fllffllfllfllflflfllmfll”I”!!!1Hll"!IIHHHIIIUHIIW 93 10520 9286 “' H a: r . RETERNgmG mAIEggag§i 153‘.) $Téce 1n hoax crop o remcve this chgckgut from LJBRABJES your record. ?IN:¢ W111 W he charged if back 15'- returned after the date stamped b619w. l (as; :\’7AG}C 2 (1/ ' ~gFE3j06‘1999Q. C 1 “ CD“ {31 ‘ c; .3": {I ‘ r " dg.‘1~3“~%‘z?‘~‘.fl : To MAY 1 1 1994 1-331 ‘ ; t p f". ' ‘-— ' l ‘ ‘ a ' o . AN EVALUATION OF THE EFFECTIVENESS OF THE YOUTH SERVICE BUREAU DIVERSION CONCEPT: A STUDY OF LABELING THEORY AS RELATED TO JUVENILE JUSTICE SYSTEM PENETRATION By Ronald L. Quincy A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY College of Social Science School of Criminal Justice 1981 ABSTRACT AN EVALUATION OF THE EFFECTIVENESS OF THE YOUTH SERVICE BUREAU DIVERSION CONCEPT: A STUDY OF LABELING THEORY AS RELATED TO JUVENILE JUSTICE SYSTEM PENETRATION By Ronald L. Quincy This study evaluated the effectiveness of the Youth Service Bureau diversion concept and its relationship to labeling theory and Juvenile Justice System penetration, or the degree of Juvenile Justice System involvement. Criminal justice researchers have determined that most young people who commit crimes against property and against persons have prior criminal case histories or have been previously in- volved with local criminal justice agencies. Labeling theorists argue that interaction with criminals and juvenile justice system agencies frequently drives youths 'with minor violations into deeper involvement with the legal system. It is concluded that their self-concept is affected by societal reaction in that these youths become further alienated from conventional society. This research project was a sub-part of a larger study sponsored by the State Office of Criminal Justice Programs and the U. S. Department of Justice, Law Enforcement Assistance Administration. The study explored essentially three research questions: (1) Do youth service bureaus prevent and reduce youth crime and delinquency? Ronald L. Quincy (2) Does exposure (diversion) to the Youth Service Bureau (YSB) prevent the development of the negative attitudes and negative self-concept discussed in labeling theory? (3) Is there a relationship between self-concept, as it is viewed by labeling theorists, and the extent to which a youth penetrates into the Juvenile Justice System? This study was structured according to an experimental treatment/control group pre-post test design. Ninety subjects, fifty-nine experimental and thirty-one control group individuals were involved over a period of six months. .A final police/court contact review was conducted during the ninth month of the study. In evaluating the three research hypotheses, two measures were employed. Structured interviews of YSB clients were conducted using the Tennessee Self-Concept Scale and Jesness Inventory, and data on self-reported delin- quency were also obtained from each person in the study. The second measure was descriptive cross sectional information extracted from the files of the juvenile court and police department. The first hypothesis was that diversion of youth to the YSB had the effect of reducing or retarding the degree of future deviant behavior. This hypothesis appears to have been validated, based on analysis of the Tennessee Self- Concept Scale and Jesness Inventory Scores. Youths not in the program displayed less personality integration (as measured by the self-criticism variable) and higher Ronald L. quincy variability tendencies at the termination of the study. Both of these variables are indicative of future deviant behavior. The second hypothesis was that youth diverted to the YSB would experience lower levels of penetration into the Juvenile Justice System. The data includes the number of police arrests, the seriousness of offenses, and the number of court petitions. However, the experimental group (N=59) and the control group (N=31) were significantly different at the point of intake. The experimental group was involved in significantly more trouble for far more serious crimes at the point of intake. These pre-existing differences were statistically controlled for conducting an analysis of co-variance on the post YSB data while using the pre-YSB data as the co-variant. This statistical operation controlled for the pre-test group differences, resulting in making the post scores of the ex- perimental and control groups equivalent. While the experimental group self-reported fewer offenses during the time period.when the control group received YSB services, no strong inference can be made that the YSB had a significant impact on the youth's subsequent delinquent behavior. The third hypothesis was that youth diverted to the YSB ‘would have a self-image which either improved or remained intact. Data from the Tennessee Self-Concept Scale demon- strates this hypothesis to be confirmed, since the self-criticism scores for the experimental group tended to remain constant during the duration of the program, while Ronald L. Quincy several sub-groups of the control group experiened lower Self-Concept scores at termination. There are several factors in this study which must be taken into consideration when interpreting data. These factors serve as limitations upon interpreting the statistical results. There is always the possibility that subjects are not giving honest answers, or that mistakes are made in marking score sheets. Since the subjects being tested are already part of the Juvenile Justice System, and have already been identified as that part of the population exhibiting deviant behaviorial tendencies, then this source of variance cannot be completely dismissed. Another limitation involved sample size. In some of the subgroup comparisons, sample sizes as small as nine subjects were involved. Using a larger sample would perhaps give stronger statistical results. However, the most relevant limitation of this study were the pre-differences between the experimental and control groups. It would appear that the random assignment of YSB clients to experimental and control groups was seriously compromised. This research was partially supported by Grant No. 77-N199-OO95 from the Office of Criminal Justice Training and Education, Law Enforcement Assistance Administration. Projects undertaken with the support of such government funding are encouraged to freely express viewpoints. Such opinions, however, do not necessarily represent the policy of the U. S. Justice Department. The work of this dissertation is dedicated to my beloved parents, Dorothy and James Quincy, who have provided emotional support throughout my educational experience. They, more than anyone else, are responsible for any success that I have attained. ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I acknowledge the guidance of Dr. John McNamara who served both as my graduate studies guidance advisor, and chairman of my dissertation committee. Without his critique this work would not have reached fruition. Dr. Ralph Lewis served as Research Director, School of Criminal Justice, Criminal Justice Systems Center, MSU, and offered many hours of direction during the course of this research. Dr. William Davidson III was also on staff during this research effort and offered valuable assistance. iii Chapter II. III. IV. TABLE OF CONTENTS iv Page List of Tables ................................ vi List of Figures ............................... viii Introduction and Statement of the Problem 1 Research Questions ............................ 4 Significance of the Research .................. 4 Study Site .................................... 5 Review of the Literature 6 The Early Themes of Labeling Theory ........... 8 The Statement of the Interactionist School 12 Major Research in the Organizational Processing of Social Control ........... 22 Non-offense Related Characteristics of Deviants 32 The Consequences of Official Labeling ......... 34 The Youth Service Bureau ...................... 41 Criticism of Labeling Theory .................. 47 -Relativism .................................... 49 Norms ......................................... 52 Primary Deviance .............................. 54 Macro-social Structures ....................... 55 Passivity ..................................... 58 Conclusion .................................... 59 Study Design and Methodology 62 Methods ....................................... 62 Stratified Random Sample ...................... 63 Research Hypotheses ........................... 66 Tennessee Self-Concept Scale .................. 68 Jesness Inventory ............................. 69 Archival Data Collection ...................... 7O Self-Reported Delinquency Card Sort ........... 72 Youth Service Bureau 74 Diversion Program Description ................. 74 Group Profile ................................. 82 Chapter Page V. Quantitative Data Results 99 Analysis Design ............................... 99 Tennessee Self-Concept Scale Results .......... 100 Jesness Inventory Results ..................... llO Self-Report Score Results ..................... 114 Police/Court Records .......................... 117 VI. Summary 123 Differences Between the Control and Experimental Groups .................... 123 Effects of the Program--Composite Group ....... 123 Effects of the Program--Sub-groups ............ 124 Findings Relevant to the Research Hypotheses .. 126 Limitations of the Study ...................... 128 Conclusion .................................... 130 Recommendations ............................... 132 Appendices A State Office of Criminal Justice Program (OCJP) Youth Service Bureau Program, Purpose, Outline and Evaluation Factors ......... 134 B Tennessee Self-Concept Scale .................. 144 C Tennessee Self-Concept Scale Bibliography of Research Studies ....................... 152 D Self-Report Delinquency Scale ................. l75 E Jesness Inventory ............................. 178 F Steps Involved in Processing Clients to the Berrien County Youth Service Bureau ..... 182 G Tennessee Self-Concept Results ................ 191 H Jesness Inventory Results ..................... 215 Bibliography 236 LIST OF TABLES Table Page Berrien County Youth Service Bureau 1 Source Of Referral ................................ 83 2 Reasons for Referral .............................. 83 3 Community Services ................................ 84 4 Race .............................................. 85 5 Sex ............................................... 86 6 Age ............................................... 86 7 Living Arrangements ............................... 87 8 School Status ..................................... 88 9 School Grade Level Achieved ....................... 89 10 Court Status (YSB) ................................ 91 11 Module ............................................ 91 12 Prior Offenses .................................... 93 13 Seriousness of Prior Offenses ..................... 93 14 Disposition of Prior Offenses ..................... 94 15 Number of Prior Petitions ......................... 96 16 Petitioners ....................................... 96 17 Contacts with Youth ............................... 97 18 Duration of Services .............................. 97 19 Termination Reasons ............................... 98 Tennessee Self-concept Scale 20 Comparison of Intake Control and Experimental Groups ....................................... 102 21 Comparison of Termination Control and Experimental Groups .......................... 105 22 Comparison of Intake vs. Termination Scores Experimental Group ........................... 106 23 Comparison of Experimental SubGroups--Intake and Termination .............................. 108 24 Comparison of Control Subgroups--Intake and Termination .................................. 110 Jesness Inventory 25 a) Comparison of Intake Control and Experimental Groups b) Comparison of Termination Control and Experimental Groups ........................... 112 26 Intake vs. Termination Scores Comparison Experimental and Control Groups .............. 113 27 Comparison of Experimental Subgroups--Intake and Termination .............................. 114 vi Table Page Self-Report 28 Variable 5 Scores for Experimental vs. Control Groups ............................... 116 29 V5 and V6 Scores Comparison--Control and Experimental Groups .......................... 116 Police/Court 30 Comparison of Year-prior Offenders (Pl) for Control and Experimental Groups .............. 118 31 Comparison of Year-Prior Petitions (C1) for Control and Experimental Groups .............. 118 32 Comparison of Year-Prior Offenses and Petitions for Control and Experimental Groups .......... 120 33 Comparison of Control and Experimental Groups at First Quarter (P4,C3) and Second Quarter(P7,C5)121 34 Comparison of First and Second Quarter Offenses and Petitions in Control and Experimental Groups ....................................... 122 vii LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 1 Youth Service Bureau Clientele Random Assignment ...64 2 Youth Service Bureau Operation Chart ............... 77 3 Youth Service Bureau Referral Flow Chart ........... 78 viii CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION AND STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM Juvenile crime in America continues to pose a national problem. It is particularly relevant to this study that most young people who commit crimes against property and against persons have prior criminal case histories or have been pre- viously involved with local criminal justice agencies. For example, a 1973 study of delinquency among a cohort of males born in 1945, who resided in Philadelphia from age ten to eighteen, concluded that youths with prior juvenile criminal records were more likely to commit more serious offenses and to penetrate further into the judicial system.1 Labeling theorists take the position that interaction with more hardened criminals, law enforcement agencies, and the courts frequently drives youths with minor violations into deeper involvement with the legal system. Youths' self-concepts are affected by societal reactions and they become further alienated from conventional society. This effect in turn often results in further involvement with the juvenile justice system. This "interactionist" approach of the labeling theorists supports the current strong stance among some criminologists who advocate diverting certain youths from the courts. 1' Marvin E. Wolfgang and T. Sellin, The Measurement of Delinquency (New York: Wiley, 1964). Advocates of labeling theory believe that various forms of nonintervention are necessary in order to provide differen- tial treatment for youths (who have penetrated into the juvenile justice system at different levels). In interpret- ing juvenile recidivism, for example, some labeling theorists argue that if the goal of the juvenile justice system truly is to prevent repetition of less serious delinquent acts, the best policy in many cases may be simply to refrain from tak- ing any formal action. Thus Edwin Schur recommends that, '...the basic injunction for public policy becomes: leave kids alone whenever possible."2 Taking guidance from this trend in contemporary sociol- ogy of deviance, the President's Task Force on Juvenile Delinquency and Youth Crime proposed that juveniles avoid contact with court processes where possible. Consequently, the President's Commission on Law Enforcement (1967) re- commended the establishment of Youth Service Bureaus (YSBs) as a means of informal, differential treatment for juvenile offenders. The rationale of the Task Force was to minimize the undesirable stigmatization which resulted from juvenile adjudication. The Task Force reasoned that a juvenile offender is likely to adjust from the conduct that brought him the label, but that one who acquires the status of a de-_ viant in his youth faces possible life-long stigmatization. 2 Edwin M. Schur, Radical Non-Intervention - Rethinking the Delinquency Problem (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: .Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1973). It is argued that official youth action may help to perpetu- ate delinquency in a child, through a process in which the individual begins to think of himself as a delinquent and behaves accordingly. That process itself is further rein- forced by the effect of labeling on the child's family, neighbors, teachers, and peers, whose reactions communicate to the child in subtle ways a kind of expectation of delin- quent conduct. The Commission's position is supported by surveys conducted for the Department of Labor which revealed that an arrest record for a juvenile was an absolute bar to employment in almost fifty percent of all state and local agencies (National Advisory Commission on Criminal Justice Standards and Goals, 1973). The President's Task Force pro- vided general guidelines for the type of services to be offered by Youth Service Bureaus: A primary function of the Youth Service Bureau would be individually tailored work (emphasis added) with trouble-making youths. The work might include group and individual counseling, placement in group foster homes, work and recreational programs, employment counseling, and special education. Central to the Youth Service Bureau is the concept of the mobilization of citizens, youth, and professionals, both at the neighborhood level and within the formal authority structure, in order to develop new ways to reduce the inci- dence of juvenile delinquency and youth crime. These inter- related functions of a Youth Service Bureau would necessarily 3 President's Commission on Law Enforcement and the Ad- ministration of Justice, Task Force Report: Juvenile Delin- ‘quency and Youth Crime (Wishington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1967). be determined to a great extent by the particular needs of the community it serves. This concept is taken up in considerable detail in Chapter II of this study. Research Questibns This study explores three general research questions: (1) Do Youth Service Bureaus prevent and reduce youth crime and delinquency? (2) Does exposure (diversion) to the Youth Service Bureau prevent the development of the negative attitudes and negative self-concept discussed in labeling theory? (3) Is there a relationship between self-concept, as it is viewed by labeling theorists, and the extent to which a youth penetrates into the juvenile justice system? In addition, a series of specific research hypotheses relat- ing to the evaluation of the effectiveness of the program of the Youth Service Bureau diversion concept will be discussed. Significance of the Research This research has several implications for the effective delivery of youth services. First, it tests the tenets of labeling and secondary deviance as they pertain to juvenile penetration into the juvenile justice system. This research Study is believed to be one of the very few to test labeling theory within the Youth Service Bureau context. Within the framework of the President's Commission on Law Enforcement, the Task Force on Juvenile Delinquency and Youth Crime has strongly supported the Youth Service Bureau concept, and research which tests its effectiveness is highly desirable. Second, this study is designed to permit further longi- tudinal follow-up of subjects. Replication of this study is possible by other researchers due to the well established relationships between police, court, and Youth Service Bureau staff and administrators. Finally, the research pro- vides additional empirical evidence in support of inter- actionist theoretical interpretations of juvenile delinquency. Study Site This document reports on an empirical evaluation of the Berrien County Youth Service and Assistance Bureau in Benton Harbor, Michigan. This project was part of a larger state- wide evaluation program sponsored by the state Office of Criminal Justice Programs (OCJP). The entire research pro- ject was funded by a Law Enforcement Assistance Administration Grant (LEAA) for the purpose of evaluating the effectiveness of the Youth Service Bureau (YSB) programs through the state. The Berrien County Youth Service and Assistance Bureau began operation in 1973. ‘It was funded initially by matching dollars from the LEAA and OCJP. The project is now fully funded by Berrien County. CHAPTER 2 REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE The central proposition of labeling theory holds that labeling, through interaction with legal processing systems, produces delinquent orientations. In its most basic form, it proposes the official labeling of deviancy as the major causal factor in persistent or career deviance. Particular emphasis is placed on the process whereby individuals are defined as deviant, rather than on the pathology of behavior. Corres- pondingly, labeling theory argues for a focus away from concern with original causes to concern with the dimensions of societal response to deviant behavior. The sociology of deviance during the past two decades has looked at how agencies and institutions of social control are organized to determine who is officially deviant, i.e., at the process that occurs between penetration of delinquents into the system.and the adjudication which will supposedly deter individuals from further offenses against the moral order. Labeling analysts have been interested as well in studying the ereationhandwinterpretat1on of rules (and the- typifica- tions") and of departure from the rules. ..... This new theoretical perspect1ve has come from mixed -‘RM_ ideologies (the interactionist perspective, social psychology, occupational sociology, ethnomethodology, phenomenology, and more recently, conflict sociology, and the "social construc- ,tion of reality" perspective), all of which view social ‘ MW ,_ 1......» M“"m'\\ 1 .M f reality as 1nteract1onal} i. e. as embedded in the events \ __, ........ .. - ' ~““_ mm ”a- ‘...- occurring between specific parties in specific time frames and specific cultures. The interactionist view is essen- tially that Definitions of situations and actions are...[not assumed]...to be settled once and for all by some literal application of traditional or previously established standards. Instead one always—expects that the meaning ofgsituations.and.actions are de- pefidéfifwupon.particular‘interpretations that afe 'influenced by both the-context*of- particular occa- sions and the participants involved in that 7 interaction. Accordingly, meanings are. .subject to reformulation on subsequent occas1ons"¢ In other words, societal reactions are "dynamic factors which increase, decrease and condition the form which the initial differentiation or deviation takes."5 Inherent in this approach are three major themes: (1) the process as opposed to the structural (static) patterns of a society, or rejection of the idea that deviance is inherent in the quality of behavior itself; (2) the relativity of the societal reaction, or deviance as a variable factor dependent wa‘m ._‘_—I ___....~ “M— "" 'H-vz- “an \— upon changing political, social, and economic climates for the Mg"- . . .4 pm -* e.- 4.»- v0.4. society; (3) the collective construct1on of "reality" through .: _ ,1 “up: um / N..- ..—--—4-v Jw" '- H, the imputation of meaning, or how meanings are handled in and modified through an 1nterpret1ve process use_d by a person in dealing with the things he encounters. ”6 1co.-M~rw-- 4 A. Daniels, "The Social Construction of Military Psy- chiatric Diagnoses," ed. H.P. Dreitzel, Recent Sociology No. 2: Patterns of Communicative Behavior (Toronto: Collier- MacMillan) PP. 1821205 5 Edwin M. Lemert, Social Pathology (New York: McGraw- Hill, 1951) p. 22. Herbert Blumer, Symbolic Interactionism: Perspectives and Methods (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey. Prentice-Hall, 1969) p. 2. Since these three themes more often than not overlap in the various orientations which comprise labeling theory, no attempt will be made in the forthcoming discussion of the literature to establish them as arbitrary and mutually exclu- sive categories. Rather, the approach will be to point to these themes of the process of relativity, and the imputation of meanings as they are elaborated in social research. The Early Themes of Labeling Theory One of the earliest statements of a process theme of social deviance appeared in Edwin Sutherland's classic 7 In fact, for over two decades Principles of Criminology. the bedrock of deviance sociology was Sutherland's theory of differential association over Merton's theory of anomie. Neither theory, however, "emphasized societal reactions to deviance either as a criterion of deviance, or an etiological factor."9 Sutherland's theory refers to the processes of making laws, of breaking laws, and of reacting toward the breaking of laws. It views these events as a unified sequential 7 Edwin H. Sutherland, Principles of Criminology, 3rd ed. (Chicago: Lippincott, 1939). 8 Robert K. Merton, Social Theory and Social Structure, revised, (Glencoe: The Free Press, 1937). 9 Jack P. Gibbs and Maynard L. Erickson, "Major Develop- ments in the Sociological Study of Deviance," Annual Review of Sociology 1:21-42. interaction which constitutes the essential "object matter” of criminology. Sutherland's statement was an important one, considering that he was working within the framework of the traditional positivist sociology of deviance and corrections, in which the focus was on the motivational and behavioral causes of deviance--a tradition which supports an "assumption 10 in the sense that the original deviant act of discontinuity" is exclusively pathologic. In the "interactionist”, or label- ing perspective, a deviant label is seen as dependent upon the interaction of "parties", composed of the labeled individual and the agencies of social control. Most discernibly, the proponents of labeling theory emerged out of the interactionist tradition at the University of Chicago. This interest focused on analyzing the process of society as opposed to its structural aspects. Symbolic interactionism--in contrast with the deviance studies of the Eastern School (Merton and Sutherland), which were focused primarily on etiology-~was concerned basically with the inter-subjective relationships between individuals and their social environment. Its chief early proponent in Chicago was Herbert Blumer who synthesized American pragmatist philosophy into a social psychological perspective in which the individual's conduct in and reaction to his particular social setting is seen ultimately to shape a social self. Thus, the individual combines perceptions of situational 10 Albert K. Cohen, "The Sociology of the Deviant Act: 'Anomie Theory and Beyond," American Sociological Review 30 (February 1965)Pp.‘5-14. 