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W2....t..,n....... I- .Fryryu: .. a. .. ... ... its.-. . . 5...: zi- z '4.) p THESlS LIBEMRY Whigs“: Etate W Univemitx This is to certify that the dissertation entitled BETWEEN ISLAMIC AND WESTERN EDUCATION: A CASE STUDY OF UMM AL QURA UNIVERSITY, MAKKAH, SAUDI ARABIA presented by Najmudein Abdulghafour Jan has been accepted towarcis fulfillment ofthe requirements for Ph.D. degeehi Administration and Curriculum . Dam October 28, 1983 MSU is an Affirmative Anion/Equal Opportunity Inxrilution 0-12771 MSU LlBRARlES RETURNING MATERIALS: Place in book drop to remove this checkout from your record. FINES will be charged if book is returned after the date stamped below. BETWEEN ISLAMIC AND WESTERN EDUCATION: A CASE STUDY OF UMM AL QURA UNIVERSITY, MAKKAH, SAUDI ARABIA By Najmudein Abdulghafour Jan A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Administration and Curriculum (Social and Philosophical Foundations of Education) T983 ./~= - m 1' . .~ . ‘) 3 J. J \3’ ._ e ,‘ .1- " i ./ ,w. {-u' a IN THE NM OF ALLAH THE NIERCIFUL THE CONIPASSIONATE ABSTRACT BETWEEN ISLAMIC AND WESTERN EDUCATION: A CASE STUDY OF UMM AL QURA UNIVERSITY, MAKKAH, SAUDI ARABIA By Najmudein Abdulghafour Jan This dissertation is an institutional case study. Its purpose was to discover the origins of Umm Al Qura University in Makkah, Saudi Arabia, and to provide a chronological record of the university's evolution and growth. The study was intended to describe and analyze the extent to which this university has accommodated itself to Islamic values and Western knowledge. The historical—research method was used in conducting the study. Data, which included both primary and secondary sources, were obtained and evaluated. A review of literature related to theories of societal development, higher education and societal development in the United States and in Saudi Arabia, the university's goals according to Western perspectives, and the university's goals according to Islamic perspectives indicated that (l) every society has its own ideal for living the good life, and because this ideal differs from one society to another, the developmental theories differ accordingly; (2) higher education in general and the university in particular represent poten- tial powers in societal development; and (3) goal definition is very important for the university's success. Najmudein Abdulghafour Jan The findings indicated that the current stage of develOpment of Umm Al Qura University came as a result of a process of accommoda- tion between Islamic heritage and Western knowledge. The stated pur- poses and practices of the University show a movement toward consonance between the Islamic heritage and Western patterns of higher education. In a relatively short period of time, the University has established many programs and research centers to achieve its stated objectives. Umm Al Qura University is expected to have the highest quality of higher education in Saudi Arabia. For the University to achieve its mission, it needs to continue its effort in devel0ping its cur- ricula, programs, and system of education. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS All praise and thanks are due to Allah, Lord of the Universe, for His merciful divine direction throughout my study. I wish to acknowledge all those persons who assisted me in the undertaking and completion of this dissertation. I am indebted to Dr. Marvin Grandstaff, my advisor and committee chairman, for his valuable time, assistance, and encouragement. His kind consideration and understanding have been an incentive for the completion of this dissertation. Sincere appreciation and gratitude are extended to the other members of my guidance committee, Drs. Richard Gardner, John Hanson, Kenneth Neff, Ben Bohnhorst, and David Heenan, for their contribu— tions, advice, and constructive comments to the study. Special acknowledgment goes to my wife, Khadiyjah, and to my children, Mazin and Maher, for their patience, understanding, and encouragement. I am also grateful for the moral support and prayers of my parents, brothers, sisters, and friends throughout the period of the study. I also would like to thank Mrs. Sue Cooley for her energy, patience, and skill in editing and typing the dissertation in the most professional manner. ii' Finally, I am indebted to the Saudi government for financing my study in the United States. My appreciation is extended to the officials at Umm Al Qura University for their support. TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES ......................... LIST OF FIGURES ......................... Chapter I. INTRODUCTION . . .................... Background of the Study ................ Statement of the Problem ............... Purpose of the Study ................. Research Questions .................. Importance of the Study ................ Procedures of the Study ................ Delimitation and Generalizability of the Study . . Definition of Terms .................. Overview ....................... II. BACKGROUND: THE INTERPLAY BETWEEN HIGHER EDUCATION AND SOCIETAL DEVELOPMENT ............... Theories of Societal Development ........... Development as Economic Growth ........... Development as Modernization ............ Development as Industrialization .......... Development as Cultural Invigoration ........ Higher Education and Societal Development ....... Higher Education and Societal Development in the United States ................... Higher Education and Societal Development in Saudi Arabia ................... Influences That Have Shaped Higher Education in Saudi Arabia .................... Socioeconomic Influences .............. Western Influences ................. Summary ........................ iv Page —‘ OCOGDNUW-wa-J —J Page III. BACKGROUND: WESTERN AND ISLAMIC PERSPECTIVES ON THE GOALS OF HIGHER EDUCATION ............. 35 The Importance of Goal Definition ........... 35 The University's Goals According to the Western Perspective ..................... 37 The University's Goals According to the Islamic Perspective ..................... 40 The Islamic Philosophy of Knowledge and Education . . . 43 Islamic Philosophy of Knowledge and Education According to Al-Ghazali (450-505 A.H./ l058-llll A.D.) .................. 44 Islamic Philosophy of Knowledge and Education According to Ibn Khaldun (732-808 A.H./ 1332—1406 A.D.) .................. Present Muslim Philosophy of Higher Education . . . . 7 IV. THE PROGRESS OF HIGHER EDUCATION IN SAUDI ARABIA . . . . 53 Early Higher Education in Saudi Arabia: The Period FrOm l949 to l958 .................. 53 The Time of Transition: The Period From l958 to l974 . 57 King Saud University (Riyadh University) ...... 58 The Islamic University in Medina .......... 6l The University of Petroleum and Minerals ...... 63 King Abdulaziz University .............. 66 Imam Muhammad Ibn Saud Islamic University in Riyadh . 68 Summary ....................... 69 The Current Status of Higher Education: The Period From l975 to 1982-83 ................ 70 King Faisal University ............... 75 Chapter Summary V. UMM AL QURA UNIVERSITY ................. 77 Historical Background ................. 78 Aims and Objectives of Umm Al Qura University ..... 80 Governance and Organization of the University ..... 82 Admission Policies and Regulations .......... 85 Colleges, Academic Programs, and Research Centers . . . 88 The College of Shar'ia and Islamic Studies ..... 89 The College of Arabic Language and Its Arts ..... 92 The College of Dawa and Usul-Al-Din (Preaching and Origins of the Islamic Religion) ......... 95 The College of Education .............. 95 The College of Education (Taif Branch) ....... 99 College of Applied Science and Engineering ..... lOO Page The Arabic Language Institute ............ l02 Graduate-Studies Programs .............. 104 Research Centers at Umm Al Qura University ..... l05 The Faculty at Umm Al Qura University ......... llO Summary and Discussion ................ lll VI. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ............. ll6 Recommendations for Further Research ......... l22 BIBLIOGRAPHY .......................... 123 vi LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1. The Development of Enrollment at King Saud University From 1958 to 1974 ................... 6O 2. The Budget of the Islamic University in Medina in Selected Years ..................... 61 3. Instructional Faculty of the College of Petroleum and Minerals, by Nationality, 1964—65 Through 1973-74 . . . 65 4. General Requirements at Umm Al Qura University ...... 9O 5. Requirements of the College of Shar'ia and Islamic Studies ........................ 92 6. Requirements of the College of Arabic Language and Its Arts ........................ 94 7. Requirements of the College of Dawa and Usul al-Din (Preaching and Origins of the Islamic Religion) . . . . 96 8. Requirements of the College of Education ......... 99 9. Requirements of the College of Education (Taif Branch) . . 100 10. Development of the Number of Students Enrolled in the Arabic Language Institute, 1975-76 to 1981-82 ..... 103 LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 1. Organizational Chart of the Ministry of Higher Education ....................... 72 viii CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Those who cannot remember the past are condemned to repeat it. --George Santayana Background of the Study Higher education in Saudi Arabia has undergone substantial changes in size, scope, and mission within the last 15 years. During the decade from 1970 to 1980, the Saudi government expanded and developed dramatically the country's higher-education system. As a result, university enrollments increased from 6,942 in 1969-70 to 47,900 in 1979-80--an average annual growth of 21.3 percent.1 The government of Saudi Arabia has also increased its spending for higher education from almost $2 billion in 1976 to about $5.5 billion in 1980.2 In addition, there are now seven universities in the country and an additional 14 colleges for females. The total number of both male and female university students has reached 68,892, in addition to 12,505 students who are studying abroad.3 1Ministry of Higher Education, Progress of Higher Education in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia During Ten Years 1970-1980 (Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: Ministry of Higher Education, 1981), p. 7. 2Abdulkader Saleh Backer, "Analysis and Recommendations for Restructuring the Administrative Configuration of King Abdul Aziz University, Saudi Arabia" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Oklahoma, 1981), p. 1. 3Al-Riyadh Newspaper (Riyadh, Saudi Arabia), June 22, 1983, p. 11. Both the government and influential Saudi scholars have recog- nized the expansion of the higher-education system in Saudi Arabia. However, confusion exists about what the nature of higher education should be. Despite the power and prestige of higher education in Saudi Arabia, universities often face conflicting demands and values from critical audiences. The current controversy over the capability of Saudi Arabian universities to educate young Saudis in accordance with the society's Islamic ideals indicates that for some groups a clear consensus on the university's mission has yet to be established. The continuing task for higher education in Saudi Arabia is to seek the optimum balance--a balance between the need to promote Islamic cultural values and enlightenment and the need to provide job training. As Faheem stated, Since Saudi Arabia is the homeland and cradle of Islam, and since her culture and tradition are but a reflection of the Islamic value system, it is imperative for the country, there- fore, to adopt a policy that encourages the continuity of Islamic learning and tradition. Accordingly, higher education in this emerging state is expected not only to provide the needed profes- sional and skilled manpower, but more importantly to help in constructing a new Islamic state. Statement of the Problem The Saudi Arabian university system is faced with a dilemma that concerns its priorities, purposes, directions, and goals. Although there are now seven universities in Saudi Arabia, a clear consensus concerning the university's mission has yet to be achieved. Univer- sities in Saudi Arabia can be divided into two main categories, based 1Mohammed Eisa Faheem, "Higher Education and Nation Building” (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 1982), p. 3. on cultural outlook. One stresses the predominance of Islamic studies, whereas the other stresses the necessity of Western studies. Faheem depicted these two cultural emphases as follows: Higher education institutions fall into two mainstreams: (1) emphasizing generally Islamic learning and culture with- out regard to “modern” western knowledge (The Islamic Uni— versity, Medina; the Imam Muhammed Saud Islamic University, Riyadh; (2) or pursuing mainly a ”modern" western course of studies (Riyadh University, Riyadh; the University of Petro- leum and Minerals, Dhahran). This categorization of universities reflects a division in the society as a whole between conservative groups, who oppose change, and progressive groups, which are receptive to change. Because Umm Al Qura University contains within its walls both mainstreams, it was selected for the present study as an example of the dynamic tension that exists between the two cultures. The College of Shar'ia repre- sents the first mainstream, i.e., thepreparationof teachers who are specialized in religiously oriented studies. The College of Education, on the other hand, represents the second mainstream, i.e., the prepara— tion of teachers who are specialized in Western knowledge and tech- niques. Purpose of the Study Because no comprehensive history of Umm Al Qura University exists, the purpose of the present study was to provide a chronological record of the evolution, reform, and growth of that institution from its inception in 1949 to 1982-83. This institution can be viewed as the result of a process of accommodation between Islamic values of IIbid., p. 46. higher education and Western tradition. Umm Al Qura University has a general mission of meeting national goals and of contributing to the individuals and communities of Saudi Arabia. Given Saudi Arabia's character as an Islamic nation in a modern world, it is not surpris- ing that in fulfilling its mission Umm Al Qura University should look to both Islamic values and modern Western knowledge. The dual influ- ences of those forces are both internal and external to the univer- sity. What results is a persistent, dynamic, and creative tension between two cultures. Specifically, this study was aimed at examining the way in which that tension and its resolution have shaped Umm Al Qura University. Umm Al Qura University was selected for study for the follow- ing reasons: 1. This university is the major teacher-training institution in Saudi Arabia. 2. The institution is located in the holy city of Makkah and therefore is expected to follow an Islamic philosophy of educa- tion. 3. The university is encouraging a new philoSOphy of learning that combines both Islamic studies and Western knowledge. Research Questions The investigator began with the thesis that Umm Al Qura University can be viewed as the result of a process of accommodation between Islamic heritage and Western patterns of higher education. To support such a statement, an attempt was made to answer the fol- lowing questions: 1. How has the current stage of development of Umm Al Qura University evolved? 2. How have the events and forces affecting Saudi Arabia as a rapidly developing nation, as well as its national goals, affected and been reflected by the growth of Umm Al Qura University? 