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H i: v ~¢ .l.|v.. . . ’ ‘ ‘ u u... ‘0 II 0.1.41 ! . » ... ...I A-“o... . W .. .uy . . ‘ I .v.,1r‘ tn- \‘Aln. :NVNVOCfi. ts . . .Io uikv. ..A.9a‘..”x ‘llvrh: 5-1 .4.‘ .ou4hlLl~v.~ v : ivt ( . .l’iott vbl . . vv . n a... 4 03.0.9 .I - ‘ J I I). to} I . 4‘.pll‘qn|ct.hn J. ”g.‘tv.\ . . ..a .~I.uu...|.\ K .thN‘t‘ €0.1Y HV"! 1.: 7‘ ‘-o t. p I ‘ a.. .4 . V .I . . > ‘ . DI ~ HQ!!!)flI- . ... fill II c.?5r.a1~ I T... u. ‘ ..v‘ v4. I-wu..i s . . ‘ n ‘ . I I. ll, I'I Elli! i/II/W/I/ll/I l/lI/ll/lll/l/I/II/I/l/I/ll/I/ l/II/I/ll/If/lll 3 1293 10499 8434 This is to certify that the thesis entitled An Analysis of the Elements of Norse Mythology in Henrik Ibsen's THE MASTER BUILDER presented by Nicholas John Kryah has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for M. A. degree in Theatre W - \r Major professor Date 11/23/77 04639 LIBRII 51 Michigan State ' University -.__’ Q- 1 y— fl-wwv— - “c- ... ,. o- I 1) _ ' ~12 _ ’ .! JJ\I9-v:--~. '3' I ‘ 00 M 9‘30 AN ANALYSIS OF THE ELEMENTS OF NORSE MYTHOLOGY IN HENRIK IBSEN'S THE MASTER BUILDER By Nicholas J. Kryah A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State Suniversity in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS Department of Theatre 1977 ABSTRACT AN ANALYSIS OF THE ELEMENTS OF NORSE MYTHOLOGY IN HENRIK IBSEN'S THE MASTER BUILDER By Nicholas J. Kryah Throughout Henrik Ibsen's plays, certain elements of Norse mythology reoccur. It is contended that these elements comprise an integral part of Ibsen's world view, and form a basis for viable interpretation of his plays. Difficult plays, such as The Master Builder, may be more clearly understood through this approach. The hypothesis is advanced that the Norse mythological elements present in The Master Builder, if investigated, may clarify some of the complexities present in the play; give one a point of reference and literary background from which to view certain characters and their relationships; and indicate‘ that Solness' death on the tower is a positive, victorious, acceptance of fate, and, in effect, his salvation. Death is the greatest evil known to man but yet it can be overcome. Live well and die bravely and your repute will live after you. Fate will decide how you will face it. A brave death will be rewarded not with pork and mead as in Valholl, but with the esteem of your friends, kinsmen and even your enemies. They will tell how you lived and how you died. Your story will live, as has that of many a Northern hero. E.O.G. Turville-Petre. Myth and Religons of the North. (London, 1964), p. 274. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION Page 1' INTRODUCTION............OIOOOOOOOOOOOO...00......I‘ '1 II. STATEMENT OF PROBLEM---.------~------------------- 2 A. THE MASTER BUILDER............................. 4 B. DEATH.......................................... 7 III. JUSTIFICATION FOR THE MYTHOLOGICAL APPROACH....... 10 A. IBSEN AS NORWEGIAN............................. 10 . BIOGRAPHY...................................... lO . CRITICISM...................................... ll . IBSEN AS POET.................................. 12 B C D E. IBSEN AND FOLKLORE............................. 13 F. IBSEN THE DRAMATIST............................ 13 a. @3552.......................................... 15 H. AN ENEMY OF THE PEOPLE......................... 16 I. ROSMERSHOLM.................................... 19 VI. LIMITATIONS AND VALUES............................ 21 V. SOURCES........................................... 23 A. NORSE MYTHOLOGY................................ 23 B. THE MASTER BUILDER............................. 23 VI. OUTLINEOOIIOOO.......OIOOIOOOOOOIO0.0.0.0....OI... 25 CHAPTER II. MYTHOLOGICAL ELEMENTS IN THE PLOT OF THE MASTER BUILDER Page I. INTRODUCTION..................................... 27 II. THE EXERCISE OF WILL............................. 28 A. THE USE OF SEIDR IN THE MASTER BUILDER........ 28 B. EXERCISE OF WILL THROUGHOUT THE PLAY.......... 33 III I THE TOWERI I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I L1,]- A I SOLNESS ' ASCENT I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I 1+]. B. THE TOWER AND THE TREE OF LIFE: THE MYTHO-: ,. LOGICALYGGDRASILIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII 42 C. THE TOWER AS A SYMBOL OF UNITY: ODINN ON YGGDRASILIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII 45 DI THE BUILDER IN ASGARDIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII 48 BI YNGLINGA SAGAIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII 5O FI GRIMNISMAL SAGAIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII 53 G I LIDSKJALF: ODINN ' S TOWER I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I 54 H. THE TROLL ON THE TOWER: THE ST. OLAF LEGENDSIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII 59 IVI CONCLUSIONIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII 67 vi CHAPTER III. MYTHOLOGICAL DETAIL SURROUNDING THE FINAL SCENE OF THE MASTER BUILDER Page II INTRODUCTIONIIIIIII IIIIIIIII IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII 73 III MYTHOLOGICALDETAILIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII 714' A. THE WREATH: MISTLETOE. ...... ................... 7A B. HARPS IN THE AIR. .......... . ......... .......... 76 C. THE BANNER: THE RAVEN .......................... 79 D. THE HIGH SEAT: PILLAR .......................... 83 E. TROLL. ....... . ...................... ........... 86 III. CONCLUSION..... ................................... 90 CHAPTER IV. CONCLUSION II CONFLICTING FORCESIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII 92 III SUMM-ARYIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIlOl IIII AREAS FOR FURTHER STUDYIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII 102 GLOSSARY OF NORSE NAMES AND TERMINOLOGY..... 104 BIBLIOGRAPHYIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII109 vii CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION INTRODUCTION It is generally accepted that Henrik Ibsen's works can be divided into three major chronological groups: 1.) early nationalistic drama - The Warrior's Barrow, Viking in Helgeland, 2.) middle social drama - League of Youth, Ghosts, 3.) later symbolic drama - Rosmersholm, The Master Builder. The dis- tinction between these groups appears obvious. The early nationalistic drama is straightforward, and can be dealt with on the level of Norwegian history, saga, and mythology. The social drama can be viewed in social, political, or psychological terms. The last period is obviously symbolic and the most difficult to deal with. There are many varying interpretations of the later drama. However, these plays have not been investigated in terms of specific Norse mythology and folklore. This emphasis is present in Ibsen's early drama, and may help the prospective producer or critic select production details, or gain insight into the ethereal later drama. STATEMENT OF PROBLEM The relationship of Norse mythology to Ibsen's drama is undeniable. Critics have been aware of the Norse mythological and folk influences in his early drama. Little evidence exists in the social drama, but in the later plays the presence of mythology and folklore resurfaces. The later plays have often confounded the best attempts of some of the best critics. But it is in them that Ibsen's use of mythology and folklore is quite pronounced. The symbols of the later drama have been investigated on almost every conceivable level except that of Norse mythology. It seems logical that mythology obviously present in his other drama might be explored to clarify the later drama. In such plays as The Lady From the Sea, The Master Builder, John Gabriel Borkman, Little Eyolf, and When We Dead Awaken, the world of the Norse gods is of vital importance to the structure and meaning of the drama. No longer are the old legends hidden (as in the social drama), or blatant (as in the nationalistic period). Here they are cast in fluctuating intensities and broad sweeping form to fill each play with depth and true Scandinavian symbolism. Ibsen seems to be most Norwegian in these later plays where he relies upon the symbolic values of'the Norse cosmos and folklore of the people to bring the Ineaning of his plays into focus. While the use of mythology 111 the nationalistic plays can be dismissed as a function of plot, 3 it cannot be discarded as such in the later plays. In these symbolic dramas the plot is only servant to the larger pur- pose of the play. To date, the only major critical analysis of Ibsen's work in terms of Norse mythology and folklore is Henri Logeman's study of Peer Gynt.1 It is a comprehensive work detailing all references, connotations, and use of folklore, tradition, and language in Peer Gynt. The study is an attempt to establish the specific Norwegian aspects of Ibsen's most obviously Norwegian play. (Yet perhaps his most universal one.) Because of the power of Peer Gynt, and its accessability to critics, it has been the one work of Ibsen most critically evaluated. But despite the fact that most biographers emphasize Ibsen's relationship to Norway, most critics have overlooked this fact. A.M. Sturtevant's "Some Phases of Ibsen's Symbolism"2is one small study that does take aspects of folklore into account in analyzing Ibsen's symbolism. In addition to these two studies, the only other major critical work concerned with Ibsen's use of mythology is Orley Holtan's Mythic Patterns in Ibsen's Last Eight Plays.3 It utilizes the critical theory of NorthrOp Frye and the archetypal patterns of Maud Bodkin in its investigation, but ultimately explicates Ibsen's symbolic drama in very general lHenri Logeman, A Commentary, Critical and Explanatory, on the Norwegian Text of Ibgen's "Peer Gynt": It's Language, Lgterary Association, and Folklore. The Haugue, 1917. 