10 meanings with the reactions of self, and of others, including significant others, in a continuous process of interpretation, adoptions and/or rejections of self-definitions. This pro- cess is described by Blumer as "symbolic interactionism." Blumer (like George H. Mean) sees "the self as a process, and not as a structure."11 Frank Tannenbaum belongs to the early (pre-Chicago) labeling tradition because he broke with the classic struc- tural interpretations of deviance. He delineates the process whereby an individual becomes delinquent or criminal as Tagging, defining, identifying, segregating, descri- bing, emphasizing, making conscious and self-conscious: it [premature stigmatization] becomes a way of stimula- ting...and evoking the very traits that are complained of...This persistent suggestion, with whatever good intentions, works mischief because it leads to bigng- ing out the bad behavior that it would suppress. Tannenbaumfs work is more focused on criminal history than that of actual labeling theory. Everett Hughes' work, although it was in the discipline of occupational sociology, contributed substantially to the early, formative tradition of the Chicago interactionist theory. Hughes' contention was that negative labeling is construed by society as a "master status" which freezes the 13 offender into a criminal frame of reference. Despite the 11 Herbert Blumer, "Sociological Implications of the Thoughtof George Herbert Mead," Symbolic Interactionism, ed. Herbert Blumer (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall 1969) pp. 65-66. 12 Frank Tannenbaum, Crime and the Community (Boston: Ginn, 1938) pp. 19-20. . 13 Everett C. Hughes, "Dilemmas and Contradictions of Status," American Journal of Sociology 50(March 1945)pp.353-59. ll fact that the offender may have had an acceptable, legitimate occupational background, his earlier identity becomes obliter- ated by the new label, and remains inaccessible because of the new title. Hughes' work is in direct line with the reasoning of labeling theorists, that the labeled individual internalizes the label and adopts, or mirrors, the response imposed by the formal processing agency(ies), and thus be- comes a participant in the "status degradation” ceremony.14 What is stressed here is that, through the stigmatizing of negative labeling, the real outcome of legal processing is the creation of the deviant social roles which it is in fact committed to eradicate. The 19403 saw the tentative beginnings of research in the process of conceptualization of deviance sociology. wallerstein and wyle studied the deviant behavior of indivi- duals who were not officially labeled or penalized as deviants in order to highlight the role of labeling as a significant variable in becoming a "career" deviant.15 Austin Porterfield carried out a comparative study of juvenile and older (college age) offenders in order to observe the differences in the degree of stigmatization among the younger offenders.16 14 Kai Erickson, "Notes on the Sociology of Deviance," Social Problems 9 (l962)pp. 307-14. 15 J.S. wallerstein and C.J. Wyle, ”Our Law-Abiding Law Breakers," Probation 35 (March-April 1947)pp. 107-12. 16 Austin Porterfield, "Delinquency and Its Outcomes in Court and College. ” American Journal of Sociology 44 (November 1943)PP. 109d203. 12 The theories and the new methodologies of the inter- actionist sociologists were beginning to be developed and tested. This included work in ethnic and other subcultures by urban sociologists, using the anthropolgical field tech- niques of (l) participant observation, (2) informants, (3) in-depth interviewing, and (4) analytic-inductive strategies. By the early fifties, these methods had produced a spate of now classic studies such as Lindesmith's 193717 study on becoming an opiate addict, Wéstley's 195118 21.9 study of the police and Cressey's 195 study on becoming an embezzler. The Statement of the Interactionist School Chronologically, and in other ways as well, Edwin Lemert emerges as the seminal theorist of the new sociology of de- viance. He brought it both an innovative dimension and the articulation of a framework which later became the foundation for the labeling perspective. Lemert's theory was essen- tially a departure from the traditional positivist orienta- tion of sociology of deviance. 17 Alfred Lindesmith, "The Nature of Opiate Addiction," Doctoral dissertation, University of Chicago 1937. 18 W. Westley, "The Police: A Sociological Study of Law, Custom, and Morality," eds. E. Burgess and D. Bouge, Contributions to Urban Sociology, 1964, pp. 304-14. 19 Donald Cressey, Other People's Money: A Study in the Social Psychology of Embezzlement (Belmont, California: Wagsworth, 1971). Like the Chicago interactionists, Lemert was concerned with the social definition of deviance ["the deviant is one to whom that label (of outsider) has been successfully applied") (Becker,1963)_2O with deviation as a variable in time and space, but one capable of being reformulated: We start with the idea that persons and groups are differentiated in various ways, some of which re- sult in social penalties, rejections, and segregation. These penalties and segregative reactions of society or the community are dynamic factors which increase, decrease, and condition the form.which the initial differentiation or de- viation takes...The deviant person is one whose role, status, function, and self-definition are importantly shaped by how much deviation he engages in, by the degree of its social visibility, by the 21 particular exposure he has to the societal reaction. With regard to the theme of the relativity inherent in the process, Becker has pointed out that behavior that is a violation of rules when acted out by one individual may not be seen as such when committed by another, or, the same be- havior may not be an infraction at other times. Merton, although he represents the positivist viewpoint, likewise noted the absence of a "systematic classification" of response to deviance by conforming members of society.22 20 Howard S. Becker, Outsiders (New York: Free Press, 1963), P. 9. 21 Edwin M. Lemert, Social Pathology, p. 75 cited in Donald C. Gibbons, Society Crime and Social Processes (Engle- wood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1968), p. 197. 22 Robert K. Merton, "Social Conformity, Deviation, and Opportunity Structures: A Comment on the Contributions of Dubin and Cloward," American Sociological Review 24 (1959)PP. 177-89. 14 The positivist approach is parallel to natural science in the sense that "social reality" becomes the object of study in itself. Positivist methodologies, accordingly, are those of statistical analysis or quantification (as opposed to observational or analytic skills) expressed according to the hypothetic-deductive method. Hirschi likewise notes that until ten years ago (prior to 1965) all criminology was pos- itivistic in orientation."23 As we have seen, the interpretive orientation is con- cerned fundamentally with process and, hence, relies upon qualitative methodologies. This orientation may be para- phrased from Howard Beckerls radical dicta: Social groups_wcreate.deviance by making the.rules- whose infraction constitutes-dev1ance,-and.by_apply- ing those rules to particular people And, deviance iswnotwamquality of the act the person commits but rather a consequence of. the appl1cat10n by others of rules and sanctions to an offender Lemert, in point of fact, refuses to fit strictly into any school of deviance sociology, either interactionist or positivist, or, for that matter, phenomenological. He argues that differentiation, deviations from statistical norms, are in themselves normal and natural modalities of human exist- ence. In this sense, he has one foot in the structuralist tra- dition, so to speak, since these deviations exist causally in the conventional positivist meaning of viologica1,psychological 23 Walter Gove and Travis Hirschi,"Who is Hospitalizedz' A Critical Review of Some Sociological Studies of Mental Ill- ness," Journal of Health and Social Behavior (December 1970b) pp 294-303. 24 Howard S. Becker, Outsiders (New York: Free Press,l963) and cultural causes. Thus he draws the same distinctions be- tween ascribed deviance and "objective conditions" as Merton?5 Lemert's shift of focus away from the structural concept of deviance was prompted by his insight that formal social control agents and the responses both of self and of signifi- cant others required a model of deviance-labeling other than the structural one: The original causes of deviation recede and give way to the central importance (emphasis added) of the disapproving degradational and isolating reactions of society. 5 His model of primary/secondary deviance was developed in order to satisfy the idea that the individual "deviant" in- corporates into his self-image the societal reaction which eventually culminates in his stigmatization and transformation. What activated Lemert's model, in other words, was the acknow- ledgement of the reality of what is made of an act socially: Neither acts nor individuals are "deviant" in the sense of immutable "objective" reality without re- ference to processes of social definition. Lemert makes a distinction between a primary or "original" and a secondary or "effective"cause of deviance. In the 25 Robert Merton and Robert Nisbet, Contem orar Social Problems (New York: Harcourt,Brace and WOrId, I57I5pp.7UZ-3. 26 Edwin M. Lemert, Human Deviance, Social Problems, and Social Control (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1967). PP. 15-16. 27 Edwin M. Lemert, Labeling Deviant Behavior; 1;: Sociological Implications (New York: Harper and Row, 1971), p. 14. 16 first category, the deviations remain benign, or "symtomatic and situational as long as they are rationalized or other- wise dealt with as functions of a socially acceptable role."28 The characteristics or behaviors are departures from social norms, but they have not been sufficiently selected out by significant others, by control agencies, or by society in general. The deviations remain primary...as long as they are not rationalized or otherwise dealt with as func- tions of a socially acceptable role. In order for the behavior to become secondary, "the deviant individuals must react symbolically to their own behavior aberrations and fix them in their sociopsychological patterns."30 In other words, the individual must believe he is deviant, or must actualize and adjust the components of his life around the imputed deviant definition. It is important to point out that Lemert attaches a second meaning to primary/secondary deviance when differ- entiation from norms takes the form of physical disability such as blindness (an example used for the sake of a parallel ).31 to the work of Scott Here, original or primary deviation 28 Edwin M. Lemert, Social Pathology (new York: McGraw- Hill, 1951), p. 75. 29 Ibid., 30 Ibid., 31 Robert Scott, The Making of Blind Men (New York: Russell Sage, 1968) l7 from.normality is stigmatized from the beginning and it is only as the individual sustains and incorporates social expectations such as depression, dependency, "self-conscious- ness,‘ withdrawal, etc., that his deviance takes on Lemert's meaning of secondary deviance, or internalized aberrations. Lemert's major contribution,. one that appears to have been deep and lasting, is this explanation of deviance as a two- phase procession of events. The principle underlying Lemert's model, that of a processioned analysis (as well as of the concommitant prin- ciples of relativity and the collective "construction" of "reality" through imputation of meaning cited earlier), constitutes the basis of labeling theory. It was exempli- fied within the so-called "Western Tradition" of deviance sociology by theorists such as Becker, Kitsuse and Cicourel, Kai Erickson and others. Broadly speaking, during the 1960's and 1970's, the Western Tradition underlies studies of the transactional processing of deviants, both of individuals and of groups, and, correspondingly, in the organizational processing of deviants. Becker, for example, focused upon the explanation of deviance as the acquisition of a given type of behavior through "orderly" changes over time. He developed a model of "career contingency," i.e., the researcher locates the "sets" of influences which describe the deviant's passage from one identity to another. In this research, Becker uses a blend of interactionist "identity” concepts and "career” concepts 18 drawn from the occupational sociology prevalent in the Chicago School in order to study dance musicians and marijuana users.32 In addition, from 1960 to 1964, Becker, editor of the journal Social Problems, took the opportunity to provide a forum for sociologists who were "having difficulty publishing their work."33 Such an outlet, according to Spector was a necessity "for a new theory to develop." Among those published were not only Chicago interactionist sociologists, but also Fred Davis (1961), Everett Hughes (1962), California-trained sociologists like Kitsuse(1962) and Scheff (1964) and others such as Erickson (1962), Garfinkel (1964), and Sudnow (1965). In fact, even "Lemert's brilliant Social Pathology did not make a striking impact until the success of Becker and Goffman led to his 'rediscovery'.’ Social Problems thus became an im- portant vehicle for the support and dissemination of labeling theory and related research. John Kitsuse in collaboration with Aaron Cicourel, carried out seminal work in organizational rates of deviance. These researchers argue that the issue of the validity of official statistics should be investigated by focusing on the rates of deviant behavior produced by the social control agencies, rather than the social and cultural processes and the static structures which produce the deviant behaviors. 32 Howard S. Becker, "Becoming a Marijuana User," American Journal of Sociology 59 (November l953)pp.235+42. 33 Malcolm Spector, "Labeling Theory in Social Problems: A Young Journal Launches a New Theory," Social Problems 24 (October 1976)pp. 72773. 19 Interestingly, Merton also argues against the use of official statistics, but for the reason that official records, for instance on juvenile delinquency, are not shown "to be the results of efforts to identify the sources or the contexts "34 of juvenile delinquency. While frmm a "sociological stand- H point" Merton suggests going out and collecting one's own appropriately organized data," Kitsuse and Cicourel were motivated to study behavior rates on the basis of the prin- ciple that it is the societal control agents that define, classify, and record certain behaviors as deviant. In their view the issue was not one of "rejecting these official statistics as unreliable" because the rates they record are inaccurate." (The assumption is made that the recorded be- haviors are indeed deviant, "independent of social actions which define it as deviant.") On the contrary, rates must be explained in terms of the deviant pro- cessing activities of organizations. Thus rates can be viewed as indices of organizational processes rather than as indiggs of the incidence of certain forms of behavior. In his research on reactions to deviance. Kitsuse described "retrospective interpretation" as a process by which the re- spondents re-interpret the individual's past behavior. The 34 Robert K. Merton, New Perspectives for Research on Juvenile Delinquency, ed. H. Witmer and R. Kotinsky (washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1956) as cited in John I. Kitsuse and Aaron V. Cicourel, "A Note on the Uses of Official Statistics," Social Problems 11:133. 35 John I. Kitsuse and Aaron V. Cicourel, "A Note on the Uses of Official Statistics," Social Problems 11 (Fall 1963) 131-39, 136-37. 20 respondents (reactors) were asked to describe how they have knowledge of individuals involved in homosexual activity: The subjects indicate that they reviewed their past interactions with the individuals in question, searching for subtle cues and nuances of behavior which might give further evidence of the alleged deviance. This retrospective reading generally provided the subjects with just such evidence to support the conclusion that "this is what was going on all the time."36 In a similar connection, Harold Garfinkel states: The work of the denunciation effects the recasting of the objective character of the perceived other: the other person becomes in the eyes of his con- demners literally a different and new person. It is not that the new attributes are added to the old "nucleus." He is not changed, he is reconstituted (emphasis added). The former identity, at best, receives the accent of mere appearance... The former identity is the "basic reality." What he is now is what, "after all," he was all along.37 It is in this sense of singling out and tagging behaviors as deviant that labeling analysts claim that social agents main- tain and even produce deviance. They do not deny the exist- ence of deviance, rather, it is argued that the police, the courts, and other formal agents of social control are the determining factors in the "reconstitution" of the identities of individuals. Becker, in The Outsiders, takes probably the most radical position of the labeling theorists of the early 1960's in terms of questioning the overall schema of collective 36 John I. Kitsuse, "Social Reactions to Deviant Behavior: Problems of Theory and Method," Social Problems 9 (Winter 1962) 253. , 37 Harold Garfinkel, "Conditions of Successful Degrada- tion Ceremonies," American Journal of Sociology 61 (March 1965)PP 42-24. 21 rule-making and enforcement, and the way in which they reflect the values of power groups: Who can, in fact, force others to accept their rules and what are the causes of their success? This is, of course, a question of political and economic power. Here it is enough to note that people are in fact forcing their rules on others, applying them more or less agaggst the will and without the consent of those others. It seems appropriate to point out here that labeling analysts demonstrated an exceptional interest in research into organi- zational processing methodologies. This interest was clearly the result of the interactionist theorists' conceptualization of formal agency processing as a variable of deviance labeling, and of their concern with the "audience" of official control agents as the crucial implementors of social definitions. Kai Erickson, a leading analyst in the interactionist movement, states that labeling someone as deviant does not reflect something inherent in certain forms of behavior, it [deviance] is a property conferred upon these forms by the audiences which directly or indirectly witness them. Sociologically, then, the critical variable is the social audience...since it is the audience which eventually decides whether or not any given action 39 or actions will become a visible case of deviation. Erickson and Lewis Coser came to the interactionist perspec- tive from the direction of conflict theory which interprets 38 Howard S. Becker, The Ogtsiders: Studies in the Sociology of Deviance (London: The Free Press of Glenco, 1963) pps. 9T 20. 39 Kai T. Erickson, "Notes on the Sociology of Deviance," Social Problems 9 (Spring l962)p.302. 22 deviance as having a fundamental social function: Deviant forms of behavior, but marking the outer edges of group life, give the inner structure its special character and thus supply the framework within which the people of the group develop a2 orderly sense of their own cultural identity. 0 Deviance, and the response it elicits, helps society to con- struct social meaning and structure. Conflict theory, like labeling theory, is focused on processes, evolving rule- making and other changing social phenomena. These ideas recall Becker's concern with secret or un- detected deviance which takes place in settings beyond the purview of legal jurisdiction or of significant others. He considers the incidence of undiscovered deviance to be much wider than it appears. Becker has also consistently pointed out that since law enforcement cannot be universal or automat- ic, then, by reason of the selective nature of enforcement, what is defined as deviant is in practice delineated by the particular forms of current enforcement procedures. Major Research in the Organizational Processing of Social Control In theory, according to Rains and Kitsuse, the issues addressed by labeling are not confined to the "workings of social control agencies," but they "do have to do with the 40 Kai T. Erickson, Wayward Puritans (New York: Wiley, 1966), p. 13. 23 crystallization of deviant behavior and the consolidation of deviant commitments." With regard, then, to the preoccupation of labeling analysts with agency processing: In practice...social control agencies have been especially seductive of the attention of label- ing theorists for...The conceptions of arbitrary selection and treatment, and the spread of offense to character therefore lie at the core of the labeling point of view. Many labeling theorists are concerned with how agency process- ing systems "arbitrarily" select and handle their clients. In connection with this, Rains and Kitsuse point to Skolnick and WOodworth's 1967 study which notes that 40 percent of statutory rape complaints reported to the police agency under study were identified through the family support division via application for Aid to Dependent Children (ADC). Not only were such complaints involuntary, they had no relationship ' whatever to rape as a "meaningful offense.’ Such practices were seen as effectively cancelling the "relevance of offense to selection and treatment."42 It is perhaps such distortions that have prompted Schur to remark that it was "vitally necessary" to understand how social control efforts determine deviance outcomes, and that led him ultimately to conclude that agency services be mini- mized rather than expanded.43 41 Prudence M. Rains and John I. Kitsuse, ”Comments on the Labeling Approach to Deviance," unpublished article (draft copy), pp.4-5. 42 Ibid., p. 61 _ 43 Edwin M. Schur, Labelinngeviant Behavior: Its Sociological Implications (New York: Harper and Row, 1971) p. 82. 24 This direction of investigation in the area of deviance processing by social control agencies, which seeks ameliora- tion or alternatives to the negative outcomes of processing, is typified by Schur's advocacy of a policy of noninterven- tion between individuals and control agencies.44 A similar approach was suggested by Wheeler and Cottrell.45 Their study analyzed the decision making processes employed by three social control agencies in taking formal or informal action against juveniles. The study focused on the criteria used by the agencies. The criteria included attitudes and attributes of the deviant act, and a situational component. The researchers state that A variety of social theory and evidence leads to the conclusion that such agencies play a far more important role than is ordinarily ascribed to them...official response to the behavior in question may initiate processes that push the misbehaving juveniles towards further delinquent conduct and, at least, make it more difficult for them to re-enter the conventional world. Wheeler and Cottrell favor a policy of restraint in the labeling of delinquents. This is in contrast to policy approaches which hold that offenders will continue perform- ing deviant acts (because their acts contain a "reward" 44 Edwin M. Schur, Crimes Without Victims (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1973). 45 Stanton Wheeler and Leonard Cottrell, Jr., The Labeling Process, (New York: Harper and Row, 1969). 46 Donald R. Cressey and David A. Ward, Delinquency, Crimep and Social Process (New York: Harper and Row, 1969), Chapter 4. 25 factor) unless they are apprehended and "treated" in the incipient stage.47 Egon Bittner's research on how the "peacekeeping" or mediating role of the police through informal understandings of a skid row community "shaped the official processing of the deviants” followed a somewhat similar vein.48 David Sudnow's study of a public defender's office has highlighted the importance of informal working arrangements between appointed defense attorneys and prosecutors in determining disposition of cases before the criminal courts. Informal practices, however, have not necessarily been looked upon by interactionists as beneficial. On the con- trary, there has been considerable trepidation about the arbitrary and discriminatory nature of discretionary powers in the judicial processing of cases, a problem discussed by 150 Skolnick in Justice Without Tria and by Davis in 51 Discretionary Justice: A Preliminary Inquiry. Emerson, another advocate of "judicious" nonintervention, faults the juvenile courts for producing delinquents by 47 Eleanor T. Glueck, "Efforts to Identify Delinquents" Federal Probation, 24 (June 1960) pp.49-56. 48 Edwin M. Schur, Labeling Deviant Behavior: Its Sociological Implications (New York: Harper and Row, 1971) p. 83. 49 50 Kenneth C. Davis, Discretionary Justice: A Preliminary Inquiry (Baton Rouge, Louisiana: Louisiana University Press, 1969). Ibid., 26 "validating the prior judgments" of local institutions, such as schools, for example: The juvenile court's label represents the end product of the efforts of such institutions to deal with troublesome cases. From this perspective, the juvenile court not only labels delinquents, but it also resists labeling by refusing to validate complainants' judgments and to follow their pro- posed course of action. This suggests that the goal of minimizing court jurisdiction and power by holding it to a doctrine of "judicious non- intervention" but also maximizing its power and inclination to resist and change established definitions and proscriptions about delinquents and their situation. In a discussion of Gold and Youth (1967), Haney and Gold point to what appears as the overriding misdirection of American "reform machinery." The survey showed apprehended adolescents age 13-16 more likely to commit further offenses. In matched groups of un- apprehended and apprehended youths, in ”20 of the 35 pairs the apprehended member subsequently committed more offenses than did his unapprehended match," leading the researchers to state that: Whatever it is that the authorities do once they have caught a youth, it seems to be worse than doing nothing at all, worse even than never apprehending the offender. Getting caught encourages rather than deters further delinquency. By far the largest body of organizational research has been investigation which attempts to understand or to expose 52 Robert M. Emerson, Judging Delinquents (Chicago: Aldine, 1969). 5 3WilliamHaney and Martin Gold, "The Juvenile Delin- qUent Nobody Knows," Psychology Today, 7 (September 1973) p. 52. 27 how social control agencies shape deviance outcomes. The objectives here are first and foremost to show that the attribute of deviance is organized and maintained as much by the processes of social control as by the attributes of the offense. Erving Goffman, a seminal writer in this area, along with Becker, Lemert and Kitsuse, employed an approach which focused on subject's feeling states, using the techniques of intensive observation and in-depth interviewing as deviants attempted to cope with the helplessness, fear and pain of exclusion and dehumanization. In Asylums,54 a book about the "moral careers" of mental patients, and in StigmaSS and Behavior in Public Places56 (works about people with physical disabilities) deviancy is demonstrated as progressing in stages or in "sets" of deviant behavior. With regard to organizational deviance processing, Goffman, like Garfinkel, uses the restrospective interpreta- tion of labeling procedure. Thus, in Asylums, the mental institutions' case history of a client was seen to be used not simply in its medical or diagnostic function but as the basis of the "formal" definition of the patient as incompe- tent. The "case record," as will be seen in some forthcoming 4 Ewing Goffman, Asylums (New York: Anchor, 1961) 55 Ewing Goffman, Stigma (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1963) 56 Ewing Goffman, Behavior in Public Places (New York: The Free Press, 1963). 