schedules that gave raw numerical (metric) data that could be analyzed by the Pearson correlation coef- ficient. The most significant correlations (r) found among the 250 respondents were as follows: 1. A positive correlation between DISFBM and SIZOFARM (r_= .376), implying that, as the distance of farms from the Benghazi market increased, farm size increased. 2. A positive correlation between DISFBM and ARALGRIN (r,= .418), indicating that, as the distance of farms from the Benghazi market increased, a larger area of these farms was devoted to grain cultivation. 3. A negative correlation between DISFBM and ARALVEG (rf=-.259), implying that, as the distance of farms from the Benghazi market increased, a smaller area of these farms was cultivated in vegetables. 4. A negative correlation between DISFBM and ARALPCP ([_= -.156), showing that, as the distance of farms from the Benghazi 102 market increased, a smaller area on these farms was devoted to grow- ing fruits. 5. A positive correlation between DISFBM and ARALFGRA (r_= .378), implying that, as the distance of farms from the Benghazi market increased, a larger area of each farm was allocated for graz- ing and animal husbandry. 6. A positive correlation between DISFBM and NUMSHP (r_= .303), indicating that, as the distance of farms from the Benghazi market increased, the number of sheep per farm increased. 7. A positive correlation between DISFBM and NUMGTS (r.= .269), showing that, as the distance of farms from the Benghazi market increased, the number of goats per farm increased. 8. A negative association between DISFBM and NUMCTL (r;= -.143), implying that, as the distance of farms from the Benghazi market increased, the number of cattle per farm decreased. 9. A positive relationship between DISFBM and NUMOA (r;= .321), showing that, as the distance of farms from the Benghazi market increased, the number of other animals increased. 10. A negative correlation between DISFBM and CHEFHA (r;= -.281), indicating that farther from Benghazi, the amount of chemical fertilizer used per hectare decreased substantially. 11. A negative correlation between DISFBM and FAINPHA (r_= -.300), implying that the greater the distance of a farm from Benghazi, the lower the farm income per hectare. 103 12. A strong positive correlation between SIZOFARM and ARALGRIN (r_= .893), implying that, as farm size increased, more area was allocated to grain cultivation (wheat and barley). 13. A strong positive correlation between SIZOFARM and ARALFGRZ (r .865), implying that with increases in farm size, greater area was allocated for grazing and animal husbandry. 14. A strong positive correlation between SIZOFARM and NUMSHP (r;= .622), indicating that the larger the farm, the greater the number of sheep raised. 15. A positive relationship between SIZOFARM and NUMGTS (r;= .245), implying that the larger the farm, the greater the number of goats raised. 16. A negative correlation between SIZOFARM and CHEFHA (r_= -.223), showing that the larger the farm, the smaller the amount of chemical fertilizer used per hectare. 17. A negative correlation between SIZOFARM and FAINPHA (r_= -.262), implying that the larger the farm, the smaller the income per hectare. 18. A negative relationship between ARALGRIN and ARALPCP (r_= -.l60), showing that the greater the area of a farm allocated to grain, the smaller the area allocated to fruit. 19. A strong positive correlation between ARALGRIN and ARALFGRZ (r_= .891), implying that the greater the area allocated 104 to grain per farm, the greater the area used for grazing and animal husbandry. 20. A positive correlation between ARALGRIN and NUMSHP LE.‘ .618), indicating that the greater the area cultivated in grain per farm, the greater the number of sheep. 21. A positive correlation between ARALGRIN and NUMGTS (r.= .336), implying that the greater the area cultivated in grain per farm, the greater the number of goats. 22. A weak positive relationship between ARALGRIN and NUMOA (r_= .164), indicating that the greater the area cultivated in grain per farm, the greater the number of other animals. 23. A negative correlation between ARALGRIN and CHEFHA (r_= -.221), implying that the greater the area cultivated in grain per farm, the smaller the amount of chemical fertilizer used per hectare. 24. A negative correlation between ARALGRIN and FAINPHA (r_= -.258), implying that the greater the area cultivated in grain per farm, the smaller the income per hectare. 25. A strong positive relationship between ARALVEG and IRRAREA (r_= .821), implying that the greater the area cultivated in vegetables per farm, the larger the area under irrigation. 26. A positive correlation between ARALVEG and CHFERT (r;= .350), indicating that the greater the area cultivated in vege- tables per farm, the larger the amount of chemical fertilizers used. 105 27. A positive correlation between ARALVEG and INCOMFAR (r;= .424), implying that the greater the area of land allocated to vegetables per farm, the greater the income of the farm. 28. A positive correlation between ARALPCP and IRRAREA (r_= .538), showing that the greater the size of the area cultivated in fruits per farm, the larger the area under irrigation. 29. A negative correlation between ARALPCP and ARALFGRZ (r,= -.190), indicating that the greater the area allocated to fruit per farm, the smaller the grazing area. 30. A positive correlation between ARALFGRZ and NUMSHP (r = .707), implying that the greater the land allocated to grazing per farm, the greater the number of sheep. 31. A positive correlation between ARALFGRZ and NUMGTS (r = .335), indicating that the greater the land allocated to grazing per farm, the greater the number of goats. 32. A negative correlation between ARALFGRZ and CHEFHA (r;= -.259), implying that the greater the grazing area per farm, the smaller the amount of chemical fertilizer used per hectare. 33. A negative correlation between ARALFGRZ and FAINPHA (r_= -.318), implying that the greater the grazing area per farm, the smaller the farm income per hectare. 34. A positive correlation between IRRAREA and CHFERT (r_= .360), implying that the greater the irrigated area per farm, the larger the amount of chemical fertilizers used. 106 35. A positive correlation between IRRAREA and INCOMFAR (r_= .426), implying that the greater the irrigated area per farm, the larger the income. 36. A positive correlation between CHFERT and INCOMFAR (r_= .580), indicating that the larger the amount of chemical fer- tilizer used per farm, the greater the income. 37. A positive correlation between NUMSHP and NUMGTS (r_= .469), implying that the greater the number of sheep per farm, the greater the number of goats. 38. A positive correlation between CHFERT and FAINPHA (r.