_._ » 7 . , H , .,.WVR ._, II THESIS ’ LIBRARY Michigan Sal! .. UM as 7 \ulllllzlllllllgllllulllll L \ J This is to certify that the ‘ thesis entitled A STUDY OF THE PERCEPTION OF ADULT EDUCATION OFFICERS ON JOINT FUNDING OF ADULT EDUCATION BY PRIVATE, VOLUNTARY AND GOVERNMENT AGENCIES IN IMO STATE OF NIGERIA H‘ presented by Daniel 0. Agbafor has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph . D». degree in Adult Education ‘ r K l / . Major professor DatM/ffd 0-7639 l OVERDUE FINES: 25¢ per day per item RETUMING LIBRARY MATERIALS: Place in book return to remow charge from circulation recon ' "" ”We-@359. tmg;5+r—~h “4% 20b ABBA A STUDY OF THE PERCEPTION OF ADULT EDUCATION OFFICERS ON JOINT FUNDING OF ADULT EDUCATION BY PRIVATE, VOLUNTARY AND GOVERNMENT AGENCIES IN IMO STATE OF NIGERIA by Daniel 0. Agbafor A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY COLLEGE OF EDUCATION 1980 ABSTRACT A STUDY OF THE PERCEPTION OF ADULT EDUCATION OFFICERS ON JOINT FUND- ING OF ADULT EDUCATION BY PRIVATE, VOLUNTARY AND GOVERNMENT AGENCIES IN IMO STATE OF NIGERIA by Dan 0. Agbafor The study was aimed at testing a number of hypotheses concerning the adult education officers‘ perception of some characteristics related to joint financing of adult education in Imo State of Nigeria. Purpose It was the purpose of the study: 1. To determine and analyze the perceptions held by adult education officers relating to the best ways and means of financing adult education. 2. To determine and analyze the perceptions held by adult education officers relating to the ability of the adult education participants in both rural and urban areas to pay. 3. To determine and analyze the perceptions held by adult education officers relating to the need for joint fund- ing of adult education by both government, private and voluntary agencies. Methodology Two forms of instrument were used for gathering the data. A Likert-type four alternative item questionnaire and open— ended questionnaire were completed by forty-eight adult edu- cation officers. The Likert-type questionnaire was used to measure the perception frequency of the adult education officers concerning the characteristics that relate to financing adult education. The open-ended questionnaire was Daniel 0. Agbafor subjected to content analysis and the results used to valid~ ate the results of the Likert-type questionnaire. A x2 test was used to determine the distribution of responses in each of the thirty-six characteristics. The contingency coefficient (C) was used to determine the strength of relationship between the male and female sexes, between the rural and urban adult education officers resi- dents, and between one to ten years and eleven plus years of experience. Selected Findings Based on the criteria for determing the degree of re- lationship of the characteristics to financing adult edu- cation, the strongly related characterisitics to financing of adult education are; financed by government, private and voluntary agencies; financed by all; financed by all gives competition; local participation gives reduced cost; local participation gives facilities; participation by all gives variety; participation by all gives efficiency; participa- tion by all gives easier goals; participation by all re- moves illiteracy; participation by all eliminates barriers; participation by all gives better quality; participation by all gives more development; participation by all gives centers in the rural communities; participation by all gives family planning; participation by all gives ciVic responsi— bility; and participation by all gives understanding of public affairs. Daniel 0. Agbafor Conclusion: Adult education in Imo State of Nigeria should be financed by both government, private, and voluntary agencies. Adult education cannot be financed by the government alone; it is the common duty of the govern- ment and the governed; voluntary organizations, groups, foundations, business organizations and individuals have obligations. DEDICATION This work is dedicated to the memory of my beloved father, Agbafor Obasi, who after my elementary education had no money to send me to Secondary School, but after four years, decided that I must get secon- dary education. It is also dedicated to the memory of my dear junior brother, Paul Nkuma Agbafor, who, on his dying bed asked my parents to do him a favor by allowing me to continue my education. "Everything will be fine," he said, before the Lord took him away. ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT My sincere appreciation goes to Dr. Melvin C. Buschman who offered to be my adviser and Committee Chairman when I transferred to the College of Education; and again, the director of this dissertation, for his guidance, comments, and above all, for his concern for me as a human being. His help at every stage in the planning and writing of this dis- sertation was most valuable to me. Appreciation is also ex- tended to the other members of my committee, Dr. Howard W. Hickey, Dr. TEd W. Ward and Dr. Bruce T. Allen, for their helpful comments and their constructive criticism of my work. My appreciation also goes to Mary Jane Barrett, my adviser's secretary who did all the typing and art work. My personal heartfelt thanks, goes to Dr. Chigozie N. Ogbu and Mrs. Catherine Ogbu, whose love for me made it pos- sible for me to come to the United States to get an education. I will always remain indebted to them. Without their initial contact with my sponsors, it could have been impossible for me to get a college education. To them, words are inadequate to express my gratitude. My deepest appreciation goes to the members of the First Congregational Church, (United Church of Christ), Sheboygan, Wisconsin, whose generosity and christian love, sponsored my college education at Lakeland College, Sheboygan, Wisconsin, and at Michigan State University. Special thanks go to the Rev. Reed Forbush and his wife, Joan Forbush, for their love and concern for me and my family. They have always come to my rescue when the going became rough. I shall always remain iii T— indebted to them. My deepest gratitude is due to Mr. Joseph T. McMillan, Jr. of the United Church for Homeland Ministries, New York, who made my admission to Michigan State University possible by offering me a graduate fellowship. This work could not have been completed without his help. My sincere appreciation goes to Rev. Paul W.W. Green and all the members of Eastminster Presbyterian Church, East Lansing for their love and care for me and my family. Without their help, it could have been impossible to complete by education at Michigan State University. Words are in- adequate to express my gratitude for their support. More personally, a heartfelt thank you, love and af- fection, are offered to my loving wife Bridget, and my dear children Uzodinma, Ijeoma, Chigozie, and Chinyere, and all the members of my family who have sacrificed so much so that I could complete my program of studies. Special thank you to my mother, Madam Ogbo Odi Agbafor, who inspite of all odds, insisted and encouraged me to go to the United States for my education. I could not have come here if she said "no." To my brothers and sisters, I say thank you all. My gratitude is expressed to Dr. Festus N. Eresimadu who took my research questionnaire to my representative in Nigeria. .My gratitude also goes to Dr. A. EZe who super- .vised the administration of the questionnaire, and to Mr. Christian.O. Agbafor who administered the questionnaire to the subjects, and to Mr. ngonna a Akuma for his help in taking my representative (Christian 0. Agbafor) to where iv . the subjects live or work. Finally, I would like to express my deep appreciation to all my friends, especially, Hon- A.N. Agwu and Mr. Benson I. Agbafor, and relatives, for the support and encouragement that they gave to me and my family. Thank you all, God Bless You. TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF TABLES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xii LIST OF FIGURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xiii Chapter I. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Historical Background. . . . . . . . . 1 Statement of the Problem . . . . . . . . . . 9 Purpose of the Study . . . . . . . . . . . . .11 Significance of the Study. . . . . . . . . . .11 Delimitations of the Study . . . . . . . . . .14 Research Questionnaire and Hypotheses. . . . .15 Hypotheses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15 General Hypotheses l . . . . . . . . . . . . .15 Operational Hypotheses la. . . . . . . . .15 Operational Hypotheses lb. . . . . . . . .15 Operational Hypotheses 1c. . . . . . . . . .16 General Hypotheses 2 . . . . . . . . . . . .16 Operational Hypotheses 2a. . . . . . . . . .16 Operational Hypotheses 2b. . . . . . . . . . .16 Operational Hypotheses 2c. . . . . . . . . . .16 General Hypotheses 3 . . . . . . . . . . .17 Operational Hypotheses 3a. . . . . . . . .17 Operational Hypotheses 3b. . . . . . .17 Operational Hypotheses 3c. . . . . . . . . . .17 Definition of Terms. . . Adult Education . . . . . . . . -.Adult Education Officer . . . . Community Services Instruction. Adult Education Program . Rural Community . . . . . Niara . . . . . . . . . . . . Community Education . . . . . . The National Development Plans. . Non-formal Education. . Illiterate. . . . . . . Literate. . . . . . . . Summary . . . . . . . . O O O O O O O O O HHHHHHPHHH £3535Loxoaaanmcnaaawq~d . . 0 C O D II. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE. . . . . . . . . 21 Definition and Philosophy of Adult Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 PhiIOSOphy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 Research Studies of Financing . Source of Funds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 vi Chapter III. IV. The Finance Flow. . . . . . . . . . . . . Legislative Base. . . . . . . . . . . . . State Legislative Provision . . . . . . . Fees. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Economic Benefits of Education. . . . . . +Adu1t Education as Investment . . . . . . Education and Income Distribution . . . . +External and Nonpecuniary Benefits. . . . Adult Education and Development . . . . . Significance of Adult Education in Development Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . The Tasks of Adult Education in Imo State The Eradication of Illiteracy. . . . . . Development of Skills. . . . . . . . . . Easing Adaptation to Change. . . . . . . Adult Educational Needs in Imo State . . Public Demand for Adult Education. . . . General Adult Education Problemss Across Nigeria. . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Role of Voluntary Agencies in Nigerian Education. . . . . . . . . . . . The Role_of the University in Development. Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _METHononoG¥, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pilot Study. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Research Setting . . . . . . . . . . The Population Sample. . . . . . . . . . The Preparation and Administration of the Questionnaire . . . . . . . . . . Return of the Questionnaire . . . . . . . The statistical Procedures Used in Analyzing the Data . . . . . . . . . . . The Limitations of the Study . . . . . . Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS, AND DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS . . . . . . . . . . Criteria for Determining the Degree of Relationship of the Characteristics to Financing Adult Education. . . . . . . . Characteristics that Strongly Relate to Financing Adult Education . . . . . . Characteristics that Moderately Relate to Financing Adult Education . . . . . . Discussion of Results . . . . . . . . . . Characteristics that Show Strong Relationship to Financing Adult Education. . . .-. . . . . . . . . . . Characteristics that R late Moderately to Joint Financing of Adult Education. vii Page . 34 . 42 . 44 . 4542 . 46' . 47 . 51 .53 .56 .56 .57 .58 .60 .60 .66 .69 .71 .71 .71 .73 .76 .80 .81 .82 .83 101 102 103 .104 105 114 Chapter V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS. APPENDICES. A B C FOOTNOTES Major Problems Identified by the Analysis. . . . . . . . . . Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . Summary . . . . . . . Instrument and Data Collection. . Analysis. . . . . . . Delimitations of the Study. . . . Major Findings. . . . . . Characteristics that Strongly Relate to Financing Adult Education. . . Characteristics that Moderately Relate to Financing Adult Education Major Problems Identified by the Analysis. . . . . . . Implications of the Problems and their Suggested Solutions . . . . Conclusions . . Implications of these Conclusions Recommendations . . . . . . . . . State Government. . . . . . . . . Corporations . . . . . . . . . . Foundations . . . . . . . . . . . Local or Private Initiative . . . Universities. . . . . . . . Budget for Adult Education. . . . State Board of Adult Education. . Functions of the Board . . . . Voluntary Agencies. . . Implications for further Research EPILOGUE . . . . . . Principles of Adult Education. . Content of Adult Education . . . Structure of Adult Education . . Pre-Service/In-Service Training. Methods of Adult Education. . . . Relations Between ADult Education and Youth Education . . . . . . Correspondence Education. . . . . Instrument for Gathering Data. . Letters to Institutions of Higher Learning and the Ministry of Education. . . . . . . . . . . Research Proposal . . . . . . . . BIBILIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . viii Page .117 .118 .121 .122 .123 .124 .125 .125 .125 .126 .126 .127 .130 .132 .134 .135 135 .135 .136 .136 .137 .138 138 .140 .140 141 142 142 143 143 .144 .145 .146 149 149 .155 .157 169 182 Figures 2.1 LIST OF FIGURES Schematic View of the flow of Finance for Education in Nigeria. Adapted from Callaway - Financing of Education in Nigeria. . . . . . . . . . . . . Nigeria and its States. . . . . . . . ix Page Tables 3.1 3.2 3.3 4.1 LIST OF TABLES Page Positions and Locations of Educational Personnel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 Names of Urban Areas and Rural Communities where the Education Officers are Stationed, and the Number in each Area. . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 Numerical Count of the Administration and Return of Survey Questionnaire . . . . . 80 Detailed Responses to the Financing of Adult Education Questionnaire by "Sex", "Location" and "Experience". . . . . .87 Statistical Table of the Result of the Research Questionnaire Responses. . . . .93 Results of the Tests of the Null Hypotheses by "Sex", "Location" and "Experience". . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .97 Content Analysis of the Open-Ended Questions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .100 Chapter I Introduction Historical Background: Adult education in Nigeria encountered certain diffi- culties during the colonial days. One of such difficulties could be termed the colonial legacy. Colonial education administrators were mainly expatriates who brought to their professional work the prevailing attitudes of their country of origin. Coles noted that "since adult education was given scant consideration, until very reCently, in most Western Countries, this same attitude was inevitably export- ed to the colonies,"1 including Nigeria. There was little or no attempt made to reshape educational policy and prac~w tice for the special needs of Nigeria. Coles also pointed out that "adult education has been regarded as a nice though not essential frill at home, why should it be different else— where?" However, there were limited funds available for educat- ion, and not without justification, it was decided that I all the meager resources available should go into the formal schooling for children.- Hence, "in Nigeria be- ' tween 1918 and 1939, the percentage of the budget devoted ‘ to education crept up from 1 percent to 4.3 percent, and i only reached double figures after the war when the country was being groomed for independence."2 Even in the years immediately before independence, and after independence, additional funds for education tended to go into the edu- cation of children, leaving adult education to pick up the 2 scraps from under the table. Coles gave another reason for restricting adult edu- cation by the colonial administrators. This was the con- viction that the educated, or partially educated man was likely to become a political agitator, stirring up trouble, inciting others to revolutionary action. There was the fear that adult education was dangerous, the result being measur- ed mainly, it was conjectured, in unrest and acts of sedi- tion.3 According to Coles, a country can only deveIOp when due regard is given to the improvement of its human resources. This improvement required the total develOpment of the mind, and not only the acquisition of vocational skills.4 Adult education like any enterprise, must buy and pay for everything in the form of goods and services. From hiring the first teacher and purchasing the first desk to constructing adult education centers, finance becomes a critical determinant. Available funds will govern the way an organization is operated and managed and the way it succeeds. It is a simple matter to cause an educational activity to flourish by increasing its revenue or to en- feeble it by denying it financial support. Thus, finance becomes an instrument of control. Money then is a deter- minant of program. The problem in Nigeria in general and in Imo State in particular is that adult education has been receiving a "step-mother" treatment since the colonial days. This marginal status accorded to the education of the adults has ——— 3 made it difficult for the program to receive adequate atten*- tion from the government. Again the government does not realize that the decision-makers today are the adults who manage the affairs of the state, not the children to whose education the government attaches so much importance. This does not mean the education of the young peOple is not im—' portant, just as the education of the adults is important. However, Nigeria (Imo State) cannot afford to wait for a generation to mobilize its rich human resources for tasks of national development. Knowles5 recognizes this when he states that "the society of our age cannot wait for the next generation to solve its problems. Time is running out too fast! Our fate rests with the intelligence, skill, and good will of those who are now the citizen rulers. The instruments by which their abilities as citizen-rulers can be improved is adult education..." It seems that for any development efforts to be meaningful, the adults should be educated in order to keep up with the ever changing world. This is not a static world, there are many technological changes that Nigerian adults need to know about if they are to play their proper roles in the country's development efforts. ‘The dramatic increase in technology and related needs for trained personnel, the mobility of people, the impact of the urban community, the inflation of the economy, and the need for continuing education; all of these issues and con- cerns call for increased emphasis on the capabilities of the educational enterprise; all of these efforts to meet individual, community and national needs require monetary support. Facts and survey findings have testified that there is a relatively high correlation (up to 30%) between illi- teracy and backwardness in knowledge, technological and economic development (Nasution, UNESCO Expert, 1971).6 The obstacle to progress and deveIOpment is ignorance or 1111- teracy which automatically goes along with acute shortage of skilled manpower needed for development. Rogers7 has identified as man's greatest problem in the years ahead, not the hydrogen bomb, not the popula- tion explosion, but rather "the question of how much change the human being can accept, absorb and assimilate, and the rate at which he can take it." Smith8 notes that to learn to live with change, to in- fluence change so that it becomes social progress, to humanize our institutions and our environment would appear to be high on the list of future priorities. As society becomes more specialized and fragmented this priority must be equated with survival needs as well as Maslow's Clarion call for self—actualization needs. Adult and continuing education programs are therefore essential to alert the society of the ever changing world. The communities in Imo State very much need community services, instruction programs. Paul Lengrand, in An Introduction to Lifelong Education makes an eloquent case for instruction of the type provided by Community Service and other non-traditional programs. His basic premise is llIIIIIIIIIIIII--::r———————————————**r’ 5 that the condition of man has, since the beginning of this century, been fundamentally changed "by a series of new challenges which to a large extent modify the terms of in- dividual or community fate, render the actions of men more complex and involved, and jeopardize the traditional pat- terns of explanation of the world and of action."9 He identifies the major factors contributing to this phenomenon as follows: 1) Acceleration of the pace of change: “From decade to decade man is faced with a physical, intellectual and moral universe so vastly transformed that yesterday's interpre- tations no longer meet the need."10 2) Demographic expansion: "Among the first consequences is an obvious one of a quantitative nature: the demand for education is continually increasing...meanwhile the ex- pectation of life is also extending rapidly..."11 3) Evolution of scientific knowledge and technology: "A man who does not keep up to date is condemned to be over- taken...in numberless sectors of industry or agriculture the need for constant renewal of concepts and techniques dominates at every level of production."12 4) Political challenges: "From one year to the next...men of our present generation find themselves projected into a new kind of society involving different types of political, legal or social institutions, far reaching changes in the structure of the social classes...and the creation of new relationshipsbetween the citizen and the public powers... citizens are called...to new tasks and responsibilities —i—i ’ 6 which they can only undertake with the desired competence if they have received suitable training."13 5) Information explosion: "Information can only play a constructive role if it is accompanied by an intense and continuous process of training. The understanding, inter- pretation, assimilation and use of the messages and data received call...for a comprehension of language...for practice in the reading of signs, and above all for the development of a critical sense and the ability to choose..."14 Raybould,15 formerly the Director of the Extra-Mural Department of Ibadan University, in his final report on the program of extra-mural studies of the university recommend- ed strongly for extension of development to all rural parts of Nigeria through adult education. Nash, in his report on the Anchan Rural Development Settlement Scheme, emphasized the need for development of rural Nigeria through the education of adult; as he remarked: Our work here would have been enormously simplified had there been one or two literates in every hamlet who could have read out messages to the hamlet heads. We must look forward to the day when every order from the Emir and District Heads is nailed up on the village tree, and the peasant really understands what he is supposed to do. When the peasant can read the scales and work out hOW'mUCh he should get, he will become a much wealthier man.16 -41 ...r .__.i,...----._. Buschman, formerly the Dire J . _ ctor, Division of Extra- Mural Studies, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, in his talk to the Adult Education Conference on "importance of adult Education in a developing society remarked: ...But if Africa generally and Nigeria specifically is 7 to develop rapidly in all the ways it must be because the adults of Nigeria have been developed through edu- cation and enlightenment and this means adult education. These great masses of rural people have had little or no formal education. They have had only the traditional family training given in the village...Therefore, a massive, functional and satisfying adult education pro- gram must be launched to reach all adults in Nigeria... What has been done is very commendable when you consider what you had to do with itlin terms of numbers of people and the financial support. One of the difficulties in financing the education of adults is the prevalence of certain myths, misconceptions and miscomprehension about the subject. For example, a good many people seem to believe that there may be a conflict between support for the education of adults and the edu- cation of children. Nationally, feeling deeply as they do about the need of educating children, they tend to resist any proposal which, in their eyes, might jeopardize edu- cational opportunity for young people. Adult education in Imo State of Nigeria has been and will continue to be a marginal enterprise unless something Em \ is done\about supporting it financially. The program has one leg in the formal school system and the other in the real world of the adult learner. Because of this, the financing of the program, the administration of the program, the teach- ing and the methods of instruction vacillate between the two. As part of the formal school system, adult education should have specific curriculum, an academic school year, certifi- cated teachers and provide instruction according to the model or expectations created by the formal school system. On the other hand, as part of the real world of the adult learner, adult education should have a flexible curriculum based on 8 specific learner needs, short-term instructional segments that are guided by the amount of time the learner has avai- able for investment in learning, teachers who are experts in specific content areas and competent as facilitators of learning and provide instruction that is interactive and participatory based. "Adult education has become of such importance for man's survival and happiness that a new attitude toward it is needed. Nothing less will suffice than that people every- where should come to accept adult education as normal, and that governments should treat it as a necessary part of the educational provision of every country." These are the con- cluding sentences of the Montreal Declaration endorsed unanimously by delegates to the Second World Conference on Adult Education held in 1960. Not long ago, the head of a major foundation gave a short answer to a proposal put to him by a national organi- zation. He replied, "we have nothing but praise for your organization." In most instances, adult education has re- ceived just that, praise - lip service - when what is really required is scrutiny, criticism, support and money. As the Director General of UNESCO in March 1964 at Adult Education Conference held in Abidjan points out: It is not the children of today who hold the present destiny of Africa in their hands, it is the adults, so it is only by establishing effective communication with the adult population, by helping them to adjust to a rapidly changing world that an immediate impact can be made on the urgent problems of our society and essential progress be brought about. Africa cannot wait a gene- ration to mobilize itfsrich human resources for tasks of National Development. 9 The Problem STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM: Before the Civil War (1967) in Nigeria, education, both formal and adult education has been funded by the government, individuals, and missionaries. After the Civil War broke out, education in the Eastern States was non-existent. At the end of the war, the Federal Government felt that the educational development had been lagging behind, as a result, the government took over the control of education. Mission Schools and other educational activities were taken over by the government. Since then, the government has been hear- ing the major costs of education. There is diverse opinions whether the pre-war arrangement - where the missionaires were in control of most educational institutions, was better than it is now or vice versa. It is therefore, essential to conduct this survey in order to determine the perception of adult education officers, because these are the practiti- oners Ihythe field who know the impact of the present and past systems. In Imo State, adult education activities are very marginal. The state was created after the Civil War, (1976) and depends almost entirely on the Federal Government for funds necessary to provide education for its citizens. The funds made available by the Federal Government go to fi- nancing formal education, while adult education programs are brushed aside. One of the bad consequences affecting adult education directly is that the government and others con- cerned have concentrated their interests, efforts, and 10 financial resources totally on school education, leaving adult education aside. Nasution19 noted that there is no special budget for adult education in the federal plan, and in state plans, "it is awarded from nil tp a few percent only." However, he points out that adult education cannot be financed by the government alone; it is the common duty of the government, and the governed. V01untary organizations, 20 points groups and individuals have obligations. Odokara, out that adult education programs do not have adequate fi- nancial and physical resources. The rate of literacy is very low. In 1974, Tugbiyele21 said, "in Nigeria as far as literacy is concerned, about forty million...roughly half of the pOpulation...can be re- garded as "forgotten people." Okedara noted that "one of the reasons why Nigeria is underdeveloped is because her human resources are untapped and her people are predomi— 22 Olatunbosun23, also noted in his book: nantly illiterate." Nigeria's neglected Rural Majority, that by 1975, after over sixty years of colonial rule and fifteen years of political independence, "rural Nigeria (consisting) of about 80 per- cent of the population" and contributing "more than 50 percent" of the state revenue "has not changed significantly." He noted that this 80 percent of the population shared only 20 percent of the government expenditure between 1960-1974.24 The determination of the best ways and means of financing adult education programs to reach both rural and urban communities alike constitute the central problem of this study. 11 Purpose of the Study: 1. It was the purpose of this study to determine the best method of financing adult education programs in Imo State of Nigeria. 2. To make on the basis of this analysis, suggestions and recommendations for joint financing of adult education pro- grams by private, voluntary and government agencies in Imo State. Significance of the Study: This is the first study ever in the area of adult ed- ucation financing in Imo State of Nigeria. A comment by Dr. A. Adedeji, former Federal Commissioner for Education, in his speech to the Nigerian National Council for Adult Ed- ucation at Nsukka, July 1973, points to the significance of this study. He commented: It is now generally agreed that economic development is more than merely stepping up the rate of capital ac- cumulation and the rate of growth in Gross Domestic Product. The development process involves more funda- mental phenomena. This includes wholesale, economic, social and administrative reforms; perceptible changes in the attitude of the generality of the people to work, savings and investment, and to life generally and their traditions and social customs and a wide spread accept- ance of discipline in private and national life... economic development touches all aspects of a society Old habits and and the lives of the individuals in it. ways of life have to be discarded or modified; age-long customs have to yield more to modern ones; traditional technology is replaced by modern and more efficient technology; old values are threatened and eventually This is the development process pushed out by new ones. ...it brings about change in all directions in all facets of our life. This change calls for adaptation and leads to yet further change.25 Adult education can contribute significantly to the development process as described above, that is, it can help 12 in changing the attitudes of individuals, in fostering skills to enable advantage to be taken of the new technology, and in providing the ground work of change. Although some ele- ments of development can be achieved from an increase on more conventional capital, the rate of growth of any state will be seriously hampered without the development of its human resources. The skill and knowledge of the labor force, both employed and self-employed needs constant improving and extending and only programs of adult education can accomplish that improvement and extension (since the working population is past the age and stage of formal education). As W.A. Lewis commented: "The quickest way to increase productivity in the less deveIOped countries is to train the adults who are already on the job."26 Odokara27 called for research to be conducted in "methods of financing various aspects of adult education programs that are going on in our communities,’ in a paper presented to the Nigerian National Council for Adult Ed- ucation - First Annual Conference - March 24-28, 1972, and published in Adult Education in Nigeria: The Next Ten Years. He points out the importance of conducting adult educational research by individual adult educators instead of waiting for the government or industries to give directives. The Task Force appointed by the Nigerian National Council for Adult Education28 to make recommendations to the Nigerian government for inclusion in the Five-Year National Development Plan (1975-1980) called for research studies on all aspects of adult education programs, 13 including financing. The Task Force noted that financial problems are among the major drawbacks for many adult ed- ucation programs in the country. Millions of Niara are being spent on development projects with little or no impact on social problems, but relatively little is being spent to help the disadvantaged, the low- skilled, and the chronically unemployed to develop their skills by which they can improve themselves, and thereby help to make the development programs more effective. There are many adults, who have a strong desire to learn but who face various barriers of costs, information, facilities, etc. Coles29 noted that in general, adult education continues' to be under-financed when considered in relation to the tasks to be undertaken and when compared to other sectors of edu- cation. Among the reasons for this sorry state, Coles states are: In the first place, where there is a lack of national policy and clarity over the purpose and significance of adult education on the part of the government, it is less likely to attract the resources it needs. Secondly, (and this is very true of Imo State), civil services as a whole, and ministries of education in particular, are controlled by people, who themselves were trained at a time when adult education was not conceived as being important. To many of them, and this comment also applies to elected representatives in parliament, the other sectors of education are the normal and proper ones and adult education no more than a peripheral frill.30 Such people as mentioned above need persuasion (perhaps, through research) before they are willing to allocate funds, required for adult education programs. Another View that contributes to the marginality of adult education is the View that adult education is not a professional job but one 14 better left to the willing and often unpaid, volunteer amateur. Those who hold to this contention see no necessity to make provision for full-time appointments and a career structure. Again, there is a conviction that adults should pay for their education and that only in this way will the facilities offered be appreciated.31 Invariably, the alternative suggestions and recommen- dations of this study will help significantly in pointing out the best ways and means of financing adult education programs in the state. It would, therefore, seek to promote widespread pOpular awareness and symbolic participation by individuals, private and government agencies in adult ed- ucation programs. Therefore, this study is intended to touch the "conscience" of Imo State Government to live up to its responsibility of providing continuing education to the adult population of the state. Delimitations of the Study: The delimiting factors which were established to confine the scope of this study are as follows: Only Adult Education Officers in Imo State were 1. studied. The reliability and validity of the find- ings depend on the sincerity of the responses given by the Education Officers. 