3. How have the opposing forces of Saudi Arabia's Islamic religious and cultural heritage and the influence of Western patterns of higher education shaped the growth and development of Umm Al Qura University? 4. Is there evidence that the stated purposes and practices of Umm Al Qura University show a movement toward consonance between the Islamic heritage and Western patterns of higher education? Thus, this study was undertaken in an attempt to discover the origins of Umm Al Qura University in Makkah, Saudi Arabia, and to trace and describe the factors that have influenced the develop- ment and growth of the institution. It was also hoped that the findings of this study would reveal, to some extent, how the mission, organizational structure, and curricular content of the university have changed in an effort to meet the changing needs of the people in Saudi Arabia. Importance of the Study Many educators accept the principle that meaningful and use- ful progress is best achieved when the lessons of past experience are taken into account. Whether analyzing the history of a nation or of an educational institution, one should be acutely aware of the consequences of history. In his discussion of the critical historian, Clark stated, No man can escape from history or for long ignore it. There is no lock to anyone's backdoor. Whether he likes it or not, the results of history, or what purports to be the result of history, or opinions colored by belief about history, will influ- ence his life and mind. He must also be prepared for Opinions about history or historical experience to have deeply affected the mind of anyone with whom he has dealings. This being so, it is the act of a wise man to come to terms with what he cannot evade, and bring it, if he can, under control; that is, he must try to get as near as he can to the reality in history with which he is confronted, to test the cogency of historical opinions which are likely to influence his mind or the minds of anyone who1 is important to him, and perhaps winnow the nonsense out of them. The historical-analysis approach has its own function. Apparent immediately is the obvious value of simple record keeping, but histori- cal analysis has further benefits, as well. Knowledge of the past directly influences present and future conditions. Borg and Gall stated, Historical research in education is important for several reasons. The findings of such research enable educators to learn from past discoveries and mistakes; to perceive needs for educational reform; and, to a certain extent, to predict future trends. Another important reason for undertaking historical research concerns the nature of history as it relates to truth. Clark explained the utilitarian function of history in the following statements: It is in the last resort its relation to truth that gives history its value. History can serve a number of purposes. It can amuse; it can instruct, it can warn; it can encourage; 1G. Kitson Clark, The Critical Historian (New York: Basic Books, 1967), p. 193. ZWalter R. Borg and Meredith G. Gall, Educational Research (New York: Longmans, 1979), p. 372. it can provide data for important decisions; and it can help in the analysis of society, but it can do none of these things if it is not conscientiously aimed at the truth.1 In light of these considerations and remarks, it seems reason- able to believe that a history of Umm Al Qura University is important because it may: 1. fill a void in the history of higher education in Saudi Arabia. 2. serve as a reference for future researchers seeking infor- mation about other aspects of the history, concepts, or functions of higher education in Saudi Arabia. 3. be useful in assessing the prospective purposes and goals of the institution by making it possible to view them in light of those previously followed, thereby influencing policies yet to be implemented. 4. afford insight into the various forces that have guided the institution thus far and encourage reflection about the ultimate wisdom of certain choices as opposed to others. 5. delineate the cultural and educational contributions made by the institution to the individuals and communities of Saudi Arabia. Procedures of the Study The historical-research method was used in conducting the present study. This historical method is characterized by the col- lection, evaluation, and reporting of relevant data. 1mark, The Critical Historian, p. 195. C0 The initial step was to examine published materials on the history of Umm Al Qura University. The investigator used both pri- mary and secondary sources, which included documents, records, files, newspaper articles, catalogs, yearbooks, and personal interviews. The data were obtained from the archives of Umm Al Qura University, the Ministry of Higher Education in Saudi Arabia, and the archives of selected offices at Umm Al Qura University. The researcher also conducted interviews with the president, the vice-president, and selected deans of the various colleges within the university. (See Appendix A.) These interviews helped the researcher locate the data needed and clarified some information about the university. All of the interviews were conducted at Umm Al Qura University and were tape recorded. Delimitation and Generalizability of the Study The study was limited to an examination of the establishment, growth, and development of Umm Al Qura University from 1949 through the 1982-83 academic year. The research was intended to provide an accurate account of the internal and external forces that have influ- enced the progress, function, and destiny of the institution. Study findings should not be generalized to other higher educational insti- tutions in Saudi Arabia. Definition of Terms The following key terms are defined in the context in which they are used in this dissertation. Islam? means a state of health or of nature. From "Aslama," meaning "He submitted himself into peace,” are derived the name of. the system, Islam, and the name of its adherents, the Muslims. According to Islamic belief, Islam is the primordial state of health or nature in which God (Al-Ilah or Allah, literally "the God") created man and the universe. Through submission to God's will, one can achieve peace and realize one's destiny. Muslims believe Islam is the natural religion of everyone in the universe: "And whoever is in the heavens and the earth makes obeisance to God only, willingly, and unwillingly, and their shadows too, at morn and eve."2 Islamic refers to those systems of education whose educational philosOphies and practices are based on principles found in the Holy Quran. Western refers to those educational philosophies and practices developed by European and American educators. The Quran is the holy book of Islam. Muslims believe that the Quran was revealed by God through the Angel Gabriel to Muhammed, the prophet and messenger of God, to be recited and practiced as God's law on earth. This holy book was revealed to Muhammed in Makkah and Al-Madina during a period from 610 to 632 A.D. (-13 to 10 A.H.). The Quran contains the basic law governing individual, social, and economic 1S. Wagar Ahmed Husaini, "Principles of Environmental Engi- neering Systems Planning in Islamic Cultures" (Ph.D. dissertation, Stanford University, 1972), p. 2. 2Quran 13:15; see also 3:82, 16:48-50, 22:18, 30:25-25. 10 relationships, as well as the doctrine of worshiping God. It is also the primary source of Islamic law and legislation (Shar'ia).1 Hadith (Sunnah) is a report of the sayings and conduct of the prophet Muhammed (Peace be upon him). The Hadith (Sunnah) is the second resource of Islamic law and legislation (Shar'ia). Shar'ia refers to Islamic law and legislation, which is drawn primarily from the Quran and the Hadith (Sunnah). Islamic calendar (A.H.) is based on the "hijrah" (migration) of Muhammed, God's messenger of Islam, in 622 A.D. It is a lunar year of 12 months, the period from moon to moon. A full month has either 29 or 30 days; therefore, the 12 months of the Islamic calendar fall short of a solar year by about 11 days.2 Overview An institutional case study is reported in this dissertation. The purpose of the study was to describe the unique circumstances surrounding the establishment and development of Umm Al Qura Univer- sity in Makkah, Saudi Arabia. The first chapter provided an intro- duction to the problem, a statement of purpose, importance of the study, and definitions of important terms. 1Ali Abdulaziz Al-Abdulkader, "A Survey of the Contribution of Higher Education to the Development of Human Resources in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia" (Ph.D. dissertation, The University of Kansas, 1979), p. 7. 21mm, p. 5. 11 Chapter II contains a background of the interplay between higher education and societal development. The following topics are discussed: --Definition of development and related concepts --Higher education and societal development in the United States --Higher education and societal development in Saudi Arabia --Inf1uences that have shaped higher education in Saudi Arabia Chapter III provides a background of Western and Islamic perspectives on the goals of higher education. The following topics are discussed: --The importance of goal definition --The university's goals according to Western perspectives --The university's goals according to Islamic perspectives In Chapter IV, the progress of higher education in Saudi Arabia is described. In Chapter V, the case study of Umm Al Qura University is presented. The following aspects are discussed: --The historical background of the development of the university --Aims and objectives of the university --Governance and organization of the university --Academic programs and curricula The summary and conclusions of this study, as well as recom- mendations for further research, may be found in Chapter VI- CHAPTER II BACKGROUND: THE INTERPLAY BETWEEN HIGHER EDUCATION AND SOCIETAL DEVELOPMENT Human interest in the idea of societal development is as old as history. The role education plays is considered to be funda- mental to any society's development. In his Republic, Plato stated: "It's the direction given by education that is likely to determine all that follows.”1 Much later, Dewey wrote: Education is a fundamental method of social progress and reform. . . . Through education society can formulate its own purposes, can recognize its own means and reasons, and thus shape itself with definiteness and economy in the direction in which it wishes to move. This vital connection between education in general and higher education in particular and societal development necessitates an exploration of the various theories of societal development. Theories of Societal Development Although many efforts have been made to arrive at a definition of the term "development," the conceptual meaning of this word is still ambiguous. The term "development” has been the interest of many 1Plato Republic, quoted in Howard Bowen, The State of the Nation and Agenda for Higher Education (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, Inc., 1982), p. 82. 2John Dewey, in Archambault, 1964; quoted in Bowen, State of the Nation, p. 82. 12 13 economists, sociologists, political scientists, and social anthro- pologists. To many of them, the word "development" brings to mind other concepts, such as economic growth, modernization, industriali- zation, dependency, and cultural invigoration. These terms are often used interchangeably, either because they are considered to vary together or because they are meant to refer to the same thing. Iden- tifying the major theories of societal development is of benefit to the present study because it will provide a frame of reference for later discussion. Development as Economic Growth Mahdi defined economic growth as an ”increase in aggregate product, either tool or per capita, without referring to changes in the structure of the economy or in the social and cultural value systems."1 For many years, this concept of economic growth has been a criterion for development. However, in reality, this interpreta- tion has been challenged on the grounds that "development is a broad- based realization of the potentiality of human personality and social conditions."2 Development involves changes in structure, whereas growth involves changes in scale. This insight was also supported by Mabogunje. He stated: Development was defined as a rapid and sustained rise in real output per head and attendant shifts in the technological, economic, and demographic characteristics of a society. . . . IAli Akhar Mahdi, "A Critique of Modernization Theory From Dependency Perspective" (Master's thesis, Michigan State University, 1978), p. 24. 2Ibid., p. 25. 14 This interpretation came to be applied in a gross, macro- structural sense in which the role of the individuals involved in the process became completely unimportant compared to the total volume of commodity product and the proportion put aside as savings for further investment. Development as Modernization According to Lerner, modernization is the process of social change in which development is the economic component. Modernization produces the societal environment in which rising output per head is effectively incorporated. For effective incorporation, the heads that produce (and consume) rising output must understand and accept the new rules of the game deeply enough to improve their own productive behaviour and to diffuse it throughout their society.2 The modernization theory comprises indices of growth in and of themselves, such as urbanization and increases in literacy, health and nutrition, communications, and so on. This quanti- tative expression of social changes does not necessarily mean development. Mahdi stated: Modernization can be satisfactorily expressed quantitatively, as in economic terms where it is termed as growth. But development, although it too can be explained quantitatively, should be expressed qualitatively, because it is essentially concerned with the acceptance of moral interrelationships of human beings among themselves and in interaction with their environment. The term "modernization" has often been associated with Western life, as Eisenstadt stated: 1Akin L. Mabogunje, The Development Process (New York: Holmes & Meier Publishers, Inc., 1981), p. 36. 2Daniel Lerner, Social Aspects of Modernization, quoted in Mabogunje, The Development Process, p. 38. 3Mahdi, "A Critique of Modernization Theory," pp. 20-21. 15 Historically, modernization is the process of change towards those types of social, economic and political systems that have developed in Western Europe and North America from the seventeenth century to the nineteenth and have then spread to other European countries and in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries to the South American, Asian and African countries.1 The equation of modernization with westernization does not necessarily equate development with Western standards of living because the concept of development goes beyond the economists' mechanical measurements of growth (gross national product, per capita product, and per capita income are the three major ones).2 Mahdi further stressed this notion. He stated, Development is a dialectical process which is not identical to technical achievements and ensuing growth rates. Development is deeply concerned with concerted efforts of developing man/ woman towards an integrated and qualitative transformation of the social, economic, and political structures, as well as man/woman him/herself. It is a revolutionary leap from one epoch to another--from one type of relationship between men/ women and their social, economic, political, and ideological products to another form of relationship.3 The concept of development should not be restricted analytic- ally to the contemporary usage of modernization theorists. The way the term "development" is currently used may not be the ultimate justifiable end. Faheem supported this position by stating that: Many scholars have charged that modernization theory is hardly a scientific theory but is mainly a manifestation of the ethno- centric worldview and value-judgment of its pr0ponents. In measuring and defining development in terms of proximity to ‘5. N. Eisenstadt, Post-Traditional Societies and the Con- tinuity and Reconstruction of Tradition, quoted in Mohammad Eisa Faheem, "Higher Education and Nation Building" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 1982), p. 9. 