2Sturtevant, Scandinavian Studies, II (l9lh-15), p. 25. 3Holtan, (Minneapolis, 1970). L, terms. Holtan acknowledges an occasional Norse god, or troll, but uses equally Indian, Greek, or Christian figures in establishing patterns in the plays. All three of these studies, although excellent in them- selves, do not form a base of Norwegian/Ibsen mythological criticism. Logeman and Sturtevant's studies are primarily concerned with folk influences, rather than the direct links from Ibsen, through the folklore, back to Norse mythology. Holtan's work emphasizes overall cultural patterns rather than defining the plays in terms of specific Norse mythology. Thus there is no extant criticism which deals solely with Norse mythology and its relationship to Ibsen's later drama. THE MASTER BUILDER Of the later drama, one play has consistently baffled critics and audiences, and forced them into selective interpre- tations of the play.’4 That play is The Master Builder. A few of the problems which have baffled the critics are: the seeming lack of logic in the play, the ambiguous character of Solness, his confusing relationship with Aline and Hilde, the play's bizzare ending, the extensive use of symbolism, and the credibility of the characters. Not only are specific problems of the play unsolved, but the play as a whole continues to plague and confuse critics. A sketch of the plot reveals little of the complexity of the play. Halvard Solness, an aging builder, is trying to “See footnotes 9-11, Chapter I. p-6. 5 maintain his grip on both his business and his sanity. His marriage has failed - his wife a walking corpse in grief over the death, years before, of their two sons. Hilde Wangel, a young woman, appears suddenly at his door to reinforce his fear of youth. She attempts to have Solness overcome his vertigo and climb the tower of his new house. By Act III, against the protest of his physician and wife, Solness decides to climb. He does so, while Hilde remains below in ecstasy, and the others in horror. Solness falls to his death. The Master Builder is an excellent example of one of the later plays that has been interpreted on almost all levels, although none totally satisfactory. The initial reviews of the play indicate that it was misunderstood. An annonymous review in The Spectator called it "...quite the worst play 5 that Ibsen has yet produced...", and an equally annonymous review in Athenaeum claimed that the characters "...are, or should be, one and all, inmates of a lunatic asylum."6 The play has also been seen as a psychological study,7 an exercise in Freudian sexual psychology, 8 the product of 5Anon., ”Ibsen's Last Play," LXX (Mar. 4, 1893), p. 286. 6Anon., "The Week," I (Feb. 25, 1893), p. 258. 7Harris Kaasa, "Ibsen and the Theologians," Scandinavian Studies, XLIII (1971). p- 368. 8Viva Schatia, "The Master Builder: A Case of Involutional Psychosis," International‘Journal of Psychoanalysis, 6 a senile mind,9 and, as Holtan views it, an expression of an archetypal pattern.lo Solness, in this analysis, is an expression of the cyclical year king/god, and a victim of a ritual sacrifice. Ragnar, Solness' young apprentice, is the new king, the symbol of youth, and the old king, Solness, must die to make way for the new, all in a seasonally influenced pattern of events. The Master Builder is much more than the reinteration of an archetypal pattern. Certainly this approach is valid. Of course there are sexual overtones, and psychological trauma in the play. But it exists on a level other than psychological, sociological, or anthropological, just as it is much more than an autobiographical account of Ibsen's relationship with Emilie Bardach, Hildur Anderson, or Helene Raff.ll While the plot is insubstantial, and while the characters are ambiguous and/or unbelievable, and while there is little to grasp amid the symbolism and subtext, there is one known fact. Solness does die in his fall from the tower. The play leads to, and is consumated in his death. Most of the difficulties with the play lie in interpreting this fact. Why, how, and when Solness dies are crucial issues. But most important; 'What does Solness' death mean? How is this destruction of the Inain character to be perceived? In order to understand the play 9Anon., "Ibsen's Last Play," Spectator, LXX (Mar. u, 189.3) 9 p- 2860 lOHoltan, p. 106. llHalvdan Koht, Life of Ibsen, (Trans. Einar Haugen & AJIE. Santaniello), (New York, 1971), p. 431. 7 it is necessary to decipher Solness' death. Is Solness' death accidental, retribution by the gods, suicide, or simpley inevitable? This is what determines his worth as a character, and Ibsen's vision as a playwright. DEATH Any investigation of The Master Builder, mythological or not, must concern itself with the meaning of Solness' death, in order to determine how one is to perceive the world of the play. Death is a preoccupation of much of Ibsen's work, and it is necessary to isolate death in this particular work. Roughly half of Ibsen's plays (sixteen of twenty-six) end with one or more deaths, or with impending or past death as a focal point. In Ibsen's last sixteen plays (Brand to When We Dead Awaken) eight plays end with one or more charactersfl deaths; BQQQQ - Brand, Peer Gynt - Peer, Emperor and Gallalean - Julian, The Wild Duqk - Hedvig, Rosmershqlm — Rosmer and Rebecca, Hedda Gabler - Hedda, The Master Builder - Solness, gghn Gabriel Borkman — Borkman. Three of these last plays are con- sidered political; League ofgxguth, Pillars of Society, An Enemy 9f the People. Of the others, Ghosts leaves Oswald mad and dying, Thg .Lady From the Sea ends with the Sailor's ghost being laid to rest, Little Eyolf centers around Eyolf's death near the end (If the play, and When We Dead Awaken sends Rubeck and Irene, cums would assume, to die on the mountaintop. Death also occurs 8 in at least four of the ten early plays; Cataline, Lady Inger of Ostrat, The Viking in Helgeland, and The Pretenders. Recurrent mythological overtones in The Master Builder may point the way to understanding the quality of Solness' death. The frontpiece of this thesis provides a quotation from Turville- Petre which is most useful in capsulizing the importance of fate and the manner of death to the Viking. Since Hilde and Solness discuss the sagas and the 'robust conscience' of the Viking Age in Act II,12 it should be useful to keep this manner of life and death in mind. The Viking way of life demanded unflagging adhearence to the all-encompassing reign of death. Fate decided when and under what circumstances a man died. But it was most important to the individual to determine how he faced his own death. By facing it bravely, with sword in hand, a man might overcome death and gain immortality. He would live forever in the minds of men, and gain a seat in Valhalla. The mythological elements within The Master Builder are especially obvious at the end of the play, and must be investigated before the quality of death can be determined. Since the play has not yet been totally explicated, it might prove valuable to examine the play in terms of Norse mythology. The roots of the characters of Hilde and Solness are deeply imbedded in the Scandinavian culture. The play is permeated with the use of 12Eva Le Gallienne, Trans. The Master Builder, by Henrik Ibsen, in Six Plays by Ibsen, (New York, 1957), p. 81. 9 mythological symbols. Certain situations in the play (Hilde's entrance), aspects of language (the use of the word 'troll'), names (Hilde, Ragnar), and the connotative meaning of certain objects (mistletoe, the tower), can all be traced directly to Norse mythology. Through an investigation of The Master Builder founded upon Norse mythology, one may discover a framework in which to view the characters. This may lead to a better under- standing of Solness' death, which, in turn, should shed light upon the play as a whole. The purpose of this thesis, is to investigate The Master Builder within a Norse mythological context. Specific elements of Norse mythology will be discussed as relating to specifics in plot and character in the play. The mythological analysis culminates in an investigation of the end of the play. This should indicate how one is to view Solness' death, and thus how one should view the universe of the play., JUSTIFICATION FOR THE MYTHOLOGICAL APPROACH IBSEN AS NORWEGIAN Although he spent much of his life in self—imposed exile, Henrik Ibsen retained his Norwegian inheritance. He refused to become a citizen of Italy, Germany, Denmark, or any of the other countries in which he took up temporary residence. Throughout his life he continued to love Norway, even though he was disgusted with Norwegian politics, and was often dis— illusioned with the Norwegian peOple. Norway was, perhaps, the greatest influence in his life; the touchstone, and the love/hate object which gave him and his work impetus. BIOGRAPHY While critics often ignore the Norwegian roots of Ibsen's work in favor of a more universal concern, biographers generally tend to stress his nationality. In the first comprehensive biography of Ibsen, Halvdan Koht devotes his first chapter establishing the fact that Ibsen was Norwegian and not Danish.13 In his definitive biography, Michael Meyer agrees with Koht in one sense; he stresses the significance of Norway's impact on the dramaturgy of Ibsen.lu Meyer enumerates specific nationalistic and patriotic aspects of Ibsen's life and character, l3Koht, p. 33. 1”Michael Meyer, Ibsen: A Biography, (New York, 1971). 