2. This study does not provide a complete answer to adult education financing. 3. The time for the study was limited, that the ques— tionnaire was administered to suit the time -constraint. 4. Lack of adequate finance for this study made travel- Much of the findings ing about the state difficult. of this study depends upon the data collected'on the very day the Education Officer was visited. Some Adult Education Officers did not fill out the questionnaire given to them. 15 5. Lack of funds and time contraints make it difficult to extend the scope of this study to other states of Nigeria. Therefore generalization in this study was limited to Imo State of Nigeria. Research Questionnaire and Hypotheses: The following were the research questions which the in- formation generated by this study answered: 1. The study provided data on the best ways and means of‘financing adult education as perceived by the Adult Education Officers. This study provided data on the ability of the Adult Education participants in both rural and urban areas to pay as perceived by the Adult Education Officers. 3. The study provided data as to the need for joint funding of Adult Education by both private, voluntary and government agencies as perceived by the Adult Education Officers. Hypotheses: The hypotheses that stem from the above research quest— ions, and tested at1r=.05 level of significance were: General Hypothesis 1 The Adult Education Officers in Imo State of Nigeria would perceive the research questions related to the best ways and means of financing adult education as factors for promoting adult education programs in the state. Operational Hypothesis la That there is no statistically significant differences between men and women Adult Education Officers' perception on the best ways and means questions related to financing adult education. Operational Hypothesis lb That there is no statistically significant differences in perception among Adult Education Officers in both rural 16 and urban areas on the best ways and means questions related to financing adult education. Operational Hypothesis 1c That there is no statistically significant difference in the perception of Adult Education Officers with varying experiences on the best ways and means questions related to financing adult education. General Hypothesis 2 The Adult Education Officers in Imo State of Nigeria will perceive the research questions related to the ability of adult participants to pay as factors related to very few participants in adult education programs. Operational Hypothesis 2a That there is no statistically significant differences in perception among Adult Education Officers in both rural and urban areas on the research questions related to the ability of participants to pay. gperational Hypothesis 2b That there is no statistically significant differences between men and women Adult Education Officers on the re- search questions related to the ability of participants to PaY- Operational Hypothesis 2c That there is no statistically significant differences in the perception of Adult Education Officers with varying experiences on the research QUEStionS related to the ability of participants to pay. 17 General Hypothesis 3 The Adult Education Officers in Imo State of Nigeria will perceive the research questions related to joint fi- nancing of adult education by both private, voluntary, and government agencies as the best means of promoting adult education activities in the state. Operational Hypothesis 3a That there is no statistically significant differences between men and women Adult Education Officers' perception in joint financing of adult education. Qperational Hypothesis 3b That there is no statistically significant differences between the rural Adult Education Officers and urban Adult Education Officers' perception of joint financing of adult education. Qpegational Hypothesis 3c That there is no statistically significant differences in the perception of Adult Education Officers with varying experiences on the research questions related to joint financing of adult education. Definition of Terms The following terms which are defined as follows are used in this study: 1 7,. Adult Education: The definition adopted for this study is that of Jensen, Liveright and Hallenbeck, which stated that "adult education is a relationship between an educational agent and a learner in which the agent selects, arranges, and continuously 18 directs a sequence of progressive tasks that provide syste- matic experiences to achieve learning for those whose parti- cipation in such activities is subsidiary and supplementary to a primary productive role in society.“32 Adult Education Officer: The person who is delegated the responsibility of or- ganizing and developing educational experiences to meet the needs of adults. Community Services Instruction: As defined for the present study, the community services instruction includes various seminars, short courses, lec- tures, workshops, forum series, institutes, conferences and activities classes which people attend in order to acquire certain information or skill. Adult Education Program: In this study, adult education program includes only educational programs sponsored by Imo State Government and institutions of higher learning for the adults of both rural and urban communities of Imo State of Nigeria. Rural Community: A geographic area in which there is a high degree of association among people and in which the majority of the people are farmers, fishermen, miners and traders. Tiara: The unit of currency in Nigeria. Community Education: Community education is a process of creating an environ- ment conclusive to improving the quality of the life of all IlllllllllIIII---::*————————————*** l9 citizens. It involves programs for reading achievement, health education, occupational education, special education for the handicapped and other programs intended to produce a democratically enlightened citizenry.33 The National Development Plans: The Nigerian National Development Plan, according to the Foreign Policy Association,34 is a comprehensive federal document which outlines the focal points of Nigeria's deve- ment program. The plan "delineates objectives, attempts to quantify economic targets and sets economic priorities...“ Non-formal Education: According to Ahmed and Coombs35 non-formal education refers to the assortment of organized and semi-organized educational activities operated outside the regular structure and routing of the formal educational system, aimed at serv- ing the great variety of learning forms and needs of the different ages and groups of the population. Illiterate: A person who cannot read and write in any of the local languages and/or English and who cannot sign his or her name in that particular language. Literate: A person who can read and write in any of the local languages and/or English and who can write or sign his or her name in that particular language or languages. 20 Summary This chapter has attempted to provide some introductory information on the financing of adult education in Imo State of Nigeria, the statement of the problem, the purpose, and the significance of the study. It has also shown the limiting factors of the study and covered both the general and operational hypotheses as well as the definitions of selected terms used in the study. Chapter 2 will attempt to review the relevant literature to the study. Chapter II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE Adult education has become of such importance for people's survival and happiness that a new attitude towards it is needed. The field of adult education impinges upon many disciplines as it grows and assumes its all—important role in a society. Adult education is provided by many agencies and institutions which differ widely in purpose and support. Sociology, gerontology, anthropology, psychology, political administration, economics, group dynamics, and adult educational theories provide resources for the adult educator as he/she studies the needs of adults in a community. Adult education may be defined in terms of the individu— als and groups served, agencies and institutions offering programs, methods used, subject matter covered, functions or skills and proficiencies taught. More broadly, it may be defined as a means of social adjustment as well as an edu- cational movement. One of the biggest problems of the adult education move;7 ment in Imo State of Nigeria is finance. The financial re- quirements of the program is so great that it is assuming a crisis point. Adult education in the state is not receiving equal attention as is the education of the young people. It is necessary therefore, for the educational authorities in Imo State of seek out new sources of revenue, from both public and private sources. For the purpose of this study, adult education is de— fined as those organized learning experiences under the 21 22 auspices of the Imo State Ministry of Education and In- stitutions of Higher Learning for helping in the improvement of individual adults and communities in Imo State. The limiting circumstances of life which this program should assume to eliminate include: inability to read and write, ill-health, poor housing and family instability, unemploy— ment, poor agricultural productivity, insecurity based on superstitution and poor income, tribalism, and lack of skill for gainful employment. The following review of research and literature was generally limited to the concept of financing adult and continuing education programs as the effort of government agencies to link the education of the adults to their in- dividual, national, economic and social developmental needs. Several years ago Sir Winston Churchill wrote in vigo- rous fashion about the imperative of financing the education of men and women: There is, perhaps, no branch of our vast educational system which should more attract within its particular sphere the aid and encouragement of the State than adult education. How many there must be in Britain, after the disturbance of two destructive wars, who thirst in later life to learn about the humanities, the history of their country, the philosophies of the human race, and the arts and letters which sustain and are borne for- ward by the ever-conquering English language? This ranks in my opinion far above science and technical instruction, which are well sustained and not without their rewards in our present system. The mental and moral outlook of free men studying the past with free minds in order to discern the future demands the highest easures which our hard-pressed finances can sustain. The present review of the literature has been organized around five topics. These topics include: Definition and —>— 23 philosophy, research studies of financing, economic benefits of education, adult education and development, and adult educational needs in Imo State of Nigeria. Qefinitions and Philosophy of Adult Education Among the developing countries who are in a hurry to use education as a means of catching up with the developed countries, programs in adult education have always been develOped without the careful statement of purposes which are required. Events have shown that such hurried programs usually operate haphazardly without contributing meaning- fully to the solution of the deveIOpmental problems of the society and the individuals. Often, the programs are com- pletely shaped in a distant government office with little or no consideration to the changing needs of the pe0ple and their environment. Definitions: Adult education has suffered from attempts at defini- tion. These have tended to fall into two categories. One type consists of some vague, rather uplifting generalization which is undoubtedly true but which is unlikely to move a hard-headed government official or business executive to allocate funds in support of such work. Some statements about adult education have tended to give the impression that adult education is nebulous and with no secure roots. It is about something important, but nobody is clear what that illusive something is. Furthermore, such definitions are equally applicable to all other aspects of the educati- onal spectrum. 24 The other kind of definition consists of a list of the activities which take place within the general term adult education. Thus, adult education might be described as in- cluding "Literacy teaching, women‘s club work, fundamental, foundation and social education, vocational studies, liberal education, correspondence courses and so on.2 All of these are undoubtedly aspects of adult education. The production of such a list, however, gives the impression that adult education is no more than a "hodge podge" of activities lacking cohesion and without any definite purpose other than providing adults with useful activities, some of which may help them in their struggle to improve their lot in life. However, it is not easy to lay a blueprint for adult education with the same degree of orderliness as is possible with other branches of education. But a plan for adult education must be flexible, and must provide educational sustenance to meet the needs and reflect the experiences of both economic and social man and woman. At the same time, adult education can be shown to be undertaken with real purpose and discipline so that it would be regarded with favour by those who have to grapple with the complexities of national and state budgets and lists of priorities. Events in Nigeria in general and in Imo State in parti- cular can rightly be described as revolutionary, for there is no aspect of living which appears stable and unchanged. In such circumstances, men and women need special help in appreciating the bewildering changes taking place and in understanding the new societies being created and their 25 place and responsibilities in them. The future is going to be especially difficult for those adults who are unable to get adequate formal education. Whose children are going to be far better educated in an academic sense than the parents, but who non-the-less have a vital contribution to make to the general well—being of society. It is this aspect of adult education in which men and women are enabled to develop their minds and thus make their contribution "to the growth of a viable and purposive society"3 which is so essential and is also so difficult to operationalize. r The traditionalist defines adult education as an in- formal type of education which is meant for those who have had some experience with normal adult responsibilities of life; that it is free from the rigid disciplines of compul- sory curriculum - requirements which terminate in a final examination and an academic degree; that it is voluntary and that the magnitude of learning depends on individual interests and initiative and not on competitive tests; finally, that the only valid measure of adult education is the personal qualification of the individual concerned and the quality of his behavior as a citizen and functionary in a democratic society.4 Many of the statements defining adult education appear in the literature. Bryson, in.a more general sense» defined adult education as "all the activities with an educational purpose that are carried on by people, engaged in the ordinary business of life."5 Knowles defined adult education as "a lifelong —7—— 26 process of discovering what is not known."6 Verner, as he formulated his definitions of adult edu- cation, suggested that education, is "the creation and main- tenance of instructional situations that provide eXperiences in which both information and the control of the appropriate intellectual behavior are systematically and simultaneously acquired." He combined his insights into the concepts of "education" and "adulthood" to form this definition of adult education: Adult education is a relationship between an educational agent and a learner in which the agent selects, arranges, and continuously directs a sequence of progressive tasks that provide systematic experience to achieve learning for those whose participation in such activities is subsidiary and supplemental to a primary productive role in society. Similarly, Essert, in defining adult education stated: Adult education is an experience of maturing, voluntare ily selected by people whose major occupation is no longer that of going to school or college, in which these individuals or groups plan meaningful tasks and apply sustained inquiry to them...the major portion of adult education,in the nation is engaged in helping peOple meet their individual needg as they are inter- preted by individuals themselves. According to Houle, adult education is "the process by which men and women (alone or in groups) attempt to improve themselves by increasing their skills or knowledge, develop- ing their insights or appreciations or changing their atti- tudes; or the process by which.individuals or agencies attempt to change men and women in these ways."9 The Task Force appointed by the Nigerian National Council for Adult Education in 1973 has defined adult edu— cation as a process whereby men and women "undertake sequt tent or s iden body adul and and as \ adul ion is lea (d) dan ing Ci; PU] 0n; ed th in in 27 sequential and organized activities with the conscious in— tention of bringing about changes in information, knowledge; or skills, appreciation and attitude; or the purposes of identifying and showing personal and community needs."10 UNESCO in 1976 defined adult education as "the entire body of educational processes whereby persons, regarded as adults in their social milieu, develop abilities, knowledge, and qualifications; creates change in attitudes and behaviors. It is an integral part of "life-long education and learning" and implies a restructuring of existing delivery services, as well as a developing of an array of new services to the adults."11 Rochte12 after examining many technical definitions, found that there is general agreement that adult education is characterized by being: (a) voluntary, on the part of the learner, (b) part-time, (c) under organized auspices, and (d) for persons beyond the age of compulsory school atten- dance. These definitions, embracing the dual purpose of achiev- ing individual self-fulfilment and increasing social parti- cipation, lay to rest the notion that adult education is purely concerned with what were once regarded as non-vocati- onal activities. Adult education embraces all forms of educative experiences needed by men and women according to - their varying interests and requirements, at their differ- ing levels of comprehension and ability, and in their chang- l3 ing roles and responsibilities throughout life. The definition of adult education is basic to its ph: st ad si po an th ac' ic 28 philosophy. Philosophy: The philosophy of adult education is expressed in the statements of goals and purposes. Many writers have based their goals and purposes of adult education upon needs of the individual, others empha- size needs of society, while others emphasize both aspects. Townsend Coles in 1969 pointed out that "a central pur- pose of adult education is to prepare adults for life in new and changing circumstances."14 Havighurst and Orr15 in 1956 held the View that while the curriculum grows out of the development tasks of the adult, it should also grow towards the developmental direct- ions in which a person should grow if he is to be happy and useful to himself. Knowles expressed the view that the mission of adult education is "helping individuals to develop the attitude that learning is a lifelong process and to acquire the skills of self—directed learning."16 lamuel B. Gould noted: Nontraditional study is more an attitude than a system and thus can never be defined except tangentially. This attitude puts the student first and the institution second, concentrates more on the former's need than latter's convenience; encourages diversity of individual opportunity rather than uniform prescription; and space, and even course requirements f de—emphaSizes time, in favor of competence and, where applicable, per or- mance. It has concern for the learner of any age and circumstance, for the degree aspirant as well as the person who finds sufficient reward in enriching life through constant, periodic, or occasional study. Knowles expressed the View that the foundat- Elsewhere, When >f good organization is a "democratic philosophy." 8P? be It re of CC 29 applied to adult education, "it means that the program will be based on the real needs and interests of the participants. It means that policies will be determined by a group that is representative of the participants. It means that all members of the organization will participate, and that there will be cooperative sharing of responsibility."18 Bergevin was quite specific in what he considered to be the purposes of adult education: To help the learner achieve a degree of happiness and meaning in life; 2. To help the learner understand himself; his talents and limitations and his relationship with other 1. persons; To help adults recognize and understand the need for life-long learning; 4. To provide conditions and opportunities to help the adult advance in the maturation process spirit- ually, culturally, physically, politically, and vocationally; To provide, where needed, education for survival, 5' in lit gacy, vocational skills, and health mea- sures. Houle20 in his analysis of the field of adult education {escribed four orientations held by different groups of adult ducators that relate to the question of purpose (he calls rem credos): Centering on goal. There are those in adult education > believe "...that adult education should be a movement fied by a common effort to achieve a single all encom— . "21 Sing goal. Meeting needs and interests. A large number of adult ators believe that people know what they need, "...and the shl CI Gr en CE Cl 30 the task of the adult educator is to discover what that is and provide it for them."22 3. Strengthening Leadership. The focus of adult education should be on developing strong leaders in the field. "The creator of an institution or movement, such as Bishop Grundtvig,...uses the forces of personality to achieve the ends sought."23 4. Increasing informality. "Many educators of adults con- ceive of themselves as enemies of systematization, parti- cularly as it is manifested in childhood-youth education."24 Knowles and Klevins note that the philosophy of adult and continuing education will "no doubt continue to adjust to the fluxing needs of its clientele and to the moving parameter created by the communities of our world."25 There is no doubt that the main purpose of education is to enable men and women to gain a better understanding of the world in which they live, through the development, to the full, of their "potential capacities, whether spiritual, intellectual or moral." But there should be another and more practical aim: "Education should enable the individual to earn a living and to contribute to the material (economic) and social development of his/her society."26 This secondary aspect of education, the writer believes, should be the phi- losophy of adult education in Imo State of Nigeria. In other words, those engaged in the adult education enterprise should consider practical education as the cornerstone of their Work. Professor Arthur Lewis has always emphasized the im— portance of practical education; but education as a means IE? 31 to economic development has so far not been given any serious attention by those engaged in adult education in Imo State. Research Studies of Financing There has been very few studies done in the area of adult education finance. Brunner, in introducing his book: An Overview of Adult Education Research has explained why so little research about adult education is to be found anywhere: An examination of research in adult education reveal a rather chaotic situation. A few pertinent areas, such as adult learning, have been explored far more thoroughly than others. Some have received almost no research attention. Where any considerable body of effective research is available, other than in the field of method typically it has been conducted, not by adult educators, but by Social Scientists who have available a considerable body of theory, generalizations and methodologies developed by their disciplines, which could be applied to problems of adult education. Adult education is a new profession. Its practitioners have all been overwhelmed by the demands upon them resulting from millions of clients. A vast majority of the actual teachers are part-time workers, giving only a few hours a week. Many are volunteers. Adult education is in its in— fancy as a discipline and with relatively few universities and graduate students in the field, the labour force avail- able for needed research has been totally inadequate... Another reason for the paucity of adult education re— search has been the lack of financial support...many school boards have been lukewarm in their support of adult educati- on and what funds were available have, understandably, gone into operating the educational program...it may be useful to note the large amount of research with respect to elemen- tary and high school education and administration and the mil sy: agc "F Co Ad of ar ti pL‘ fl st 32 miniscule quantity of adult education research in the school system, despite the fact that schools are one of the primary agencies of adult education.27 However, some work has been done. The Olds Study, "Financing Adult Education in America's Public Schools and Community Councils," a report of the National Commission on Adult Education Finance of the Adult Education Association of the United States, reported that states where tax funds are used to support adult education "enrolled almost three times as many adult students as states that do not provide public financial assistance." The report has a number of findings and observations that are pertinent to the present study: Support is required for adult education from govern- mental sources if it is to adequately meet the kind and amount of individual and community needs. Each school district needs to work out its own plan for support, carefully considering available resources from state aid for general adult education, vocational education..» Every state should provide specific financial aid to adult education as a part of its foundation program of assistance to public schools, and essentially on the same basis as that provided elementary and secondary education... State finance programs for public education should authorize and make available enough aid to result in an expenditure for adult education in each school district accounting to a minimum of two to three percent of the total expenditures for elementary and secondary education. 29 VClark in his book: Adult Education in Transition, 'Points out that one handicap of public school adult education is its marginal position. It is a new activity and must com— pete for support with long established elementary and high School divisions. Clark notes that the idea that adult 33 education has a claim on tax funds has not been accepted by the general public to nearly the degree that education of children and youth has been. _ _ Holden30 in his study of "Factors Relating to the Financial Support of Continuing Education as Revealed by a Study of Selected Michigan Communities," found much evidence about willingness of adults to pay fees but reported that they are comparatively more willing to pay for courses which will increase their earning capacity than for other types. To a considerable degree, however, they will also pay for activities that will provide satisfaction of a cultural or recreational nature. When asked to what purposes tax funds might be spent for the education of adults, they favored education in public affairs, vocational education, home and family life education, intellectual and cultural development, and recreational skills. A committee presided over by Sir Eric Ashby, after reviewing previous studies as well as British practice of adult education for nearly a century, prepared a report en- titled "The Organization and Finance of Adult Education." Some of the recommendations made by the committee are as follows: The present partnership in adult education between voluntary bodies, universities, local educat1on author- ities and the Ministry should be preserved but that 1t should continue to be reviewed from time to time. The Ministry's policy in financing adult education should always be such as to encourage voluntarism. d to aid Local education authorities should be encourage _ adult education by contributing toward the administrat ive costs of responsible bodies and by providing 34 ation free of charge, in addition to the direct accommod hemselves make. provision they t Courses of high quality should not be excluded from grant on the grounds that they might have a vocatlonal interest for some students. If possible some assurance should be given to responsi- ble bodies that the Ministry's total allocation of grant for adu§f education would not suffer reduction at short notice. Londoner32 in 1974 conducted a study to determine which, if any, attribute variables differentiated significantly between adult students who paid their own educational ex- penses and students whose expenses were paid by a public agency, and found that "agency—paid adult students were more likely to rate the educational goals higher in importance than self‘Paid students." This finding is, however, con- trary to the generally held belief that agency-paid students do not hold these educational goals high in importance. W I From the time the British brought education into Nigeria, 1t has been financed through the grant-in-aid system and through Private sources. As Callaway33 noted, the SYStem Of flnanCing education is through the grant-in-aid system, while the remaining expenditure was financed by private sources rePresented almost exclusively by fees. Both government OPerated institutions, and the ones operated by VOluntary agencies are financed through the same way until after the Civil War when the government completely toOk Over all edu- ' . - encies I cational lnstitutions including those run by Prlvate ag 393% . w of Callaway showed a schematic View of the flO fit of pr; to th CC (n 35 ' ' ' 1)34 He distin— finance for education in Nigeria (Figure . sources of income from sources of finan01ng. Sources guished of financing is shown as government-central or local—and private. While sources of income indicate the income flow to the sources of financing, Callaway points out that the sources of financing are also the allocators of finance and the recipients of finance are the public authorities and private agencies or individuals en- gaged in educational activities...the recipients of ginggggngre also the spending bodies, and the users e, the final consumers. Income flows to the government (the financing body) through the usual channels which are represented by (a) the collection of taxes and other forms of internal revenue, and by loans and other transfers received from abroad by central, state, and local governments, and (b) fees and Other incomes paid to the public educational authorities and private agencies and individuals. The amount "devoted to education from aggregate (a) is regarded as financing from internal public sources and the amount of aggregate (b) as internal private sources."36 At Present, the Federal Government of Nigeria is the Principal but not the sole source of funds. States and local governments are also expected to allocate funds to adult education and there is also, the contributions, in . . i- serV1CeS and materials, which voluntary community organ zations are expeCted to make. . 