2Mandi, "A Critique of Modernization Theory," p. 22. 31bid. 16 Western institutions and way of life, modernization has come to mean Westernization. What is more problematic is the notion that modern traits are "good," "progressive," and beneficial, when it is increasingly clear that the Western capitalist model of development generates many physical and social problems-- such as pollution, injustice, exploitation, corruption, dehumani- zation, and destruction of nature and spiritual values, as well. Thus it becomes clear that the concept of development goes beyond the boundaries of modernization and/or westernization. Such a concept has been regarded by many scholars as an overall process of social change, with both modernization and industrialization as its subunits. But the modernization and industrialization processes are not necessarily spatially or temporarily parallel. They may even be antithetical in certain periods.2 Development as Industrialization Many scholars have distinguished between development and industrialization. According to Horowitz, industrialization refers to technological and mechanical innovations, whereas social develop- ment implies "transformations in human relations, in the economic and political status in which men relateto each other, irrespective of the level of industrialization."3 Even though industrialization represents an important com- ponent of Western development, it may not be the main or the necessary 1Faheem, "Higher Education and Nation Building," pp. 10-11. 2Fatin Amin Shaker, "Modernization of the Developing Nations: A Case Study of Saudi Arabia" (Ph.D. dissertation, Purdue University, 1972), p. 21. 3d. Horowitz, Three Worlds of Development (New York: Oxford University Press, 1966), p. 25. 17 component of development for other countries. Mahdi supported this viewpoint. He wrote: In the West modernization (development) has proceeded by com- mercialization and bureaucracy. While industrialization in Europe gave birth to modernization, in Africa and Asia the present modernization processes may, though not in all cases, create favorable conditions for industrialization in the future. Third world countries may modernize without industrialization.1 Shaker reached a similar conclusion. She stated: There is no causal connection between social development and specific stages of industrialization. The "Third World” can, accordingly, go through social development without having to undergo massive industrialization. Meaning that, the latter is not the only index of the former. By the same reasoning, one can say that the characteristics of western liberal democ- racies that accompanied industrialization are not the only indicators of development.2 In his discussion of the politics of modernization, Apter concurred with Shaker's viewpoint: "Modernization (development) can . be seen as something apart from industrialization--caused by it in the West but causing it in other areas.”3 Thus it can be said that industrialization should not be con- sidered the only indicator of development because there are other alternative routes to development. In examining countries whose philosophy and ideology are different from those of the West or the East, one must be acutely aware of this fact. 1Mahdi, "A Critique of Modernization Theory,“ p. 27. 2Shaker, ”Modernization of the Developing Nations," p. 20. 3David Apter, The Politics of Modernization, quoted in Mahdi, "A Critique of Modernization Theory," p. 28. 18 Development as Cultural Invigoration From the preceding discussion, it is apparent that the defi- nition of the term "development" has been the subject of considerable debate. This debate increased by the end of the 19605, especially in the Third-World countries. Mabogunje stated: By the end of the 19605, it was becoming clear that neither development as economic growth nor as modernization (westerni- zation or industrialization) was having the expected wide- ranging effect on the standards and conditions of living of the majority of individuals in many Third World countries. If any- thing, the relative position of the masses worsened vis-a-vis that of the elite. Widespread poverty and destitution became visible, tangible and compelling. Development came to be seen not simply as raising per capita income but, more important, of reducing the poverty level among the masses or, as it was more picturesquely put, satisfying their l'basic needs."1 Viewing development as economic growth, as modernization, or as industrialization has not solved the problems of poverty and inequality among the various sectors of many societies. As a result, many scholars have begun to search for a new and fruitful meaning and definition of development. Bendix pointed to the need for re-examining the developmental process, and the processes of modernization and industrialization as well, from the viewpoint of factors of timing and sequence. He stated: These processes are unique in every case; modernization cannot occur twice in the same way. We cannot expect the present pro- cesses of modernization to be analogous to the past ones, nor can we expect that the industrialization which usually accom- panies modernization will have the same effects in the countries now being modernized as it had in the countries that were already industrialized some time ago.2 1Mabogunje, The Development Process, p. 39. 2Reinhard Bendix, Tradition and Modernity Reconsidered, quoted in Mahdi, ”A Critique of Modernization Theory," p. 89. 19 The demand for a new theory of development has arisen from proponents of the dependency theory. They consider this new approach to development a useful innovation to employ in order to understand the historical cultural situation, both present and past, especially in the developing countries. In his critique of modernization theory, Mahdi stated: In essence, the term ”dependency theory" does not refer to a particular theory or a theory in the positivist sense of that term, i.e., a consistent set of interrelated propositions which are capable of being empirically tested, but rather it is a frame of reference. . . . It offers no specific empirical ref- erences, but rather a new perspective. It represents a frame of reference within which various heterogeneous phenomena are analyzed to see how they link and interact with each other to form a total system. In brief, it is an attempt to establish a new paradigm. This new paradigm provides a new look at development. For many scholars, cultural invigoration is the new name for development. Mebrahtu defined this new concept of development as an innovative and creative process which leads to cultural emancipation by enriching, strengthening and purifying tra- ditional practices and values and by synthesizing them with the modern one.2 The most obvious aspect of this new paradigm is that it calls for a balanced growth between the material and the spiritual and between the traditional and modern aspects of life. In this regard, Faheem stated that The rationale for cultural renewal (invigoration) is based on the assumption that socio-economic development in the peripheral nations cannot take place without a sound, autonomous, cultural 1Mahdi, "A Critique of Modernization Theory," pp. 220-21. 2T. Mebrahtu, "Cultural Invigoration and the African Univer- sity," New University Quarterly 35 (Spring 1981): 177. 20 foundation and ideals. These cultural ideals, it is argued, will direct and guide the effort of societal development, pro- vide a framework for selecting relevant and appropriate tech- nologY, and protect the vulnerable, deprived nations from the process of cultural hegemony and dependency.1 Having discussed the major interpretations of societal develop- ment, it is important to discuss the role that higher education can play in the total development of any society. Higher Education and Societal Development A number of scholars seem to agree that higher education represents a potential power in societal development. Higher-education institutions not only produce the trained manpower required for indus- trial progress, political development, and social advancement; they also create an adequate cultural base to undergird developmental aims that are adequate in terms of values, attitudes, and traditions. In his discussion of the state of the nation and the agenda for higher education, Bowen stated that Higher education remains a social institution of great actual power and of even greater potential power. It is one of the levers by which a society can affect its destiny. Higher edu- cation can be consciously and deliberately used to help shape the trend of a national or even world culture. It is, of course, not strong enough to overpower all other influences bearing on cultural development, but it is strong enough to count. Throughout the past decades, higher education institutions have contributed to the renovation of overall educational systems for the benefit of national development in both developed and developing 1Faheem, "Higher Education and Nation Building," pp. 10-11. 2Howard R. Bowen, The State of the Nation and the Agenda for Higher Education (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, Inc., 1982), p. 10. . Ur . I .u on. {Gun . . I. w 21 countries. To provide a clear picture of this fact, the American experience is considered first as an example of the occurrence in developed countries. 0n the other hand, the Saudi experience is used to represent the developing countries. Higher Education and Societal Development in the United States Many scholars recognize the contributions of American universi- ties and institutions of higher education to societal development. From their founding days in the mid-seventeenth century, they have made substantial contributions to the advancement of the quality of American life. However, the end of World War II marked the beginning of a new era in American higher education. Bowen stated: Since World War II, American higher education has had an event- ful history and has continued to make substantial contributions to our national life. The postwar era, however, has not been a time of profound concern for purpose, or serious exploration of educational content, or of significant and lasting innovation in meth d. Rather, it has been a time of concentration on growth. In an attempt to explain the nature of the growth in American higher education after the war, Travelstead wrote: The knowledge explosion resulted in expanded curricula and further fragmentation and specialization. The emphasis on research was magnified. The junior college and graduate educa- tion, the polar ends of the structure of higher education, experienced the greatest develOpment. Colleges and universi- ties extended themselves into public service. 1Ibid., p. 2. 2Will W. Travelstead, "An Appraisal of Degree Programs of Aca- demic Administration in Higher Education in Selected Colleges and Universities" (Ph.D. dissertation, Southern Illinois University, 1974), p. 24. 22 Higher education in the United States is many-sided, due mainly to its origins and history. The early colleges, established during the colonial period, were patterned after the English model and empha- sized classical training for the ministry, law, and medicine. Much later, universities in the United States adapted themselves to German models, which emphasized the pursuit of science. During their develop- ment, American higher-education institutions have seen English, Scot- tish, German, and domestic ingredients blended in many different fashions. Some critics have viewed this diversity as the prime factor that has led American institutions of higher education to chaos, low standards, and scattering of effort. Yet others have pointed with pride to diversity as a major strength of higher education in the United States. In his lecture on higher education in America, Kerr emphasized that We have developed a diversified system of higher education. Contrary to that in many other countries where it is all public and run under a single policy, we have both excellent public and private institutions. We have been able to develop successful institutions with a religious background, others with only a secular background.1 Kerr went on to delineate the contributions of American higher education to political life: Higher education has made a major contribution to our political life, as has education generally. Thomas Jefferson was particu- larly impressed with the necessity of having an educated citi- zenry to have a successful democracy. And we have had a 1Clark Kerr, "Higher Education in America and Its Discontents," in The University in Transition, ed. Festus Justin Viser (Memphis: Memphis State University Press, 1971), p. 2. 23 successful democracy longer than any other nation in the world. Partly through higher education, we have developed the leaders and the citizens that have helped make this possib1e.l The contribution of higher education to American political life is just one aspect of its total contribution to society. Higher education has also been a source of economic growth in the United States. Bowen stated that: . . . Not long after the war, the attention of the American people began to drift toward egalitarian objectives. Partly as a result of the resounding success of the GI Bill, higher education was seen increasingly as a source of economic and social opportunity for individuals. Kerr reached a similar conclusion concerning the contribution of higher education to economic growth. In his words, Higher education has made major contributions to our economic development. . . . As a consequence we have by all odds the highest per capita income in the world. This has come about largely through the greater skill of our peOple and the higher technology that has come from higher education. The contribution of American higher education to research and public service has been well documented. The land grant movement, which emerged during the nineteenth century, came in response to the rapid industrial and agricultural development of the United States.4 The concept of continuing education represents another area in which American higher education has contributed to public service. 1Ibid., p. 2. ZBowen, State of the Nation, p. 2. 3Kerr, "Higher Education in America," p. 2. 4Clark Kerr, The Uses of the University(Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1964), p. 46. 24 Higher Education and Societal Development in Saudi Arabia During the past three decades, many scholars have examined the issue of higher education in Saudi Arabia. The result of such study has been an on-going debate about the function of higher edu- cation in Saudi Arabia. Most of the research on the function of higher education in Saudi Arabia is in the form of doctoral disser- tations submitted to universities in the United States. Research supporting the necessity of incorporating Western models of higher education.