ABSTRACT IDENTITY DIFFUSION AS A FUNCTION OF SEX ROLES IN ADULT WOMEN by Donald E. Jabury This study is an attempt to demonstrate that adult female identity diffusion is a function of adult sex—roles. Specifically it was proposed that the relative degree of identity diffusion, as well as certain per- sonality correlates, would be a function of specific sex-roles and their combinations. Three groups, each composed of 32 adult women, were selected on the basis of fitting the sex—role criteria of three possible adult female sex—roles: married and non- career, married and career and nonmarried and career. The subjects in each group were administered a form of the semantic differential, the Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale, the Inventory of Feminine Values, and the Edwards' Social Desirability Scale. It was expected that married and noncareer women would exhibit less identity diffusion than married and career women and that nonmarried and career women would exhibit the most diffusion because of cultural prescrip- tions regarding these roles. No differences were found between these groups and the prediction was not con- firmed. Donald E. Jabury Because cultural prescriptions in regard to sex roles are contradictory, it was predicted that conflict about sex-roles would engender anxiety and that there would be measurable differences between these groups in anxiety, especially for the nonmarried and career sub— sample. No differences between groups were found on the anxiety measure and this prediction was not confirmed. It was predicted that the dimension of feminine activity-passivity was very closely related to identity in adult women, and that women in the married and non- career role would see themselves as more passive, than either the married and career or nonmarried and career women, who would see themselves as active. The reverse was expected when these women rated the Ideal Woman as they viewed the cultural stereotype. Here it was pre- dicted that the married and noncareer women would see the Ideal Woman as more active, the married and career group seeing her as more passive and the non- married and career, most passive. Neither of these predictions were borne out. Because of differences in the social acceptability of these three sex-roles, it was expected that there would be differences in the social desirability responses among the groups. Since cultural stereotypes seem to more con- sistently reinforce the married and noncareer role it was Donald E. Jabury predicted that this group would give the most socially desirable responses, married and career would rank next, and nonmarried and career would give the least number of such responses. The hypothesis was not confirmed. Further analyses of the data were conducted in an attempt to find other variables relating to identity diffusion instead of sex-role. Activity-Passivity was found to be a significant variable related to anxiety in the women studied, with passive women being the more anxious. Age was not found to be related to the activity- passivity dimension. The most significant finding of the further analyses was that social desirability response tendencies were the best predictors of the similarity scores obtained by the study. The validity of assumed similarity scores as measures of parental identification in adolescents and adults is discussed. The importance of the assessment of parental identification in adolescents and adults is questioned. Specific questions about cultural stereo- types of adult female sex-roles warranting further research are suggested. IDENTITY DIFFUSION AS A FUNCTION OF SEX-ROLES IN ADULT WOMEN By .‘ 5/ Donald Eiydabury A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Counseling and Personnel Services and Educational Psychology 1967 Dedicated to Donna, my wife, who understood, at a very important time in our relationship. 11 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The author wishes to express deepest appreciation to his committee chairman, Dr. Gregory A. Miller, and to his committee members; Dr. Norman Abeles, Dr. Robert Green and Dr. William Mueller, for their valuable sug- gestions and criticisms and for their support throughout my doctoral program. Special regards are due Dr. William Mueller, who helped me through the maze of design and statistics. The author wishes to express his regards for Dr. Bill Kell, who played a very important part in his personal and professional development during the course of his graduate and internship experiences, and to Dr. Josephine Morse who was an important part of those experiences also. Thanks are due Mrs. Dee Brown and Mrs. Robert Anderson for their extensive help in obtaining an impor- tant part of the sample of this study. In addition, Drs. Gregory Miller and Robert Green generously made their classes available for participation in this study. 111 DEDICATION . . ACKNOWLEDGMENTS . . LIST OF TABLES . . . LIST OF APPENDICES . Chapter I THE PROBLEM . TABLE OF CONTENTS Purpose of the Study Theory Definition of Terms Hypotheses Assumptions Limitations of the Study Organization of the Study II‘ REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE . . . Studies of Identification Studies of Sex-Role Conflict Summary III DESIGN OF THE STUDY The Sample Instruments Procedure Statistical Hypotheses Analysis of the Data Summary IV ANALYSIS OF THE RESULTS Results of the Predictive Phase of the Study- Discussion Results and Discussion of the Exploratory Phase of the Study Summary iv Page ii iii vi V111 l6 25 A2 Chapter Page V SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND IMPLICATIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH . . . . . . . . . . .‘. 67 Summary Conclusions Implications for Further Research BIBLIOGRAPHY O O 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 7S APPENDICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1. Summary of Biographical Information for groups; married and noncareer, married and career and nonmarried and career . . . . 27 2. Mean similarity scores for Me-Mother and Me-Father for the three subsamples . . . ... A3 3. Summary of the analysis of variance of similarity scores for Me-Mother for the three groups 0 o o o o o o > o o o o o o o o 0 “LI A. Summary of the analysis of variance for Me-Father for the three subsamples . . . . . A5 5. Summary of the analysis of variance for Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale scores across the three subsamples . . . . . . . . . . . . A7 6. Summary of "t" tests between Inventory of Feminine Values scores under the condition ME, for the three subsamples . . . .». . . . A8 7. Summary of the analysis of variance of Inventory of Feminine Values mean scores for the three subsamples, under the condition, Ideal Woman . . . . . . . . . .‘. 50 8. Summary of the analysis of variance for Edwards' Social Desirability mean scores for the three subsamples . . . . . . . . . . 51 9. Summary of the obtained data for the three subsamples on the four instruments used in the Study 0 O O O O O O O O O 0 O O O 0 o O O 118 10. Summary of the data for active and passive groups on the Inventory of Feminine Values for age, occupations and subsample membership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 vi Table Page 11. Summary of the data for the Active and Passive groups on the Inventory of Feminine Values for age, occupations and subsample membership . . . . . . . . . . 122 12. Summary of two—way analysis of variance between the combined Taylor Manifest Anxiety and Edwards' Social Desirability scales and similarity scores for Me-Mother . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12A 13. Summary of two-way analysis of variance between the combined Taylor Manifest Anxiety and Edwards' Social Desira— bility scales and similarity scores for Me—Father . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 vii Appendix A. B. LIST OF APPENDICES Page Semantic Differential scales and concepts . . 81 Key items on the Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 Biographical Information Questionnaire used in the study . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 Instruments used in the study. . . . . . . . . 87 Summary of the obtained data for the three subsamples on the four instruments used in the study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 Summary of the data for active and passive groups on the Inventory of Feminine Values and their Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale mean scores . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 Summary of the data for the active and passive groups on the Inventory of Feminine Values and age, occupation and subsample membership . . . . . . . ... .-. . 121 Summaries of the data for the two-way analysis for combined Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale and Edwards' Social Desir- ability Scale scores and mean similarity scores for Me-Mother and Me- Father . . . . . 123 viii CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM The problem of identification has been discussed extensively by various writers in an attempt to describe the processes by which the infant develops into a partic- ular kind of adult. A great deal of theory and research regarding identification as a developmental process, rests on Freud's conception (1923) of identification: "It (identification) may arise with every new perception of a common quality shared with some other person who is not the object of the sexual instinct." The term, identification, is used to describe simi- larities between children and their parents, especially same-sexed parents. The learning of appropriate sex roles is considered to depend on identification with the same- sexed parent especially. Defective identification with the same-sexed, or, over-identification with the opposite- sexed parent is often cited as the cause of maladjustment in children and adults. Several studies have attempted to measure identi- fication with same-sexed and opposite-sexed parents. Others have investigated the differences between pre- adolescent, adolescent, and young adult males and females in their identification with their parents. Still others have attempted to relate deficient or inapprOpriate identification with parents to general and Specific personality disorders. In addition to the emphasis of personality theorists on the importance of identification in the learning of adult sex-roles, there is a vast literature in sociology, anthropology, and social psychology on the cultural determinants of sex-roles. Roles, especially sex-roles, are considered to be societally determined and reinforced. As a result of such studies and theory, it can be said that it is widely accepted, that in American culture, there are serious contradictions regarding sex-roles in general, and particularly regarding female sex-roles. Although there are studies relating female iden- tification to various personality maladjustments and studies relating female conflict to contradictory cultural sex-role prescriptions, there seem to be no studies which compare women who are in various possible adult female sex-roles with each other with regard to identification and other personality correlates. An investigation of relationships between women engaged in these possible sex-roles would contribute to the knowledge of adult identification patterns. It would also give information regarding certain personality correlates which may be associated with being engaged in such LA) sex-roles. In addition such a study would extend identi- fication research to adult women in a more comprehensive manner than the studies the author has reviewed and will cite later in this study. Purpose of the Study It is the purpose of this study to investigate the relationships between the parental identification of adult women in three possible adult female sex-roles and certain specified personality dimensions. The findings of this study will constitute the basis for further research recommendations on the problem. Theory Freud's earlier notions concerning identification were restricted to the concepts of introjection and projection (1920). He relied on these basic conceptions to explain the child's similarity to his parents. Little attention was given to the process of later identifications by Freud. It was perhaps because of this shortcoming in his theory that he later broadened his notions regarding identification to include any perceived commonalities with other persons (1923). Sanford (1966) sees the concept of identification as having been much overused by writers on development. Because the term has been used to cover so many different aspects of the child's similarity to parents and other adults, he_sees it as being meaningless. Sanford dis- tinquishes between earlier and later identification. Earlier identification is through introjection and projec- tion in the psychoanalytic sense of the terms. Learning accounts for later behaviors characterized as identifi- cation. Sanford views these learned behaviors as in the realm of ego-functions. Brodbeck (195A) comments on Freud's use of the concept of identification. He sees the term as being tied mainly to the sexual and especially to the Oedipal situ- ation. He also suspects that Freud was attempting to cover socialization with this concept. Identification, in Brodbeck's view, is not an all-or—nothing affair, as in the Freudian sense. It is not the dramatic, complete incorpor- ation of parental figures. Instead, he sees identification as a slow and gradual process of change in social influence, in which both parents have a strong hold on the child. Kagan (196A) uses the social learning term, modeling, to describe similarity of behaviors of significant adults and the child. His use of the term incorporates the notion of identification. Bronfenbrenner (1958) critically examines the concept of "modeling" as a definition of iden- tification. He sees the term as being less restrictive and therefore more useful, than what is too often implied by the term, identification. Bronfenbrenner uses Symond's (19A9) definition of the most common meaning of identification, i.e., "the modeling of oneself in thought, feeling or action, after another person." Seward (195A) notes that the child learns about sex models in the Oedipal stage, but he also learns about other models when he leaves the home. These different models are other adults, and more importantly, new models from the peer culture. The attempts of so many theorists to extend and broaden the concept of identification appear to be neces- sary in order to account for continuing developmental changes in self-concept. Earlier notions based.mainly on Freud's earliest conceptions, fixed the major and relatively final, identifications as the Oedipal stage. They gave little attention to social factors, such as other adult models and peer culture models. In describing identifi- cation in terms of social learning theory, modeling and ego-functions, these theorists have paved the way for a bridging concept, Erikson's Identity Formation (1956). In discussing the limited usefulness of the mechanism of identification to describe continuing development, Erikson states: Children at different stages of their develop- ment, identify with those part aspects of other people by which they themselves are immediately affected, whether in reality or fantasy The final identity then, as fixed at the end of adolescence, is superordinated to any single identification with individuals of the past-- it includes all significant identifications but also it alters them in order to make a unique and a reasonably coherent whole of them. (1956) Erikson sees identity formation as beginning when the usefulness of identification—prOper ends. Identity forma- tion is a lifelong process. From a genetic point of View, then, the process of identity formation emerges as an evolving configuration—-a configuration which is gradually established by successive ego syntheses and resyntheses throughout child- hood; it is a configuration gradually inte- grating constitutional givens, idiosyncratic libidinal needs, favored capacities, signif- icant identifications, effective defenses, successful sublimations and consistent roles. (1956) Identity Diffusion is a complementary concept intro- duced by Erikson (1956). It is defined as the inability of the ego to establish an identity. It is seen as a lack of clear sense of self and who one is. Identity diffusion, as Erikson sees it, is a natural, character- istic, phase of adolescence, and not necessarily patho- logical. Diffusion ordinarily ends with adolescence. Identity formation is considered to be different for males and females. For adolescent boys, vocational choice seems to be the largest determinant of identity. According to Douvan and Adelson: The boy tends to concretize identity through anchoring it in an (often premature) vocational choice; the adolescent girl does not ordinarily have this Opportunity. Girls tend to keep identity diffuse. The boy is made to feel (however much he may doubt it deep down) that his identity is in his own hands, that the choice of vocation and with it life-style, will define him. The girl cannot count on this degree of active preferment in identity; she is dependent on what her future husband will be . . . She seems much more comfortable in the present; her vision of the future is necessarily dim; and to this extent identity formation (as far as it depends on an anchorage to the future) is likely to remain incomplete. (1966) A good deal of identity formation in adolescence seems to rest on future orientation. The girl must depend on her future marriage as a means of defining herself. The girl then, faces an ambiguous task, since marriage is in the