1 in FOr some aspects of adult education, and notab y, ' ' d to giVe Vocathnal training, employers should be requlre readily done where financial support. This will be more 36 muctsxno mmuococo pan Hmcuouxm munch—O .cwuomaz ca :oqucoscm uo mcaocucaml>ozm~acu EOuu poudnu< mooa>uom :uamo: .Mfluomwz :u mauuounuq AooLow cauumosco.u0u oocncfiu uo 30am mru mo zofl> uaumemnow .H ausowm oucccau wo moon: occunm mucousum = Hoorom Ameuoulcoz Eoum m wusuaccwmxw Hoocum HmEuom mmwuwuonusm moquwuorucm cofluoOocm acucwficuw>ow mucmcwu uo manommwomm m oumcmuu I . nonuo pcm mucmuc V Maccaumuspm mucoEcuo>om Acconmu can Houopom mcducncwu Mo mwouaom wucmum Amoco 00 a named .cwpsaocH Amcuoucm mEOUcfi no muonsom moumu use meow accoHumosum mcwp5HUCH \ the t and a decid Coles be ei speci SUpp< fund from Mae 37 the training is manifestly geared to the needs of industry and agriculture and where the employers have taken part in deciding the form and content of the activities offered. Coles points out that sources of funds include: (a) Central Government: Taxation, Charges for Service. (b) State Government: State education taxes, Charges for Services. (c) Local Authorities: Local Taxes, Charges for Services. (d) Non-Statutory Organizations: Membership fees. (e) Employers: Government Levy, Voluntary Contributions. (f) International agencies and Trusts: (g) Students' fees.37 Coles notes that funds from international sources may >e either in the form of multilateral or bilateral aid for Specific projects or from charitable trusts.38 J.R. Kidd also points out that sources of financial ’UPPort for adult education include: _F:§S’ those Paid for tuition and those paid as member- s 1P to an organization. ‘Taxes ‘Philanthropy in various forms including foundation grants. ~Sa1e of services and advertising. -Voluntary service.39 Esarey noted that the most important source of ' . venue unds 1S "Simply that of direct finanCing of general re rom the legislature "40 I ' ' ally fin- Houle pOintS out that adult education is usu s from governments, need by: Taxation; student fees; grant foul all: tui' dUS‘ and 0th in‘ and the 0th fac gra and rai Cat ’7— 38 foundations or other sources; income from endowment; or allocations for the general funds of such sponsoring insti- tuitions as universities, voluntary associations, or in— dustrial corporations. Much of the cost, however, is indirect and comes from contributed service, physical facilities, or other sources. He goes on to say that the task of financing an activity requires the use of all of the avilable resources in the best fashion possible to achieve the desired results.41 On the problems of adult education, Houle notes: The field of adult education has traditionally had three major fiscal problems. The most familiar is inadequacy of funds which prevents an activity from coming into being, restricts its effectivenesi2 and limits particip- ation to those who can afford it. In other developing countries like India, the Central and State Governments provide funds for adult education in their respective budgets. These provisions are shown direct- ly under adult education, or indirectly built into several other related programs such as "youth activities, library facilities, cultural programs, literature production pro- grams, assistance to voluntary agencies, grants to innovative "43 and experimental purposes, etc. Also voluntary agencies raise their own funds through donations, sales of publi- cations and levying of fees. Kurland points out that the present system of financing education is heavily youth oriented. "There is a pervasive ias against the adult part-time student." For the most part, n individual who wishes to receive public support for his/ er post-compulsory education today must be a full-time tudent with financial need. He goes on to say that a full l e P e an t b l 1 s t c1 St di bc 11C 1:}. be in of re 1a 18 III-IIL___7 39 ifelong learning strategy calls for an "age-neutral" ducational finance policy...there is no longer a good public olicy reason for concentrating support of post—compulsory ducation on a younger, full-time student...A system of fin- ncing education for adults should provide for those adults ,0 make the major decisions on how, when, and where funds may >e used.44 egislative Base: Adult education in Nigeria in general, and in Imo State n particular, has been receiving a “Step-mother" treatment ince the colonial days (the colonial masters‘ position on .he education of the adults in Nigeria has been fully dis- ‘ussed in the introduction - Chapter I). This marginal tatus accorded to the education of the adults has made it .ifficult for the program to receive adequate attention from oth Federal and State Governments. As such, there has been 0 legislative base for adult education programs, either in he Federal or State Legislatures. In the United States of nerica for instance, the story of adult education can be est understood by reviewing federal government involvement 1 adult education. Verduin, Jr. et al45 list some = the more significant legislation and executive action lated to adult education. Some of these important Legis- tive Acts are: 62 The Morrill Land Act Granted public land in each state for the sup- port of a college for the enhancement.of agri- culture and mechanical arts and to provide Military training. 15 15 1914 1944 1962 1964 1966 1973 1974 40 Smith-Lever Act Servicemen's Read— justment Act (The G.I. Bill of Rights) Manpower Development and Training Act Economic Opportunity Act Adult Education Act The Comprehensive Employment and Training Act Higher Education Act Amendment, Title I Provided Federal assis- tance for extension training in home econom- ics, agricultural pro- duction, and rural de- velopment. Granted assistance for the education of mili- tary veterans. Established a program of occupational train- ing of the American labor force utilizing the resources of in- dustry, labor, educati- onal institutions, and varous agencies. Among other measures, provided for literary and basic education for adult and provided for volunteers in ser- service to America to develop volunteer services in mental health, migrant, Indians and anti-poverty programs. Expanded basic educati- ional programs for adults to enable them to over- come English language limitations and to im— prove their basic edu- cation in preparation for occupational train- ing and more profitable employment. Provided funds for job training and other ser- vices leading to employ- ment and self-sufficiency. Established a new pro- gram of lifelong learn- ing for adults who have left the traditionally sequenced education system. jec ret ing Sta cai tht em 41 Verduin, Jr. et al, pointed out that the primary ob- jective of adult education legislation "is to prepare and retrain adults for socio-economic self-sufficiency and mean— ingful employment."46 State Legislative Provisions: The newly elected government of Imo State has not pass- ed any legislation governing the provision of adult edu- cation. ,This legislative provision should be considered in the context of Federal-State-Local financial support and encouragement for adult education. However, while the re— lationships among the three levels of government and the support of elementary and secondary education have been quite clearly established, the situation is not at all clear in the case of adult education. In many instances, the state appears to be a passive partner — either an implementer of Federal programs (if any), or a legitimizer of local grograms. The result of this is that the state government Ls without the full knowledge of the magnitude and nature >f local educational programs. Thomas found that: The field of adult education is most active when the state is an active participant in the process of defin- ing needs and suggesting programs to deal with them. A state staff which is knowledgeable about the field, and which is able to provide advice and financial assistance in the development of programs would appear to be a pre— requisite to the development of well-rounded4curricula related to social needs and private demands. Thomas48 believes that commitment to the concept of life- ong learning, shared by governments, private institutions, nd individuals, is essential for the survival of the econ- ic and political institutions, as well as for the well- taint It i: educ. Fees of t whet shou the~ comp Prac adv; f1e: 42 well-being of individuals. Such a commitment has been ob— tained in the case of elementary and secondary education. It is obtained for teacher education. Its extension to the education of adults is, therefore, a logical next step. trees The most contentious potential source of funds is that of the participants themselves. Some questions arise as to whether it is essential that participants pay something or should adult education be made a "right" as is increasingly the case with formal education? Coles offers some compromise: There are certain aspects of adult education which are aimed at specific target groups where payment of fees in money would be inappropriate. This is the case with most literary programs and extension work of the Minis- tries of Agriculture, Health and Labour...where the activities are aimed at raising economic potential and social well being of those who can least afford to pay, the service should be without monetary change...but the basic purpose of the programs is to rid both the in— dividual concerned and the nation as a whole of a scourge, be it illiteracy, wasteful uneconomic farming, land erosion, or the decimation of the population through disease and malnutrition. It would be ludicrous to put a price label on such activities. There are, however, some aspects of adult education which ought to be priced. There are, for instance, those professional and vocational refresher and up- grading courses for well-off, where it would be wholly justified to charge an economic fee to the individual participants and paid for either by themselves or their employers. There are, too, aspects of general edu- cation, middle and upper level correspondence courses and some aspects of social and cultural education for which those bggefiting ought to make some contribution to the costs. Fees as a method of financing adult education is widely practiced and widely approved. Kidd points out some advantages of this method of financing: "It is reasonably flexible; it does provide money in amount directly related to qu HO' da ma ad 10 fe Cl th fi tk oi 43. to the education that is being offered; it satisfies the re- quirement of having the participant make a contribution..."50 However, dependence upon fees can and does influence atten— dance negatively, although fees are only one factor among many that determines participation. The study of financing 51 adult education by Olds discloses that significantly more low income students were enrolled in schools in which no fees were charged. Again, standards may be affected. 52 Clarke in his Adult Education in Transition has charged that the system of full dependence upon fees alters signi- i ficantly for the worse the quality of education offered. There are some notions that adults should pay for what they get. J.R. Kidd in discussing this point notes a number i of notions that seem to have a marked effect upon how people View adult and continuing education. These views are wide- ly held, and they do affect attitude and behavior and almost always to the disadvantage of adult education. Kidd states one of the notions as: "the adult student should always pay for what he gets." He gave four reasons for this notion. ----an adult student values only what he has paid for; he will appreciate, and presumably learn more from a study to which he has contributed money as well as time and attention. ---—"it is good for an adult student" to pay for what he gets. Here the explanation seems not to refer to increased learning as such but to some virtue which results from the act of paying, or of choice, or of self-denial asso- ciated with the paying. r---financing an activity by student fees is the best guarantee of the freedom of the activity from some kind . of control by a government or "vested interest;" 53 ----the adult student can afford to pay for his education. To support these notions, Robert Blakely, formerly Vice— President of the Fund for Adult Education, in a speech, sta stu add: Can] grai bene agre educ garé amor tire adVa Pres jour tora depe 44 stated succinctly some of the values of requiring fees from students: Payment by the participant goes close to the heart of our heritage, which is maximization of individual choice. When you pay for something of this kind, you are making a choice. Money is a representation of your life. Money is the payment to you for a part of yourself that you have given somebody else. So when you pay for these programs, you are demonstrating your judgement that they are worthwhile, worthwile for you. It is very fine to give money to good causes for somebody else to have some- thing, but the program most soundly based is the one in which you pay for yggrself, because you think it is worthwhile for you. ECONOMIC BENEFITS OF EDUCATION Economists have emphasized that education produces, in addition to monetary benefits, many other benefits which cannot be measured in monetary terms. Education produces gratifications both immediate and deferred, which can best be called consumption rather than investment. These kinds of benefits cannot be readily measured. However, most people agree that these less tangible, non-pecuniary outcomes of education are vitally important although they are not re- garded as major motives for participation, particularly among individuals with low incomes. The benefits of education are diffused through the en- tire society. Every member of the society receives some advantage of other member‘s education. For instance, the presence of educated people in the society makes possible the availability of such amenities as newspapers, literary journals, art, music, etc. A concerned and informed elec- torate, one of the prerequisites of democratic government, depends upon an efficient educational system. Again, in a SOC cat mer the '.'ne edt 0&1 ed the va1 "ce tit gn 28] ra1 th. re' ed‘ ed bu bu in 45 society undergoing rapid technological change, adult edu- cation is an important way of reducing structural unemploy- ment. Benefits which are received by third parties (other than the educator and his students) are called externalities or "neighborhood effects." Such benefits often result from the education of adults.55 In his outstanding book - The Economic Value of Edu— cation, Schultz lists a number of categories of educational benefits. Included are the following benefits the economy obtains from educational research, the culti- vation and discovery of (potential) talents, increased "capability of peOple to adjust to changes in job opportuni- ties,...the provision of manpower for sustained economic growth." In addition, education provides for better citi- zenship, the ability to appreciate and recognize a wider range of cultural and other services, reduced reliance on the market for such services as the filing of income tax returns, and a chance to give the next generation better eduoation, and therefore, a better future.56 Adult Education as Investment: A major part of the activities of adult and continuing education contributes to individual and social productivity and may therefore, be regarded as an investment. The contri— bution may be either direct or indirect. Education contri— butes directly to income when the possession of a certificate indicating the completion of a given level of schooling per- nits an individual to obtain employment and income he otherw throug then b may ta l—‘UJI'fl-hLQQJt—‘fm’tl H In sup SOQUSBenefit of education is the development of an informed citi- :enry, without which, democratic institutions could not :urvive."63 Few studies have been done that throw light on the exi— 64 . discusses a tence of non-pecuniary benefits. Hettich ichigan Study showing that more educated individuals sually seek more information about consumer goods. He the] mom Con on per bee cau div twe seq dee to edt inc sta to fr: co. in ac te 48 then calculates the savings an individual can reap from a more efficient buying strategy, using the buying guide of the Consumer Report. 65’66’67 demonstrates the effect of education Michael on home production and fertility, arguing that more educated persons are more productive in non-market activities. The relationship between education and health has also been investigated. Lefocowitz68 argues that there is causal relationship between the levels of education and in- dividual health status and that the observed correlation be- tween income and medical deprivation appears to be a con- sequence of education's relationship with both variables. Orcutt, et al.69 show that the probability of death dedlines as one's educational level is increased. Woe—M. The social benefits of education include, in addition to private benefits, benefits that may be attributable to ducation, but that are so diffused among the population that 'ndividuals would not be able to appropriate them. For in- tance, if educational investment makes a person more prone f o participate in political and civic functions, the benefits rom such participation accrue to the community as a whole. 5 study by Stapleton70 indicated that high school and ollege graduates are generally more likely to participate n political activities (campaigning, voting, and communal Lctivities). Education may make a person more aware of recent echnologyr or more flexible or adaptable to applying new te« of di co De of de le fc re 81 49 technology or ideas to work situations. To the extent that a manager's education, for instance, improves the performance of subordinates, both owners and other employees benefit directly from the manager's education. In addition to improving the economic well-being of a~V//i community, education produces important noneconomic benefits. I Democratic government requires a citizenry with a common fund 1 of values and an understanding of commitment to the rules of ,i democratic government. There are some evidence that more educated persons are 5 less prone to commit crime. Webb71 provides some in— ' formation on the educational background of inmates in cor— rectional institutions versus that of the general population. She calculates the cost of crime attributable to inadequate education to range between $7 billion and $14 billion in 1970. The economic value of education for those who do not enter the labor force is not lost. For instance, women who pursue education, and then choose to raise families may not point to an economic return to their education, it is likely, however, to improve their families' cultural and social opportunities and enhance their children's educational pros- pect. Schultz72 noted that educated parents tend to motivate their children to obtain an education and to excel in school. Education of one generation is passed on to the next, and thus plays an important part in the perpetuation of an educated citizenry. Garms et al.73 points out that the public benefits from the education of the citizens in at least two ways: 50 First, one person's education may change the economic situ-' ations of others. For instance, a trained engineer may im- 1 . W” , prove the productivity of his/her co-workersf Secondly, i education may improve the social environment of a community, making it a better place for everyone to live. Roe L. Johns, et al state that "Education yields \ direct benefits to the students and their families...edu— \ cation also conveys benefits to other families in the communi- / ty and to the society at large - for example, by increasing i indirectly the productivity of persons other than the student 1 himself." They go on to say that "it is the external bene- ; fits associated with education that provide the most per- ( suasive case for subsidizing education with public funds."74 5 / They also point out that: 3 Educational capital is subject to obsolescence. In a i rapidly changing, technologically oriented economy, de-\ mands for various skills and knowledge will change as ‘ new techniques and processes of production are intro- duced. In general, the more specialized a person's : skills, the more rapidly they will become absolete. It 3 is becoming increasingly clear that education cannot be 3 viewed as a process which terminates upon entry into i the work force. Most persons will need to be retrained \ several times during their productive lives. The rapid-1 ity with which highly specialized skills become obsolete‘ suggest that high priority should be given to education directed toward helping people bring to bear knowledge and analytical skills in the solving of problems, as well as toward updating existing skills and acquiring new ones. Education can help to reduce international tensions. Johns and Morphet state that:: Among the factors that contribute significantly...to national and international tensions are ignorance and poverty. Prosperity and progress tend to be threat- ened or disrupted by deprivation and lack of opportun- ity. Unless prompt steps are taken to eliminate Myr: flu. He j invl the eco: One as the may inv ser Ces gai to man far 51 injustice and inequities, the uneducated, the poor, and the exploited are likely to turn increasingly to violence, rioting, or even revolution in their des- perate attempts to remedy their unfortunate conditions... the central problem, on which the future of humanity may turn, is to eliminate the marked educational disparities that exist both among and within nations throughout the world, and to take other related st 85 that will lead to improvement of the human condition. ADULT EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENT Education is valued as a contributor to production. Myrdal,77 in several contents has laid bare the in- fluence of production valuations on development policies. He points out that "the overriding importance of physical investment, and the use of development models, centered on the concept of capital/output ratio" have tended to dominate economic planning in the so-called underdeveloped countries. One of the results has been the justification of education as "investment in man." Development planners have failed to view education as an integral not isolated part of development. It is a fact that expenditure to improve the quality of the population may often be more important for development than physical investment. Education process should be put to work not only in the service of development, but as part of the development pro- cess itself. Opportunities to learn necessary skills and gain knowledge needed for effective action must be available to high level policy-makers as well as to middle level managers and front line workers, and above all to the peasant farmers in the rural areas. The framework for planning and Pl" cu: ba. n0‘ th. thc de' Th: re: li' li: wi: on. asl de‘ of be W01 Dew to COI Pl; im 001 52 programming should be a social change model rather than current economic productivity model. Development must be based on valuations and choices applied to the whole society, not individual sectors or aspects. It is generally agreed that economic development is more than merely stepping up the rate of capital accumulation and the rate of growth in the Gross Domestic Product (GDP). The development process involves more fundamental phenomena. These include wholesale economic, social and administrative reforms; perceptible changes in the attitude of the genera- lity of the people to work; savings and investments, and to life generally and their traditions and social customs and a wide spread of acceptance of discipline in private and nati- onal life. In other words, economic development touches all aspects of a society and the lives of the individuals in it. Adult Education can contribute significantly to the development process. It can help in changing the attitudes of individuals, in fostering skills to enable advantage to be taken of the new technology, and in providing the ground work of change (for example, through literary education). Anosike78 in an article "Education and Economic Development in Nigeria: The need for a new paradigm," points to the problems of the shortage of technological skills and competent manpower in Nigeria, and the role educatiOn can play in its solution, and in arresting the problem of grow- ing mass unemployment. "The quickest way to increase productivity in developing :ountries like (Nigeria) is to train the adults who are alre a ma cont pare impr‘ (I) already on the job." 53 Education for young persons has become a major concern for governments of Nigeria, but its potential contribution to output over a ten-year period is small com— pared with the potential contribution of efforts devoted to 79 improving adult skills. Significance of Adult Education in Development Plan: 1. Rate of growth will be hampered seriously without the development of the human resources. The skills and know- ledge of the labor force, both employed and self-employed, need constant improving and extending, and only adult education programs can accomplish that improvement and extension. Investment in adult education does have the overwhelming advantage of quick returns. Investment in primary edu- cation for school children cannot begin to show any re- sults for six to eight years, while those of secondary and full-time university education take much longer to come to fruition. Adult education is a more viable means in promoting human betterment than the formal school system. There have been enormous, indeed sacrificial expenditures to promote the noble goal of universal education through the school system; but it seems unlikely that such sacri— fice can continue. Adult education may provide a cheap- er alternative. Uneducated adults may also hold back the school system and thus reduce the value of investment in the schools, so that adult education may also be seen as a factor in devel lopme socia devel toe 1 be he deVej educ: onal Shoui Preh. rUn. cati i9110 and land 54 the success of child education. Many rural parents, being uneducated themselves, are still reluctant to send their children to schools and many who send their child— ren have little enthusiasm for keeping them there beyond a year or two. Adult education of all kinds should go hand in hand with full—time formal education through schools and universities. The two are complementary and mutually reinforcing, they should be viewed as the two parts of a whole.80 Tugbiyele observed that "adult education involves the development of human resources...a prerequisite to the deve- lopment of our overall national development - economic, social, cultural and political." He observed that in the developed countries, adult and continuing education is given top priority in national development plans and that it would be naive and wasteful if Nigeria at her present stage of deVelopment would place other issues before a universal adult education program.81 Ifedi82 noted that adult education "is a permanent nati— onal necessity, an inseparable aspect of citizenship which should be both universal and lifelong." He suggested a com- prehensive and compulsory adult education scheme by 1985 to run on the same line as the present Universal Primary Edu- cation in order, to rid the rural areas of abject illiteracy, 0 ignorance and poverty. Eke83 saw no other way of making Nigeria a united strong and self-reliant nation; a just and egaliterian society; a land full of bright opportunities for all citizens; a great and Ollt in t word Ebon illi res; res; by I are in I hell the emp: am: and tow. hat 55 and dynamic economy and a free and democratic society, with- out a universal adult education. Okikiri84 confirmed the significance of adult education in the overall development effort of the nation with the words of Kenule Tsaro-Wiwa, who said: No amount of money spent on agriculture, or indeed on other aspects of our national life at this moment will make the desired impact if most of our people are illiterate...the oil boom while it lasts, should be channelled massively toward educating every Nigerian... We must always remember that our greatest national resource is human not agriculture or mineral. Let us, therefore, develop to the fullest, our human resources. Other things will follow there from. In a study of Calabar (the capital of Cross River State), Ebong85 found that 77.8 percent of his rural respondents were illiterates. He noted that up to 46 percent of the rural respondents as compared to only 10 percent of the urban respondents have never been to school. The latest estimate by Erubu is “that about 60 percent of the people of Nigeria are illiterates."86 If adult and continuing education were seriously pursued in Nigeria, Widstrand87 observed that it could have greatly helped to solve the problems of agriculture, rural economy, the urban unskilled and the unemployed as well as the employed and higher level management sectors of the economy. Elsewhere, Ogunfowora noted that it could have provided a more comprehensive understanding of the produce - supply and demand phenomena in the traditional farming environment towards meeting the three most important objectives in the nation's agricultural development; a) to increase the aggregate agricultural output; Odok ment cat: puls “insi tac] Uni‘ for sec. wri dev ill Imo ove hig St; Cal sug F01 Wil 56 b) to raise the level of income and the standard of living of the farmers; and c) to reduce the rate of rural—urban migration.88 Odokara89 requests the decision—makers for adequate "invest— ment in human capital" and to regard this capital "as the catalytic and crucial agent in national development." While Fafunwa90 recommended that "there should be com- pulsory adult literacy classes throughout Nigeria." Adegbola 'insisted that a national school of adult education be at— tached to the institutes of Extra-Mural Studies in all the Universities, which should be authorized to plan the program for the education of all adults — including elementary and secondary school dropouts, from basic arts of reading and writing - to obtaining degrees outside university walls. The importance of adult and continuing education for the development of all citizens - urban or rual, literate or illiterate, rich or poor, the governing or the governed, in Imo State social, political and economic life, cannot be over emphasized. Adult education certainly deserves the highest charge on the Treasury. THE TASKS OF ADULT EDUCATION IN IMO STATE_ l. The Eradication of Illiteracy. Illiteracy is possibly the most severe limitation of Imo State's economic development, and while more can prove a cause-and-effect relationship, there is a strong case for suggesting a connection between literacy and development. For instance, most countries like United States of America, with very high income per capita also have very high rates 91 of l. esth educ. one scal cati task 11. the educ edu< ways 57 of literacy-usually over 90%.92 Nigeria's literacy rate is estimated as around 30%, though in the opinion of many adult education experts, this appears to be an over-estimation. A study of literacy and development, however, indicates a "minimum threshold of 40% literacy for effective development take-off."93 The problem of illiteracy is enormous. It is one of Imo State's most pressing problems requiring full scale attack if development is to be achieved. The eradi— cation of illiteracy, therefore, should be seen as a vital task. 11. Development of Skills: Development and the adoption of new technologies demands the mastery of a number of skills by the uneducated, under- educated, and the educated as well. Programs for non-formal education can help to spread such mastery in the following ways: (a) Bringing to the vast number of farmers, workers, small entrepreneurs, and others who have never been inside of a formal classroom - or perhaps never will - a spate of useful skills and know— ledge which they can apply to their own and their state's development. (b) Upgrading the competences of partially qualified people — teachers for example - already holding jobs in the private and public sectors, so that they can more effectively perform their jobs. (0) Salvaging the educational investment represented by those thousands who leave primary and secondary ready need to se catic III. in t1 and I thes: inve of w and is n the ment lobe prOg Con: Ind: int: pun 58 schools and the drop-outs who as yet have no jobs, but who can be fitted for some kind of employment with appropriate forms of special training.9 The technological change is so swift that persons al- ready educated, even at the highest level, are constantly in need of re-education and retraining, otherwise, they are left to serve the state with only obsolete knowledge. Adult edu- cation is thus necessary for these groups of people. III. Easing Adaptation to Change: There is a whole cluster of attitudes and ideas common in the community, which adult education could help to alter and whose alteration would promote state development. Among these are: attitude to work, prejudices about savings and investment, and about insurance, attitude to the education of women and girls, toleration of bribery and corruption, and narrow ethnic attachments. Technological progress depends to some extent on a gener- ral atmosphere of scientific thinking. If society at large is not much influenced by scientific ideas, not only will the public take longer to adapt to a technological environ- ment, but workers will take longer to become efficient in jobs requiring some scientific approach. "Adult education programs, through the mass media, and through such means as sourses in civic subjects, can help affect ideas and pre- .judices, promote a scientific attitude and stir cultural interests."95 In not far distant times, development was measured in >urely economic terms. But gradually, it has come to be reco int of t deve impc res min ine grc Ha: per ca] 1e re ad pr PI 59 recognized that there could be growth without development in the sense of improved conditions of living of the majority of the people (Callaway).96 Economic indicators are not the whole determinants of development. Development obviously has its economic side, important as it may be, but people are people; if the human resources of a state are viewed in the same manner as the mineral and animal reserves, a grossly distorted image will inevitably ensue (Coles).97 Real development therefore, must depend on the balanced growth of the people, both as economic and social beings. Harbison argues that "the wealth of a country is de— pendent upon more than its natural resources and material capital. It is determined in significant degree by the know- ledge, skills and motivation of its people."98 It is in irecognition of this that Imo State should add impetus to adult and continuing education if the State's development programs are to be meaningful, and since this has to be com- prehended and understood, it requires an adult mind with an ‘adult's experience of life. In a paper read at the International Conference on Adult Education and Development, Dar es Salaam, 1976, Pro- fessor Kashoki of the University of Zambia rightly points out that developing countries often give precedence to economic and political decisions affecting development while decisions affecting cultural devlopment are postponed. He says: Developing countries which are preoccupied with Th1 ca co le al in 60 development are simultaneously preoccupied with another type of development-cultural development...These national goals are not necessarily compatible, let alone easily harmonized, and they are often in conflict...it would certainly be in the national interest if economic devel- opment took place in step and in harmony with cultural development. It is precisely the conspicuous absence of such a policy in almost all the developing countries that should be of primary concern. The expansion and development of adult and continuing edu- cation programs is an essential and vital foundation and complement to the advance of formal education - at all levels. Adult and continuing education programs are essenti— al in promoting a productive understanding-of great social and technical changes which are facing the adult population in Imo State. Elsewhere, Harbison commented that: It is reasonable to conclude that the wealth of a nation is at least as dependent upon the development of human resources as upon the accumulation of physical capital...it is essential for the politicians and plan- ners to understand that any development plan which does not give high priority to the formation of human capital is simply unrealistic and almost certainly destined to fail, for experience has shown repeatedly that high level manpower does not appear automatically or magi- cally. Economists have repeatedly stressed the importance of giving due consideration to the human factor in develop- ment. Smith noted that "growth depends on growers, upon human beings, on their outlook, their will to achieve some objective, their capacity to achieve it measured, not only in terms of their skills, but in their health and indeed in their spirit."100 ADULT EDUCATIONAL NEED IN IMO STATE Public Demand for Adult Education: fit cas to for ski fox ne< gr< lo‘ nu mo de 6l Economists generally agree that education provides bene- fits for others than those who enroll in programs. In many cases, the benefits to society at large are so extensive as to warrant substantial subsidies for adult education. Every economy is highly dependent on a well-trained labor force. In this period of rapid technological change, new skills are constantly required. If the supply of individuals for certain kinds of skills are less than the demand, bottle- necks are created which will interfere with the orderly growth of the economy. Another justification for adult education programs for low income adults is that low educational levels for large numbers of people cannot be accepted in a functioning de- mocracy. Again, communication is important in maintaining a socially-integrated society, and effective communication depends upon literacy. The present level of poverty in the state is unaccept- able to a large sector of the population. One way of re- 101 is through ducing poverty according to Ribich education. Adult education programs, he says, "can be justi- fied, in part, on the basis of their success in increasing the income level of under—educated adults." The way people behave and interact socially is very important for harmonious communal living. As Strongman points out, social interaction, in addition to being dependent upon learning, does itself constitute a kind of experience to the participants which may produce change in the individual concerned. Socialization occurs in adults as u com; soci cope man: soc In me: no pr QC CE ————1 62 as well as children, and the high frequency of social im— competence in adults, and of circumstances where maladaptive social learning contribute to inadequacy or to inability to cope with essential aspects of personal life, indicate that many individuals, lacking appropriate social skills and social habits, are in need of further adult socialization. In other words, adult education is the answer.102 As far back as 1959, Samuel Adams Jr.103 noted that Nigeria will emerge painfully short of educated manpower. Trained people are needed not only for government positions but for private commercial and industrial enterprises. He also noted that people are needed to execute economic develop- ment plans, to extend, social services as required by a modern state and as demanded by awakening population, to provide adquate representation abroad in diplomacy, for economic affairs, and for contribution to world leadership. Education may be viewed as an embodiment of productive capabilities in the human agent. The more education a per- son has, the greater (on the average) are his earnings. Also, a society with a high level of education tends, on the whole, to have ahigh productive labor force. Hansen104 noted that much economic research has centered on the measurement of the costs and benefits, to the individual, and to society, associated with obtaining additional amount of schooling. In the sense that adult and continuing education provides useful practical skills and knowledge, it is useful and im- portant to the individual and to the state in terms of material consideration. Yet the most important role of adult ed the on pol re; in! sp' di re Ne Le me B: 63 education is in the civic, cultural and moral development of the individual. In this sense adult and continuing educati- on is a potential force for development and promotion of political and social change. Mbonu Ojike in his reflection of African need for emancipation made the follow- ing remarks concerning adult education needs in Nigeria with special emphasis on Eastern Nigeria: The development of Eastern Nigeria will be rapid and more effective if among other things the adults are educated. I believe that very often the first step in adult education has an economic motive; better-made buildings, more efficient farm machinery, better crops, a more rational system for farm accounting. But this in turn will introduce the adult to wider type of edu- cation, concerning itself with leadership, with the correct principles of social behavior, with a sense of dedication and Eggponsibility to the society of which he is a member. General Adult Education Problems Across Nigeria: The problem of financing adult education is a general disease that cuts across all the States in Nigeria. In a report on adult education in Ondo State presented at the National Conference and Seminar of Heads of Sections of Adult Education, October 4-6, 1978, at the University of Lagos, Nigeria, Mrs. Bike Akinduro106 notes that the three major constraints against the running of adult education projects in the state, "is lack of adequate and qualified staff as well as lack of funds." Reports from States, (Kaduna, Oyo, Ondo, Cross River, Bendel, and Plateau) indicate that the general constraints which cut across all the states include: 1) Lack of facilities for development of adult education personnel. 