28 studies of the procedures of the courts and other enforcing agencies, becomes the "retrospective substantiation" of the "new" character of the patient. It is of interest that in a later study, which tested the proposition that public labeling "spoiled" the identity of juveniles to the extent that it ad- versely affected their interpersonal relations with others, it was found that the juveniles experienced labeling as a social liability gply in situations where their characters were impugned as inferred from documents or case records.57 It seems appropriate to place particular emphasis on Thomas Scheff's studies of mental patients because Scheff developed causal hypotheses concerning the effects of labeling and deviance, which he then supported with impirical research. In Being Mentally Ill, Scheff made the important observation that playing the role of a mental patient was the result of "the reciprocal and cumulative interrelationship between the rule-breaker's behavior and the societal reaction."58 Scheff proposed that the societal response of pschia- trists and the courts was the key factor in the institution- alization of patients. In theoretical terms, this took form in the statement that Among residual rule-breakers, labeling is the single most important cggse of careers of residual deviance. (emphasis added) 57 Jack D. Foster, Simon Dinitz and walter C. Reckless, "Preceptions of Stigma Following Public Intervention for De- linquent Behavior," Social Problems 20(Fall l972)p.202-09. 58 Thomas J. Scheff, Being Mentally Ill (Chicago: Aldine 1966), P. 97. 59 Ibid, pp. 92-94. 29 Scheffs data demonstrated, moreover, that the ...social differentiation of the deviant from the nondeviant population appears to be mater- ially affected by the financial, ideological, and political position of the psychiatrists who are in this instance, the key agents of social control. In another 1966 study concerned this time with patient release, Scheff observed that 43 percent or virtually half of the patients in the institution were there for reasons other than alleged "stable" mental illness: Their presence suggests the putative character of the societal reaction to deviance, and...for at least a near-majority of the patients, that their stagps is largely ascribed rather than achieved. In addition, by positing social response as the primary cause of institutionalization, Scheff advocated combining inter- actionist concepts with social systems concepts. Rushing conducted a large-scale study of the records on all admissions and releases of mental patients over a nine year period in a state mental hospital. He proposes that social, community, occupational and economic status all have direct bearing upon the societal response which led to hospitalization.62 60 Thomas J. Scheff, Being Mentally Ill (Chicago: Aldine 1966). P. 154. 61 Ibid., pp. 167-168. 62 William.A. Rushing, "Individual Resources, Societal Reaction, and Hospital Commitment," American Journal of Sociology 77 (November 1971)pp 511425. 30 A number of important studies in the literature, in focusing on the use of rules and typifications, have been based on research of agency negotiation procedures and the effects of broad discretionary powers of agency officials, and their relationships to due process. Cicourel, in a study of plea-bargaining as legal procedure and the discretionary powers among social control agents, concludes with regard to a decision of leniency instead of guilty, for example, that A juvenile who is "appealing and attractive" and who "wants very much to be liked and relates in a friendly manner to all around her," is a prime can- didate for clinical interpretations as opposed to criminal imputations. Finding "problems' in the home is not difficult...The transformation of the juvenile into a sick object permits all concerned to suspend the criminal imputations of her acts, even though the penal code sections are quoted each time the police report theft or burglary. Having established the juvenile as "sick," the P.O. [Probation Officerlmust sustain this depiction despite activities by the juvenile appearing to contradict this label. But having the label, it is easier to "explain" infractions by reference to aggravating gonditions and the necessity of "more treatment."6 Two sociological studies deal with plea-bargaining as a process contributing to the considerations of deviant iden- tity: Donald Newman's "Pleading for Considerations: A Study64 63 Aaron V. Cicourel, The Social Organization of Juvenile Justice (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1968), p. 121, as re- printed in Edwin M. Schur, Labeling Deviant Behavior: Its Sociological Implications (New York: Harper & Row, l97l),p.59. 64 Donald J. Newman, "Pleading for Considerations: A Study of Bargain Justice," Journal of Criminal Law,Criminol- ogy and Police Science 46 (March-April 1956), pp. 780-90. 31 of Bargain Justice and Jerome Skolnick's Justice Without 65 Trigl. The latter is an investigation of how clearance rates in two police departments conflicted with the operation of due process of law. The study focuses on how a police department's "track record hinges on the department's clear- ance rates," which, in turn, involved the department officials in trade-offs with offenders, such as reduction of penalties in exchange for information. The result showed that the processing procedure varies widely from individual to individual for the same crime, depending on the politics of the interaction between the individual and officials. The study emphasizes (l) the reliance of the courts on the prior processing of the police department, and (2) the way in which the goals and practices of formal agencies determine rates of deviance. The question of an agency’s bias towards its own bureau- cratic goals and procedures, rather than towards its having an objective interest in the welfare of the deviant person, also arises. For example, juvenile offenders might automati- cally be placed in custodial "care" rather than receiving another disposition, simply because bed space is plentiful in the correctional facility-~even though detention may run counter to the offender's actual needs.66 65 Jerome H. Skolnick, Justice Without Trial (New York: Wiley, 1966), p. 190. 66Mayner N. Zald, "The Correctional Institution for Juvenile Offenders: An Analysis of Organizational'Character'" SOcial Problems 8 (Summer 1960)pp.57-67. 32 Apparently a number of factors play a role in "selective reporting" to the courts on juvenile offenders. Nathan Goldman's findings in a multi-community study of police handling of juveniles shows significant differences in han- dling of offenders: The police base their reporting partly on the act of the offender but also on the idiosyncratic in- terpretation of this act and the degree of 67 pressure applied by the community on the police. In sum, the particular needs of the social control agencies are seen by many labeling analysts to affect not only how an individual is processed, but who is processed. Thus, the agencies are seen to determine who is labeled and who is not. In Goldman's study, for example, both the ide- ology or "philosophy" of a police department and the response of the particular community were formative factors in the outcome of interaction between the juvenile and police officials. Non-Offense Related Characteristics of Deviants Lemert states that sociology of deviant behavior, aside from focusing on interactions which define deviant behavior, 67 Nathan Goldman, The Differential Selection of Juvenile Offenders for Court Appearance (Washington, D.C.: Nationalf Council on Crime and Delinquency, 1963). 33 also organizes and activates "the application of sanctions" by individuals, groups and agencies. For in modern society the socially significant differentiation of deviants from.non-deviants is increasingly contingent upon circumstances of situation, place, social and personal biography, and bureaucratically organized agencies of social control.53 In his 1966 study, Gold reported that an offender's race was a significant factor in official response and de- cision making. Likewise, Piliavan and Briar find that dress, public appearance, demeanor, and attitude were significant factors in the discretionary practices of police.69 In the same vein, Elliot and Voss conclude in their study of delinquency and dropouts in California schools that the amount of delinquency among lower class youth is higher than among middle and upper class youth in official reports, despite the fact that self-report studies do not support 70 these differentials. Studies by Goldstein and LaFave support the contention that the incidence of officially re- ported delinquency is higher in lower social economic status 71 (SES) groups than in upper income groups. The National 68 69 Irving Piliavan and Scott Briar, "Police Encounters with Juveniles," American Journal of Sociology 70 (September 1964), pp. 206-14. 70 Delbert S. Elliott and Harwin C. Voss, Delinquency and Dropout,(Lexington, Mass.: D.C. Heath and Co., 1974). 71 Joseph Goldstein, "Police Discretion Not to Invoke the Criminal Process Low Visibility Decisions in the Adminis- tration of Justice," Yale Law Journal 69(1960)PP.543-94. Wayne LaFave, "The Police and Non-enfOrcement of the Law _ Part I," Wisconsin Law Review (January, 1962) pp.104-37. Edwin M. Lemert, Social Pathology, p. 25 34 Survey of Youth (1967) by Martin Gold and Jay Williams likewise indicated no strong relationship between class and 2 7 However, class as well as race were shown to delinquency. be distinctly significant variables in a study of the dis- position of cases in the Philadelphia juvenile justice system" The legal variables (1) seriousness of offense, and (2) number of previous offenses, when held constant, showed racial and SES factors to be differentiated. That is, "blacks and low SES subjects were more likely than whites H73 and high SES subjects to receive severe disposition. In another study, demeanor was seen as a critical variable in police decisions to process juveniles.74 The Consequences of Official Labeling From its beginning, interactional sociology of deviant behavior has stressed the process, relative, and phenomeno- logical aspects of becoming deviant. John Lofland in 72 William Haney and Martin Gold, "The Juvenile Delinquent Nobody Knows," pp.48-55. 73 Terence P. Thornberry, "Race, Socioeconomic Status and Sentencing in the Juvenile Justice System," Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology 65, No.1 (March 1973) pp. 90-98. 74 Dennis C. Sullivan and Larry J. Siegal, "How Police Use Information to Make Decisions: An Application of Deci- sion Games," Crime and Delinquency 18, No.3 (July 1972) pp.253-62. 35 Deviance and Identity elaborated and synthesized these interactionist themes of the process, the phenomenological and the proximate in behaviors. He attempts to locate and identify deviant behaviors in a space-time system of "places, hardware, others and actor himself," all of which constitute the elements in the choice of commiting a deviant act.75 It is easy to see how this theoretical approach has facilitated the understanding among theorists of the poten- tial range of variables in delinquent behavior, for example, the number of delinquent friends, and the "variable accept- ance of attitudes and beliefs favorable to the violation of legal codes".76 Situational components have not, in fact, received much attention as major criteria. This is shown in Clifford Shaw's and Henry McKay's book Juvenile Delinquency 77 and Urban Areas and Short and Strodbeck's study Group 78 Process and Gang Delinquency. David Matza has also been concerned with the continued explication and synthesis of interactionist theory in terms 75 John Lofland, Deviance and Identity (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1969). 76 Gary F. Jenson, "Parents, Peers, and Delinquent Action: A Test of the Differential Association Perspective,” American Journal of Sociology 78, No.3 (November l972b)p.573. 77 Clifford R. Shaw and Henry D. McKay, Juvenile Delin- quency and Urban Areas (Chicago: University ofChicago Press, 1965). 78 James F. Short, Jr. and Fred C. Strodbeck, Grou Process and Gang Delinquency (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1965) 36 of the theme of the process.//He has been concerned with deviancy less as the result of the situational background and character of offenders than of their reaction to legal insti- tutions. The explanation of crime is focused not on the etiology of/criminal activity, but on what is made of an act socially.,/ 4/ In terms of the preceding discussion, Matza is one of the theorists who has emphasized the arbitrary nature of legal systems, which, in specific cases, can generate feel- ings of injustice in the offender. Like Lemert and Cloward and Ohlin, he stresses that "individualized justice," as it is reflected in agency and court decisions, can lead to the alienation of juveniles from.the community and to the further internalization of deviance. Why the deviant individual identifies with the signification of his deviance; why and how he collaborates in the labeling process if the offender for some reason does not confer with the deviance significa- tion, he can, nonetheless, circumvent being labeled deviant, Matza concludes that: Exclusion...tends to focus the deviant subjects' attention on the terms of identity provided by the agent of signification during apprehension. As in most forms of exclusion, the subject needs hardly collaborate for the appropriate lesson to be drawn. All that really matters is that occa- sions and circles which sustain competing identities be inaccessible to him.7 79 David Matza, Becoming Deviant (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall), p. 162. 37 Again, the statement reflects Matza's position that society has stigmatized, in fact traumatized, the offender by con- ferring upon him/her a delinquent identity, in the sense of Lemert's definition of secondary deviance, that when official labeling has taken place, the deviant behavior has organized and activated the "application of sanctions by individual groups and agencies." Matza delineates a procedural ”outline" which moves in stages from its incipient form, which he signifies by the term "ban," to the level of "transparency," during which the individual becomes self-conscious and internalizes guilty and secret feelings about his/her deviant activity. Finally, the individual enters the phase of "gross" exclusion, in which he is officially involved in a functionally negative "relationship with the state." At this point in the labeling process, the "occasions and circles which sustain competing identities...(become) inaccessible to him." Lemert feels that even if an accused person is guilty there may be "degrees of criminality" which the person has not yet reached. If he is "labeled," the person may believe he has been unjustly treated by society, and in some cases, this may precipitate secondary deviance.80 Cloward and Ohlin perceive alienation as a critical variable in the labeling process. Their position is that adult societal response to deviancy has "different 8O Edwin M. Lemert, Human Deviance, Social Problemsy and Social Control (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersy: Prentice- a 9 9P0 - 38 consequences for juveniles who doubt the legitimacy of established societal norms" than for juveniles who accept social norms:, The consequences of adult response differ depending upon whether the invidious definitions based on minor acts of misconduct are imposed on those who already view tgf established order as unjust and deprivational. Elliott and Voss view such alienated juveniles as being in a prime position to incur negative outcomes from inter- 82 action with social control systems. Other research showed that alienation increases delinquent orientation independent of legal processing, and that there is a type of_juvenile who "comes into his first legal processing experience with some trait or set of traits that make him especially vulner- able to the negative side of labeling."83 On the whole, there is "a persistent tendency for those who have been officially labeled as delinquent to think of themselves and to feel thought of by others as delinquent 84 more often than those who have not been so labeled." It was also shown in Jensen's study that black adolescents were 81 Richard A. Cloward and Lloyd E. Ohlin, Delin uenc and Opportunity (Glencoe, Illinois: Free Press, 1967; p.130. 82 Delbert S. Elliott and Harwin C. Voss, Delinquency and Dropout. 83 Suzanne S. Ageton and Delbert S. Elliott,"The Effects of Legal Processing on Delinquent Orientations," Social Pro- blems 22 (October 1974) pp. 87-100. 84 Gary F. Jensen, "Delinquency and Adolescent Self- conceptions: A Study of the Personal Relevance of Infraction,‘ Social Problems 20 (Summer 1972) pp.84-lO3. 39 less likely to think of themselves or to feel thought of by others as delinquent than were white adolescents, indicating that race and class are highly significant variables which differentially influence how labeling affects a juvenile's self-evaluation. It was also determined in this study that the "less attachment to the law, the less difference official delinquency would make for self-evaluations." Overall, Jensen's study indicated that labeling does promote delin- quent orientation, and that it is "conditioned" by variables of race and class, although this is not to say that deeper penetration into the judicial system does not produce lowered self-esteem. Those who seek unskilled employment have been shown to be especially vulnerable to labeling incurred through a criminal court record. Rehabilitation notwithstanding, - employment is negatively affected for job seekers with a record of conviction. Even in the case of acquittal, the label lowered the status of the job-seeker.85 However, in a comparative study of the school perform— ance of a group of youths on probation and a group not on probation, Fisher concluded that the "essential differences between the two rou 5" mi ht be because members of the 8 P 8 85 Richard D. Schwartz and Jerome Skolnick, "Two Studies of Legal Stigma," In The Other Side, ed. Howard Becker (New York: The Free Press, 1964). 4O delinquent group share certain pre-existent characteristics 86 which become exacerbated by labeling. Similar inconsis- tencies in the results of labeling were reported by Hackler87 and by Thorsell and Klemke.88 The intention in this review of the literature has been to cover the most relevant theoretical and empirical research in labeling theory. There remain other pertinent works such as Glaser and Strauss's on grounded theory?9 Douglas's defi- 90 and Duster's discussion nitions of interactionist position of legal systems and morality?1 or empirical studies such as Trice and Roman's study of delabeling in Alcoholics Anony- mous.92 These studies are oriented toward the interactionist labeling perspective and might also have been discussed in detail. However, some materials should be reviewed which are relevant specifically to the Youth Service Bureaus, the subject of the investigation (the major independent variable). 86 Sethard Fisher, "Stigma and Deviant Careers in Schools," Social Problems 20 (Summer l972)pp78-83. 87 James C. Hackler, "Boys, Blisters and Behavior: The Impact of a WOrk Program in an Urban Central Area," Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 3 (July l966)pp155-64. 88 Bernard A. Thorsell and Lloyd W. Klemke, "The Label- ing Process: Reinforcement and Deterrent?", Law and Society Review 6 (February 1972)pp393-403. 89 Barney Glaser and Anselm Strauss, The Discovery of Grounded Theory (Chicago: Aldine Press, 1967). 90 Jack Douglas, ed., Understanding Everyday Life, (Chicago: Aldine Press, 1970). 91 T. Duster, The Legislation of Morality: Law, Drugs and MOral Judgment (New York: The Free Press, 1970). - 92 H. Trice and P. Roman, "The Self Reaction: A Neglect- ed Dimension of Labelling Theory." Paper presented at the American Sociological Association Meeting, 1969. 41 The Youth Service Bureau By the 1970's concepts associated with the labeling perspective were being reflected in the outlook of treatment professionals and in the thinking and approach of policy- makers at all levels of government. These concepts found concrete expression in a range of community programs in areas of mental health, corrections and diversion. One of the earliest of these programs was the Youth Service Bureau (YSB) which was proposed by the 1967 President's Crime Commission Report. Built into the concept of YSB was the idea of the non- stigmatization of youth "in jeopardy" and the prevention of entry of juveniles into the criminal justice system: This report, The Challenge of Crime in a Free Society has shown that most criminal careers begin in youth and that therefore, programs that will reduce juven- ile delinquency and keep delinquent and youthful offenders from settling into lives of crime are indispensable parts of a national strategy. It has shown that the formal criminal process, arrest-to-trial-to-punishment, seldom protects the community from offenders of certain kinds and, therefore, the criminal justice system and the community must jointly seek alternative ways of treating them.9 The objective of reducing juvenile delinquency must be seen as the overriding consideration of the Commission. This was 93 The Challenge of Crime in A Free Society, a report by the President's Commission on Law Enforcement and Admin- istration of Justice (U.S. Government Printing Office, washington, D.C., February 1967), p. 279. 42 the rationale behind the recommendation for the development of an informal mechanism: Official action might actually help to fix and perpetuate delinquency in the child through a process in which the individual begins to think givhigszigogziggl;n32ent and organizes his be- It was a prime concern of the Commission that referrals to the YSB agencies occur in lieu of court processing. The strategy therefore was that (1) programs were to be designed to meet the needs of problem youth regardless of who they were or what their individual problems might be, and in this way to circumvent the stigmatizing of children who were police and court or sChool referrals; (2) the YSB was defined as a voluntary public agency-- Clientele would have access through voluntary referral (parents or self), or they would be sent from the police and the courts, in which case accep- tance would be mandatory; and (3) decentralization was seen as another crucial aspect of design-~indigenous neighborhood centers would have the advantages of focusing on the special population characteristics of the youth in the community, or of keeping minor behavior problems in perspective, and mini- mizing the "spoiled" identity that occurred through associa- tion with more serious offenders in court settings. The 94 The Task Force Report: Juvenile Delinquency and Youth Crime, Rgport on Juvenile Justice and Consultants Pa ers, U. S. Government Task Force on Juvenile Delinquency (U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 1967) p.16. 43 Commission viewed the neighborhood agency instead of the court as the preferred rehabilitative setting. The Commis- sioners saw the YSB as an opportunity to channel the "principal rehabilitative effort into community-based dispositions that occur prior to assumption of jurisdiction by the court."95 In principle, neighborhood control would replace reliance upon criminal law as a mechanism of control. Additionally, it was felt that the local bureau would raise the consciousness of the community concerning youth problem, and would involve community members in responsible supportive roles. In terms of preserving the informal local character of the bureaus, fears were expressed in some quarters that YSB might itself become a labeling agency,96 for as has been shown in the review of literature, informal handling does not preclude stigmatization. The Commission's second major purpose in creating the YSB, a purpose which is really the relevant practical aspect of diversion, concerns problems of the failure of the juven- ile justice system to rehabilitate delinquent youth, to reduce or even stem."the tide of juvenile criminality,‘ or to bring 95 The Task Force Report: Juvenile Delinquency and Youth CrimeLAReport on Juvenile Justice and Consultants Papers, U.S. Government Task Force on Juvenile Delinquency (U.ST Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 1967) p.7. 96 Margaret K. Rosenheim, "Youth Services Bureaus: A Concept in Search of Definition," Juvenile COurt Judges Journal, Vol. XX, No. 2 (Summer 1969) pp.69-74. 44 "justice and compassion” to the child offender. The Crime Commission saw the YSB as an agency ...to handle many troublesome young people... because society has failed to give the juvenile courts the resources that would allow it 0 function as its founders hoped it would.9 The YSB would take from.the courts the burden of handling a large volume of nonjudicial cases, providing alternatives in many cases to the official filing of petitions for delin- quency, and thus reserving the juvenile court system for more serious offenders. In this context, the creation of the YSB was supportive of the national trend signaled by the Supreme Court's Gault decision, of relieving the court of its multiple role as adjudicator, counselor, parensypatriae, and welfare agency, and of providing a variety of informal ser- vices. While this raises certain questions about the relationship of the bureaus to the courts, it raises more important, pragmatic questions about the structure of pre- court rehabilitation and prevention programs. Because of the nonspecificity of the Commission's recommendations, the issues revolve around the extent to which programs will coordinate existing social services in the community, or reach out into uncharted areas to provide unique new services. The Task Force saw the YSB's chief function to be its "mandatory responsibility to develop and monitor (emphasis added) for a group now handled for the most part either 97 The Challenge of Crime in a Free Society, a report by the President's Commission on Law Enforcement and Administra- ition of Justice (U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., February 1967), p. 1. 