10 11 but differs from Koht in that he is more concerned with the factors involved in Ibsen's development as a man and a dramatist. Both stress Norway as the primary influence upon Ibsen's growth. Other biographers also emphasize Ibsen's Norwegian back- ground. Georg Brandes,15 A.E. Zucker,l6 Paul Botten Hansen,17 and Henrik Jaeger18 , present, as a whole, a view of Ibsen as a distinctly Norwegian artist concerned with creating distinctly Norwegian drama. CRITICISM Sverre Arestad's criticism of Peer Gynt,19 Carl Behrené‘ 20 "Ibsen and Denmark", and M.C. Bradbrook's Ibsen: The Norwegian, 21 are a few examples of critical attempts "A Revaluation", to examine Norway's impact on the art of Ibsen, and the gen— eral conclusions of these critics indicate that Ibsen's drama was profoundly influenced by the country of his birth. 15Georg Brandes, Henrik Ibsen, (Copenhagen, 1898). l6A.E. Zucker, Ibsen: The Master Builder, (New York,l929). l7Paul Botten Hansen, "Henrik Ibsen," Illustreret Nyhedsblad, (Christiania), July 19, 1863. 18H. Jaeger, Henrikiibsen: A Critical Biography, (Chicago, 1901). l9Sverre Arestad, "Ibsen's Portrayal of the Artist," Edda, LX (1960). pp. 86-100. 20Behrens, American Scandinavian Review, XVI, pp.229-3l. 21Bradbrook, (London, 1966). 12 In 1910 Koht published an article entitled "Ibsen as a Norwegian",22 in which he stresses that: "Norway saw him born. Norwegian society and history molded his genius. As a Norwegian poet he claims to be interpreted and understood."23 One cannot disregard what seems to be the overwhelming concensus that Ibsen was first and foremost a Norwegian artist. IBSEN AS POET This is an important factor, for there had been no Norwegian literature written in Norway since the Middle Ages. Most cultural and artistic aspects of Norwegian life were imported from Denmark. This left a vacuum of native literature.24 Ibsen, in his youth, and his contemporary, Bjflrnstjerne ijrnson, were at the forefront of a movement by sartists to forge a Norwegian identity. Their efforts included poetry, drama, politics, language reform, and a nationalistic purge of all Danish influence from Norwegian society. Ibsen began as a poet, not as a dramatist. Most of the poetry from his early period was nationalistic, incorporating Norwegian subject matter with colloquial language. Andiwhile many of these poems are not great, almost all show the control of rhyme and structure which would later emerge in his drama. 22Koht, 19th Century, LXVII (Feb., 1910), pp. 346-55. 231bid., p. 355. 2Ll’Harald Beyer, A History of Norwegian Literature, VPEans. Einar Haugen), (New York, 1956), p. lhl. [-1 02 l.’ _ i? 13 Besides forging new words, he helped to introduce colloquial Norwegian into the written language, which was, of course, Danish. Besides being literary innovation, this poetry reflects Ibsen's patriotism and conscious concern for the traditions and folklore of the country. IBSEN AND FOLKLORE Aside from the Norwegian influence on his poetry, Ibsen embarked on a semi-scholarly study of Norwegian folklore. In 1862 he obtained from the Norwegian Ministry of Church and Education the first of a number of small grants to be used to study and collect Norwegian folklore.25 He never finished the projected work, but his research would have expanded his knowledge of specific Norwegian mythology and legend. IBSEN THE DRAMATIST There might be conjectures about his contact with Norse mythology and legend by his biographers, but the sources for some of Ibsen's dramas are undeniably Norwegian. Although his first play, Catiline, was based upon the historical Roman figure, his next seven plays were all Scandinavian. The use of Norwegian history, the sagas, and Norse mythology is quite evident in such plays as The Warrior's Barrow, Lady Inger of Ostrat, and The Vikinggin Helgelagd. Ibsen's twelfth play, Peer Gynt, is 25Meyer, pp. 196-7. 14 often considered the definitive example of Norwegian drama, and Peer is considered to be the definitive personification of the Norwegian character.26 Ibsen cultivated the aura of myth and legend surrounding the Norwegian peOple and the land itself in his early nationalistic drama. Although this aura seems to be hidden during the period of his social drama, it remained to emerge in the later drama.27 The early work is often ignored in favor of the socially applicable drama of his middle period. Thus the impact of folklore and mythology is cast aside. However, some influence still exists within the social drama, and may be directly traced to its use in the early plays. For one to understand the social drama it is of importance to view it in relation to both the symbolic later drama, and the early drama. One must heed Ibsen's own words, that if we are to understand his drama, we must first understand Norway.2 Based upon this general concensus of the importance of Norway and her history and mythology, let us attempt to use the Norwegian culture as a tool to investigate briefly two plays from the middle social period. This will, perhaps, indicate the feasibility of using this critical tool to explore Ibsen's drama in depth, especially the difficult later drama. 26Beyer, pp. 183-84. 27Holtan, p. 106. 28"Anyone who wishes to understand me fully must ¥RK3w Norway." Frontpiece to Meyer, Ibsen: A Biography, (New York, -l9?i). P. 35 _ r... P» m: .U M.C.. at“ HQ m4- . c. .1 3.. -. . .11. ,. Pl :3. ».~ .«IO. 0 15 BRAND Egggg was Ibsen's first successful break from his early nationalistic/historical period. It was initially seen by critics as an attack upon the clergy and social mores, but eventually the focus of attention was turned to the character of Brand. Though Ibsen is concerned with both social and philosophical questions, the Norwegian spirit is present throughout the play. It can be seen not only in the setting among the mountains and fjords, but also in Ibsen's reliance upon historical or mythological figures to create some of the characters. Ibsen uses mythology in Eggnd to clarify meaning, or to add another level of meaning to the irony of the play, for example, the troll woman, Gerd, who haunts the mountain heights is a character of Norse mythology. She was the beautiful daughter of a giant (some of their offspring could be quite comely) who was personified as a seed frozen in an icy field. Frey, a god of fertility and peace, fell in love with her, and in his personification as sunshine, warm rain, and fair winds, melted her cold heart, and won her as his wife.29 There are ironic parallels between the Gerd-Frey relation- .Ship and the Gerd-Brand relationship. Whereas the Gerd of ‘mbrthology succumbed to the power of love through Frey's gentle 29Ingrid and Edgar D'Aulaire, Norse Gods and Giants, [New York, 1967), p. 27. 16 rain and warm sunshine. Brand is buried under an avalanche of ice and snow, caused by Gerd. Through the love of Frey and Gerd, the earth is fertilized and the seed thaws from winter to bloom in spring. But in Eggnd, Gerd is the means whereby Brand is buried by the avalanche and frozen forever. Brand's failure has been a failure to love, and thus he has been un— able to melt the snow and fertilize the earth as Frey had done. This parallel to Norse mythology does little, perhaps, to clarify the last cryptic line of the play, "God is love."30, but it intensifies the ironies of the play. Whether Brand is damned or saved is immaterial, his sin has been a lack of true love, and this is heightened by a knowledge of the Norse character Gerd. AN ENEMY OF THE PEOPLE An Enemy of the People has no obvious mythological references. If we look closely at it, it is clearly a statement on social and political conditions: man's herd instinct, and the rule of the majority. Critics have maintained that of all of Ibsen's drama, this play deals least with Norwegian character and problems. But even here Ibsen makes use of a mythological background to frame the play. The crucial issue, the contamination of'the baths, has definite origins in Norse mythology. 3OMichael Meyer, (Trans.), Brand, by Henrik Ibsen, (New York, 1960), p. 157. 17 In Norse mythology, there are three specific pools of liquid which are referred to again and again.31 The first is a pool of pure healing water at the base of Yggdrasil, the Tree of Life. Yggdrasil was tended by the three Norns, keepers of the fates of men and gods. Since its roots were constantly gnawed by the dragon of the underworld, the Norns poured the healing water over it every day to replenish its vitality, and restore order to the Norse universe. The second pool of liquid was collected from the udder of a magic goat which lived in a tree above Valhalla. The goat produced an undiminished supply of mead which daily quenched the thirst of the warriors and gods of Asgard. They drank, feasted, and being intoxicated with the mead, went out to Asgard's battlefields to sever each others' heads and limbs, and generally to keep in shape for the final battle at the time of Ragnarok. After the battle, the limbs would be replaced, and the men returned to Valhalla for more mead. It was a daily ritual. The third pool of liquid was that of the poet's mead. This mead was made from the spittle of the two factions of gods: the Aesir, and the Vanir, as a sign of peace. The spittle gave birth to Kvasir, the Spirit of Knowledge. The pool was once stolen and Kvasir drowned in his own essence. The Aesir then recovered the pool, and anyone who drank of this liquid attained knowledge and the gift of poetry. In a sense, the baths in An Enemy of the PeOple are viewed 31George T. Flom, ”The Drama of Norse Mythology,” .§Qaqndinavian Studies, XV (1938-39), p. 148. v I). 