2) 3) 4) gre in feJ ed1 Ove re< ed] re: the fi: re. a) b) C) CC f0 bu 64 2) Lack of effective coordination for adult education work. 3) Problem of non—recognition for adult education work. 4) Lack of adequate remuneration for adult education work— ers. 5) Problem of interministerial relationship in the pro- motion of adult education. 6) Lack of adequate financial support for adult education.107 These problems, the reports pointed out inhibit the pro— gress of adult education in the states. At the National Conference of Heads of Adult Education in State Ministries and the Universities, in 1978, the con- ferees observed that the Federal Government budget for adult education for the financial year 1978—79 was very megre. Over N505.5 million, or 65.5 percent of the total federal recurrent budget for education was budgeted for primary education, only N.2 million or .03 percent of the Federal recurrent budget for Education, was for adult education for the same period. After examining the problems facing the financing of adult education in the country, the conferees recommended that: a) the Federal, State, and Local Governments should continue to finance adult education; b) individuals and organizations be motivated to contribute financially towards adult education through good publi— city and persuasion; c) participants be made to pay basic fees in areas where108 this could be done without scaring away the learners. As Ballantine, Director-Education Division, World Bank correctly pointed out, "The test of adult and non- formal education these days lies in the country's education budget." The budget for adult education, he says, are still vex de\ ade the it an< ta' qur CI ta in hu th 93'. 0P if of of SC mi th Se Sh 65 very low, "desperately low, and the attention that is being devoted (to the education of the adults) is not in any sense 109 adequate." On the essence of adult education, Dr. Osuala observed that apart from enabling the individual to read and write, it makes the citizens aware of their civic responsibilities and improve their personal hygiene and environmental sani- tation. "It should be used to imprOVe the farming techni- ques, native arts and culture and the development of native crafts into small-scale indigenous industries."110 The Role of Voluntary Agencies in Nigerian Education Christian Missionaires have done more than other volun— tary agencies in educating Nigerians. Callaway and Musonelll in 1968 noted that the first schools were founded over a hundred years ago by Christian Missionaries. Obviously, these schools were run and financially supported by the Mis— sionariess However, the government assisted those schools operated by voluntary agencies by giving them a grant-in-aid, if they were eligible to benefit from such aid on the basis of existing regulations.112 Anowi113 noted that education in Nigeria was the child of missionary organizations. A large proportion of the schools in the country then were built with funds which ,missionaries raised through appeals to their members or to their agencies overseas. It can also be said that past services by the missionaries, in spite of some of their shortcomings, have endeared them to the people. In a report by the Ministry of Education, Eastern Nigeria, 1962, 66 it was pointed out that the voluntary agencies - the mis- sionary bodies, "succeeded more than the Regional Government or the Local Authorities in arousing local interest in edu— cation and in raising funds from local communities, for edu— cational purposes."114 Samuel Adams, Jr.115 in an analysis of the background of Nigerian education noted that most of Nigerian education be— gan as the work of Christian Missions. That initially, government took relatively no part except to provide grants for those mission schools in need of assistance. He also noted that beginning in 1882, educational ordinances set the conditions for grants-in-aid to mission schools, based at first on efficiency as judged purely by the number of exam- ination successes. Adams specifically wrote: Presently, up to 90 percent of education at the primary, secondary, and teacher training levels is operated by missiOns or voluntary agencies, with government provid- ing grants-in-aid for staff salaries and for building purposes, except in the North, where government schools predominate. Certainly credit is due to missions, in view of the limits in volume of government assistance available to them, for the advance and pioneering that they accomplish- ed. But with the focus on their efforts on conversions rather than upon likely demand patterns or the develop- ing requirements of a modern state for technical and skilled personnel, the present circumsgance is one of an aching void in educated manpower. The Role of the University in Development: Any university, in order to fulfill its potentialities, must respond constantly to the needs of the society surround- ing it. This is especially true of a new and vigorous in- stitution of higher learning in a newly created state like Imo State of Nigeria. The university (yet to be built) mu te wt ir 67 must be prepared to extend the boundaries of the campus, to teach students of all ages, and to make possible for all who may benefit to continue learning. To fulfill its role in the society, the university must maintain contact with all segments of the population, and keep open the doors to research and free inquiry. The President of St. Xavier University in Canada, Msgr. H.J. Somers, in 1956, said especially in relation to developing nations: Above and beyond the task for the student on campus, the university must consider its duty to the community, to the great number of the population who have not re- ceived a university education and as well as to the university graduates whose education should continue throughout life. In a democracy a,university cannot adopt a cloistered attitude. All citizens of the country (state) must have the opportunity to develop, economi- cally, socially, morally and spiritually. Knowledge knows no class or race barrier. The workers in the industrial plants, the miners, the farmers, and the fishermen, all should be given the opportunity to lead proper human lives. For all of these, as well as the students on the campus, a truly human life requires knowledge; it requires moral training; it requires ab— solution of those social and economic ills which doom so many to a life less than human...housing, working, conditions, health, fair wages, just prices, all are moral as well as economic problems. We cannot shirk responsibility by saying that these problems will always be with us. We have a duty as universities to do our part, and all citizenslhave the right to expect the best effort in this field. In the light of the Association of African Universities Conference held in Accra, Ghana, in 1972, Fafunwa recom— mended several roles that Nigerian Universities are expected to play in order to bridge the existing gap between the universities and the society: 1. Attitude: He considers the attitudes of the academic staff and the university administrators as a "top 68 priority" role in creating "development oriented universit— ies" that will be responsive to the needs and aspirations of the people. He said that half of Nigeria's educational problems would be solved if the staff could be re-oriented and sensitized to the needs of the people. He argued that the local university staff, except in color was equal to his expatriate counterpart, as both probably trained in the same overseas institutions, have imbibed the same idea of what a university in an affluent society does, and have had similar research orientation and exposure to teaching and curriculum in a developed economy.118 2. A Wall—less University: He suggested that the universi- ties in Nigeria must not only break down the physical and psychological barriers that insulate them from the society but must strive to bring their skills and knowledge to every home, town, city and rural area through research, teaching and every other available means of communication like the radio, television and newspapers. .3. Flexible Curriculum: He observed that the quest for prestigious standards has created such rigidities that has resulted in a considerable wastage in the system. He appealed to the Nigerian University system to rid itself of this self—imposed wastage and to Africanize its instruction— al media, and case studies and to demonstrate with Nigerian examples so as to halt the notion: "The universities do ‘agriculture in English while the Nigerian farmers do it in ll9 Ibo, Hausa, and Yoruba... 4. Relevant Research: He urged the universities to involve th an ne 69 their students more in the collection of data, designation and execution of original research projects relevant to the needs of the students, their environment and the nation at large. The research programs he advocated were those that can help to "eliminate tedium in agriculture, improve human conditions, prevent and cure diseases, ignorance, and poverty."120 5. Lifelong Education: He suggested that universities should constitute themselves into lifelong education centers in the evenings. This would enable the staff and students to help improve the lives of their fellow citizens through teaching, research and community projects more directly. This writer's reaction is supportive of Dr. Fafunwa's recommendations. The writer also hopes that institutions of higher learning in Imo State - Alvan Ikoku College of Edu- cation, The Imo College of Technology, and the new proposed university, take note of these recommendations, and do their utmost to help improve the lives of poor rural population of Imo State, through scholarship, and by taking education to the rural people. Summary This chapter has indicated the theoretical basis for adult education in Imo State of Nigeria. The discussion has centered around the definition and philosophy of adult edu- cation; research studies of financing adult education; econo— mic benefits of adult education; adult education and develop~ ment; and adult educational needs in Imo State of Nigeria. The the we] 70 The role of voluntary agencies in Nigerian education, and the role of Nigerian Universities in the development plan, were also examined. beS' Imo hem of ' end 2) i and pro the stu cat hel to of the pre 1111 he] as Chapter III METHODOLOGY The general purpose of this study was to determine the best ways and means of financing adult education programs in Imo State of Nigeria, so that every adult in the state could benefit from the provision of educational activities. This chapter is designed to focus on the presentation of the research methodology utilized in achieving the above ends. Its features will, therefore, include: 1) pilot study; 2) description of the research setting; 3) the preparation and administration of a questionnaire; 4) the statistical procedures used in analyzing the data; 5) the limitations of the study; and 6) a summary of the chapter. Pilot Study A pilot study was conducted using the Nigerian graduate students here in Michigan State University who have been Edu- cation Officers in Nigeria. The result of the pilot study helped to guard against bias and flaws in design, it helped to rewrite the questionnaires, and permitted a thorough check of the planned statistical and analytical procedures and their adequacy in treating the data. It also permitted a preliminary testing of the hypotheses which revealed possible limitations, clarifications, and additional insight that helped in the improvement of the questionnaire. The Research Setting A remarkable recent development in education in Nigeria as a whole and in Imo State in particular occurred when the 71 gox in: ta] re< wa: di: ga th St 72 government took over schools. Hitherto, most educational institutions were under the control and management of volun- tary agencies. The government believed that the volume of reconstruction needed to restore the schools to their pre- war standard, remarkable progress could only be made through direct government control of educational institutions. Re- garding the former organization under the voluntary agencies, the former East Central State Government (which included Imo State), was convinced that: Like most pioneering ventures, the end result was a more or less uncoordinated patch—work lacking the most basic requisites of a functionally integrated system. Nor was there any rational relationship be- tween investments and expansion in education and the absorptive capacity of the economy! The priority attention being given to education was re- flected in the government budgets, of which education has always claimed a lion's share. But the education of the adults received little or no attention in these budgets. This marginal status accorded to the education of the adults in Imo State of Nigeria, and the financial problems facing the few adult education programs going on in the state, created a setting for this study. The critical burden of this study was to bring across to the government of Imo State, and the Institutions of Higher Learning in the state, the magnitude of the responsibility that they owe to the adults of the state, especially those in the rural areas. It was also a burden of this study to determine the need for joint funding of adult education programs by both private, volun— tary and government agencies. est in fir edr IGV by ass mie OVE 0115 ed Ste the 50, adc‘ 0116 Fec‘ PSI 811} 11181 Ca1 the 0f 73 A review of related literature reveals that the great- est drawback in the provision of adult education programs in Nigeria in general, and in Imo State in particular is financial problems, predicated by lack of interest in the education of adults on the part of the government. It also reveals that education in the state has always been financed by both private and voluntary agencies, while the government assisted by giving grant-in—aid to approved private and mission schools, until recently when the government took over the control and management of all educational instituti— ons. The Population Sample The population used in the study was all supervisory educational personnel or Adult Education Officers in the State. It was found, through the State Ministry of Education, that the number of Adult Education Officers in Imo State is 50, stationed in geographic areas around the state. The addresses of these education officers were obtained. It is important to note that Imo State of Nigeria is one of the youngest states, created in 1976 by the Nigerian Federal Military Government. As a young state, it is de- pendent upon the Federal Government for all its financial supplies, especially for educational purposes. The govern- Zment is not yet large enough, to have numerous Adult Edu- cation Officers. Hence, the researcher, on the advice of the doctoral committee, decided to use the whole population of 50 Adult Education Officers for the study. In determining that a representative sample of the 74 subjects had been selected for this study, two aspects of the subjects' background were considered: Occupation or position and level of education. It was felt that these particular aspects of the subjects would most directly affect the subjects' view about financing of adult education programs in the state. Although there might not be a perfect correlation between these factors and the socio—economic status of an individual or the place of residence of an in— dividual, or his orientation toward tradition, there would very possibly be a strong enough correlation to justify ex- amining the personal traits that would result in a parti- cular socioeconomic status, rather than examining the socio- economic status itself. Again, these factors might not markedly affect the socioeconomic status of an individual, but they might affect the perception of the individual to- ward financing education in general, or toward financing adult education in particular. The positions held by the educational personnel were investigated, and it was decided that supervisory personnel (Adult Education Officers), rather than strictly teaching personnel, would be used in this study. The Adult Education Officers or supervisory personnel would be much more likely to have the power to affect decisions that were made concern- ing financing of adult education programs, and they would be more likely to be the people most directly concerned with setting up and maintaining adult educational programs in their communities. Care was exercised in order to guarantee that all the adult education supervisory personnel around 75 the state would be used for the study. Again, the Adult Education Supervisory personnel were selected for the study on the basis of their knowledge of the problems facing adult education programs in the state; and as practitioners in the field, they are in the best position to suggest the best ways and means of financing adult education programs, so that every adult could benefit from the programs. Besides determining the positions held by the subjects, the researcher received information as to their places of work. This was to make sure that both rural and urban areas were well represented. In the survey sample, 60 percent of the subjects live and work in the rural areas, while 40 per- cent live and work in the urban areas. This information is summarized in Table 3.1 below. Adult Education Officers 20 Urban Areas Total 50 o o OTIS 0 Also, these Adult Education Officers have varied ex— periences in the field. Many of them have worked for thev government of Eastern Nigeria when the Missionaries were in control of almost 90 percent of educational institutions in Nigeria. These groups of officers have worked in the two systems - when education was jointly financed, and now that the government is in complete control, and are in a better 76 position to suggest which one is better. The perceptions of the older officers and those of the younger ones were used for the purposes of comparison and for the validation of the findings. Every effort was made to visit all the Education Officers in their respective stations, and the questionnaires administered to them by my representative. They were very cooperative in filling out the questionnaire. Table 3.2 shows the names of urban and rural communities where the Education Officers are stationed, and the number of officers in an area. Figure 3.1 shows the map of Nigeria and all the States. The shaded one is Imo State. The Preparation and Administration of the Questionnaire After careful examination of the financial problems facing adult education programs in Imo State, a Likert-type of four item alternative questionnaire designed along the dimensions of the research questions was drawn. The questi—. onnaire was based purely on financial matters. This was a questionnaire survey, objectively designed to assess the perception of the 50 Adult Education Officers in the matters concerning the best ways and means of financing adult edu- cation programs in the State. The questionnaire was pilot— ested, as indicated above. To ensure that the questionnaire was statistically and actually set to address the problems of this study more bjectively, the researcher consulted several times with he research design consultants in room 200, Erickson Hall, ollege of Education, Michigan State University, who m m m > H m npmsooumm whom mcsflza m m U H 2 H m U D d m MCSUMM¥ fl Z D Q fl.M Hamspwmzn O z m 0 m 0 2 fl M O B O M O m Ouoxomt an its states Nigeria, Figure 3.1 .C. h... ...u ..D "U .1. N p f -l .l T UAOOUOO. EAAAAAIINNIIIbCCCCCii. 78 critically examined the research design and the question- naire and gave their expert advice which was incorporated in the final product. Dr. Melvin C. Buschman (a specialist in the field of Adult and Continuing Education at Michigan State University, who was instrumental in the opening and extend- ing of the Continuing Education Center at the University of Nigeria, Nsukka, and the major adviser to the researcher) was particularly helpful in putting the questionnaire in proper form. Finally, the researcher's doctoral committee members, individually and collectively gave the questionnaire a crit- ical and constructive review before thewfinal draft was made; Table 3.2 Names of Urban Areas and Rural Communities where the Education Officers are stationed, and the number in each area: URBAN AREAS Number of Officers Aba Owerri (Capital of the State) 6 Okigwe 3 Umuahia 3 Orlu 2 Oguta 2 2 Total C RURAL COMMUNITIES Afikpo l ‘Acha l Afikpo Road 1 'Abriba 2 Akaeze 2 Isuikwuato 1 Item 1 Mbaise 2 Mbano 2 Ihiala 1 Ikeduru l l l 2 2 2 2 2 l l 3 Ishagu Nkporo Ohaozara Okpuala Ngwa Ohofia Old Umuahia Owerri Nta Umuna Uturu -Total 0 79 An open-ended question was attached to the question asking the respondents to indicate the three best methods they thought should be used in financing adult education in the state. The responses were subjected to content analy— sis and were used to validate the study as well as to make recommendations for futher research. A trusted friend, Festus Eresimadu who, incidentally is a doctoral student in Educational Administration, Michigan State University, took the questionnaire to the researcher's representative in Nigeria when he went to collect his own data. The researcher's representative took the question— naire to Dr. A. Eze who is a professor at the Alvan Ikoku College of Education, Owerri, Imo State, who directed the administration of the questionnaire to the respondents. (see questionnaire - Appendix A) Return of the Questionnaire The popular interest in the study caused the respondents to return 48 out of 50 questionnaires sent, giving a 96 per- cent return rate. Of the 30 questionnaires sent to the Education Officers in the rural areas, 29 or 96.7 percent were returned. Of the 20 questionnaires sent to the Edu— cation Officers in the urban areas, 19 or 95 percent were returned. This high rate of return was due to the efforts _ of Dr. A. Eze, and the researcher's able respresentative, Christian 0. Agbafor, who administered the questionnaires. My representative reported that two of the Adult Edu- catiOn OFficers were on vacation, and could not be reached. This is why the return of the questionnaires were not 100 5( e j. 80 percent. Table 3.3 shows the numerical count of the admi- stration and return of the survey questionnaires. RE SPONDENT S NUMBER SENT NUMBE R P ERCENTAGE RETURNED RETURNED Urban Areas 20 19 95.0 Rural Areas 30 29 96.7 Total 50 48 96.0 Table 3.3: Numerical Count of the Administration and Return of Survey Questionnaires. As indicated in the above table, a total of 48 out of 50 or 96 percent of the population participated in the study. Opinions of the Heads of the Department of Adult Edu- cation of the Universities of Nigeria, Lagos, Ibadan, Ife and the College of Education, Owerri, Imo State, and the State Ministry of Education, as to what they think would be the best ways and means of financing adult education, were saught but unfortunately, no response was received. A copy of the letter requesting this information is at Appendix B. For the purposes of this study, it was important to get the perceptions of the adult education personnel. With this data, it would be possible to determine the best ways and means of financing adult education programs. Also with enough data about the adult education Officers' perceptions, it is possible to determine whether they oppose or support joint financing of adult education by both private, voluntary and government agencies. The Statistical Procedures Used in Analyzing the Data The raw scores from the research questionnaire were analyzed in frequencies, percentage frequencies and mean 8l descriptiVe statistics. As the data were in discrete fre- quency counts and were arranged in categories, the hypotheses were tested by subjecting the research questions to a Chi Square test of independence at the Alpha=.05 level of signi— ficance. The Contingency Coefficient (C) was used to deter- mine the strength or degree of relationships between vari- ables as the data are in frequency and a table larger than 2 x 2 was involved. The data was coded and key-punched in the computer laboratory in Michigan State University. The Limitations of the Study Although financing of adult education programs is a universal problem in Nigeria, this study, is confined to Imo State alone. It would be misleading if the study of the perceptions of Adult Education Officers of the joint funding )of adult education by government, private, and voluntary agencies would be expected to provide a complete answer to adult education financing problems in the state. Other limitations that impinge on this study are: l) The absence of previous research studies in the area of adult education financing, has created a serious know- ledge gap. 2) Lack of adequate finance for such a study greatly de— creased the scope of the researcher's field-work for data collection and necessary first hand information. 3) This study, therefore, is based only on the responses and perceptions of Adult Education Officers in Imo State. The reliability and validity of the findings also, is EI:T_____________—__——————————I 82 based on the sincerity of the responses given by Edu— cation Officers. 4) Although questionnaires are widely used in this type of study, it cannot be ignored that written questions are sometimes too narrow, suggestive or restrictive by the respondents. This can create possible confounding variables to the study. 5) Another obvious limiting factor is lack of funds and time constraints which made it difficult to extend the scope of this study to other states of Nigeria. Generalization in this study, therefore, was limited to Imo State. Summary This chapter has presented the research procedures, designed to determine the best ways and means of financing adult education in Imo State of Nigeria. It discussed the pilot study, and described the research setting, the popula- tion sample, the strategies for the preparation and admini— stration of the questionnaires, the statistical procedures used in analyzing the data, and the limitations of the study. Chapter Four will be devoted to the analysis of the data. The open—ended questions which were of descriptive nature, would be treated descriptively. Chapter IV PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS, AND DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS This chapter presents analysis of data. There are four types of tables presented in this chapter. Table l is the detailed responses to the questionnaire. Table 2 is a stat- istical analysis of responses showing N(sample size),X (mean response to each item in the questionnaire, X2 (Chi a. . Square), the D.F. (degree of freedom), the C (contingency coefficient) by "sex", "location" and "experience," the p (significance level). Table 3 shows the variables whose null hypotheses were accepted or foundsignificant and rejected. Table 4 is a content analysis of the open-ended question de- signed to validate the study. The chapter contains a statement of the major hypotheses tested, a summary of the findings, a description and interp- ‘retation of the statistical treatment, the results of the statistical treatment of the data, the decision to accept or reject the null hypotheses, and the discussion of the results. The hypotheses being tested are stated in the null form nd are designated by the symbol "H0". The .05 level of ignificance is used to make a decision to accept or rejeCt ...L a E'- ‘Hv-u. .,_, he null hypotheses. Using the appropriate degree of free- om, if the observed or calculated value of X2 (Chi Square) 5 greater than the expected table value, the null hypothesis 3 rejected; otherwise, it is accepted. The frequency, the percentage of response and the mean f the responses are used to show how the respondents per- ive the relatedness of the variables and the problem of 83 84 financing adult education. The first_general hypothesis and three operational null hypotheses are as follows: The Adult Education Officers in Imo State of Nigeria will perceive the research questions related to the beSt ways and means of financing adult education as factors for promoting adult education programs in the state. Hla: There will be no statistically significant differences between men and women Adult Education Officers' perception on the best ways and means questions related to financing adult education. Hlb: There will be no statistically significant differences in perception among Adult Education Officers in both rural and urban areas on the best ways and means quest- ions related to financing adult education. ch: There will be no statistically significant differences in the perception of Adult Education Officers with different degrees of experience on the best ways and means questions related to financing adult education. The second general hypothesis and three operational ypotheses are as follows: -The Adult Education Officers in Imo State of Nigeria ill perceive the research questions related to the ability f adult participants to pay as factors related to very few articipants in adult education programs. H2a: There will be no statistically significant dif- erences in perception among the Adult Education Officers n both rural and urban areas on the research questions 85 related to the ability of participants to pay. H2b: There will be no statistically significant dif- ferences between men and women Adult Education Officers on the research questions related to the ability of partici- pants to pay. H2c: There will be no statistically significant dif— ferences in the perception of Adult Education Officers with different degrees of experience On the research questions related to the ability of participants to pay. The third general hypothesis and three operational hypotheses are as follows: The Adult Education Officers in Imo State of Nigeria will perceive the research questions related to joint fi- nancing of adult education by both government, private and voluntary agencies as the best means of promoting adult edu- cation activities in the state. H3a: There will be no statistically significant dif— ferences between men and women Adult Education Officers' per— ception in joint financing of adult education. H3b: There will be no statistically significant dif- ferences between the rural Adult Education Officers and urban Adult Education Officers' perception of joint financing of adult education. H3c: There will be no statistically significant dif- erences in the perceptiOn of Adult Education Officers with ifferent degrees of experience on the research questions elated to the joint financing of adult education. As the data revealed, all the adult education officers 86 hold bachelor degrees, therefore, the analysis of the re- search questions by "qualification" is unnecessary. The criteria for the degree of relationship of the characteristics to financing of adult education follows the analysis of the data. man 5 93. OH . u llllll .iiiiunaluu . w av . . . m.- HH v.mH m s.m~ MH ”.mm MH s.oe pH A He m H.Hw «N «mama sHmnouum m vH h h.h H . . v HN o m.mm v «.mH h. wmhmé . 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H mwum h msou m.mm m W.WH N n.eH m m.6H N m.mH m a o o.o~ A amen“ H um w.mH m m.w H m.HH a m.m H a.VH q H.a H v.HH v mwuomeo H m HN m H Hm v m.mH m v.wm v m.eH m omummmHo HHmcouum unuunmuulin nnnnnnnnnnn in: uuuuuuu nunuunlnu 11111 .. uHHm an caucus: so .0 .H~ SH 0 . . u- -1- m.aH A n.wH m W.WM MH w.Hm u mHvH v o.m~ m o.om A, menu: sHmnouuw m.m~ ~H o.om m H.AH .mH m m.vH v s.mH w m.vH m wmumm m.mm mH m.mm v o.oq WH m.mH m H.