= .477), indicating that the larger the amount of chemical fertilizer applied per hectare on a farm, the greater the income per hectare. Farm Location Relative to the Benghazi Market In this section, the effect of farm location relative to the Benghazi market on the types of agriculture practiced is discussed. Farm location was defined as the distance in kilometers between the farm and the market. For the purpose of the analysis, this distance was divided into seven categories: (1) less than 10 km, (2) 10 to 20 km, (3) 21 to 30 km, (4) 31 to 40 km, (5) 41 to 50 km, (6) 51 to 60 km, and (7) more than 60 km. The types of agricultural land-use variables included were the following: (1) the area allocated for cultivation of grains per farm in hectares, (2) the area allocated for cultivation of vegetables per farm in hectares, (3) the land allocated for fruits per farm in 107 hectares, (4) the area left for grazing and animal husbandry per farm in hectares, (5) the number of sheep per farm, (6) the number of goats per farm, (7) the number of cattle per farm, and (8) the number of other animals per farm. One-way analysis of variance was used in this section. The results are presented in Table 5.2. Frequency distributions were also employed. 4 Area Allocated to Cultivation of Grain The results of the one-way analysis of variance showed that the amount of land allocated to grain per farm in Benghazi was affected by the distance of the farm from the market. The average grain land per farm (grand mean) in the study area was 29.61 hectares. 0n farms located more than 31 km from Benghazi, more than the average number of hectares was devoted to grain cultivation, whereas on farms located less than 31 km from Benghazi, less than the average amount of land was allocated to cultivation of grains. More specifically, within 10 km of the market, the average grain area per farm was 0.86 ha, whereas for farms located more than 60 km away, the average was 79 ha. The test results indicated that there were significant variations in the averages of the areas allocated to grains per farm at different distances from the Benghazi market. With 6 degrees of freedom, the result was significant at the .001 level; the F-ratio was 9.01 (see Table 5.2). 108 poo. ammu. «woo. poo. Foo. «new. .ooo. Foo. .$$=m$m o m o o o o m o $e om.m w~.. mm.~ em.m m~.N mm.. mm.¢ No.m omume-N om.o. oe.m om.me om.Nm~ oo.mN mo.o ao.p oo.mN cox mm.. om.m mm.m~ Nm.N¢F ~m.am om.. eo.N mm.—e oo-_m mm.~ No.m mo.¢. Nm.a~. N©.N~ Nm.~ em.~ NN.mm om-Ne mm.o mo.m mm.o~ Nm.~o. -.mm e~.~ Nw.o mm.~m oe-Nm N~.o N~.m mp... mm.mop wo.N~ m..~ mm.o mm..~ om-NN mo.o Nm.m om.~. Ne.ow om.m Nm.~ mm.¢ Ne.m omio. o¢.o oe.~ oe.m oo.m. ow.m m¢.~ ow.m ow.o o_v mw.~.m mw.e.m mm.o~.w .m.omp.w em.om.w m..~.m om.a.w No.m~.m scam can as; cwv m we.: seem Lea seed No; Exam No; .a: c. .e: cw .a: cw .e: c. $~msmcmm Pew. < mpuumu mumoo amogm new; mwg< amg< mog< seem $0 «wm $o .oz $o .oz No .oz m=.NaNo 0.3NN m.naummm> =.an mo:apw.: .pmxgms .ngmcmm one sog$ uwFuzpm msgm$ $o mucmum$c an on: use. .meaupzuwgme $o moaxu Lo$ mucm.em> $o m$mape:<-.N.m opnah 109 Area Allocated to Cultivation ofivegetables As shown by the Pearson correlation analysis, there was a negative relationship between the distance from the Benghazi market and the area allocated to vegetables on each farm. This means that the greater the distance from Benghazi, the smaller the area per farm devoted to vegetable cultivation. The results of the one-way analysis of variance showed that the grand mean of area allo- cated to vegetables per farm was 4.36 hectares. The average area of vegetable land for farms located less than 10 km from Benghazi market was 6.86 hectares; on farms located more than 60 km away, only 1.04 hectares were devoted to vegetables. The test results indicated that there were significant variations in the average areas allo- cated to vegetables per farm at different proximities to the Benghazi market. With 6 degrees of freedom, the result was significant at the .0001 level; the F-ratio was 4.99. Area Allocated to Cultivation of Fruit In general, the fruit land per farm in the Benghazi area was limited and mixed with vegetables. The 1974 agricultural census showed that the total area devoted to vegetables was 141,686 hectares, whereas the area for fruit cultivation was only 2,099 hectares. The Pearson correlation analysis showed a weak negative rela- tionship between distance from Benghazi and area allocated to fruits per farm (r.= -.156). The one-way analysis of variance resulted in 110 an F-ratio of 1.33. The F-probability was .2432, which was not sig- nificant at any level. Area Allocated to Grazing_ The Pearson correlation matrix indicated a positive relation- ship between the distance from the Benghazi market and the grazing area per farm (r_= .378). The average grazing area per farm in Benghazi was 30.54 hectares. The average grazing area of farms located within 10 km of the Benghazi market was 3.80 hectares. The average for farms located more than 60 km from the city was 70.6 hectares. The result of the one-way analysis of variance was an F-ratio of 7.23; the F-probability was significant at the .001 level. This result indicated that, in relation to many other factors, both physical and nonphysical, distance from the market played a consider- able role in the amount of grazing land per farm in the Benghazi area. Number of Sheep Sheep are the most important animals not only in Benghazi but also in Libya in general. They are used for meat, milk, butter, wool, and hides. Because of their importance, sheep were found in all 21 districts under consideration. The frequency distribution of sheep in the study area showed that only 23 farmers (12 percent of all farmers questioned) did not raise sheep. The minimum number of sheep per farm was 3 and the maximum was 650; the average was 150.81. (See Table 5.3.) The Pearson correlation analysis showed a positive relation between the 111 Table 5.3.--Frequency distributions of sheep per farm. easy-2:... itzzize- 93535 $333333? (Percent (Percent) 3 1 1 13 4 1 '| 1 3 7 1 '| 1 4 8 1 '| 14 10 3 2 16 12 1 1 17 13 1 1 17 15 5 3 20 17 1 1 20 20 8 4 25 23 1 1 25 25 2 1 26 30 8 4 30 35 3 2 32 37 1 1 33 40 6 3 36 45 1 1 36 50 10 5 42 55 1 1 42 60 3 2 44 7O 4 2 46 75 1 1 47 80 3 2 48 85 1 1 49 100 16 9 57 120 3 2 59 112 Tab1e 5.3.--Continued. Re1ative Cumulative $123358; €223,223 1:313:33 53:23:32; 150 9 5 64 175 1 1 64 180 1 1 65 200 14 7 72 205 1 1 73 211 1 1 73 250 4 2 75 270 2 1 76 300 17 9 86 310 1 1 86 330 1 1 87 350 3 2 88 353 1 1 89 400 7 4 93 450 2 1 94 500 7 4 97 503 1 1 98 600 3 2 99 650 1 1 100 Mean: 150.87 Va1id cases: 187 Standard deviation: 157.897 Sum: 28,201 Minimum: 3 A Maximum: 650 113 distance of the farm from the Benghazi market and the number of sheep raised per farm (5_= .303). With respect to distance, the resu1ts of the one-way ana1ysis of variance showed that there was a variation in means of number of sheep per farms in different 1ocations. For example, farms 1ocated 1ess than 10 km from the market had an average of 18 sheep, whereas farms 1ocated more than 60 km had an average of 297.5 sheep. The test a1so showed that these variations in means were significant at the .001 1eve1; the F-ratio was 5.34. Number of Goats In contrast to sheep, goats are not important in Benghazi, despite the fact that they were found on 52 percent of the 250 farms surveyed in 1980. This is due to the fact that goats are harmfu1 to forests, especia11y to fruit trees. The frequency distribution of goats in the study area showed that 89 farmers had no goats. The minimum number of goats per farm was 2 and the maximum was 200; the mean was 20.348. (See Tab1e 5.4.) However, the Pearson corre1ation routine showed a positive re1ation between the number of goats per farm and distance of the farm from Benghazi market (§_= .269). This meant that the greater the distance from the market, the greater was the number of goats per farm. The ana1ysis-of—variance test produced the same resu1t by giving a difference in averages of goats on farms in different 1oca- tions. It showed that farms 1ocated 1ess than 10 km from the market 114 Tab1e 5.4.