18 differently by characters in the play. To Mayor Peter Stockmann they are akin to the first pool at the base of Yggdrasil. The waters possess magical healing powers which will cleanse, not so: much the people who come to bathe or drink them, but the economy of the towen. With these baths, the town will be healed, made fresh, and given another chance to live. And with the town, of course, the Mayor will secure a position of lifelong health in the eyes of his people. The townsfolk view the baths in terms similar to the warriors of Valhalla, and the second pool. For them, the baths mean power, wealth, and an intoxicating life of plenty. The healing power the baths hold for them is in the drunken glory of their new economy. Their frenzy can be seen at their meet- ing in which Dr. Stockmann is renounced. Ironicly it is a true drunkard, from another town, who supports Stockmann at the meeting. Dr. Stockmann sees the baths in terms of the third pool. He, in a sense, is Kvasir, the Spirit of Knowledge, who rises from the pool. It is the baths which give birth to his character, and his knowledge of the foulness of the baths arises from the baths themselves. The original Kvasir's pool was formed by the two factions of gods who mingled their spittle (the English translation of Kvasir) as a pact of peace. One must feel the same dichotomy in An Enemy of the Pe0p1e. The liberals and the conservatives have also made a pact of Peace. They have agreed not to reveal the truth of the con- lxuninated baths. Stockmann is their scapegoat. Stockmann's ‘io‘ 19 true strength of character, his existence as a character in the play, is a result of the scorn, ridicule, and the humili- ation (the spittle) of the political factions of the town. Just as Kvasir was drowned in his own essence, Stockmann is defeated by the very baths which gave him a cause to fight. Eventually the knowledge that Stockmann has brought to light will prove true, and thus he, as a Kvasir—like figure, has become the incarnation of the Spirit of Knowledge and the poet's mead. It cannot be determined at this point whether this comparison is viable as a true parallel with Norse mythology, or whether it is an archetypal pattern, or simply] a coincidence. But the parallel must be admitted and viewed in the broader sense of Ibsen's use of mythology which is more obvious in the later plays. ROSMERSHOLM In Rosmersholm, for example, mythology must be taken into account to clarify the many references to the white horse. The horse is a symbol of impending death or misfortune, found in Norwegian folklore, often ridden by an elf, or sent by a troll.32 Koht indicates that Ibsen may have heard of this legend while gathering folklore at Maldegaard.33 But the horse 3ZTurville-Petre, p. 63. 33Koht, p. 98. 20 can also be traced to Norse mythology where it was ridden by one specific figure: Odinn.34 Aside from being the wisest god, Odinn was also the god of war and storm. His horse, Sleipnir (Glider), bore Odinn through the sky with its eight legs. Odinn would ride Sleipnir to earth just before battle to decide the victor and the vanquished. As the battle was fought, Odinn rode through the sky seeking the best warriors, and as they were slain, the Valkyries (fierce warrior maidens who accompanied him) would sweep the slain warriors away to Valhalla. The white horse alluded to in Rosmersholm is a direct descendent of Sleipnir, and is present not just to indicate impending death, but how this death is to be perceived. Though the symbol tends to be obscured by the more recent connotations in folklore, (i.e., its use by elves, trolls, or other minor figures), it remains initially a symbol of victorious death and the attainment of freedom via Odinn's steed. Thus Rosmer and Rebecca are, in a sense, dying in battle, and the white horse indicates the probability of their acceptance into the universe of the gods. The use of Norse mythology as a critical tool to investigate The Master Buiiger may provide some information useful to the producer of the play, or the general reader. It should, at least, bring to light some of the lesser known details founded in Scandinavian culture which may aid the English/American reader in appreciating the play and comprehending some of the difficult Swabolism inherent to it. 3LpTurville—Petre, p. 65. (n I" n: 'r1 ‘- fl? LIMITATIONS AND VALUES There are several limitations to this study. First, the author does not read Norwegian, Danish, or Old Icelandic, and thus all materials must be dealt with in translation. For the rest, the author must trust to a growing group of English- Scandinavian scholars who have done considerable work in trans- lation and studies in English, such as: Michael Meyer, Brian Downs, Sverre Arestad, Rolf Fjelde, Georg Flom, A.M. Sturtevant, Ensaf Thume, Jere Fleck, and Einar Haugen.35 This language limitation is offset by the fact that a number of American universities (Wisconsin, Minnesota, Washington and Pennsylvania, for example) have been at the forefront of Ibsen and Scandinavian studies for some years. A number of periodicals (Edda, Scandinavian Studies, Scandinavica, Norwegian-American Studies and Records) concerned specificly with Scandinavian studies in literature, art, and philos0phy are also available. Since William Archer's translations first brought Ibsen's plays to a wide English-speaking audience, Ena-Ellis Fermor, Michael Meyer, Emlyn Williams, Peter Watts, and Eva Le Gallienne, among others, have considerably bettered the translations of the plays. Translations of most of Ibsen's original biographies 35These works are contained in the Bibliography. 21 131 . .4 an. @57- N“ 22 are also available, as well as a number of newer biographies in English (Georg Brandes, Edmond Gosse, Halvdan Koht's first and revised editions, Michael Meyer, Hans Heiberg, Montrose Moses, and A.E. Zucker). Since Shaw's The Quintessence of Ibsenism: G.W. Knight, Michael Egan, R. Ellis Roberts, J.W. McFarlane, Brian Downs, and Charles Lyons have produced critical work in English which is not only applicable, but much more concerned with Ibsen's work than Shaw's essay ever pretended to be. The second limitation is also a strength. The study is concerned with only one play. Although it may be construed as too small a framework from which to speak with any authority on Ibsen's world view, or dramatic theory, it must be made clear that the intention of this study is simply to explore The Master Builder in terms of Norse mythology. This study is not to preclude any other interpretation of the play, but rather to demonstrate that this one play might be better under- stood by such an analysis. Therefore, the strength in the approach lies in its very limited nature. Hopefully, this study will demonstrate the influence of Norse mythology on The Master Builder, offer an explication of the play, and show the feasibility of applying Norse mythology to other Ibsen drama. rT’ SOURCES NORSE MYTHOLOGY The majority of Norse mythological material in this study has been taken from the following works: The Viking Achievement by Foote and Wilson, Northern Mythology: Scandinavian Popular Traditions and Superstitions_by Benjamin Thorpe, and E.O.G. Turville—Petre's Myth and Reiigons of the North. W.H. Auden and Paul Taylor's translation of The Elder Edda, as well as Ibsen's contemporary Peter Andreas Munch's Norse Mythology, have also been invaluable. Various other works in Norse History and archeology, general mythology and symbolism, and early Norse literature and criticism have been consulted. An extensive listing can be found in the Bibliography. The works cited above present a rather extensive View of Norse culture, although they span three major periods of Norwegian development: the Tenth and Eleventh Century, the Nineteenth Century, and the Modern view. They include, not only a wide variety of styles and interests, but a fascinating cross-section of the development of the Modern Norwegian culture. THE MASTER BUILDER The choice of translation of The Master Builder was difficult, because the quality of translation has improved greatly in the 23 24 last twenty years. Since William Archer's translations at the turn of the century, there have been dozens of translations, many of which suffered the same 'scholarly' approach to the play as did Archer's. Three recent translations by Michael Meyer, Rolf Fjelde, and Eva Le Galliene are excellent in that they not only provide a readable English version, but are written by authors who work in the theatre. Their contri— butions as directors or performers are quite appreciated in bringing the script of The Master Builder to a three dimensional fullness missing in earlier translations. Eva Le Galliene's- translation of the play has been used for this study for four reasons. First, she has established an international reputation as a translator, interpreter, and performer of Ibsen's plays. Secondly, she alone of the three above mentioned translators is a performer of Ibsen's plays, and therefore brings to her work that immediate and personal touch of an actress. Thirdly, the author of this study has found that her translation is a personal choice, based upon her rendering of certain phrases and images within the play. And finally, this translation stands as a production piece, as well as an example of readable drama. Eva Le Galliene's closeness to Scandinavian culture and the theatre is an asset as well, and reassures the reader of her fidelity to Ibsen's intentions. OUTLINE CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION A statement of the problem, with background of Ibsen's development as a dramatist, and a brief analysis of three plays in terms of Norse mythology. Justification, Limitations and Values, Sources. A Brief outline of organization of Thesis. CHAPTER II. MYTHOLOGICAL ELEMENTS IN THE PLOT OF THE