45 inappropriately or not at all except in times of crisis." Its function would be to undertake "individually tailored work "98 In other words, the YSB was conceived as with...youths. (l) a resource development agency, and (2) a coordinator of the social services of the community on behalf of the child. The Department of Health, Education, and Welfare Children's Bureau also supported this role for the YSB. The National Council on Crime and Delinquency, however, viewed the agency not as filling gaps in direct service, but primarily as a re- source development agency and as a source of data collection, analysis and research, always keeping in focus the respon- siveness of local bureaus to local needs.99 As it has turned out, innovative direct services appear to be the primary component in "effective" local bureaus, i.e., those bureaus whose services result in reduced de- linquent behavior by client youth. Of the 1970 Youth Service Bureaus surveyed in the first national survey conducted by the Department of Health, Education and Welfare through its youth development agency, the typical program is focused on 98 Task Force Report: Juvenile Delinquency and Youth Crime, Rpport on Juvenile Justice and Consultants Papers, 1967, p. 21. 99 Sherwood Norman, The Youth Service Bureau (Paramus, New Jersey: N.C.C.D., 19727} PP.12-13. 46 "developing alternative services to fill the gaps in the community rather than facilitating access to ongoing agen- cies."100 Most local bureaus offer at least one of the standard direct services: counseling, tutoring, medical care, legal assistance, job referral, or crisis intervention. Many offer combinations of these. Bureaus also provide referral service, follow-up, individual advocacy, and service brokerage. Coun- seling is described as the "nucleus" of many bureaus, even though counseling has not been considered necessarily an 101 The bulk of referrals come appropriate activity for YSB. from police and juvenile court intake staff. In California, self-referral seems to have occurred chiefly in bureaus with recreational facilities and job counseling and placement 102 According to the 1973 HEW report, 40 percent of services. referrals nationally were unofficial. The four central influences in the development of the bureaus were seen to be (1) the nature of the community, (2) the power base, (3) orientation of the staff, and 100 The Challenge of Youth Service Bureaus, U.S Depart- ment of Health, Education and(Welfare (Washington, D.C., 1973) pp. 17-18. 101 M. K. Rosenheim, "Youth Services Bureaus: A Concept in Search of Definition," Juvenile Court Judges Journal, Vol. XX, No. 2 (Summer l969)p69-74. 102 E.Suxbury, Youth Services Bureaus (Department of the Youth Authority) A First-year Report to the California Legis— lature, 1970 (mimeo) p. 10. 47 (4) sources of funding, with a committed, and sensitive staff 103 In a later study which surveyed as the key ingredient. 372 YSB agencies, it was found that pressures from the community were hindering development of innovative programs by forcing the programs into a pattern of alignment with other community agencies and institutions (schools, police, courts). As a result, there was a shift in emphasis away from coordination of services and youth development functions towards a tightening of rules, i.e., use of coercive struc- tures. Thus, an interest emerged to have autonomous agencies. However, the separation away from more established agencies, such as schools, police, and courts, often resulted in fund- ing problems, and the inability of the Bureau to acquire re- ferrals for troubled youth. Criticism of Labeling Theory The main points in the long and energetic debate around labeling will be discussed below. The extremes of the debate may be indicated on the one hand by statements that the "era of theories of societal reaction to deviance has come to an 104 or, that the field has "prospered in an atmosphere of 105 end contempt for the results of careful research" and, in 103 The Challenge of Youth Service Bureaus, U.S. Depart- ment of Health, Education and Welfare (Washington, D.C.,l973) p. 25. 104 John Hagan, "Review of the Labeling of Deviance" ed. Walter Gove, American Journal of Sociology 84 (July 1977)p.240. ’ 105 Walter Gove and Travis Hirschi, eds., The Labelin of of Deviance: Evaluatingya Perspective (New York: Sage 1975ip179. 48 contrast, by Erich Goode's contention that there really is no such thing as a labeling theory, that the field is a fabrica- tion of "observers and critics out of the raw materials of a few arresting passages, phrases and concepts [in the Literature]."106 The major recent criticism from the positivist point of view was published in a volume of collected papers delivered at the Third Vanderbilt Sociology Conference in 1975. The contributors en masse took the position that (1) it is "the behavior or condition of the person" that is the critical factor in causing someone to be labeled as deviant, and (2) "labeling is not the major cause of the development of stabilized deviant behavior."107 This criticism was substan- tiated by eight experts in various fields: Lee Robbins (alcoholism), Walter Gove (mental illness), Robert Gordon (mental retardation), Richard Smith (physical disability), Charles Title (crime), Travis Hirschi (juvenile delinquency), William McAuliffe (heroin addiction) and Edward Sagarin and Robert Kelly (sexual deviance). One is forced to agree with aspects of the rebuttal given by Sagarin and Mbntanino, 215., that Gove's book does not contain a single proponent of the labeling perspective 106 Erich Goode,"0n Behalf of Labeling Theory,” Social Problems 22 (June l975)p569-582. " ” 107 Walter Cove and Travis Hirschi, eds. , The Labeling of Deviance: Evaluating a Perspective. 49 who states "its propositions for...others to analyze, test, accept and reject." Some of these propositions will now be reviewed for consideration with their counter-arguments.108 Relativism There is at the very outset a rejection among some cri- tics of the relativism.of the labeling theory expressed in the relativists' proposition that no act is of itself crimin- al and that criminal behavior is actually defined by powerful groups in their own interests in order to maintain social dominance. Consequently, the "reality" of the social act of deviance stands outside the actors. Thus, Kitsuse asserts that it is not "forms" of behavior that distinguish deviants from nondeviants, but the response of "conventional and con- forming members of society." Hirschi implies that this new perspective is in some sense irresponsible because there is no way to prove that such theories are tenable--a somewhat typical positivist stance. The meaning of the assertion of this externality of the act of deviance has been to show that it is a process of collective definition. Labeling perspective wants to under- stand how deviance is being collectively perceived and so- cially defined. (The fact that labeling theorists have not sufficiently studied what is deviant will be discussed later.) 108 E.Sagarin and F. Montanino, "Review of Anthologies and Readers on Deviance," Contemporary Sociology 5 (May 1976) p. 259-67. 50 Wellford objeCts that the relativist approach leads to the concept of crime as a legal category, which ignores the seriousness of acts (murder, rape, burglary, aggravated assault, etc.) that are "characteristically considered im- "109 He is rightly portant by citizens and criminologists. concerned with the defense over time of the consistent theme of criminology, which has been to encourage the control of serious violations of "property and persons by others." However, most such criticism ignores the intention behind the relativist posture of labeling theory. It is misleading to imply that labeling theory should lead to the abolition of social controls. By and large, labeling theory does not deny the social utility of the universal sanctions appled to some forms of social interaction. Lemert agrees that practically all societies in varying degrees... disapprove of incest, adultery, promiscuity, cruelty to children, laziness, disrespect to parents and elders, murder, rape, theft... Certain kinds of actions are to be judged dele- terious in any context.11 Lemert next makes the extremely important point that "it is not so much that these (serious deviant behaviors) violate rules, as it is that they destroy, downgrade or jeopardize values universal in_nature."(emphasis added) 109 Charles F. Wellford, "Labeling Theory and Crimin- ology: An Assessment," Social Problems 22 (February, 1975) pp.332-45. 110 Edwin M. Lemert, "Beyond Mead: The Societal Re- action to Deviance," Social Problems 21 (April 1974)pp.457-68. 51 Labeling theory has never made the claim that criminal behavior was in some way nonexistent in human nature. Rather, it developed out of a need to "generate a paradigmatic set of questions with which to approach the study of deviance." In this connection it has questioned the statistics and methodologies of social control agencies. It has questioned above all "how far the quantitative...procedure can take us in evaluating the pertinence of a societal reactions' per- spective."111 The strength of the group interaction model is seen pre- cisely as its capability to expose and examine the "shifting significance of ends and means and their costs (emphasis added) in the emergence of new patterns of social control."112 Fmrfrom.advocating some sort of rampant relativism.in which the person eventually pg or eventually becomes what society 113 "tells him he is" the distinctiveness of the interaction- ist approach "was to show how deviance was shaped and stabil- ized by efforts to eliminate and ameliorate it.114 lll'Walter Cove and Travis Hirschi, The Labeling of Deviance, p. 285. 112 Edwin M. Lemert, Instead of Court: Diversion in Juvenile Justice (Chevy Chase, Maryland: N.I.M.N., 1973)p.466. 113 Travis Hirschi, "Procedural Rules and the Study of Deviant Behavior," Social Problems 21 (Fall 1973)pp.159-73. 114 p. 457. Edwin M, Lemert, Instead of Court, Diversion, 52 The emphasis of Lemert and others on original versus effective causes must be seen for what it is, an attempt to develop an instrumentality for the probing of legal struc- tures: The chief gain is a method for specifying the way in which human choices affect the societal reaction without generalizing the claims of others or reducing them to traditional ideas of old style structural, positivist sociology. It shows how costs of changes in social Egntrol feed back into decisions to make changes.1 Norms The criticism is leveled that labeling theory does not deal sufficiently with the normative definition of deviance, and that it places greater emphasis on the processes of social response than on how they are learned, both in terms of the deviants and the reactors. Hirschi, for example, asserts that norms are of central importance in the sociology of deviant behavior, that theories of norms permit the predic- tion of what a society's survival needs are and what its institutional structure looks like, and that these theories thus can ShOW’What, within a particular system, is deviant. He further asserts that the "connection between behavior and its antecedents" is absent from both "scholarly and useful versions" of labeling theory.116 115 466 Edwin M. Lemert, Instead of Court: Diversion, p. 116 Travis Hirschi, ”Procedural Rules and the Study of Deviant Behavior". 53 Gibbs disagrees, stating that although certain variables may explain why some persons commit certain acts, they do not explain why the acts are crimes, criminal law being "spa- tially and temporally relative."117 This is similar to the intention of the interactionist perspective. Labeling theory's expectation, given the context of our pluralistic society, is that norms necessarily will not attract conformity, but that, ...new ways of thinking can be opened up by assuming that in the absence of pressures to conform, people will...express a variety of idiosyncratic impulses in overt behavior. When this assumption is joined with...the fact that ...our society increasingly shows fluid and open structuring of situations, categorically different ideas about deviation follow. An e%ually flexible (emphasis added) conception o norms is reguired to supplement these assumptions.11 In accordance with the concept of the above-named societal fluidity, labeling theorists view norms as sets of probabilities under continual pressure for nonadherence. There is persuasive evidence that, if anything, labeling theorists have been deeply con-erned with the investigation of norms, with the process of how new norms evolve through 117 Jack P. Gibbs, "Conceptions of Deviant Behavior: The Old and the New," Pacific Sociological Review 9 (Spring 1966) pp. 9-14. 118 Edwin M. Lemert, Human Deviance, Social Problems and Social Control (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1967), p. 18. 54 researching behavior in unstructured situations, and with how traditional norms interface with shifts in deviant behavior. Primary Deviance It is claimed that labeling theorists have ignored primary deviance or "original" deviant behavior which occurs in a wide variety of cultural and psychological contexts be- fore a person has been stamped with a label that "does in 119 Yet it can fact make a difference in social relations." hardly be said that forms of "invisible" deviance, for example, have not been of interest to many interactionists (Becker, Goffman, Matza, Lofland, Garfinkel). It is more to the point that they have not confronted social environmental factors such as home and school settings and the influence of peer groups, that they have not in fact demonstrated any overriding interest in the systemic causes of deviance. The questions at issue for them have been the social typing of deviant subcultures, the emergence and consolidation of de- viant identity, the effects of social exclusion on status, and so forth. It seems fairly obvious that labeling theorists under- stand that primary deviance occurs in connection with factors of family situation, neighborhood, peer group, ethnic 119 Howard S. Becker, Outsiders (new York: The Free Press, 1963). 55 affiliation, sex, etc. However, the labeling perspective has evolved in opposition to precisely these structuralist features in legal control systems. They have focused on certain notorious practices of social control systems to which it was felt structuralism has given rise. It was expecially the arbitrariness of establishment social control processing that was grist for the mill of labeling theorists. Blumer thus imputes the "regulatory" procedures of institu- tions whose implementors, "stand to benefit from the (legal) plan, (and who) restrict, bend, accommodate and variously adjust the plan in ways that were never officially intended (emphasis added)?120 In short, the focus has been mainly on the processes of societal definition, not on the character and background of the deviants. Macro-Social Structures It can unquestionably be said that the labeling perspective is deficient in macro-structural levels of analysis: In recent years sociologists have come to see deviance and control as essentially symbiotic rather than antagonistic phenomena...While the 120 Herbert Blumer, "Social Problems as Collective Behavior," Social Problems 18 (Winter 1971) No. 3, p. 299. 56 immediate interaction between deviants and control agencies and the etiological signi- ficance of deviance processing have received considerable attention, the historical and structural contexts within which the pro- cessing occurs have been largely ignored.121 Similarly, if the emphasis on the causal effects of societal response has been in part a strategy for turning attention to "new" sociological perspectives of deviance, the rule- breaker's behavior must nonetheless be merged with systems conceptions--presently lacking in labeling theory--of which more will be said later. However, proponents of some recent notable efforts in this direction are Stephen Pfohl and Andrew Scull. Pfohl conducted a study which brought to light the nature of the widespread and "invisible" deviance of child beating. "The'Discovery'of Child Abuse" helped pro- mote the speedy and universal enactment of criminal legislation in the mid-1960's. Pfohl's study synthesizes the conflict and the labeling perspectives of a particular social-legal development, and shows among other things, that society treats "legitimized violence toward children" as an illness.122 As part of the effort to develop a historically informed macro-sociological perspective of the "inter-relationship between deviance control structures and the wider social systems of which they are a part," Scull 121 Andrew T. Scull, ”Madness and Segregative Control: The Rise of the Insane Asylums," Social Problems Vol. 25, No. 3 (February l977)pp337-51. 122 Stephen Pfohl, "The 'Discovery' of Child Abuse," ' Social Problems 24 (February 1977)pp310-323. 57 carried out his Marxist-oriented study of the "segregated" control of madness, i.e., a study of the emergence of the asylum.as a specialized institution, in which he draws parallels between pauperism.and institutionalization.123 Rogers and Buffalo also attempted to remedy the indict- ment of critics that labeling theory deals mainly with those labeled as individuals--i.e., the individual is the primary discussion unit--rather than with "collective analytical” units. The researchers developed a categorization of nine modes within which deviants "fight back" against the label- ing process (acquiescence, repudiation, flight, evasion, 124 The attempt being re-interpretation and channeling). made here was to show labeling not as "evil" per se, but that it is the propensity to divide people into "heros and villains" which gives "increased salience or primacy to the deviant role itself." The intention of the research was to correct the tendency of labeling theory to stress the stigma of labels to the "neglect of systemic categorization." Another systematically oriented development in socio- logical theory known as social constructionist sociology has been interested particularly in the "commonsense knowledge” 123 Andrew Scull, Decarceration: Community Treatment and the Deviant - A Radical View (EnglewoodCliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1977)} 124 Joseph Rogers and M.D. Buffalo, "Fighting Back: Nine Modes of Adaptation to a Deviant Label," Social Problems 22 (October 1974qulOl-ll9. 58 of society, or knowledge between objective and subjective reality. Human reality is seen as socially constructed reality. This approach believes that the "sociologies of language and religion" cannot be considered peripheral to the sociology of knowledge.125 The approach can be described as non-positivist in the sense that the object of positivism is understood as defining the object of the social sciences in such a way as to "legislate away their most important problems."126 Passivity One of the most common criticisms of labeling theory, both frommwithin the interactionist camp and from.without, has been the charge that "the offender is almost always... portrayed as a passive non-participant in his own pre- "127 This appears to contradict a central determined fate. precept of interactionist ideology: which is that the nature of social conditions is not static, but fundamentally 125 P. Berger and T. Luckmann, The Social Construction of Reality (Garden City, New York: Doubleday, Inc., 1967). 126 127 Prudence Rains and John I. Kitsuse, "Comments on the Labeling Approach to Deviance," presented at the 65th annual meeting of the American Sociological Association, Washington, D.C., August 31-September 3, 1970. Ibid. 59 active. From outside the interactionist camp, Hagan, for example, has declared himself to be in favor of the increased acknowledgment of the reciprocal relationship between actor and reactor.128 Schervish has strongly criticized the seeming contra- diction between labeling theory and the precepts of symbolic interactionismw He has criticized labeling theory for being overly passive, as well as for taking those labeled instead of large-scale systemic analytical units, as the primary subject for discussion.129 Schur's argument in response to such charges is that labelists have, if anything, stressed the principle of continuous interaction between individuals' behavior and the responses of others, and that: far from treating individuals as passive objects [labeling analysts] appear to challenge the tendency of other theorists to treat them as such and...in fact, recognize significant measures of "freedom” and "personal dignity." Conclusion Finally, it seems important to point out that labeling theory is still only crudely formulated. Kitsuse regards it 128 John Hagan, "Labeling and Deviance: A Case Study in the 'Sociology of the Interesting',” Social Problems 20 (Spring 1973a): 447-458. 129 Paul Schervish, "The Labeling Perspective: Its Bias and Potential in the Study of Political Deviance," The American Sociologist 8 (May 1973): 47-57. 130 Edwin Schur, Labeling Deviant Behavior: Its Sociological Implications (New York: Harper & Row, 1971) , p. 70. 60 as an "unfortunate term" because it reinforces the crude rejection or acceptance of what is really a broad and multifaceted approach. Lemert also terms it "crude socio- logical determinism." Schur denies that it is in fact a formal theory, while Tittle believes that the theory may have some validity at the societal level: "...The most that can be concluded is that social disadvantages may have some effect on labeling and that labeling may have some in- fluence in producing criminal behavior."l3l Labeling theory was designated as such in textbooks only as recently as the early 1970's. Its major objective has been to describe deviancy from "the point of view of the deviants without attempting to isolate the causes of crime and without managerial or moralistic interest in "132 Its correcting or preventing the conduct in question. impetus derived originally from the intradisciplinary opposition to narrow causal propositions, which left un- touched the phenomenon of the collective labeling of behavior. "Subjectivism" with respect to labeling theorists paying attention to the underdog and their hostility to the establishment,has been one of the by-products of the label- ing approach. Even from.within the labeling perspective there has been criticism of the tendency to magnify "the exploitative and arbitrary features of social reaction."133 131 Edwin Schur, Labeling Deviant Behavior, 1971. 132 Malcolm Spector, ”Labeling Theory in Social Problems: . A Young Journal Launches a New Theory,” Social Problems 24 (October 1976): 69-75. 133 Edwin M Lemert, Instead of Court: Diversion 61 But such occurrences are to be expected in the course of overturning older theories and technologies. Oversimplification is in fact a necessary characteristic of scientific procedure. It seems clear that the debate and the synthesis that is taking place concerning the theory of labeling has raised the central orientation issues for future work in the field. With respect to methodologies, there needs to be an integration of the micro and the social system models of analysis, "By allowing for explicit consideration of antithetical models the way may be cleared for a synthesis, a model which has the advantages of both and the disadvantages of neither."134 134 Thomas Scheff, Being Mentally Ill: A Sociological ' Theory (Chicago: Aldine Press, 1966). CHAPTER 3 STUDY DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY Methods This study was structured according to an experimental treament/control group pre/post test design. Negotiations for this study were initiated with the Berrien County Youth Service Bureau Director during the summer of 1976. Initial talks involved the Model Evaluation Project Co-director of Research, Dr. William Davidson III. Subsequent negotiations were the responsibility of this writer. The Berrien County Youth Service Bureau director agreed to allow the random selection of project youth before the study began. He also agreed to permit the research team to control all intake pro- cedures and the initial processing of youth. Under the negotiated research plan, it was understood that one-third of the youths referred would have their services delayed while those remaining would be interviewed by Bureau counselors and their cases handled under the regu- lar Bureau procedures. Youths would not be kept out of the sample for any reason unless agreed upon by the researcher; therefore, all those referred, regardless of the reason for referral, were eligible for random assignment to sample groups, as outlined below. Interviewers were supervised by the writer through on-site visits (two or three days weekly) and daily telephone contact. All new client-intake contacts were controlled by the research staff during the entire study period. 62 63 Final agreement on the project was reached in the fall of 1976. Research began in November 1976 with the assignment of youths to experimental and control groups. All project interviewing was concluded in June 1977. A final review of the Juvenile Court files was conducted in August 1980. Appendix F outlines staff instruction for the steps in- volved in the processing of Berrien County Youth Service Bureau clients. Details of the random selection of youth clients and methods and procedures appear in the following section of this report. Stratified Random Sample Random.Assignment to Experimental Groups of Youth Referred to Youth Service Bureau (YSB) Youths who met Youth Service Bureau (YSB) clientele re- quirements were preassessed and randomly assigned to experimental (Group 1) and control (Group 2) groups for interviewing (See Figure l). Youths were eligible for YSB Services if they were (1) residents of Berrien County, (2) seventeen years old or under, and (3) not under the formal jurisdiction of the juvenile court. Each youth re- ferred to YSB was checked for YSB intervention requirements. Those who were not eligible were then referred by the YSB casework supervisor back to the agency that had originally referred him or her. 64 Pre-Assessment -Interview(s) -Deviance Measures 1. Self Report 2. Tennessee Self Concept 3. Jesness Inventory, Police, Court Reports Program Eligibles Program Eligibles Rejected for Services Receiving Services 37 Researchers (Under the direction of the researchers) Control Experimental Group Group Post Post Assessment Assessment Comparisons Analysis Figure 1. Youth Service Bureau Clientele Random Assignment The experimental group represented any youth entering the YSB who was receiving the normal YSB services. He or she was matched with a control group youth who did not receive YSB services for the sixfimonth period. The two groups were matched by age and sex, and were processed during the same period of time. When the experimentally matched pairs terminated from the YSB, the client in the control group as well as his counterpart in the experimental group received a termination interview. 