--Frequency distributions of goats per farm. 232227.22. 2:223:32. 15133233 13331352“ (Percent) (Percent 2 3 2 49 3 4 2 51 4 2 1 52 5 4 2 55 6 2 1 56 7 2 1 57 10 14 7 64 12 5 3 67 13 1 1 67 15 5 3 70 17 1 1 71 20 9 5 75 25 3 2 77 30 10 5 82 40 1 1 83 50 8 4 87 60 2 1 88 7O 5 3 91 80 1 1 91 90 1 1 92 100 9 5 97 113 1 1 97 120 1 1 98 130 2 1 99 200 2 1 100 Mean: 20.348 Va1id cases: 187 Standard deviation: 35.912 Sum: 3,805 Minimum: 2 Maximum: 200 115 had an average of 5.4 goats, whereas farms Tocated more than 60 km from the market had an average of 46.8 goats. The resu1ts of the test indicated that the F-probabi1ity was significant at the .05 1eve1; the F-ratio was 2.99. Number of Catt1e The number of catt1e was ana1yzed in re1ation to distance of the farms from the market. The resu1ts showed that the average num- ber of catt1e per farm was 4.83; the maximum was 70; the minimum was one. (See Tab1e 5.5.) A1though the Pearson corre1ation coefficient showed a very weak association between distance of the farm from the market and number of catt1e (g.= .150), the ana1ysis-of—variance test showed no significant difference in means. The F-ratio was 1.28; the F-probabiTity was .2689, which was not significant at any 1eve1. Number of Other Anima1s The number of other anima1s (main1y came1s) was ana1yzed in re1ation to the distance from Benghazi market. The resu1ts of the ana1ysis of variance showed that farms c1ose to Benghazi had on1y 0.04 head, whereas farms 1ocated more than 60 km had an average of 16.80 head. The F-ratio was 6.36; the F-probabi1ity was significant at the .001 1eve1. This stems from the fact that farmers far away from the market sti11 use came1s as an important mode of transporta- tion, especia11y in districts where paved roads are not avai1ab1e. 116 Tab1e 5.5.--Frequency distributions of catt1e per farm. Re1ative Cumu1ative 1:228:22; 113233.238 5:312:33 1:33:33: 1 13 7 42 2 16 9 51 3 19 10 61 4 13 7 68 5 11 6 74 6 3 2 75 7 11 6 81 8 5 3 84 10 8 4 88 12 3 2 90 14 2 1 91 15 5 3 94 16 1 1 94 17 2 1 95 18 1 1 96 20 3 2 97 22 1 1 98 25 2 1 99 70 2 1 100 Mean: 4.829 Va1id cases: 187 Standard deviation: 8.669 Sum: 903 Minimum: 1 Maximum: 70 117 The Land-Tenure2§ystems The present land-tenure systems are the outcome of an histori- cal process. They have been determined by complex economic, cul- tural, social, legal, and political factors. From the strictly forma1 viewpoint, every land-tenure system is essentially a defined judicial framework. However, this does not fully explain the policies adopted in the use of land as a factor of production. These policies can be understood only against the broader background of a country's economic, social, and technological development. Nonetheless, the legal expres- sion of ownership and the character of property rights are the keys to the classification of each system. This is also true in a society in which property rights are dictated by a tribal chief or local leader.1 Land tenure, as Morgan pointed out, "is an important question at several levels."2 In the 1ess-developed countries, land tenure exists in different forms, several of which have been seen as obstacles to agricultural change and economic growth. They have become objects of government policies that have frequently focused on land tenure as a key constraint in agricultural-development programs. Hence, at the national level, there has arisen a strong interest in tenure, especially in recent changes in tenure, prospects for further change, and their relationship to holding size and agricultural investment and practice. This interest has been reinforced by the 1Samuel Pohoryles, Land Tenure in Africa and Its Effect on Economic Growth, Paper No. 37(Jerusa1emzi’Land Use7Research Insti- tute,7Apri1 1973), p. 1. 2William Basil Morgan, Agriculture in the Third World (Boulder, Colorado: Hestview Press, 1978), p. 138. 118 fact that in most developing countries, land accounts for a much higher proportion of total wealth than in more-developed countries. The frequency distributions of land tenure in the Benghazi area indicated the presence of five major land-tenure systems. 0f the 250 farms surveyed in the summer of 1980, there were squatter's rights (47 farms), inheritance (117 farms), purchase (53 farms) Sharecropping (23 farms), and several other types of land tenure, such as combinations of the above types, rented land, or gifts of land from friends or relatives. This last category accounted only for seven farms. Land tenure in the Benghazi area has been affected to a great extent by the cultural and institutional aspects of the people. It is a part of the people's belief that the farmer inherits only if he is a legal heir as defined by Islamic Law. He is allowed to give only a small part of his land to a relative who is not one of his legal heirs. Otherwise, he can give all his property for reli- gious purposes--the waqf (see Chapter II). It was found that 47 percent of the farms surveyed were inherited from fathers or relatives. Twenty-one percent of the farms were purchased, representing the second-largest group. Most of the farms in this category were purchased between 1965 and 1980. This type of ownership illustrated the impact of oil revenues, which increased incomes and encouraged the landless farmers to buy land. Squatter's rights is a type of land tenure well known not only in the Benghazi area but also in most of Libya and North Africa. This system accounted for 19 percent of the farms surveyed, most of them located in districts far away from Benghazi, such as Gaminis, 119 Suluq, and al-Khadra. Because squatters have no legal title of ownership, they usually do not invest heavily in their farms. Instead, the squatter cultivates only seasonal crops, such as wheat and barley, or leaves the land for grazing and animal husbandry. Sharecropping farmers represented less than 10 percent of the surveyed farms. It was found that most of them were foreigners: Egyptians, Sudanese, Palestinians, or Tunisians. They cultivated their farms only temporarily for cash crops (mainly vegetables). The following analysis is focused only on the effect of the above-mentioned land-tenure systems on the agricultural land-use pat- terns in the Benghazi area. To determine the relationships between land-use and tenure systems, one-way analysis of variance was used. The variables used were the following: (1) the area allocated for cultivation of grains per farm in hectares, (2) the area allocated for cultivation of vegetables per farm in hectares, (3) the area left for grazing and animal husbandry per farm in hectares, (4) the number of sheep per farm, (5) the number of goats per farm, (6) the number of cattle per farm, (7) the farm size in hectares, (8) the annual use of chemical fertilizers per farm in kilograms, (9) the irrigated land per farm in hectares, and (10) annual income per farm in dollars. These variables were analyzed in relation to the five major types of land-tenure systems: squatter's rights, inheritance, purchase, share- cropping, and other means of land tenure. (See Table 5.6.) With respect to grain area, the results of the one-way analysis of variance showed a grand mean of 29.61 hectares per farm allocated to cultivation of grains. Only the squatter's rights system was above 12f) Foo. emou. Nomw. —oo. mmmo. mama. pooo. poo. poo. poo. .mpcmmm e e e e e e e e e v we —e.m om._ e~.p pm.m mw.