MASTER BUILDER An analysis of some parallels of mythology to the plot of the play. A discussion of the practice of Seidr, related to the exercise of will by Hilde and Solness throughout the play. Emphasis upon actions leading to and culminating in Solness' ascent of the tower, and a look at the resonances in mythology of the tower. CHAPTER III. MYTHOLOGICAL DETAIL IN THE FINAL SCENE OF THE MASTER BUILDER A detailed analysis of some specific elements of mythology which occur in the final scene of the play. CHAPTER IV. CONCLUSION Summary of the study, especially the impact of mythology in determining the quality and meaning of Solness' death. Possibilities for further study in this area. 25 CHAPTER II. MYTHOLOGICAL ELEMENTS IN THE PLOT OF THE MASTER BUILDER INTRODUCTION The complexity of The Master Builder is belied by its seemingly simple plot. Halvard Solness is a successful builder who has reached the crucial middle-aged years of his life. His marriage has fallen apart. His wife is a wasted corpse- like character who appears to have lost all touch with life. His relationships with his employees (and mankind in general) are strained. He is consumed with fear of the younger generation, puzzled by his ability to will thought into action, and frustrated by his work. A young woman, whom he met years before, arrives as his door to confront him with an old promise. She displaces Solness' secretary as the center of his attentions. She incites him to climb the tower of his just completed home. He climbs the tower, and falls to his death as his wife and neighbors watch in horror. The young girl, who also remains below, watches his fall in ecstasy. The plot of The Master Buiider will be discussed in two major parts: 1.) the use of Seidr (a mythological correspondence to thought control/exercise of will) between Hilde and Solness, which leads to his decision to climb the tower, and 2.) Norse mythological parallels to the plot and action of his actual climb. 27 THE EXERCISE OF WILL: THE USE OF SEIDR IN THE MASTER BUILDER As God of Witchcraft, Odinn was known for certain magical abilities including Seidr. These abilities stem from his renown as God of the Hanged. Earlier in his career, Odinn hung him- self from Yggdrasil (the World Tree) for nine days and nights. This action, considered the epitome of self-sacrifice, put him in communion with the dead, and granted him knowledge of Runes. It was not enough for Odinn to demand death of warriors who wished to join him. As an example, he went so far as to sacrifice himself, to himself. This action symbolized the sacrifice necessary and expected of men. As Lord of the Gallows, Odinn could obtain occult wisdom from hanged men. On one occasion, celebrated in the Voluspa, Odinn rode to the gates of hell, and summoned a long dead Sybil from the grave. He learned from her the origins of the universe, and the fate he would meet at Ragnarok. The poem begins: The Sybil calls for silence: her audience is world wide, gods and men. Then she speaks to Odinn alone: does he wish her to rehearse ancient lore, the remotest she can remember.36 36Peter Foote and David M. Wilson, The Viking Achievment (London, 1970), p. 345- 28 or: p‘ uuv Cd Cu new BC -..; R\~ Mr. PU -d-Led. \H h\u I. . Ch“ 51V ‘1 .v “"‘ ‘ '6. p,‘ :9 «.Vu ’5 ‘r- ev- V“. 29 This ability to summon knowledge from the past, and of the future seems to be repeated in The Master Builder. Just as Solness says to Dr. Herdal "...one of these days the younger generation will come knocking at my door —",37there is a knock at the door, and Hilde Wangel enters. Solness has just finished delving into the core of his soul, (much as Odinn had ridden to the depths of his universe to reach the Sybil). He has confessed to Dr. Herdal his innermost conflict of will, his guilt over Aline, his deceit to Kaja, and his 'madness'. He summons the younger generation, his darkest fear, and Hilde Wangel appears at his door. She is the personification of Youth that Solness fears. But she is not the younger generation in the same sense that Ragnar and Kaja are. Hilde is a mysterious being, more akin to the long dead Sybil than to the sweet young girl that she appears to be. She also possesses magical powers, as Solness' encounter with her ten years before has proved. She can practice Seidr. She can will her thoughts into action. She is possessed by the troll in man. She too is a combination of numerous 38 attributes associated with Norse mythology. 37Eva Le Galliene, trans. The Master Builder, by Henrik Ibsen, in Six Plays by Ibsen (New York, 1957), pp.447-48. 38Hilde resembles numerous mythological, folk, and Saga characters. Among these are the mythological Loki, blood brother of Odinn who was of an asexual or bisexual nature, able to change form, and continually tied to Odinn in a creative and destructive aspect. Loki is the cause of Ragnarok, but thus allows Odinn to prove his worth and die valiantly. Hilde 30 ,. This section of the play has often bothered critics, directors, and audiences,§9and her appearance is a mingling of many aspects of the attendant spirits of Norse mythology - Skadi, Freyja, the Valkyrie, the Huldafolk. Her appearance is sudden, unexpected, but justified by Solness' invocation of the younger generation. She enters with mixed motives. Also resembles Idunn and Skadi as strong, masculine godesses (of skiers and youth) who had numerous adventures with the gods, especially Odinn. In turn Hilde also resembles Freyja, Odinn's Queen, a godess of fertility, but also Odinn's counter- part as Godess of War. She incited men to battle, seduced them, with Odinn, and was Queen of the Valkyries, fierce warrior maidens, who flew to battle with Odinn to choose the valiant in death to live with the gods. Of the names of the Valkyries preserved in Saga and Edda, Hild is common throughout. Anderson (Norse Mythology, Chicago, 1891) supports modern concensus that the Valkyrie is in fact part of the Disir, a group of attendant godesses attatched individualy to a single man, with their purpose being to lead the man to greatness, via death in battle. Freyja is called Vanadis (Disir of the Vanir, and Queen of the Disir). The Vanir and Aesir being the two benevolent factions of Norse gods. Hilde's roots can be traced from the godesses, to the Valkyrie, to the Disir, to the Huldafolk (in folklore) who were beautiful, seductive women who dwelt in the forest and drew men away from the world to death. This seduction was accomplished by playing a stringed instrument, or by singing. Note the re-occurence of the base name Hilde, in the Valkyrie, and the Huldafolk, Hulla, or Huldra. Eventually the Valkyrie, Disir, Huldafolk, degenerated in the common tradition to the Aasgaarderia, a band of drunken revelers (whose sins were not great enough for Hel, but virtue not enough for Valhalla) led through the air by Hild, a descendant of all of the above. Discussions of these various elements of mythology, folklore, and Saga can be found in Turville-Petre, Thorpe, Flom, Anderson, Munch, Foote, Ellis, and Boyesen, all cited in the Bibliography. :kaarris Kaasa, "Ibsen and the Theologians," §Landinavian Studies, XLIII (1971), p. 368. 31 She wants her kingdom. She wants revenge. She comes to attend Solness' needs. She comes to spur him on to valiant action. But foremost, she comes to speak to Solness of the past, and to predict and precipitate the future. Herdal and Solness are alone onstage when Hilde arrives. shortly thereafter, Aline is called and informed of Hilde's presence. Herdal and Aline immediately recognize Hilde: Herdal from the mountains, Aline from the sanatorium. Solness requires prompting to remember her. When alone, Hilde asks him, as did the Sybil, Odinn, if Solness wants her to rehearse ancient lore: "Have you a bad memory?...We11, aren't you going to talk to me about what happened up there?Jfl)Then, in one of the strangest scenes in the play, Hilde relates what happened that day in Lysanger. Solness will not admit that he knows her, or that he remembers. In the same way that Solness is able to will thought into action, Hilde wills the events of the past (or of her immagination), into reality. Solness accepts his role in her past, and gives Hilde's memory reality. He justifies this reality by his own ability to will thought into action. Solness: ...You must have dreamt these things - ...Or perhaps — wait a minute! There's some mystery behind all this - I must have thought about it. I must have willed it, wished it, longed to do it, and then - Perhaps that would explain it. Oh, very well then — damn it! - then I did do it, I suppose!“l goLe Galliene, p. 452. ulIbid., p. 455. sol. 9U I‘ll” Oi ‘ om C U . a~u n. u 1 . V «'1 cl g r L ADV ‘\ #9 7.1 . A ... A. a nflu as . H\d .. pp: 2‘ 32 This transference of thought into reality is an aspect of Seidr. Solness' relationship with Kaja and the instigation of the fire that destroyed Aline's home are occurences that Solness attributes to his ability to will thought into reality. Hilde's arrival, and her almost immediate confrontation of Solness with the past, can also be explained by Seidr. Hilde not only speaks of the past to Solness, she dis— closes the future, just as the Sybil forwarned Odinn. Hilde's arrival in the play reveals the future even before she sets foot on the stage. In his line just prior to her entrance, Solness says that when the younger generation comes knocking at the door, "that will be the end of Master Builder Solness. (There is a knock at the door on the left.)"LL2 An important element of the practice of Seidr was the ability of the wizzard to leave the body. The disembodied spirit could fulfill either good or evil intentions. This included harassing, possessing, or entering other persons. {This is important to note since it reinforces the idea of Tile will operating independantly of the body, as in Solness' a11dHi1de's case. In a sense, Hilde and Solness have both fallen under each °”t11er's spell. Solness treats Hilde differently from anyone elEse in the play. Their bond is based upon their meeting ten 3’Eéears before, when Hilde first became attatched to him. One assJpect of the bond that holds them together is their apparent \ nzLe Galliene, p. 448. a" : ".2.