65 The following list provides an overview of the sample process: 1. YSB referrals were screened for eligibility by the intake secretary Intake secretary provided research coordinator with a copy of all referrals eligible for the YSB Research coordinator received referral slips and assigned each to a research group based on age and'sex Research subjects were randomly assigned to one of the four categories: a. Males 15 years of age and over b. Males under 15 years of age c. Females 15 Years of age and over d. Females under 15 years of age Assignments were made as follows: a. Youths in their respective age and sex classifications were assigned on a "first come first served" basis to their research groups by pulling random assignments cards from the "blind” research envelopes by age and sex., a male over 15 would be eligible for either the experimental or the control group. b. Once assigned to a research group, the youth was given a research ID number ' c. The youth's name was recorded on the respec- tive research group's assignment envelope. 66 Upon assignment, each youth was interviewed by one of two local research interviewers, one male and one female. Youths were then contacted by letter indicating that they had been referred to the YSB, and were introduced to the Model Evaluation Project/YSB research project. Interviews were set up at the youth's home, the YSB office, or in some cases, the youth's school. A parent was present only during the initial visit and only to sign parent/youth voluntary participation forms.J Of the ninety-five youths referred to the YSB during the study, only four refused to participate in the research project and YSB activities. Each interview also involved the use of three interview-Q, ing scales (1) Self-Report Delinquency, (2) Tennessee Self- Concept, and (3) Jesness Inventory. Each youth had an indi- vidual file containing (1) Self-Report Delinquency--intake and termination, (2) Tennessee Self-Concept--intake and termination, (3) Jesness Inventory--intake and termination, (4) YSB General Information Fact Sheet--intake and termina- tion, (5) Juvenile Court Cross-Sectional Follow-up, (6) Police Department Cross-Sectional Follow-up. Further methods and procedures used to process youths referred to the Berrien County Youth Service Bureau are in Appendix F. Research Hypotheses Hypothesis 1.1 Diversion of youths to the Youth Service Bureau reduces or retards the degree of future deviant behavior. 67 a. Dependent Variable: Deviant Behavior (Youth Crime and Delinquency), b. Independent Variable: Youth Service Bureau, c. Assumption: Youths diverted to the Youth Service Bureau will experience lower levels of stigmatization than those pro- cessed through the Juvenile Justice System. Hypothesis 1.2 Youths diverted to the Youth Service Bureau will experience lower levels of penetration into the Juvenile Justice System. a. Dependent Variable: Police Department and Juvenile Court official contacts, b. Independent Variable: Youth Service Bureau. Hypothesis 1.3 Youths diverted to the Youth Service Bureau will experience an improved self-image, or one which remains intact. a. Dependent Variable: Tennessee Self-Concept Scale, b. Independent Variable: Youth Service Bureau services. Operationalization and Conceptualization of the Research Hypothesis The hypotheses were evaluated by two types of measures, (1) structured interviews of YSB clients involved in the study were conducted by the two trained on-site interviewers using 68 the Tennessee Self-Concept Scale, the Self-Report Delinquency Card Sort, and the Jesness Inventory, (2) the Pre/post Juvenile Justice System Contact Report was the second measure from the official Juvenile Court files and Police Department files. Further description of the measures are noted below and also appear in the appendices. Tennessee Self-Concept Scale The Tennessee Self-Concept Scale (TSCS) is the most fre- quently used scale for the measurement of self-concept of 135 delinquent and non-delinquent youth. Fitts in collabora- tion with Hamner];36 reviewed the TSCS research on delinquency, but a number of studies have been reported as cited by Fitts]:37 The Tennessee Self-Concept Scale is published in two forms: The Clinical and Research version (Form C & R) and the Counseling Form. Each of the two forms uses the same hundred items, but form C & R employs a number of additional scores which are not derived for the Counseling Form. Data presented for this study are from the Clinical and Research Form. The TSCS provides a variety of information about the 135William H. Fitts, Tennessee Self Concept Scale (Nash- ville: Counselor Recordings, ACklen Station, 37212) 1965. 136 William H. Fitts and W.T. Hammer, "The Self-concept and Delinquency," Nashville Mental Health Center Monograph,l, (Nashville, 1969) . 137 William H. Fitts, "The Self-concept and Behavior: Over- view and Supplement," Monograph No. VII, 1972c; "The Self- concept: A Vantage Point for Viewing the Human State," Mono- ,graph No. l, 1973b;Dede Wallace Center Monographs (Nashville: Counselor Recordings, Acklen Station, 37212). 69 individual and the way he describes himself. The scale items appear in Appendix B. The major score items are the following: A. The Self-Criticism Score (SC) B. The Positive Scores (P) 1. Total P Score 2. Row 1 P Score 3. Row 2 Score - Self-satisfaction 4. Row 3 P Score - Behavior 5. Column A - Physical Self 6. Column B - MOral Self 7. Column C - Personal Self 8. Column D - Family Self 9. Column E - Social Self Jesness Inventory The Jesness Inventory Scale is a personality inventory specifically designed for youth between the ages of 8 and 18. The Jesness Inventory is a questionnaire (155 items true/false) with easily comprehended, idiomatic items yielding ten trait scores and a powerful index predictive of social tendencies. Scales are: Social maladjustment, value orientation, immaturity, autism, alienation, manifested aggression, with- drawal, social anxiety, repression, denials and the social index. These scales and the index were developed against ex- ternal criteria and by cluster analysis. Norms are based on delinquent and nondelinquent boys and girls with special 70 attention to the inclusion of subjects from lower middle and lower socioeconomic IGVEIS. Archival Data Collection The demographic, social, and psychological characteris- tics of YSB clients were obtained through an individual record search from the Berrien County YSB record files. Information was collected on date of birth, race, sex, pre- vious juvenile court involvement, and previous police department contacts from the Benton Harbor, St. Joseph, and Berrien Springs police departments, as well as the Berrien County Sheriff department and the County Juvenile Court. Information also was collected from Berrien County law enforcement agencies on the frequency, seriousness, and disposition of police contacts one year prior to referral of individual youths to the YSB program, and up to six months following referral. The Berrien County Juvenile Court pro- vided information on delinquent offense referrals to the Juvenile Court, and the seriousness, frequency, and disposi- tion of each. This information also contained data collected one year prior to the first YSB referral and up to six months following referral. The six month time interval was selected to maintain consistency with the average YSB client termina- tion pattern. 71 Information on nineteen variables was collected to pro- vide a detailed description of youths referred to the Berrien County YSB. The nineteen variables are as follows: Source of Referral MOdule (degree of Juvenile Reasons for Referral Justice System Involvement) Community Services Prior Offenses Race Seriousness of Prior Offenses Sex Disposition of Prior Offenses Age Number of Prior Petitions Living Arrangements Petitioners School Status Contact with Youth School Grade Duration of Services Court Status Termination Reasons The following procedures were used to collect the data: 1. Collection of case-history data and records con- cerning the penetration into the juvenile justice system at the time of first exposure to YSB for each youth assigned to sample population. The measure of penetration involved six stages of processing of youths by the juvenile justice system. a. Youths referred to YSB for nondelinquent reasons, b. Youths who were contacted by the police regard- ing their reported delinquency;but who were not officially apprehended, c. Youths who were arrested by the police,but have not come under formal jurisdiction of the juvenile court, d. Youths under formal jurisdiction of the juvenile court or the State Department of Social Services because of a delinquency peti- tion but who have not been institutionalized, 72 e. Youths who were adjudicated by the court and await preliminary inquiry, f. Youths who have reached the juvenile court preliminary inquiry state. Research staff assured the maintenance of systematic longitudinal information and compilation of current case-history data on each youth population sample with information (official records) provided by schools and juvenile justice agencies; comparisons with the individual case-history data gathered at intake into the Youth Service Bureau. Use was made of appropriate statistical tests to determine any significant difference between experimental and control groups in terms of juvenile justice system involvement. Self-Reported Delinquency Card Sort Self-reported delinquent acts were another pre/post measure . Gold developed a procedure to measure unlawful acts by youth by asking them to self-report delinquent activity for a three month time period prior to his or her referral to the YSB and for the last three months prior to termination from the program. 138 The scoring for this report is based Martin Gold, Delinquent Behavior in an American City (Belmont, California: Brooks-Cole, 1970). 73 upon the frequency of offenses and seriousness of offenses using a delinquency seriousness scale developed by Sellin and WOlfganng39 139 T. Sellin and M.E. Wolfgang, The Measurement of Delinquency (New York: Wiley, 1964). CHAPTER 4 YOUTH SERVICE BUREAU Diversion Program.Description J. A. Seymour discusses the diversion of juveniles from juvenile justice agencies in an article entitled "Youth "140 It is Seymour's contention that all Service Bureaus. efforts be explored to reduce the number of juveniles reach- ing juvenile court. He asserts that a more desirable approach to handling juvenile offenders is one in which flexible, pre-judicial processing is encouraged to cope with the wide range of problems encountered by children and youth. Seymour further maintains that juvenile courts have not re- habilitated youth who have come into contact with the juvenile justice system. He contends that the rehabilitative efforts need to be challenged and altered. Richard D. Schwartz and Jerome H. Skolnick support Seymour's recommendation for the establishment of Youth Service Bureau agencies to serve nondelinquents and minor 141 Such an agency can better deal with the offenders. social problems of children and youth such as employment and drug abuse. Youth Service Bureaus should provide counseling 140 John A. Seymour, ”Youth Service Bureaus," Law and Society Review 7 (1972), pp. 247-272. 141 Richard D. Schwartz and Jerome H. Skolnick, "Two Studies of Legal Stigma," Social Problems 10 (Fall 1962) p.133-40. 74 75 special education, recreation, educational guidance, and brokerage services to involve other community social services agencies. Participation in the YSB program services should be voluntary, with local control being maintained by offi- fcials in a nonthreatening, noncoercive manner. This was the basis under which the Berrien County Youth Service Bureau was established. 142 like Seymour, believes that one of Sherwood Norman the more difficult issues facing the YSB is deciding upon its relationship to the juvenile court and police department. Research has to be conducted in the community to ascertain what services are needed for youths, what other social services agencies exist, and what records should be main- tained on youths. Seymour contends also that an evaluation of the effectiveness should be conductedperiodically to re- view the progress and success of the YSB. Finally, Edwin M. Lemert143 argues very strongly in favor of YSB's reducing the stigma on those youths receiving services. It is be- lieved by many juvenile justice researchers that the negative stigma of youth having been processed by the formal juvenile justice system increases their likelihood of future involve- ment with the system. Seymour's concern for the escalation 142 Sherwood Norman, The Youth Service Bureau (New York: National Council on Crime and Delinquency, 1971). 143 Edwin M. Lemert, "Beyond Mead: The Societal Re- action to Deviance," Social Problems 21 (April l974)p.459. 76 144 Jack Donald of stigma is supported by Alfred J. Kahn. Foster, Simon Dinitz, and Walter C. Reckless argue that the identity of youth with the illegitimacy of formal justice system involvement must be reduced through alternative pro- cessing, such as referral to the YSB.145 Youth Service Bureaus have been viewed by some as agents to bring about change in the way in which the community addresses the problems related to juvenile delinquency. Yet, a community cannot overestimate the effectiveness of the YSB, as they can only have relatively limited impact on juvenile misbehavior problems. This contention is held by the State of Michigan which has sponsored a number of YSBs over the years. The YSB concept was proposed first by the 1967 Presi- dent's Commission on Law Enforcement and the Administration of Justice. The YSB serves as an umbrella or coordinating agency for the purpose of using existing social service agencies to deter delinquent youth behavior. Figure 2, the Youth Service Bureau Operation Chart, details the typical services provided by YSB programs, and Figure 3, the Youth Service Bureau Referral Flow Chart, delineates the referral sources for youth clients. 144 Alfred J. Kahn, A Court for Children (New York: Columbia University Press, 1953) p. 59-60. 145 Jack Donald Foster, Simon Dinitz and Walter C. Reckless, "Perceptions of Stigma Following Public .Intervention for Delinquent Behavior" Social Problems 20 (1972)p.202-209. 77 Health Mental Health If Other Family Services I Services F" : I Public \\ I ’ Special Welfarefg Education ‘x‘ 1» Big Brothers “~\ ,z” Business and g and Sisters ~~~~~~~~ 9 Indus try Churches 6 ------- ----§1Recreation Street p --------- 9 Legal Outreach Services New Resources Developed to Fill Gaps A I I I I I l I V Delinquent Prevention ” Committee Citizens, Professionls, Youth M I :w Funding Sources Links youth to services Non-coercive; operates from.neighborhood centers; open door policy; Involves child, family, neighborhood, in identify- ing and solving problems; Coordinates services, refers and follows-through as advocate of child; Develops new resources Purchases urgently needed services not otherwise available; Promotes new or expanded services and facilities to fill SaPS; Modifies Systems Constructively intervenes in delinquency breeding attitudes and practices. Figure 2. THE YOUTH SERVICE BUREAU OPERATION CHART National Council on Crime and Delinquency Ru 7 wooudomom HmcofiunuaumcH .9 \7 . . . A..- momma. T .............. .v coaumnoum ........... .v > . . cowucouon m kuaonm oxmqu ousoo ‘9 Houooo oHumoomen f IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII 1 honoavcaaon use oaauu so Hwoaaoo Hmcowumz Hmmmm :Hsow are .m ouswwm Honuo oufi< Hmwosmowm owcsoq “Hmocou :Hunoua IIIIIIIIIII w mamumoum aoosomuuoum< manouu huSum ucoumm wcfichHH mfinmnoummq mahou audow uoonuonnwfioz oocowuomxm mamo muoumwm Ho muosuoum mam muouaoo unmaumoua awn mafiaomnsoo Hmnufi>aucH moow>uom nuamom mac: Houmom monouwmom aaouu unmamomam ooh wafiuousa moow>nmm Suamom Houaoz mfioumoum sowumonoom coaumonum Hmwoomm mafiaomasoo haaamm meMDOmmm NHHZDZZOU ounououm< Offenses .cowumuumcoaoo pom aoauouasmaoo nwsounu mamumhw mmHMHuoz .aowuom Juno» use noufiuao nwnounu mooHDOmou Boa mmoao>oa .mmoa>uom moumaauuooo ocm mommnousa amounomou mammuwcouum .uomucoo moonwuaoo “mowocowo ou muowou mSoHoohm mowwaucooH Ahano oow>umm zuoucoao>v Serious or Repeated r----- ) . moaocowd unoaoomfmam 3mg DMN fibow um . . III-ll - Hmuuomom mmmum nowouuao mmw .muaouom «How moaocow< HmHoom .maoonom 79 The Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention Act of 1974 and the Omnibus Crime Control Act of 1968 were both in- tended partially to design demonstration projects to develop more effective means to divert juveniles from further pene- tration or involvement with the criminal justice system” For those youths successfully diverted, the use of an array of social services for the youth is encouraged as a means of re- ducing potential acts of delinquency. In respect to the YSB concept, the United States Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention outlines the diversion process designed to reduce the further penetration of youths into the juvenile justice system. Diversion occurs at any point from apprehension to adjudication. Diversion essentially focuses on a set of specific alternatives to pro- cessing by the juvenile justice system. The services provided to the youths attempt to assist them to adjust to personal, family, and other social problems. The Michigan Office of Criminal Justice Programs has funded YSBs state-wide since the early 1970's. These programs were provided initial funding based on a federal, state, and local government match. Generally, programs were required to be funded in full by the local units of govern- ment by their fourth year of operation. The Berrien County Youth Services and Assistance Bureau was funded under this program. 80 The primary goals of the State Office of Criminal Justice Programs are as follows: 1. To reduce the number of youths adjudicated for delinquent acts, 2. To foster coordination and cooperation with other community resources involved in the diversion process. 3. To provide effective services to the client youth who are diverted to the YSB, 4. To assist in improvements in the effective- ness and efficiency of the juvenile justice system deciSion-making process, and 5. To increase the cost effectiveness of juvenile justice system programming. The target population for YSBs are youths who would otherwise be subject to adjudication if the YSB services were unavailable. .A more detailed description of the State of Michigan's YSB program design appears in Appendix A. The Berrien County Youth Services and Assistance Bureau offers many of the traditional YSB program services. The agency attempts to interrelate their activities with those of other social and youth agencies in Berrien County. Funding for the YSB was first provided by the state with federal matching grants. The program now receives its entire operating budget from sources, e. g., the county, city, and school district. 81 The Berrien County Youth Service Bureau offers services such as personal counseling, career counseling, and employ- ment opportunities. In addition, the YSB serves as a referral source for crisis situations beyond the professional abilities of the YSB staff, shelter, and income maintenance. From its beginning, the Berrien County YSB focused on minimizing a youth's penetration in the juvenile justice system. The main goals were avoidance of adjudication and institutionalization. This was achieved by demonstrating to youths the socially acceptable and meaningful roles for them to follow. By minimizing their contact with the juvenile justice system and reducing youth-adult alienation, the ne- gative labeling associated with having been identified with the juvenile justice system was therefore reduced. The staffing of the Berrien County YSB consisted of former juvenile court case workers, school social workers, and employment counselors. None of the YSB staff had been previous youth advocates in their former capacities and were able to gain the interest and confidence of their youth clients. The staff was racially integrated with a good bal- ance of males and females. This also helped in the YSB's ability to relate well to its clients. Youths were referred to the YSB from the local school district, city, township, and county law enforcement agencies, parents/guardians, and other social and community agencies. A few youths referred themselves. 82 Group Profile Data on twenty-two variables used to describe youths re- ferred to the YSB are presented in Tables 1 to 19 as percent- age of youths in each category. The total number of case records sampled from.the Berrien County YSB was 600, of which 563 were usable for data analyses. The twenty-two variables represent the total number which were consistently available in Youth Service Bureau case records. Table 1 presents the referral source for the youth samples. Six specific referral sources (such as schools, parents, courts, etc.) were recorded and consistently avail- able. An additional category of "others" was used to include referrals from.ministers, mental health agencies, and relatives other than parents. The reason for referral to the YSB fell into three general areas. These were: (1) de- linquency--indicating that youths were referred for committing a nonstatus offense, (2) child neglect/abuse, and (3) several specific categories of status offenses. Table 2 reports the results for eleven separate reasons for referral. Each category represents a potential need or problem area. These items were scored dichotomously for each case record indicating whether the problem was noted or not by a case- worker. The percentages listed reflect the proportion of the sample for which a "yes" response could be recorded. The community services received by a youth, or a youth and his or her family prior to being referred to the YSB, are presented in Table 3. Examples of the services in each 83 Table 1. Berrien County Youth Service Bureau SOURCE OF REFERRAL Schools 17.2% Parent(s) 4.1 Self 2.3 Juvenile Court 17.0 Retail Stores 0.4 Law Enforcement Agencies 46.0 Others 13.1 (*n=559. 5 * Number of cases in sample population of 600 for which data were obtained Table 2. Berrien County Youth Service Bureau REASONS FOR REFERRAL Alternative Education Program ----% Delinquency (nonstatus offenses) 61.5 Child neglect/abuse 1.2 School problems 13.4 Runaway ‘ 7.1 Home incorrigibility 5.3 Curfew violation 2.3 Possession of Alcohol 2.5 Others 6.6 (*n=56l) * Number of cases in sample population of 600 for which data were obtained 84 category include: (1) mental health-private psychologist and psychiatrists, child guidance clinics, and mental health centers; (2) state social services--ADC, Foster Care, Protec- tive Services; (3) special services from schools--school social workers, school psychologists, special education; (4) employment--Neighborhood Youth Corp and Comprehensive Employment and Training Act (CETA) programs; and (5) recrea- tion--Boy Scouts, Girl Scouts, sports programs, and church groups. Table 3 includes the percent of all youths in the total sample who received at least one service, as well as the percent receiving each kind of service. Obviously, a given youth can appear in more than one of these categories. The data indicated that 92.4 percent of the sample population studied had not received community services before referral to the YSB. Table 3. Berrien County Youth Service Bureau COMMUNITY SERVICES Mental health 1 6 State social services 2.2 Special services through schools 1.8 Employment 0.9 Recreation 1 1 Total 7 6 * Number of cases in sample population of 600 for which data were obtained 85 Information pertaining to the race, sex, and age for referred youth is listed in Tables 4 to 6. In terms of race, the proportion of minority clients served by the YSB was larger than the proportion of minorities in the total population of Berrien County. The Berrien County YSB also served a larger proportion of female clients than agencies elsewhere in Michigan. The variable age presented in Table 6 indicates consistency with state-wide statistics on referrals to service agencies. Specifically, the Berrien County YSB dealt with a client population that averaged approximately fourteen years of age. Table 4. Berrien County Youth Service Bureau RACE Black 42.5% White 56.5 Other 1.1 (*n=471) * Number of cases in sample population of 600 for which data were obtained 86 Table 5. Berrien County Youth Services Bureau SEX Male 59.3% Female 40.7 (*n=563) * Number of cases in sample population of 600 for which data were obtained Table 6. Berrien County Youth Services Bureau AGE Younger than 8 1.1% 8 0.7 9 1.3 10 3.9 11 5.2 12 6.4 13 14.1 14 22.7 15 27.2 16 15.9 17 1.4 18 0 Older than 18 0 (*n=559) (Mean=13.855) * Number of cases in sample population of 600 for which data were obtained 87 The variable living arrangement appears in Table 7. Percentages for the Berrien County YSB reflect the propor- tion of youths whose primary home situation throughout the duration of services from.the YSB was described by a given category. Youths living with adoptive parents were in- cluded in the category "both natural parents." A youth living alone, or with friends or neighbors, appears in the category "others." Must youths sampled lived with both natural parents. Table 7. Berrien County Youth Services Bureau LIVING ARRANGEMENTS Both natural parents 44. % Mother only Father only Mother plus step-father Father plus step-mother Other relative Foster home Group home Institution Other LID HOOOUDHWGO «PO‘WO‘LDUJH 4.x (*n=555) * Number of cases in sample population of 600 for which data were obtained 88 Tables 8 and 9 describe the school status of clients sampled. In Table 8, the percentage of youths enrolled, sus- pended, expelled, or who dropped out of school at the time of the intake at the YSB is presented. Essentially, the YSB dealt with youths who were enrolled in school at the time of their referral. Table 9 indicates the last grade completed by the sample of YSB clients at the time of intake. The majority of youths were enrolled in the seventh, eighth and ninth grades. Table 8. Berrien County Youth Services Bureau SCHOOL STATUS Enrolled 94.5% Suspended 1.1 Expelled 0.5 Dropped out 3.9 (*n=437) * Number of cases in sample population of 600 for which data were obtained 89 Table 9. Berrien County Youth Services Bureau SCHOOL GRADE LEVEL ACHIEVED H OxoooonxmwaI-Io \l N H N LnO-‘Hml-‘UIUDVO‘ONN HH NI—I o (*n=424) * Number of cases in sample population of 600 for which data were obtained Tables 10 through 17 present those variables which describe youths served in terms of their involvement with the juvenile justice system at intake. Tables 10 and 11 pre- sent an overview of prior involvement recorded in YSB case records. For each youth an attempt was made to record the most serious court involvement. The zero module category used in Table 11 includes those youths for whom case records did not indicate prior involvement at the Module 1 level. Modules 1 through 5 were defined as follows: Module 1 - youths who were contacted by the police regarding their alleged delinquent behavior, but who were not yet officially apprehended; or 9O youths who were identified as "in danger of becoming delinquent" because they meet two of the following three criteria: (a) be- havior problems documented by school records, (b) parents requesting counseling to enable them to guide and control the behavior of their children, (c) living in neighborhoods of high crime incidence. MOdule 2 - youths who were arrested by the police, but who were not yet under the formal jurisdic- tion of juvenile court. Module 3 - youths under formal jurisdiction of the juvenile court or the State Department of Social Services because of a delinquency petition, but who were not yet institutionalized. Module 4 - youths under the formal jurisdiction of the juvenile court or the State Department of Social Services because of a delinquency peti- tion, and currently in a private or public correctional institution. Module 5 - youths under the formal jurisdiction of the juvenile court or the State Department of Social Services because of a delinquency peti- tion and re-entering the community after a period of treatment in a private or public correctional institution. 