~ po.~ m_.m me.o~ mm.m mm.~— ovens-“ m~.~ho.m -.m oo.om~.m mm.m ep.p oo.~ oo.mm co.e _—.m -.~ menus segue . . . . . . . . . . . . u=.anacu em mm» mm oe op us one a um mp mm m em up co Nap m— a mm a ac e -oeagm p~.mmw.¢_ _~.m -.mmp.~ op.m~ -.~ em.o— -.m~p m—.o~ -.o pn.n— mangoes; 2.2; 88 2.3.4.0 No.8 23 3.8 8.8— 2.x a: 3.3 “mm...“ . . . . . . . . . . . . 3%: p5 c—c m cm N Na mwN e «a we on p mm mm mm New m~ No on o we we n.2ouuasam mm.m¢~.~m.w cm.~ m mo.m~.m mo.cm.m mm.¢.m mm.o~.m —w.om_.m cm.om.m mm.¢.m pm.mw.w mLa——oo .o; e. as c, .a: o_uuuu macaw noogm .mg :. .m: :9 .a; c? «page» use; a. use; usu~.pvugou a? no we we soc< aog< mog< we waxy uscucn seam vouomwggm poupsogu m~.m scam cones: Longs: cones: mev~ecw o—aauomo> cvugw .a*;msuczo age» we muaxu an on: use. pecsupau_gmn yo «waxy Lou aucopgo> mo mpmape:<--.o.m open» 121 average; inheritance, purchase, Sharecropping, and other means of land tenure were below average. Squatter's rights, with an average of 68.06 hectares, contributed in large part to the differences in averages. The result of the analysis was significant at the .001 level; the F-ratio was 12.59. The results showed a grand mean of 4.36 hectares per farm cul- tivated in vegetables. Sharecropping and purchase were above average, whereas squatter's rights and other means of land tenure were below average. Inheritance, however, with an average area allocated to vegetables of 4.28 hectares, was close to the grand mean. The result also indicated a significant difference in average areas allo- cated to vegetables in relation to land-tenure systems. The F-ratio was 8.39; it was significant at the .001 level. With respect to grazing land per farm in relation to land- tenure systems, the one-way analysis of variance indicated a grand mean of 30.54 hectares. Only the farms owned by squatter's rights had a grazing area above average, whereas farms owned by inheritance, purchase, Sharecropping, and other means of land tenure had grazing areas that were smaller than average. The result was significant at the .001 level; the F-ratio was 10.69. The average number of sheep per farm in the Benghazi area was 150.81. The squatter's-rights farms had an above-average number of sheep. It was found that squatter's-rights farms had more grazing land than did farms owned by any other type of land tenure. There- fore, squatter's-rights farms were more likely to have more animals than farms in the other types of land-tenure systems. The result of 122 the test showed that there were significant differences in the averages of the number of sheep per farm for each type of land-tenure system: squatter's rights with 247.65 sheep, inheritance with 136.65 sheep, purchase with 125.22 sheep, Sharecropping with 102 sheep, and other means of tenure with 35 sheep. The F-ratio was 6.190; it was significant at the .0001 level. The average number of goats per farm, as shown by the one-way analysis of variance, was 20.35. Squatter's-rights and inherited farms had an above-average number of goats, whereas farms obtained by purchase, Sharecropping, and other types of land tenure had below- average numbers of goats. The result seemed similar to that for sheep, with a variation in the average for all types of tenure being significant at the .05 level. The F-ratio was 2.61; the F-probability was .0373. The number of cattle per farm in relation to type of land ownership was different from the number of sheep and goats. The average number of cattle for all farms was 4.83. Purchased and inherited farms had above-average numbers of cattle, whereas squatter's rights,sharecropping,and other types of ownership had below-average numbers of cattle. The only obvious reason for this was that many purchased farms in the Benghazi area were used only for raising imported cattle to supply the Benghazi market with meat and milk. The result of the one-way analysis of variance was significant, showing an important variation in the average number of cattle for different types of land tenure. The F—ratio was 2.85; the F-probability was .0252. 123 Farm size in the Benghazi area appeared to be affected by the type of land tenure. The one-way analysis of variance showed that squatter's—rights farms had an average size of 68.94 hectares, whereas Sharecropping farms had only 18.37 hectares. The result showed that there were significant variations between farm-size averages in dif- ferent types of land tenure. The F-ratio was 9.31; it was significant at the .001 level. The relation of the amount of chemical fertiliz- ers used and area of irrigated land per farm to farm size did not appear to be significant. This meant that there were no significant variations between averages of amounts of chemical fertilizers used and areas of irrigated land in different types of land tenure. The F-ratios were 1.24 and 1.50. The F-probabilities were .2992 and .2036; neither was significant at any level. Farm income was also tested in relation to types of land tenure in the Benghazi area to see if there was any significant rela- tionship. The analysis showed that the average income of all farms was $12,295.93. Purchased and Sharecropped farms had incomes above average; farms in other land-tenure systems had incomes below average. Sharecropped farms had the highest average income. In general, the result showed significant variations between average farm incomes for different types of tenure. The F-ratio was 9.41; it was signifi- cant at the .001 level. 124 Government Agricultural Assistance Considerable assistance is given to the farmers in the Benghazi area through the Libyan National Agricultural Bank. This assistance takes a number of forms, including the following: Subsidization of Farm Machinery The government subsidizes 25 percent of the market price of 1Fairninechinery and equipment if it is purchased by an individual and EEC) percent if it is purchased by a farming cooperative. Interest-Free Loans There are four different types of agricultural loans that azure interest-free. They are as follows: Seasonal loans (crop loans). Loans in this category are used t>3r farmers to support themselves until farm production is underway. 