indefinite future. Douvan and Adelson see the girl in adolescence attempting to resolve and integrate invidual goals and femininity (1966). She has been taught to want marriage and has been trained to some extent in feminine qualities and skills that will help her reach this goal. Also she has been educated to deve10p her self, set goals, find and develOp interests, strive for excellence and compete for honors. These authors see the girl as moving from greater activity and egoistic goals to greater passivity and feminine goals. Girls are clearly more vague regarding vocational goals. The range of Job choices is quite restricted and clusters in highly visible and traditionally feminine occupations, e.g., secretary, social worker, nurse, and teacher (1966). Girls are also seen as being less realistic in their plans for Job preparation. A smaller percentage plan to go on to college. For many girls college is unrealistic, since it will overprepare them in terms of a vocation. This appears to be due to the fact that girls do not see college in vocational terms. "The theme that seems to dominate girls job choices is: fulfillment of the feminine role." (1966) Cottrell discusses the adjustment of the individual to his age and sex-role (1955). He sees the chief deter- minants of the degree of adjustment an individual is likely to realize as he functions in a given role in a given culture, as dependent on the following: a. the clarity with which the role is defined,' b. the consistency between what is verbally given and what is demonstrated in practice, 0. the degree of compatibility between the various roles assigned to one and the same individual, d. whether the prescribed role is or is not instrumental in permitting the individual to realize the-dominant goals set by his sub-culture. Conceptions of what women should be as against what men should be are societal ones. Roles, especially sex- roles, are socially determined and reinforced. As Sanford states: Conformity or rebelling against it (soci— etally determined sex-roles) is likely to have some effects on the personality of the person involved. In the case of sex-roles, the effect may be profound. More than other social roles the role of man or woman is intimately involved in one's conception of oneself . . . because in most cultures the sex-role is the most central role an individual plays, it can promote or hinder full development in various aspects of the personality. (1966) It is generally accepted that the trend in the United States is towards greater freedom for women. Much of this development is due to the Women's Rights Movement of the 1920's and earlier. Further changes occurred as a result of World Wars I and II. The impact of culture on role and especially feminine role has a vast literature; Kardiner, Linton,IWami and Benedict are well-known commen- tators. These writers document the well-known facts of cultural contradictions in female roles. Much of the confusion regarding female sex-roles seems to center around career and self-fulfilling needs of women versus marriage and child—raising. As Kardiner says: The fact is that our social-role training is conducted in such a way that we hamper the very end we are trying to achieve. In masculine role—training we unconsciously introduce factors that make its consummation impossible and its goals unattainable, and in feminine-role training we introduce factors that make femin- inity a hazard. (1955) Botwin in commenting on the feminine role states: Not only is the role not clearly defined, but it is the topic of open controversy. While the virtues of domesticity are upheld on a verbal level, social practice confers all the prestige upon the man's achievement-oriented role. The role of wife and mother with very few exceptions, is incompatible with an occupational role, and does not allow the individual woman to realize the dominant goal set by our culture. (1955) 10 As noted by Nevitt Sanford: Whereas it seems to be taken for granted that an increasing proportion of women will obtain some education beyond high school, this definitely does not mean that there is general acceptance of life-styles that will bring them into compe— tition with or threaten the status of men . At the present time we have to deal with cul— tural as well as individual ambivalence with respect to sex-roles. The culture itself presents the young woman with contradictory role prescriptions. She must by all means be stunningly attractive to men, but she must be a practical and devoted mother; she must prepare herself for challenging and important work--to begin after her children have grown up sufficiently--but she must be prepared at all times to accomodate herself to her husbands career plans. She is exhorted to carry on the feminist tradition, but given a slight change in the national mood, she is told that career women are neurotically driven and unful- filled . . . Both the career woman and the woman who devotes herself more or less exclu- sively to home-making can readily be thrown on the defensive, and they are easily induced to express open hostility and contempt toward each other. Neither role has such unambiguous sanc— tions that it can be taken without doubt or wishing that one had chosen the alternative course. Women have incorporated the cultural ambivalence. More than that, neither of these roles, as it is now defined by our society allows enough eXpression of the individuals' personality needs. Definition of Terms The following terms are used extensively in this study. For purposes of this study, they are defined as follows: Activity-Passivity Dimension:--This term was devel- oped by Steinmann (196A) to describe female value judgments regarding degree of activeness and passiveness they ll preferred. A passive woman is seen as one who sees her own satisfactions coming second after her husband's and family, and who considers family responsibilities as taking precedence over career aspirations. The active woman describes a woman who sees her satisfactions as equally important with those of her husband and family, and who wishes Opportunities to realize and use her abilities and skills in a career or career-related manner. Activeness and passiveness as defined above are con- sidered to exist in relative degrees on a continuum ranging from extreme passiveness to extreme activeness. Anxiety:--Anxiety as this term is used in this study, is defined as Spielberger (1966) uses the term. Spiel- berger defines the term in the construct sense of the word, i.e., anxiety is what is measured by the Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale. More specifically, he does not see the MAS as measuring anxiety per se, but as measuring the tendency to respond to stress situations with anxiety. Spielberger sees this anxiety-proneness as a personality trait, and this sort of anxiety as trait-anxiety. Career:--This term as used in this study refers to Super's definition of the concept (196A). As he and his collaborators define it, a career is the sequence of occu- pations, jobs, positions through a persons's working life. 12 This definition may be extended to pre- and post—voca- tional positions, such as students preparing for a voca- tion. Ideal Woman:--The term Ideal Woman as it is used in this study refers to what women would judge as the woman having the most desirable combination of activity— passivity in adult female sex-roles. (This is defined above and would be on the Activity—Passivity Dimension.) Identity:-—This term is defined as the end result of parental identifications and the expression of these results in adult sex-roles. Although Erikson (page 5) includes many other personality characteristics in the final identity configuration, for purposes of this study, the interest in this study is in how identity is expressed in adult sex-roles. Identity Diffusion:-—This term is defined as a lack of a clear sense of who one is, and is seen as being par- tially the resultant of improper parental identifications. This deficient identification is expressed in conflicts in adult sex-roles Social Desirability Response Tendencies:-—This phrase refers to a subject's tendency to respond to self-report personality inventories on the basis of how he thinks society values the particular behavior in question. 13 Particularly the subject strives to give the most positive and desirable impression of himself, rather than to respond to the questionnaire on the basis of whether the questions are actually true or false for him (Edwards, 1957). Sex-role:—-This term refers to the culturally- approved characteristics and behaviors for males and females. These behaviors may be overt or covert. Covert behaviors consist of feelings, attitudes, motives and beliefs. It is this aspect of sex-roles with which this study is concerned. In brief, sex-roles are culturally- approved prescriptions for male and female behavior (Kagan, 196A). Hypotheses Four major predicitons are investigated in this study: Hypothesis I:--There will be significantly more identity diffusion for nonmarried and career women, than for married and career and nonmarried and career women. Hypothesis II:--Nonmarried and career women will be significantly more anxious than married and career and married and noncareer women. 1A Hypothesis III:—-Married and noncareer women will see themselves as being significantly more passive, when describing themselves as they actually are, than married and career and nonmarried and career. Hypothesis IIa:--Married and noncareer women when describing what they view as the Ideal Woman, will see her as significantly more active, and married and career and nonmarried and career women will see the Ideal Woman as significantly more passive. Hypothesis IV:-—Married and noncareer women will tend to respond in a significantly more socially desirable manner than will married and career and nonmarried and career women . Assumptions The basic assumptions underlying this study are: 1. Behavior can be measured. 2. The identification of adult women with their parents can be assessed by psychometric instruments. 3. Differences between subjects in personality traits not measured in this study will be evenly distrib- uted among the subjects. A. Psychological traits such as anxiety, activity- passivity, and tendencies to respond in socially-approved ways can be validly measured by the instruments employed in this study. Limitations of the Study Since this study is dealing with relationships as they exist at a particular point in time, no cause and effect relations can be established. Particular combin- ations of the variables are only investigated in an exploratory manner. This study is also limited by its sample. The participants are middle-class, white, college-educated women. All of the subjects were volunteers and the bias of volunteerism is admitted. In addition, the subjects are residents of a medium-sized, middlewestern city whose make-up consists of industry, state government, and a large university. No generalizations can be made to other populations. Organization of the Study The general format of this study is as follows. In Chapter II, a review of the pertinent literature is presented. The third chapter contains the methods used in data collection, statistical hypotheses, and the techniques used for analysis of the data. The results of the study are reported and discussed in Chapter IV, and the summary, conclusions and implications for future research are given in Chapter V. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE In this chapter prior research relevant to the present study is reviewed. Two main areas of research are included: studies of identification, and studies of identity and sex-role conflict and other personality correlates. The chapter is concluded with a summary of these previous research findings. Studies of Identification There has been a good deal of research on identi- fication and its implications for identity formation. Much of this research has compared male and female identification at various ages and developmental stages. These studies have concentrated on measuring identifi- cation using real or assumed similarity measures looking for greater or lesser amounts of identification with same-sexed or opposite-sexed parents. Bronfenbrenner (1958) defines real similarity as the rating by a subject of his parents on a similarity measure, and the rating by the subject's parents of the subject. Assumed similarity is defined by this author as the rating by the subject of himself and his parents as he perceives them. These 16 17 ratings are indirect since they rely on the subject's perceptions of the parent. The similarity measures obtained in this manner must be considered to be inferred measures of identification. Lazowick's research (1955) centered on attempting to measure identification using Osgood's mediation theory of meaning. He defined identification as implying a relationship between a subject and a model. This rela- tionship was considered to be a Sharing of common meanings between the subject and his parents. With this opera- tional definition of identification, Lazowick was able to make use of the semantic differential technique to measure similarity between subject and parents. In his study of college students, he first established a criterion, mani- fest anxiety,as measured by the Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale (1953). Criterion groups were then compared on the degree to which they were identified with parents. He found for both male and female subjects, that low anxious subjects tend to be more closely identified with the same- sexed parent. However he also found, contrary to theo- retical expectations, cross identification for both males and females. The tendency for greater female identifi- cation with mother, which theory predicts, was not borne out. In a study designed to assess indirect (unconscious), direct (conscious) and fantasy (unconscious) identification 18 with parents, Bieri, Lobeck and Galinsky (1955) studied 60 male, and 30 female, college freshmen. The direct measure of identification was a structured interview concerning similarities between subject and parent. The indirect measure was the semantic differential. The fantasy measures were the Thematic Apperception Test and the Make A Picture Story test. The writers found clearer identification patterns for males than for females. The authors conclude that changes from direct to indirect in identification patterns are greater for females, and that parental identification for females is less consistent. In a different type of study of identification, Bruni (1967) investigated the relationship between age and sex, and assumed Similarity to parents. Seven age groups from nine to twenty-one years of age, with 30 males and 30 females in each group, were administered a form of the semantic differential. The subjects rated themselves and their parents. Although Bruni was attempting to verify Erikson's notion of greater identity diffusion (as measured by large difference scores on the semantic dif— ferential) in adolescents, other findings of his are of interest here. As with Lazowick and others, Bruni found females to be less identified with both mother and father. Of special interest was his finding that college senior women are less identified with mother. This would seem to indicate that females even at age twenty-one are still quite diffuse in their identities. 