--This portion of the review deals with research about higher education in Saudi Arabia that has either sup- ported the importance of Western knowledge or has encouraged the adoption of Western models of higher education and the attempt to make such models applicable to Saudi needs. As early as 1963, Snyder stressed the need to apply the American community-college concept to Saudi Arabia. In his discus- sion, Snyder stated that "the traditional educational system was wholly inadequate to meet the needs of the new petroleum industry for trained manpower."1 According to Snyder, the solution to this need for manpower in Saudi Arabia was to establish a model comprehensive community college that was operated by a highly qualified American educational-institution.2 This conclusion came as a result of Snyder's 16 years of experience as a school administrator in Saudi Arabia. 1Harry R. Snyder, "Community College Education for Saudi Arabia" (Ed.D. dissertation, Columbia University, 1963), p. 108. 2Ipic1., p. 2. 25 Another study delineated the same view in regard to manpower planning in Saudi Arabia. In his discussion of the educational system and planning for manpower development in Saudi Arabia, Hammad wrote: A Saudi Arabian educational authority describes how serious the situation is: "We urgently need technicians and skilled workers but cannot provide employment for many of our university gradu- ates." It is in the interest of both the country and the stu- dents that the rapid proliferation of the religious institutes be controlled so that technical-vocational education may experi- ence dramatic growth. In a similar study, Al-Hazzam stressed the importance of an American consortium to the Saudi university. In his study of the development of the College of Petroleum and Minerals, he stated, The presence and functions of the consortium of American uni- versities is extremely valuable in order to assist with the evaluation of existing programs and policies in relation to their individual merit and their combined merit in serving to further the goals of the institution.2 Al-Hazzam further indicated the unique role of the College of Petroleum and Minerals in regard to human resource development. He thought that: The establishment of the College of Petroleum and Minerals in 1963/4 heralded a major step towards fulfillment of national goals envisioned by the government of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Primary among these goals has been the development of the human resources of the Kingdom in order to alleviate the problem of relying upon the outside world for degelopment of the industrial and private sector of the Kingdom. 1Abdulla Hammad, "The Educational System and Planning for Man- power Development in Saudi Arabia" (Ph.D. dissertation, Indiana Uni- versity, 1973), p. 137. 2Fahad S. Al-Hazzam, "Descriptive Study of the Development of the College of Petroleum and Minerals, Dahahran, Saudi Arabia" (Ph.D. dissertation, Arizona State University, 1975), p. 201. 3Ibid. 26 The researcher regarded the college as a latecomer to the world's roster of institutions of higher education as as a forerunner in terms of its objectives. Research sgpporting the value of indigenous higher education.-- This portion of the review delineates research that has stressed the importance of indigenous higher education in Saudi Arabia. Evidently, there is some degree of consensus regarding the importance of the enculturation process. In his discussion of higher education and nation building, Faheem stated: The emphasis on indigenous materials and cultural aspects as a base of educational process stems from the increasing belief that socio-economic development could not be achieved without a sound cultural identity and a critical collective conscious- ness. The primary function of schooling is not, therefore, the transmission of appropriate skills only, but rather the creation of culturally-oriented and ideologically conscious individuals, individuals who are attached to their own culture, aware of their historical situation and capable of reconstruct- ing and reinventing their own social reality.1 Furthermore, Faheem noted that some leaders in the under- developed countries are now trying to find a way out of their other- culture-dominated educational system. For this reason, he proposed that "universities in underdeveloped societies should assume the task of safeguarding their nations from other-cultural domination by exploring and devising an alternative construct and model of societal development which is culturally relevant and practical."2 1Mohammed Eisa Faheem, "Higher Education and Nation Building: A Case Study of King Abdulaziz University" (Ph.D. dissertation, Uni- versity of Illinois, 1982), p. 198. 2Ibid., pp. 189-90. 27 Another study that stressed the importance of indigenous- culture-oriented models was conducted by Al-Buraey. He stressed that the Islamic perspective on development, especially administrative development, differs from non-Islamic models, whether they are Western, Eastern, or otherwise. In stressing the importance of indigenous- culture-oriented models, Al-Buraey stated that: [An examination of] universities and administrative colleges in the Muslim countries, and other related educational institutions and organizations . . . reveals that almost all of them ignore Islamic administration. The universities offer one or two courses on Islamic administrative thought but only from an historical per- spective, with no linkage to the present. The role of the Islamist is to approach these institutions with a specific list of courses and books that show such linkages. Both Faheem and Al-Buraey stressed the fact that it is inappropriate for educational institutions in a developing country such as Saudi Arabia simply to adopt the objectives of institutions in either West- ern or Eastern countries, whose philosophy, culture, and economic setting are greatly different. Western processes and techniques may be adopted and adapted, but whether such adoption is beneficial depends on the values that energize and direct it. Influences That Have Shaped Higher Education in Saudi Arabia Any researcher who concentrates on educational development in Saudi Arabia must take into account the dominant emphasis placed on 1Muhammad Abdul Al-Buraey, "Administrative Development: An Islamic Perspective. The Possible Role of the Islamists in Develop- ment of the Muslim World" (Ph.D. dissertation, The University of North Carolina, 1981), p. 443. 28 religion. The influence of the Islamic religion permeates the history of the development of Saudi Arabia itself. In Saudi Arabia, the interplay between education and religion began as early as 1745, when Muhammad Ibn Abd Al-Wahhab (1703-1791), a religious reformer from Central Arabia, made an alliance with Muhammed Ibn Saud, a neighboring tribal chief whose family had held the small oasis of Al-Dir'iyah since the mid-fifteenth century. This compact provided for a return to the primeval purity of Islam and the ortho- dox practices of the early believers, as well as cleansing from Islam the superstitious accretions that had crept into the lives and think- ing of the Muslims.1 This movement came to be known as the Wahhabism movement. In describing this movement, Zaid stated, Wahhabism as a movement and philosophy, although it was led by and carried the name of Ibn Abdl Wahhab, was not completely of his invention. It is rooted in the original Islam as taught by the Prophet Mohammed. Abdl Wahhab's philosophy is a part of the fourth Moslem school, the Hanbalis. This school tends to adopt Islam literally as it came in the Koran or in the tradi- tions of the prophet. It does not apply itself to deep or philosophical interpretations of Islam as other schools may tend to do. The emergence of the new Saudi Arabia was known as the third phase of the Wahhabi movement. According to Zaid, King Abdulaziz Ibn Saud, the founder of the present Wahhabi state, Saudi Arabia, gathered the Arabian tribes in 1911 and put them in great hijras [settlements]. His purpose was to ‘ re-educate them in the religious philosophy of Ibn Abdl Wahhab, 1Ibrahim Abdullah Al-Shami, "Tradition and Technology in the Developmental Education of Saudi Arabia and Egypt" (Ph.D. disserta- tion, The University of Michigan, 1977), pp. 45-46. 2Abdullah M. Zaid, "A Pragmatic Critique of Contemporary Arabian Civilization" (Ph.D. dissertation, The University of Oklahoma, 1972), p. 36. 29 and then to lead them, as his ancestors did the Arabs of their time, in making real his political ambitions. With the help of Ibn Abdl Wahhab's great grandsons, the Al-Shaikh, and other students of Wahhabism, King Abdulaziz Ibn Saud was able, in less than a decade, to re-educate the Bedouin, and again the educa- tional tradition of the mosque, public lectures, and the old religious books were the means of creating a faithful army.1 The first step that the new Saudi state took toward establish- ing a higher-education program was to lay the foundations of tradi- tional education with its various levels and to make this education available everywhere. In this regard, Al-Shami stated, It is true, of course, that higher education institutes devoted to the preservation of cherished values have been established concurrently. The College of Islamic Law, established in Makkah in 1949 for the training of judges and preachers, was the first institute of higher education. TWelve years later, the Saudi government established two other universities, the Islamic University at Medina in 1961 and Imam Muhammed Ibn Saud Islamic University at Riyadh in 1974. These two universities were established in an attempt to balance the other four universities in the Kingdom, which are secular in nature. Socioeconomic Influences _ When King Ahd Abdul Aziz established the new Saudi Arabian monarchy in 1932, he was faced with a serious financial crisis. As a result, a new approach to development was needed. Faheem wrote, It was mainly these financial crises that led King Abdul Aziz to allow foreign Western companies to develop the oil resources. Until then he had been uneasy about admitting foreigners into his Kingdom. However, economic needs necessitated the new move 1Ibid., p. 31. 2A1-Shami, "Tradition and Technology," p. 111. 30 by which the King granted the Standard Oil of California in 1933 a concession for oil exploration in exchange for a $250,000 royalty in advance.1 The discovery of commercial quantities of oil around 1938 marked a new era in the economic life of Saudi Arabia. Faheem noted: The increasing oil revenues gradually transformed the economic and social structures of the society. 0i1 income replaced pil- grimage revenue as the main source of Saudi financial assets, and a program for developing the Saudi economy was initiated. The government allocated a sizeable portion of oil income to irrigate land, build schools, improve health conditions and transportation facilities and to establish a simple, small-scale local industry. Some of the oil money was allocated to recurrent expenditures, to the private use of the King and his royal family, and as a grant to tribal groups and individual members of the country. The King asked for the help of many experts from dif- ferent countries to assist him in realizing his program of develop- ment. Thus, in 1946, the first group of engineers from America, Britain, and other Middle Eastern countries visited the country to study the King's program of "modernization." An educational mission was also sent from the United States to assist in work- ing out a plan for building schools in the eastern part of the country. The effect of this new strategy of development has been clear in all higher-education institutions. Al-Hazzam stated, All institutions of higher education have been affected by the industrialization of the Kingdom. Nowhere has this been so apparent, however, as in the creation of the College of Petroleum and Minerals. The very act of its conception at a time of such great need reflects the seriousness with which the government regards the development of the Kingdom. The College is thought of not merely as a Saudi institution, but rather as what may hopefully be ong of the most prestigious facilities of international scope. The College of Petroleum and Minerals (now named the Univer- sity of Petroleum and Minerals) was established by Royal Decree 1Faheem, "Higher Education and Nation Building," p. 100. 2Ibid., p. 101. 3Al-Hazzam, "Descriptive Study," p. 10. 31 No. 397 in 1963. The university uses the American educational system in all matters, including planning, organization, curriculum, and other areas. In this university, English is the language of instruc- tion, and an international faculty, basically Americans, is recruited as instructors. The University of Petroleum and Minerals has experienced a rapid, systematic growth. Al-Hazzam described this growth as follows: The rapid growth of the College of Petroleum and Minerals largely parallels the rapid economic and technical development of Saudi Arabia. It also reflects the rising expectations of Saudi Arabia's young men, and the increasing importance of Saudi Arabia in the sphere of the world's energy resources. Because the University of Petroleum and Minerals had been successful in meeting the manpower demands in Saudi Arabia, other higher-education institutions in the Kingdom began shifting from European to American models of higher learning. In 1974, the Univer- sity of Riyadh (King Saud University) and King Abdul Aziz University changed their structures to follow American patterns or the precedent of the College of Petroleum and Minerals. This transformation of the development process in Saudi Arabia has caused unrest among concerned Muslim scholars. Faheem, one of those scholars, stated, The most problematic aspect of Saudi development process is its complete reliance on foreign experts, foreign models and ideas of social transformation. For although Saudi Arabia has adopted the Islamic ideology as guide to its socio-economic life and stressed the importance of preserving religious values and traditions, she has not yet developed an Islamic program (even at the theoretical level) for her development process. The Saudi 1Ibid., p. 39. L 32 desire to develop along an Islamic path is not supported by a concrete strategy which relates the goals of the society to every aspect of societal transformation. So far, the Saudis have accepted and adopted the Western mode of development which stresses accumulation, conspicuous consumption, and capital intensive projects. The content of the five-year plans reveals that the techniques and strategies of those plans are based on the assump- tions of the "modernization" theory. These plans, in fact, are designed by Western consultants (e.g., the Stanford Research Institute, Harvard University, and the Arthur 0. Little con- sultancy organization), carried out and implemented mainly by Western experts and companies. The underlying strategies of these plans now appear to be not in the best interests of the country, because of their disastrous impact on the religious and cultural value system. Since the philosophy of Western development does not take into account the cultural aspects of underdeveloped societies but may regard them as obstacles to development, it tends to deliberately erode the traditional moral basis and social characteristics of these countries.1 From the preceding discussion, one can see that rapid socio- economic growth has forced the Saudi government to establish higher- education institutions that lack a clear-cut vision or philoSOphy about the role and functions of educational institutions, especially the role of higher education in society.2 Western Influences The Saudi Arabian educational strategy has been closely linked with that of Western countries such as England, France, and the United States. At first there was no direct relationship between Saudi edu- cation and Western educational systems. Nevertheless, Western influ- ences have been transmitted to Saudi Arabia through the neighboring Arab countries, which had been affected by Western systems of educa- tion. 1Faheem, "Higher Education and Nation Building," pp. lll-12. 