'leese loans last for one year and range from 50 to 300 Libyan dinars (L0) (US$ 150-9,000). Most of these loans are spent on seeds, pesti- cides, and fertilizer at the beginning of the planting season. Medium-term loans. These loans range from 3,000 to 4,000 LD (US$ 9,000-12,000) and are given to farmers who prefer to purchase 1Farm machinery, usually in the form of sprinkler-irrigation systems, vvater pumps, tractors, and plowing and harvesting machinery. Long-term loans (of more than 15 years). These loans are for (:onstructing, reclaiming, or building new farms. A loan of this type 'is given to the farmer at various time intervals, depending on the kind of farm or project he proposes. The loans range from 1,000 L0 (US$ 3,000) up. 125 Subsidization of Farm Inputs The government subsidizes 50 percent of the market price of chemical fertilizers, pesticides, seeds, fodder, and hay. Another type of assistance is the government purchase of olive oil, wheat, barley, peanuts, and almonds from the farmer in the harvesting season at higher-than-market prices. The government then markets the prod- ucts domestically or exports them.3 Government assistance was examined to ascertain if there was a significant relationship between the number of hectares allocated to each crop on farms in the Benghzai area and the types of assist- ance received by farmers. In this study, farmers were asked to list the types of government assistance they received in 1980. Then the types of assistance were grouped into five categories based on these responses: (1) machinery and equipment; (2) interest-free loans; (3) subsidization of farm inputs (excluding machinery and equipment); (4) subsidization of farm inputs (fertilizers, seeds, pesticide, and so on) and interest-free loans; and (5) machinery and equipment, sub- sidization of farm inputs, and interest-free loans. Land-use vari- ables were the same as those used in the analysis of land-tenure systems. The only variables not used in this analysis were number of cattle, number of other animals, and amount of chemical fertilizer. A one-way analysis of variance was used to test significant varia- tions in averages between the types of assistance and the allocation of resources for different agricultural land uses on each farm. Farm 3S. M. Sherif, "The Future of Mechanization in Libya“ (Master's thesis, Michigan State University, 1972), pp. 32-35. 126 size in hectares, numbers of sheep and goats per farm, and income derived from each farm were also tested in relation to types of assistance received by the farmer. (See Table 5.7.) The results of the analysis showed that the only agricultural land-use variables affected by assistance were the area per farm allocated to grain, number of sheep per farm, and farm size in hec- tares. The analysis of grain area in relation to assistance showed a significant difference in averages. Farmers who received machinery and equipment at reduced prices allocated an average of 151 hectares to grain cultivation, whereas farmers who received subsidization of farm inputs, machinery, and interest-free loans devoted an average of only 11 hectares to grain cultivation. The F-ratio was 6.66, and the F-probability was .0002. This result was expected because farmers in the study area used more machinery in grain cultivation than they had a decade before. The number of sheep per farm in the study area was influ- enced by government assistance. The one-way analysis of variance showed that the average number of sheep per farm on those farms receiving assistance was 127.34. Only farms receiving machinery and farms receiving subsidization and interest-free loans were above average in number of sheep, with 160 and 270.60, respectively. Hence, the result revealed significant variations in averages. The F-ratio was 4.20; the F-probability was .0105. This result is reasonable because most sheep are found in grain-producing areas where plowing and harvesting machines are available. Also, the subsidization of 127 Fuse. mumm. omFm. Nooo. mucmu_ww:mwm e e e e we Pm.~ emu. Nmm. mo.o cease-“ . . . . mcmo— use .zymcwgums oo om as N oo op oo pp .zomueNVupmnsm . . . . memop om co om m oo m on Pop was :oPum~Fuwmnsm mm.mp mm.m eo.n w~.wp compmNWuwmnzm om.mm oo.o nm.m m¢.~m memoF mmsmupmwgmucm . . . . acoEapaam m¢.m~.m ~m.m.w mm.m.w oe.~o.m Amwgmuum; :wv Ammsmaum; :PV Ammgeuum; cwv Ammgmuum; cry mucmpmwmm< yo maxw mog< mcw~mgw oms< »_=gu mmc< mpamummm> mmg< :wmgo .mocmumpmmm pcoscsm>om we mmaxu »a on: vamp pagaupzorgmm mo mega“ so» mocmwcm> mo mwm>~m=60 80.13 F-ratio 8.41 df 6 Significance .001 143 The research hypothesis was not rejected on the bases: (1) a positive Pearson correlation coefficient r, (2) a one-way analy- sis of variance showing the significant variations in average farm sizes, and (3) a distribution map of farm sizes indicating that farms located close to Benghazi average 10 hectares and farms located farther away from the city average more than 50 hectares. Hypothesis II As distance from the city increases, a smaller percent- age of a farm's acreage is used for vegetables and fruits and a greater percentage is used for grain cultivation. The analysis of this hypothesis was based on responses related specifically to area cultivated in vegetables per farm in hectares, area per farm planted in fruits in hectares, area cultivated in grain on each farm in hectares, and distance of farm from the Benghazi mar- ket in kilometers. The statistical methods used to test this hypothe- sis were the Pearson correlation and one-way analysis of variance. The results of the Pearson correlation routine indicated a positive association between area allocated to grain per farm and distance of farm from Benghazi (r_= .418). The analysis, however, gave a negative relationship between area allocated to vegetables and land planted in fruits per farm in relation to distance from the city (r;= —.259 and -.156, respectively). The one-way analysis of variance test showed significant variations in averages of grain area and vegetable area per farm in relation to distance from Benghazi. The F-ratios were 9.01 and 4.99, respectively, both of which were significant at the .001 level. The 144 result of the test also indicated that variations in averages of fruit area per farm were insignificant. The F-ratio was 1.33; the F-probability was .2432, which was not significant at any level. Thus, the second research hypothesis was not rejected on the basis that only the area planted in fruits in relation to distance of the farm from Benghazi showed a weak relationship. Hypothesis III Other factors being equal, such as water availability, soil fertility, and transportation facilities, the inten- sity of cultivation is inversely related to the distance of a farm from Benghazi; that is, the greater the dis- tance from the city, the less intensively and more exten- sively a farm is cultivated. Intensity of cultivation in the Benghazi area is rarely determined by a single factor. Rather, a variety of physical, cul- tural, and institutional considerations interact causally to affect the degree of agricultural intensity. Generally, water availability, soil fertility, and market attraction exert the strongest influences upon intensity of agricultural land use. In order to test the hypothesis, these factors were assumed to be equal. The respondents were asked three questions related to the cultivation of their farms dealing with the amount of chemical fer- tilizer they used, the amount of irrigated land on the farm, and their annual income. These three factors were analyzed in relation to the distance of the farm from Benghazi. Statistical methods used to test the hypothesis were the Pearson correlation analysis, one-way analysis of variance, and frequency distributions. 