19 Shell 33 a1. (196A) in reviewing the research on inferred identification conclude that the results can be summarized as follows: normal males rather consistently infer greater similarity to both parents than do neurotic males. Normal males typically infer greater similarity to father than to mother. Normal females often infer greater similarity to their parents than neurotic females, and seldom infer greater similarity to mother than to father. The findings in studies of college students tend to confirm the fact that college males tend to see themselves more like their fathers, than do college females see themselves like their mothers. Concurring data are reported by: Lazowick (1955); Shell 32 31. (196A); Beier and Ratzeburg (1953); and Bruni (1967). A study reported by Gray and Klaus (1956) showed the opposite pattern, i.e., college females identified more with mother than males with father. The reason for this finding may be due to the atypical sample used, southeastern United States. Heilbrun (1965) offers a possible explanation for these identification research findings contradicting theoretical formulation regarding greater female identi- fication with mother. He suggests that there may be a tendency for females to identify both with the same-sexed parent as well as the opposite-sexed parent. He cites the fact that it is more acceptable for girls to try out 20 "masculine roles," than for boys to try out feminine roles. Heilbrun's study of identification in boys and girls showed, that girls tended to identify more with both mother and father, than did the boys. Slater (1961) also discusses the research findings on identifi- cation. He views male and female identification as being different developmentally. Cross-sexed identifi— cation is important in female identification and such identifying facilitates the adoption of the appropriate female sex-role. Lynn (1959) in his discussion of identification in males and females, suggests that the reason for the finding that males tend to identify more with father than females do with mother, may be due to the male identifying more with a cultural stereotype of masculinity, rather than with the father as such. Females as they develop, become less identified with the feminine role and tend, according to Lynn, to identify with Specific aspects of their mother's role. Studies of Identity and Sex-Role The studies to be reported here have concentrated on some measurable aspect of identity and sex-role. Although there has been a good deal of theorizing con- cerning sex—role conflicts in women, there have not been many research studies of roles and identity. Denmark and Guttentag (1967) attempted to investi- gate the identity of adult women who were applying for 21 special college classes in order to complete their under- graduate education. The authors theorized that women who were returning to college at a later age (over 30 years) were dissatisfied with their life-styles. They measured dissonance in identity using the semantic differential with college and non-college oriented women. The findings indicated greater diffusion in women who were college— oriented. The authors interpreted these results as indicating that college-oriented women were still inter- ested in developing personal skills in a possible career field. They thus remained diffuse and in conflict about themselves. Botwin (1955) developed an inventory of feminine values centering around notions of female activity and assertiveness versus passiveness and other-orientedness. She studied 83 female college freshmen. She found that when these women described themselves as they would like to be, they all wanted to be active and self-assertive in terms of their personal development. When the subjects described what could be considered the cultural stereotype of what a woman should be, they saw this woman as quite passive and concerned with the needs of others, i.e., a husband and possible family. In discussing these findings in relation to female sex—roles, Botwin concludes that although her subjects were in the process of being educated to develop personal skills and abilities along career lines, they were conflicted as to whether they could have both a marriage £29 a career. Steinmann 33 a1. (196A) also used the inventory developed by Botwin with college women. Her sample con- sisted of women between the ages of 17 and 21. In studying identity, these authors had the subjects fill out the inventory under three conditions: Self-Precept, Ideal Woman, and Male Ideal. Analysis of results indi- cated that what these women see themselves to be, and what they would ideally like to be, is quite different from what they consider males want them to be, i.e., they see themselves as wanting to be much more active, and the Male Ideal as being very passive. Sanford (1966) points to his study of Vassar alumnae. Using both interviews and qUGStiODNEiPGS, he found that these college graduates had fulfilled mainly the role of housewife. In some 80 per cent of the women studied he found that they still had regrets about having missed a career and 20 to 25 years later were now consid- ering returning to a career. Kamarovsky (1953) studying college freshman and junior women in regards to cultural contradictions and adult sex-roles, found through interviews and question- naires, that these women consistently saw themselves as 23 being confronted with alternative choices, either marriage or career. They did not consider it possible to compro— mise between marriage and a career. Summary This chapter contained a review of the research pertinent to the measurement of identification and role conflict. Research in the area of identification it was found, has used measures of real and assumed similarity to parents. Assumed similarity research using the semantic differential as the measure of inferred Simi- larity was reviewed. In general the findings of such research show that both for adolescents and young adults, males rather consistently infer greater similarity to father than to mother, and females do not infer greater similarity to mother than to father. It has been sug- gested that female identification is different than male, and that females tend to remain diffuse in their identity as late as 21 years of age. In discussing the few studies on identity and sex- role conflict, it was noted that there is a great deal of theoretical speculation on female sex-role conflict. Findings cited tend to confirm that women see marriage and career as alternatives which cannot be combined. These alternatives require that they be passive and other- oriented (husband and family) versus active (self and career). The findings tend to confirm Sanford's views which are that neither sex-role, marriage or career, has such unambiguous cultural sanctions, as to allow for enough expression of the individual's personality needs (1966). In the following chapter, "Design of the Study," is presented the research design by which the predicted relationships were investigated and unpredicted rela- tionships were explored. CHAPTER III DESIGN OF THE STUDY Prior research relevant to the problem was reviewed in Chapter II, "Review of the Literature." In the present chapter is reported the research design by which the problem was investigated further. It was the purpose of the study to investigate relationships between the parental identification of adult women in three possible adult female sex-roles and certain per- sonality dimensions. The subjects who constituted the sample are described first. This is followed by a description of the instruments used, as well as data collection methods and statistical treatments. This chapter is concluded with a statement of the statistical hypotheses to be tested and a summary of the chapter. The Sample The total sample consisted of 96 female subjects. There were 32 subjects in each of three subsamples of the study: married and noncareer, married and career, and nonmarried and career. These three subsamples were criterion groups. As can be seen in Table 1, page 27, which summarizes the data of the sample, the age range 25 26 for the total sample was 20 to 39 Years of age. The average for the total sample was 25.33 Years. The age ranges broken down by subsamples were as follows: mar- ried and noncareer, 23 to 39 years; married and career, 22 to 31 years; nonmarried and career, 20 to 18 years. The average age for subjects in the three subsamples was: married and noncareer, 28 years; married and career, 25 years; and nonmarried and career, 23 years. The sub- sample nonmarried and career had the largest proportion of women whose occupation was reported as teacher, either elementary or secondary, 87.50 per cent. The other two subsamples had lesser percentages of teachers in occupations reported, with married and career reporting 71.87 per cent and married and noncareer reporting 59.37 per cent. All of the subjects held bachelors degrees, however the subsample, married and noncareer, subjects held the largest percentage of masters degrees, 59.37. The married and career subjects were next in percentage of masters degrees, 28.12, and nonmarried and career had the lowest percentage of masters, 18.75. Mother's education as reported by the subjects in the three subsamples are as follows: married and noncareer 12.75 years, married and career, 13.22-years, and nonmarried and career 13.31 years. The differ- ences in average education for mother do not appear to 27 TABLE 1.--Summary of Biographical Information Data for Groups, Married and Noncareer, Married and Career and Nonmarried and Career. Married and Non- Married and Nonmarried and Ctteror\ a b J career (n=32) Career (n=32) Career (n=32) Age Range Average Age Occupation: 23-39 28 22-31 25 20-28 23 % Teacher 59.37 71.87 87.50 T Other A0.63 28.13 12.50 Education: % Bachelors 36.25 59.37 68.75 S Bachelors and Masters Mother's Occupation: c (o U) —4 28.12 18.75 $ Skilled 15.65 6.25 15.62 % Clerical 12.50 15.62 3.12 % Managerial 6.25 15.62 3.12 z Business 6.25 9.37 3.12 % Professional 31.25 3A.37 31.25 % Housewife 28.12 31.25 A6.87 Iiotfller*'s lidLU331u10rl (jwears): Range -20 8- 7-18 Average 12.75 13.22 13.31 Father's Occupation: 2 Skilled 15 b 28.12 15.62 % Clerical 3 1? 3.12 6 25 Z Aanarorlal 6 35 15.62 15 62 ' PUSIHHSQ 15 ?A 29.12 AO.62 I 11H Yo LIDlflal 3T 3%} 11 3f 26.1f’ l“attm:1"s EudruraL 1:1; (years): Mallet? 13-20 8-20 7-90 Avera c 13.AY 1A.56 12.72 28 was acquainted with women meeting the criteria for the study and through a district leader of the League of Women Voters of Lansing, Michigan. These volunteers were from what could be described as suburban, middle class areas of Lansing, Michigan. Clarity of sex-role was considered a relevant control variable in this study since it has been found to be different for lower and upper class versus middle class subjects (Douvan and Adelson, 1966). Only middle class subjects were used. The criteria outlined by Hollingshead and Redlich, (1958) were used for classi- fication and only Class II and III subjects were used. Education as a control factor was defined as a bachelors degree. No women with more than a masters degree were included in this study, since this would control for high degree of professionalization. Although Palmer (1966) found evidence that birth order was an important factor in identification, the findings of Bruni (1967) did not confirm this. In addition, the extensive study of Douvan and Adelson (1966) resulted in such complex interaction between the variables of birth and identification, as to suggest that the relevance of the variable be left to more extended research. Only subjects who had lived with their parents up to the time of entering college were used in this study 29 in order to insure comparability to other studies of identification. Instruments Semantic Differential A form of the semantic differential was used to obtain measures of perceived similarity. The technique was developed by Osgood 33 a1. (1957). The index of perceived similarity is Osgood's D statistic and is com- puted on the basis of the differences between the subject's rating of himself and his parents on selected rating scales. Three concepts were chosen as relevant to modeling after parent's roles. The concepts were: ME, MY MOTHER, and MY FATHER. The D scores were obtained between ME and MY MOTHER and between ME and MY FATHER. Eighteen bipolar scales were used with each of the three concepts. The scales were chosen from those used in previous studies by Mueller (1966) and Bruni (1967). An equal number of scales were chosen for each factor: Evaluation, Potency and Activity. The scales and con— cepts are listed in Appendix A. Scales were presented in random order for each concept and the direction of the positive and negative poles of each scale was also left to random process. 3O Osgood's D statistic is a very stable measure. Norman (1959) reported a test—retest coefficient of .97. Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale The measure of anxiety used in this study was the Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale developed by Janet Taylor Spence from the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inven- tory. Fifty items which differentiated normal subjects on the basis of high and low anxiety comprised the scorable items. Key items are listed in Appendix B. Key items are interspersed between "buffer" items, also taken from the MMPI. Only the original items of the MAS scale were used since this MAS scale is the most frequently used in the reported research. The MAS is closely related to Welsh's A Spalg also derived from the MMPI, Dahlstrom and Welsh (1960). Spielberger (1960) reports that the MAS correlates .85 with Cattel and Sheier's trait-anxiety factor. Taylor (1953) reports a test- retest coefficient of .82. Inventory of Feminine Values The Inventory of Feminine Values was developed by Alexandra Botwin (1955). It was developed as a measure of female activity-passivity° The inventory consists of 3A statements expressing a particular value or value judgment related to women's activities. Seventeen of the items are considered to provide the respondent with the 31 opportunity to delineate a passive woman, i.e., a woman who sees her own satisfactions coming second after her husband's and family, who sees family responsibilities as taking precedence over career activities. Seventeen items are considered to delineate an active woman, one who sees her satisfactions as equally important with those of husband and family and who wishes to have oppor- tunities to realize and use her abilities and skills. The items are alternated in pairs on the instrument and scoring is done on each set of 17 items. The score obtained represents the difference in strength of agree- ment on each pair of items. Positive scores between 0 and +68 represent varying degrees of passive orientation and negative scores between 0 and -68 represent varying degrees of active orientation. The Spearman-Brown split-half reliability coeffi- cient has been estimated by Botwin (1955) and was .81. The items were also submitted to judges, inter—judge agreement was determined, and the correlation coefficient was .89. Edwards: Social Desirability Scale The Edwards' Social Desirability Scale was used as a means of obtaining a score for tendency to respond to self-report personality inventories in terms of the social desirability of the items. The scale was derived by 32 Edwards (1957) from the Minnesota Multiphasic Person- ality Inventory. It consists of 39 items, some of which overlap somewhat with other MMPI scales. Edwards (1957) reports a Spearman-Brown, corrected, split-half, reliability coefficient of .83. He also reports that the scale correlates with the Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale--.8A for 192 male and female college students. Procedure Each subject filled out a Biographical Information Questionnaire developed by the writer to obtain infor- mation relating to marital status, age, education, and occupation both of the student and her parents. A copy of the Questionnaire is given in Appendix C. The ques- tionnaire was filled out prior to the subjects' filling out the tests of the study. The four instruments used in this study were com- bined into packets and distributed to each student. Order of the four was varied systematically in order to control for response set from instrument to instrument. Each subject rated herself and her parents on a series of 7-point scales, a form of the semantic differ- ential. A copy of the particular form of the semantic differential used in this study is given in Appendix D. 33 Subjects filled out the Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale in order to obtain the anxiety measure for this study. The Inventory of Feminine Values was also filled out by each subject under two conditions. The condition ME, which was filled out as they actually saw themselves, and the condition IDEAL WOMAN, filled out as they per- ceived her to be. Finally each subject was given the Edwards' Social Desirability Scale as a check on her tendency to give socially desirable responses to person- ality inventories. All of the instruments are presented in Appendix D. Subjects in the married and career group and non- married and career group were given the test packets after their respective class sessions and instructed to return them in their next scheduled class session. Some 90 per cent complied with this request. The subjects in married and noncareer subsample received their study materials through the mail. They were requested to return these materials as soon as possible. 80 per cent returned the test materials within one week. Statistical Hypotheses Four hypotheses were developed from theory as discussed in Chapter I, "The Problem." These are pre- sented below in null and alternate form together with a brief statement of the underlying rationale. 3A The hypothesis concerning the relationship between identity diffusion and three possible adult female sex- roles: H No significant differences exist between degree of identity diffusion as measured by a semantic differential similarity score for the criterion sex-role groups: married and noncareer, married and career and nonmarried and career. 01 H There will be significantly more diffusion as measured by semantic differential similarity scores for non-married and career women, than for married and career and married and non- career women. Rationale:-—This hypothesis is derived from theory. Since the role, married and noncareer, appears to be the most consistently rewarded sex-role for women-and one which the wider culture sees as most appropriate for adult women, it would be expected that these women are least subject to contradictory prescriptions from the culture and compete the least with male roles and status. The group, married and career, are expected to rank next, with less diffusion, since they are engaged in the culturally accepted sex-role of marriage. However they would be considered to be more diffuse in identity than married and noncareer women because they are engaged in the pursuit of a career, which is less socially accep- table. The Sex-role criterion group, nonmarried and career, would be expected to be the most diffuse, i.e., having the least clear identity, because they in effect, 35 are denying the main and most culturally expected adult female sex-role, marriage. In addition,being engaged in a career brings this group into open competition with male sex-roles as they are conceived in our culture. The hypothesis concerning the personality corre- late, anxiety, and its relationship to the three possible adult female sex-roles, married and noncareer, married and career, and nonmarried and career: H02 No significant differences will be found in anxiety as measured by the Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale, between the criterions groups: married and noncareer, married and career, and nonmarried and career. 