~m m s.mH ~ H.wH SH mmnmmmHn a wm h m mm HH b.H« m H.hm mH mwnmmmHo aHmsouum I "sto HumuasHo> .oum>Hna an unnameHm mo .0 W.M~ MH H.WH m mnw~ M o.o~ m m.m~ p m.s~ m N.~N m omnma sHmaounm . . o H.HH m H.m H o.m N comm “.mw WM m.mm r mnmm NH. can o Hdv nH NSH N «.5. 5H oedema“ m on a q mN OH 0.0m 0H m.vH v m.mv m o.mN m omummmwn >Hmsouuw usto unwanho>ou >9 cmosmsHh No .0 mums mm mums OH v.Hs mm o.mh mH v.HH on o.ms a N.~A mu momma aHmcouum m.NH o H MN m m.w m o.m H m.hH m m.m H m.nH m wwuwfl v.0H m o o n.qH m o.mH m H.h N m.m H H.HH v wmeMMHQ N v N o o h.m N o.m H w.m H n.m H m.N H wmeMmHa uHmcoHum a m m a m a m a m a m w m , H4908 + .mHhHH .muhoHlH :mnu: Hausa m z mumsomwum uczmHmmmxm 23.363 xmm ..mozmHmmaxm. oz< .onemooa. ..xmm. >m mmHH "H HHQAB . r : psm mum>Hnm .ucwE:no>ow >3 noosmcHh Ho .0 o.om HN «.mw m m.~v mH o.om oH o.om HH A.em a H.HH wH mwum< NHmconum A.NN HH H.m~ m a.- m o.o~ v o.mN A o o m.om HH omuma u.HH A A.A H H.AH m o.o~ H A.oH m m.m H A.mH u mmummmHo m.NH m o o H.AH m o.oH N m.vH H o.m m omHNMmHn AHmaouum "meaHHHomm mw>Hm :oHummHoHuHmm Hmooq HH .0 m.wv NN m.mm A H.HH mH o.cH m a.Hm HH m.AN m o.Nm NH magma HHmcouum m.m~ HH m.on e H.mN 0H o.mm A m.mN A m.mv m o.m~ a «mama o.AH m H.mH N o.AH m o.o~ H m.HH H N.mH N A.mH e omummmHo H.w m o o a m m o.m H H.A umumana Aquouam m.Hm mH m.mm m v.mN 0H m.oN m A. mm OH m. Mm v v. Hm HH mem< AHOCOHum v.0v mH H.mN n H.Av wH v.Av. m A.mm 0H m.mm v m.Nv mH wme¢ m.NH w H.MN m m.m m m.mH m A.0H m o.mN m o.m m wmhmMmHa m.vH A v.mH N A.vH m m.0H N m.AH H.AH m memMmHD >Hmcouum N me e A.mH SH o.om o H.Am 0H H. mm H o.om mH wamma AHmconum o.mN NH m.mm m o.o~ A o.ov a m.HH H m.mn v N.NN m omumH A.oH m A.A H o.oN A o.mH m m.AH m o.mN m m.nH m wmummmHo m.NH w A.A H m.HH m m . H maummmHo AHmzouum ":oHuHumeou 0>Hm AME HHa an mCHucmsHm mo .0 v.mH A mcumfi hHmcouum co: mu>Hm AssassHo> .wum>HHm An mCHosmch A0 .0 H v.Nm HH m.wm A m. AH m H. on v N. NN m woumm AHmsouum m.mN vH N.wv w m.MN m m.wm A o.mN A v.wm v m AN oH aouo< o.AH m H.mN m A.VH m m.OH N H.HN w N.mH N A.wH w omumMmHo A.AN mH H.MN m v.mN OH m.mH m A.mm OH H. m H m.mm NH mwummmwo AHmcouum m h a h w m u m a m n m w m :0 .uHquEoo so: mw>Hm ucwfisuo>oo An .0 +.mH>HH .muAOHIH :mnu: Hmuzm m z mmeOQmmm MUZMHZHMXH ZOHBHm HHm an :oHummHuHuumm AH o if I - UUHU‘ XHUCOHUW --Ill ....... 1-----llll . . .2 N H .3 H m . . . HH o o« m o mN A A. . cH «on < A.Hn mH W.WM " M.Mm NH o.mm A H.Nn m o.om w w.»m HH aoummuHo . n m.mn mH . m A.mN a o.mN m H.Nn a o mN m .m N muummmHo N.mN «H m an w.m n o o A.OH n m.m H o oH .o m w n o o .anmussooom meomm mame :oHumaHUHuunm annnxnlautall maum< AHmsouum 1|---uuulxunnuunyuuxylaurxnuleauuu . . . m A H.Hw NN m . . .Am oN o mA mH o om VH A.A . was < “.mw am “.mw M M.AH w o.cH N onmN A m.wH m M.MH M nonmemHo . n WNWH M A.A w A.m N o m A OH m A.wH N m.mH m woummmHa A.AH HN m.mv NN m.w m N.v N A.Av AN A.wH w o.vH A w.0N OH «.mm AH m.am n A.mv oH o.ce a H” m.mm A m.Nv mH o.om oH a A.A H h.m N o.m H H. o o A.m N o.m H m. m.am m H.Hm mH 6.6. m a. v.mH N H.AH w o.mH m a. «.mH N m.vH m o.ON v A. m.om v H.AH w c.mN m m. m o.oc HH o.mm A A. w v.Hn HH o.mv a a. N m.vH m o.m H H. N m.V._.. m oumfl m m. h a an O nu .mHAOHIH zHm HHm an :oHumnHoHuHum mH .0 . moum< HHmcouum NH m mm 9 N Av AH m“ NH A.Hv m N.AH AH uwwmmm N A.wH N m.N H on H m ouum A H m.m H w.N H mmummmHQ AH : m "AuoHum> mm>Hm HHm An :oHudeoHuumm «H .o MMIlmm A.Hv m o.om mH moum4 AHmsouum AH m m.m H A.NH A mwmmm 0H m m.nm v N.@ m 00H . A vacuum AH m A.wH N N.NN m mQHUMmHQ H "ch :mHmuom mu>Hm mm HHm an :oHummHUHuumm NH .0 oH A.mH N A.Hv mH ooum< AHmcouum mm w m.mm A m.AN OH Mmmwm HN w m.o H A.wH w man a . A msouum «H v A.wH N m.nH m woummmHn H a a m A H A .o nunoEuHEEou mw>Hm :oHuanoHuumm Hmooq NH Hams“ m S mmmZOmmmm cog xmm O.mm AH «.mH N O.NH mH 0.00 m H.Nm O OHOO O OHON HH wwwmm AHm:ouum 0.0N OH 0.0n v H.AH m o.mH m O.mN A n.m H O.mN m moummuHo O.mN NH m.mn m 0.0N A O.mm A m.AH m A.wH N O.AN OH mwumnmwn ~4n:344n O.OH O «.mH N. 0.0N A 0.0H N O.mN A O mN m A OH O "Hmsvm uwmcna aowumozum Hoocom aunucooum can uH=fi< MN .0 O.Nv ON A.Hv m O.NO mH 0.0v O v.vv NH o.Om w 0.0v OH mouwm HHmcouum m.wv NN O.om w A.mO OH 0.0m OH v.Ov NH m.nm v v.Hm mH won 4 O.OH m n.m H O.HH O 0.0H N H.HH m A.mH N 0.0 m mmumMmHo o o o o c o o o o o o o c o ouummmma >Hmcouum "maHumem + Hmsuo an umuzmcHw :oHumusum «N .o mHHH mH v.mH NH H.Am mH O.mH m m.Nv N m.mm O 0.0m HH wmum< AHmcouum H.AN NH N.Ov O O.ON A 0.0m u O.mN A A.OH N O.om HH umum< N ON OH H mN 0.0N A O.nN m m.AH m A.uH N N.NN m memMmHa o O O.NN O 0.0m O m.vH O m.mm H A.OH O moummmHa H4n:anu 9 IIIIIIIII "mmxmh >9 nouamcHu cowumuuvm HN .0 . . WUMM OH mHOm m O.OO OH O.Ov O N.Om HH A.OO O 0.0H HH omHm< HHmcouum N.mN MH H.mN m m.vm NH o.mm A w.mN m c.mN n n.mm NH uuumfl o M m an m A.mN O O.mN m H.Nm m m.m H H.mm mH mmummmHo O O O O O O O O O O O NONmNWHQ N1FHH34JB npxnuuullylvlnllnlannl "HHa .3 uwucmaHm I AMOmHsmEou :oHumunum ON .0 o.o . ntlllnullxilllnlllnl IIIIII AH”.fl mm ”mm. A On; AH O.Om OH O.Om OH 0.0m O 0.0n OH 033 39:33 O O O W O NO mH O.mv m n.Om HH A.H< m A.Hv mH oman HO O O O O O O O 353.8 M M.m H MOm m OUNUfiMHQ HQhOOJdJI lynyulxluun1111u: “muuHuumm mmumcHEHHo HHm an :oHuanoHuumm OH .0 N.OA mm lulmHulfiiJ---i----{----}--- OHAH O Him» OM WM” HN oumA OH A.OO OH O.OA O O5... ON 3.34 332% m.O O A.A H O.O O O.mH m m.OH m N.O H 0.0N A ouum< n O N O O mg. n O OH N ...A N TO H O.O m 3333 a m o m N o o v.A m.m H m.N H mmHmMmHo >Hmc0Hum H O O O O O m .:LnLa+AHHH mo>OEwH HHm am.s(.4 . .4 n mH .0 H4305 + .muhHH .mH>OHI . H 24mm: Admnm h 2 .3) muzmHmmmxm ZOHBHUOA xmu . . . . n.mm a n.mm HM wmum< WHu:0Hum O.Am AN O OA OH o.Om AH O.Nw OH A.OO w“ O.OO m H.Om NH uuuo< . mH H.MN m H vv mH H mv m A mm . m an . o o O.m H o o m N H wwummmHo Mum M m m M.M M N.O H O O O O O.N H «8938 H1333 HmeuH:=EEoo Hmunu an» :H muwunwo :oHumosuw uHsnm wm>Hm HHm an :OHHmmHOHuHmm on .0 N.OO ON N.OO O H.AO ON O.OO OH HHAO OH OHOA O NHAO AM wwwmm OHOOoNOO m.om OH H.MN m o.om A o.mn A A OH m A 0H N N.NN 0 mmH m.mH m H.MN m H.AH w o.mH n v.HN w m.m H N NN m 0 Ho a . mQHDmmHQ hamnouun m.w n A.A H A.m N o o A.QH m o o m m m ":oHumusvo omuw wm>Hm HHm an :oHuumHuHuumm mN .0 O.Am OH O.OH O O.OO OH O.OO A m.Om HH A.OH N 0.00 OH omumc NHOOOOHO m.wm mN N.mw m m.vm mH o.mw ma w.mm mH °.mA a m.Nn mH wwum¢ N.O N O O A.m N O O H.A N N.O H O.N H umeOmHa O o o o o o o o o o o o o o mwumana MHmconum "unwEQOHm>wu unoE mw>Hm HHm an :oHummHUHuumm mN .0 OHOO AN O.Om A H.Am ON 0.00 O O.AO OH O.Om A m.mm ON ounm< NHmcouum O.Om AH N.OO O O.HN HH O.Om OH O.ON A N.NN O H.Om OH moum< N.v N o o A.m N O a H.A N o o w.m N woummmHa N O N O o A.m N 0.0H N c o m.m H m.N H omummmHa aHmcouum llllllllllll .mooH>me :oncmuxm HmuauHDOHumm nouuwn mm>Hm HHm an :oHummHoHuumm AN .0 mum” ON OHOO A O.OO AH OOO HH O.OO NH A.HO m ONO OH 9&2 393qu N.O OM N OO O m.ON NH 0.00 O A.mm OH A.HO O H.Om OH meOH m.m v o o A.m N c o H.A N o moanmHa o N maumMMHa » muonum Ilnnuvlnulll: IIIII 11:11:: .wwHuHCDESOU 0:» :H muouawo wumus mu>Hm HHm >£N :oHumuHUHuHmm mN .0 O.mN . nylunnu uuuuuuuuuuuuu uni o.cm MM W.WM w m.NN m 0.9m O O HN o m.mn v N.NN m moum4 mHmaouum O.OH O O.mH O.HO OH O.OO O O.Om OH O.NO O O.OO ON mmuON m.w m N 0 ON A o.ON A.wH w umummmHn mm m. M.mm m.” ATMW M m.v N o o H N H o o m an a ..H m.m N aoummmwn aHm:onum muzmHmmmxm mm>Hm HHm An :oHuanUHuumm mN .0 H.Am ON uwnm< hHmnouum 0.00 OH awum< o o mwummmHQ m.N H moummOHo HHmcouum a m HHm an :oHuanoHuumm ON .0 2 mmzommmm m.vm mH o.mv m o.mw AH 0.0m HHAm MH 0.0m oH m.m~ m m.mm M.m N o.m H A.m H A.mH N H o o A m H o a h u h a m a zHm HHm ha :oHummHOHuumm on .0 0.00 OH O.HO O O.HO HH 0.00 O OOH HH WOO O A.HO OH won? 3333 O.OO NN O.Om O O.HO OH O.OO O 0.00 OH A.HO O N.AO AH mung O.OH m A.A H O.HH O O.OH O H.A N 0.0N O 0.0 N .33nt N.v N O o A.m, N O.m H o.m H o o o.m N ooummmmn aHmzouun 33.01505. HanoHuDuHuunoo ww>Hm HHm An :oHuanOHuHmm mm .o OHOO ON OHOO A 0.00 AH 0.00 OH O.OO OH A.HO O ONO OH mono: AHmcouum O.AO ON N OO O O.OO AH O.OO OH O.OO OH OOO A 0.00 OH 334 H N H O O ON H O O 0.0 H O O O.N H 3333 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 08633 H1351; "huHHHAHmconmuH 0H>Hu mw>Hm HHm an :oHummHoHuumm On .0 mum“. mm NHOO O O.HO OH 0.00 OH A.OO AH OOO A O.OO ON 3&2 395qu NO O O HOOO O HHAO OH O.OO A A.OH OH OOH O HON NH O32 O O O O O HH O O.OH O O.O H NO H O.O O 3533 o o o o o o o o o o mwnmnwao ~1n:>4Ji ..v: uuuuuu nunlunluaxuunnll "muHauum machnumuwvns mm>Hm HHm an :oHummHUHuumm mm .0 O.OO ON . ....H............:..: --i n.nm O.mm A O OO AH 0.0m OH 0.0m OH m.Om A N.A A mung NHmnouum OH O OH O . O H OOH O 0.0H N m.wm NH OHOO A H.NH O «.2 O mam NH $an HO O O O O.O O 0.0H N A.OH m O.O H H.HH O “.qu33 m O m H H.A N O O rim m ouummmHa .HHmsonum unnnmumwnnnunuxlnuuyllnuuu:uanlnnln “9:55: .HHHEMOH .3»qu mo>Hm HHm an :oHummHOHuumm Nm .0 . HN N.OO O . s-In-umuuunauuxuuuunnnunnuu ”HMO HN N.OO O MM“ MH O.OO O O.OO OH 0.00 O A.HO OH 032 395qu . O A.A . H O OO O O.NO NH O.ON O O.OO OH 354 N v H w w n c. . O N O O A.m N .m H A OH m m.O H m6 m wmnmmmHD .O O .H O O O OH N O O A.OH N O O @9333 .HHmcouum O O O O O O a .O mozmHzmmxw ZOH B4004 .0 mmmzommmfl vmm.n mmnvw. wmnm. m mnmhc.m ammwfi. mamn. m mncnn.a Hmhan. omwv. m mmmum.~ nv wmmn nova: mm>wm nodunm IflUfiuunm Hmooq .m Nvo.m NmHNN. thv. m Nmnwv.m meHm. vmmH. n Hemmn.m mcvma. ahmm. m mhwhm.a mv :OHuHumeOO u>fim ans Ham an mcwocmcfim . (D W . . . . . «w N named «was m nnm¢m H maasn ommm. m «mono.v nmvmm. mmoa. n umavo.e hv :ofiuwuomeoo ha mcwocmcah .h nnm.N . . madam MMNN m vcmhm.v hmme. mmoN. m mmmvn.v mmHMN. mmvv. f“) Noahw.~ 5v nowpauumEou : ~m~.m fine as mnwonacwm cm. onwn. . . m whomv m vwwva mwmh. n vmmno.~ Hmvmw. mwom. mmmwm.v av nowuaummaoo , mu>wm Ham . a an: . mvo m nnvma. mmmw. n can Hm m M . \0 m w . . . mmflm a Nnmma m~mm m monom.H munmm. Nmnm. n prom. ow dam HmH.~ nwnmm. an uwoamqwm .v same. . m mmeqn n mmvv~. wane. m M¢HHQ.~ m . . . mafia NFFm m gamma 5. wane ammuan , IHO> .0um>fium qm~.~ hv-~. an woonnafim .n meme. m . . thyv N mnmmm mmvo. m ammoa.m oqmmN. anon. m wmhmH.m pv wane N . UCOECHU>OU um m nanN. «th. m wvmn an amonnnam .~ .q . . wMeHN moam m maan.~ mnava. “mam. n momma. my mmaocumm lllll. x IIIIIMWIIIIIIJIIIIIIIIIIILIlllllllllllllllI an nouzmcam .H Z A 3.. «x U m me x c o z m H m m m x m rIlllllllllllllllllllllllL N z o H a < o o g x m m enema avnz "mmwzommmz man Iuouoaunnu 4 zonammpo =u¢.m mth. omvm. MNHB. m m m m m m m m thNm. Amwmd.d hwmhw.a Nwwwo. Named. omNON. wmmwm. mthH. Hmahm. m H A H v H mvomd. wmvna. hmomm. mHoom. mammo. Henna. mmva. mowvn. mmOVH. wHNe. momw. mmmn. roam. hnvm. wwmw. vmmm. ovom. mmam. m m m m m m m m m Nvmmh.a hmmom.a HmmHN.m vmmmh.v mmmmm. oaamv.fl Novmo.m ommmm. mamvm. mmmwa. Hbmmw. mthN. hmmwc. manN. wHHom. mmomN. ovmmm. vooNN. HmOF. vaw. mmmv. vwhm. MNFN. ommH. omHN. tho. mmov. m m m m vmhmn.H hwwwm.v hmmwm.N thoN. meom.m mmnmh.v hmwmv.v mvam.w oncmm.~ hv mv mv homumufla law mw>0E0H Adm an :04 -ummwufiuumm mamom Howmmw mm>mm Ham an no“ lummfluwuhmm manmucsouom mamomm mmxme new avmmfiufiunmm homewOwwuu [ammwofluumm mv >uwaum> Add an :o« lummwoauumm me cfim cm“ lunch mw>wm Ham >n :ofi -«mmflowuumm we unusuafi av mmwuwdfiomw mw>wm :Owuamfiu Ifluumm amuoq hv umoo cwosu [on mm>flm :ofiummflu Iwuumm Hmuoq . (D H ma v H .OH U m rlm X U a mu an .I & Mfl r m U 2 N H m m A x m z O H B < o O A x m m luauo uwumfl mumsu NmN.m mmm.N mwv.m mNh.N mam.m mmw.N voa.m mmm.m NNmNN. nanmo. avama. mwmmN. mHomo. mMHmN. wuwna. mmovo. oanv. NmNm. Venn. NVMN. vam. omvN. mwa. mmvm. m wmrmm.N m m thou.H thmv. m hmqu.v N NmmHH. m hNhNH.v N N bmvfim. mvaH. ovaN. mmmaa. MAMMN. omeN. mmvmo. hmth. wNwmo. omoOH. omvm. m mNVHH.N mama. m hmme oovv. m NAHOB. mwan. m mhvmm. MHmm. N NVNVH N m mnmfi. m vanw.w mmmm. N hmmmm Homh. N hmmvm hoMHN. Gamma. mvam. mHOVN. NwaH. vmmma. MQANM. NmHm. mmaw. nmmo. NHov. Noom. mmhm. mNoo. ooo.a n omme.N mv mwauw:=EEoo ca muuucmo m mhhnn.a mv .muoconms :oHumu Izom uasut mw>wm Ham an :owumm Iwowuunm .mu m Hm~mm.w my auwamsv u a o a ‘J. u m m V N n ommmm.~ av Hmswm ucm uasnc . M N N mmmmn.a h¢ mafiumwxo :oflumuscm .NN m mmomm.a av mmxau spa: vmocmcwm cowuuosnm .HN N wmmvm.m mv dam hm newumusum on N 0 av mumfiuumn moumE [Ham Ham >3 :owuam nwoauumm .md U m ufl X U a mu X mu ax : m U 2 m H m m A x m n z O H 8 fl U 0 A m m oflumfi ahouomumno HNm.m mON.m mhv.m ahv.m HnN.m HwN.m HHm.m aNN.m mmm.m mmv.m vmmhd. mavnN. mmvmo. wooON. vmowH. vthH. NvoVN. onooa. momma. oovoN.. mva. mmmN. Nvom. omvm. mmmw. mmvm. hmmm. FONm. mem. Hmmm.n N mmmwm.n m mmm~m.m N whmmv. N HmmNH.N m vaNw.H m whwmh. m Nvmno.m n hhdmv. N mHHNm.H m mmvmo.N mmomN. mdnva. mQMNH. mNMON. vmmvo. h¢mmN. vaNN. mmhvm. mmsmfl. nmmhm. mmmN. Hoom. mmmw. mmmm. mama. homm. mmmv. NANA. thv. vao. N ovm0h.N n vaoo.H N vmmvh. N mmmmo.N m OOONH. m mmmhn.m m ahflcv.N m thHm.m N vmmvh.H m wamm.h hovmm. mHNmN. mmwMH. mtho. .HhHwH. momwm. MNHMH. HammN. NmNmN. onwwH. mmmm. mmVN. ONMW. Nvmm. mam». vmmo. hmvm. mavm. mama. nmah. N hvwhH.H n mmHmH.v N nmhdm. N mmHmo. m mommN.H m hmwNv.h m HNVNm. m Hmavm.m N NvowN.m m mwam.fl mv ucwfimmmzme muuzomwu mw>wm Ham an :ofiummwuduunm wmuwfisocx Hm:o«u=uflumcoo mm>wm Ham an :ONummwoauumm aufiafinfimnom :0wgmawoaunnm muflmwwm mcflvcmumuoucs mm>wm dam an cogummw0fiuumm m:a::m~m Nawfimm mw>wm Ham an EOHuMQNUNuHmm wmcommwu Emanoum mo>wm Add an GOHvMQMUNHHmm mw>wm Ham %2 newummwuaunmm :owumuacw woke mw>wm Ham ha :owummwofiuumm acme Imon>0U ouoE mo>wm «Hm an :oaummwofiuumm :0am:muxm ..oaumc kwupwn mm>wm Ham mo dewummaowuhmm .Vm mm . N m U m «w x m U z m H m m m x m nu H0 {X c 2 O H B < U 0 A A . NO x x H m Cl .hN ofiumfl lumuonumno 97 Table 3: RESULTS OF THE TESTS OF THE NULL HYPOTHESES BY "SEX“, "LOCATION" AND "EXPERIENCE" VARIABLES. CHARACTERISTICS S E X J C A T I 0 N HO HO EXPERIENCE HO 1. Adult education should be financed by government, private and voluntary agencies. Adult education should be financed by the government only. Adult education should not be financed by private and voluntary agencies only. Adult education should be financed by all. The financing of adult edu- cation by the government, private and voluntary agencies enhances more competition. The financing of adult edu- cation by the government alone does not promote competition. The financing of adult edu- cation by only voluntary and private agencies may not en~ hance competition. The financing of adult edu- cation by all may enhance competition. If there is local participat- ion in adult education financ- ing, there would be wider re- venue base. If there is local participat- ion in adult education financing, adult education costs would be reduced. If there is local participat- ion in adult education financ- ing, more facilities will be provided. If there is local participat- ion in adult education financ- ing, there would be more commitment to the program. If there is participation by both government, private and voluntary agencies in financ- ing adult education, there would be more foreign aid to adult education. If there is participation by both government, private and voluntary agencies in financ- ing adult education, there would be variety of services provided. Accepted Accepted Accepted Accepted Accepted Accepted Accepted Accepted Accepted Accepted Accepted Accepted Accepted Accepted Accepted Rejected Accepted Accepted Accepted Accepted Accepted Accepted Accepted Accepted Accepted Accepted Accepted Accepted Accepted Accepted Accepted Accepted Accepted Accepted Accepted Accepted Accepted Accepted Accepted Accepted Accepted Accepted Table 3 (continued) CHARACTERISTICS L 0 C A T I O N HO E X P E R I E N C E HO 15. 19. 20. 21. 22. If there is participation by both government, private and voluntary agencies in financing adult education, there would be more effici- ency in adult education programs. there would be more account- ability. If there is participation by both government, private and voluntary agencies in financ- ing adult education, adult education goals/objectives could be easily achieved. If there is participation by both government, private and voluntary agencies in financ~ ing adult education, illiteracy among the adult population would be drastically reduced. If there is participation by all in financing adult education, financial barriers that stopped low—income families from getting adult education services will be eliminated. Adult Education should be compulsory, and should be financed by both government, private and voluntary agencies. Adult education should be funded with tax money. Adult education should be financed from other sources in addition to the existing sources of funding. The annual budget by the government for adult edu— cation program should be on the same level with the annual budget for secondary education. If there is participation by both government, private and voluntary agencies in finan ing adult education, the quality of teaching staff, as well as instructional materials would be improved. If there is participation in the financing of adult educat- ion by both government, private and voluntary agencies, adult education components would be introduced into Teacher Train- ing Colleges. If there is participation by both government, private and voluntary agencies in financ- ing adult education, Adult . Trade Centers may be built in the rural communities. If there is participation by both government, private and voluntary agencies in financing adult education, Agricultural Extension Services would be improved, and would reach every Accepted Accepted Accepted Accepted Accepted Accepted Accepted Accepted Accepted Accepted Accepted Accepted section of the rural communities .Accepted Accepted Accepted Accepted Accepted Accepted Accepted Accepted Accepted Accepted Accepted Accepted Accepted Rejected Accepted Accepted Accepted Accepted Accepted Accepted Accepted Accepted Accepted Accepted Accepted Accepted Accepted Table 3 (continued) 99 CHARACTERTICS S E X L 0 C A T I O N E X P E R I E N C E HO HO HO 28. 32. 36. If there is participation by both government, private and voluntary agencies, research and development would be encouraged. If there is financing by government, private and vol- untary agencies, adult edu- cation would be free. If there is participation by both government, private and voluntary agencies in financ- ing adult education, adult education centers would be established in rural communi— ties around the state. If there is participation by both government, private and voluntary agencies in financ- ing adult education, there would be response to the needs and problems of the local communities. If there is participation by both government, private and voluntary agencies in financ- ing adult education, there would be better family plann— ing by adults. If there is participation by both government, private and voluntary agencies in financ- ing adult education, the adults would be better edu— cated in public affairs. If there is participation by both government, private and voluntary agencies in financ— adult would be better educated o w to discharge their civid responsibilities properly. If there is participation by both government, private and voluntary agencies in financ- ing adult education, the adults would be better educated in their constitutional rights. If there is participation by both government, private and voluntary agencies in financ- ing adult education, the adults would be better edu- cated in the proper management of their resources. Accepted Accepted Accepted Accepted Accepted Accepted Accepted Accepted Accepted Accepted Accepted Accepted Accepted Accepted Accepted Accepted Accepted Accepted Accepted Accepted Accepted Accepted Accepted Accepted Accepted Accepted Accepted 100 Table 4: CONTENT ANALYSIS OF THE OPEN-ENDED QUESTIONS CHARACTERISTICS N Frequency Percentage 1. Adult education financed by both government, pri- vate and volun- tary agencies. 48 41 85.4 2. Adult education financed by government only. 48 14 29.8 3. Adult education financed by pri- vate and volun- tary agencies only. 48 17 36.2 4. Adult education financed by Federal government only. 48 7 14.6 5. Adult education financed with tax money. 48 4 8.3 The respondents were asked to indicate, in order of im— portance the best ways adult education should be financed. The data indicates a strong support for joint financing of adult education by both government, private and voluntary agencies. Of the 48 respondents, 41 or 85.4 percent made joint financing their first choice. This has positive re— lationship with all the questions concerning joint financing. This relationship is shown in Table l where the data in- dicates that on the question of financing adult education by bOth government, private and voluntary agencies 31 men or 86.1 percent, 10 women or 83.3 percent, 25 rural residents or 89.3 percent, 16 urban residents or 80 percent, 28 lOl officers with 1 to 10 years experience or 80 percent, and 13 officers with 11 years and over experience or 100 percent agree that adult education should be financed by both govern- ment, private and voluntary agencies, with government agencies playing a major role. Of the 48 respondents, only 14 or 29.8 percent indicated that the government alone should be solely responsible for financing adult education; 17 or 36.2 percent wanted adult education to be financed by private and voluntary agencies, with the government giving grants- in-aid; 7 or 14.6 percent wanted the Federal Government of Nigeria to finance adult education programs throughout the Country; while 4 or 8.3 percent wanted adult education to be financed with tax revenue. The adult education officers further suggested that the government should seek financial aid from developed countries and from the United Nations in order to launch massive adult education programs in the state. CRITERIA FOR DETERMINING THE DEGREE OF RELATIONSHIP OF THE CHARACTERISTICS TO FINANCING ADULT EDUCATION Based on the total mean response on the characteristics by the respondents in Table 2, two categories of relation- ship to financing adult education emerge. These categories are determined as follows: 1. Characteristics that show strong relationship to financing adult education: 63% to 100% (Mean=3.00-4.00) _ . 2. Characteristics that show moderate relationship to financing adult education: 42% to 62% (Mean=2.00-2.99) 102 Characteristics that Strongly Relate to Financing Adult Education: Financed by government, private, and voluntary agencies (73.79% or i = 3.542); financed by all (68.58% or 2 = 3.292); financed by all gives competition (63.38% or i = 3.042); local participation gives reduced cost (66.04 or i = 3.170); local participation gives facilities (64.67% or i = 3.104); participation by all gives variety (68.58% or i = 3.292); participation by all gives efficiency (67.71% or i = 3.250); participation by all gives easier goals (75.52% or i = 3.625); participation by all removes illiteracy (73.58% or i = 3.532); participation by all elimates barriers (69.44% or i = 3.333); Education compulsory - financed by all (64.67% or i = 3.104); education financed by others plus existing (69.15% or i = 3.319); participation by all gives better quality (72.25% or X = 3.468); participation by all gives trade centers in the communities (68.58% or i = 3.292); participation by all gives better agricultural extension services (71.63% or i = 3.438); participation by all gives more development (69.44% or i = 3.333); participation by all gives free education (67.27% or i = 3.229); participation by all gives centers in the rural communities (73.15% or i = 3.511); participation by all gives problem response (68.15% or i = 3.271); participation by all gives family planning (68.15% or i = 3.271); participation by all gives understanding of public affairs (72.48% or i = 3.479); participation by all gives civic responsibility (72.48% or 2 = 3.479); participation by all gives constitutional 103 (knowledge (66.83% or i =_3.208); participation by all gives resource management (73.35% or i = 3.521); participation by all may give competition (63.38 or i = 3.042). Characteristics that Moderatelprelate to Financing Adult Education Based on the criteria for determining the degree of relationship to fiancing adult education above, the adult education officers agree that the following characteristics show a moderate relationShip to financing adult education Financed by government only (46.54% or i = 2.234); financed by private, voluntary only (45.65% or i = 2.191); financed by government gives no competition (52.75% or i 2.532); financed by private and voluntary agencies gives no competition (55.13% or i = 2.646); local participation gives wider base (60.29% or i = 2.894); local participation gives commitment (60.77% or i = 2.917); participation by all gives foreign aid (60.77% or i = 2.917); participation makes people accountable (60.33% or i = 2.896); education financed with taxes (56.00% or i = 2.688); adult education and secon- dary education budget equal (56.85% or i = 2.729); partici- pation by all gives adult education teachers (61.21% or i = 2.938). From the tables of analysis, "sex", "location" and "experience" of the adult education officers make no dif- ference in the results of the analysis. Even where there are statstical significant differences, the percentage of responses either by "sex", "location" or "experience“ is of more meaningful significance. 104 However, there are two areas in which the operational hypotheses were rejected. The characteristics that relate to these areas are: adult education should be financed by government only, and participation by all gives better agri- cultural extension services. Various reasons may be ad- vanced for the significance of the responses by "Location". These are as follows: 1. Experience has shown the officers that government alone cannot adequately finance adult education. 2. The government does not pay attention to the pro- blems in the rural communities. 3. The government does not keep its promises to help the rural communities to develop. Also various reasons may be advanced for the non-signi- ficance of the most of the responses by "Sex", "Location" and "Experience". These are as follows: 1. The adult education officers hold similar qualifi- cations; 2. The adult education officers' observations are fo- cused on Imo State Communities; 3. The adult education officers might have undergone frustrating experiences trying to raise money for adult education programs; 4. The small population size may contribute to the non-significance by "sex", "location" and "experience". 5. The adult education officers might consider edu- cation as producing external benefits - that is, benefits for families other than that of the student, and for the society in general. DISCUSSION OF RESULTS Two categories of relationship to financing adult edu- cation emerged from the characteristics above. The categor- ies are: 105 1. Characteristics that show strong relationship to financing adult education; and, 2. Characteristics that show moderate relationship to financing adult education. There are no characteristics that show weak relationship to financing adult education. In this section, the characteristics which show strong and moderate relationship to financing adult education are discussed. CHARACTERISTICS THAT SHOW STRONG RELATIONSHIP TO FINANCING ADULT EDUCATION In Table 1, the adult education officers indicated that the best ways and means of financing adult education is by government, private and voluntary agencies. There is no statistically significant differences between the adult edu- cation officers in "Sex", "Location" and "Experience" - wise, 86.1% of the male, and 83.3% of the female respondents agree that adult education should be financed by both government, private, and voluntary agencies; 89.3% of the respondents living in the rural areas, and 80% of those living in the urban areas also agree that the government, private and vol— untary agencies should finance adult education; 80% of the respondents with l to 10 years experience, and 100% of those with 11 years and abOVe experience went along with the idea of government, private and voluntary agencies financing adult education. The Federal Republic of Nigeria National Policy on Educatiod shows that the objectives of adult and continuing educatiOn in Nigeria include: 106 To provide functional literary education for adults who had never had the advantage of any formal education; To provide functional and remedial education for those young people who permanently dropped out of the formal school system; To provide further education for different categories of completers of the formal education system in order to im- prove their basic knowledge and skills. To provide in-service on-the-job, vocational and pro- fessional training for different categories of workers and professionals in order to improve their skills; To give the adult citizens of the country necessary aesthetic, cultural and civic education for public en- lightenment. These objectives may not be satisfactorily carried out or attained if there is no adequate provision of finances to support adult education programs, otherwise, the benefits of education will continue to be the monopoly of those who have access to educational institutions, and those who can afford to pay the high cost of education. The policy further states: In order to eliminate mass illiteracy within the shortest possible time, an intensive nation-wide mass literacy campaign will be launched as a matter of priority and as a new all—out effort on adult literacy programmes through- out the country. The mass literacy campaign will be planned with a limited duration of ten years during which all available resources will be mobilized towards the achievement of the total eradication of illiteracy. At the end of this time the established adult education services should be adequate to carry on the task. In order to encourage individuals to see literacy as a means of self-improvement, the government will draw up a list of occupations which require literacy for their efficient performance and arrange facilities to make it possible for illiterate workers in those jobs to attain, through functional literacy programmes, the minimum qualification of literacy necessary for improved per- formance in their jobs. So far, little has been done to implement this nationally 107 stated policy on adult education. Obviously, the govern- ment alone cannot adequately finance all educational pro- grams in the country - Free Primary Education, Secondary Education, University Education as well as Adult and Con“ tinuing Education. Primary, secondary and university edu- cation receive all the attention they require-finance-wise, but adult and continuing education receives "Step-mother" treatment. Perhaps some of the reasons why the majority of the respondents agree on financing adult education by all are because of the advantages of education, both internal and external benefits to be gained if adult education is financed by both government, private and voluntary agencies. It could be that the government is mainly concerned with the education of the young, while paying lip-service to the edu- cationof the adults. If adult education in Imo State is jointly, financed, many peeple will stand to gain because there will be greater commitment to adult education programs. Again, there will be local participation in which case, the government should leave decision making and administration to the smallest unit of government competent to handle them. There will also be accountability which will increase political supervision of adult education programs. On the one hand, the legisla- tures themselves will be taking a more direct role in the operation of adult education centers. Instead of providing funds and leaving educational choices to educators, they will attempt to define a basic education program and are likely to support specific programs which are proved effective. lllIlIlIlllllI----::—————————————f 108 In addition to increased commitment, local participation, and accountability, the number of participants in adult edu- cation programs in the state will increase. There would be more money for adult education programs both in cash and in kind. Communities would help with manual labor to build adult education centers. Individuals, organizations, and foundations would donate some volumes of books, and equip- ment to the centers. Most importantly, the government would provide the teachers, materials and equipment for use in the centers. The adult education officers agree that in order to eradi- cate illiteracy in the state, adult education programs should be jointly financed. The develOpment of human resources in a country or state is an essential part of the country's (state's) growth and development, as important as the de- velopment of human resources. The development of human re- sources by means of education, while it represents long-term investment for the country (state), is not necessarily a long-term process which results appear long after the beginn- ing of the investment program (ECA/UNESCO).2 Careful plann- ing can assure that return on the invested time, money and personnel is the possible maximum return, and occurs at the fastest possible rate. "Careful planning based on realistic assessment of the present and future needs as well as of the available and potential resources, is of the utmost importance in countries which are attempting to exPand their educational facilities." (UNESCO,)3 Education plays a vital role in our increasingly complex ’f— 109 post-independence, and post-war society. Education will absorbxenormous amount of money; new jobs will require new and more specialized educational programs; and new social and political problems will require a more educated and sophisticated citizenry. Perhaps, this is one of the im— portant reasons why the adult education officers in Imo State agree that the government cannot provide all the necessary materials and personnel required to bring education to the adult population of the state. Joint financing is the only best way. From an economist's point of View, governments role in education is justified in terms of the public or external benefits of education. If educational benefits were limited to those receiving education and their families, then there would be no good economic reason for government to become involved. Individuals would purchase an optimal amount of education in the private market. As indicated above, education contributes not only to the well-being of the student and his/her family, but to the general society as well. These external benefits are im- portant for two reasons: First, from the equity point of View, if the cost of private or public-services are to be borne by those who benefit from them, then those who receive external benefits should contribute to the cost of education. Second, an Optimal level of educational expenditures will- result only if external benefits are included in the deter- mination of educational spending.. In Capitalism and Freedom, Friedman4 maintains that private financing would eliminate the administrative costs of public collection lIlllllIllllII----::——————————————* 110 and distribution of taxes. It would eliminate the tendency of government budgets to grow as personal incomes and tax receipts increase, even though the need for government pro- grams may have remained the same or even decline. Again, the economic value of education for those who do not enter the labor force is not lost. For instance, edu- cated parents tend to motivate their children to obtain an education and to excel in school. Education of one generati- on is passed on to the next generation, and thus plays an important role in the perpetuation of educated citizenry. Of the 48 respondents, 45 or 95.7 percent in Table 1 agree that participation by all would provide adult education centers in the rural