145 The frequency distribution of chemical fertilizers showed that the average amount of fertilizer used per farm was 7505 kg, with a minimum of 300 kg and a maximum of 30,000 kg. (See Table 6.2.) Neither the Pearson correlation coefficients nor the one-way analysis of variance indicated significant relationships between the amount of chemical fertilizer used per farm and the distance of the farm from market. The r_va1ue was -.152; the F-ratio was 1.03; and the F-probability was .409, which was not significant at any level. (See Table 6.3.) However, the Pearson routine indicated a negative corre- lation between the amount of chemical fertilizer used per hectare and distance of the farm from the market (r_= -.281, which was signifi- cant at the .001 level). Although it has been found that chemical fertilizers were used by 90 percent of the farmers whose farms were located within 10 km of Benghazi, the inadequacy of agricultural guidance and exten— sion services caused uncertainties among farmers about how much fer- tilizer per hectare could be used effectively. The farmers also did not know when fertilizer could be applied without harming the fields. Consequently, despite the fact that the government subsidizes the market price of fertilizer, of 250 farms surveyed in 1980, on only 100 of them (40 percent) were chemical fertilizers used. The irrigated-farming system was discussed in Chapter IV. The analysis here was limited to tests of Hypothesis 111. Thus, the area under irrigation per farm was analyzed in relation to distance from Benghazi. The frequency distribution of the responses showed that, of 250 farmers surveyed, 168 (67.2 percent) had irrigated land 146 Table 6.2.--Frequency distribution: Amount of chemical fertilizers used annually per farm, in kilograms. $111123. “him“ “91m“ “”1”“1“ (in kilograms) Frequency Frequency Frequency 300 2 2 3 400 l 1 4 500 4 4 3 700 l 1 9 1,000 l 1 11 1,500 4 4 15 2,000 11 11 25 2,200 l 1 27 2,500 7 7 34 3,000 l 1 35 3,500 l 1 36 4,000 l 1 37 4,500 l 1 38 5,000 13 13 51 5,500 l 1 52 6,000 3 3 55 6,500 l 1 56 7,000 2 2 58 7,500 l 1 59 8,000 7 7 66 9,000 l 1 57 10,000 11 11 78 11,000 1 1 79 12,000 5 5 84 12,500 1 1 35 15,000 3 3 88 17,000 1 1 39 17,300 1 1 90 20,000 5 5 95 23,000 1 1 96 25,000 3 3 99 30,000 1 1 10° Mean: 7,505.00 Valid cases: 100 Standard deviation: 6,654.039 Sum: 750,500.00 Minimum: 300.00 Maximum: 30,000.00 147 Table 6.3.--0ne-way analysis of variance of amount of chemical fertilizers, irrigated land, and farm income by distance from Benghazi. Diitance Chemical Irrigated Income om . . Land Benghazi Fert1lizers Per Farm .Per Farm (in kilometers) 11" kilograms) (in hectares) 11" dollars) 7 7,505.00 7 7.90 112,295.93 <10 10,850.00 9.54 29,502.14 10-20 6,762.07 5.65 8,471.43 21-30 7,063.64 8.84 11,310.41 31-40 8,941.18 11.74 13,465.00 41-50 6,555.55 7.00 8,138.13 51-60 7,500.00 5.88 13,687.95 >60 1,833.33 6.75 11,678.57 F-ratio 1.03 2.40 4.10 df 6 6 6 Significance .4091 .0301 .0160 on their farms. The average amount of irrigated land per farm in the study area was 7.89 hectares, with a minimum of 1 hectare and a maximum of 55 hectares. (See Table 6.4.) Although the Pearson correlation analysis showed no signifi- cant relationship between area under irrigation per farm and dis- tance from Benghazi (r_= -.067), the one-way analysis of variance showed a significant difference in average land area under irrigation per farm and distance from Benghazi. The F-ratio was 12.40; the F-probability was .0301, which was significant. (See Table 6.3.) 148 Table 6.4.--Frequency distribution: Area of irrigated land per farm, in hectares. Irrigated Relative Cumulative (in htgggres) gagglgxzy frequency Frequenc percent) (percent 1 6 4 4 2 31 18 22 3 14 8 30 4 18 ll 41 5 23 14 55 6 11 7 61 7 5 3 64 8 9 5 7O 9 l l 70 10 21 13 83 ll 1 l 83 12 4 2 86 13 2 l 87 14 1 l 88 15 2 l 89 20 6 4 92 23 2 l 93 25 2 l 95 28 1 l 95 3O 7 4 99 55 l 1 100 Mean: 7.899 Valid cases: 168 Standard deviation: 7.942 Sum: 1,327.00 Minimum: 1.00 Maximum: 55.00 It has been assumed that farms located close to the Benghazi market were intensively cultivated. Thus, they would generate more income than those located farther away. To investigate this assump- tion, farmers were asked to estimate annual income derived only from farming. Of 250 farmers, 226 responded to the question. The frequency distribution of their incomes, based only on their estimations, is 149 given in Table 6.5. As shown in this table, the average income per farm for all respondents was $12,295, with a minimum of $150 and a maximum of $95,600. Furthermore, 59 percent of the respondents earned less than $10,000 from their farms annually, but only 3 per- cent earned more than $50,000. Table 6.5.--Frequency distribution: Annual income per farm, in dollars. Annual Relative Cumulative . Income gagglgfiiy Frequency Frequenc (in dollars) (percent) (percent 150 l O 0 600 2 l 1 670 4 2 3 1.000 5 2 5 1,005 l 0 6 1,050 5 2 8 1,200 3 1 9 1,300 1 0 10 1.500 9 4 14 1,560 2 l 15 1,570 2 l 15 1,575 1 0 16 1.600 1 O 16 1,630 1 O 17 1,675 2 1 18 1,700 2 1 19 1,950 l O 19 2,000 5 2 21 2,100 l 0 22 2,160 l 0 22 2.170 1 O 23 2,400 2 1 23 2,470 l O 24 2,600 1 0 24 3,000 l 0 25 3,350 l 0 25 3,400 1 0 26 3,500 7 3 29 3,900 l 0 29 4,000 l O 30 4,020 l 0 30 4,100 l 0 31 150 Table 6.5.--Continued. Annual Relative Cumulative . Income gagglgggy Frequency Frequency (in dollars) (percent) (percent) 4.200 1 O 31 4,500 10 4 35 4,560 2 l 36 4,570 1 O 37 4.700 1 O 37 4.780 1 O 38 5,025 1 0 38 5,400 1 O 38 5.600 2 l 39 5.670 1 0 40 6.000 4 2 42 6.700 16 7 49 7,000 2 l 50 7.500 10 4 54 7.705 1 0 55 7,800 1 0 55 8.100 1 O 56 8.375 1 O 56 10.000 5 2 59 10.050 10 4 63 10,500 6 3 66 10,750 1 0 66 11,500 1 O 67 11,700 1 0 67 12,000 3 l 69 12.300 1 0 69 12.400 1 0 69 12,500 2 1 70 12.600 2 l 71 12,700 1 O 72 13,100 1 0 72 13,400 2 l 73 13,600 1 0 73 14,000 1 O 74 15,000 2 l 75 15,075 1 O 75 15,600 3 l 77 15,700 2 l 77 16,000 4 2 79 16,700 2 l 80 16,730 1 0 81 17,000 1 0 81 17,600 1 O 81 18,000 2 1 82 18,700 1 0 83 151 Table 6.5.