2 Nonmarried and career women will obtain significantly higher anxiety scores as measured by the Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale, than married and career and married and noncareer women. Rationale:-—Since the sex-role, nonmarried and career appears to be the least acceptable adult female sex-role in our society and is most often described as being neurotic and unfulfilled, it is expected that women engaged in this role will be the most subject to negative cultural reinforcement. As noted by Sanford (1966), not conforming to the wider society's prescrip- tions as to acceptable sex-role performance is likely to cause the individual a good deal of conflict. It is expected that this conflict will be expressed as anxiety. Although married and career women are somewhat in conflict with the wider cultural prescriptions regarding adult female sex—roles, it is expected that since they are married, they are less open to negative reinforce- ment. The working mother is much more acceptable in recent years. It is predicted that this sex—role will be less anxious than the nonmarried and career group. Since they are engaged in the most acceptable sex-role, mar- riage alone, married and noncareer, it is expected that women in this sex-role will be less conflicted and there- fore, least anxious. The hypothesis concerning the relationship between the activity—passivity dimension and adult female sex- roles: HO3 There will be no differences between the three female sex-roles: married and non- career, married and career and nonmarried and career on the activity-passivity dimen- sion as measured by the Botwin Inventory of Feminine Values. H Married and noncareer women will describe themselves as significantly more passive in the Inventory of Feminine Values, under the condition, ME, and married and career and nonmarried and career women will describe themselves as respectively, sig- nificantly more active. Rationale:-—This hypothesis is derived partly from research and partly from extension of theory concerning behavior in sex-roles. Both Botwin (1955) and Steinmann pp a1; (196A) using the Inventory of Feminine Values found that when college women described themselves on the inventory, they saw themselves as much more active than 37 the Ideal Woman, or the woman they saw as the Male Ideal. Since the passive dimension on this inventory most appropriately fits as a description of the married and noncareer woman, i.e., a woman who sees her own needs as coming second after her husband's and family, it was expected that this group would obtain the most passive scores on the Inventory. Since the married and career group were compromising, i.e., engaged in a career as well as marriage, it was expected that they would score as more active, than the married and noncareer group, but less so than the nonmarried and career group who are most in competition with male sex-roles, and in the sex- role which allows most expression of their personal interests and skills (active as defined by the Botwin Inventory). H03a There will be no differences between the three adult sex-role criterion groups; married and noncareer, married and career, and nonmarried and career on the activity-passivity dimension, as measured by the Botwin Inventory of Feminine Values, under the condition of Ideal Woman. H3a Under the condition, Ideal Woman, married and noncareer women will describe this woman as active on the activity-passivity dimension as measured by the Botwin In- ventory of Feminine Values, and married and career and nonmarried and career women will describe her as more passive. 38 Rationale:--Again the reasoning underlying this hypothesis is based on the research reported by Botwin (1955) and Steinmann 33 a1. (196A) using the Botwin Inventory. In both studies, women when asked to describe what they considered to be the Ideal Woman in terms of activity—passivity saw her as more passive than them- selves. These authors comment that they believe the women were responding in terms of the cultural stereo- type of what a woman should be. This woman would be concerned with the needs of her husband and children before her own needs. She would thus be more passive. It is expected that since married and career women and nonmarried and career women are actually engaged in careers which are more active as measured by the Botwin Inventory as well as more competitive as viewed by society, they will react to what they think the Ideal Woman to be, i.e., more passive in line with the more acceptable cultural stereotype. It is expected that the married and noncareer woman will respond in a manner similar to the women in the Botwin and Steinmann studies, i.e., see the Ideal Woman as more active. H0” There will be no differences between the three adult female sex-role criterion groups: married and noncareer, married and career and nonmarried and career in tenden- cies to respond in a socially desirable manner, as measured by the Edward's Social Desirability Scale. 39 HA Married and noncareer will obtain signif- icantly higher scores on the Edwards' Social Desirability Scale, than married and career and nonmarried and career. Rationale:--The rationale underlying this hypoth— esis is somewhat of an extension of some of Edwards' theorizing (1957) concerning tendencies to give socially desirable responses. Edwards in commenting on the fact that persons who score high on measures of anxiety, usually score low on social desirability, inter- preted this finding to mean that these subjects were not concerned with the social value of the questions they answered. It is possible to extend this notion to the social desirability of sex-roles, i.e., those which are more socially acceptable will also contain persons who will tend to respond in terms of the social desirability of personality questionnaires since they may be more concerned with conforming to social prescriptions. And the reverse would then obtain for those subjects in the less socially acceptable roles, e.g., married and career and even more so for nonmarried and career. Analysis of the Data The hypotheses developed in this study predicted relationships between criterion groups and personality measures. Since in effect these were predictions about differences between the criterion group means on the personality measures, it was considered that one-way A0 analysis of variance would be the most efficient and powerful statistical test. Kerlinger (196“) comments on the fact that analysis of variance as a statistical tool is very sensitive to any possible differences between groups. Because of the bias of this sample, there was concern as to the validity of using analysis of variance techniques since basic assumptions for using the tech— nique are violated. Hays (1963) lists the assumptions underlying the fixed effects models (one-way analysis of variance) as being: (a) the error variance for all treatment populations must be normally distributed, (b) the errors must be normally distributed, and (0) there must be statistical independence among the error compo- nents. The possibility of the three subsamples being from different populations would invalidate the use of the analysis of variance technique. Bartlett's test for homogeneity of variance was computed for all three criterion groups on obtained variances for the four per- sonality measures. The one case where the variances were not homogeneous, was analyzed using the Student's "t." The possibility of nonindependent error variances is lessened by the fact that different measures are used only once with the three groups. A1 In the exploratory phase of this study both one-way and two-way analysis of variance is performed. The two- way analysis of variance was done in order to investigate possible interactions between test variables W The objective of this study was to determine the relationship between sex—roles and identification and other personality correlates. The sample consisted of 96 adult females, who met the criteria of three adult sex-role groups: married and noncareer, married and career, and nonmarried and career. Each group contained 32 subjects. These three groups were then compared as to degree of identification with parents, anxiety, activity-passivity and tendencies to give socially desirable responses. The data were analyzed in two stages, the predictive stage used one-way analysis of variance and the Student's "t" to estimate relationships, the exploratory phase using two-way analysis of variance and the Student's "t" to determine further relationships between variables. Significance was set at the .05 level. The results of the study, obtained according to the design developed in this chapter, are reported in Chapter IV, "Analysis of the Data." CHAPTER IV ANALYSIS OF THE RESULTS In Chapter IV is presented an analysis of the results based on the methodological approach and statis- tical treatments stated in Chapter 111, "Design of the Study." The analysis consisted of two phases. In the predictive phase four hypotheses concerning the rela- tionships between adult female sex—roles and identifi- cation and other personality variables were tested for statistical significance. In the exploratory phase unpredicted but statisti- cally significant relationships were identified. Possible variables other than sex-role were related to personality variables such as activity-passivity and anxiety. In this chapter results of the predictive phase are presented, followed by a discussion of those results. This is followed by a presentation of the results of the exploratory phase of the study with a discussion of those results. A summary of the analyses and discussions con- cludes this chapter. A2 as. ..— Results of the Predictive Phase of the Study As a measure of diffusion, mean similarity scores were obtained for each subject. Although Osgood's three factors, Evaluation, Potency and Activity were used, they were not scored individually. All three were combined to yield a combined D for the two concept pairs, Me-Mother and Me-Father. Mean Similarity scores obtained for the three subsamples, married and noncareer, married and career and nonmarried and career, for assumed similarity between the subject and mother and the subject and father were not significantly different. The mean D's are also not significantly different within the three groups between Me—Mother and Me-Father. The data for these differences are reported in Table 2. TABLE 2.--Mean similarity scores for the concepts Me- Mother and Me-Father for the subsamples: married and non- career (n=32), married and career (n=32), and nonmarried and career (n=32). Married and Married and Nonmarried Noncareer Career and Career Mean D "t" Mean D "t" Mean D "t" Me-Mother 7.66 1.A3 5.A3 .26 A.79 .29 Me-Father 5.2A 5.98 5.25 AA Hypothesis 1 predicted that married and career women would obtain significantly greater D scores (greater diffusion) on a semantic differential than married and noncareer women, and that nonmarried and career women would obtain significantly greater D scores than both married and noncareer and married and career women. Analysis of variance for married and noncareer, married and career and nonmarried and career groups for the con- cepts Me-Mother was carried out as a test of Hypothesis 1. The data are reported in Table 3. TABLE 3.--Summary of the analysis of variance of simi- larity scores for Me-Mother across groups: married and noncareer (n=32), married and career (n=32), and non- married and career (n=32). Sum of Mean Source Squares df Squares F Between 1A5 2 72 5 F2 03 2/93df n 8 Groups ° . , . . Within Groups 332 93 35-7 Total A77 95 The analysis shows no significant difference between the groups in terms of mean similarity for the concept Me-Mother. The obtained F2.03 with 2 and 93 degrees of freedom is nonsignificant. Similarly an analysis of variance for the groups; married and noncareer, married and career and nonmarried A5 and career for mean similarity scores for the concepts, Me—Father was done. The data are reported in Table A. TABLE A.--Summary of the analysis of variance for simi- larity scores for Me-Father across subsamples: married and noncareer (n=32), married and career (n=32) and nonmarried and career (n=32). Sum of Mean Source Squares df Squares F Between 11 2 5 50 F 97 2/93 df n 8 Groups ° ' ’ ' ' Within Groups 5'26 93 5'70 Total 537 95 The results indicate that there are no significant differences between mean similarity scores for the groups: married and noncareer, married and career and nonmarried and career. The obtained F .97 with 2 and 93 degrees of freedom is nonsignificant. The results obtained for the analyses of variance for both concepts Me-Mother and Me-Father for the three groups are not significant and consequently Hypothesis I is rejected. In Hypothesis II it was predicted that there would be significantly greater differences in anxiety as measured by the Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale between the three subsamples. Specifically it was hypothesized that married and career women would obtain significantly A6 greater MAS scores than the married and noncareer women and that the nonmarried and career group would obtain the highest MAS scores of the three. The three groups obtained the following means: married and noncareer, 25.87 with a standard deviation of A.06, married and career 26.28 with a s. d. equal to 2.73 and nonmarried and career, 26.72 and a s. d. of 3.38. The obtained variances for the groups were: married and noncareer, l6.A8, married and career, 7.51 and nonmarried and career,1l.57. Since there was a large difference between the variances of the two subsamples married and noncareer and married and career Bartlett's test for homogeneity of variance was performed. An F of 1.674 with 31 and 31 degrees of freedom was obtained and is not significant, indicating that the variances are not sig- nificantly different and can be considered to have come from the same population. An analysis of variance was done to test Hypothesis II for groups by MAS scores. The analysis is reported in Table 5. The three subsamples do not differ significantly from each other in terms of anxiety as measured by the MAS. The obtained F .A7 with 2 and 93 degrees of freedom is nonsignificant. Hypothesis II is not bourne out and rejected. A7 TABLE 5.--Summary of analysis of variance for Taylor Mani- fest Anxiety Scale scores across subsamples: married and noncareer (n=32), married and career (n=32) and nonmarried and career (n=32). ‘A‘ Sum of Mean Source Squares df Squares F Between 11 A0 2 5 70 F A7 2/93 df n 5 Groups ' . . ’ , . . Within Groups 1138.141: 33 12.214 Total 11A9.8A 95 It was predicted in Hypothesis III that married and noncareer subjects would see themselves as more passive and would obtain significantly more passive (positive) scores on the Inventory of Feminine Values on the condi- tion ME, on the IFV under this condition than married and career women. The three obtained mean scores under the condition ME,cm1the IFV are-2.22, married and non- career; —5.A6, married and career, and -2.8A, nonmarried and career, with respective standard deviations of: 3.36, 5.79 and 9.26. The variances for the three sub- samples are as follows: married and noncareer, A0.77; married and career, 33.92; and nonmarried and career, 85.92. The obtained variance for the group, nonmarried and career is almost twice the variance of the married and noncareer group. The question of homogeneity of variance was an important one and Bartlett's test was A8 run. This test yielded an F of 2.25 for 31 and 31 degrees of freedom. Since the variances were not homogenous, an anal- ysis of variance could not be done to test Hypothesis III. Instead "t" tests were run on the means of the three sub- samples. The results are given in Table 6. TABLE 6.--Summary of "t" tests between Inventory of Feminine Values mean scores under the condition ME, for subsamples: married and noncareer, married and career, and nonmarried and career (N=96). Mean Subsample Score "t" n 1223123 :23 SEES?” 22:3? #0531 df- = “5* 33 liiiiiiiifidafifinéiiiii 232% 305,31 df- = 1 : M 33 Ngigiigiggdaggrgzieer :2I8A t.05’3l df' = “'29* 32 *Significant beyond .05 level. The obtained "t" between the subsample groups; married and noncareer and married and career, with n=32 in each group, was 6.75, and is significant with 31 degrees of freedom at beyond the 5 per cent level of confidence. While the "t" of l. with 31 degrees of freedom and n=32 in each of the subsamples; married and noncareer and nonmarried and career is nonsignificant. Between the subsamples; married and nonmarried and career, the obtained "t" is A.29, with 31 degrees of A9 freedom and an n=32 in each of the two groups. This "t" is again significant at the 5 per cent level of confi- dence. As a subhypothesis of Hypothesis III, the predic- tion was made that under the condition IDEAL WOMAN, married and career women would obtain significantly higher active scores, than married and noncareer women, and that the nonmarried and career would obtain the most signifi- cantly larger scores on the active dimension of the IFV. Under this condition, the married and noncareer women obtained a mean IFV score of .AA with a variance of 63.86 and a standard deviation of 7.97, the married and career women obtained a mean of -2.78 with a variance of 85.66 and standard deviation of 9.2A and the nonmarried and career women obtained a mean of .28, variance of 78.95 and a standard deviation of 8.87. Again, there is a large difference between variances for the group married and career and this time, married and noncareer. Bart- lett's test for homogeneity of variance was done to test whether these obtained differences in variance were sig- nificant. An F equal to 1.3A with 31 and 31 degrees of freedom was obtained and is nonsignificant. Summaries in table form of the data for both conditions are reported in Appendix E. An analysis of variance for IFV mean scores under the condition IDEAL WOMAN was done to test Subhypothesis III. The data are reported in Table 7. TABLE 7.