- any; '5' H- alt“. ”my, ’ l- (I) 33 mutual knowledge of, and practice of Seidr-like abilities. Their thoughts can take flight and formulate action independantly of their bodies. Hilde's recounting of the past becomes real by Solness' acceptance of the fact. The same use of Seidr holds true for Solness. His desire that Kaja remain to work for him, did become a fact. EXERCISE OF WILL THROUGHOUT THE PLAY Hints of the mutual paractice of Seidr between Solness and Hilde form one of the strongest ties in the play. At times, Hilde and Solness can almost read each others' minds. Hilde, especially, is able to fortell the future, and by articulating it, her will gives it reality, just as her will gives her past reality. The predominance throughout the play of "thought transferance" has puzzled many critics.43 But the knowledge of Seidr greatly enhances the implications of the use of will by Solness and Hilde. Examples in the play occur at crucial moments, and build to a climax in Act III. In Act I, just as Hilde and Solness are left alone, Hilde is examining papers and books on the desk. Hiige: So you write in this great ledger? Solness: No. That's for the accountant. Hilde: A woman? Solness: Yes, of course.4u n3W.M. Payne, "Bygmeister Solness," DIAL XIV (Feb. 1, 1893), pp. 68-71. uuLe Galliene, p. 451. 34 Hilde's guess is nothing extraordinary. The accountant must either be a man or a woman. Her guess, though, is correct, and perceptive. It comes early in the play, and indicates her powers of perception. It is also a clue to her ability to know without being told. Her use of Seidr grows by exercising certain powers over Solness. The two prime examples that occur in Act II indicate her ability to see and instigate the future. The first concerns Ragnar's drawings for the couple who wish to build at Lovstrand. Solness refuses to evaluate them in Act I, and Ragnar enters in Act II to try to get Solness to write upon them. This action, Ragnar hopes, will allow his father to die in peace. But Solness will not even grant him this. "Solness: There's nothing I can do about it, Ragnar. ...don't ask me to do things that are beyond my power."l+5 But after the rejected Ragnar leaves, Hilde makes Solness write upon the drawings. It may not be in Solness' power to write upon them, but it is within Hilde's. The articulation of fate becomes reality. Hilde: What about these drawings, Master Builder? 'sthees: Put those things away! I've seen enough of them. Hilde: But you're going to write on them for him, you know.u6 Hilde persuades Solness to write on the drawings, although K2ija, Ragnar, Brovik, and Herdal have all tried. The power lies not with them, nor with Solness, but with Hilde. With \ uSLe Galliene, p. 477. “éIbid., p. 483. 35 this action, Hilde eliminates, for all intensive purposes, the major sub-plot. Although too late for Brovik's appreciation, Solness does write upon the drawings. The plot then focuses on Hilde's second exercise of power. This she articulates as she prods the Master Builder to sign the drawings. Hilde: Do you want to rob me of what means more to me than life! Solness: What is that! Hilde: The need to see you great. To see you with a wreath in your hand — high, high up, upon a church tower.“7 This desire is repeated in Act II. Here Hilde specificly applies her desire to Solness at the end of the Act. Solness: This evening we'll hang up the wreath - at the very top of the tower. What do you say to that, Miss Wangel? Hilde: It'll be wonderful to see you up there again - high up! Solness: Mel,+8 Solness decides to climb the tower. This decision is a turning point for him. Previously he had exercised his powers of will in the past; the fire, his possession of Kaja. With Hilde's arrival, he begins to work in the present. He begins to use Seidr consciously. He will hang the wreath ”over the new house - that will never be a home for me."49 In Act II Solness exercises his will with greater freedom, IDecause he has accepted his fate: to climb the tower. He enters “7Le Galliene, p. 484. ualbid., p. 487. “91bid., p. 488. -)~ 36 from the garden just as Aline exits. Aline and Hilde have just Opened the Act with a lengthy discussion of the past, especially of the Solness children. Solness: (After a short pause.) Did you have a long talk with her? (Hilde doesn't answer but stands motionless.) Did you have a long talk I asked. (Hilde makes no reply.) What did she talk about, Hilde? (Hilde stands silent.) Poor Aline! I suppose it was about the little boys. (Hilde shudders and nods rapidly several times.) She'll never get over it. Never in this world. (He goes toward her.) Now, you're just standing there again like a statue: just as you did last night. Hilde: (Turns and looks at him with great serious eyes.) I must go away. Solness: No. I won't let you!50 Solness knows what has been discussed, and is confident in the exercise of his power. Hilde, however, begins to have doubts. These doubts continue to grow. Later in Act III, when Ragnar returns, he tells Hilde that Solness "wanted to "51 keep her (Kaja) with him. Ragnar insinuates that Solness still intends to retain Kaja. He cites Kaja's possession by Solness' will; She said - that he had taken possession of her whole being - her whole being; she said. That all her thoughts were for him alone. She said she could never leave him. That she must stay here where he is -52 This reminder of Solness' past experience of will iJnfuriates Hilde, and makes her quite jealous. She maintains 50Le Galliene, p. 494. 5lIbid., p. 499. 52Ibid., p. 500. 37 that Solness has broken with Kaja permanently, and explains that Kaja was retained to keep Ragnar. She doesn't rely upon Solness' word for this, but upon her own will. Raggar:Did he tell you that himself? Hiige: No, but it's true! It must be true! (Wildly.) I will — I wiii have it 80153 Her frantic assertion of will continues as Ragnar further demeans Solness. He belittles Solness for his inability to "climb up a miserable bit of scaffolding...We'll neither of us ever see that!" Hilde replies: "(with passionate vehemence) I will see it: I wiii and I mugt see it:"54 At this point Hilde is frantic in her attempt to will her desire into action. Her worry is un-necessary, though, because Solness has already made the decision to climb the tower. In terms of dramatic construction, and character balance, though, her jealousy is very necessary. If Hilde and Solness operate on a level different from the others in the play, equilibrium must be maintained. Hilde has been in control up to this point. She tells Solness of the past, gets him to sign the drawings, and goads him to climb the tower. A reversal occured when Solness made the decision to climb. lVow'he has the upper hand. The jealousy that bothers Hilde is EU1 indication of imbalance in their relationship. 53Le Galliene, p. 500. 5”Ibid., p. 501. 38 Hile is concerned with two problems that Ragnar has raised; 1.) Solness is afraid to climb the tower, and 2.) Solness wants to keep Kaja on. The first problem is solved when Solness returns a few moments after Ragnar raises the question. Hilde asks about his fear: Hilde: Then are you afraid of it? Solness: Yes I am. Hilde: Afraid of falling down and killing yourself? Solness: No - not that. Hilde: Of what then? Solness: I'm afraid of retribution, Hilde. 55 The ensuing discusion assures Hilde that her will on this subject is to become real. Solness will climb. Her fear and jealousy of Kaja remain.. But Solness tells her that he will climb to the castles-in-the-air with her alone. Hilde: Will there be no others? Solness: What others? Hilde: (With surpressed resentment.) That - Kaja - at the desk, for instance. Poor thing - don't you want to take her with you too?... Is it so, or is it not? Solness: I won't answer that question! You must believe in me wholly and completely! Hilde: For ten years I have believed in you so utterly - so utterly! Solness: You must go on believing in me! Hilde: Then let me see you again free and hlgh up!56 Once again Hilde and Solness attain equal footing. Both Iiilde and Solness have a need, and the need encompasses each crther. Hilde needs to have Solness to herself. As proof of Tfllis she must see him on the tower. Solness needs Hilde to K 55Le Galliene, p. 503. 56Ibid., p. 506. 39 trust him, and to gain her trust he will climb. In both their cases the need is primarily concerned with the freedom to exercise their individual wills, exercise their power over each other, and thus maintain a balance and a unity of need and dependance; of will and purpose. Solness will climb. Hilde will trust. Both will realize their needs and desires. Just before Solness exits to climb the tower, the final reference to exercise of the will and mutual practice of Seidr-like control is made. Solness: Hilde - how have you become what you are? Hilde: How have you made me what I am?57 Two lines later the Master Builder exits to face his death. This last exchange is the final establishment of the relation- ship between the two characters. Hilde has been attendant upon Solness. By the powers that both exercise over each other, each has become what they are. Hilde has been totally shaped by living for Solness. At the same time, though, it is Hilde who incites Solness to greatness, thus finally giving his life meaning, and his existence reality. What had begun as mutual practice of Seidr with Hilde's arrival, culminates in this scene. Hilde has exposed the past, Enid told the future. What began as a mystical and ambiguous Iwalationship with her arrival, has now come to fruition as fireedom of exercise of the will, and total possession of each CYtheru The relationship between Solness and Hilde is indivisible 57Le Galliene, p. 506. 