2Ibid., p. 116. 33 In recent years, Saudi Arabia has sent a large number of stu- dents to be educated in Western countries, especially the United States. According to recent statistics, the number of Saudi students in the United States alone exceeds 12,505.1 Upon finishing their degrees, these students return home with new ideas about and strate- gies for education. They become extremely influential, especially when they are assigned positions in the educational hierarchy. In this regard, Al-Ajroush stated, Today the impact of American influences is seen in all major forms of development in the country and educational development is by no means neglected. This influence is seen in two forms. One is the indirect influence of young Saudis who obtained their higher education in the West, mainly in the United States. These young people go home with different degrees (B.S., M.A., Ph.D., etc.) and different specializations. They return full of ambi- tion and new educational ideas. Naturally, these ideas stem from the American educational philosophy and ideology. The second influence is a direct one where American educators work as consultants to the Ministry of Education and other govern- mental agencies to aid in its development program. In her study of the American influence on the development of the universities in Saudi Arabia, Marks reached the same conclusion. She stated, The American influence in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia has been twofold: Firstly as a result of the presence of Americans in the country who came as oil workers at the invitation of the monarch; and secondly, as a result of the many Saudi students3 who obtained their university education in the United States, 1Ibid., p. 11. 2Hamad Al-Ali Al-Ajroush, "A Historical Development of the Public Secondary School Curriculum in Saudi Arabia" (Ph.D. disserta- tion, The University of Oklahoma, 1980), p. 66. 3Marguerite M. Marks, "The American Influence on the Develop- ment of the Universities in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia" (Ph.D. dis- sertation, University of Oregon, 1980), p. 126. 34 Faheem also delineated the picture of Western influences as they relate to universities in Saudi Arabia. He noted: There is now a growing shift in the universities of Saudi Arabia from humanistic and religious topics to more of Western technical and professional knowledge. Experts from Europe and America are called upon to help in reforming or building the emerging Saudi institutions. Among the newly modern-oriented universities, there is almost a total dependence on foreign models and forms of educational arrangements. . . . They have relied heavily on foreign Western experts to map their charts of growth and develop- ment and they have borrowed in a "package deal" all of their edu- cational organization, contents and conceptions. Summary From the preceding discussion of the interplay between higher education and societal development, one can conclude that higher edu- cation has affected the progress of not only the developed countries but also the developing countries. The nature of the effect may not be the same, but it is very obvious. The mixed views in the dis- cussion on higher education have arisen from the failure to concep- tualize clearly what development is and to define the proper role of higher education in the wider environmental context. The difficulties of arriving at a conclusion regarding the correct relationship between higher education and societal development are apparent. Yet many scholars have tried to delineate that relationship. This is often done by identifying the goals and mission of the university in a certain society. That subject is discussed in the following chapter. 1Faheem, "Higher Education and Nation Building," p. 119. CHAPTER III BACKGROUND: WESTERN AND ISLAMIC PERSPECTIVES ON THE GOALS OF HIGHER EDUCATION Western and Islamic perspectives on the goals of higher educa- tion are considered in this chapter. Included are the following aspects: --the importance of goal definition --the university's goals according to a Western perspective --the university's goals according to en1 Islamic perspective The Importance of Goal Definition Few individuals would dispute the importance of goal defini- tion for any social institution. The university as a social system represents a unique enterprise in the societal spectrum. To remain so and to maintain its viability, the university must provide a clear picture of its goals. Many educators nowadays are asking the follow- ing questions: What kind of pe0ple do we want our children and grand- children to be? What kind of society do we want them to live in? How may higher education be guided and shaped to help nurture people of that kind and to help create that kind of society?1 To answer 1Howard R. Bowen, The State of the Nation and the Agenda for Higher Education (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers, 1982), p. 9. 35 36 such questions, an examination of the specific goals of the univer- sity according to different perspectives is imperative. Before any survey of university goals is conducted, the value of such goals must be confirmed. Many educators have dealt with this issue. .According to Etzioni, "social units should be deliberately constructed and reconstructed to seek specific goals."1 He noted the importance of goals by stating some of their purposes: 1. Goals set guidelines for organizational activity. 2. Goals constitute a source of legitimacy and explain the raison d'etre of the organization. 3. Goals present a future state of affairs that the organi- zation attempts to attain. 4. Goals serve as standards by which members of an organiza- tion and outsiders can assess the organization's performance. 5. Goals serve as measures for the student of organizations Who is interested in determining how well the organization is per- forming.2 In a report entitled "Regional Accrediting Faces New Chal- lenge," Robb noted that if one wants to measure success in education, the first need is to identify clearly and precisely the goals of that education.3 Winstead and Hobson further stressed that all educational institutions need clear and explicit goals in order to provide the 1Amitai Etzioni, Modern Organization (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1964), p. 3. 2Ibid., p. 5. 3Felix C. Robb, "Regional Accrediting Faces New Challenge," American Association of Community and Junior Colleges Journal 42 (1971): 669. 37 necessary focus and direction. To him, it is only by having clear and explicit goals that institutions can hope to receive the necessary support from their constituencies.1 In his discussion of institutional goal-consciousness, Peterson listed the following reasons why goals are requisite: 1. Goals set fundamental policy and may serve as the basic element in the formulation of the institution's policy, philoSOphy, or ideology. 2. Goals are general discipline guides. 3. Goals are necessary to planning. 4. Goals are needed for institutional evaluation. 5. Goals are necessary to implement accountability.2 The University's Goals According to a Western Perspective From a Western perspective, the function of the university has traditionally been thought to be threefold--to involve teaching, research, and public service. The Governmental Research Institute stated in its bulletin that the role of the University has been to extend the "frontiers of knowledge" through research and to transmit knowledge through teaching. . . . The University has a third function to apply knowledge through public service. This third function is 1Phi11ip c. Winstead and Edward N. Hobson, "Institutional Goals: Where to From Here?" Journal of Higher Education 42 (1971): 669. 2Richard E. Peterson, "College Goals and the Challenge of Effectiveness" (paper presented at Purdue University, Ft. Wayne, Indiana, November 23, 1971). (Princeton, N.J.: Educational Testing Service, 1971), p. 5. 38 implicit in the provisions of Title One of the Higher Education Act of 1965 which seems to suggest that the university makes a direct contribution to the solution of groan problems through active participation in community life. However, the importance of the university as a social insti- tution usually exceeds the aforementioned functions. In his discus- sion of the nature of academic responsibility, Neff stated that A university is a social institution . . . one which contributes to the maintenance and transformation of social values, that it is most effective when it possesses a common philosophy . . . one which results in the process of education and individual development but which also has social implications; that such a philosophy must generally engage and have relevance for the members of its community. Every university needs to organize, plan, and justify its philosophy. In attempting to work toward evolving a philosophy, the university must commit itself to truth, which constitutes the ultimate quality of life. In stressing the effect of the educational experi- ence, Bryon stated: Another minimal expectation in any university community is a common commitment to truth. . . . The university is an atmosphere of open inquiry and free quest for truth. . . . Somehow, through a creative cataclysmic curriculum, the student should meet in his professors, his peers, his books, and his projects, but especially in himself, the value, which, in developed and per- sonalized form will mutually guarantee that his judgements will be principles.3 ' 1Governmental Research Institute, The Role of the University in the Community, February 1969 (Lincoln, Neb.: ERIC Document Repro- duction Service, ED 034 493, 1969), p. 2. 2Charles B. Neff, "Toward a Definition of Academic Responsi- bility," The Journal of Higher Education 41 (January 1969): 12-22. 3William Bryon, "A Need for Principled Judgement," The Chron- icle of Higher Education 8 (December 1973): 37. 39 The goals of the university include transmitting, updating, and projecting the cultural heritage; consolidating the national unity and promoting world peace; preparing the work force for employ- ment; promoting technical progress; and improving the welfare of the people. Potter and his associates wrote: The primary purpose of the university is to provide an environment in which faculty and students can discover and examine critically, preserve and transmit the knowledge, wisdom, and values that will ensure the survival of the present and future generation with the improvement in the quality of life.1 This quality of life arises from the institution's ability to justify what it is doing. Whitehead described this justification of the university as follows: The justification for a university is that it preserves the con- nection between knowledge and the zest of life, by uniting the young and the old in the imaginative consideration of learning. The university imparts information, but it imparts it imagina- tively. At leasg, this is the function which it should perform for the society. Newman provided a similar definition of the purpose and jus- tification of the university in his book The Idea of a University. He stated, University training is the great ordinary means to a great but ordinary end; it aims at raising the intellectual tone of society, at cultivating the public mind, at purifying the national taste. It is the education which gives a man a clear conscious view of his own opinions and judgment, a truth in developing them, an eloquence in expressing them. It teaches him to see things as they are, to go right to the point, to disentangle a skein of thought, to detect what is sophisticated, and to discard what is 1V. R. Potter and others, "Purpose and Functions of the Uni- versity," Science 167 (March 1970): 7. 2Alfred North Whitehead, The Aims of Education and Other Essays (New York: The New American Library, 1949), p. 93. 4O irrelevant. It shows him how to accommodate himself to others, how to throw himself into their state of mind, how to bring before them his own, how to influence them, how to come to an understand- ing with them, how to bear with them. From the preceding interpretations of and views on the goals of the university, one can conclude that a continuous interaction takes place between the university and society. As a result of this interaction, the purpose of the society and the goals of the univer- sity remain in a state of dynamic tension. The University's Goals Accordihgito the Islamic Perspective Most Muslim scholars, when considering the goals of the uni- versity, believe that that the principles of these goals are derived from the Islamic philosophy of education. In his discussion of edu- cational theory from the Quranic outlook, Abdullah stated that: Islamic educational theory (philosophy) should mainly stem from the Quran if it is to possess its own merits. The ayahs (verses) of the Quran are not meant to be recited in a limited time allotted to what is nowadays labelled "religious education." They form in fact the foundation of the whole educational system. But to say this does not mean that other subjects are to be ignored. The Quran considers whatever exists in the universe as well as man himself as Allah's signs which must be studied. . . . The principles of the Quran form the base of the theory, and educators have to work out its details. The Quran leaves the door open for the specialists to make their contributions pro- vided that the Quranic principles form . . . the yardstick.2 The Holy Quran and the Sunnah (the prophet's sayings and conduct) are considered the basis and core of the Islamic philosophy 1John Henry Newman, The Idea of a University (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday and Company, 1959), pp. 191-92. 2Abdul Rahman S. Abdullah, Educational Theory: A Quranic Out- look (Makkah: Umm Al Qura University, 1982), p. 36. 41 of education. In his discussion of educational theory from a Quranic outlook, Abdullah stated that: [The] Quran is considered for the Muslim the greatest book in the philosophy of education. . . . If philosophy is concerned with the study of how things began and end, and with the study of man and his relations with his fellow man, the universe and Allah, the philosophy of the Quran includes all this. . . . The Quran deals with the creation of man and his nature. The philosophy of the Quran which is characterized by being compre- hensive allows for development and‘change.1 Muslims regard the Sunnah as the second major source of Islamic educational philosophy. In this regard, Baltow stated, The Sunnah interprets the Qur'an in such a way as to provide more detailed explanations for some of the laws contained in the Qur'an. . . . The prophet Mohammad is considered to be the Muslim people's educator. His life in general--that is, his sayings, his conduct in public with other people and in private with his family, his stand in times of war and peace, and his practice of Islam--is considered by Muslims as the highest ideal, after the Qur'an, to follow and emulate.2 Muslim scholars value the Quran and the Sunnah because they believe those two sources provide the ultimate truth of both the present life and the Hereafter. In the Quran, God says, But seek the abode of the Hereafter in that which Allah hath given thee and neglect not thy portion of the world, and be thou kind even as Allah hath been kind to thee, and seek not corruption in the earth; Lo! Allah loveth not corrupters. 