--Summary of the analysis of variance of Inven- tory of Feminine Values means for groups: married and noncareer (n=32), married and career (n=32), and non- married and career (n=32). IDEAL WOMAN ' Sum Of Mean Source Squares df Squares F Between Groups “0 2 20 F .AO, 2/93 df, n.s. Within Groups 7’505 33 80-6 Total 7,5A5 95 The obtained F .A0 with 2 and 93 degrees of freedom is nonsignificant indicating that there are no differ- ences between the groups on activity-passivity under the condition IDEAL WOMAN. Subhypothesis III is not con- firmed and is rejected. Hypothesis IV predicted that married and noncareer women would obtain a significantly higher mean score on the Edwards' Social Desirability Scale than married and career women, and that nonmarried and career women would obtain the lowest ESDS mean score of the three subsamples. The data by subsample is as follows: married and non- career, mean equal to 19.03, variance 16.21, s.d. A.02; married and career, mean 17.08, variance equal to A2.59 ., 51 and s.d. equal to 6.50, and nonmarried and career, mean equals 17.88, variance 9.67 and s.d. equals 3.08. The married and career group again obtains a very large variance on this test, which indicated that as a group they are very heterogenous. However, Bartlett's test 'yields an F 1.67 with 31 and 31 degrees of freedom, which is nonsignificant. Although the married and career groups variance is very high, the variance is not sig- nificantly different. To test the hypothesis of differences between the three subsamples on mean ESDS scores an analysis of variance was carried out. The data are reported in Table 8. TABLE 8.--Summary of the analysis of variance for Edwards' Social Desirability mean scores for subsamples: married and noncareer (n=32), married and career (n=32) and non- married and career (n=32). Sum of Mean Source Squares df Squares F Between Groups 62 2 31 F 2.23, 2/93 df, n.s. Within Groups 1,317 33 lA.l6 Total 1,379 95 The obtained F 2.23 with 2 and 93 degrees of freedom does approach significance. However the hypothesis that there are significant differences between the groups 52 in mean ESDS scores is not confirmed, and Hypothesis IV is rejected. Discussion The results of the predictive phase of the study are discussed first. Results of the exploratory phase and a discussion of those results follows. The Predictive Phase Of the four hypotheses tested in the predictive phase of the study, one was partially supported and three were not. The results relevant to each hypothesis are discussed below. H There will be significantly more diffusion as measured by a semantic differential simi- larity score for nonmarried and career women, than for married and career and married and noncareer women . 1 This relationship was predicted because of the dif- ferences in social reinforcement of the three sex-roles. It was expected that because the role of married and non- career was most consistently upheld as the proper role for women, that there would be the least confusion as to appropriate behaviors and therefore a clearer sense of identity. This hypothesis was rejected. There were no differences between the three groups; married and non- career, married and career and nonmarried and career in diffusion as measured by semantic differential similarity scores for either mother or father. These results are 53 comparable to the findings of Lazowick (1955), Heilbrun (1965), and Shell 3: a1. (196A). These writers found no differences in the identification of females with either same-sexed or opposite—sexed parent. It is possible to question the role of parental identification in adult females. Inspection of Appendix E, which gives a summary of the semantic differential findings for the three groups, shows that none of the obtained mean scores for either Mother or for Father are relatively large. When the variances for the D scores for Me-Mother are examined, the married and noncareer group obtains the lowest; 11.65. This indicates that as a group, married and noncareer women were the most homogeneous in their similarity scores. Yet this subgroup obtains the largest D score for similarity between Me-Mother of the three groups, indicating that relative to the other groups, they see themselves the least similar to mother. The small D scores for both similarity to mother and to father for the groups; married and noncareer, married and career, and nonmarried and career may be a reflection of the relative importance of similarity to parents for adult women. It is possible that parental identification is so early in development or replaced for instance, in adolescence, that it is of little importance in adult identity. This possibility is discussed further in the discussion of the findings of the exploratory phase of the study. 5A 2 Nonmarried and career women will obtain sig- nificantly higher anxiety scores as measured by the Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale, than married and career and married and noncareer. This directional hypothesis regarding differences in anxiety scores was predicted on the basis of the social reinforcement for the three sex-roles. Since the sex- role, married and noncareer, is most often considered EBB role for adult women, it was expected that these women would experience the least conflict in their identities and thus would exhibit less anxiety. Though-the married and career women were involved in a career, which is less acceptable, it was hypothesized that since they are also married, they were less open to negative social rein- forcement. It was therefore expected they would exper- ience more anxiety than the married and noncareer group. The nonmarried and career were considered to be most open to negative reinforcement since they were not ful- filling the most acceptable role for women, marriage, and in addition were engaged in a career, which would bring them into competition with males. It was expected they would exhibit the most anxiety, since they are in the least societally acceptable role. The results showed no dif- ferences between the three groups in anxiety scores. It is possible that Sanford (1966) and Botwin (1955) were borne out here. Both writers discuss the fact that there are so many inconsistent attitudes and contradic- tions regarding adult female sex-roles as to engender conflict in women engaged in them. It would then be possible to say that all of the three sex—roles studied here are conflictful ones, and leave the women engaged 1J1 them anxious, rather than reducing anxiety, through helping them to define their identities. Kagan (196A) comments on the fact that doubts about sex-roles, cause a great deal of conflict. H3 Married and noncareer women will describe themselves as significantly more passive on the Inventory of Feminine Values, under the condition ME, and married and career and nonmarried and career women will describe themselves respectively as more active. This hypothesis was derived as a result of the dimensions measured by the Botwin Inventory and theory regarding sex-roles. It was expected that since married and noncareer women most accurately reflected the passive woman, as delineated by the Inventory, that they would describe themselves in this manner. Since married and career women were married, it was expected they would describe themselves as somewhat passive, but since they were also engaged in a career, more active in their descriptions of themselves than the married and noncareer described themselves. The nonmarried and career were expected to describe themselves as most active, since they most accurately fit the description of an active woman, as measured by the Inventory of Feminine Values. 56 This hypothesis was partially borne out. The married and career women did describe themselves as more active than the married and noncareer group. They also described themselves as more active than the nonmarried and career subsample. The married and noncareer and non- married and career groups did not describe themselves as more active than each other, i.e., there were no dif- ferences in how active they described themselves. Inspec- tion of Appendix E shows that with a possible range of scores from -68 to +68, the mean scores for the three groups were between 2.00 and about 5.50 in the negative direction. This indicates according to Steinmann's method of interpreting the Feminine Inventory (196A), that these women see themselves almost equally active and passive. That is they tend to seem themselves as being both inter- ested in family and husband and their own needs and satis- factions. This finding may also help to interpret the anxiety scores obtained in this study. It may be that these women, regardless of the sex-roles they are engaged in, are attempting to compromise between active and passive roles and that we are again dealing with conflict- engendering sex-roles. H3 Under the condition, Ideal Woman, married and noncareer women will describe this woman as more active on the activity-passivity dimen- sion, as measured by the Botwin Inventory of Feminine Values, and married and career and nonmarried and career women will describe this woman as more passive. This prediction was made on the basis of the research findings of Botwin (1955), and Steinmann (196A). These researchers attempted to investigate the cultural stereo- types of the women studied, regarding what the Ideal Woman would be in terms of activity-passivity. It was expected that married and noncareer women would see her as more active as a reaction to the passivity required of them in their sex-role. It was further expected that married and career women would respond more in terms of the cultural stereotype of what a woman should be, i.e., quite passive. There were no significant differences between the three groups; married and noncareer, married and career, and nonmarried and career. Inspection of Appendix E, again shows that the mean scores obtained by the three groups are quite close to the center, 0, of the negative to positive continuum. Here, as with their descriptions of themselves, they described the Ideal Woman as being about equally passive and active. It would appear that under this condition, they again attempted to describe a woman who compromised between the needs of a family and children and self-assertive and fulfilling needs. HA Married and noncareer women will obtain sig- nificantly higher scores on the Edwards' Social Desirability Scale, than married and career and nonmarried and career women. This expectation was based on an extension of Edwards (1957) discussion of the inverse relationship between social desirability response tendencies and 58 scores on the Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale. Edwards theorized that one might be able to predict scores on other tests on the basis of how socially approved or valued the behavior in question was. Since most theo- rists see the married and noncareer female sex-role as the most socially approved, it was an extension of Edwards notions, to predict that women in this role would tend to give the most socially desirable responses. Married and career and nonmarried and career would give less socially desirable responses respectively. The prediction was not borne out. There were no significant differences between the subsamples. However, the F ratio did approach significance. The obtained F was 2.23, and an F of 3.09 was needed for significance at the 5 per cent level of confidence, with 2/92 degrees of freedom. As can be noted in appendix E, the mean of the married and noncareer subsample was higher than the means for married and career and nonmarried and career sub- samples. The difference was not Significant however as noted. Again the married and career groups' variance was large, indicating that as a group, these women are quite heterogeneous compared to the married and noncareer and nonmarried and career groups. It appears that these women do not differ as a result of being engaged in a particular sex-role as regards tendencies to respond in a socially desirable manner. The mean scores are comparable to mean scores reported by Edwards for college males and females, i.e., mean score equals 19 (1957). Edwards does not interpret this mean score as high tendency to respond in a socially desirable manner. Indirectly these obtained means for the three groups on the ESDS, lends support for the accuracy of the manifest anxiety scores, since it would appear to rule out the social desirability of the items, as a factor in responding to the Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale. In general the results of the analyses of the hypothesized relationships between inferred identification and the personality correlates of anxiety, feminine activ- ity-passivity, social desirability response tendencies and adult female sex-roles taken singly, showed no significant relationships. Specifically there were no differences between the sex—roles in assumed similarity scores for either mother or father. In addition, sex-roles as specified in this study, do not appear to differentiate women in terms of anxiety, activity-passivity, and social desirability response tendencies. The Exploratory Phase Three significant relationships, which were unpre- dicted were found in the exploratory phase of this study. These statistically significant relationships are reported here because they seem to be of importance to further investigation of theory and to suggest further research. The hypotheses were concerned with the variables of anxiety, social desirability response tendencies and identification, and the activity—passivity dimension and anxiety. In exploring these variables, sex—role as a criterion variable was not used. Instead, the total sample of 96 adult women were broken down into groups for comparison purposes on the basis of obtained scores on anxiety, activity-passivity and social desirability scores. In an attempt to investigate other variables besides sex-role, further analyses were carried out. In these analyses sex-role was not used as a criterion in separating the sample. Since neither sex-role or identification differ- entiated in terms of anxiety, a further test using the dimension of activity-passivity as a criterion was done. The sample was split into upper and lower thirds on the basis of scores on the Inventory of Feminine Values. The upper third consisted of high active scores and the lower third, low passive. The groups were then compared on the basis of obtained Manifest Anxiety scores. Each group had an n=32. The means for the High-Active and Low- Passive were 25.62 and 27.A1 respectively. The passive group obtained a variance of 9.99, and the active group's variance was 13.73. A "t" test was done on the obtained means and was 2.13 with 31 degrees of freedom. This "t" 61 was significant at .05 level of confidence. This means that when the sample of women is separated on the basis of activity-passivity, the more passive women tend to be more anxious. Since this inventory seems to be tapping attitudinal dimensions towards femininity and therefore intra-psychic variables, this may be a more meaninfgul dimension for predicting another intra-psychic trait, i.e., manifest anxiety. (See Appendix F) Because of the age differences in the three sub- samples (See Table 1, page 27)), the possibility of age as a factor in the degree of activity-passivity was sus- pect. The two groups: upper third, active,and lower third, passive with n=32 each,were compared as to age. The mean age for active is 26.37 and for passive, the mean age is 26.59 years. Inspection of Appendix G shows that for both active and passive groups, teacher, as an occupation, comprises the largest percentages of both groups. The occupation, teacher, does not seem to be a significant factor in differentiating the sample on the dimension of activity-passivity. A breakdown of the active and passive groups by sex-roles shows that for the active group, the three sex- roles are fairly evenly represented, while for the passive group, the percentage of women who are nonmarried and career is somewhat larger. It may be that this sex—role 62 requires that a woman be more passive, i.e., noncom- petitive and self—oriented, in order to be more desirable as a potential marriage partner. In further examining the data regarding the MAS scores, Edwards' statements regarding an inverse relation- ship between Taylor Manifest Anxiety scores and Edwards' Social Desirability scores was investigated. In order to test possible relationships between anxiety scores, social desirability scores and similarity scores, several splits in the data were made. Scores on the MAS were dichotomized at the median. Scores above the median were labeled high anxiety and scores below the median, low anxiety. The same dichotomi— zation was carried out with ESDS scores, yielding high social desirability and low social desirability. 