40 as Solness leaves to climb the tower. It is the unifying force in their lives. Solness finds in Hilde the courage and commitment that he never found with Aline, or any other person. Solness, and Hilde too, in a sense, establish the ideal of a total love or ideal marriage, in their unity through the indissoluble ties of will and Seidr. THE TOWER SOLNESS' ASCENT The develOpment of Solness'and Hilde's exercise of will throughout the play is certainly not the most obvious use of mythology to reinforce the plot. It is ambiguous unless viewed within the context of the numerous mythological references within the play. The practice of Seidr culminates in Solness' ascent of the tower, which is the all encompassing act of The Master Builder. It is accomplished through the exercise of both Solness' and Hilde's wills. Concrete parallels in persons, places, and objects need now be detailed to compliment the exercise of will. This discussion will be concerned primarily with Saga, mythology, folklore, and archeological information necessary to clarify the ascent of the tower. In Foote's description of the cult practice of Seidr, there are similarities to Solness' presence on the tower. It (Seidr) was performed by a wizzard aided by a group of other persons. The wizzard mounted a piatform, where he was presumably free from undesireable influences, and there fell into a trance, helped in this by the chanting of the group. In hiS‘tance his spirit was freed, and if the purpose was evil, it could beset and harm a human mind or body: if the purpose was divinatory, the freed spirit seems to have been thought to learn from other spirits what the future held. The spirit 4l 42 might meet many difficulties before it regained its body, and the wizzard, usually exhausted, might be helped out of his trance by a special song.58 The raised platform, the chanting of the peOple below, the encounter with other spirits, the trance, and the use of the song are elements that occur at the end of The Master Builder. The raised platform can be related to the tower: the wizzard to Solness; the chanting to Hilde's cries: the encounter with spirits to Solness' grappling with God: the trance to Hilde's trance-like state: the song to the song that Hilde hears, and the harps in the air. The parallel to actual cult practice is obvious. But let us investigate the mythology and literature of the Norse to expand this correspondence. THE TOWER AND THE TREE OF LIFE: THE MYTHOLOGICAL YGGDRASIL One of the most obvious correspondences in Norse mythology is Yggdrasil, the World Tree. Yggdrasil was placed at the center of the Norse universe. Its branches held the worlds of the gods (Asgard and Vanaheim), and the world of the Elves (Alfheim). Its base was planted in the world of man (Midgard), and its roots grew to the depths of the universe (Hel and Niflheim). The tree was the symbol of health and stability of the universe. At its foot was the Well of Fate, tended by the Norns (Fates). As long as Yggdrasil stood, the 58Foote, p. 404. 43 the Norse universe would remain intact. At Yggdrasil's roots lay Nidhogg, a dragon who gnawed at the tree. The tree suffered this and other abuse. But the balance of the universe was kept stable by the magic healing water the three Norns poured daily on the tree. The water healed the tree, and maintained the balance of nature. Thus Yggdrasil became the symbol of life and fate.59 As Jere Fleck states, Yggdrasil was not only the Tree of Life and Fate, but in a more general sense, symbolized the total unity of the Norse cosmos and the human situation. This is predicated upon its phallic symbolism as "the connecting axis between a masculine heaven and a feminine earth."60 In gerneral terms, the tower in The Master Builder resembles Yggdrasil. The description of the scene in Act III includes references to much foliage, and implies the great height of the tower. Tall, old trees in the garden spread their branches over the veranda and toward the house. Far to the right, in among the trees, a glimpse is caught of the lower part of the new villa, with scaffolding around so much as is seen of the tower.6l Solness' tower represents his attempt to unify heaven and earth. It is a home, but it has the tower of a church. 59George T. Flom, "The Drama of Norse Mythology," Scandinavian Studies, XV (1938-39), p. 148. 60 Jere Fleck, "Odinn's Self-Sacrifice - A New Interpretation: The Ritual Inversion, and the Ritual Landscape," Scandinavian Studies, XLIII (1971), pp. 400—401. 61Le Galliene, p. 489. 44 At the very root of this new home there is also an element of destruction. The sacrifices that Solness has made to build it are as destructive as the dragon at Yggdrasil's roots. Solness-willmsoonuattempt to build castles-in-the-air on a firm foundation. Raphael's analysis of the Master Builder's death (retribution for guilt over causing the fire), may be misleading, but it does point out the element of destruction that is inherent in the tower. ...if you are going to build towers - and it may be far better not to build any at all - then you certainly cannot go about building them in the way Solness does, without any foundation. Any successful self-realization, in fact, must start and end on the ground. 62 Fleck's analysis of Yggdrasil as a phallic symbol also finds some correlation in The Master Buiider. Solness climbs the tower. Hilde remains below. The seperate aspects of the male heaven (Solness) and the female earth (Hilde) are united by the tower. This is based upon the concept of Yggdrasil as the symbol of cosmic unity and fertility. The act of climbing and falling, is, perhaps, a sexual symbol of their attempt at total unity. Hilde paints this out, just after Solness falls. Ragpar: ...So - after all - he couldn't do it. Hilde: (As though under a spell, with quiet triumph.) But he climbed to the very top. And I heard harps in the air...63 62Robert Raphael, "From Hedda Gabler to When We Dead Awaken: The Quest for Self-Realization," Scandinavian Studies, XXXVI (1964), p. 40. 63Le Galliene, p. 510. 45 Solness' act of climbing is what is of importance. His fall is incidental, and,one could guess, expected. Solness has already said that he was not afraid of falling and killing himself, but only of retribution. Here too, Hilde's trance—like state is reminiscent.of the trances involved in the ultimate practice of unity in Seidr. A further discussion of Yggdrasil's importance as a symbol of fertility and creativity may clarify the final relation- ship established between Hilde and Solness. THE TOWER AS A SYMBOL OF UNITY: ODINN ON YGGDRASIL Odinn hung himself from Yggdrasil to obtain the title God of the Hanged.6u While on the tree his side was pierced and his blood and semen were collected in Heimdallr's horn, Brumnr. By hanging on the tree, Odin; 1.) completed sacrifice to himself, 2.) was put in communion with the dead, and 3.) learned to read Runes, by discovering the secret of crossed twigs beneath him. According to Fleck, Odinn's self-sacrifice was accomplished by hanging by his feet, rather than from his neck.65 This action was, in effect, a ritual inversion which put him in touch with the underworld, in which everything is reversed. The destructive aspects of Odinn's sacrifice are not as important as the creative potential he obtained. 64Turville-Petre, p. 43. 65Fleck, p. 122. 46 The ritual inversion was, in fact, more than ritual death, but a symbol of rebirth. Man enters the world head first, and thus, upside down.66 Odinn's blood and seed were eventually mingled with Kvasir's essence to create Poet's Mead.67 Odinn's sacrifice not only provided the knowledge (Runes), but was an essential ingridiant in making the mead of poetry. Both knowledge and poetry are creative aspects of the sacrifice.68 The combina- tion of sacrifce and creativity forms part of the Norse concept of destruction giving birth to creativity. It is as important to note aspects of this sacrifice as penance (for guilt), as it is to note that it is a search for knowledge, and as the securing of a kingdom. All three — guilt, knowledge, and kingdom - play a part in the motivation of Solness at the end of The Master Builder. Odinn's sacrifice also echoes the destruction of the first giant, Yimir.69 Odinn used the parts of the deceased giant (his father) to shape the various aspects of the world. As Fleck points out, the situation is not identical, but close enough to be articulated with ease. Both Yimir and Odinn are sacrificed to give birth to a new world of creativity. 66Fleck, p. 125. 671bid., p. 127. 681bid., p. 130. 69Ibid., p. 129. 