--Continued. Annual Relative Cumulative . Income figzglgxgy Frequenc Frequenc (in dollars) (percent (percent 19,500 1 O 83 21,000 4 2 85 21.700 1 0 85 21,900 1 0 86 22.000 1 0 86 23.000 1 O 87 23,100 1 O 87 23.430 1 0 88 23,450 1 O 88 23,500 2 l 89 23,600 1 0 89 24,000 1 O 90 25,000 1 O 90 25,660 1 O 91 26,800 1 0 91 30,690 1 0 92 32,500 1 O 92 37,000 1 0 92 37,800 1 0 93 40,200 1 0 93 42,000 1 0 94 42,500 1 o 94 45,000 2 1 95 45,670 1 O 96 47,000 1 O 96 48,000 1 0 96 53,000 1 O 97 57,700 1 0 97 65,000 1 O 98 70,000 1 O 98 72,000 1 0 99 84,670 1 0 99 90,000 1 O 100 95,600 1 0 100 Mean: 12,295 Valid cases: 226 Standard deviation: 15,542.568 Sum: 2,778,880.00 Minimum: 150.00 Maximum: 95,600.00 152 Despite the fact that the Pearson correlation routine showed no significant association between farm income and distance of farm from the Benghazi market (r_= .072), there was a significant negative correlation between annual farm income per hectare and distance from the Benghazi market (r_= -.300, which was significant at the .001 level). This result was due to the previously discussed fact that farm size increased with distance from Benghazi. One-way analysis of variance results showed a significant difference between average annual income per farm in relation to dis- tance from the market. It was found that the average income for farms located less than 10 km from Benghazi was $29,502.14, whereas those located more than 60 km away had an average income of $11,678.57. The F-ratio was 4.10; the F-probability was .0160, which was signifi- cant at the .05 level. Thus, the research hypothesis was not rejected on the following bases: (1) the Pearson correlation analysis showed significant negative relationships between annual amount of chemical fertilizer used per hectare and distance of farm from Benghazi, and (2) the one-way analysis of variance results indicated a significant difference in mean values of land under irrigation and of farm income in relation to distance of farm from the city. Both conclusions supported the research hypothesis. Hypothesis IV Farms in the marginal area of the study are more likely to be devoted to grazing and animal husbandry. To test this hypothesis, the Pearson correlation routine and a one-way analysis of variance were used. The former was used to 153 determine the direction and strength of relationships between the variables, and the latter was used to see if there were any signifi- cant variations among averages. Variables used for the analysis were area per farm allocated to grazing in hectares, number of sheep per farm, number of goats per farm, number of cattle per farm, and number of other animals per farm. These variables were analyzed in relation to the distance between each farm and the Benghazi market. The results of the Pearson correlation analysis showed a positive relationship between distance from Benghazi and area allo- cated to grazing per farm (r_= .378), implying that the greater the distance from the city, the greater the area of grazing. The results of the test also indicated a positive correlation between the number of sheep, goats, and other animals per farm in relation to distance from the market. The r_values were .303, .269, and .321, respec- tively. The number of cattle per farm, however, showed a negative correlation with distance from Benghazi (r_= -.143). The results of the one-way analysis of variance for the same variables indicated significant variations in averages of grazing area in relation to distance of farm from Benghazi. The F-ratio was 7.23; the F-probability was significant at the .001 level. The results also showed a significant variation in average numbers of sheep, goats, and other animals per farm in relation to distance from the city. The F-ratios were 5.34, 2.99, and 6.36, respectively, which were significant at the .001 level. The number of cattle, however, in relation to distance of farm from Benghazi, was not important in the one-way analysis of variance. The F-ratio was 1.28; the 154 F-probability was .2689, which was not significant at any level. Thus, the research hypothesis was not rejected on the basis of only the number of cattle per farm in relation to distance of farm from Benghazi was negative in the Pearson correlation analysis and not significant in the one-way analysis of variance. Hypothesis V The land-tenure systems affect the types of crops cultivated. For example, sharecroppers are more likely to concentrate on cash crops such as vegetables, whereas farmers who have squatter's rights and inherited farms are more likely to use large parts of their farms to cultivate grain and to graze animals. To test this hypothesis, six agricultural land-use variables were chosen for analysis: area allocated for grain per farm in hec- tares, area cultivated in vegetables per farm in hectares, grazing area per farm in hectares, number of sheep per farm, number of goats per farm, and number of cattle per farm. These variables were analyzed in relation to the five major land-tenure systems in the Benghazi area: squatter's rights, inheritance, purchase, Sharecropping, and other types of tenure. The only statistical method used for the analysis was one-way analysis of variance. The results of the test showed significant variations in averages when agricultural land-use variables were related to types of land-tenure systems. On squatter's-rights farms, more land was allocated to grain cultivation (7'= 68.61 hectares). 0n inherited farms, which had the second-highest average area of grain cultivation, the average was 7.94 hectares. Other types of land tenure such as rented farms, with an average of 2.22 hectares, had the lowest average 155 of grain-cultivation areas. The F-ratio was 12.59; the F-probability was significant at the .001 level. The test also indicated a significant variation in average area allocated to vegetables per farm in relation to land-tenure systems. On squatter's-rights farms, 1ess area was allocated to vegetables than on sharecropped farms. The F-ratio was 8.39; the F-probability was significant at the .001 level. The results also showed a significant variation in the average grazing area, number of sheep, number of goats, and number of cattle per farm. 0n squatter's- rights farms there were larger grazing areas and more sheep and goats raised than on sharecropped farms. Thus, the hypothesis was not rejected. Hypothesis VI Government-assistance programs have a great effect on the variation of agricultural land use in the Benghazi area. For example, farmers who receive agricultural machinery and interest-free loans are more likely to cultivate a larger part of their farms with grain than those who receive only interest-free loans. The analysis of this hypothesis was based on the relation of agricultural land-use variables to types of government assistance received by the farmers. The land variables used in the analysis were area allocated to grain cultivation per farm in hectares, area allocated for vegetables per farm in hectares, area planted in fruits in hectares, area allocated for grazing per farm in hectares, number of sheep, and number of goats per farm. The types of government assistance were divided into five categories based on the farmers' responses: (1) machinery; (2) interest-free loans; (3) subsidization 156 ()f farm inputs; (4) subsidization of farm inputs and interest-free ‘loans; and (5) subsidization of farm inputs, machinery, and interest- ‘free loans. One-way analysis of variance was