0n the basis of these dichotomizations, four groups with an n of 2A each were derived, high anxiety—high social desirability, high anxiety- low social desirability, and low anxiety—high social desir- ability, and low anxiety—low social desirability. These four groups were then compared on their obtained similarity scores for Me—Mother and Me-Father. An analysis of variance across groups for both concepts was done. The results are reported in Appendix H. When anxiety and social desir- ability amecombined there are no effects for anxiety. That is, anxiety is not a significant variable affecting similarity scores for the women in this sample. This finding is comparable to Mueller's (1966) who found in 63 comparing male and female subjects on a semantic differ— ential, using anxiety as a criterion measure, that anxiety was not a significant factor affecting the simi- larity scores of his female subjects. The age range and average age of this sample is higher and older than Mueller's. Anxiety does not affect similarity scores for either Me-Mother or Me—Father. The most significant finding in this analysis was that social desirability scores do account for differ- ences in the assumed similarity measures. This was the case for both Me-Mother and Me-Father. The F 3.95 with l and 92 degrees of freedom for the analysis of variance of the four groups and similarity scores for Me-Mother is significant at the .05 level of confidence. The F 8.55 with 1 and 92 degrees of freedom for rows (social desirability scores) is significant again at beyond the .05 level of confidence (see Appendix H). Ford and Meisels (1965) found a high correlation between semantic differential similarity scores and social desirability scores. These authors state that there is good reason to question whether the semantic differential is tapping a social evaluative dimension. In order to investigate whether there would be differences between subjects obtaining high social desir- ability scores and low social desirability scores and the respective similarity scores, the mean dichotomy between 6A high and low scores was used, i.e., splitting at the median. These two groups of A8 each were then compared on the basis of their obtained mean dissimilarity scorers, for Me-Mother and Me—Father. The "t" test was used for comparison. The obtained "t" between the similarity score means for the groups high social desirability and low social desirability for Me—Mother was A.53, with A7 degrees of freedom. It is significant at the .01 level of confidence. The "t" between the means of the simi- larity scores for Me—Father for high social desira- bility and low social desirability was A.57, with A7 degrees of freedom and again is significant at the .01 level. The data are reported in table form in Appendix H. This finding indicates that when high and low social desirability groups are differentiated, the low social desirability scorers obtain the larger similarity scorers. It would appear that the low social desirability scores do not respond to the semantic differential on the basis of the social desirability of the scales. It would also seem to indicate that persons who do not respond to the semantic differential in terms of the social evaluative dimension of the scales tend to see themselves as dif- ferent from their parents. The lack of relationship between level of anxiety (high or low anxiety) as measured by the MAS, and high or low scores on the ESDS, as well as the lack of interaction 65 between these variables, does not bear out Edwards' (1957) posited inverse relationship between scores on the two scales in this study. Summary In this chapter the results of the study were reported and discussed. Results were analyzed in two phases; the predictive and the exploratory. In the predictive phase four hypotheses regarding relationships between three adult female sex-roles; married and non- career, married and career, and nonmarried and career, were tested and the results given. It was found that there were no significant differences between the three subsamples in regards to identification scores, anxiety scores, activity—passivity scores, and social desira- bility scores. These results were discussed in terms of the relevance of assumed similarity scores to adult female identification. The activity-passsivity dimen- sion not only was not differentiated by sex-roles, but seemed to be the compromise measure of this study, i.e., the women tended to be equally active and passive. The three groups did not differ in terms of anxiety scores and it was noted that Sanford and others have commented that adult female sex-roles do engender conflict. There were no differences between the subsamples in tendency to respond in a socially desirable manner to personality 66 questionnaires. The obtained mean scores tended to lend validity to the obtained anxiety scores. The exploratory phase of the study results in the finding of three statistically significant relation- ships. These results were given and discussed. It was found that when the sample was dichotomized along other variables instead of sex-roles, that the variables of activity—passivity and social desirability did account for differences in anxiety and identification measures. When the sample was dichotomized into high active and low passive, it was found that the passive group were significantly more anxious. When the sample was dichotomized into high anxious-high social desirability reSponses, high anxious-low social desirability responses, low anxious—high social desirability responses, and low anxious-low social desirability responses, and compared on the basis of mean similarity scores for Me-Mother and Me-Father, it was found that the groups differed in terms of high and low social desirability response tendencies but not in terms of high or low anxiety. Low social desira- bility response tendencies were considered to best predict large dissimilarity scores. This finding was con- sidered to have important implications for identification research. In the following chapter the study is summarized, conclusions based upon the results are given, and implica- tions for future research are suggested. CHAPTER V SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND IMPLICATIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH Summary This study was an attempt to demonstrate that adult female identity diffusion is a function of adult sex-roles. Specifically it was proposed that the rela- tive degree of identity diffusion, as well as certain personality correlates, would be a function of specific sex-roles and their combinations. Three gorups, each composed of 32 adult women, were selected on the basis of fitting the sex—role criteria of three possible adult female sex-roles: married and noncareer, married and career and nonmarried and career. The subjects in each group were adminis- tered a form of the semantic differential, the Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale, the Inventory of Feminine Values, and the Edwards' Social Desirability Scale. It was expected that married and noncareer women would exhibit less identity diffusion than married and career women and that nonmarried and career women would exhibit the most diffusion because of cultural prescrip- tions regarding these roles. No differences were found between these groups and the prediction was not confirmed. 67 68 Because cultural prescriptions in regard to sex roles are contradictory, it was predicted that conflict about sex—roles would engender anxiety and that there would be measurable differences between these groups in anxiety, especially for the nonmarried and career sub- sample. No differences between groups were found on the anxiety measure and this prediction was not confirmed. It was predicted that the dimension of feminine activity-passivity was very closely related to identity in adult women and that women in the married and non- career role would see themselves as more passive than either the married and career or nonmarried and career women, who would see themselves as active. The reverse was expected when these women rated the Ideal Woman. Here it was predicted that the married and noncareer women would see the Ideal Woman as more active, the married and career group seeing her as more passive and the nonmarried and career, most passive. Neither of these prediction was borne out. Because of differences in the social acceptability of these three sex-roles, it was expected that there would be differences in the social desirability responses among the groups. Since cultural stereotypes seem to more consistently reinforce the married and noncareer role it was predicted that this group would give the most socially desirable responses, married and career would 69 rank next, and nonmarried and career would give the least number of such responses. The hypothesis was not confirmed. Further analyses of the data were conducted in an attempt to find other variables relating to identity diffusion instead of sex-role. Activity—Passivity was found to be a significant variable related to anxiety in the women studied, with passive women being the more anxious. Age was not found to be related to the activ— ity-passivity dimension. The most significant finding of the further analyses was that social desirability response tendencies were the best predictors of ob- tained similarity scores. The validity of assumed similarity scores as measures of parental identification in adolescents and adults was discussed. The importance of the assessment of parental identification in adolescents and adults was questioned. Specific questions about cultural stereo- types of adult female sex-roles warranting further research were suggested. Conclusions Within the limitations of this study imposed by the nature of the sample, the following conclusions were reached: 7O 1. Adult female sex—role, as represented in this study by three possible adult female sex-roles; married and noncareer, married and career, and nonmarried and career, does not differentiate between adult women so engaged, in terms of similarity to mother or father. 2. The three adult female sex-roles are not sig- nificantly different as to anxiety exhibited. 3. The three subsamples do not differ in terms of the activity—passivity dimension. The women of the three groups describe themselves equally active and passive. A. The women do not differ, regardless of sex- role in their tendencies to give socially desirable responses. 5. Social roles do not seem to be the criterion variable for differentiating the women in this sample as to personality traits measured. 6. Activity-passivity is related to anxiety, with passive women being the most anxious as measured by a~ manifest anxiety scale. 7. Anxiety level does not account for large dissimi- larity (diffusion) scores and therefore less identifi- cation with parents. 8. Social desirability responses do predict large dis- similarity scores. Subjects who obtain low scores on the Edwards' Social Desirability Scale obtain the largest D scores. 71 Discussion The failure in this study to find differences between the three adult female sex-roles in identity diffusion may not actually be due to a lack of differ- ences in sex-roles between the women so engaged, but a function of semantic differential similarity scores as a measure of identification. Green (196A) in his vali- dation of the semantic differential concepts: ME, My Mother and My Father with 7th and 8th grade boys and girls, found no significant findings, and seriously questions the construct validity of these concepts. There is further evidence to question the use of parental identification measures with subjects beyond early childhood. Carlson (1963) did not find parental identification to be significantly important in her study of preadolescents (ages 8 and 9). She also controlled for social desirability in her similarity measures, and failed to find that modeling after parents is signifi- cantly sex-linked. There is evidence then, to doubt the importance of, or justification from a research standpoint, of assuming primacy of parental identification in subjects over 8 or 9 years of age. Several authors, Bronfenbrenner (1958), Brodbeck (195A), Sanford (1966), and Seward (195A), argue for the importance of other adult models. Both peer models and the wider cultural models are considered much more important than parents, in adolescent and adult identification processes. There is some research evidence to suggest that adolescent girls, for instance, pattern after wider cultural models, i.e., respected teachers, movie and television personalities and fashion models (Douvan and Adelson, 1966). Lynn(fl959) suggested that the differences found in studies of differential identification between boys and girls are due to the fact that boys strongly identify with male cultural stereotypes and thus appear to be more identified with father, than girls with mother. It is quite likely that adolescent girls, and especially adult women, model after cultural stereotypes of the various, adult female sex-roles. Implications for Further Research This study has raised several questions regarding research in the area of identity, and specifically, measures of parental identification. A second area of concern is the function of sex-roles as such, in the clar- ification of identity, and whether identification with appropriate parent, is expressed in sex-role performance. Research which might clarify the above questions would be of the following kinds: First, to more appro- priately validate the findings of this study, a replica— tion of this study should be done. This replication 73 should correct for sample biases. Particularly such a study would profitably focus on the semantic differential as a similarity measure in adults, by comparing adult female responses to the positive poles of the semantic differential to those of adolescents in the manner described by Shell pp a1. (196A). Secondly, the question of the primacy, and therefore the validity of measuring parental identification in adults, is in need of research clarification. If, as Carlson (1963) suggests, parental identification is not an important variable even in preadolescent identity, then we are in need of a study which would delimit the age or developmental stage, when other identifications become more primary. This study might define ages and stages and then compare the relative weights of parental and peer and societal models of identification. These data would be of immense help in interpreting a good deal of the identification research available, as well as to clarify the relevance of parental identification to adult identity. Thirdly, identity appears to be a configuration of idiosyncratic personality variables, e.g., needs, motives, attitudes and identifications. A more direct measure of identity perhaps along the lines of an adjective check list, or Q-sort personality instrument, would help delin- eate not only what identity is about, but would help to 7A define lack of identity, i.e., identity diffusion. 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Some cultural aspects of identification. J. genet. Psychol., 195A, g3, 229-236. Shell, S. A., O'Mally, J. M. and Johnsgard, K. W. The semantic differential and identification. Psychol. Rev., 196A, 25, 5A7-558. Slater, P. E. Toward a dualistic theory of identifi- cation. Merrill Palmer Quart., 1961, 1, 113-126. Spielberger, C. D. (ed.). Anxiety and Behavior. New York: Academic Press, 1966. Steinmann, A., Levi, J., and Fox, D. J. Self concept of college women compared to their concept of Ideal Woman and men's Ideal Woman. J. Counsel. Psychol., Vol. 11, No. A., 196A, 370-376. Symonds, P. M. Dynamic Psyphology. New York: Appleton, 19A9. Taylor, J. A. A personality scale of manifest anxiety. J. abnorm. soc. Psychol., 1953, 35, 285-290. APPENDICES 80 APPENDIX A Semantic Differential Scales and Concepts 81 82 Stimulus Concepts and Rating Scales Concepts: 1. Me 2. My Mother 3. My Father Rating Scales: moving-still excitable-calm Evaluation 1. clean-dirty 2. happy-sad 3. kind-cruel A. wise-foolish 5. fair-unfair 6. valuable-worthless Potency l. strong-weak 2. heavy-light 3. rugged-delicate A. large-small 5. thick-thin 6. proud-humble Activity 1. active-passive 2. fast-slow 3. hot-cold A. sharp-dull 5. 6. APPENDIX B Key Items on the Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale 83 8A Items are from the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory and the numbering of items in that scale is given here. 50 items. True 13 1A 158 186 322 335 A31 A39 False 7 18 190 230 287 A07 23 191 337 AA2 107 2A2 523 31 217 340 A99 163 26A 528 (Taylor, 1953) A3 67 86 125 1A2 2A1 263 301 317 321 361 371 397 A18 A2A 530 5A9 555 8A APPENDIX C Biographical Information Questionnaire Used in the Study 85 86 Biographical Information DIRECTIONS: Please answer all of these questions. Do not write your name on this form. All information will be treated confidentially and will be used for research purposes only. Your marital status: (Circle one) Married Single Divorced Your Age: Number of children Your Occupation: Are you employed now? Yes No If employed, is it: Full time Part time If you are not now employed, how long has it been since you did work? years Was your work what you had been educated for? Yes No Your Education: (Circle highest year) 12 /13 /1A /15 /16,/l7./18./l9./20 /undergraduate / graduate Your mother's occupation: is she working now? Yes No If yes, full time? part i: 1 me ? Your mother's education: Your father's occupation: Your father's education: Did you live with your parents until you started college? Yes No If no, with which parent did you live? What career or vocation did your mother wish you to have? What career or vocation did your father wish you to have? If it were possible for you to go back and start preparation for a career or vocation all over again, what would you want to be? APPENDIX D Instruments Used in the Study 1. 2. 