91 As indicated in Tables 10 and 11, the majority of YSB cases involved youth who had no formal court status and thus would be categorized as either Module 0 or Module 1. Table 10. Berrien County Youth Service Bureau COURT STATUS (YSB) No court status 7 . Informal probation Probation Foster Home Group Home Institution Other 1 . J-‘OOON-l—‘CD \l NNNO (*n=544) * Number of cases in sample population of 600 for which data were obtained. Table 11. Berrien County Youth Service Bureau MODULE 0 29.3% 1 19.5 2 42.1 3 9.1 4 0 5 0 (*n=563) (Mean=l.309) * Number of cases in sample population of 600 for which data were obtained 92 Tables 12 through 14 present information on previous offenses committed by youths. In Table 12, the percentage of youths who committed a given number of offenses within twelve months prior to referral is shown. The majority, more than 75 percent of cases dealt with by the bureau, in- volved youths who had no prior offenses. The average seriousness of offenses is presented in Table 13. A weighted scale was used to compute the serious- ness of previous offenses for each case. Status offenses ‘were given a weight of 1, minor misdemeanors a weight of 2, major misdemeanors/minor felonies a weight of 3, and major felonies a weight of 4. In cases where more than one offense had been committed in the year prior to referral, an average seriousness score was computed. As indicated above, Tabel l3 reveals that the majority of youths committed no offenses. Moreover, among those who did have official records, the majority tended to be status offenders or committed minor misdemeanors. In Table 14, the disposition of previous offenses was recorded. For the relatively small number of cases in which two or more different dispositions were made, the most serious disposition was recorded. For example, when the disposition of one offense was ”warned and released" while I! the second offense was "petitioned to court, the latter was recorded. Again, the majority of youths had not experienced any disposition in the juvenile justice system. 93 Table 12. Berrien County Youth Service Bureau PRIOR OFFENSES 0 83.8% 1 14.0 2 2.0 3 0.2 4 0 5 0 6 0 Greater than 6 0 F I I (*n=563) (Mean=0.185) * Number of cases in sample population of 600 for which data were obtained Table 13. Berrien County Youth Service Bureau SERIOUSNESS OF PRIOR OFFENSES G) oomomww 4‘ UNGVU) 00 No offenses 1.00-1.50 1.51-2.00 2.01-2.50 2.51-3.00 3.01-3.50 3.51-4.00 (*n=563) (Mean=0.321) * Number of cases in sample population of 600 for which data were obtained 94 Table 14. Berrien County Youth Service Bureau DISPOSITION OF PRIOR OFFENSES Warned and released, arrested, or parent(s) notified 0.2% Referred to court -- Restitution ordered 0 Referred to the YSB 13.5 Referred to other social service or mental health agency 0 Detained 0 Petitioned to court 2.3 No offenses committed 83.8 (*n=563) * Number of cases in sample population of 600 for which data were obtained Tables 15 and 16 present information gathered from court records. Table 15 lists the proportion of youths for whom offenses committed during the twelve month period prior to referral resulted in petitions. Using prior petitions as a criterion, the lack of previous official delinquency on the part of the YSB is again revealed. Information relating to a youth's involvement with the YSB is presented in Tables 17, 18, and 19. Table 17 lists the number of youth and nonyouth contacts made by the YSB staff in each of the cases sampled, including any contact recorded in case notes, whether it was a direct individual counseling session with the youth, telephone contact, or other contacts relevant to the case in question. Table 17 alone indicates the frequency of YSB staff contacts among youths sampled. 95 The duration of service to youths is shown in Table 18. This variable was measured from.the date of intake to the date of termination and rounded to the nearest month. The overall duration of services provided by YSB was two and one- half months. Most YSB interventions involved contacts less than once a week, as revealed by Tables 18 and 19. Table 19 presents the reasons for termination of ser- vices. The categories range from "parents and youths refuse services" at the time of referral to "goals accomplished." Several things are striking in terms of the termination reasons listed. First, approximately half of the sample cases were terminated due to goals being accomplished. This seems to be a relatively low percentage of success. Since the success rate was judged by case workers at each site, this figure may actually be an overestimate. Second, the category "youth referred to another agency" was not a major reason for termination. This is an unexpected result in view of the stated service brokerage goals of YSBs. Finally, it should be noted that the remaining categories, which in- volved approximately 40 percent of cases served, indicate case terminations which are "undesirable.” 96 Table 15. Berrien County Youth Service Bureau NUMBER OF PRIOR PETITIONS page >8 U'IJ-‘UONI-‘O OOOONQ (*n=563) (Mean=0.044) * Number of cases in sample population of 600 for which data were obtained Table 16. Berrien County Youth Service Bureau PETITIONERS** Parent(s) 13.3% Law Enforcement Agencies 80.0 Schools 5.3 Others 1.3 (*n=75) * Number of cases in sample population of 600 for which data were obtained ** Percent petitioned by each source is based on the number of YSB clients with petitions for time period noted in text, not the entire YSB sample. 97 Table 17. Berrien County Youth Service Bureau CONTACTS WITH YOUTH 0-2 76.2% 3-5 16.4 6-8 4.5 9-11 1.3 12-14 1.0 15-17 0 18-20 0.2 Greater than 20 0.4 (*n=535) (Mean=l.3) * Number of cases in sample population of 600 for which data were obtained Table 18. Berrien County Youth Service Bureau DURATION OF SERVICES 0 months 10.0% 1 19.1 2 13.2 3 17.1 4 11.4 5 6.8 6 3.6 7 3.2 8 2.1 9 2.5 Greater than 9 10.9 (*n=560) (Mean=2.50) * Number of cases in sample population of 600 for which data were obtained 98 Table 19. Berrien County Youth Service Bureau TERMINATION REASONS N Parents refused services 1 . Youth refused services Both parents and youth refused services Family refused services after services began Youth already a client of another agency Youth referred to another agency Youth moved out of county Youth passed maximum age for receiving services Court intervened Goals accomplished 5 Unable to make contact with youth Never an official case Caseworker discontinues services-- services not effective Family refused services after some goals accomplished Drop out End of School year I UGO H HmmNO (AI-PO H H NO I U'lO‘ U'l NNOO‘O‘ U'Il-‘\O U1 N um (*n=343) * Number of cases in sample population of 600 for which data were obtained CHAPTER 5 QUANTITATIVE DATA RESULTS Analysis Design The basic method of data analysis for this study is the comparison of questionnaire responses of the experimental and control group over a period of six months. Responses for each variable on the Tennessee Self-Concept Scale and Jesness Inventory are given by subjects of the control group and the experimental group. Questionnaire data were gathered at the beginning of the YSB program, referred to earlier as the intake scores, and the termination scores. Both the con- trol and experimental groups were partitioned into subgroups based on race, sex and age, and comparisons made between intake and termination. The f-statistic of the subject is used to compare scores on each variable under study. The significance of the difference between means is used for hypothesis testing purposes. The test of the null hypothesis is that the scores between the two groups will be equal. The statistic- al test applied must demonstrate that the difference between means is significantly different from zero. For this analy- sis, a ten percent significance level is set as the testing statistic criteria. This ten percent significance level was selected over a one percent or five percent significance level in view of the exploratory nature of this research. As 99 100 cited in Chapter 1, few research projects have been under- taken designed to test labeling theory and the YSB. Also, since the more commonly used five percent significance level which is often found in social research, is derived at arbitrarily, there is no compelling reason to adopt the five percent level for this exploratory study. It is anticipated by the writer that this research study will be replicated through further investigation, thus research conditions can be refined to an extent whereby more rigorous standards of measurement can be employed. Tennessee Self-Concept Scale Results This test consists of twenty-nine variables, with measurements taken at the program's intake and at the pro- gramis termination. Please refer to Appendix B for a complete glossary of Tennessee Self-concept Scale items. Pre-existing differences between the experimental and control groups are detected by comparing the intake groups, control vs. experimental. These results are shown in Table 20. The following differences on the pre-test are noted: 1. Males in the intake control group had more normal Self-concept (SC) scores (at the ten percent level of significance), 2. Females in the intake control group had more normal net conflict scores (five percent level), more normal distribution scores 101 (mostly false) and (completely true) answers (both at one percent level), more normal defensive- ness (at ten percent level), more normal personality integration scores (five percent level), and more normal net deviant signs (at ten percent level). 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No.0 No.0 No.0. 50.0 huona< HMHoom n0.H oo.o nN.0 H¢.o no.0 oo.o n5.0 HmzmnonuHB 00.0 nn.0 «N.o on.0 no.0 05.0 0N.0 :OHmmouww< ooumomHomz 00.0 00.0 nH.0 50.0 nn.0 nN.0. oo.o coHumooHH< 00.0 00.0 oo.o 00.0 5N.0 H0.0 oH.0 EmHus< 00.0 no.0 H0.0 HN.0 5H.0 no.0 NN.0 _ huHusuoEEH 00.0 00.0 oH.0 50.0 5H.0 nH.0 00.0 coHumuooHno oon> $5 No.0 86 mad Nod 36 Rd “spasmsnpflmz H3090. moanz axoon 5HInH «Hum moHoSom monz ouHmomfioo moHanuo> .NuHoHanum ow< won msouo Houuaoo mmoomo HomHzoo 02¢ H MMcH moosmoo .oN «Hawk 114 intake. The difference was significant at the ten percent level. Both the experimental group and control group were divided into the following subgroups for comparison: (1) Males, (2) Females, (3) Those aged 8-14, (4) those aged 15-17, (5) Blacks, and (6) Whites. Comparison was also made for the entire (composite) experimental group from.intake to termina- tion and the entire control group from intake to termination. The population was divided into two groups: an experimental group of thirty-five youths and a control group of twenty- three youths Table 27. Jesness Inventory COMPARISON OF EXPERIMENTAL SUBGROUPS--INTAKE AND TERMINATION mean Variable n mean variance df t Significance Immaturity Whites Intake 18 51.0 6.01 Termination 18 57.3 6.01 34 1.77 0.089 Self-Report Score Results To determine differences in self-reported instances of delinquency, the intake score means are compared to the term- ination score means. The results are given in Table 28. There were no significant differences found in the incidence of offenses reported between any of the groups, indicating that the population was relatively homogeneous 115 (at least as far as this test is involved). Because of the large variances in the data, with standard deviations in Table 27 sometimes approaching 60% of the V-5 mean, this statistical test may not be completely reliable. Several factors could account for uneven reporting of delinquent incidents and thus, high variances. One could result if an individual had an unclear idea of what consti- tuted a "reportable event;” another could occur if incidents are not truthfully reported. To determine if there are differences in reporting as a result of time, common to all subjects, comparisons (f-ratio) are made between V5 (the pre-program.score) and V6 (the post-program score) for both the control and experi- mental groups. This comparison will also yield changes in the experimental group due to the experimental program. Results are given in Table 29. The only significant result (at the five percent level) occurs in the control group, where females had a lower number of reported delinquent incidents after the program than be- fore the program started. If this drop is a result of the subjects' getting older, then it should also be present in the experimental group. The absence of this factor in the experimental group would seem to indicate that females in the experimental group reported more instances of their own delinquency as a result of the program. This would need further verification from other tests. 116 Table 28. Self-Report VARIABLE 5 SCORES FOR EXPERIMENTAL VS. CONTROL GROUPS Group Composite Males Females 8-14 years 15-17 years Blacks Whites f-ratio OHI—‘l-‘OHH Significance* none I I H * Where no significance level is reported, the differences were not statistically signifi- cant at the ten percent level or less Table 29. Self-Report V5 and V6 SCORES COMPARISON--CONTROL AND EXPERIMENTAL GROUPS Group Composite Males Females 8-14 years 15-17 year Blacks Whites Composite Males Females 8-14 years 15-17 years Blacks Whites Control Group f-ratio .25 .31 .26 .49 .70 .02 .68 OOOOJ—‘OH Experimental Group OHOOOOO .01 .28 Significance* none I I 5% none H * Where no significance level is reported, the differences were not statistically signifi- cant at the ten percent level or less 117 Otherwise, the experimental program had no significant effects upon the number of instances of delinquency that individuals reported about themselves. Police/Court Records The police/court data consists of fifteen variables, Police variables 1 through 9 (P1 through P9) and Juvenile Court variables 1 through 6 (Cl through C6), which represent the number, seriousness, and disposition of offenses and court petitions in the year prior to the program and in the first and second quarters during the program. The variables which could be usefully analyzed were the number of offenses and petitions in the year prior to the referral to YSB (P1 and Cl), after the first quarter (P4 and C3) and after the second quarter (P7 and C5). In addition to comparisons of means, the data are presented as "number of offenders" and "number of nonoffenders" for each variable, To account for pre-existing conditions and changes occurring to all subjects as a result of time, comparisons (using x2 tests) were made between the number of year prior offenders in the experimental group compared to the control group. This Pl comparison yielded the results given in Table 30. A similar comparison of the number of year-prior court ‘petitions (Cl) for the experimental and control groups yields the results of Table 31. 118 Table 30. COMPARISON OF YEAR-PRIOR OFFENDERS (Pl) FOR CONTROL AND EXPERIMENTAL GROUPS (X2) Group X3 Significance Composite 1.52 None Males 1.64 " Females 0.18 " 8-14 yrs 0.93 " 15-17 yrs 0.43 " Blacks 0.01 " Whites 3.30 10% Table 31. COMPARISON OF YEAR-PRIOR PETITIONS 2 (Cl) FOR CONTROL AND EXPERIMENTAL GROUPS (X ) Group X2 Significance Composite 0.77 None Males 0.94 " Females 0.06 " 8-14 yrs 0.03 " 15-17 yrs 1.16 " Blacks 0.03 " Whites 0.22 " 119 When ratio tests are conducted between the control and experimental groups for year-prior offenses and petitions, the same results are found (see Table 32). The only pre-existing condition is that whites in the control group had a significantly higher number of year-prior offenses than whites in the experimental group. This result shows up at about the seven percent level of significance in both X2 and f-ratio tests. Comparisons are then made between the experimental and control groups at later points in time. First, at the end of the first quarter of the program.(P4 and C3) and then at the end of the second quarter of the program (P7 and C5). Any changes due to the passage of time will affect both groups and will not have to be eliminated separately. The x2 tests are shown in Table 33. The only significant results were in the P4 comparison. As a composite group, the experimental group had fewer offenders (at the three percent level), with also proportion- ately fewer male offenders in the experimental group (ten percent level), fewer black offenders in the experimental group (three percent level), and fewer offenders aged 8-14 years in the experimental group (ten percent level). Although it might be desirable to compare the year-prior data with the first and second quarter data, such a compari- son would not yield meaningful results because the data were gathered over different lengths of time (one year and three months, respectively). It is possible to compare first and program” 120 Table 32. second quarter data, as shown in Table 34. The variables compared are P4 and P7, and C3 and C5. No significant f-ratios result from these comparisons. Since all changes occurred between the year-prior measurement and the first quarter measurement, it is likely that most of the changes in the individuals came about early in the experimental COMPARISON OF YEAR-PRIOR OFFENSES AND PETITIONS FOR CONTROL AND EXPERIMENTAL GROUPS (f-RATIO) Group Composite Males Females 8-14 yrs 15-17 yrs Blacks Whites Composite Males Females 8-14 yrs 15-17 yrs Blacks Whites Year-Prior Offenses (P1) f-Ratio .86 .77 .16 .20 .40 .10 .43 WOOHOHH Year-Prior Petitions OOOOOI—‘H Significance None II II II II II 10% (C1) None II II II II II II 121 Table 33. COMPARISON OF CONTROL AND EXPERIMENTAL GROUPS AT FIRST QUARTER (P4, C3) AND SECOND QUARTER (P7, C5) 2 Group _X_ Significance First Quarter Offenses (P4) Composite 4.75 3% Males 3.06 10% Females 1.79‘ None 8-14 yrs 2.87 10% 15-17 yrs 1.86 None Blacks 4.51 3% Whites 0.00 None First Quarter Peititions (C3) Composite 0.94 None Males 0.00 " Females 1.79 " 8-14 yrs 0.00 " 15-17 yrs 1.86 " Blacks 1.25 " Whites 0.00 " Second Quarter Offenses (P7) Composite 1.76 None Males ~ 1.55 " Females 0.00 " 8-14 yrs 1.55 " 15-17 yrs 0.00 " Blacks 1.57 " Whites 0.00 " 'Second Quarter Petitions (C5) Composite 0.41 None Males 0.72 " Females 0.00 " 8-14 yrs 0.76 " 15-17 yrs 0.00 " Blacks 0.00 " Whites 0.00 " Table 34. l 22 COMPARISON OF FIRST AND SECOND QUARTER OFFENSES AND PETITIONS IN CONTROL AND EXPERIMENTAL GROUPS Group §3_ (P4-P7) Control Composite 1.40 " Males 0.70 " Females 0.00 " 8-14 yrs 0.70 " 15-17 yrs 0.00 " Blacks 1.53 " Whites 0.00 Experimental Composite 0.00 ' Males 0.00 " Females 0.00 " 8-14 yrs 0.00 " 15-17 yrs 0.00 " Blacks 0.00 " Whites 0.00 (CB-C5) Control Composite 0.35 " ‘Males 0.00 " Females 0.00 " 8-14 yrs 0.00 " 15-17 yrs 0.00 " Blacks 0.00 " Whites 0.00 Experimental Composite 1.04 " Males 0.00 " Females 0.00 " 8-14 yrs 0.00 " 15-17 yrs 0.00 " Blacks 0.00 " Whites 0.00 Significance First Quarter Offenses to Second Quarter None II II II II II II II II II II II II First Quarter Petitions to Second Quarter None II II II II II II II II II II II II CHAPTER 6 SUMMARY Differences Between the Control and Experimental Groups Several groups within the control group were signifi- cantly closer to normal than the experimental group. Females in the control group had more normal D2 (distribution score- mostly false) and D4 (distribution score--mostly true) distributions and more normal personality integration (PI) scores on the Tennessee Self-concept Scale and more normal asocial index (AI) scores on the Jesness Inventory. Blacks in the control group had a more normal D2 distribution on the Tennessee Self-Concept Scale. Those aged 15-17 in the control group had more normal personality integration scores on the Tennessee Self-Concept Scale and more normal asocial index scores on the Jesness Inventory. Police/court records indicate that whites in the control group had more year-prior offenses. Effects of the Program--Composite Group Examination of the police/court records at the end of the first quarter of the program indicated a significantly lower number of offenses in the composite experimental group, with most of the reduction coming from.b1acks, and less signi- ficant contributions from the males and 8-14 year old group. 123 124 Results from the Tennessee Self-concept Scale were not conclusive: those aged 8-14 had more normal total variabil- ity (VT), but less normal column variability (VC) scores at the end of the program. However, the Tennessee Self-concept Scale indicates that the control group had more normal characteristics at intake than at termination (composite group had more normal self-concept scores, males more normal self-concept and psychosis scores, 8-l4 year olds more normal self-concept scores, and whites more normal self- concept, row variability, and psychosis scores at intake). This would seem to indicate that the subjects would move away from the norms as a result of getting older, and since these changes were not noted in the experimental group, perhaps the program.had some effect in maintaining self- concept. As discussed earlier, this would need more testing for verification. The Jesness Inventory did not indicate any significant changes from intake to termination. As discussed previously, the self-reporting of offenses indicates only that females may have reported more instances of their own delinquency as a result of the program. Effects of the Program--Sub-Groups Males in the control and experimental groups were essentially similar, comparing Tennessee Self-Concept Scale, -Jesness, and Self-Report scores. The police/court records 125 indicate that there were fewer male offenders in the experimental group than in the control group. Although only at the ten percent level of significance, the program.seemed to have a measurable effect on males. Females in the control group had more normal D2, D4, and personality integration scores on the Tennessee Self- concept Scale test and a more normal asocial index on the Jesness Inventory than the experimental group. :Females in the control group had a lower number of self-reported inci- dences of delinquency after the program than before. The cause of this cannot reliably be attributed to effects of the program" As a group, females were not significantly affected by the experimental program. Those aged 8-14 were essentially the same in both control and experimental groups. The program.appears to have significantly affected this group, with fewer offenders at termination than intake. Those aged 15-17 in the control group had more normal PI scores (from Tennessee Self-concept Scale) and more normal immaturity (IMM) scores (From Jesness) than the experimental group, but no significant effects on the program were noted. Blacks in the control group had more normal D2 scores, indicating a slight difference in make-up from the experiment- al group. The experimental program had its greatest effect on this group, with fewer offenders at termination than at intake (significant at the three percent level). The comparison of whites in both control and experimental groups did not yield consistent results. The control group 126 appeared to have more normal characteristics, even though the control group had a significantly higher number of year-prior offenders than in the experimental group. The experimental program had no noticeable effect on whites. Findings Relevant to the Research Hypotheses In evaluating the three research hypotheses, two measures were employed. Structured interviews of YSB clients were conducted using the Tennessee Self—Concept Scale and Jesness Inventory, and data on self-reported delinquency were also obtained from each person in the study. The second measure was from the files of the Juvenile Court and police. V/ The first hypothesis was that diversion of youth to the YSB had the effect of reducing or retarding the degree of future deviant behavior. This hypothesis appears to have been validated, based on analysis of the Tennessee Self- concept Scale and Jesness Inventory scores. Youths not in the program displayed less personality integration (as mea- sure by the self-criticism variable) and higher variability tendencies at the termination of the study. Both of these variables are indicative of future deviant behavior. The same variables for those in the experimental program remained at a constant level, indicating that the program had some minimum effect of retarding future deviant behavior. When comparing the effects of YSB programs in other Michigan cities, e.g., Flint, East Detroit, and Port Huron, with that in 127 Berrien County, the Berrien County control group experienced fewer subsequent delinquent acts. The second hypothesis was that youth diverted to the YSB would experience lower levels of penetration into the juvenile justice system. Data related to this hypothesis appears in the tables. The data includes the average number of police arrests, the seriousness of offenses, and the number of court petitions.x/The experimental (N-59) and control (N-31) were significantly different at the point of intake. The control group was involved significantly more in official trouble for far more serious crimes at the point of YSB intake. These pre-existing differences were statistically corrected by conducting an analyses of co-variance on the post-YSB data while using the pre-YSB data as the co-variant. This statistical operation removed the group differences, resulting in making the post scores of the experimental and control groups equal. The pre-differences as cited above with the official police and court contacts, held true for the youths who answered the self-reported delinquency card sort. While the experimental group self-reported fewer offenses during the time period when the control group received YSB services, no strong inference can be made that the YSB had a significant impact on the youths' subsequent delinquent behavior. The third hypothesis was that youth diverted to the YSB would experience a self-image which either improved or 128 remained intact. Data from the Tennessee Self-concept Scale demonstrates this hypothesis to be confirmed, since the self-criticism scores for the experimental group tended to remain constant (intact) during the duration of the program” while several sub-groups of the control group experienced lower self-criticism scores at termination. The ability to be self-critical is an important part of self-image; certainly for a self-image to remain healthy, self-criticism must remain equally open. Limitations of the Study There are several factors in this study which must be taken into consideration when interpreting data. These factors serve as limitations upon interpreting the statisti- cal results. The data collected through administration of the Tennessee