1Ibid. 2Abdullatif M. Baltow, "A Historical Analysis of the Saudi Arabian Ministry of Education's Policies Regarding Fathers' Involve- ment in the Schooling of Their Children" (Ph.D. dissertation, Michigan State University, 1983), pp. 70-71. 3Quran 28:77. 42 Both the Quran and the Sunnah stress the superiority of knowledge and education. The following quotations from the two sources support this assertion. From the Quran; Allah says: Read in the name of thy Lord who created, created man from a clot: Read and thy Lord is most generous, who taught by the pen, taught man what he knew not. Allah will exalt those who believe among you, and those who have knowledge, to high degrees.2 Are those who know equal with those who know not?3 [0 Muhammad] Pray: My God; increase me in knowledge.4 Allah giveth wisdom unto whom He will, and he unto whom wisdom is given, he truly hath received abungant good. But none remember except men of understanding. From the Sunnah; the Prophet Muhammad (Peace be upon him) says: The seeking of knowledge is obligatory upon every Muslim, male and female.6 He who goes forth in search of knowledge is in the way of Allah till he returns. There should be no envy [emulation] but in two cases--a man whom Allah has given wealth and the power to spend it in the service of Truth, and the person whom Allah has granted knowledge of 8 things [wisdom] and he judges by it and teaches it [to others]. When a man dies, his actions cease to bear fruit except in three cases--the work of public utility; or knowledge (left by him) whereby men are benefitted; or a pious child who prays for him.9 1 2 Quran 96:1-5. Quran 58:11. 3Quran 96:1-5. 4ouran 58:11. 5Miskat al-Masabih Khatib Tabrizi, "Knowledge," Islamic Educa- tion Journal (Pakistan) 5 (July-August/September-October 1972): 32. 6Ibid. 7 8Ibid. 9Ioid. Kitab al-Ilm Muslim, cited in ibid., p. 31. 43 The Quran and the Sunnah make it clear that gaining knowledge is very important for every Muslim. For this reason, many Muslim scholars have sought knowledge and have attempted to develop a unique Islamic philosophy of education. The Islamic Philosophy of Knowledge and Education The Islamic philosophy of knowledge and education is unique. This philosophy must be distinguished from the actual Muslim philos- 0phy. Husaini stated, This philosophy is called ”Islamic” rather than merely "Muslim" to distinguish its ideal and ideological character from its actual I'Muslim” character in the sociological-anthropological sense. The actual Muslim character may sometimes differ from the ideal of the Islamic philosophy because the philosophy itself is mis- understood. Therefore, it is appropriate to provide a picture of the Islamic philosophy of knowledge and education according to the earliest Muslim scholars, who lived during the age of enlightenment of Islam. To provide a clear picture of the Islamic philosophy of knowledge and education, the researcher focused on two renowned Muslim scholars, Al-Gazali and Ibn Khaldun. The two scholars, who lived during the Middle Ages, are considered the most influential thinkers during the golden age of Islam. Their classification of knowledge provides a frame of reference from which to discuss the Islamic philosophy of the ideal pattern of knowledge and education. . 1S. Wagar Husaini, "Principles of Environmental Engineering Systems Planning in Islamic Culture" (Ph.D. dissertation, Stanford University, 1971), p. 57. 44 Islamic Philosophy of Knowledge and Education According to Al-Ghazali (450-505 A.H.71058-1111 A.D.) Ahu Hamid Muhammad al-Ghazali, born near modern Meshhed, Iran, was one of the distinguished scholars at his time. He was a writer and professor in the Nizamiyya Academy at Baghdad. He is considered to be one of the most original and encyclopaedic minds, and one of the most influential thinkers of the world, of all times. The works of al-Ghazali are one of the princi- pal sources of diffusion of Islamic culture in the medieval West. Many of his works had beenltranslated into Latin less than forty years after his death. In his discussion of principles of environmental engineering, systems planning in Islamic culture, Husaini presented Al-Ghazali's and Ibn Khaldun's classifications of knowledge. According to him, Al-Ghazali's classification of knowledge fell into three categories: .by level of obligation, by source, and by social function. Husaini described each of these three categories as follows:2 1. Classification of knowledge by level of obligation. Al-Ghazali's classification of knowledge by level of obligation has two components: individually requisite knowledge and socially requisite knowledge. a. Individually requisite knowledge (Fard 'Ayn). Such knowl- edge is the duty of every Muslim. It begins with knowledge of the "five pillars" of Islam as and when these duties become incumbent upon the individual: confession of faith, the daily prayers, fasting during the month of Ramadan, payment of taxes (Zak'at), and pilgrimage to Makkah. This knowledge is compulsory for every individual. In addition, every Muslim must learn about other provisions of Islamic 1Ibid., p. 58. 2Ipid.. pp. 59-58. 45 law. He must also be aware of Islamic ethics and morality. This includes the fear of and hope in God, fortitude, devotion, generosity, truthfulness, morality, and strict obedience to law and God's commands. The Muslim is also required to learn about the transcendental mys- teries mentioned in the Quran, such as angels, God's attributes, prophecy, and heaven. At a minimum, all people are required to believe in these mysteries, whose real understanding is given only to prophets and "those close to God." Because such understanding is beyond the grasp of even theologians and philosophers, people should learn about these mysteries to the extent that God provides and not try to specu- late about them. b. Socially requisite knowledge (Fard Kif'aya). Such knowl- edge is obligatory for the welfare of the Muslim community as a whole. According to Al-Ghazali, only competent individuals should specialize in each of the required disciplines and vocations. These disciplines "comprise every science which is indispensable for the welfare of this world; without them a community would be reduced to narrow straits."1 2. Classification of knowledge by source. Al-Ghazali con- sidered the source of knowledge under two categories: Shar'ia sciences and non-Shar'ia sciences. a. Shar'ia sciences (Ulum Shar'ia). These are the sciences dealing with the Shar'ia. They are acquired from the Prophet and are not the discovery of human beings. Neither reasoning nor justification is a criterion for its content. The sources of the Shar'ia are derived from the Quran and the Sunnah (Hadith). 1A1-Ghazali, Book of Knowledge, pp. 37, 51; also p. 9. 46 b. Non-Shar'ia sciences (Ulum Ghayer Shar'ia). The primary sources of the non-Shar'ia sciences are reason, experimentation, and acculturation. The permissible sciences are those that are not explicitly forbidden by the Shar'ia. 3. Classification of knowledge by social function. Accord- ing to Al-Ghazali, knowledge can be classified according to its social function as follows. a. Praiseworthy (Mahmud) sciences. Praiseworthy sciences are the useful and indispensable sciences on which the activities of life depend, such as medicine and arithmetic. b. Blameworthy (Madhmum) sciences. The blameworthy sciences include magic, dialectical theology, astrology, and the like. Islamic Philosophy of Knowledge and Education According to Ibn Khaldun i132-808 A.H./1332-1406 A.D.) Ahd Al-Rahman ibn Khaldun was born in Tunis. He is known as a historian and a sociologist of politics, economics, urban life, and knowledge. His fame as the father of philoSOphy of history, and of sociology in a modern sense, rests on the voluminous Prolegomena (Mugaddimah) to his universal History written during a temporary retirement. His Prolegomena is considered to be one of "the greatest works of its kind that has ever yet been created by any mind in any time or place." Ibn Khaldun's classification of knowledge is simlar to that of Al-Ghazali. According to Ibn Khaldun, education is a sociological phenomenon. He thought that although every human being is endowed with a natural capacity to learn, the need for a proper education is inevitable. To Ibn Khaldun, knowledge is of two kinds: Naqli Ulum 1Husaini, "Environmental Engineering Systems Planning,” p. 69. 47 (that reported by tradition) and Aqli (that gained through reason). Abdullah wrote: Naturally Ibn Khaldun has assigned to the Naqli Ulum (Quran, Hadith, Tafsin, etc.) the first place in order of precedence but has also given the Ulum-i-Aqli (logic . . . metaphysics, and mathematics) a position of remarkable eminence. Ibn Khaldun's theory of education is based on two doctrines: at-Tabian (man's individual nature) and al-Umran (the sociological temper of the civilization). He recognized the importance of both individual and society in education. Although Ibn Khaldun stressed the sociological factor, he did not ignore the child and his indi- vidual characteristics.2 Present Muslim Philosophy of Higher Education In light of the preceding discussion of the classification of knowledge, some Muslim scholars have established, in our time, ideas of what higher education should be if it is to preserve the Islamic ideals. In his discussion of higher education and nation building, Faheem stated, University education should (1) evolve around and emanate from the Islamic ideology and principles; (2) implant the Islamic values and attitudes in the students in order to make them Muslims in thoughts, spirits and practices; (3) develop and build an Islamic personality equipped with essential knowl- edge and firm belief in the mission of an Islamic society; (4) create and produce a new scientific knowledge for the expansion of human horizons and the solution of societal problems, 1S. M. Abdullah, "The Contribution of Muslims to Science and Learning: Educational Ideas of Ibn Khaldun," Islamic Education (Pakistan) 1 (1968): 63. 21bid., p. 55. 48 (5) provide the society with trained and skilled manpower; (6) participate in community service through adult education, public lectures, conferences and other educational means; (7) expand and reproduce Islamic knowledge in a new synthetic form acceptable to this "modern" age; (8) increase the oppor- tunity for women to enroll in higher educational institutions to learn those topics which are congruous with her nature, religion, and role in an Islamic society. In his plea for a modern Islamic university, Hossain stated that The education of Muslims should include training not merely for acquiring knowledge and skills in order to be fit for enter- ing one or other careers open to educated young men for earning money and position to live comfortably and honourably in their transient worldly life; it should emphasize training for foster— ing the innate Islamic instinct with which every child is born, as stated in a well-known authentic tradition of the Holy Prophet(s): The first and foremost function is to sow the seeds of this instinct in the seed-bed of this world so that its sap- lings are transplanted in the garden abode to blossom with bliss and beatitude for their eternal life in the next world.2 Hossain was motivated to plead for a modern Islamic univer- sity through his belief that the existing university in modern Islamic states is inferior to the Islamic university as it existed in the great days. Hossain stated, Muslim universities were no doubt different from those of mod- ern times, but they were enlightened institutions that led the world in learning and research. The great professors of those universities were teachers of modern Europe.3 1Mohammed Eisa Faheem, "Higher Education and Nation Building” (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 1982), pp. 151-52. 2S. M. Hossain, ”A Plea for a Modern Islamic University: Resolution of the Dichotomy," in Aims and Objectives of Islamic Edu- cation, ed. Syed Muhammed Al-Attar (Great Britain: Hodder and Stoughton, 1979), p. 91. 3Ipid., p. 101. 49 During the great days of Islam, the mosque was the university of Islam. It deserved the name of university because it welcomed all the knowledge of the age and attracted scholars from every quarter. All education was brought into the religious sphere.1 On the other hand, universities in modern Islamic states have not been able to integrate secular and religious systems of education. This has pro- duced a wide gulf between belief and practice throughout the Muslim world. As a result, Hossain emphasized the necessity for a modern Islamic university: A modern Islamic university, laying a foundation of an eventually unified system of education, will bridge the gulf between the two systems of education (secular and religious) and turn out well- educated young men endowed with Islamic character and, as such, will prove themselves worthy and useful citizens of the Islamic world.2 From the foregoing discussion, one can discover the vital connection between education and the Islamic value system. The mis- sion of the university from the Islamic perspective can be summarized in the following objectives: 1. Cultural objectives: These objectives include the trans- mission of the Islamic cultural heritage, which derives its principles from the Islamic value system. 2. Ethical objectives: Ethical objectives include the promo- tion of moral and spiritual values prescribed by the Holy Quran and the Sunnah. Ibid. Ibid., p. 103. 50 3. Social and economic objectives: The university serves the Islamic state by preparing pe0ple for employment, developing new technology, and improving the quality of life of all people. 4. Political objectives: From the Islamic perspective, the university must be a catalytic agent in consolidating national and international unity in the frame of reference of Islamic ideology. By accomplishing these four major objectives, the total per- sonality of the Muslim individual can be developed. A balanced growth in the spiritual, mental, physical, social, and psychological needs is of prime importance to Muslim scholars and educators. Husain and Ashraf stated, Education should aim at the balanced growth of the total per- sonality of man through the training of man's spirit, intellect, the rational self, feeling and bodily sense. Education should therefore cater to the growth of man in all its aspects: spiri- tual, intellectual, imaginative, physical, scientific, linguis- tic, both individually and collectively, and motivate all these aspects towards goodness and the attainment of perfection. The ultimate aim of Muslim education lies in the realization of com- plete submission to Allah on the level of the individual, the community, and humanity at large. The Islamic philosophy of education aims at developing an individual who is balanced in all of the aforementioned areas. In regard to the physical needs, Abdullah stated, Islamic education which cares for the human body should aim at providing the student with the relevant facts about his body; it should aim at helping him acquire the skills that make him feel stronger and it should aim at implanting [a] positive atti- tude toward his body.2 ]Syed Sajjad Hussain and Sayed Ali Ashraf, Crisis in Muslim Education (Great Britain: Hodder and Stoughton, 1979), p. 44. 2Abdullah, Educational Theory: A Quranic Outlook, p. 121. 51 Abdullah based this conclusion on the following verse from the Sunnah: "A strong believer is better and is more lovable to Allah (God) than a weak believer.”1 Developing the physical strength of the believer is just one aim of Islamic education. 