47 But it is not just Runes and poetry that Odinn gains. He creates and guarantees the life of the world by his action. Odinn's seed is stored in the horn Brumnr for the specific purpose of fertilization. Odinn's seed, preserved in the Brumnr, constitutes an assurance of the re- creation of the universe out of the waters after Ragnarok.7O The end result of Odinn's sacrifice is of importance in evaluating the action itself. Ultimately it is creativity and rebirth that the sacrifice heralds. In The Master Epilder, Solness' situation may be viewed as creative if the mythological parallel of Yggdrasil is admitted. The three motives for sacrifice (penance, knowledge, and the kingdom), and the result — a new world - find their way into the end of the play. Solness' death can be seen as retribution for guilt; as the result of the pursuit of ultimate knowledge: also as a sacrifice intended to secure Hilde's kingdom. Most important though, is the mythological emphasis on the constructive results of sacrifice. Along these lines, indications are that the sacrifice is not futile. Hilde has her kingdom. Solness faces death secure in Hilde's love and trust. Solness' death is the only possibility left him. The younger generation is left to build. But they will never duplicate the work of the Master Builder. 70Fleck, p.402. 48 THE BUILDER IN ASGARD A story similar to The Master Builder is the Gylfaginnipg, which relates the story of a builder who came to Asgard. He offered to build a wall to protect the gods from the giants, taking only one winter to complete it. If he was successful, his payment would be the sun and moon, and the godess Freyja. If he failed, he would be paid nothing. The gods, sure that he could not accomplish the feat by himself, agreed. Loki, however, arranged that the builder might use the horse that he had brought with him. With the aid of the incredibly strong horse, the builder rapidly completed the wall. He had almost finished by the end of the winter, and was sure to meet the deadline. The gods were infuriated over the bargain Loki had made, and with threats of death forced Loki to prevent the builder from meeting the deadline. Loki changed his shape to that of a mare, and seduced the builder's horse. When the builder discovered that he couldn't finish the wall, he flew into a rage. The gods recognized the builder as a rock-giant, and summoned Thor who destroyed the giant.71 The giant who comes to Asgard as a builder bears resemblence to Solness, especially as his character seems to contain aspects of the god Thor (or the human element, as opposed to Odinn's god-like element). Solness, beneath the 71Turville—Petre, p. 135. 49 level of everyday life, feels the troll within himself, and at times is totally possessed by the troll in man.72 His relationship to God also echoes the rock-giant's relationship to the Aesirgods. Solness gets along well with God while building churches, but once he rennounces the churches and God, he falls. Solness' last ascent up the tower is a repeti- tion of his rennunciation at Lysanger. From his discussion with Hilde in Act III, one can assume that Solness reaches the top of the tower and says; ”Listen to me Almighty Lord - you may judge me as you will. But from now on I shall build only the lovliest thing in all the world ~"73 When Solness flies into this 'rage' on the tower, he reveals his true self, just as the rock-giant's Jotunmodr (Giant rage) revealed his true identity, and doomed him to Thor's hammer.7u In applying the rock—giant story to The Master Builder, one must note the role played by Loki. Loki was responsible for the bargain with the giant. Thus Loki is responsible for the existing problem. He saves the day by seducing the giant's horse, and precipitating the giant's failure. Although Loki is responsible for the Aesirgod's problems, his bargain does have positive gain. In the end, the gods retain Freyja, the sun and moon, they have a new wall, Odinn has a new horse, and one more giant is dead. 72Le Galliene, p. 481. 73Ibid., p. 506. 74Turville-Petre, p. 135. 50 Like Loki, Hilde is the one who strikes up the bargain with Solness to climb the tower. She is the one who leads Solness on, seducing him into climbing. She is responsible for his death. Hilde acts in a semi-destructive manner to Solness, as she incites him to his death. This action is very reminiscent of the character and actions of Loki in this story. But Hilde is not a totally destructive character. Her resemblence to other mythological characters offsets the destructive aspects she obtains from Loki. Her role at the end of the play and indeed, throughout the play, is double- edged. Like Loki in this story, and like Thor's double- headed hammer, she provides destruction and creativity. Solness' death is compensated by the creative results of his ascent, culminating in his assertion of self. Further clarification of Hilde's motives, and the positive ending of The Master Builder may be found by investigating two sagas with plot lines similar to the play. They are the Ynglinga Saga, and the Grimnismal. YNGLINGA SAGA A small section from the Ynglinga Saga translated by Turville-Petre sheds further light on Hilde's role, and the positive aspects of unity at the play's end. 51 Adlis...was present at a sacrifice to the Disir, and as he rode his horse around the hall of the Disir, the horse stumbled and the King fell forward striking his head upon a stone. Hid skull was broken, and the King's brains were left upon the stone.75 As Turville-Petre discusses the Saga, he reveals that the King's death could have been an accident, as it appears, or it could have been a sacrifice. Whatever the case, the czause of death was the Disir Queen, generally equated with Ipreyja. She called the doomed King to her, and thus was 76 77 :rpesponsible for his death, although it appeared accidental. Hilde resembles the Disir Queen Freyja on many points. Here Solness resembles Adlis, as the king of his domain. Solness goes to the tower, as Adlis to the hall of the Disir. SOJness' climb is an act intended to secure his place with I“Iii-llde. In effect, it is a sacrifice to Hilde. Solness apparantly falls accidentaly from the tower. He strikes his 1162'EEI.<:1 on the rocks of the quarry, and as the voice of a workman all”:‘JF'lfizaunces: "His whole head is crushed in - he fell right into fik)~‘33 stone quarry."78 The imagery of the fall, the brains being dashed out 11 12"::>Ztn the rock, the presence of the attendant spirit (Disir) \ 75Turville-Petre, p. 225. 76Ibid. 77Ibid., p. 177 78Le Galliene, p. 510. 52 in the Ynglinga Saga, seem to echo throughout the last scene in The Master Builder. Hilde calls Solness home to the kingdom of greatness, as does the Disir Queen in the Saga. Hilde goads Solness to greatness, as do the Valkyries and the Disir, only to reward him. In the Yn lin a, motivation for Adlis' death is not ssupplied. According to Turville-Petre's comparison of the \rariations of the story, some conclusions can be reached. .EEvidently there is no doubt that the Disir caused the death .21:s a fertility sacrifice.79 It was not an act of retribution, 2:rLII;a.potentially constructive act. Adlis was called to death. In return, he gains a place in the heavens, and fer- -t:;i.:1ity is granted his subjects. Here too, Hilde's accomplishment in getting Solness to EBJi—aggzn the drawings of Ragnar is echoed. With this action Hilde 51-13:‘t3 she causes Solness' death, and 2.) perhaps allows Ragnar \ 80Foote, p. 339. 54 to assume Solness' kingdom. These two points parallel the major actions Odinn performs in the Grimnismal. In it, Geirrod's kingdom passes to his brother Aggar, and in The Master Builder, Solness' trade may pass on to Raggar. The similarity in names may be coincidental, but certainly exists. As cited, Hilde gets Solness to write upon Ragnar's papers. .Although the action is too late to satisfy Brovik, it does zapparently allow Ragnar the commission at Lovstrand. This, ‘then, may be his first step in assuming the trade of the 1>L1ilder. This opportunity is provided by Hilde. Of course, 'tzllere is the final similarity between the two plots. Solness L1?}ELllS to his death from the tower; Geirrod falls from his throne upon his sword. LID SKJALF: ODINN ' S TOWER The structure of Solness' tower in The Master Builder ‘3-=33 *vague. Its shape and size are not known. However, therec E1357’<52 certain tower-like structures in mythology which may be I:‘E‘:"-:1~.:5ated to this tower. Besides Yggdrasil, the other prominent tower structure 1. 151‘ ‘the world of the Aesirgods was Lidskjalf. This was an Earfi. ‘::> :rmous tower built in the center of Asgard, from which Odinn (3(2) ‘K4‘~Z1d see into every corner of the universe. Lidskjalf was “::> ‘ther of Odinn's physical aids in his attempt to gain know- 1% (:3nge and awareness of happenings within the Norse universe. 55 One of the most interesting factors about Lidskjalf is that Odinn was the only one allowed to climb it. It was his, as chief god. On occasion he allowed his wife Freyja to climb with him. Together they sat suspended above the whole Norse universe, and could see all that happened in every part of the nine Norse worlds. Only once was the tower ever climbed by anyone other than Odinn or Freyja. On this occasion, the god Freyer climbed the tower, 23nd spied Gerd, the beautiful daughter of a giant.81 The .Iireyer/Gerd episode dealing with the tower has one major- ;iJmportance: the eventual unity of the two - Freyer, the Iinzasculine fertility god of the heavens (rain and sunshine <:>:i? spring), and Gerd, the unsown, potential earth mother (I ‘tflle frozen winter field). There is an obvious parallel 13"Ea‘tween Freyer and Gerd to Yggdrasil's use as a fertility £5325’1nnbol. Thus Lidskjalf is, as Yggdrasil, a symbol of unity all--1"?I—‘Cifertility. Yggdrasil, the axis of the universe between ~t:“"-7’<:: poles: Lidskjalf, the unity of Odinn as chief god with fl“:i~ =53 universe. And on one occasion it is a repetition of the 131—71'E53me of fertility and unity of heaven and earth. There are two major resemblences in The Master Builder ‘t:.::’ the mythological Lidskjalf. The first is the mere existence C) :IEE Iddskjalf defined as a tower. The second is the identity EiEJr~3L