Self-concept Scale and Jesness Inventory involve questionnaire responses and marking of answer sheets. There is always the possibility that the subjects are not giving honest answers, or that mistakes are made in marking score sheets. Although the Tennessee Self-concept Scale has built-in checks to identify and compensate for the deliberate manipulation of answers, it cannot be regarded as foolproof. Since the subjects being tested are already part of the Juvenile Justice System, and have already been identified as that part of the population exhibiting deviant behavioral 129 tendencies, this source of variance cannot be completely dismissed. Another limitation involves small sample size. In some of the sub-group comparisons populations as small as N=9 were involved. Using a larger population would perhaps give stronger statistical results. A large degree of variance was found in the self-report score comparisons made between intake and termination. Again, the question of honesty in reporting could account for some of this variance. Some of the variance might also result from individuals having an unclear concept of what constitu- ted a "reportable event of delinquency." Perhaps the only way to keep variances due to dishonest answers by the clients to a minimum is to use tests, such as the Tennessee Self-concept Scale, that identify and compen- sate for inconsistent answers, and to assure the clients that their responses would be kept confidential and anonymous (as was done in this study). The final limitation is the most relevant one to this study. The pre-existing differences between the experimental and control groups pose an obvious problem for analysis of the effectiveness of the YSB. Several groups within the control group were signifi- cantly closer to normal than the experimental group. Females in the control group had more normal D2 and D4 distribution and more normal personality integration scores on the Tennessee Self-concept Scale, and more normal asocial index 130 scores on the Jesness Inventory. Blacks in the control group had a more normal D2 distribution on the Tennessee Self-concept Scale. Those aged 15-17 in the control group had more normal personality integration scores on the Tennessee Self-concept Scale and more normal asocial index scores on the Jesness Inventory. Police/court records indi- cate that Whites in the control group had more year-prior offenses. It would appear that the random assignment of YSB clients to experimental and control groups was compromised. No other conclusion can be drawn from.the results of the data. The small sample size of ninety-one youths can also account for errors in random groupings. Conclusion The research findings presented in this study were in- conclusive and demonstrated no strong inference as to the direct effect of the YSB services and the reduction of negative labeling. Several factors may have contributed to this result. First, pre-differences in the degree of in- volvement with police agencies by experimental and control group youth would indicate that a possible breakdown in random groupings occured. Also, the small sample size (59 experimental and 31 control) may have affected the re- sults as not being representative of Berrien County YSB (clients. In addition, possible inconsistencies in data collection and interviewing techniques could have influenced 131 study results. Finally, the reliability of the self-concept measures could also be cited as an influence on study re- sults. The impact of YSBs on negative labeling of youth is obviously an area where much more empirical research is needed. The YSB concept as practiced in the State of Michigan offers inconsistent services in terms of variety, quality, and availability. During the course of this re- search effort, a great deal of information was gathered from interviews with state and local officials which clearly supports the premise that YSBs in Michigan are not comparable enough in order to test for program effectiveness and efficiency. Another problem.which confronts research of this type is the inability to separate all of the relevant variables which affect a youth's behavior. While the YSB may have im- pact, the school, peers, famdly, church, fraternal, social, recreational, and other organizations also have a direct bearing. Thus, the ability to credit the YSB for reducing youth crime is most difficult. Labeling theory focuses on the individual and his or her personal characteristics. In this regard, this study falls far short of associating an individual's personal characteristics to his or her involvement in the juvenile justice system. For future studies, it is desirable to con- duct longitudinal experimental studies investigating the 132 individual effects of YSB diversion on a youth's delinquent tendencies. Such research should reveal the best evaluative results. Recommendations In view of the information contained in Chapter 4 describing the services which are desired offerings of YSBs, and in light of the inconclusive results, a series of recommendations are provided. These recommendations are de- rived from a careful analysis of the services offered at the Berrien County Youth Service and Assistance Bureau. A model YSB is one designed to offer a true alternative for referral of delinquent youths. It should offer a compre- hensive array of direct services: personal counseling, job placement, educational consulting, career guidance, family counseling, and other services. For those youths who re- quire specialized professional services, the YSBs should broker this need to existing agencies in the community with the professional capability to handle these more complex problems. The YSB, law enforcement agencies, juvenile court, school districts and other official social control agencies in the community, should restrict the referral of youths to the YSB to those who have displayed a case history of minor delinquent violations and in cases where it is apparent that (an alternative to the juvenile court is appropriate. However, 133 it is not desirable for the YSB to accept the referrals of status offenders and those youth who have had only minor flirtations with the juvenile justice system. Those youths' activities do not warrant YSB intervention. This contention is supported by a number of researchers. Maintaining this approach will result in better services and reduced levels of stigmatization Organizationally, the YSB should be a separate auton- omous agency. Its independence from the formal juvenile justice system is necessary in order to avoid negative labeling as a result of affiliation with the courts, or police agencies. While it is important that the YSB main- tain a cooperative relationship with these agencies, this linkage should not formally restrain the YSB from being a true alternative to the formal juvenile justice system" YSB staff should be selected specifically for this assignment, reflecting the demographic characteristics of the community and clientele it serves. Special training (in-service) should be an on-going activity of the YSB. The funding for YSB should be provided primarily by local governments.» If the local community is committed to the YSB concept, its financial support is important in order to assure its success in that community. A comprehensive monitoring and tracking system evaluating the services of the YSB should be a condition of funding. The YSB should undergo evaluation annually by professionally knowledgeable research- ' ers. APPENDICES APPENDIX A STATE OFFICE OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE PROGRAM (OCJP) YOUTH SERVICE BUREAU PROGRAM: PROGRAM PURPOSE, OUTLINE, AND EVALUATION FACTORS APPENDIX A State Office of Criminal Justice Program (OCJP) Youth Service Bureau Program Program Purpose, Outline, and Evaluation Factors 1. Reducing Juvenile Crime Potential A. General Goals The primary goal is to provide early intervention in the lives of behavior problem youth to reduce the number of youth referred to the juvenile court. Those youth who do not need the official authority of the court will be diverted into programs which provide the youth and the community with the opti- mum level of interventing service. Providing services on a voluntary basis to youth when they first experience behavior problems will decrease the potential of being processed through the juvenile justice system. Needs and Problems Most communities do not have adequate services for youth in order to prevent them from engaging in delinquent behavior. Schools tend to suspend or expel youth who experience behavior problems in the classroom. This is usually done because schools do not have sufficient programs to deal with behavior problems. Most school counselors spend their time in academic and vocational counseling. Schools do not have adequate numbers 134 135 of school social workers or behavioral counselors to impact on a youth's behavior problems. The schools should develop appropriate programs to provide students with a total educational exper- ience including training regarding what is or is not acceptable behavior in public. At times, parents do not understand or are unable to cope with the behavior of their children, and they need assistance in guiding the behavior of their offspring. Many communities have family service agencies and child guidance clinics. The agencies are often unavailable to the families most in need of such guidance services. Often there are waiting lists for service. Parents and children should have a service agency available to them when crisis situations occur, on a 24-hour a day basis to provide immediate intervention. Police agencies throughout Michigan contact hundreds of youth they do not arrest but who need some type of social service. These youth are given warnings. The majority of juveniles arrested each year by police agencies are not petitioned into juvenile court. An attempt to provide voluntary services to the parents and youths should be made. Even those youth who are arrested and would normally be processed through the juvenile justice system should be 136 considered for voluntary services outside the court structure. Many police agencies do not have these necessary services available to them" Juvenile courts need a service agency which can provide services to youth who do not need the formal power of the court. During the intake process the courts often notice that formal court intervention is not necessary, but it is also known there is no appropriate agency to which a juvenile can be referred. Many youths are diverted from the juvenile court by a contacting agency. A major problem of such a system.is that contacting agencies do not know how many times a youth has been con- tacted or diverted. To solve the problem, a central agency in each county or group of counties should have the responsibility of knowing what services are available and where the services are located. Action Program - Youth Service Bureaus (YSBs) 1. Objectives - To provide appropriate interven- tion for youth when criminal, delinquent or nonadaptive behavior is displayed and to pre- vent and reduce crime and elinquency through the establishment of Y833 in counties or 137 groups of counties within the state. To provide a coordinating agency for juveniles that will accept referrals from law enforce— ment agencies, schools, courts, community agencies, parents and youth. . Methods and Procedures - YSBs should provide both referral and direct services on a volun- tary basis to divert youth from the juvenile justice system. YSBs should be established to focus on the special problems of youth in the community. The goals may include diver- sion from the justice system; provision of a wide range of services for youth through direct service, brokerage and crisis inter— vention as needed; modification of the system through program coordination and advocacy; and youth development. YSBs should make needed services available to all young people in the community. Bureaus should make a particular effort to attract diversionary referrals from the juvenile justice system. YSBs should, when possible, utilize existing services through referral , systematic follow-up and individual advocacy. Bureaus should develop and provide services on an on-going basis only when they are unavailable in the community or are inappropriately delivered. Services 138 should be confidential and should immediately and skillfully respond to each youth in crisis. There are four basic functions of the YSB: diagnosis, immediate service and referral, resource identification and coordination, re— source development, and youth advocacy. There are at least five possible YSB models which may be used by applicants: (a) A Cooperation Agency MOdel in which several community agencies donate full-time services of one worker to the YSB. WOrking with the coordinator, these workers accept indvidual referrals and involve citizens, youth and professionals in solving problems related to the anti-social behavior of youth. (b) A Community Organization Model in which neighborhood citizens, under the direction of a coordinator, organize to form a board, develop services and meet crises in the neighborhood. (c) A Citizen Action MOdel in which the YSB Citizens Committee has subcommittees for youth services; its staff receives direct referrals and uses conference techniques and community resources to resolve indi- vidual problems. (d) A Street Outreach Model which uses store- front neighborhood services as a basis for therapeutic group activities, possibly in- cluding the administration of the Neighborhood Youth Corps. (d) A Systems Modification Model which focuses on helping schools, institutions, programs and agencies become more sensitive and re- sponsive to the needs of youth. Demonstra- tion projects could be used to encourage new approaches to old problems to divert offenders into positive community-based efforts. 3. 139 Technical assistance in developing and implement- ing YSBs is available from the OCJP. Evaluation Factors (a) number of youth referred to the project (b) (C) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j) (k) by referral sources number of youth served, by the type of problem number of youth served, by school status and age number of youth served, by juvenile justice system involvement number of project youth who remained in school, returned to school, received job training, obtained full-time employment, obtained part-time employment, and re- integrated with family number of project youth who became in- volved with the juveniles justice system: Arrested: juvenile status offense delinquent offense Referred to juvenile court: handled informally formally adjudicated-probation formally adjudicated-commitment to State Department of Social Services formally adjudicated-other number of youth referred to other agencies, by project, type of agency and service average length of time between referral and initiation of service for youth referred to other agencies average length of stay in the project number of youth terminated from project, and reason for termination average cost per client to the project: for direct services, for youth referred to other agencies (l) 140 average cost perclient handled by the juvenile court: for informal services, for formal adjudication Evaluation data must continue for one year after the termination of OCJP funding. Inspection Factors (a) (b) (e) (d) (e) verify employment of project staff ascertain availability of professional services obtain subjective evaluation of project personnel obtain subjective evaluation of affected agencies obtain subjective evaluation of clients. Subgrant Data (a) (b) (e) Counties may contract with existing private youth serving agencies. The application must include letters of "commitment to participate" as a referral source and information exchange from local law enforcement agencies, local schools, juvenile court, and other community agencies serving young people The application must include the follwing data for the preceding year: - number of youth in the project area, by school status and age; school status should indicate full-time or part-time students and dropouts. - number of youth involved in the juvenile justice system according to the following categories: no involvement; contact with law enforcement, but not arrested; arrest- ted, but not referred to juvenile court; arrested and referred to juvenile court-- number handled informally, number formally adjudicated(probation), number formally adjudicated (other) - a list of all youth serving agencies in the project area 141 (d) Eligible applicants are counties and (Public Act 54) Community Mental Health Boards (e) Projects in this element are in continuation category number three, which means funding of successful projects can be continued up to three years with the third year funding .at a rate not to exceed 50% federal funds. See the introduction for a further explana- tion of the continuation policy. 6. Relationship to Problem.Analy§is and Goals and Standards and Evaluation Information - This pro- gram addresses the need of the police, schools, courts, and citizens for a viable alternative to the official court process. Funding projects will serve to implement standards 15.1 through 15.8. The large number of youth processed through the juvenile court for status offenses and other minor offenses emphasizes the need for this program. Evaluation One or more of the following evaluation designs will be used in all juvenile problems prevention and treatment programs., A. Longitudinal Measurement The performance of all module youth served will be monitored during the period of LEAA funding. For each of the following criteria, the number and per- centage of youth must be provided. 1. Client contact with the police including informa- tion on the types and frequency of offenses. 142 2. Client contact with the school including disciplinary action such as suspensions or expulsions, or lack of contact as a result of dropping out. 3. Client contact with the court including informa- tion on delinquency petitions filed and delinquency petitions accepted, and the nature and frequency of offenses resulting in court action. 4. Client contact with employers including informa- tion on the length of employment and the employer's evaluation of work performance. 5. Client contact with the State Department of Social Services including re-entry to a treat- ment program from which the youth was previously released, or assignment to another program becauseof unsatisfactory adjustment to a living situation or treatment program. Experimental-Control Assessment The performance of all module youth served by the project will be compared during the period of LEAA funding. The same five criteria as designated for longitudinal measurement will be used in this design (see A, 1-5 above). If a random selection process is used to establish experimental and control groups, both the control group and the experimental group must each contain at least 100 youths. If a matched 143 group procedure is followed, the control group may be reduced in size, but most include a minimum of fifty youths. The matching procedure must take into account salient variables in the lives of the module youth during the two preceding years. The selection methodology must be described in sufficient detail to permit a valid re-application of the selection process. Cost-Benefit Analysis Cost benefit measurements will be required during the period of LEAA funding. The following guidelines should be used: 1. A census of youth served per module is required. 2. At the end of each quarter, the project must report the cost per youth per module based on total project costs including federal and match- ing funds expended from.the effective date of the program through the quarter for which the report is made. The cost per youth will be computed by dividing total costs by the total number of youth served. Where services vary by module, cost differences by module should be reported. APPENDIX B TENNESSEE SELF-CONCEPT SCALE 144 APPENDIX B Tennessee Self-Concept Scale INSTRUCTIONS On the tOp line of the separate answer sheet, fill in your name and the other information except for the time information in the last three boxes. You will fill these boxes in later. write only on the answer sheet. Do not put any marks in this booklet. The statements in this booklet are to help you describe yourself as you see yourself. Please respond to them as if you were describing yourself to yourself. Do not omit any itgggj Read each statement carefully, then select one of the five responses listed below; On your answer sheet, put a circle around the response you chose. If you want to change an answer after you have circled it, do not erase it but put an X mark through the response and then circle the response you want. When you are ready to start, find the box on your answer sheet marked time started and record the time. When you are finished, record the time finished in the box on your answer sheet marked time finished. As you start, be sure that your answer sheet and this booklet are lined up evenly so that the item numbers match each other. Remember, put a circle around the response number you ' have chosen for each statement. 145 Responses: Completely Mostly Partly false Mostly Completely false false and true true partly true 1 2 3 4 5 You will find these response numbers repeated at the bottom of each page to help you remember them. oWilliam H. Fil-ls, 1964 146 Page i §3im I. l have a healthy body ................................................... 1 3. I am an attractive person ................................................ 3 5. I consider myself a sloppy person ......................................... 5 19. I am a decent sort of person ............................................. 19 2i . I am an honest person ................................................... 21 23. I am a bad person ...................................................... 23 37. I am a cheerful person .................................................. 37 39. I am a calm and easy going person ........................................ 39 41 . I am a nobody ......................................................... 41 55. I have a family that would always help me in any kind of trouble ............. SS 57. I am a member of a happy family ......................................... 57 59. My friends have no confidence in me ..................................... 59 73. I am a friendly person .................................................. 73 75. I am popular with men .................................................. 75 77. I am not interested in what other people do ................................ 77 9l . I do not always tell the truth ............................................. 91 93. I get angry sometimes ................................................... 93 Completely Mostly Partly false Mostly Completely Responses- false false and true true partly true l '2 3 4 5 147 It Page 2 Noe.am 2. I like to look nice and neat all the time ................................. 4. I am full of aches and pains ........................................... 6. lam a sick person .................................................. .. 20. I am a religious person ................................................ - 22. I am a moral failure .................................................. - 24. I am a morally weak person ............................................ - 38. l have a lot of self-control ............................................ — 40. I am a hateful person ................................................. - 42. I am losing my mind .................................................. 56. I am an important person to my friends and family ......................... 58. I am not loved by my family ........................................... u 60. 74. I am popular with women .............................................. 511:- 76. I am mad at the whole world ........................................... 78. I am hard to be friendly with ........................................... 5.. 92. Once in a while I think of things too bad to talk about .................... 94. Sometimes, when l am not feeling well, I am cross ........................ " Completely Mostly Partly false Mostly Completely Responses- false false and true true partl y true 1 2 3 4 5 148 Page 3 I13?” 7. I am neither too fat nor too thin ........................................ 7 9. I like my looks iust the way they are .................................... 9 11 ll . I would like to change some parts of my body ............................. 25 25. I am satisfied with my moral behavior .................................... 27. I am satisfied with my relationship to God ................................ 27 29. I ought to go to church more ........................................... 29 43. I am satisfied to be just what I am ....................................... 43 45. I am iust as nice as I should be ......................................... 45 47 47. I despise myself ...................................................... 6l . I am satisfied with my family relationships ................................ 61 63. I understand my family as well as I should ................................ 63 65. I should trust my family more ........................................... 65 79. I am as sociable as I want to be ......................................... 79 81. I try to please others, but I don't overdo it ............................... 5'1 . . 83 83. I am no good at all from a socnal standpount ............................... . 95 95. I do not like everyone I know ........................................... 97. Once in a while, I laugh at a dirty ioke ................................. 97 Completely Mostly Partly false Mostly Completely Responses- false false and true true partly true I 2 3 4 5 149 Page 4 :53?” 8. I am neither too tall nor too short ..................................... - IO. I don't feel as well as I should ........................................ - l2. I should have more sex appeal ........................................ - 26. I am as religious as I want to be ...................................... - 28. I wish I could be more trustworthy ..................................... - 30. I shouldn't tell so many lies .......................................... - 44. lam as smartas I wanttobe .......................................... - 46. I am not the person I would like to be .................................. - 48. I wish I didn't give up as easily as I do ................................. - 62. I treat my parents as well as I should (Use past tense if parents are not living- 64. I am too sensitive to things my family say ............................... - 66. I should love my family more .......................................... _ 80. I am satisfied with the way I treat other people .......................... £51 82. I should be more polite to others ........................................ irifiiirv'l: 84. I ought to get along better with other peOple . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96. I gossip a little at times .............................................. 