'Spiritual strength is viewed as the corner- stone of Islamic education. Abdullah asserted: It is believed that a person who truly accepts the message of Islam should accept all the ideals embodied in the Quran. Promoting the spirit of loyalty to Allah alone and implement- ing the Quranic morality which was exemplified in the conduct of the Prophet constitutes the second main sub-division of the general aim. Objectives that pelong to this category are usu- ally described as spiritual (ruhiyyah). Those ideals cover the different aspects of2the person as an individual or as a member of the community. Spiritual strength is a criterion for a good Muslim, whether old or young. The heart that is full of faith in God guides its possessor to the right path. In regard to intellectual needs, Abdullah stated, Here educators are preoccupied with developing intelligence which leads the individual to discover the ultimate truth. The study of Allah's signs and the discovery of order in these signs should lead to the recognition of the Designer of all that exists. Failure to do so is viewed as the most serious type of mental deviation. The preceding discussion of physical, spiritual, and intel- lectual needs provided a clear picture of the Islamic philosophy of education and how this philosophy is concerned with creating a good 1Mus1im 5. Al-Hajjaj, Sahih Muslim, 4 vols. (Cairo: Mustafa al-Babi al-Halabi, 1377 A.H.), p. 1401. (In Arabic.) 2 Abdullah, Educational Theory: A Quranic Outlook, p. 121. 3Ipid., p. 123. 52 individual who is balanced in all of his basic needs. Balanced growth will lead the individual to live in harmony with his fellow members of society. The harmony between the individual and his society is considered desirable in a Muslim society. In fact, the ideal Muslim is the one who believes in the concept of brotherhood and works hard toward achieving it. In this regard, Abdullah stated, The individual is an integral part of [a] group, be it the society or the family or both of them. Conformity to social ideals is expected from the individual. "Brotherhood," which is one of the key social concepts of Islam, requires the indi- vidual to treat others in a certain way. Arrogance or the assumption of superiority of the individual on the basis of wealth or tribal or national qualifications is rejected. . . . The common goals between all the members of society remove any tension that might emerge.1 In conclusion, the Islamic philosophy of education is struc- tured in a way that is unique if compared with other philosophies of education. The Islamic philosophy does not divide human personality into spiritual and material aspects, giving priority to one over the ‘ other. The Islamic philosophy considers the individual as a whole and attempts to fulfill his need for physical growth as well as for spiritual and intellectual development. 1Ipid., pp. 128-29. CHAPTER IV THE PROGRESS OF HIGHER EDUCATION IN SAUDI ARABIA The evolution and growth of higher education in Saudi Arabia are delineated in this chapter. The following major stages are pre- sented: --Early higher education, which includes the period from 1949 to 1958 --The period of transition, which includes the years from 1958 through 1974 --Current higher education, which includes the period from 1975 through 1982-83 Early Higher Education in Saudi Arabia: The Period From 1949 to 1958 When King Abdul Aziz Al-Saud integrated the new Saudi Arabia in 1932, he realized thatlife was not as simple as it used to be. He also recognized that if the country was to master the growing complexities of life, it had to prepare well-qualified Saudis who could run the country and develop it socially and economically. King Abdul Aziz felt the need for a secular education that would benefit the country and not contradict Islamic beliefs. As Marks stated, 53 54 Abdul Aziz recognized that secular education was basic to his plans for the deve10pment of his country. In his understanding religion was not a separate entity. From his standpoint it belonged in the plans of a state system of education. For this reason, his design included secular subjects along the European (through the Egyptian) line offered side by side with religious courses. As a result of this secularization movement, the first step that Saudi Arabia, as a new state, took toward establishing higher education was to depend on foreign educational institutions because local education was all religiously oriented. Abdulkader stated, Sending high school graduates abroad was the easiest way to have the Saudi Arabian students educated and prepared for positions in the administration of the Kingdom, especially after the country was liberated and unified and because of the lack of expertise. As early as 1346 A.H. (1926 A.D.), the Saudi government inaugu- rated an educational-mission program abroad. The program was spon- sored and fully supported by King Abdul Aziz. Abdulkader explained: The history of studying abroad started in 1346 A.H. (1926 A.D.) when King Abdul Aziz Al—Saud, the founder of the Kingdom, gave his order to delegate the first Saudi mission to Egypt and followed by the resolution of the Ashura Council no. 33 dated 1346 A.H. (1926 A.D.) to implement the Royal Order. . . . The first venture for Saudi Arabian students included 14 from Al-Hijaz province, six from Makkah, three from Medina, three from Jiddah, and two from the city of Attaif. Al-Hijaz was the province that had the most private high school equivalent students. These 14 students were sent to Egypt to study (1) teacher education, (2) Islamic Sharia (law), (3) technical mechanical education, (4) agricultural education, and (5) medicine. 1Marguerite M. Marks, "The American Influence on the Develop- ment of the Universities in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia" (Ph.D. dis- sertation, University of Oregon, 1980), p. 53). 2Ali Abdulaziz Al-Abdulkader, "A Survey of the Contribution of Higher Education to the Development of Human Resources in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia" (Ph.D. dissertation, The University of Kansas, 1979), p. 97. 3Ihid., p. 98. 55 Thus, from its inception, higher education in Saudi Arabia depended on foreign educational systems. Egypt represented the first influence on higher-education systems in Saudi Arabia. As Abdul- Wassie, a former Deputy Minister of Education, wrote: Our educational policy has related for a long time to some Arab countries. It followed their curriculum, planning, and also tended to use their textbooks. It was necessary for us to do that in order to facilitate the way for secondary school stu- dents to join their universities. At times there were no uni- versities in our country as there are now.1 Although sending Saudi students abroad helped provide the country with a sizable number of nationals who were competent in various fields, this policy did not seem to satisfy the country's ever-increasing need for more experts and professional scholars. Consequently, the government viewed the establishment of higher- education institutions and graduate schools as a proper step that must be taken in meeting the country's professional-manpower needs. On the other hand, the need for teachers of Arabic religion and social studies increased with the expansion of public education. As a result, the Directorate of Education established the College of Shar'ia (Islamic law) in Makkah in 1949. The decision was a precedent-setting one because the College was the first state- supported institution not only in Saudi Arabia but in the whole Arabian Peninsula. The action indicated that Saudi Arabia did not intend to depend indefinitely on Egypt for its higher-education 'A. Abdul-Wassie, Education in Saudi Arabia (Beirut: Dar Alketub Al Arabi, 1970), p. 55. 56 needs. Just how recruitment was to be carried out, however, remained ambiguous.1 The main purpose of the College of Shar'ia was to train Muslim judges (gadhis) and to recruit instructors to teach religious subjects in the postelementary schools. Because this first college in Saudi Arabia is one of the major colleges of Umm Al Qura University, more detailed information about its historical evolution is provided later in this study. Three years after the College of Shar'ia was established, the Directorate of Education realized that there was still a shortage of qualified Saudis to staff the expanding educational system. There- fore, in 1952, the Directorate established a College of Teachers in Makkah. The college was patterned after a teacher college in Egypt and was administered by Egyptian faculty members. The stated purpose of the college was to train teachers in nonreligious subjects for postelementary schools. From the time it was established, the College of Teachers suffered from a small enrollment. This was mainly because the college did not meet its stated purpose, but contin- ued to offer a program that largely duplicated programs available else- where. The Directorate of Education, which directly supervised and administered the College of Shar'ia and the College of Teachers, thought that they duplicated each other and decided in 1959 to abolish 1Mohamed Aly Hibshy, "The Development of Higher Education in Saudi Arabia 1945-1964" (Master's thesis, University of London, 1967), p. 57. 57 the College of Teachers.1 The College of Teachers was reopened in 1961 as the College of Education, with new borrowed curriculum and teachers. The College of Education is discussed later in this study because it also represents a major college of Umm Al Qura University. During the period from 1949 to 1958, other higher-education institutions were established in Saudi Arabia, such as the Religious Institute and the College of Islamic Law in Riyadh. Hammad stated, In 1950, the Religious Institute in Riyadh was established under the supervision of the Grand Mufti (supreme judge). Actually this was the first educational institute to be established under a jurisdiction other than that of the central educational admin- istration. This institute grew rapidly and established several branches within a short period of time. Since it grants higher allowances than those of the School of Theology in Taif, it affected the latter's enrollment and ultimately the enrollment at the College of Islamic Law itself. Furthermore, in 1953 the College of Islamic Law was established in Riyadh as an expansion of this new religious educational system. In summary, early higher education in Saudi Arabia can be characterized as a religiously oriented system of education. The stated objectives of the colleges established during this period were basically similar. However, the administrative perspectives of the institutions were not the same. The Time of Transition: The Period From 1958 to 1974 The period from 1958 to 1974 can best be described in terms of the accelerated deve10pment of higher-education institutions in 1Mohamed Abdulla Hammad, "The Educational System and Planning for Manpower Development in Saudi Arabia" (Ph.D. dissertation, Indiana University, 1973), p. 131. 2Ibid., p. 133. 58 Saudi Arabia. Many universities were established during this period. These institutions were either Islamic and Arabic oriented or Western oriented. Saudi Arabia, as an Arab Islamic nation, was not the first to have a dual system of higher education. Qubain described higher education in the Arab world as follows: There are two systems of higher education: the traditional Muslim institutions for the training of religious leaders, Muslim judges and Arabists, and the new modern universities patterned mostly after French, British, and American experi- ence. In the Muslim institutions, the curriculum is mostly traditional and based on writings of great masters of the Middle Ages. Although some modern studies have been added, these were in the nature of accidental accretion rather than a planned process of change to meet the requirements of modern life. The two types--vastly different from each other in aims, content, methods and organization--exist side by side and pre- sent a dichotomy which has not as yet been resolved.1 This dichotomy has been most obvious in the Saudi higher- education system. Higher-education institutions established during this period of transition fall into one of two mainstreams: Western oriented or Islamic oriented. The five institutions established dur- ing this period are discussed in the following pages. Kihg Saud University (Riyadh University), The year 1958 marks a new era in the history of higher educa- tion in Saudi Arabia. In that year, the first secular institution of higher education in Saudi Arabia was established. King Saud Univer- sity (Riyadh University) was patterned after the British educational system through the Egyptian practice. The Egyptian influences can 1Fahim J. Qubain, Education and Science in the Arab World, quoted in ibid., p. 125. 59 be seen very clearly in the university's organization, administra- tion, and curricula. As Qubain stated: King Saud University--in its organization, administration, and cur- ricula--has been deeply influenced by, and follows to a consider- able degree the practice of Egyptian universities. This is because some of the early executives and most of the senior teachers were Egyptians, which is true to some extent even today. King Saud University witnessed a rapid growth from 1958 to 1974. The number of students increased from 21 students in 1958 to 5,745 in 1974. (See Table 1.) Also, the number of colleges in the university increased to eight. In regard to the actual contribution of King Saud University to the societal development of Saudi Arabia, Hammad stated: In analyzing the potential contribution of King Saud (Riyadh University) to the general societal development of Saudi Arabia, one is faced with some important questions. Was it established to fulfill the needs of society for highly educated manpower? One assumes the answer to be affirmative. Why then was it begun with a faculty of arts, an area of least importance to a society in desperate need of technicians, health care workers, and teachers? Why was the university patterned after an Egyptian-British model? These questions are not intended to be answered. It is sufficient here to indicate that there is a need for integrating higher educational institutions so that higher education can be more humane, more responsive to social demands for development, and to the need for research. Although the university has eight faculties, the majority of its students (about 54 percent in 1970 to 1971) were enrolled in only two faculties: Arts and Commerce.2 Hammad's views of societal development are not rational because he was asking for an integrated system of education but at the same time considered manpower development the focal strategy. An integrated Muslim individual cannot be produced simply by focus- ing attention on his/her mechanical needs. 1Qubain, quoted in ibid., p. 143. 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EOE. 88.8.8>.:: 8888 8:.x .8 .885..o.:8 .o 888588.8>8o 88.--.. 8.88. 61 The Islamic University in Medina The Saudi Arabian government realized that King Saud Uni- versity fulfilled the need for Western-oriented programs. Therefore, the Islamic University in Medina was established in 1961 to balance the growth and development of King Saud University. The major purpose for establishing the Islamic University in Medina was to train Muslims from foreign countries as well as Saudi Arabians for the propagation of Islam. Graduates from this university are expected to transmit Islamic knowledge, to carry out research in religious studies and related fields, and to promote the interchange of prominent scholars in Islamic knowledge. From 1961 to 1974, the University witnessed much growth. The number of students increased from 85 in academic year 1961-62 to 2,853 in 1974-75. The University's budget increased from 3 million Saudi riyals in 1961-62 to more than 40 million Saudi riyals in 1974—75. (See Table 2.) Table 2.