3. A. A semantic differential Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale Botwin Inventory of Feminine Values Edwards' Social Desirability Scale 87 88 Instructions The purpose of this study is to measure the meanings of certain things to various peOple by having them judge them against a series of descriptive scales. In taking this test, please make your judgments on the basis of what these things mean 39 ypp. On each page of this booklet you will find a different concept to be judged and beneath it a set of scales. You are to rate your feelings about the matters on each of these scales in order. Here is how you are to use these scales: If you feel that the concept at the top of the page is very closely related to one end of the scale, you should place your check-mark as follows: fair x : : : : : 1 : unfair or fair : : - : : : : x unfair If you feel that the concept is quite closely related to one or the other end of the scale (but not extremely), you should place your check-mark as follows: strong : x : : : : : weak or strong : : : : : x : weak If the concept seems only slightly related to one side as opposed to the other side (but is not really neutral), then you should check as follows: active : : x : . : : : passive or active : : : -: x : A : passive The direction toward which you check, of course, depends upon which of the two ends of the scale seem most character- istic to the thing you're judging. 89 If you consider the concept to be neutral on the scale, both sides of the scale equally associated with the concept, or if the scale is completely irrelevant, unrelated to the concept, then you should place your check-mark in the middle space: safe : : : x : : : dangerous IMPORTANT: (1) Place your check-marks in the middle of spaces, not on the boundaries: X: ~X THIS NOT THIS (2) Be sure you check every scale for every concept-—Qg NOT OMIT ANY. (3) Never put more than one check-mark on a single scale. Do not look back and forth through the items. Do not try to remember how you checked Similar items earlier in the test. Make each item a separate and independent judgment. Work at fairly high speed through this test. Do not worry or puzzle over individual items. It is your first impression, the immediate "feelings" about the items, that we want. On the other hand, please do not be careless, because we want your true impressions. Please be reassured that all of your responses will be treated confidentially and that information gathered from this study will be used for research purposes only. Turn the page and begin and continue through the conclu- sion of the concepts. 90 Use the following scales to describe the way that you think your mother feels about you. Here you are describing the way that you think your mother feels about you. 1 2 3 u 5 6 7 valuable : : : : : : worthless calm : : z : : : excitable clean : : : : : : dirty thin : : : : : : thick active : : : : : . : passive hot : : : j : : : cold large : _ : : . : : : small fast : — : : : : ~ : slow sad 2 z : : : : ~ happy foolish : : : : : : wise light : : : : : : heavy moving ____: : : A : : : still proud ____: - : : : : . : humble dull ____: : : : : : sharp kind : : : ; z : : cruel fair ____; : 2 - : : : unfair delicate : : : : : : rugged weak ____: : : : : : strong Go on to the next page. Use the following scale to describe yourself. Here you are describing ways that you feel inwardly about yourself. fair foolish rugged fast kind proud small passive sharp happy valuable calm hot moving thin light clean weak [\J unfair wise delicate slow cruel humble large active dull sad worthless excitable cold still thick heavy dirty strong Go on to the next page. 92 Use the following scales to describe the way that you think your father feels about you. Here you are describing the way that you think your father feels about you. moving still cold hot strong weak worthless valuable excitable calm fast slow clean dirty heavy light dull sharp cruel kind humble proud sad happy rugged delicate foolish wise fair unfair thin thick large small active passive Directions Section of an- swer Sheet cor- rectly marked. This inventory consists of numbered T F statements. Read each statement and decide whether it is true as applied to you or A I D false as applied to you. Your are to mark your answers on the B D I answer sheet you have. Look at the example of the answer sheet shown at the right. If a statement is TRUE or MOSTLY TRUE, as applied to you, blacken between the lines in the column headed T. (See A at the right.) If a statement is FALSE or NOT USUALLY TRUE, as applied to you, blacken between the lines in the column headed F. (See B at the right.) If a statement does not apply to you or if it is something that you don't know about, make no mark on the answer sheet. Remember to give YOUR OWN opinion of yourself. 23 not leave any blank spaces 22 you can avoid 12. In marking your answers on the answer sheet, pg sure that the number Q: the statement agrees with the number on the answer sheet. Make your marks heavy and black. EFase completely any answer you wish to change. Do not make any marks on this booklet. Remember, try to make some answer to every statement. NOW OPEN THE BOOLET AND GO AHEAD. 1. O\U'l 10. 11. l2. 13. 1A. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. \C) .1: Iowa Biographical Inventory DO NOT MAKE ANY MARKS ON THIS BOOKLET I like to read newspaper articles on crime. My hands and feet are usually warm enough. I am about as able to work as I ever was. I enjoy detective or mystery stories. I work under a great deal of tension. I have diarrhea once a month or more. Once in a while I think of things too bad to talk about. My father was a good man. I am very seldom troubled by constipation. When I take a new job, I like to be tipped off on who Should be gotten next to. My sex life is satisfactory. I am troubled by attacks of nausea and vomiting. Evil spirits possess me at times. When someone does me a wrong I feel I should pay him back if I can, just for the principle of the thing. At times I feel like swearing. I have nightmares every few nights. I find it hard to keep my mind on a task or job. I have a cough most of the time. If people had not had it in for me I would have been much more successful. At times I feel like smashing things. Most any time I would rather sit and daydream than to to do anything else. I have had periods of days, weeks, or months when I couldn't take care of things because I couldn't "get going." 23. 2A. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 3A. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. A0. A1. 95 My family does not like the work I have chosen (or the work I intend to choose for my life work). My sleep is fitful and disturbed. I do not always tell the truth. When I am with people I am bothered by hearing very queer things. It would be better if almost all laws were thrown away. My soul sometimes leaves my body. I am in just as good physical health as most of my friends. I prefer to pass by school friends, or people I know but have not seen for a long time, unless they speak to me first. A minister can cure disease by praying and putting his hand on your head. I am liked by most people who know me. As a youngster I was suspended from school one or or more times for cutting up. I have often had to take orders from someone who did not know as much as I did. I do not read every editorial in the newspaper every day. I loved my father. I see things or animals or people around me that others do not see. I wish I could be as happy as others seem to be. I think a great many people exaggerate their misfor- tunes in order to gain the sympathy and help of others. I get angry sometimes. Most of the time I feel blue. A2. A3. AA. A5. A6. A7. A8. A9. 50. 51. 52. 53. 5A. 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. 96 Any man who is able and willing to work hard has a good chance of succeeding. Sometimes I am strongly attracted by the personal articles of others such as shoes, gloves, etc., so that I want to handle or steal them though I have no use for them. I am certainly lacking in self-confidence. It takes a lot of argument to convince most people of the truth. Once in a while I put off until tomorrow what I ought to do today. I think most people would lie to get ahead. I do many things which I regret afterwards (I regret things more or more often than others seem to). I have very few quarrels with members of my family. Sometimes when I am not feeling well I am cross. I am happy most of the time. Someone has it in for me. I frequently find it necessary to stand up for what I think is right. I believe in law enforcement. I believe in a life hereafter. Most people are honest chiefly through fear of being caught. My table manners are not quite as good at home as when I am out in company. I believe I am being plotted against. I believe I am being followed. Most people will use somewhat unfair means to gain profit or an advantage rather than to lose it. 61. 62. 630 6A. 65. 66. 67. 68. 69. 70. 71. 72. 73. 7A. 75. 76. 77. 78. 79. 97 I have a great deal of stomach trouble. I like dramatics. Often I can't understand why I have been so cross and grouchy. I do not worry about catching diseases. At times my thoughts have raced ahead faster than I could speak them. If I could get into a movie without paying and be sure I was not seen I would probably do it. I commonly wonder what hidden reason another person may have for doing something nice for me. Criticism or scolding hurts me terribly. Sometimes I feel as if I must injure either myself or someone else. I like to cook. I certainly feel useless at times. At times I feel like picking a fist fight with someone. I have the wanderlust and am never happy unless I am roaming or traveling about. I have often lost out on things because I couldn't make up my mind soon enough. It makes me impatient to have people ask my advice or otherwise interrupt me when I am working on some- thing important. I would rather win than lose in a game. Someone has been trying to poison me. I have never had a fit or convulsion. I have had periods in which I carried on activities without knowing later what I had been doing. 80. 81. 82. 83. 8A. 85. 86. 87. 88. 89. 90. 91. 92. 93. 9A. 95. 96. 97. 98. 99. 98 I feel that I have often been punished without cause. I cry easily. I have never felt better in my life than I do now. I do not tire quickly. I like to study and read about things on which I am working. I like to know some important people because it makes me feel important. There is something wrong with my mind. I am not afraid to handle money. What others think of me does not bother me. It makes me uncomfortable to put on a stunt at a party even when others are doing the same sort of things. My mother was a good woman. I find it hard to make talk when I meet new people. I am against giving money to beggars. I commonly hear voices without knowing where they come from. My hearing is apparently as good as that of most people. I frequently notice my hand shakes when I try to do something. I have very few headaches. Sometimes, when embarrassed, I break out in a sweat which annoys me greatly. I do not like everyone I know. I like to visit places where I have never been before. 100. 101. 102. 103. 10A. 105. 106. 107. 108. 109. 110. 111. 112. 113. 11A. 115. 116. 117. 118. 119. 120. 121. 122. \D MD Someone has been trying to rob me. Children should be taught all the main facts of sex. There are persons who are trying to steal my thoughts and ideas. I believe I am a condemned person. At times it has been impossible for me to keep from stealing or shoplifting something. I am very religious (more than most people). I like to flirt. I believe my sins are unpardonable. Everything tastes the same. I can sleep during the day but not at night. I have used alcohol excessively. I frequenlty find myself worrying about something. It does not bother me particularly to see animals suffer. I loved my mother. I like science. I gossip a little at times. Some of my family have habits that bother and annoy me very much. I have been told that I walk during sleep. I hardly ever notice my heart pounding and am seldom short of breath. I get mad easily and then get over it soon. I brood a great deal. My relatives are nearly all in sympathy with me. I have periods of such great restlessness that I cannot sit long in a chair. 123. 12A. 125. 126. 127. 128. 129. 130. 131. 132. 133. 13A. 135. 136. 137. 138. 139. 1A0. 1A1. 1A2. 100 I dream frequently about things that are best kept to myself. I believe I am no more nervous than most others. My way of doing things is apt to be misunderstood by others. My parents and family find more fault with me than they should. My neck spots with red often. I have reason for feeling jealous of one or more members of my family. I don't blame anyone for trying to grab everything he can get in this world. No one cares much what happens to you. I can be friendly with people who do things which I consider wrong. Sometimes at elections I vote for men about whom I know very little. The only interesting part of newspapers is the "funnies." I usually expect to succeed in things I do. I believe there is a God. I have difficulty in starting to do things. I sweat very easily even on cool days. I am entirely self-confident. It is safer to trust nobody. When in a group of peOple I have trouble thinking of the right things to talk about. I can easily make other people afraid of me, and sometimes do for the fun of it. I do not blame a person for taking advantage of someone who lays himself open to it. 1A3. 1AA. 1A5. 1A6. 1A7. 1A8. 1A9. 150. 151. 152. 153. 15A. 155. 156. 157. 158. 159. 160. 161. 162. 163. 101 At times I am all full of energy. Someone has control over my mind. I enjoy children. I have often felt that strangers were looking at me critically. Most people make friends because friends are likely to be useful to them. I do not often notice my ears ringing or buzzing. Once in a while I feel hate toward members of my family whom I usually love. I am sure I am being talked about. Once in a while I laugh at a dirty joke. I am never happier than when alone. I have very few fears compared to my friends. At one or more times in my life I felt that someone was making me do things by hypnotizing me. I am likely not to speak to people until they speak to me. Someone has been trying to influence my mind. I have periods in which I feel unusually cheerful without any special reason. Life is a strain for me much of the time. Even when I am with people I feel lonely much of the time. I think nearly anyone would tell a lie to keep out of trouble. I am more sensitive than most other people. Most people inwardly dislike putting themselves out to help other people. I am easily embarrassed. 16A. 165. 166. 167. 168. 169. 170. 171. 172. 173. 17A. 175. 176. 177. 178. 179. 180. 181. 102 I worry over money and business. My mother or father often made me obey even when I thought that it was unreasonable. I cannot keep my mind on one thing. I feel anxiety about something or someone almost all the time. Sometimes I become so excited that I find it hard to get to sleep. I usually have to stop and think before I act even in trifling matters. Often I cross the street in order not to meet someone I see. I often feel as if things were not real. I tend to be on my guard with people who are somewhat more friendly than I had expected. I have been afraid of things or people that I knew could not hurt me. I have more trouble concentrating than others seem to have. Sometimes some unimportant thought will run through my mind and bother me for days. I am inclined to take things hard. I have sometimes stayed away from another person because I feared doing or saying something that I might regret afterwards. I am not unusually self—conscious. At periods my mind seems to work more slowly than usual. I very seldom have spells of the blues. I wish I could get over worrying about things I have said that may have injured other people's feelings. 182. 183. 18A. 185. 186. 187. 188. 189. 190. 191. 192. 193. 19A. 195. 196. 197. 198. 1990 200. 201. 1...: C) w People often disappoint me. I feel unable to tell anyone all about myself. I like to keep people guessing what I'm going to do next. My plans have frequently seemed so full of diffi- culties that I have had to give them up. I frequently ask people for advice. Often, even though everything is going fine for me, I feel that I don't care about anything. I have sometimes felt that difficulties were piling up so high that I could not overcome them. I am not easily angered. I have often met people who were supposed to be experts who were no better than I. I am usually calm and not easily upset. I would certainly enjoy beating a crook at his own game. It makes me feel like a failure when I hear of the success of someone I know well. I am.apt to take disappointments so keenly that I can't put them out of my mind. If given the chance I would make a good leader of people. At times I think I am no good at all. I feel hungry almost all the time. I have at times had to be rough with people who were rude or annoying. I like to attend lectures on serious subjects. I worry quite a bit over possible misfortunes. People generally demand more respect for their own rights than they are willing to allow for others. 202. 203. 20A. 205. 206. 207. 208. 209. 210. 211. 212. 213. 21A. 215. 216. 217. 218. 10A There are certain people whom I dislike so much that I am inwardly pleased when they are catching it for something they have done. It makes me nervous to have to wait. I try to remember good stories to pass them on to other people. I have had periods in which I lost sleep over worry. I am apt to pass up something I want to do because others feel that I am not going about it in the right way. I was fond of excitement when I was young (or in childhood). I am often inclined to go out of my way to win a point with someone who has opposed me. I enjoy social gatherings just to be with people. I enjoy the excitement of a crowd. My worries seem to disappear when I get into a crowd of lively friends. I am quite often not in on the gossip and talk of the group I belong to. The man who had most to do with me when I was a child (such as my father, stepfather, etc.) was very strict with me. I find it hard to set aside a task that I have undertaken, even for a short time. I have had no difficulty starting or holding my urine. I have several times had a change of heart about my life work. I am often sorry because I am so cross and grouchy. I have often found people jealous of my good ideas, just because they had not thought of them first. 