used in the analysis. The results of the test gave significant variations in the leverage areas allocated for grain and the number of sheep per farm in relation to types of government assistance. The F-ratio for grain area per farm was 6.66; the F-probability was .0002, which was sig- nificant. The F-ratio for the number of sheep per farm was 4.20; the F-probability was .0105. The research hypothesis was rejected on the basis that only area allocated for grain per farm and number of sheep per farm indicated significant relationships with types of government assistance. Hypothesis VII Significant relationships exist between farmers' character- istics (age, family size, level of education, length of time in farming, and occupation) and the types of agricul- ture practiced in the Benghazi area. To test this hypothesis, characteristics of farmers were related to agricultural land-use variables. The variables represent- ing characteristics of farmers were age, family size, level of edu- cation, length of time spent in agriculture, and additional occupa- tions. These variables were analyzed in relation to grain area per farm in hectares, vegetable area per farm in hectares, area planted in fruits per farm in hectares, grazing area per farm in hectares, num- ber of sheep per farm, number of goats per farm, farm size in hec- tares, annual amount of chemical fertilizer used per farm in kilograms, 157 irrigated area per farm in hectares, and annual income per farm in dollars. The chi-square test was used for this analysis. In general, the results of the analysis indicated that the relationships between most of the farmers' characteristics and types of agricultural land use were not significant. However, significant correlations existed between some land-use variables and farmers' characteristics. The results of the test showed that age, for example, was positively related to the amount of land allocated to vegetables per farm and amount of chemical fertilizer used per farm. Significant relationships were found between family size and area planted in fruits. This relationship indicated that the greater the family size, the larger the amount of land devoted to cultivation of fruits per farm. Level of education did not appear to be an impor- tant factor determining land use. The only variable significantly related to level of education was the amount of chemical fertilizer used per farm. The results of the test also gave significant rela- tionships between length of time spent in agriculture and the amount of land devoted to vegetables per farm, amount of chemical fertilizers, irrigated area per farm, and annual income derived from each farm. Finally, additional occupations was significantly related only to number of sheep per farm and to amount of irrigated land per farm. The hypothesis was rejected because farmers' characteristics were significantly related only to a few agricultural land-use variables and had no effect on agricultural land-use patterns in the Benghazi area. 158 Farmers' Reactions to Major Difficulties Facing *Agricultural Development in the Benghazi Area This section discusses spatial variations in farmers' reac- tions toward some difficulties affecting agricultural land use in the Benghazi area. This discussion, which is based only on the farmers' responses to related questions, will help the agriculturalists as well as government agencies and institutions to develop sound future agricultural plans in the study area. The farmers' responses to an open-ended question were cate- gorized as follows: (1) shortage of suitable water for agriculture (NATAVA), (2) weak agricultural extension services (EXTSERV), (3) contradictory agricultural policies of government agencies and institutions (CONGOVPOL), (4) delays in distributing seeds during plowing season (DELSEED), (5) lack of agricultural assistance (LACAGAS), (6) shortage of spare parts for agricultural machinery (SHSPAMAC), (7) lack of paved roads (LACPAROAD), and (8) other diffi- culties (0THDIFF). The two methods of analysis used were frequency distribution and cross-tabulation. The former was undertaken to give descriptive data, such as means, standard deviations, and percentages, and the latter was conducted to show the relationship between major difficulties facing agricultural development in the area and the loca- tion of farmers' land. 159 Water Shortag The shortage of water suitable for agriculture is a primary 1 Table 6.6, which crop-production handicap in the Benghazi area. depicts the frequency distribution of 250 respondents, indicates that 104 farmers (46 percent) complained about water shortage. The most complaints were made by farmers in the districts of al-Faakat, al-Kuwaifia, Attaria, Benina, Bu Atni, Deriana, Gaminis, and Sidi Khalifa. (See Table 6.7.) Most of these districts are located close to Benghazi City, where farms are intensively cultivated. Since most of the irrigated farms are located close to Benghazi, this indicates that most of the water complaints came from farmers practicing irri- gation. Tab1e 6.6.-—Responses of the farmers to difficulties facing agricul- tural development in the Benghazi region--1980. Yes No Difficultiesa Egrmg:s Percent Egrmg:s Percent HATAVA 104 46 121 54 EXTSERV 7O 31 155 69 CONGOVPOL 32 14 193 86 DELSEED 107 48 118 52 LACAGAS 147 65 78 35 SHSPAMAC 135 60 90 4O LACPAROAD 88 39 137 61 OTHDIFF 211 94 14 6 aSee page 158 for explanation of the difficulties variables. 1"Hater" here refers to underground water as well as rainfall. .mmpamwem> mmwupzuwmmwu we» mo :o_umcmpqu com mmp omen meme 160 m.~m p.mm m.¢m m.~w m.o~ m.om w.om m.mm ocmuanMmL=m meumuzwcmu o.oop «.mo o.~m ¢.wo m.o~ u: m.om ~.mm wcmwsmo o.oop —.nm m.~e ¢.~n —.nm 1. o.wm m.m~ pmnwmgowzou >mmmhxu <>l. . - -- “LA-1.. I-mad ”—— u-‘y ‘ —“a_-o”~--mc~wo—‘o-u-— w 5...... .o -n-u.*a.a.o... a--..-.‘_ ._._._- m-“ Q a d 0...‘-.. s ....a O o_- ‘.1‘.—.‘. J —o 50‘. ‘fisfi-A c. Q ‘n- We--. 0 0.0 .0”; 3.- o-o-Oa...-----..u a.c - a .0-.“ “-A“ —‘--‘.—-.—.--.H o‘.‘.. 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[:3 Y ‘M'ub “way "Nu—.3" qk-Y'QUO‘ — .OMCA‘ ....\"\" -T'i —TO ....Y'l _\"Y ...YA 205 t WIHWIJA —i\_ ulldlyl | “J :r————=U CI] 1 4: éL—ag-Le-ualo ">14" «Jedi culSUl DUDE l " m—dafiwfio'ukdé%' ($434” [:1 3 r--- [:l ’ cove“! 206 ¢ :/ “I?" Lu. um: quJwaluu JfiJJXu .. u ““0.-.“ a--m‘ A‘ . ouoc-u... Q-.. 0 -.-\- f t HWLJ—wwlokbflmbuéw _. £0 —- o .. - 03.--- o.“ ——— —— - o ~~-—o-.--—n.—-. a -~ -——— mo...— 00-. 0------.‘- - (( .4___.a .4ng ._.m )) .°°°"..U"J'“L"“ 206 _‘l_ s :/ “WI 1.5.1.ch umewlun dfiaJi’a .. u ago-0cm“... - a... o - - -s“ : HWLHUUIOI:LJI¢I‘LU§VL$ ._ to —o.o-o’- m-c--- —* --.—o--‘-—--.--... ,-~ ‘— _.—.-—--.-—~oo--—.ou—o coon--Io-O-— — - (( e1___..a amen bum ....*..L’.IJ“LY‘ BIBLIOGRAPHY 207 BIBLIOGRAPHY Books Allan, J. A.; McLachlan, K. 5.; and Penrose, E. T. Lihya: Agricultural and Economic Development. London: Cass, 1973. Barlowe, Raleigh. Land Resource Economics. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1958. Beaumont, Peter; Blake, Gerald H.; and Wagstaff, J. Malcolm. 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