--The budget of the Islamic University in Medina in selected years. Academic Year Budget in Saudi Riyals 1961-62 3,000,000 1969-7O 9,485,359 1972-73 17,551,213 1974-75 40,154,400 Source: Ali Abdulaziz Al-Abdulkader, "A Survey of the Contribution of Higher Education to the Development of Human Resources in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia" (Ph.D. dissertation, The Univer- sity of Kansas, 1979), p. 133. 62 The Islamic University may sound like an institution of Islamic nature and philosophy. But some educators have been skep- tical about this. In his view of the Islamic University, Hammad stated: The Islamic University should serve as a center for Islamic research which coordinates the effort of various research institutions, scholars, and facilities in fields related to its general goals all over the world. Islam is an integrated system which requires simultaneous research in order to ele- vate economically, socially and politically the hundreds of millions of Muslim peoples and eventually the whole world. In fact, this may be the only way to develop and integrate education and science for the benefit of large numbers of people. Nothing in Islam prevents one from being both an engineer or a physician and, in the meantime, a theologian. On the contrary, Islam does encourage the integration of science in its way of life and the cooperation of scientists. The recent modernization of Al-Azhar University in Cairo is a case in point about the potential for progressive change which Islamic University in Medina may adopt. This view of the Islamic University in Medina was shared by Al-Khudair. In his study of the University, he stated: Islamic University has massive responsibilities toward itself, the country and the Islamic World. Therefore, to carry out its mission, the University must have a well-organized admin— istration. The writer, while visiting the University in July 1980, noticed that some of the administrators and personnel are not as well trained as they should be, considering their positions. The administration of the University is facing problems such as centralism, inflexible routines untrained personnel, and archaic administrative practices.2 The problems that are occurring at the Islamic University in Medina are by no means characteristic of Islamic morals. Both Hammad 1Ibid., pp. 159-50. 2Ibrahim M. Al-Khudhair, "Islamic University at Medina, The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia: A History and Evaluation" (Master's thesis, California State University, 1981), p. 47. 63 and Al-Khudair believed that the problems stem from a misunderstand- ing of Islamic philosophy. The University of Petroleum and Minerals The economic growth of Saudi Arabia in the fields of petroleum and mining made it necessary for the Kingdom to develop programs of study in Saudi higher education that would enable the development and maintenance of such fields. Therefore, the Saudi government inaugu- rated the College of Petroleum and Minerals in 1963; this College became a university in 1975. The establishment of the College of Petroleum and Minerals in 1963 marked a new development in the history of higher education in Saudi Arabia. The College was modeled totally after the American educational system. Dawsari listed the following five factors that make this College unique among the higher-education institutions in Saudi Arabia: 1. The use of English as the principal language of instruction. 2. The use of the American system of education (the credit- hour system). 3. The recruitment of an international faculty, basically Americans. 4. The invitation of foreign consultants to serve on the board of trustees. 64 5. The opening of an international student body that is selected by competitive admission.1 The major purpose of the College is to train young Saudis in the various petroleum and mineral studies, to encourage scientific research in these fields, and to promote the knowledge of petroleum and minerals in Saudi Arabia. Although the College of Petroleum and Minerals was unique in its objectives, curricula, and systems, it suffered from a small enrollment. In academic year 1970-71, the College had an enrollment of only 506 students.2 This low enrollment might be attributed to the fact that students were generally unfamiliar with the College's programs and uncertain about its future.3 More important is the fact that this institution had an international faculty, whose values and beliefs are different from the Islamic ones. (See Table 3.) In 1975, the College of Petroleum and Minerals became the University of Petroleum and Minerals. The University's philosophy, goals, and objectives were stated in an official University bulletin as follows: The vast petroleum and mineral resources of Saudi Arabia pose a complex and exciting challenge for scientific and technical education. To meet this challenge the University has as its goals the advanced training of students in the fields of science 1Fahad S. Al-Hazzam Dawsari, "Descriptive Study of the Develop- ment of the College of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia" (Ph.D. dissertation, Arizona State University, 1975), pp. 44-46. 2Hammad, "Educational System and Planning for Manpower Development," p. 162. 3Ipid. 65 .08. .8 ..8.8. .8..888> 1.8: 8.8.8 8:88..< .co..8..888.8 .8.:8. 88.888< .8888 .8888888 .8.8.8:.z 8:8 888.8..88 .o 888..ou 8;. .8 888288.8>8Q 8;. .8 888.8 8>..8.888888 ...88388 2888811.< ;w 88888 888.888 mm. mo. om N. cm 88 um um 8N m. .mp0. 88.888. . - . - - 88.8.8 1 1 1 1 1 .8888 1 1 1 1 1 .8888.x88 1 1 1 1 1 88888882 . 1 1 1 1 88888888 8 8 m . . 88.888888 1 1 1 1 1 88... .888. 88.88. 1 1 1 885.88 .88.. 8888.8 1 1 88.88888 1 1 88.88 88.888 1 1 88.88888 8 8 88.8.88 888.882< IF-I'd' O l— :— lr—IN lr—r—Q'N I It'- IFMF-F-t—NN I 111—m If_l_f—-I'_I I I II\-C\Ir— IF—N I II I I I I I I I I I I I I I Ir-q-an- .— 11—m1\ 11—1—cn no .... 11. 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The writer believes that the environmental context of the University of Petroleum and Minerals should be studied to determine whether the stated goals have been attained, especially the one related to deepening and broadening the Islamic faith. King Abdulaziz University_ The establishment of two Western-oriented universities, Riyadh University and the University of Petroleum and Minerals, in the central and eastern provinces of Saudi Arabia, led the educated individuals in the western provinces to think about having a higher— education institution that would serve their province. As a result, King Abdulaziz University in Jiddah was begun in l967-68. The unique feature about King Abdulaziz University is that it was established as a private institution of higher education. The voluntary participa— tion of the private sector in higher education is considered to be the first of its kind because the Saudi people were not used to such participation in the educational process.2 1University of Petroleum and Minerals, Bulletin (Dhahran, Saudi Arabia: University of Petroleum and Minerals, l976-78), p. ll. 2 Abdulkader, "Survey of the Contribution of Higher Education,‘ p. l63. 67 Faheem described how the dream of establishing a university in the western province began: The idea of establishing a university in the Western region of Saudi Arabia was discussed first in a local newspaper (i.e., Al Medina newspaper) which published an article in 1964 advo- cating the necessities and advantages of having a university in the second largest city and the commercial center of the country (Jeddah). This idea had stirred a great deal of enthusiasm among the prominent and leading intellectuals and businessmen of the Western region.1 From l964 to 1968, many informal and formal meetings were conducted to discuss and approve the idea of establishing a private institution of higher education in the western province. As a result of those meetings, King Abdulaziz University opened its doors in academic year l967-68. That year, 90 students were enrolled in a preparatory program. The main reason for that program was to prepare students to speak and read English as well as to provide them with courses in Islamic culture, Arabic, and mathematics. Physics and chemistry were offered to students who wished to major in science; general science, the use of the library, and physical education were required for all students.2 The University inaugurated the Faculty of Economics and Administration in l968-69. Students who successfully finished the preparatory—year program were transferred to the Faculty of Economics and Administration. The University began with this faculty because 1Mohammed Eisa Faheem, "Higher Education and Nation Building" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, l982), p. l4l. 2Hammad, "Educational System and Planning for Manpower Development," p. l42. 68 the advisory committee believed Saudi Arabia was in dire need of marketing specialists.1 During the period from l968 to l975, four other faculties were begun: the Faculty of Arts and Humanities (l969-70), the Faculty of Science (l972-73), the Faculty of Medicine (l975-76), and the Faculty of Engineering (l975-76). King Abdulaziz University, which began as a private institu- tion, could not survive its increasing financial obligations. Thus is was made a public higher-education institution in l97l. From 1964 to 1974, the University followed the British system of education (the yearly system). That system was converted in 1974-75 to the semester credit-hour system. Imam Muhammad Ibn Saud Islamic University in Riyadh The establishment of the three aforementioned Western-oriented universities--Riyadh University, the University of Petroleum and Minerals, and King Abdulaziz University--made it necessary for the government to establish another traditionally oriented Islamic insti- tution to demonstrate the importance of preserving and continuing religious education as a special part of the educational system. As a result, Imam Muhammad Ibn Saud Islamic University was established in Riyadh in 1974. The University was established by Royal Decree to incorporate the College of Shar'ia (Islamic Law), the College of Arabic Language and Social Science, and the Higher Judicial Insti- tute. 1Faheem, “Higher Education and Nation Building," p. I47. 69 The major objectives of the University included the fol— lowing: 1. Promoting university and higher education in Islamic studies as well as the Arabic language, and in other related branches of knowledge, such as social sciences and Islamic history. 2. Encouraging Islamic research and translating and publish— ing this research, thus helping to link this university with other universities throughout the world to fulfill the need for Islamic studies. 3. Encouraging, within the scope of Islamic studies, com- parative jurisprudence and legal research to elaborate the superiority of Shar'ia in comparison with secular laws. 4. Training scholars who are specialized in Islamic, Arabic, social science, and history, as well as teachers '63 undertake the teaching of these subjects in intermediate and secondary schools. 5. To satisfy the need of other Islamic countries for special- . . . l ists 1ri the above-mentioned areas. Summary From the preceding discussion of the period of transition from 1954 to l974, it appears that higher education in Saudi Arabia wit- nessed the inauguration of many universities during those two decades. This rapid expansion of higher-education institutions throughout the country was both erratic and unplanned. Hammad stated: 1Abdulkader, "Survey of the Contribution of Higher Education,” p. lll. 70 The most optimistic view one can take of the situation in Saudi Arabia at present is to say that it has the advantage of not having "put all the eggs in one basket." That is, higher edu- cational institutions have grown so fragmented in such an unorganized, uncoordinated, or unplanned way that there are now numerous institutions which often merely duplicate each other. This continued unplanned growth of higher education in the coun- try may have serious economic, social, and political consequences which may take decades to rectify if they are not corrected now.1 The five universities that were established during the period from l958 to 1974 can be classified into two mainstreams: l. Islamic and Arabic-oriented universities, which include the Islamic University in Medina and Imam Muhammed Ibn Saud Islamic University. 2. Western-oriented universities, which include King Saud University, the University of Petroleum and Minerals, and King Abdul- aziz University. This classification is based on the stated goals of the uni- versities, rather than their actual practices. During this transitional period, all of the universities except the University of Petroleum and Minerals followed the yearly system (the British system). The Current Status of Higher Education: The Period From l975 to l982-83 The year I975 marks an important date in the history of higher education in Saudi Arabia. In that year the Ministry of Higher Education was established by Royal Decree no. l/236, to implement the Kingdom's policy in the field of higher education and to serve as 1Hammad, "Educational System and Planning for Manpower Development," p. 165. 7l the highest authority concerning all matters of higher education. The major objectives of the Ministry of Higher Education were stated in the Third Development Plan as follows: I. A technical secretariat will be set up to support the supreme university council in the operation of its function of a higher education development and coordination board, which will provide guidance and technical services to the develop- ment of the higher education system. Among the many functions of the technical secretariat, the following are especially important and urgent: --preparing a master plan for the higher education subsec- tion; --collecting, processing, and distributing standardized information regarding university operations: --establishing appropriate design, space, and cost standards for new university facilities. 2. A model regional junior college (planned enrollment: 3,000) will be established as a pilot project to assess the feasi- bility of serving national manpower needs and the regionali- zation of post—secondary educational services by means of such an institution. 3. A permanent Ministry building, including a computer center, will be built to serve the Technical Secretariat and other Ministry functions. 4. A pre-investment study for a national central library will be carried out. 5. Facilities and staff will be provided to support Saudi stu- dents who are studying abroad.1 The Ministry of Higher Education has its own departments, which work collectively to attain the aforementioned objectives. (See Figure l.) The highest authority in the administration of each univer- sity is the Supreme Council of the University, which is headed by the Minister of Higher Education. Only the Islamic University at Medina has direct contact with the king in administering its policies and decisions. 1Ministry of Planning, Third Development Plan (1980-l985) (Saudi Arabia: Ministry of Higher Education, l980), p. 3l8. 72 ..8. .8 .8.88. .88888 88.88.88 8888.8 .888..8z "8.8888 .8888 .8888.88 .888.1888.8 8888> 88. 88.888 8.888< .8888 .8 88888.8 88» 8. 88.888888 8888.: .8 88888888 .88.p8888m 8888.: .8 8888.8.2 8888v .88..88888 8888.: .8 88.8.8.2 88. .8 88888 .888..8N.8888o--.. 8888.8 88 m 88 . 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