communities around the state. The existing method of adult education financing is largely by the government. This brought about the location of adult education centers by bureaucrats, who themselves, allocate government educational funds. Consequently the centers were cited in the cities at the total neglect of the rural areas. Because of this development, the rural population was not exposed to adult education benefits and so they felt isolated from its financing. It is a fact that the majority of the rural population of Imo State are peasant farmers who toil from dusk to dawn on their farms. It is grossly unfair to ask these poor farmers to travel to cities to attend adult education classes, when most of them live as far as one hundred miles from the cities. Adult education centers should be established in the rural communities and local participation should encouraged. *—— 111 It would cost a lot of money to build new facilities. The existing elementary school building, which, incidentally is in all the communities, should be utilized for this pur- pose. Whereas all elementary school children attend classes during the day, there would be no problem with regard to time-conflict if the adult education programs are scheduled to start during the evening hours. In a democratic society like Nigeria, it is important that the citizens be knowledgeable about matters that affect them. 91.7 percent of the adult education officers respond— ing (Table 1) agree that joint financing of adult education programs would help to provide the people with more under- standing of public affairs. While 97.9 percent (Table 1) agree that it would help to make peOple take on more civic responsibility. In addition to these, adult education pro- grams would help to enhance the quality of life in the rural areas. There would be no mass exodus of people from the rural areas to the cities. Rural development would be more meaningful to the people, and they would come to appreciate and work more enthusiastically for the success of the pro- grams. With adult education centers around the rural com- munities, it would be possible for people, who otherwise, could not have gone to theuniversities to study for degree, to live in the rural areas and work for degrees. On the question of understanding the new Nigerian Con- stitution, 95.4 percent of the respondents agree that joint financing of adult education would help to make people read and understand the present constitution. Adult education 112 centers in the rural communities would attract many parti- cipants, and these participants would want to learn some- thing about the law governing the country. Again, 93.7 per- cent agree that adult education, jointly financed would help the rural farmers learn how to manage their resources more efficiently. From the above results, it is obvious that centralization of the adult education system, like the elementary and secon- dary school systems, in the state is very essential. This sCheme has a number of advantages: Central control, uni- formity in course offerings, and lower costs by avoidance of duplication in personnel, equipment, facilities, etc. In this writers View, it is possible that the state government, in spite of its limited financial resources, may be able to assume full responsibility for providing education to the adult population in the state. However, if it does this, it must be prepared to support all adult education programs in the state on equal basis. Such a decision to support all adult education programs with government funds alone would certainly establish an unwise policy from the financial point of View. It would mean in effect that any community able to exert enough pressure on the state government might get adult education facilities as a free gift, regardless of any proven need. Babs Fafunwa5 noted that it is a sound educational prin- ciple for any nation (state) not to deny education to those who can benefit by it. However, limited resources must compel modification of this principle. The question is 113 whether the state can afford to pay for the education of the adult population alone, or whether it would be easier to share the cost. While adult education facilities should be made available to all adults, but these adults should con- tribute to their education. Is the education of adults worthwhile? Is it a part of the fundamental responsibility of Imo State higher education? If the answer is "yes", and it should be, support ought to be forthcoming. But adult education has not received the backing it should have from both federal, state, and local government agencies, and Nigerian colleges and universities. Who benefits from the education of adults? It seems obvious that both the individual and the society at large benefit. In helping individuals develop, adult education contributes to the economy, and the society. Harrington notes: ...Adults benefit individually as they learn and are trained, retrained, or upgraded. There is even greater benefit, however, for the government, the economy, the culture, and the general welfare. The continuing edu- cation of professionals increases the gross national product. Other adult education...makes citizens more productive in their working lives, better able to wrestle with the problems of the day... The positive opinions that were expressed by the survey respondents about joint financing of adult educatiOn programs showed that it is the only best means of making educational programs available to the majority of the adult population around the state. The impression given by this was that the people of Imo State who have positive opinions of education saw both idealistic aspect of education, in that education could promote individual and community growth in knowledge, 114 and more practical aspects of education in that the know- ledge, information and skills imparted by education could be used for the betterment of the individual, the community, or the society in general. CHARACTERISTICS THAT RELATE MODERATELY TO JOINT FINANCING OF ADULT EDUCATION The characteristics which are found moderately related to joint financing of adult education based on Table 1 above and the criteria for determining the degree of relationship to financing adult education include the following: financed by government only; financed by private and voluntary agencies only; financed by government gives no competition; local participation gives wider base; local participation gives commitment; participation by all gives foreign aid; parti- cipation makes people accountable; education financed with taxes; adult education and secondary education budgets equal; and participation by all gives adult education teachers. Probably the above characteristics relate moderately to financing of adult education due to the marginal treatment being given to the education of the adults on the part of D the government. The adult education officers saw the quest— ions relating to joint financing as the only means of pro- viding adequate adult education programs for the people of Imo State. It may be due to lack of satisfactory administ- rative machinery for adult education in the state. As a UNESCO report on Guyana stated "there is no central driving force, no organizing or integrating authority to coordinate 115 the diffuse activities of the many organizations which are interested in this important sphere of social development.:"7 Such remarks could be found in many educational reports in Imo State. It could be lack of organizational framework. In a paper read to the inaugural meeting of the Adult Edu- cation Association of East and Central Africa in 1964, Lewis asserted that "rarely does machinery provide for more than a polite exchange of platitude."8 It is necessary to make similar demands for an adequate framework within which adult education in Imo State could function.jIn 1973, the International Symposium on Functional Literacy in the Content of Adult Education held in Berlin, made the recommendation that "in view of the need for per- manent provision for adult education, governments should take a long-term View and establish the necessary instituti- ons and structures“.9 It may be due to the fact that adult education has not been accepted as an important and integral part of education, and has not been firmly established in Imo State within a viable organizational framework. The government of Imo State should give priority to establishing this organizational framework. This framework must fit into the existing statu- tory patterns of administration and must be right for Imo State. The system must be fashioned to meet the particular needs of the people of Imo State. The private and voluntary agencies should have a place in the_general framework. Again, since participation in adult education is usually on a voluntary basis, it is important that the “participants" 116 should be able to exercise some degree of influence, and consequently also have a place within the organizational framework. Coles10 points out three principal guidelines in sett- ing up a framework for adult education: (a) It should enable governments to carry out their stated policies in adult education; (b) All the agencies, non-statutory as well as statutory, should be enabled to make their fullest contributions to the work; and (c) The participants themselves should have a part in the decision-making process. What is required therefore, on the state level, is an authoritative body which can advise the government on the framing of policy concerning adult education. The Ministry of Education should establish, within the Ministry, a division of adult education to be in charge of administering adult education programs, and to maintain a continuing over- view of the total development of adult education. At the other end of the scale, there should be a local machinery to ensure that activities are taking place and that the needs and aspirations of the people can be made known to higher authority. It is necessary to establish an intermediary level of control. The administrative pattern can be illust- rated as follows: STATE BODY INTERMEDIARY LEVEL (Local Government Areas) LOCAL I LEVEL 117 This demonstrates the point that "control" in adult edu- cation has to be seen in two ways; there is control from the state level, where policy and priorities are determined and financial allocations are made. There is also a strong ele- ment of control from the bottom (the local level), for unless the provision made is felt to be relevant and interesting by the people, the consumers, there would be no participants and hence no activities. Major Problems Identified by the Analysis From this analysis, the major problems identified as confronting adult education programs in Imo State of Nigeria are as follows: 1. Inadequate financial support by the state and local governments. 2. Lack of adequate adult education centers in both rural and urban communities. 3. Lack of adequate training facilities for adult edu- cation teachers. 4. Lack of rapport with other agencies in the communi- ties. In other words, there is no coordination among the agencies. 5. Lack of opportunity of in-service training for adult education teachers. 6. Inability to use local resources. 7. Difficulty in identifying needs of clientele and community. 8. Inability to appraise or evaluate the existing programs. 9. Lack of publicity and transportation facilities. The government of Imo State must have to find solutions to these problems if adult education programs are to suc- ceed in the state. It is the rule rather than the exception 118 that adult and continuing education must depend on a multi- plicity of sources of funding. This may create problems in developing programs especially when the program must be designed on the basis of what will "sell" rather than on realistic needs. The low status of adult and continuing education in academia is another drawback to securing stable funding. It is pointed out that directors of adult and continuing edu- cation in professional schools report that, in the usual situation, there are few rewards in working in adult and continuing education. Another drawback in securing funds is the inordinate amount of time which must be spent by the adult and continu- ing education director on seeking financial assistance. Time which might better be spent on program design instruct- ion and coordination has to be devoted to looking in several directions for support. Often there is a scramble just to maintain existing staff. These problems could be solved by jointly financing adult education, and letting all partici- pate, thereby commiting all to the success of adult edu- cation programs in the state. S UMMARY Thirty-six characteristics were responded to by forty- eight adult education officers using the Likert-type four alternative item questionnaire. Accompanyingthe question- naire is the open-ended questions. The adult education officers were required to respond to the open-ended questions. The responses of the subjects of the research were subjected 119 to x2 (Chi Square) analysis in order to see the distribution of responses in each of the thirty-six characteristics. The variables of the subjects of the research include "sex", "experience" and "location" of each subject. The null hypotheses were_tested against the "sex", the "experience" and the "location" variables of the subjects in order to see the effect of the variables on the result of the analysis. After the X2 (Chi Square) analysis, the cal- culation of the Contingency Coefficient (C), the Signifi- cance Level (P), the degrees of freedom (d.f.), and the mean of the responses for each characteristic, the characteristics which were found related or not related to financing adult education based on the available evidence gathered from the data analysis were validated with the content analysis re- sult of the open-ended questions. Using the criteria for determining the degree of re- lationship of the characteristics to financing adult edu- cation, two categories of relationship emerge. The two cate- gories which are discussed in detail are as follows: 1. Characteristics that strongly relate to financing adult education. 2. Characteristics that moderately relate to financing adult education. The following characteristics strongly relate to financing adult education based on the criteria for determining the degree of relationship to financing adult education. 1. Financed by government, private and voluntary agencies. . Financed by all. 2 3. Financed by all gives competition. 4. Local participation gives reduced cost. 120 5. Local participation gives facilities. 6. Participation by all gives variety. 7. Participation by all gives efficiency. 8. Participation by all may give competition. 9. Participation by all gives easier_goals. 10. Participation by all removes illiteracy. 11. Participation by all eliminates barriers. 12. Education compulsory-financed by all. 13. Education financed by others plus existing. 14. Participation by all gives better quality. 15. Participation by all gives adult Trade Centers in the communities. 16. Participation by all gives better agricultural extension services. 17. Participation by all gives more development. 18. Participation by all gives free education. 19. Participation by all gives centers in the rural communities. 20. Participation by all gives problem responses. 21. Participation by all gives family planning. 22. Participation by all gives understanding of public affairs. 23. Participation by all gives civic responsibility. 24. Participation by all gives constitutional know? ledge. 25. Participation by all gives ment. better resource manage- The following characteristics moderately relate to fin- ancing adult education based on the criteria for determining the degree of relationship to financing adult education. 26. Financing by government only. 27. Financed by private, and voluntary only. 28. Financed by government gives no competition. 29. Financed by private and voluntary agencies gives no competition. 30. Local participation gives wider base. 31. Local participation gives commitment. ~532. Participation bynall gives foreign aid. 33. Participation makes people accountable. 34. Education financed with taxes. 35. Adult education and secondary education budget equal. 36. Participation by all gives adult education teachers. In Chapter V, the summary, conclusions and recommenda- tions are made. CHAPTER V SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS This final chapter is used for a brief summary of the purposes of the study, the procedures, limitations, major finding and conclusions. The recommendations associated with the data and the implications for future research are also included in this chapter. Statewide social, political, technical and economic developments are creating new demands upon the Imo State adult education system. Thus, new high levels of joint effort on the part of all adult education agencies will have to be expanded. The result and success of this effort will depend to a substantial degree upon the adequacy of the adult education programs in terms of the content area they serve, in terms of the adequacy of their objectives, instructional activities and materials, number and qualification of teach- ing personnel, financial and physical resources, and in terms of the relevance to the needs of the people and the administ- rative policies, to promote the desired development for the clientele and the whole society. The increasing need for greater involvement of adults in their individual and community development in-rural Imo State contains some implications for the State Ministry of Education and for educational institutions which have pro- grams for the preparation and stimulation of teachers and other professionals in the field of adult education in the state. One of the most direct implications inherent in the 121 122 changing educational scene is the need to adequately provide funds to support adult education programs in the rural com- munities around Imo State. To help the adults to make a better contribution in the solution of the problems of development that confront them and their communities. Previous studies on education in Nigeria revealed clear- ly that (1) there was no evidence of the existence of a systematic study of adult education financing and/or pro- grams in Imo State rural communities, and (2) there was need to study the existing system of financing adult education programs in the rural and urban communities so as to under- stand how the programs can be assisted to make more effective contributions in the improvement of the state. Summary This research study was carried on because of the in- creasing need to find the best ways and means of financing adult education programs, and to understand more clearly the strengths and weakness of the existing programs of adult education in the rural and urban communities of Imo State and to have a better basis for making suggestions which can contribute towards its greater effectiveness as an instru- ment of state development. To achieve this purpose, the following objectives were set for the study; 1. To determine and analyze the perceptions held by adult education officers relating to the best ways and means of financing adult education. 2. To determine and analyze the perceptions held by adult education officers relating to the ability of the adult education participants in both rural and urban areas to pay. —i— 123 3. To determine and analyze the perceptions held by adult education officers relating to the need for joint funding of adult education by both private, voluntary and government agencies. It was the primary aim of the researcher to draw con- clusions and make recommendations that would help to ade- quately provide funds for adult education programs in the state. Three major hypotheses were formulated concerning the perceptions held by fifty adult education officers. The major hypotheses reflect the objectives of the study. The sample used in this study comprised fifty adult education officers in Imo State of Nigeria. With the help of the records from the Imo State Ministry of education, the fifty adult education officers and their places of work were located. Forty-eight of the fifty adult education officers responded to the two forms of questionnaires used in gather- ing data, and administered by my representative. Instrument and Data Collection Two forms of intrusments were used in gathering the data: 1. A Likert-type questionnaire was completed by the respondents. This questionnaire was used to identify the "sex", "location" and "experience" of each of the respondents and to measure the perception frequency of the adult education officers concerning the characteristics that relate to fin- ancing adult education. 2. The Open-ended questionnaire was also completed by the respondents. Responses from the open-ended questions were subjected to content analysis and the results were used to validate the results of the Likert-type questionnaire. The data for the study were collected from forty-eight adult education officers responding. Responses to the first 124 questionnaire were made by marking an "X" over the number which represents the degree to which the respondent perceives the relationship between that characteristic and the financing of adult education. For instance, 4 stands for "strongly agree", 3 stands for "agree", 2 stands for "disagree" and 1 stands for "strongly disagree". In the second question- naire, the adult education officers were asked to indicate in order of importance, the best ways and means of financing adult education programs in the state. Analysis The data and information on financing adult education programs which were obtained from the adult education officers were subjected to X2 (Chi Square) analysis in order to deter- mine the distribution of responses in each of the thirty-six characteristics. The variables of the subjects of the re- search include "sex", "location" and the “experience" vari- ables of the subjects in order to see the effects of the variables on the result of the analysis. The contingency coefficient (C) was calculated and used to determine the strength of relationship between the male and female sexes, between the rural and urban adult education officers residents, and between the one to ten years and eleven and plus years of experience. The content analysis was used to process the data gathered with the open-ended questionnaire. This was used to validate the findings in the questionnaire, and to make recommendations for further research. 125 Delimitations of the Study: The delimiting factors which were established to con- fine the scope of this study are as follows: 1. Only adult education officers in Imo State were studied. The realiability and validity of the findings depends on the sincerity of their responses. This study does not provide a complete answer to the financing of adult education. Lack of adequate finance for this study made travel- ing about the state difficult. Many of the find- ’ ings of this study depends upon the data collected on the very day the education officer was visited. Some adult education officers did not fill Out the questionnaire. Lack of funds and time constraints made it diffi- cult to extend the scepe of this study to other states of Nigeria. Hence, generalization in this study was limited to Imo State of Nigeria. Major Findings The following are the results of the research findings based on the criteria for determining the degree of relation- ship to financing adult education. Characteristics that Strongly Relate to Financing Adult Education Financed by government, private andvoluntary agencies; . Financed by all; . Financed by all gives competition; . Local participation gives reduced cost; . Local participation gives facilities; . Participation by all gives variety; . Participation by all gives efficiency; . Participation by all gives eaSier goals; 9. Participation by all removes illiteracy; 10. Participation by all eliminates barriers; 11. Education compulsory - financed by all; Education financed by others plus existing; 13. Participation by all gives problem responses; 14. Participation by all gives better quality; 15. Participation by all gives trade centers in the communities; 16. Participation by services; 17. Participation by all gives better agricultural extension all gives more develOpment; 126 18. Participation by all gives free education; 19. Participation by all gives centers in the rural communities; * 20. Participation by all may give competition; 21. Participation by all gives family planning; 22. Participation by all gives understanding of public affairs; 23. Participation by all gives civic responsibility; 24. Participation by all gives constitutional knowledge; 25. Participation by all gives resource management; Characteristics that Moderately Relate to Financing Adult Education 26. Financed by government only; 27. Financed by private and voluntary agencies only; 28. Financed by government gives no competition; 29, Financed by private and voluntary agencies gives no competition; 30. Local participation gives wider base; 31. Local participation gives commitment; 32. Participation by all gives foreign aid; 33. Participation makes people accountable; 34. Education financed with taxes; 35. Adult education and secondary education budget equal; 36. Participation by all gives adult education teachers. Major Problems Identified by the Analysis From this analysis, the major problems identified con- fronting adult education enterprise in Imo State of Nigeria are: (a) Inadequacy of financial support by the state govern- ment which assumed responsibility for the education of the people in the state. (b) Lack of adequate training facilities for adult edu- cation teachers. (c) Lack of rapport with other agencies in the communi- ties. (d) Inability to make use of local resources in the enrichment of the programs. (e) Difficulty in identifying needs of the people or clientele and the community. (f) No provision for the appraisal or evaluation of programs. 127 (9) Lack of publicity and transportation facilities. Implications of the Problems and Their Suggested Solutions: The analysis presented the following implications for adult education in Imo State of Nigeria: (a) Inadequacy of Financial Support. Financial support for adult education enterprise from the state and local governments was deemed a significant problem by all adult education officers. It should be point- ed out that at the end of Nigerian Civil War, the government took over.all educational establishments in the state. The government went further to introduce Free Primary Education. This added financial burden on the government made adult and continuing education to be neglected. It seems that for adult and continuing education enter- prise to expand and reach the rural communities, and to meet the needs of the adults and serve the majority of the peeple around the state, private and voluntary agencies, as well as individuals should be allowed to participate in financing and administration of the programs. This would also help to achieve the objectives as stated in the National Education Policy. The government has many other priorities, and obviously cannot sufficiently and effectively finance adult and continuing education around the state. (b) Lack of adequate training facilities for adult edu- cation teachers. There is not yet any institution in the state that pro- vides training for adult eduCation teachers. The Alvan Ikoku ”— 128 College of Education at Owerri has no department of Adult Education. Although the College trains teachers, yet there are no adult education courses taught in the college. It is therefore, of the utmost priority that a depart- ment of adult education be established in the College of Education so that adult education teachers could be trained. There should be in-service training for teachers already on the job. Some of the deficiencies of the teachers' qualifications and the education of the teachers such as "inability to evaluate programs", "lack of knowledge of learning theories", "lack of knowledge of adult learners", "lack of knowledge of counselling and guidance services for adults", "Lack of know- ledge of adopting teaching situations and materials to adult learner", "lack of knowledge of group dynamics and processes", and "inability to prepare adult education organizers from available local materials" could be corrected through a well planned and coordinated in-service education jointly spon- sored by the state government and the established department of adult and continuing education of the Alvan Ikoku College of Education. (0) Lack of rapport with other agencies in the communities. Conflicts with the Minstries of Education, Agriculture, Local Government, and Cooperatives and Rural Development, and competitions with other community agencies has proven to be a serious handicap to the development of their adult edu- cation activities. It was noted that there are conflicts as to 129 who should do what and where; and who should finance what program and in what area. It is considered imperative that adult education teachers should be_given a good working cli— mate for the development of their creative leadership in the art and science of teaching adults. One best way to reduce conflict and increase cooperation among the Ministries and other agencies within the communit- ies is to form a state adult education advisory committee with membership from all the Ministries of Education, Agri- culture, Local Government, Finance and Cooperative and Rural Development; and Local Adult Education Committees with member- ship from all segments of the community. (d) Lack of publicity and transportation facilities. The problem of publicizing the activities of adult edu- cation programs effectively was a major deterent to all the adult education programs in Imo State of Nigeria. Lack of adequate means of transportation especially during the rainy season is a hindrance to promoting adult education programs in rural communities. However, with in— creased improvement in roads, and with increased use of motorcycles, lorries and bicycles, each community in colla-. boration with the government agencies should be able to provide adequate vehicles.for a campaign for the adult edu- cation program in the area. It is also important that the teachers and organizers of adult education establish cooperative relationships with local newspapers, radio and television stations if maximum development is to be achieved. Every means of communication 130 channels, like town meetings, market and town cryers, should be utilized by the organizers. The teachers also need to develop the skills of presenting information about adult education programs to the communication agencies. CONCLUSIONS From the results of the analysis of the data collected, it can be seen that the adult education officers in Imo State of Nigeria uniformly agree that the government alone cannot adequately finance adult education programs in the state. Adult education programs in the state should be financed by both government, private and voluntary agencies, it is the common duty of the government and the governed; voluntary organizations, groups and individuals have obligations. There is real discrimination at present on budget de- cisions, fees and access to loans and scholarship against adult students. Corrective action should be adopted by Institutions of Higher Learning in the state since taking care of adults is a basic responsibility of higher education. Since adults are in the main, part—time students, it seems that the ideal thing to do is that per-credit charges should not be higher for part-time than for full-time students. A California Joint Commission on Post-Secondary Education in 1975 presented the case for lower per-credit rates for part- time students, while urging more off-campus centers located near where adults live. The most effective means of expanding adult educational Opportunity is to keep the cost of education to the student 77 131 as low as possible. Harrrington2 suggests ways of helping the adult learner financially: (a) (10) Hold fees and tuition at as low a level as possible; Eliminate discrimination against adults in the financial aid structure of higher education; (c) Make the present income and expenditure system work a little better than it does; and (d) Raise more money for post-secondary adult education. Adult education in Imo State is still not well accepted as important as the education of the young. As a result, it has been receiving marginal treatment from the state gov- ernment. This marginal status accorded to the education of the adults has made it difficult for the program to receive adequate attention from the government. The adults in the rural areas around the state are not getting a fair share of the education enterprise. The adults are eager to get education, at least to be functionally lite- rate, but there are no adult education centers near where these adults can go to learn. There is no coordination among the agencies providing adult education around the state. There is always conflict between the officials of the Ministries of Education, Agri- culture and Rural Development. As a result of this conflict, "Who will bell the cat" comes to play. the saying: The final result is that no adult education activities go on in the rural communities. The fact remains that these adults in the rural areas are peasant farmers who want to improve their productive capacity through the use of mechanized farms ing. If these government agencies could coordinate their activities, well organized programs could be established in 132 the rural areas to help these peasant farmers. Implications of these Conclusions: The functionals are saying uniformly that adult educati- on in Imo State of Nigeria should be financed by both govern- ment, voluntary and private agencies. In other words, these functionals uniformly drew the same conclusions. These con- clusions mean that the government is not paying adequate attention to the education of the adults in the state. The adult education officers influence is not strong enough on government policy toward adult education. As a result, the high government officials who allocate funds for education ignore the recommendations made by these officers. It is obvious that the task of the adult education of- ficers is to act as the mouthpiece for adult education, en- suring that the significance of this branch of education is kept before the attention of the government and public. How- ever, the conclusions from this study show that either the officers are not able to influence their superiors or that the top people in the government are not prepared to listen to what the officers have to say about the best ways and means of financing adult education programs in the state. If the people in the government are not prepared to listen or to consider the views or recommendations of the officers in the field, if they are not prepared to change their minds about financing adult education programs, the present situation will continue to exist. This, by impli- cation, would be detrimental to the state‘s development efforts in general, and to rural development efforts in particular. if 133 Again, these conclusions imply that the government does not care enough about personal development of the adult population in the state, especially those in the rural areas. Incidentally, it is these adults who pay the bulk of taxes which are used for the state's educational programs. It is not very clear why these adults should be neglected educati- onally. Another implication of these conclusions is that adult education lacks legalized status. Perhaps, the people in the government behave the way they do towards adult edu- cation because there is no status authorizing the allocation of adequate funds to adult education. Legislation is there- fore, very essential in order to delineate the Operational framework in which adult education can operate. The need for legislation is obvious. However, it is necessary to appreciate the dilemma facing the government. The all-ems bracing nature of adult education makes it difficult to know how far one can go, within the limits imposed by financial constraints, in making a universal public service, however; desirable that may be. However, it is not unreasonable to suggest that within any legislation concerned generally with education, there should be a section relating specifi- cally to adult education, indicating that it is the intenti— on of the government to provide such facilities for the public as are within its means. It is, therefore, necessary that the Imo State Legislature inact such legislation as a matter of urgency. 