219. 220. 221. 222. 223. 22A. 225. 226. 227. 228. 229. 230. 231. 232. 233. 23A. 235. 236. 237. 105 I am fascinated by fire. When a man is with a woman he is usually thinking about things related to her sex. I must admit that I have at times been worried beyond reason over something that really did not matter. I like to let peOple know where I stand on things. I do not try to cover up my poor Opinion or pity, of a person so that he won't know how I feel. I am a high-strung person. I have frequently worked under people who seem to have things arranged so that they get credit for good work but are able to pass Off mistakes onto those under them. I have a daydream life about which I do not tell other people. Some Of my family have quick tempers. I have Often felt guilty because I have pretended to feel more sorry about something than I really was. I strongly defend my own Opinions as a rule. I practically never blush. I blush no more often than others. I would like to wear expensive clothes. I am often afraid that I am going to blush. People can pretty easily change me even though I thought that my mind was already made up on a subject. I feel tired a good deal of the time. I shrink from facing a crisis or difficulty. Sometimes I am sure that other people can tell what I am thinking. 106 238. I sometimes feel that I am about to go to pieces. 239. I am very careful about my manner of dress. 2A0. A large number of people are guilty of bad sexual conduct. 107 F. V. Rating Inventory DIRECTIONS Please respond to the following questions with your pwp true opinions. Read each statement and decide whether you agree with it. Do not spend too much time on the questions. Usually the first impression is the true one. DO NOT WRITE ON THIS BOOKLET. Answers are recorded on the accompanying answer sheet. If you strongly agree blacken the space on the answer sheet numbered small 1. If you agree blacken the space on the answer sheet numbered small 2. If you do not know, blacken the space with the small number 3. If you do not agree, blacken the space with the small number A. If you strongly disagree, blacken the space on the answer sheet numbered with a small 5. Please note the answer sheet has the answers going across the sheet not down. Example: All women should have some sort of outside interests: Strongly Do not Do not Strongly agree Agree know agree disagree 1. :=: 2. :=: 3° :=: L1 :=: . :=: Please turn the page and proceed. Continue on each page. 108 Rating Inventory Please react to these statements with your true opinion. Keep in mind the way ypu really are. 1. 10. ll. 12. 13. A husband who insists on being the sole provider will be more ambitious and responsible. In my dealings with other people I am frequently oblivious of their personal feelings. A woman who works cannot possibly be as good a mother as the one who stays at home, even though the child may go to school. I would like to create or accomplish something which would be recognized by everybody as valuable and important. When with other people I try to act in accordance with what I believe to be their thoughts and feelings. I believe there is a conflict between fulfilling oneself as a woman and fulfilling oneself as an individual. It is better for a woman to marry far below her ideal than to remain permanently unmarried. I sometimes feel that I must do everything myself, that I can accept nothing from others. I believe that the personal ambitions Of a woman should be subordinated to the family as a group. I am not sure that the joys of motherhood make up for the sacrifices. I prefer to listen to people talk rather than do most of the talking myself. I argue against people who try to assert their authority over me. Marriage and children Should take precedence over everything else in a woman's life. 1A. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 2A. 25. 26. 27. 28. 109 When I am doing something with a group of people I often seem to be drifting into a position of leadership. I am a little too greatly concerned with how I look and what impression I am making on others. I am energetic in the development and expression of my ideas. Unless single, women should not crave personal success but be satisfied with their husbands' achievements. I would rather not marry than sacrifice some of my essential beliefs and needs in order to adjust to another person. It is mostly the responsibility of the woman to make a success of her marriage. A working mother can establish just as strong and secure a relationship with her children as can a stay-at-home mother. The greatest contribution a wife can make to her husband's progress is her constant and watchful encouragement. It is unfair that women are obliged to compromise their personal goals and ideas for the sake of a good marital relationship more than are men. I am capable of putting myself in the background and working with zest for a person I admire. I believe that a wife's Opinion should have exactly the same bearing upon important decisions for the family as the husband's., I will have achieved the main goal of my life if I rear normal, well adjusted children. I am more concerned with my personal development than I am with the approval of other people. I would make more concessions to my husband's wishes than I would expect him to make to mine. One attains one's greatest satisfactions in life through one's own efforts. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 3A. 110 I would like to marry a man whom I could really look up to. I believe that a capable woman has the duty to be active in a field of endeavor outside the home. It is a matter of common observation that the women who are less attractive to men are the ones who are most ambitious in their careers. Modern mothers should bring up their boys and girls to believe in the absolute identity of rights and freedom for both sexes. I believe a woman's place is in the home. I would rather be famous, admired and popular throughout the nation than have the constant affection and devotion of just one man. 111 Please react to these statements the way you believe an ideal woman would. Think Of your concgpt of an ideal woman, which does not have to coincide with the stereo- type ideal woman as defined by our culture. 39. A0. A1. A2. A3. .in. A5. A6. A7. A8. A9. 50. 51. 52. I am a little too greatly concerned with how I look and what impression I am making on others. I believe that a wife's opinion should have exactly the same bearing upon important decisions for the family as a husband's. I believe a woman's place is in the home. I am not sure that the joys of motherhood make up for the sacrifices. The greatest contribution a wife can make to her husband's progress is her constant and watchful encouragement. I believe that a capable woman has the duty to be active in a field of endeavour outside her home. I will have achieved the main goal of my life if I rear normal, well adjusted children. I argue against people who attempt to assert their authority over me. Unless single, women Should not crave personal success but be satisfied with their husband's achievements. It is unfair that women are obliged to compromise their personal goals and ideas for the sake of a good marital relationship more than are men. I am capable of putting myself in the background and working with zest for a person I admire. I would like to create or accomplish something which would be recognized by everybody as valuable and important. It is mostly the responsibility of the woman to make a success of her marriage. I believe there is a conflict between fulfilling oneself as the woman and fulfilling oneself as an individual. 53. 5A. 55. 56. 57. 58. 59° 60. 61. 62. 63. 6A. 65. 66. 67. 112 When with other people I try to act in accordance with what I believe to be their thoughts and feelings. I sometimes feel that I must do everything myself, that I can accept nothing of others. It is better for a woman to marry a person far below her ideal than to remain permanently unmarried. I am energetic in the development and expression of my ideas. I believe that the personal ambitions of a woman should be subordinated to the family as a group. When I am doing something with a group of people I often seem to be drifting into a position of leadership. I prefer to listen to people talk rather than do most of the talking myself. Modern mothers should bring up their boys and girls to believe in the absolute identity of rights and freedom for both sexes. I would make more concessions to my husband's wishes than I would expect him to make to mine. One attains one's greatest satisfactions in life through one's own efforts. Marriage and children should take precedence over everything else in a woman's life. In my dealings with other people I am frequently oblivious Of their personal feelings. I would like to marry a man to whom I could really look up. A working mother can establish just as strong and secure a relationship with her children as can a stay-at-home mother. It is a matter of common Observation that the women who are less attractive to men are the ones who are most ambitious in their careers. 68. 690 70. 71. 72. 113 I would rather be famous, popular, and admired throughout the nation than to have the constant affection and devotion of just one man. A woman who works cannot possibly be as good a mother as the child I am more than I am A husband the one who stays at home even though may go to school. concerned with my personal development with the approval of other people. who insists upon being the sole provider will be more ambitious and responsible. I would rather not marry than sacrifice some of my essential beliefs and needs in order to adjust to another person. 11A Directions This inventory consists of Section of answer numbered statements. Read each sheet correctly statement and decide whether it is marked true as applied to you or false as applied to you. T F You are to mark your answers on the answer sheet you have. Look A at the example Of the answer sheet shown at the right. If a statement B is TRUE or MOSTLY TRUE, as applied to you, blacken between the lines in the column headed T. (See A at the right.) If a statement is FALSE or NOT USUALLY TRUE, as applied to you, blacken betweentme lines in the column headed F. (See B at the right.) If a statement does not apply to you or if it is something that you don't know about, make no mark on the answer sheet. Remember to give YOUR OWN OPINION Of yourself. DO not leave any blank spaces if you can avoid it. In marking your answers on the answer sheet, be sure that the number of the statement agrees with the number on the answer sheet. Make your marks heavy and black. Erase completely any answer you wish to change. Do not make any marks on this booklet. Remember, try to make some answer to every statement. NOW OPEN THE BOOKLET AND GO AHEAD. \OCIJNCh 10. 11. 12. 13. 1A. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. E S D Scale My hands and feet are usually warm enough. I am very seldom troubled by constipation. I find it hard to keep my mind on a task or job. Most any time I would rather sit and daydream than do anything else. My family does not like the work I have chosen (or the work I intend to choose for my life work). My sleep is fitful and disturbed. I am liked by most people who know me. I am happy most of the time. Criticism or scolding hurts me terribly. It makes me impatient to have people ask my advice or otherwise interrupt me when I am working on something important. I have had periods in which I carried on activities without knowing later what I had been doing. I cry easily. I do not tire quickly. I am not afraid to handle money. It makes me uncomfortable to put on a stunt at a party even when others are doing the same sort Of things. I frequently notice my hand shakes when I try to do something. It does not bother me particularly to see animals suffer. I dream frequently about things that are best kept to myself. My parents and family find more fault with me than they should. 20. 21. 22. 23. 2A. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 3A. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 116 I have reason for feeling jealous of one or more members of my family. No one cares much what happens to you. I usually expect to succeed in things I do. I sweat very easily even on cool days. When in a group of people I have trouble thinking of the right things to talk about. I can easily make other people afraid of me, and sometimes do for the fun of it. I am never happier than when alone. Life is a strain for me much of the time. I am easily embarrassed. I cannot keep my mind on one thing. I feel anxiety about something or someone almost all the time. I have been afraid of things or people that I knew could not hurt me. I am not unusually self-conscious. People often disappoint me. I feel hungry almost all the time. I worry quite a bit over possible misfortunes. It makes me nervous to have to wait. I blush no more often than others. I shrink from facing a crisis or difficulty. I sometimes feel that I am about to go to pieces. APPENDIX E Summary of the Obtained Data for the Three Subsamples on the Four Instruments Used in the Study 117 118 TABLE 9.-—Summary Of data obtained for the three sub- samples; married and noncareer, married and career, and nonmarried and career on the four instruments used in the study. Instrument Married and Married and Nonmarried and Noncareer Career and Career Condition n=32 n=32 n=32 Semantic Differential Me-Mother: Range 0.00—9.11 l.Al—l2.53 2.23-9.27 Mean 7.66 5.A3 A.79 Variance 11.65 53.12 27.79 S. D. 3.38 7.28 5.2A Me-Father: Range 2.00-10.0A 1.00-13.Al 2.83-9.16 Mean 5.2A 5.98 5.25 Variance 53.59 88.28 A7.05 S. D. 7.30 9.38 6.85 Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale Range 16-32 21-31 17-35 Mean 25.87 26.28 26.72 Variance l6.A8 7.51 11.57 S. D. A.06 2.73 3.38 Edwards' Social Desirability Scale Range 12-29 7-23 9-29 Mean 19.03 17.08 17.88 Variance 16.21 22.59 9.67 S. D., A.02 6.50 3.08 Inventory of Feminine Values ME: Range —23 to + 22 -38 to +19 -AA to +18 Mean -2.22 —5.A6 -2.8A Variance A0.77 33.92 85.92 S. D. 3.36 5.79 9.26 IDEAL WOMAN: Range -22 to +39 -39 to +22 -A3 to +32 Mean .AA -2.78 .28 Variance 63.87 85.66 78.95 S. D. 7.97 9.2A 8.87 APPENDIX F Summary of the Data for Active and Passive Groups on the Inventory of Feminine Values and their Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale mean scores. 119 120 TABLE 10.—-Summary of data for Active and Passive groups on the Inventory of Feminine Values and the Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale scores. MAS Scores IFV-PASSIVE (n 32) IFV-ACTIVE (n 32) Range 20-35 18-32 Mean 27.ul t 2.0U* 25.62 Variance 9.99 13.73 *Significant .05. APPENDIX G Summary of the Data for the Active and Passive Groups on the Inventory of Feminine Values and Age, Occupations, etc. 121 122 TABLE 11.--Summary of data for Active and Passive groups on the Inventory of Feminine Values and Age, Percentage of of Teachers, and Sex-roles. IFV—PASSIVE (n 32) IFV-ACTIVE (n 32) IFV mean 8.93 16.03 Age mean 26.6 26.4 Per cent Teachers 75% 65.6% Per cent: Married and Career 21.9 37.5 Married and Noncareer 37.5 35.0 Nonmarried and career 40.6 28.0 APPENDIX H Summaries of the data for the two way analysis of variance forhigh anxiety-high social desirability responses, high anxiety-low social desirability responses, low anxiety-high social desirability responses, low anxiety-low social desirability responses and semantic differential D scores for Me—Mother and for Me-Father. 123 12M TABLE l2.--Summary of analysis of variance of similarity scores, Me-Mother for High Anxiety-High Social Desira- bility, High Anxiety-Low Social Desirability, Low Anxiety- High Social Desirability, Low Anxiety-Low Social Desir- ability. Sum of Mean Source Squares df Squares F‘ P Rows 25 1 25 6.0“ .01 Columns 15 1 15 3.62 ** Interaction 7 l 7 1.69 * Between A7 Within 381 92 92 4.1“ Total 428 95 *Nonsignificant. **Approaches significance at .05. g .1 3\) \fi TABLE l3.--Summary of analysis of variance of similarity scores, Me-Father, for High Anxiety—High Social Desira- bility, High Anxiety-Low Social Desirability, Low Anxiety- High Social Desirability, Low Anxiety--Low Social Desirability. Sum of Mean Source Squares df Squares F. P. Rows 39 l 39 8.55 .01 Columns 9 1 9 1.97 * Interaction 2 l 2 .AA * Between 50 Within A20.U0 92 “.56 Total 520.A0 95 *Nonsignificant. 126 ADDENDA APPENDIX H Data on "t" tests run on High and Low Social Desir- ability Scale scorers and their obtained D scores for Me-Mother and Me-Father. TABLE lA.--Data and "t" Test between High and Low Social Desirability Scale Scorers and their obtained Semantic Differential D Scores for Me-Mother. High Social Low Social Desirability Desirability Scale Scorers Scale Scorers (N = 32) (N = 32) Mean D “-36 5-54 Variance “8 3A Sod. 6093 5.83 "t" n.53** **Significant .01. TABLE 15.-~Data and "t" Test between High Social Desirability Scale Scorers and Low Social Desirability Scale Scorers and their obtained Semantic Differential D Scores for Me-Father. High Social Low Social Desirability Desirability Scale Scorers Scale Scorers (N = 32) (N = 32) Mean D “.82 6.10 Variance 38.14 61.8A s.d. 6.17 7.87 Ht" 4.57** **Significant .01. IE5 ”11111111111111"