134 RECOMMENDATIONS On the basis of the findings in this analysis, the following suggestions are made for financing adult and con- tinuing education and for the improvement of adult education enterprise in the rural communities of Imo State of Nigeria. ~ W Results show that there is no coordination between the field officers and the authorities in the Minstry. Coordi- nation and understanding among the officials are very‘ necessary if adult education enterprise is to succeed in the state. i The authorities in Charge of allocating funds for edu— cation should, as a matter of urgency, change their minds about adult education. The world in which we live in is constantly changing technologically and otherwise, and re- quires continuous education of the uneducated, the under-edu- cated, and the educated as well, in order to keep up with the technological changes. If these people do not change their minds about adult education, the present situation will continue to exist, and the adult population in Imo State, especially the rural adults will always remain ignorant of the events around them. The adult education officers in the field should try as much as possible to ensure that‘the significance of adult education is constantly kept before the attention of the authorities in the government offices. 135 State Government An inquiry should be conducted that would undertake a sustained study, and produce a recommended program regard- ing the role of the state government in financing adult edu- cation. If possible, such an inquiry should be established under official auspices, perhaps, the State Ministry of Edu- cation. Corporations A sustained study should be undertaken to produce a recommended program regarding the inter-relationships of corporations and adult education. The researcher believes that corporations could be persuaded to finance such study, and perhaps to provide staff for it, that their representa- tives would c00perate seriously with adult educators in such inquiry and that any proposed program of action that may result would be considered seriously by such corporations. Foundations The central purpose of foundations is to assist in exploration, improvisation and testing, all of which are highly needed if Imo State social innovations are to come with sufficient rapidity and have the strength and depth required, and most foundation enterprises have something to do with education. Kidd3 noted that there is no field other than adult continuing education so suitable for foundation leadership. It is hoped that those charged with the res- ponsibility for foundation policy will display something of the conviction and understanding which has often marked the Carnegie, Rockefeller, and Kellogg Foundations to mention 136 but very few outstanding examples. Local or Private Initiative Recommendations made so far have been for State, corpora- tions and foundations. However, most of the advances in adult education have come through efforts of individuals or small groups. Many of the solutions for its financial pro- blems will arise in the same fashion. What is needed is for the state government to encourage such initiatives. Again, local communities should contribute in providing physical facilities for adult education programs. Local labor should be used in constructing adult education centers. Apart from 4 their principal advantage of stimulating local interest in educatiOn, these physical contributions from the local communities will also help in financing adult education. The local councils should be able to make a fair contribution in support of adult education development. Universities Funding of the university adult education programs should be based on a more equitable formula by the federal govern- ment, since the universities are, in the main, Federal In- stitutions. No area university should bear greater cost of its own development services than the other. The present system of allocating funds tends to slow the development process in some areas but accelerates it in others. State governments, foundations, business organizations and other financial institutions should make the university to work for them through their financial investments into 137 university projects. Since research is the most realistic means of identify- ing the needs of the people, the problems, and their solut- ions in the development process, the institutions of higher learning in the state should demonstrate an increased aware- ness for research. They need to listen to popular demands, and should seek and receive state support and cooperation for research projects. They should establish community education centers to serve as a clearing—house for the development needs of the rural communities. Budget for Adult Education Adult education in Imo State has never been budgeted for, even though about 41% of the government recurrent bud- get goes to education. Efforts should be made to provide a yearly budget for adult education programs. Special attent- ion should be paid to ways and means of financing scholar- ships, new facilities specially designed for adult educat- ion, experimentation and demonstration, additional capital for broadcasting and research. The researcher strongly recommends that in addition to general taxes, Imo State Government should levy an education tax which could be used in financing adult education programs. Such education taxes should be collected at the same time the general taxes are collected or should be included in the general taxes but earmarked for adult education. The importance of adult education in developing state like Imo State of Nigeria cannot be overemphasized. A wide- 138 spread diffusion of knowledge is therefore, very essential in our society. Education is necessary for the welfare of our social system, and for the fulfillment of the aspirati- ons of individuals. In this age, when the total stock of knowledge is increasing exponentially, it is necessary to regard the education of adults as equal in importance to the education of the young. The State government and the Local government areas should move as quickly as possible toward the appointment of directors of adult education programs in the local communit- ies. The roles of these directors would be to determine the nature of public and private demand for adult education in their respective communities, and to provide courses to meet this demand. The directors have the additional responsibil- ity for obtaining money from appropriate sources. Their responsibility will also include providing information about courses, and encouraging adults to continue their education. State Board of Adult Education It is necessary, on the state level, to set up a State Board of Adult Education on which all relevant Ministries and other agencies would be represented. The State Ministry of Education should take the initiative for its creation. Functions of the Board 1. To advise the government on all matters relating to adult education and training and to draw up plans and programs. 2. To promote the establishment of agencies and ser- vices for the production of literature and other teaching materials and for the needed training programs. 139 3. To ensure coordination among Ministries and officials and non-official agencies. 4. To review from time to time the progress made and formulate suggestions for change and improvement; and 5. To promote research, investigation and evaluation. Committees at the community levels should be set up, and adult education facilities should be developed as community centers. The researcher wishes to stress the fact that pluralism of adult education and its wide and varied range, preclude it from being regarded as the sole concern of a single de— partment in a Ministry which handles it administratively. It is necessary to recognize it as a business of every de- partment, and the entire administrative machinery not only at the planning but also at the implementation level. Every department must be involved in the preparation and unfold- ing of its programs. It is true that education is mainly the function of the Ministry of Education, but it is neces- sary to adopt prodedures which will ensure practical in- volvement of the entire administrative machinery. specifically, the Ministries of Finance, and Agriculture should be included in the membership of the State Board. If any of these ministries is omitted, adult education is likely to be neglected and its role undervalued when plans are being formulated for the economic and social development of the State. It is indeed important that at all times, there should be the closest liaison possible between these mini- stries. If any of these ministries is forgotten, there is likelihood of engendering resistance to and understanding of the claims of adult to be treated on a parity with other 140 branches of education when it comes to allocating funds. Voluntary_Agencies Voluntary agencies working in the field of adult edu- cation should be given every encouragement, financially and technically. Adult education is an area ideally suited for voluntary efforts and the work to be done is of such dimen- sions that the mobilization of these agencies will play a crucial role in the success of adult education programs in the state. Implications for Further Research The findings of this study may be generalized to all of the adult education programs in Imo State of Nigeria. If this study is replicated in other states in Nigeria, it would make a contribution towards the best ways and means of financing adult education programs. It would be nec- essary to replicate this study in Imo State in future to see how far the recommendations made in this study have been im- plemented. As the data from the analysis were interpreted, the researcher became aware of needs for further research in the following areas: A study should be initiated for the purposes of making gross estimates of total costs of adult education in the state, now and in the future. 2. A study should be initiated to determine what procedures could be used in making adult education programs a part of the state public school system. 1. A series of comparative studies should be undertaken and an important part of each study should include an examin- ation of the philosophy and practice in financing adult education programs. 3. 141 4. A study of how to develop a master plan for increasing the involvement and support of various sections of the rural community in its adult education programs. 5. A study of factors relating to the financing of adult education as revealed by a study of selected communities in Imo State. 6. A study to determine the procedure to be used to expand the existing teachers' training colleges curriculum to include courses in adult education. EPILOGUE The importance of adult education in a developing society cannot be over emphasized. For a very large number of adults in Imo State of Nigeria, it is a substitute for the basic formal education they missed. For many individual adults who dropped out of school, it is the complement to ele- mentary, secondary or cOllege education. For those whom it helps to respond effectively to new demands which their jobs and environment make on them, it is the continuation of edu- cation. Again, it offers furthereducation to those who have received high-level training. Most importantly, it is a means of individual development for everyone irrespective of one's stage in life. Adult education assumes special importance when it comes to the success of children's school activities. For instance, parents' educational level cannot be disassociated from their children's primary, secondary or university education. The rising generation cannot be properly educated in an illi- terate society. However, adult education should not be set against the education of children and young people. Special adult education institutions should be created to assist adults to function better as citizens, producers, consumers and parents. 142 To this end, the following recommendations are made: Principles of Adult Education on Adult education in Imo State of Nigeria should be based the following principles: it should be based on the needs of the participants and make use of their different experiences in the develop- ment of adult education programs; the most educationally underprivileged should be given the highest priority; it should rely on the ability and determination of all .adults in the state to make progress throughout their lives both at the level of their personal development and in relation to their social activity; it should stimulate and sustain the interest of adult learners, appeal to their experiences, strengthen their self-reliance, and enlist their active participation at all stages of the educational process in which they are involved; "it should seek the participation of individual adults, groups and communities in decision-making at all levels of the learning process; including determination of needs, curriculum development, program implementation and evaluation and should plan educational activities with a View to the transformatiog of the working environ- ment and of the life of adults"; it should be organized and operated flexibly by taking into account social, cultural, economic and institutiOn- a1 factors of each community to which adult learners belong; it should contribute to the economic and social develop- ment of the entire community; and it should be organized as an integral part of the edu- cational process. Content of Adult Education The Draft Recommendation of the Development of Adult Education of the UNESCO Conference, 1976, points out that: 1. Adult education activities, viewed as forming part of life-long education and learning, have no theori- tical boundaries and should meet the particular situation created by the specific needs of development, 143 of participation in community life and of individual self-fulfillment; they cover all aspects of life and all fields of knowledge and are addressed to all people what- ever their level of achievement. In defining the content of adult education activities priority should be given to the specific negds of the educationally most under- privileged_groups. Civic, political, trade union and cooperative education activities should be aimed particularly towards develop- ing independent and critical judgement and implanting or enhancing the abilities required by each individual in order to cope with changes affecting living and work- ing conditions by effective participation in the manage- ment of social affairs at every level of decision-making process; There should be, in addition to general and civic edu- cation, technical and vocational education activities which should emphasize the acquisition of qualifications which are sufficiently broad to allow subsequent changes of occupation. There should be activities designed to promote cultural development and artistic creation. Participation should not be restricted on grounds of sex, geographic origin, culture, age, social status, experience, belief and prior educational standing. Structure of Adult Education The state government should try as much as possible to ensure the establishment and development of a network of bodies meeting the needs of adult education; this network should be flexible enough to meet various personal and social needs. It is necessary to take measures so that it would be possible to: (a) identify educational needs capable of being satis- fied through adult education programs; (b) existing educational facilities should be made full use of, and new facilities should be created so as to meet all defined objectives; (c) make necessary investments for the development of adult education, especially for professional edu- cation planners, administrators, organizational and training personnel, the production and provision 144 of the necessary basic equipment such as visual aid and apparatus; (d) eliminate economic and social obstacles to partici- pation in education and to systematically bring the nature and form of adult education programs to the attention of all people who would benefit from such programs. To achieve these objectives, it is necessary to mobilize organizations, both statutory and non-statutory, and instit- utions specifically concerned with the education of adults, and full range of schools, both public and private, univer- sities, libraries and museums. Pre-Service/In-Service Training , It should be noted that adult education calls for special skills, knowledge, understanding and attitudes on the part of adult education teachers. It is important that new re- cruits as well as old hands receive initial and in-service training. The training should as far as practicable, include all aspects of skill, knowledge, understanding and personal attitude which are relevant to the various functions under- taking. It should include adult learning theories and adult psychology. Methods of Adult Education As far as possible, adult education methods should take into consideration the following: (a) motivation and obstacles to participation and learning specially affecting adults. (b) the experience gained by adults in the exercise of their family, social, and occupational res- ponsibilities. This is very important for every adult educator to note; (c) the ability of adults to assume responsibility for their own learning; IIIIIIIllllllII---:::——————————————t 145 (d) the adult learning theories; (e) the psychological characteristics of the learning process; frustrations as a result of family, social or (f) occupational obligation borne by adults. In order to encourage the broadest possible partici— pation, it may be necessary or appropriate to add to locally based adult education, methods such as radio or television broadcasts, study groups, and use of voluntary work by teachers, students, and other community members. Relations Between Adult Education and Youth Education According to the UNESCO Draft Recommendation, the edu- cation of young people should progressively be oriented to- wards life-long education and learning, taking into account the experience gained in regard to adult education, and with a View to preparing young people to take part in adult edu- cation or to contribute to providing it. To this end, measure should be taken with a view to: making access to all levels of education and training more widely available; removing barriers between disciplines and also between types and levels of education; modifying the school and training syllabus with the aim of maintaining and stimulating intellectual curiousity and also placing emphasis on the development of self-teaching patterns of behavior and creative abilities. informing young people at school and young people leaving full-time schooling or initial training of the opportuni- ties offered by adult and continuing education; bringing together adults and adolescents in the same train- ing program, and associating youth movements with adult education activites. 146 Correspondence EducatiOn Correspondence education has been an important feature in adult education in Imo State. As usual, financial diffi- culties are debarring many adults who want to continue their education through correspondence education. As Townsend Coles6 suggests, this should not be left to commercial operators concerned with profit, but should be provided either by statutory authority responsible for adult edu— cation (in this case, the Ministry of EducatiOn) or by a parasatatal body working under governmental sanction (in this case, the‘ Adult Education Association of Nigeria). This is to ensure the maintenance of high standards, cooperation with the authorities responsible for media, and the intro- duction of correspondence teaching to all aspects of adult education. The state government should allocate funds to adult edu- cation to match the importance of such education for social, cultural and economic development. This allocation should cover at least: 'provision for adult education centers or adaptat— (a) ion of existing facilities; production of all kinds of learning materials; (b) (c) remuneration and in-service training for adults edu- cators; (d) research and information expenses; (e) tuition, and where necessary, accommodation and travel costs of trainees. Necessary measures should be taken to ensure the maximum use of local resources, both materials and human. 147 For the individual adult in Imo State, lack of funds should not be an obstacle to participation in adult education programs. The government should ensure that financial assis- tance for study purposes is available to those who need it. It is the researchers opinion that the participation of members of underprivileged social groups should be free of charge. "The fact that adults account for about 70 percent of the population",7 coupled with the immediate effects which adult education could produce in the present hurry for devel- opment, the state government should allocate at least one- third.of the education budget to adult education programs. Again, future community development programs should be need-directed, community inspired projects, and well planned in order of priority. Economic, social, political and cultural strategies that are practical should be adopted, and should be adequately funded with facilities for training programs. A recent study by Brown to determine the extent of local participation in the rural development programs of Kaduna State, identified among other things that the come munities "generally felt that the development projects did not satisfy the felt needs of the people and the local com- munities." Rather, it created at best an "over-dependence" syndrome which "might inhibit the development of local self- conficence and self-reliance for an efficient...rural de- velopment programs."8 The necessity for cooperation between government, pri- vate and voluntary agencies in the state, in financing, 148 planning, and promoting the type of adult education activit- ies that can produce the desired development of rural communities in Imo State is emphasized in this study. The satisfactory solution of the problems that confront the financing and promotion of adult education in rural and urban communities of Imo State does not lie in political expediency or intuition, but in the dedication of inter- agency and the inter-departmental efforts of all the govern- ment ministries, the institutions of higher learning, the industries, the corporations, the elementary and secondary schools, the churches, the trade unions, the local govern- ment areas, the community councils and all citizens in the process of rural/urban development through adult education. A X .1 d n e W A 149 INSTRUCTION Your participation as a respondent to the respirgh lS 1. questions/statements is highly appreciated. important that your responses represent your percept- ions in the way adult education should be financed in. the state. All information will be treated confidenti- ally and anonymously. 2. Use pencil/pen and CIRCLE with firm pressure AROUND the number representing the characteristic you perceive against each research question/statement. 3. Example of circling STRONGLY AGREE DISAGREE STRONGLY one item: AGREE AGREE 4 3 2 1 Adult education should be financed by government, private & voluntary agencies. (:> 3 2 1 (Note: The "CIRCLE" around "4" will indicate that your perception of the statement is that you strongly agree that both government, private and voluntary agencies should finance adult education). 1. Indicate whether you are a male or female Mark "X" where applicable. A.OOOOOOCMale B........Fema1e Indicate whether you are a graduate or non-graduate 2. Mark "x" where applicable. A........Graduate B ........ Non-graduate 3. How long have you been an Adult Education Officer? Mark "X" where applicable. A........l to 10 years B........ll years and above. 1.9—: 1.. i 10. 11. 12. 13. Adult education should be financed by govern- ment, private and vol- untary agencies. Adult education should be financed by the gov- ernment only. Adult education should not be financed by pri— vate and voluntary agencies Adult education should be financed by all. The financing of adult education by the govern- ment, private and vol— untary agencies enhances more competition. The financing of adult education by the govern- ment alone does not pro- mote competition. The financing of adult education by only volun- tarv and private agencies may not en- hance competition. The financing of adult education by all may enhance competition. If there is local parti- cipation in adult edu- cation financing, there would be wider revenue base. If there is local parti- cipation in adult edu— cation financing, adult education costs would be reduced. 150 STRONGLY DIS—V STROIGISEE AGREE AGREE AGREE DISA 4 3 ’ 2' 1 4 3 2 1 3 2 1 4 3 2 l 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 151 If there is local par- ticipation in adult education financing, more facilities will be provided If there is local par- ticipation in adult education financing, there would be more commitment to the programme. If there is parti— cipation by both government, private and voluntary agencies in financing adult edu- cation, there would be more foreign aid to adult education. 4 If there is parti- cipation by goth govern- ment, private and volun— tary agencies in finan- cing adult education, there would be variety of services provided. 4 If there is partici- pation by both govern— ment, private and volun- tary agencies in finan- cing adult education, there would be more efficiency in adult edu- cation.programmes. 4 If there is partici- pation by both govern- ment, private and/volun- tary agencies in’finan- cing adult education, there would be more accountability. 4 If there is partici- pation by both govern- ment, private and volun- tary agencies in finan- cing adult education goals/Objectives could be easily achieved. 4 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 152 If there is partici- pation by both govern- ment, private and volun— tary agencies in finan- cing adult education, illiteracy among the adult population would be drastically reduced. 4 3 2 1 If there is partici— pation by both govern- ment, private and volun— tary agencies, financial barriers that stopped low-income families from getting adult edu- cation services will be eliminated. Adult education should be compulsory, and should be financed by both govern- ment, private and volun— tary agencies. Adult education should be funded with tax money. 4 1 Adult education should be financed from other sources in addition to the existing sources of funding. The annual budget by the government fOr adult edu- cation programme should be on the same level with annual budget for second- ary education. 4 If there is participation by both government, pri- vate and voluntary agenc- ies in financing adult education, the quality Of teaching staff, as well as instructional materials would be improved. 4 3 If there is participation in the financing of adult education by both govern- ment, private and 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 153 voluntary agencies, adult education component would be introduced into Teach- ing Training Colleges. 4 3 2 1 If there is participati- on by both government, private and voluntary agencies in financing adult education, Adult Trade Centers may be built in the rural communities. If there is participati- on by both government, private and voluntary agencies in financing adult education, Agri- culture Extension Svcs. would be improved, and would reach every section of the rural communities. If there is participati- on by both government, private and voluntary agencies in financing adult education, research and development would be encouraged. 4 3 2 1 If there is financing by government, private and voluntary agencies, adult education would be free. 4 3 2 1 If there is participation by both government, pri- vate and voluntary agenc- ies in financing adult education, adult education centers would be establish- ed in rural communities around the state. 4 3 2 1 If there is participation by both government, pri- vate and voluntary agenc- ies in financing adult education, there would be response to the needs and problems of the local communities. 4 3 2 l 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 154 If there is participati— on by both government, private and voluntary agencies in financing adult education, there would be better family planning by adults. If there is participati— on by both government, private and voluntary agencies in financing adult education, the adults would be better educated in public affairs. If there is participati- on by both government, private and voluntary agencies in financing adult education, the adults would be better educated on how to dis- charge their civic responsibilities properly. If there is participati— on by both government, private and voluntary agencies in financing adult education, the adults would be better educated in their con- stitutional rights. 4 If there is participati— on by both government, priVate and voluntary agencies in financing adult education, the adults would be better educated in the proper management of their resources. 4 3 2 1 Indicate in order of importance the ways you think adult education should be financed. Please be Specif' and elaborate on your points. Use the attached blanklc; sheet if necessary. APPENDIX B 155 Dan 0. Agbafor 1411 B Spartan Village Michigan State University East Lansing, MI 48824 Date The Director Adult and Continuing Education Sirs: My name is Dan 0. Agbafor. I am from Imo State of Nigeria. I am a doctoral student in Adult and Continuing Education at Michigan State University, U.S.A. I want to do a study of the perception of Adult Edu- cation Officers On joint financing of Adult Education by private, voluntary and government agencies in Imo State of Nigeria. This study could have been designed to cover adult education programs in Nigeria as a whole, but for fin- ancial constraints. However, the results Of this study would help to shade light into the best ways and means Of financing adult education programs anywhere in Nigeria. It would be very much appreciated if you could send me necessary documents on Adult and Continuing Education pro- grams in your institution. Documents in the form of Special Committee Reports, Financial Reports, Annual Reports, Policy Changes and plans for the future will be appreciated. Also, your personal comments on the best ways and means of financing adult and continuing education will be highly appreciated. Your kind cooperation in sending these documents is solicited please. Sincerely yours, Daniel 0. Agbafor DOA 156 MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY LIFELONG EDUCATION PROGRAMS ' KELLOGG CENTER November 9, 1979 Mr. Dan Agbafor is my Doctoral Student in Adult and Continuing Education and hopes to learn as much as he can about these activities in his home country. This information will be very helpful to Nigeria when he returns to work there, after completing his degree. I'm hopeful you can provide these materials for his use to complete this study. Very Sincerely, Dr. Melvin C. Buschman Graduate Students-Intern Coordinator Room 54, Kellogg Center Michigan State University East Lansing, Michigan 48824 U.S.A. MCB/mj b ..nn - Aft_____:.._ A_-:.._Il:.-...-l nuance-"d... l....:....:n.. APPENDIX C 157 A Study of the Perception Of Adult Education Officers on Joint Funding of Adult Education by Private, Voluntary and Government Agencies in Imo State of Nigeria. THE PROBLEM 95 Statement of the Problem: Before the Civil War (1967) in Nigeria, education, both formal and adult education has been funded by the government, individuals, and missionaries. After the Civil War broke out, education in the Eastern States was non-existent. At the end of the war, the Federal Government felt that the edu— cational development had been lagging behind, as a result, the government took over the control of education. Since then, the government has been bearing the major costs of education. There is diverse opinions whether the pre-war arrangement - where the missionaires were in control of most educational institutions, was better than it is now or vice versa. It is therefore, essential to conduct this survey in order to determine the perception of adult education Officers, because these are the practitioners in the field who know the impact of the present and past systems. 158 Importance of the Study: P.H This is the first study ever in the area of adult edu- catiOn financing in Imo State of Nigeria. Odokara (1972)1 called for research to be conducted in the "methods of financing various aspects of adult education programmes that are going on in our communities," in a paper presented to the Nigerian National Council for Adult Edu— cation - First Annual Conference - March 24—28, 1972, and published in “Adult Education in Nigeria; The Next Ten Years." He points out the importance of conducting adult educational research by individual adult educators instead of waiting for the government or industries to give direct- ives. The Task Force appointed by the Nigerian National Council for Adult Education (1973)2 to make recommendations to the Nigerian government for inclusion in the Five-Year National, Development Plan (1975-1980) called for research studies on all aspects of adult education, including financing. The Task Force noted that financial problems are among the major drawbacks for any adult education programmes in the country. Millions of Niara are being spent on development projects with little or no impact on social problems, but relatively little is being spent to help the disadvantages, the low- skilled, and the chronically unemployed to develop their skills 'E.O. Odokara: "Guideline for Adult Educational Research (with Special Attention to Evaluation)" in Adult Education in Nigeria: The Next Ten Years, ed. by Lalage Bown, Almadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria, 1972, p. 93. Z'Nigerian National Council for Adult Education, Proposal for a National Adult Education Programme for inclusion in the Third National Developmgpt Plan. Drawn up by a Task Force of the NNCAE convened at the University of Ibadan, Oct. 1973, pp. 25—26. 159 by which they can improve themselves, and thereby help to make any development programmes more effective. There are many adults who have strong desire to learn but who face various barriers of costs, information, facilities, etc. Townsend Coles (1977)3 notes that adult education in general continues to be under-financed when considered in relation to the tasks to be undertaken and when compared to other sectors of education. The rate of literacy is very low. The Task Force4 appointed by Nigerian National Council for Adult Education notes that "illiteracy is possibly the most severe limitation on our economic development...Nigeria's literacy rate is usually estimated as around 30%, though in the Opinion of many Adult Education experts this appears to be an over- estimate." Nasution5 (UNESCO) expert noted that total illi— teracy in urban areas "is not less than 80% (only 20% is permanently literate and in rural areas as high as 98%)." Adult literacy education is a national (State) must, an in— ternational obligation. Facts and survey findings have testified that there is relatively high correlation (up to 30%) between illiteracy and backwardness in knowledge, tech- nology; and economic development. It is also argued that for a take-off, national development needs a literacy rate of about’35%. 3'Edward K. Townsend Coles, Adult Education in Developing Countries., 2nd. ed. Pergamon Press, New York, 1977. p.82. 'Ibid p.9. 'Amir H. Nasution, UNESCO Expert: "Foreign Assistant Contri- bution in Adult Education in Nigeria." Paper presented to Nigerian National Conference on Adult Education (March 25-27, 1971) University of Lagos, Lagos - Nigeria. pp. 3-4. 4 160 One Of the bad consequences affecting adult education directly is that the governments and others concerned have concentrated their interests, efforts, and financial re- sources totally on school education, leaving adult education aside. Nasution6 notes that there is no special budget for adult education in the federal plan, and in State plans, “It is awarded from nil to a few percent only." However, he points out that adult education cannot be financed by the government alone; it is the common duty of the government, and the governed. Voluntary organizations, groups and in- dividuals have Obligations. Odokara,7 points out that adult education programs do not have adequate financial or physical resources. Brunner8 and others who compiled a comprehensive over— view of adult education research, noted in the introduction the "rather chaotic" condition of research in the field re- sulting from the diffusion of agencies and subject matter and the lack of financial support. The Carnegie Commission on Higher Education9 found that there are some clear-cut pecuniary and developmental benefits forgthg individual participants, and thgre are also Obvious 6‘Ibid pp. 5—7. 7'E.O. Odokara... Unpublished Dissertation, Michigan State University, 1966. Edmund Brunner et al. An Over-View of Adult Education Research (Chicago, Adult Education Association of U.S., 1959). 9'Carnegie Commission on Higher Education, Who Pa 5?, Who Benefits? Who Should Pay? McGraw-Hill, New York City, June 1973, pp. 79-81. 8. 161 benefits for society as a whole. Among the latter are ad- vances in knowledge; increases in general productivity, in- dependent of increases in capital and labor, growth of social cohesiveness and openness to change, and what the authors call “neighborhood effects," the creation of an agreeable world in which to live. The society is very much in need of community services, instructional programs. Zoglinlo points to the fact that in order to determine who should pay for community services in- structional programs, there is need to know something about { the probable effect of different financing systems. Unfortu- I nately there is little or no information available. Lowell states bluntly that, on a world-wide basis, "Despite the lamentations Of adult educators, the financing of adult edu- cation is a strangely neglected subject of study and re- ‘search." In many societies in different parts Of the world, financing adult continuing education is regarded as number one problem. Investigations made by the Southern Regional Education Board (SREB)12 revealed that Financing is a major problem in mental health continuing education. It is not the children of today who hold the present destiny of Nigeria (Imo State) in their hands, it is the adults, 10'Mary Lou Zoglin. "Financing Community Services Instruction." Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the California Community College Community Services Association, (Monterey, California, March, 1977). 11'John Lowe, The Education of Adults: A World Perspective. The UNESCO Press, Paris, 1975, p. 175. ’Southern Regional Education Board, "Financing Continuing Education in Mental Health," Atlanta, Ge 12 162 so it is only by establishing effective communication with the adult population, by helping them to adjust to a rapidly changing world that an immediate impact can be made on the urgent problems of our society and essential progress be brought about. Nigeria (Imo State) cannot afford to wait for a generation to mobilize its rich human resources for tasks of national development. Knowlesl3 recognized this when he states that "The Society of our age cannot wait for the next generation to solve its problems. Time is running out too fast! Our fate rests with the intelligence, skill, and good will of those who are now the citizen-rulers. The instruments by which their abilities as citizen - rulers can be improved is adult education..." Delimitations of the Study: This study is limited to Adult Education Officers in Imo State. The reliability and validity of the findings may depend on the sincerity of the responses given by the Edu— cation Officers. The study of the perceptions of Adult Education Officers of the joint funding Of adult education by government, Pri- vate and Voluntary agencies does not provide a complete answer to adult education financing. The time for the Study is limited, that the question- naire is to be administered to suit the time constraints. Lack of adequate finance for such a study makes travel— ling about the State constantly difficult. Much of the 13. Malcolm S. Knowles, The Modern Practice of Adult Education: Andragogypversus Pedagogy. Association Press, New York, 1970, p.34. 163 findings of this study will depend upon the data collected on the very day the Education Officer is visited. Some Adult Education Officers may not fill out the questionnaire given to them. Lack of funds and time constraints make it difficult to extend the scope of this study to other States of Nigeria. Therefore, generalization in this Study is limited to Imo State of Nigeria. RESEARCH_QEUSTIONNAIRE AND HYPOTHESES The following are the research questions which the in- formation generated by this Study will answer: The proposed Study will provide data to determine the best ways and means of financing adult education as per- ceived by the Adult Education Officers. The proposed Study will provide data to determine the ability of the Adult Education participants in both rural, and urban areas to pay as perceived by the Adult Education Officers. The proposed Study will provide data to determine the need for joint Funding of Adult Education by both private, voluntary and government agencies as perceived by the Adult Education Officers. HYPOTHESES The hypotheses that stem from the research questions above will be tested atYY=.05 level of significance are: GENERAL HYPOTHESIS I The Adult Education Officers in Imo State of Nigeria will 164 perceive the research questions related to the best ways and means of financing adult education as factors for promoting adult education programs in the State. OPERATIONAL HYPOTHESIS Ia There will be no statistically significant differences between men and women ADult Education Officers‘ perception on the best ways and means questions related to financing adult education. OPERATIONAL HYPOTHESIS Ib There will be no statistically significant differences i in perception among Adult Education Officers in both rural I and urban areas on the best ways and means questions re- lated to financing adult education. OPERATIONAL HYPOTHESIS IC There will be no statistically significant differences in the perception of Adult Education Officers with different degrees (graduate and non-graduate) on the best ways and means questions related to financing adult education. GENERAL HYPOTHESIS 2 The Adult Education Officers in Imo State of Nigeria will perceive the research questions related to the ability of adult participants to pay as factors related to very few participants in adult education programs. OPERATIONAL HYPOTHESIS 2a There will be no statistically significant differences in perception among the Adult Education Officers in both rural and urban areas on the research questions related to the 165 ability of participants to pay. OPERATIONAL HYPOTHESIS 2b There will be no statistically significant differences between men and women Adult Education Officers on the re- search questions related to the ability of participants to pay. OPERATIONAL HYPOTHESIS 2C There will be no statistically significant differences in the perception of Adult Education Officers with different degrees (graduate or non-graduate) on the research questions related to the ability of participants to pay. I GENERAL HYPOTHESIS 3 The Adult Education Officers in Imo State of Nigeria will perceive the research questions related to joint financ- ing of adult education by both private, voluntary, and gov- ernment agencies as the best means of promoting adult edu- cation activities in the State. OPERATIONAL HYPOTHESIS 3a There will be no statistically significant differences between men and women Adult Education Officers' perception in joint financing of adult education. OPERATIONAL HYPOTHESIS 3b There will be no statistically significant differences between the rural Adult Education Officers and urban Adult Education Officers' perception of joint financing Of adult education. 166 OPERATIONAL HYPOTHESIS 3C There will be no statistically significant differences in the perception of Adult Education Officers with different degrees (graduate or non-graduate) on the research questions related to the joint financing of adult education. Sampling Description: The list of Adult Education Officers around the State will be obtained from the Ministry of Education, Owerri, Nigeria. This information will help to identify Adult Edu- cation Officers stationed in the urban as well as rural areas. After the identification, the Officers will be divided into two categories - urban Adult Education Officers, and rural Adult Education Officers. ,_...A Twenty_five, Adult Education Officers will then be ran-I -— domly selected from each category. Thefifty Adult Edu— cation Officers randomly selected from the urban and rural areas will be the subjects for the Study. The questionnaire will be administered to these 50 selected Adult Education Officers. MEASURING DEVICES (INSTRUMENTATION) l. A Likert-type of four item alternative questionnaire designed along the dimensions of the research questions is attached to this proposal. 2. Reading materials such as books, journals, newspapers and periodicals dealing with the issue will be read. METHOD TO BE USED IN GATHERING DATA. PILOT STUDY A pilot study will be conducted using the Nigerian Students in Michigan State University. Those who have been teachers in both Secondary and Elementary Schools in Nigeria, 167 where adult education programs are being conducted. The pilot study will help to guard against bias and flaws in design, improves data collecting, permits a thorough check of the planned statistical and analytical procedures and their adequacy in treating the data. It permits a preliminary testing of the hypotheses. The 50 Adult Education Officers that are selected in a stratified random fashion shall have been notified of the study with dates set for visiting them. The questionnaire will be administered by my representative. When the questi- onnaire is given to each Adult Education Officer, he/she shall be left alone to fill the questionnaire so as to avoid any form of influence on the responses given by the Adult Education OFficers! After allowing sufficient time for the Adult Education Officers to respond to the questionnaire, my representative shall go back to collect the completed questi— onnaire. METHODOLOGY/ANALYSIS OF DATA The raw scores from the research questionnaire will be analysed in frequencies, percentage frequencies and mean descriptive statistics. As the data are in discrete fre- quency counts and are arranged in categories, the hypotheses will be tested by subjecting the research questions to a chi-square test of independence at theif=.05 level of signi- ficance. The Contingency Coefficient (C) will be used to deter- mine the strength Or degree of relationships between variables as the data are in frequencies and a table larger than 2 x 2 168 is involved. The Open-ended part of the questionnaire will be sub- jected to content analysis and the results used to validate the study as well as making recommendations for further research. 169 Chapter I FOOTNOTES l'Townsend Coles, Edwin K., Adult Education in Develop- ing Countries. Pergamon Press, New York, 1969, p. 14. 2. Ibid.. pp. 14-15. 3'Ibid; p. 15. 4'Ibid; p. 3. 5‘Knowles, Malcolm 8., The Modern Practice of Adult Edu- cation: Androgogy versus Pedagogy. Association Press, New York, 1970, p. 34. 6“Nasution, Amir H., Unesco Expert: "Foreign Assistant Contribution in Adult Education in Nigeria." Paper presented to Nigerian National Conference on Adult Education (March 25-27, 1971), University of Lagos, Lagos, Nigeria, 1971, pp. 3-4. 7'Rogers, Carl, "Interpersonal Relationship: U.S.A. 2000." The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, Vol. 4, NO. 3, 1968. 8'Smith, Robert M., George F. Aker, and J.R. Kidd, eds. Handbook of Adult Education. Macmillan .Publishing CO., Inc., New York, 1970, p. XXX. 9’Lengrand, Paul. An Introduction to Life-Lopg Learn- ing, Croom Helm, London and the Unesco Press, Paris, 1975, p. 25. lo'Ibid. pp. 25-26. ll'Ibis. p. 26. 12'Ibid pp. 27-28. l3°1bid. pp. 29-30. 1 4'Ibid. p. 31. lS‘Raybould, G., Adult Education at a Tropical University, Longmans, Green and Co. Ltd., London, 1957, p. 137. l6‘Nash, T.A., "Report on the Anchan Rural Development and Settlement Scheme," London, HMSO, 1962, p. 18. 170 l7'Buschman, M.C., "Importance of Adult Education in a Developing Society." A talk given to the Adult Education Conference held at the University Of Nigeria, Nsukka, December 9-12, 1965. Published by the Division Of Extra- Mural Studies, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, p. 3. l8'Ekong, S.U. "Paper on the Conference Theme." NNCAE First Annual Conference, March 24-28, 1972. Published in Adult Education in Nigeria: The Next Ten Years, ed. Lalage Bown, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, 1972, p. 182. l9°Ibid. pp. 3-4. 2o'odokara, E.O. Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation, Michi- gan State University, 1966. Zl'Nigeria - 1974 Literacy Day Speeches (Accra: Nigerian National Council for Adult Education in COOperation with the Friedrich Ebert Foundation Liberty Press, 1974), p. 1, citing E.A. Tugbiyele's speech. 22' Nigeria - 1974 Literacy Day Speeches, p. 3, quoting J.T. Okedara. 23’Olatunbosun, Dupe, Nigeria's Npglected_Rural Majority (Ibadan: Oxford University Press, 1975), pp. 5-22. 24 “Ibid. p. 22. 25’ "The Development Process and Adult Education," A speech delivered by Dr. A. Adedeji to NNCAE at Nsukka, July 1973 and Published in Proposal for a National Adult Education Programme for Inclusion in the Third National Development Plan. Drawn up by a Task Force of the NNCAE convened at the University of Ibadan, October, 1973. p. 7. 26'Lewis, W.A. in an article in the International Social Science Journal, No. XIV, 1962. 27'Odokara, E.O., "Guidelines for Adult Educational Research (with special attention to evaluation)" in Adult Education in Nigeria: The Next Ten Years ed. Lalage Bown, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria, 1972, p. 93. 28'Ibid. pp. 25-26. 29‘Towsend Coles, Edwin.K-, Adult Education in Develop~ ing Countries, 2nd edition, Pergamon Press, Oxford, 1977, p. 82. 30. Ibid. p. 82. 31'Ibid. p. 83. 171 32'Jensen, Gate, A.A. Liveright, and Wilbur Hallenbeck, Adult Education, Outline of Emerging Field of UniVersity Study. Adult Education Of U.S.A., 1964, p. 334. 33’ "Community Education,"‘ National Community School Education Association NeWs, ‘September, 1970, p. 3. 34' Foreign Policy Associations, pp. 11-12. 35 'Manzoor Ahmed, and Philip H. Coombs, ed., EdUCation for Rural Development: Case Studies for Planners. Fraeger Publishers, New York, 1975, p. XXIX. 172 Chapter II FOOTNOTES 1. . _ . . .... . Kidd, J.R., FinanCing Continuing Education, the Scarecrow Press, Inc., New York, 1962;.pP. 15-16 (quoting Sir Winston Churchill). ' 2. . . . Townsend Coles, EdWln K., Adult Education in Develop- ing Countries. Pergamon Press, New York, 1969, p. 5. 3. . . Curle, Adam, "Educational Strategy for Developing SOCieties" (A Study of Educational and Social Factors in Relation to Economic Growth). Tavistock Publications, 1963, p. 2. 4°______"Adult Education: A Means to Modernization and National Development." Insight & Opinion, Vol. 111, No. 4, 1968, p. 93. 5’Bryson, Lyman. Adult Education.' American Book Company, New York, 1936, p. 3. 6'Knowles, Malcolm 8., The Modern Practice of Adult Education: Androgy versus Pedogogy. Association Press, New York, 1970, p. 38. 7'Verner, Coolie. "Definition Of Terms." Adult Edge cation: Outline of an Emerging Field Of University Study. Edited by Gale Jensen, A.A. Liveright, and Wilbur Hallenbeck. Adult Education Association of the U.S.A., Washington, D.C., 1964. pp. 27—39. 8’Essert, Paul. Creative Leadershipjof Adult Education. Englewood Cliffs, N.J., Prentice-Hall, 1951, p. 5. 9'Houle, Cyril O. "The Education of Adult Educational Leaders." Handbook Of Adult Education in the United States. Edited by Malcolm S. Knowles, Adult EducatiOn Assoc1ation of U.S.A., Chicago, ILL., 1970, pp. 117-128. 10’ NNCAE, Proposal for a National Adult Education Programme, for inclusion in the Third National Development Plan. Drawn up by a Task Force of the NNCAE convened at the University of Ibadan, October, 1973, p. 56. ll‘DraftRecommendation-on the Development of Adult Education, Unesco, Paris, 1976, p. 2. 12'Rochte, N., "A State Program Of Tax Supported Adult Education in Ohio." (unpublished Doctoral dissertation, Ohio State University, 1950). 173 . l3'Townsend Coles, Edwin K., Adult Education in Develop- ing Countries, 2nd. ed. Pergamon Press, New York, 1977, p. 6. 14°Townsend Coles, Edwin K., Adult Education in Develop- ing Countries. Pergamon Press, New York, 1969, pp 1-25. ls’Havighurst, Robert J. and Betty Orr, Adult Education and Adult Needs. Center for Study of Liberal Education for Adults, Chicago, ILL., 1956. 16. Ibid. p. 23. l7'Gould, Samuel B. "Preface." Diversity by Desigp, Jossey-Bass Inc., San Francisco, 1973. 18‘Knowles, Malcolm S. Informal Adult Education A Guide for Administrators, Leaders, and Teachers. Association Press, New York, 1951. 19’Bergevin, Paul. A Philosophy for Adult Education. The Seabury Press, New York, 1967, pp. 30-31. 20’Houle,_Cyril O., The Design of Education. Jossey- Bass Inc., San Francisco, 1972, p. 6. 21 'Ibid. p. 7. 22°Ibid. p. 7. 23'Ibid. p. 8. 24‘Ibid. pp. 255-256. 25'Knowles, Malcolm S. and Chester Klevins, ?History and Philosophy of Continuing Education", in Materials and Methods in Continuing Education, edited by Chester KleVins. Klevens Publications Inc., Los Angeles, 1978, pp. 8-17. 26'Ibid. p. 91. 27'Brunner, Edmund des., An Overview of Adult Education Research. Adult Education Association of the U.S.A., Chicago, A1959, p. 275. 28'Olds, Edward B., Financing Adult Education in America's America's Public Schools and Community Councils. National Commission on Adult Education Finance, Adult Education Ass- ociation of the U.S.A., Washington, D.C., 1954, p. 124. 29'Clark, Burton R., Adult Education in Transition:' A Study of Institutional Insecurity. (UniverSity of Cali- fornia Publications in Sociology and Social Institutions. V.l., NO. 2) University of California Press, 1956,_p. 202. 174 30’Holden, J.B. "Factors Relating to the Financial Support of Continuing Education as revealed by a Study of Selected Michigan Communities." "(unpublished Ph.D. disser- tation, Ohio State University, 1955). 31' Great Britain, Ministry of Education. "The Organization and Finance of Adult Education in England and Wales," Report of Committee appointed...in June 1953; Chair- man, Dr. Eric Ashby. H.M.S.O., London, 1954, p. 67. 32'Londoner, Carroll A., "Sources of Educational Funds as Motivator for Participating in Adult Secondary Education." Adult Education, Vol. XXV, No.1, 1974, pp. 47-63. 33’Callaway, A. and A. Musone, Financing of Education in Nigeria. International Institute for Educational Plan- ning, Unesco, 1968, p. 47. 34 ‘Ibid. p. 103. 35'Ibid. p. 103. 36‘Ibid. p. 104. 37'Ibid. p. 86. 38’Ibid. p. 87. 39 'Ibid. pp. 77-78. 40'Esarey, J. Clark, "Financing Corrections Education." Adult Leadership, June, 1975, p. 367. 41’Ibid. pp. 177-178. 42'Ibid. p. 178. 43‘ Unesco: "Organization and Structure of Adult Education in India." Prepared by Directorate of Adult Edu- cation, Ministry of Education and Social Welfare, Government of India, New Delhi, DOC. No. ED-75/WS/4, p. 9. 44'Kurland, NOrman, "A National Strategy for Lifelong Learning." Phi Delta Kappan, February, 1978, pp. 385-389. 45'Verduin, Jr., John R., Adults Teaching Adults: Prin- ciples and Stqgtegies. Learning Concepts, Austin, Texas, 1977, pp. 40-45. 46 'Ibid. p. 180. 47‘Thomas, J. Alan, "Financing Adult and Continuing Edu- cation,” in Planning to Finance EducatiOn," edited by Roe L. thns, Kern Alexander and K. Forbis Jordon. National 175 Educational Finance Project, Gainesville, Florida, 1971, p. 172. 48‘Ibid. p. 45. 49°Ibid. p. 87. S0°Ibid. p. 94. 51'Ibid. (Olds). 52‘Ibid. (Clark). 53°Ibid. pp. 19-20. 54'Ibid. p. 20. Burton A. External Benefits of Public 55‘W'eisbrod, ‘ Education. Princeton University Industrial.Re1ations Section, 1964. 56‘Schult, T.W., umbia University Press, New York, 1963, pp. 39-42. The Economic Value of Education. Col- 57'Ibid. p. 151. 58’Ikejiani, Okechukwu, ed. Education in Nigeria. Frederick A. Praeger, Publishers; New York, 1965, p. 224. 59"Rivlin, A.M. "Income Distribution - Can Economists Help?" American Economic Review, May, 1975, pp. 1-15. 6O'Marin, A. and Psacharopoulos, G., "Schovling and Income Distribution." Review of Economics and Statistics, August, 1976, pp. 332-338. "The Distributional Effects of Public 61'Pechman, J.A. Journal of Human Resources Higher Education in California." 361-370. VOl. 5 (Summer, 1970); PP. "The Distribution of Costs and Bene- Further Comments." Journal pp. 375-376. 62'Pechman, J.A. fits of Public Higher Education: 6 (Summer, 1971), of Human Resources, VOl. 63'COhn, Elchanan, The Economics of Education, Billin- ~r Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1979, ger Publishing Company, pp. 34-35. "Consumption Benefits of Education" in 64‘Hettich, W. 2 canadian Higher Education.in the Seventies, edited by S. Economic COuncil of Canada, Ottawa, 1972, pp. 177-198. fiMichael, R.T., The Effect of Education onEfficiency Cblumbia university Press, New York. For 19728 Oslryn 65 in Cbnsumption. National Bureau of Economic Research, 176 "Education in Non-Market Production," 66‘Michael, R.T., Journal of political Economy 81(March-April), 1973a, pp. 128-64. 67'Michael, R.T., "Education and the Derived Demand for Children." Journal of Political Economy 81(March-April, pt.2), 1973b, PP. 128-64. "Poverty and Health: A Reexaminati- 68’Lefocowitz, N.J., "Does Your Probability of Death 69°Orcutt, G.H., et a1. Depend on YOur Environment? A Microanalytic Study." American Economic Review. 67(February), 1977, pp. 260-264. on. 70°Staplet0n,-D.C., "Enternal Benefits of Education: An Assessment of the Effect Of the Effect of Education on Paper presented to the Annual Political Participation." North American Meetings of the Econometric Society, September, 1976. 71 Education."' Illiteracy, 1977, pp. 72'Schultz, T.W., In Social Factors Influencing American Education. Scoiety for the Study of Education, Chicago, 1961, pp. 74-75. School Finance: The Economi- . Prentice-Hall Inc., 'Webb, L.D., "Saving to Society by Investing in Adult In Economic and Social Perspective on Adult 52-73. "Education and Economic Growth." Nation . 73'Garms, walter I., et a1- cs and Policies of Public Education. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1978, p. 47. 74’Roe L. Johns, Kern Alexander, and Forbis Jordan, editors, Financing_Education: Fiscal and Legal Alternatives. Charles E. Merrill Publishing Co., A. Bell & Howell Co., Columbus, Ohio, 1972, pp. 56-57. 75'1bid. pp..59-60. 76.‘Roe L JOhns and Edgar L. MOrphet. The Economics and Financing of Education: A §ystems Approach, 2nd. ed. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey; 1969,“ Prentice-Hall Inc., p. 2. 77iMYdral, G., Asian Drama: An Inquiry into the Poverty of Nations, VOl. l & 111, Pantheon, New York, 1968. "Education and Economic Develop- Benji J.O., =African 78. . An051ke, ment in Nigeria: The Need for a New Paradigm." Studies Review, Vbl. XX, No.2, September, 1977, pp. 27-47. 79"Ibid. p. 90. 177 80. Ibid. pp. 6-8. 81‘Tugbiyele, E.A. Newsletter, September 8, 1974, pp. 1-2. 82'Ifedi, Chuma. "Adult Education for Nation Building." Daily Times, Lagos, Nigeria, September 23, 1978, p. 7. 83'Bown, Lalage, ed. Adult Education in Nigeria: The Next Ten Years: Ahmadu Bello University Adult Education and General Extension Service Unit, Zaria, 1972, p. 17. (Quot- ing A.Y. Eke, Federal Commissioner for Education). 84 ‘Ibid. p. 49. (quoting Alhaji Mamman Okikiri). 85'Ebon, Maurice Okon, "Policy Implications of Rural Urban Migration in Calabar, Nigeria: The Relative Effect on Housing." (Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Michigan State University, 1978, p. 81. 86“Erubu, Hamidu E., ”The Role of Adult Education in the Promotion of U.P.E." Journal of the African Adult Edu- cation Association, VOl.l, No.1, 1979, pp. ll-12. 87‘Widstrand,.Development and Adult Education in Africa. pp. 15-38. 88’Ogunfowora, Olabisi, Nigerian Rural Development No.7: Methodological Appgoach for Derived Resource Demand and Product Supply Analysis for Sapple Survey of Rural Farm Families in Nigeria. University of Ibadan, Department Of Agricultural Economics and Extension, Ibadan, 1972, p. 3. 89'Odokara, E.O., "A Theoretical Basis for Analysis of Adult Education in Developing Countries: A Review of Adult Education Programs in Rural Communities of Eastern Nigeria." (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Michigan State University, 1966, p. 39.. 90'Adaralegbe. Philosophy for Nigerian Education p. 264, quoting A. Bab Fafunwa. 91 'Ibid. p. 300, quoting Michael K. Adegbola 92'Ibid. 'p. 3. 93‘Ibid. p. 8. 94'Ibid. p. 9. 95'Ibid. p. 10. 96'Callaway, Hellen, "Learner Centered Innovations in Literacy." International Symposium for Literacy, Persepolis, 1975, p. 4. 178 97'Ibid. p. 4. 98'Harbison, F.H. "The Developmentwof Human , Resources: An Analytical Outline." In Economic Development in_Africa, edited by E.F. Jackson, and Basil Blackwell, 1965, p. 71. 99'Harbison, F.H. The Strategy of Human Resource Deve- lopment in Modernizing Economics: Policy Conference on Economic Growth and Investment in Education. O.E.C.D. Washington, D.C. 1961, Vol. 111, p. 11. lOO‘Smith, George Ivan, "The "Human Factor" in Economic Development." Published by the Department of Extra-Mural Studies, The University College, Dar es Salaam, Printed in The International Development Review, V01. V, No. 2, June 1963, p. 12. l01"Ribich, Thomas I., Education and Poverty, The Brookings Institution, 1968. l02°Strongman, Kenneth T. "Learning Social Skills" in Adult Learning: Psychologzj Research and Applications,_edited By Michael J.A. Howe, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1977, pp. 45-60. 103’Adams, Jr., Samuel C., "Nigeria: Where Education has not Kept Pace with Politics." Phi Delta Kappan, January, 1960, pp. 162-168. l04°Hansen, W. Lee, "Total and Private Rates of Return to Investment in Schooling." Journal of Political Economy, LXX 1’ NO. 2’ pp. 128-1400 105. 1964. 106’Akinduro, Bike (Mrs.), "Report on Adult Education in Ondo State", presented at the National Conference and Seminar of Heads of Sections of Adult Education. October 4-6, 1978, University of Lagos, Nigeria, p. 4. Ojike, Mbonu, My Africa. Van Rees Press, New York, 107’ National Conference of Heads of Adult Edu- cation in State.Ministries and Universities, held at the university of Lagos, Nigeria, Ocyober 4-6, 1978. I"General Report of the Seminar," p. 12. 108'Ibid. p. 6-7. logflNiehoff, Richard 0., ed., Report of Conference and workshop on Non-Formal Education and the Rural Poor. ‘Pro- . gram of Studies in NOn-Formal Education. Institute for 179 for International Studies, College of Education, Michigan State University, 1977, pp. 47-48. llo'Osuala, E.C. "Lecturer Highlights Essence of Adult Education." Nigerian Statesman: Imo Newspaper Ltd., Owerri, Imo State, Nigeria, June 20, 1980, p. 10. 111 O Callaway and Musone, Pot. Cit., p. 19. 112'Ibid. p. 35. 113'Anowi, J.O.,"The Role and Functions of Voluntary Agencies in Nigerian Education." In Nigerian Education, edited by O. Ikejiani, Longmans of Nigeria Ltd., Lagos, 1964, pp. 39-53. 114' Report on the Review of Educational System in Eastern Nigeria (Ministry of Education, Official Document, No. 19 of 1962), p. 47. 115‘Ibid. pp. 162-168. 116’Ibid. p. 163. 117'Neville, Howard R., Shortline Consultant in Continu- ing Education. "Report to the Principal on the Continuing Education Program at the University of Nigeria." In Continuinngducation - Nuskka: A Program of University Ex- tension Aimed at Serving the Practical and Intellectual Needs of A Developing Nation, by Dr. Louis A. Doyle. Published by M.S.U./University of Nigeria Program, in Cooperation with AID (contract AFR~280), October , 1968, p. 46, quoting Msgr. H.J. Somers. 118'Fafunwa A. Babs., Growth and Development of Nigerian Universities. pp. 34-35. llg'Ibid. pp. 36-38. lzo'Ibid. p. 38. 180 Chapter IV FOOTNOTES 1'Federal Republic of Nigeria National Policy on Edu- cation. Federal Ministry of Information Printing Division, Lagos, 1977, p. 21. “‘"Final Report of African States on the Development of Education in Africa." ECA/Unesco, 1961. 3'Hutasoit, M., "Compulsory Education in Indonesia," unesco, Paris, 1954. 4'Friedman, Milton, Capitalism and Freedpm. The Uni- versity of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1962, p. 95. 5'Fafunwa, A. Babs, A History_of Nigerian Higher Edu- cation. Macmillan and Co. (Nig.) Ltd., Lagos, Nigeria, 1971, p. 221. ’ 6“Harrington, Fred Harvey, The Future of Adult Edu- cation. Jossey-Bass Publishers, San Francisco, 1977, p. 190. 7'Germanacos, C.I., H. Wander, and G.S. Congrene, "Report of the UNESCO Educational Survey Mission to British Guyana, Unesco, 1971, p. 71. 8’Lewis, L.J. "Adult Education and Development Planning," unpu blished paper, 1964, p. 2. 9'"Functional Literacy in the Content of Adult Educati- on." German Foundation for International Development, 1973, p. 173. 10. Townsend Coles, Edwin K., Adult Education in Develop- ing Countries, 2nd edition. Pergamon Press, New York, 1977, p. 67. 181 Chapter V FOOTNOTES 1'Preliminary Findings reported, London Times Higher Education Supplement, November 7, 1975. 2'Harrington Fred H. The Future Of Adult EdUcation, Jossey-Bass Publishers, San Francisco, 1977, p. 192. 3'Kidd, J.R., Financing Continuing Education, The Scare- crow Press, Inc., New York, 1962, p. 193. 4' Draft Recommendation on the Development of Adult Education, Unesco, Paris, 1976. 5 'Ibid. 6'Townsend Coles, Edwin K., Adult Education in Develop- ing Countries, 2nd Edition. Pergamon Press, New York, 1977, p. 119. 7'Erubu, African Adult Education Association, p. 11. Quoting Hamidu G. Erubu, "The Role of Adult Education in the Promotion of U.P.E., Zaria: Ahmadu Bello University. 8’Brown, C.K. CSER Research Report No. 4, The Extent of Local Participation in Rural Development Programs: A .3 Field Study in Kaduna State of Nigeria. Ahmadu Bello Uni- versity Center for Social Economic Research, Zaria, 1979, p. 28. 182 BOOKS Adaralegbe, Philosophy for Nigerian Education, p.264, quot- ing A. Babs Fafunwa. Anowi, J.O., "The Role and Functions of Voluntary Agencies in Nigerian Education." In Nigerian Education, edited by O. Ikejiani, Longmans of Nigeria Ltdi, Lagcs, 1964, pp. 39-53. Bergevin, Paul, A Philosophy for Adult Education, The Seabury Press, New York, 1967, pp. 30-31. Bown, Lalage, ed. Adult Education in Nigeria, The Next Ten Years. Ahmadu Bello University Adult Education and General Extension Service Unit, Zaria, 1972, p. 17 - quoting A.Y. Eke. Brunner, Edmund des, An Overview of Adult Education Research. 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School Finance: The Economics and Politics of Public Education. Prentice-Hall Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1978. Gould, Samuel B. “Preface." Division by Design Jossey-Bass Inc., San Francisco, 1973. 183 Harbison, F.H. "The Development of Human Resources: An Analytical Outline." In Economic Develgpment in Africa, edited by E.F. Jackson, and Basil Blackwell, 1965. Harrington, Fred Harvey, The Future of Adult Education. Jossey- Bass Publishers,, San Francisco, 1977. - Houle, Cyril O. "The Education of Adult Educational Lead- ers." In Handbook of Adult Education in the United States. Edited by Malcolm S. Knowles, Adult Education Association of U.S.A., Chicago, 1970. Houle, Cyril O., The Design of Education. Jossey-Bass Inc., San Francisco, 1972. Havighurst, Robert J. and Betty Orr. Adult Education and Adult Needs. Center for Study of Liberal Education for Adults, Chicago, 1956. Hettich, W., "Consumption Benefits of Education." In Cana- dian Higher Education in the Seventies, edited by S. Oslry, Economic Council of Canada, Ottawa, 1972. Ikejiani, Okechukwu, ed., Education in Nigeria. Frederick A. Praeger, Publishers, New York, 1965. Jensen, Gale, et a1. Adult Education: Outline of Emepging Field of University Study. Adult Education of the U.S.A., 1964. Kidd, J.R., Financing Continuing Education, The Scarecrow Press, Inc., New York, 1962. Knowles, Malcolm 8., The Modern Practice of Adult Education: Androgogy versus Pedagogy, Association Press, New York, 1970. Knowles, Malcolm S., Informal Adult Education: A Guide for ‘Agministrators, Leaders and Teachers. Association Press, New York, 1951. Knowles, Malcolm S. and Chester Klevins. "History and Philo- soth of Continuing Education." In Materials and ’ Methods in Continuing Education, edited by Chester Klevins. Klevens Publications Inc., Los Angeles, 1978. Lengrand, Paul, An Introduction to Lifelong Learning. 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"Adult Education: A Means to Modernization and National Development." Insight & Opinion, vol. III, No. 4, 1968. Kurland, Norman, "A National Strategy for Lifelong Learning." Phi Delta Kappan, February, 1978. Lefocowitz, M.J., "Poverty and Health: A Reexamination." Inguiry, March, 1973. Lewis, W.A., in an article in the International Social Science Journal, No. XIV, 1962. Londoner, Carroll A., "Sources of Educational Funds as Moti- vator for Participating in Adult Secondary Education." Adult Education, Vol. XXV, No. I, 1974. Marin, A. and Psacharopoulos, Co., "Schooling and Income Distribution." Review of Economics and Statistics, August, 1976. Michael, R.T., "Education in Non-market Production." Journal of Political Ec0nomy 81(March-April) 1973a. Michael, R.T., "Education and the Derived Demand for Children." ,Journal of Political Economy, 81(March- -Apri1, pt.2), 1973b. Orcutt, G.H., et a1. "Does Your Probability of Death Depend on Your Environment? A Microanalytic Study." 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