1"; 98. At times I feel like swearing ........................................... : LI. ' Completely Mostly Partly false Mostly Completely Responses - false false and true true partly true I 2 3 4 5 150 Page 5 I18?!“ I3. I take good care of myself physically ................................. 13 I5. I try to be careful about my appearance ............................... 15 I7. I often act like I am ”all thumbs" .................................... 17 3I . I am true to my religion in my everyday life ........................... 31 33. I try to change when I know I'm doing things that are wrong .............. 33 35. I sometimes do very bad things ....................................... 35 49. I can always take care of myself in any situation ................... .. . . . 49 SI . I take the blame for things without getting mad ......................... 51 53. I do things without thinking about them first ........................... 53 67. I try to play fair with my friends and family ............................ 67 69. I take a real interest in my family .................................... 69 7I . I give in to my parents. (Use past tense if parents are not living) ......... 71 85. I try to understand the other fellow's point of view ...................... 85 87. I get along well with other people .................................... 87 89. I do not forgive others easily ........................................ 89 99. I would rather win than lose in a game ................................ 99 Completely Mostly Partly false Mostly Completely ' Responses - false false and true true partly true I 2 3 4 5 151 Page 6 fig?!“ I4. I feel good most of the time ........................................... - I6. I do poorly in sports and games ........................................ - 18. I am a poor sleeper .................................................. - 32. I do what is right most of the time ..................................... - 34. I sometimes use unfair means to get ahead .............................. - 36. I have trouble doing the things that are right ............................ - 50. I solve my problems quite easily ....................................... - 52. I change my mind a lot .............................................. - 54. I try to run away from my problems ..................................... - 68. I do my share of work at home ....................................... .. - 70. l quarrel with my family ........... '. .................................. - 72. I do not act like my family thinks I should .............................. - 86. I see good points in all the people I meet .............................. - 88. I do not feel at ease with other people .............................. 90. I find it hard to talk with strangers ..................................... I00. Once in a while I put off until tomorrow what I ought to do today .......... , Completely Mostly Partly false Mostly Completely Responses- false false and true true partly true I 2 3 4 5 APPENDIX C TENNESSEE SELF-CONCEPT SCALE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF RESEARCH STUDIES APPENDIX C Tennessee Self-concept Scale Bibliography of Research Studies Alexander, Robert L., "The Effects of a Job Training Program on the Self-concept of Non-skilled Youthful Offenders,” Diss. Rutgers University (Ann Arbor, Michigan, University Microfilms, 1971, No. 72-1076). Amberg, William.F., "A Comparison of Probationary Students, Before and After Group Counseling, With Non-probationary Students at Brigham Young University? Master's Thesis, Brigham Young University, 1968. Anzivino, Susan A., "Self-concept Change in Drug Abuse Treatment Programs," Master's Thesis, Ohio State University, 1972. Arnold, Richard R., "The Relationship Among Ego Characteris- tics and Self-constructs in Delinquent Boys," Diss. University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 1971. Atchison, Calvin 0., "A Comparative Study of the Self- concept of Behavior Problem and Non-behavior Problem High School Boys," Diss. Indiana University, (Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms, 1958, No. 58-5196). Barber, Louis 8., "Changes in Self-concept Among Delinquent Boys in a Therapeutic Community," Diss. United States International University, 1972. Baron, R” M., Bass, A.R., and Vietze, P.M., "Type and Frequency of Praise as Determinants of Favorability of Self-image: An Experiment in a Field Setting," Journal of Personality, 39, 1971 (4), pp 493-511. Bentler, Peter M., ”"Review of TSCS," in The Seventh Mental Measurements Yearbook," ed. Oscar K. Buros (Highland Park, New Jersey: Gryphon Press, 1972), I, pp.366-67. Bertinetti, Joseph F., "A Comparison of Self—concepts, Values and Occupational Orientations Among Three Groups of Adolescents," Diss. University of New Mexico (Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms, 1972, No. 72-30,746), Dissertation Abstracts International, 1973, Vol: 33 (7-A), 3278. 152 Bi; Bi 153 Bianchi, F. Peter, Jr., "A Study of Psychological Character— istics of Law Enforcement Officers and Students Majoring in Law Enforcement and Corrections," Diss. University of washington, 1973. Bieliauskas, Vytautas J., and Mikesell, Richard H., "Masculinity-femininity and Self-concept," Perceptual and Motor Skills, 34, 1972 (1), pp 163-67. Bowman, G. M., Catlin, E.A., Lee, P.F.M., Murray, J., and Pinner, R.J., "A Study of Adolescent Self-concept in Two Therapeutic Settings," Master's Thesis University of Hawaii, School of Social Work, 1972. Boyle, Virginia, "Effects of Counseling Upon Attitudes and Self-concepts of Three Teenage Groups," Paper pre- sented at the meeting of the Southeastern Psychological Association, Atlanta, April 1967. Branham, Lee, III, "Effectiveness of Automated Desensitiza- tion With Normal Volunteers and Phobic Patients," Diss. Vanderbilt University, 1972. Brassard, Elianora 1., "Social Desirability and Self-concept Description," Diss. University of Nebraska (Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms, 1964). Brooks, Robert C., "Self-concept Changes as a Function of Participation in Sensitivity Training as Measured by the Tennessee Self-concept Scale," Diss. Michi- gan State University (Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms, 1968, No. 68-17,064). 'Bryan, Willie V., "The effects of Short Term Individual and Group Counseling on the Self-concept of Physically Handicap ed warkers in a Sheltered WOrkshop Setting,’ Diss. University of Oklahoma, 1973. Bucur, Raymond R., "A Comparison of Focused Feedback Techniques in Individual Counseling," Diss. North Texas State University (Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms, 1973, No. 73-2891) Dissertation Abstracts International, 1973, Vol.33 (8-A) 4082. Burkett, Norvel L., "Self-concepts of School Dropouts and School Persisters Enrolled in a Neighborhood Youth Corps Program in Northeast Mississippi," Diss. Mississippi State University (Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms, 1972). Buros, Oscar K., ed., The Seventh Mental Measurements Year- book (Highland Park, New Jersey: Gryphon Press 1972), I, pp 364-70. 154 Burris, Wilford C., "An Evaluation of the Upward Bound ProjeCt at Southwestern State College, 1966, 1967," Diss. Oklahoma State University (Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilm, 1968). Burrows, Ann L., "Relationship of Self-concept to Behavioral Understanding in Prospective Preschool Teachers,” Master's Thesis, Oregon State University, 1972. Burtle, Vasanti, Franks, Violet, and Whitlock, Doris, "Madification of Low Self-esteen in Women Alcohol- ics: A Behavioral Treatment Approach," Psychotherapy: TheorijResearch and Practice, 1973 in press. Butterfield, Mary L., "The Effect of Certain Group Activi- ties on the Self-report of Selected High School Students," Diss. University of Miami (Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms, 1966, No.66-12,998). Campbell, Coy V.,"A Comparison of the Effects of Unstructured Time on Anxiety in Inner-directed and Other Directed People," Diss. Ball State University (Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms, 1972 No. 72-31-603) Dissertation Abstracts International 1972, Vol. 33 (6-B), 2787. Cavano, Arthur T., "The relationship of Academic Pre-tests to Self-concept and Subsequent Academic Performance of Low-achieving Adult Post-secondary Students," Diss. University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 1973. Check, Frances E., Tomarchio, Theresa, Standen, John and Albahary, Robert S., "Methadone Plus-A Behavior Modification Training Program in Self-control for Addicts on Methadone Maintenance," International Journal of the Addictions, in press, November,l972. Christianson, Milan D., "A Study of the Self-concept of the North Dakota State Penitentiary Inmate as Measured by the Tennessee Self-concept Scale," Master's Thesis, North Dakota State University, 1972. Cirigliano, Rocco J., "Group Encounter Effects Upon the Self-concepts of High School Students," Diss. St. John's University (Ann Arbor, Michigan: Univer- sity Microfilms, 1972, No. 72-31,015) Dissertation Abstracts International, 1972, Vol. 33 (6-A), 2760. 155 Clark, Thomas, "Homosexuality as a Criterion Predictor of PsychopathOlogy in Non-patient Males," Paper pre- sented at the meeting of the Canadian Psychological Association, Victoria, B.C., June 1973 and at the American Psychological Association, Montreal, August 1973. Clark, Thomas R., and Epstein, Ralph, "Self-concept and Expectancy for Social Reinforcement in Noninstitu- tionalized Male Homosexuals," Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 38 (1972) 2, pp 174-8077 Also: IProceedings of the 77th Annual Convention zf(the2American Psychological Association, 1969, pt. . Cohn, Rebecca R., "The Tennessee Self-Concept Scale as a Differentiator of Delinquent Female Subgroups," Diss. University of Oklahoma, 1970. Collins, Corless, "Effects of a Self-improvement Course on Self-concepts of Adolescent Female Clients," The Journal of Psychology, 80 (1972) pp 81-7. Collins, Hardin A., and Burger, Gary R., "The Self-concept of Inner City and Suburban Youth,” National Catholic Guidance Conference JournaITCIB (1969) 3, pp 10-17. Corbeille, C., Flick, G.L., and Edwards, K.R., "Self-concept of Marijuana Users,” Paper presented at meeting of the Southeastern Psychological Association, Atlanta, April 1972. Cottrell, Evelyn R.,"Changes in Self-concept and Perception Concerning Marriage of Students Enrolled in a Junior College Marriage Education Course with Implications for Teaching," Diss. Oklahoma State University (Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Micro- films, 1973, No. 73-15,082) Dissertation Abstracts International, 1973. Crandall, Rick, ”Measures of Self-esteen," Measures of Social Psychological Attitudes, ed. John P. Robinson and Phillip R. Shaver (Ann Arbor, Michigan: Institute for Social Research, 1973) PP 69-72. Crites, J. 0., "Test Reviews: Tennessee Self-concept Scale," Journal of Counseling Psychology, 12 (1965) pp 330-1. Culbertson, Robert G., "The Self-concept of Institutionalized Delinquent Boys as Measured by the Tennessee Self- concept Scale. Diss. University of Cincinnati, 1973. 156 Culp, William H.,"Changes in Behavior and Attitude as a Result of Receiving Direct Feedback and Participa- tion in Group Counseling," Diss. West Virginia University (Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Micro- films, 1970, No. 70-15,238) Dissertation Abstracts International, 1970, Vol. 31A, 2154 Cummings, Martha E., "The Development and Evaluation of a Multi-dimensional Scale for Predicting the Parti- cipation of High School Girls in Physcial Activities," Diss. Boston University (Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms, 1970, No.70-22, 465) Dissertation Abstracts International, 1970, Vol. 31A, 2154. Curry, M.W}, Manning, R.J., and Monroe, D.R., "A Study of Self-concepts of Juvenile Delinquents in Specific Institutions in the State of Tennessee. Master's Thesis, University of Tennessee,School of Social WOrk (Nashville), 1971. Daly, Edward J., "Projected Sex Blame and Religiosity in College'Men," Diss. Michigan State University (Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms, 1968, No. 68-17,073) Dissertation Abstracts International 1969, Vol. 29 (9-B), 3480: Davis, C.S., "An Assessment of the Effectiveness of Small Group Counseling on Selected Groups of Seventh and Ninth Grade Underachieving Boys," Diss. University of Tennessee, 1969. de Alvarez, Blanca M., "The Effect of Group Counseling on the Self-concept of Latin American Students," Master's Thesis, New Mexico State University, 1967. de Alvarez, Blanca M., and Barrientos, G.A., "Estudio Trans- cultural de Patrones de Auto-concepto en Groupos de Normales y de Delinquentes," Paper presented to the Warld Congress of Guidance, Mexico City, August, 1980. DeFrost, Franklin A., "A Comparison of the Self-concept of Institutionalized Delinquents, Non-institutional- ized Delinquents, and Non-delinquents," Master's Thesis, University of North Dakota, 1972. Deitche, J.H., "The Performance of Delinquent and Non- delinquent Boys on the Tennessee Department of Mental Health Self-concept Scale," Diss. Indiana University (Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Micro- films, 1959, No. 59-3998). 157 Denton, Frances A., "An Investigation of the Relationship of Self-concept to Teacher Pupil Rapport and Effec- tiveness of Student Teaching," Diss. East Texas State University, 1973. Dick, Herman F., "The Effects of Attending a Segregated Vocational Education Program as Compared to an Integrated Vocational Education Program Upon Self- concept and Attitudes Toward School of Educable Mgntally Retarded," Diss. Wayne State University, 73. Dixon, Clarence C., "A Comparative Study of the Self-concept of Disadvantaged and Advantaged Negro Students," Diss. University of Georgia (Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms, 1972, No. 73-34, 065) Dissertation Abstracts International, 1973, Vol.33 (7-A) 3253. Dowie, Virginia M., "The Self-concept of the Pregnant Unwed Adolescent as Related to Complications of Pregnancy,‘ Master's Thesis, California State University, 1973. Doyne, Stephen E., "The Relationship Between Self-disclosure and Self—esteen in Encounter Groups," Diss. George Peabody College (Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms, 1972, No. 72-25,379). Drude, Kenneth P., "A Study of the Construct Validity of Self-concept Measures," Diss. University of Illinois at Urbana (Ann Arbor, Michigan: Universi- ty Microfilms, 1973, No. 73-17,188) Dissertation Abstracts International, 1973, Vol. 34 (2-B5, 850. Eckstein, Daniel C., "An Investigation of Self-concept Differences and the Use of Group Counseling With Incarcerated Juvenile Delinquents," Paper presented at meeting of the American Personnel and Guidance Association National Convention, San Diego, March 1973. Eigenbrod, Frederick A., Jr., "The Effects of Territory and Personality Compatibility on Identity and Security," Diss. Michigan State University (Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms, 1969, No.9-20,849) Dissertation Abstracts International, 1969, Vol.30 (64A), 2329. Ellsweig, Phyllis L., "The Effects of Group Experiences on College Resident Advisors and Their Advisees," Diss. Lehigh University (Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms, 1973, No. 73-1239) Dissertation Abstracts International, 1973, Vol{33 (7-A),3254. 158 Fabrizo, Mark J., "A Study to Identify Cognitive and Affective Changes in Divergent Youth Attitudes and Self-concepts in an Experimental Continuation High School," Diss. United States International Univer- sity (Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms, 1973, No. 73-1239) Dissertation Abstracts Interna- tional, 1973, Vol. 33 (7eA), 32541 Feistritzer, Cecilia E., "An Investigation of Locus of Control and Self-concept in Persons in Leadership Positions in Education," Diss. Indiana University (Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms, 1973, No. 73-23,004) Dissertation Abstracts International 1973, Vol. 34 (4-A), 1583. Felde, Robert, "Alcoholics Before and After Treaoment: A Study of Self Concept Changes," Newsletter for Research in Mental Health and Behavioral Sciences, 15 (1973) pp 32-4. Feldman, Howard S., "The Effects of a Career Planning Exper- ience on the Vocational Maturity, Self-concept and Vocational Choice Among Inmates of Penal Institu- tions," Diss. Boston University, School of Education (Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Micro- films, 1973, No. 73-23,561) Dissertation Abstracts International, 1973, Vol. 34 T4-A), 1610. Finkral, Keith C., "Relationship of Self-concept and Perfor— mance of a Finely Coordinated Motor Task," Diss. Purdue University (Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms, 1973, No. 73-6021) Dissertation Abstracts International, 1973, Vol. 33 (9-A),4905. Firestone, Reika I., "The Relationship of Student Teaching Effectiveness to Self-concept and Attitude Toward Others," Diss. University of Massachusetts (Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms, 1973, No. 73-14,634) Dissertation Abstracts International 1973, Vol. 33 (I2-A), 6766. Fitts, William H., "Preliminary Manual, The Tennessee Department of Mental Health Self-Concept Scale," (Nashville: Department of Mental Health, 1955). Ibid, "Research Issues in Self-concept Change: A Study of Sensitivity Training with Teachers," DWC Pa ers No. 3 (Nashville: Dede Wallace Center, 19733). Ibid, Tennessee Self-concept Scale (Manual), Nashville Counselor Recordings and Tests (Box 6184 Acklen Station, 37212) 1965. Fitts, Fitts, Fitts, Fitts, Fitts, Fitts, Fitts, Fitts, Fitts, Fitts, Fitts, Fitts, Fitts, 159 William H., "The effects of Sensitivity Training Plus a Significant Year Together Upon the Self-concepts of a School Faculty," DWC Papers, No. 2 (Nashville: Dede Wallace Center, 1973a). William H. "The Self-concept and Athletic Performance: An Extension of Studies by Read and Bash," DWC Pa ers, No. 7 (Nashville: Dede Wallace Center I973e). William.H., "The Self-concept: A Vantage Point for Viewing the Human State,‘ DWC Papers, No. 1 (Nashville: Dede wallace Center, 1973b). William H., "The Self-concept and Behavior: Overview and supplement," Dede Wallace Center Monograph No. VII. (Nashville: Counselor Recordings and Tests, Bax 6184 Acklen Station, 37212) 1972c. William H., "The Self-concept and Performance," Dede Wallace Center Monograph No. V (Nashville, 1972a). William H., "The Self-concept and Human Behavior," Nashville Mental Health Center Research Bulletin No. l, 1965b. William H., "The Self-concept and Psychopathology," Dede wallace Center Monograph No. IV (1972a). William.H., "The Tennessee Self Concept Scale: Ten Years of Research in Mental Health," Mind Over Matter (Tennessee Department of Mental Healfh, Nashville, 1964) IX (4)pp 1-12. William H., "Therapist Self-concept and Client Self- concept Change,‘ DWC Papers, No. 19 (Nashville 1973f). William H., Adams, J.L., Radford, C., Richard, W.C., Thomas, M M., and Thompson, W., "The Self-concept and Self-actualization," Dede Wallace Center Manograph No. III (Nashville) 1971. William H., Arney, J., and Patton, W.0., "A Self- concept Study of Alcoholic Patients," DWC Papers No. 6 (Nashville) 1973. William H., and Bell, G.K., "An Evaluation of Group Counseling for Nursing Students," Nashville Mental Health Center Research Bulletin, No. 4, July1969. William H., and Hamner, W.T., "The Self-concept and Delinquency," Nashville Mental Health Center Monograph N01. 1 (Nashville) I969. 160 Fitts, William H., and Stewart, O.C., "Effects of Sensitivity Training Upon Teachers' Self-concepts," DWC Papers No. 2 (Nashville: Dede Wallace Center) 1973. Fitts, William H., Stewart, O.C., and wagner, M.K., "Three Studies of Self-concept Change," Nashville Mental Health Center Research Bulletin No. 6, 1969} Fitts, William.H., Strenger, Stuart, and Hamner, William.T., "Systematic Desensitization, Relaxation, Training, and the Self-concept," DWC Papgrs, No. 20 (Nashville) 1973. Flanagan, Mary T., "Clinical Effects of Intensive Short Term Group Counseling for Divorced Persons," Master's Thesis, Middle Tennessee State University, 1972. Flatley, John M., "The Relationship of Selected Characteris- tics of Physical Disability to the Self-concepts of the Physically Disabled," Diss. Pennsylvania State University (Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms, 1973, No. 73-7334) Dissertation Abstracts International, 1973, 701. 33 (IO-A) 5582. Fleck, J. Roland, "A review of the Tennessee Self-concept Scale," Paper presented at the Christian Associa- tion for Psychological Studies, Milwaukee, April, 1971. Flemister, Ida M., "The Effect on Self-concept of the Chattanooga Neighborhood Youth Corps and of Education, Vocational Aspiration, and Sex Role," Diss. University of Tennessee, 1967. Foster, Bruce W., "An Investigation of Changes in Levels of Dogmatism, Self-concept, needs for Inclusion, Affection, and Control, as a Result of Encounter Group Experiences with Selected Graduate Students," Diss. University of South Dakota (Ann Arbor, Mich- igan: University Microfilms, 1972, No.72-32,729) Dissertation Abstracts International, 1972, Vol. 33 (E-A) 2708. Foxman, Paul N., "Cognitive Controls and Personality Integra- tion," Diss. George Peabody College, 1974. Franks, Joan C., "A Study of Perceptual Characteristics of Counselors and Administrators in a Metropolitan Area," Diss. wayne State University (Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms, 1973, No.73-12,512) Dissertation Abstracts International, 1973 Vol. 33, (ll-A) 6087. 161 Garrison, Roger R., "The Measurement of Change in Self- concept and Personal Adjustment as a Result of Brief Career Development Counseling Sessions," Diss. University of North Colorado (Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms, 1973, No.73-270) Dissertation Abstracts International, 1973, Vol 33, (7-A) 3287. Gaston, Marguerite M., "Group Counseling as a Means of Changing the Self-concept of the Economically Disadvantaged," Diss. University of New Mexico (Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms, 1972, No. 72-30,755) Dissertation Abstracts International, 1972, Vol. 33 (6-A) 2709. Gedeon, Alan R., "Self-concept and Job Satisfaction," Master's Thesis, Niagara University, 1973. Golmon, Melton E., "Selected Teacher Traits Characteristic of Inquiry Science Teachers and an Analysis of the Development of These Traits in Science Methods Students," Diss. University of Iowa (Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms, 1973, No. 73-624) Dissertation Abstracts International, 1973, Vol.34 (Z-A) 616. Gottlieb, Marvin R., "Toward Changing Self-concept in the Classroom: The Effect of an Inference Excercise on the Self-perception of College Students in a Basic Course in Oral Communication," Diss. New York University (Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms, 1973, No. 73-19,427) Dissertation Abstracts International, 1973, Vol. 33 (7-A) 3454. Gowan, John C., Development of the Psychedelic Individual, (Privatély printed, J.C. Gowan, 9030 Darby Avenue, Northridge, California 91324) 1974. Graves, James M., "The Effects of a Boys' Club Program on the Self-concept and Selected Physical Attributes of Twelve and Thirteen Year Olds," Diss. Texas A & M University (Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms, 1973, No. 73-12,255) Dissertation Abstracts International, 1973, VoI. 33 II2-A) 6712. Greenberg, Gloria U., and Frank, George H., "Personality Correlates in Attitude Change: Tendency to Alter Attitudes Toward Self in Other-directed and Inner— directed People," Journal of General Psychology, 76 (1967) PP 85-9. 162 Greenspan, Barney, "Differences in Self—concept Identifica- tion by a Schizophrenic and Non-schizophrenic Prison Population," Diss. Michigan State University (Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms, 1970 No. 71-11,851). Griggs, Edith M., "Some of the Problems of the Cerebral Palsied Child as They Relate to Self, Family, Community and Society," Master's Thesis, Middle Tennessee State University, 1969. Gripka, Frank J., "The Effects of Structuring Initial Expectancies for Problem-solving in Encounter Groups," Diss. Southern Illinois University (Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms, 1973, No. 73-6208) Dissertation Abstracts International, 1973, Vol. 33 (9-B) 4506. Gross, William F., "Self-concepts of Alcoholics Before and After Treatment," Journal of Clinical Psychology,27 (1971) 4, pp 539-41. Gross, William F., and Alder, Linda 0., "Aspects of Alcoholics Self-concepts as Measured by the Tennessee Self- concept Scale," Psychological Reports, 27 (1970) 2, pp 431-34. Guidroz, Fay T., "Evaluation of Four Treatment Approaches for Drug Addiction," Diss. Louisiana State University, Agricultural and Mechanical College (Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms, 1970, No.71-6574). Hagemeier, Lee D., "Locus of Control and Self-concept: Implications for Rehabilitation and an Investiga- tion of a Method for Their Change," Diss. Universi- ty of washington, 1971. Hamby, June, "A Comparative Investigation of the Self- concepts of Behavior Cases and a Matched Control Group," Master's Thesis, University of Tennessee, 1967. Hamner, William T., "The Self-concept of Delinquents," Nashville Mental Health Center Research Bulletin No. 3, Nashville,‘1968. Hamner, William T., "The learning of Social Controls in Juvenile Antisocial Personalities," Diss. Vander- bilt University, 1969. Harp, Dorothy I., "The Relation of Teacher's Knowledge of Pupils to Their Achievement in a High School Personal Relations Unit," Master's Thesis, Oklahoma State University, 1969. 163 Harvey, Pauline M., "A Comparison of Educable Mentally Retarded Students in Two Types of Secondary School Placement," Diss. Ohio State University, (Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms, 1972, No. 72-15,219) Dissertation Abstracts International 1972, Vol. 32 (ll-A), 6248. Hart, Ross V., "The Differential Effects of Counselors Trained in Facilitative Communication of the Self-concepts, Problems and Level of Verbal Inter- action of Mississippi Delta Concentrated Program Trainees," Diss. Mississippi State University (Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms, 1973, No. 73-176) Dissertation Abstracts International, 1973, Vol. 33 (74A), 3290. Hendricks, J. Vance, "The Elimination of Self-defeating Behaviors and Their Relationship to Study Effectiveness, Self-concept and Anxiety,” Diss. Brigham Young University (Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms, 1973, No. 73-23,572) Dissertation Abstracts International, 1972, Vol.33 (6FA), 2711. Hendron, Patricia A., "A Study of Self-concept and the High School Dropout,” Master's Thesis, Westminster College, 1970. Hockey, David J., "An Investigation of the Effects of Stress- ing Goals and Activities Upon the Change of Self-concept of T-Group Participants," Diss. Boston university, School of Education (Ann Arbor, Michi- gan: University Microfilms, 1973, No. 73-23,572) Dissertation Abstracts International, 1973, Vol.34 (4-A) 1769. Holmgren, Byron R., "A Comparison of Nonintellective Factors in School Achievement Among High School Juniors of Superior Academic Ability," Diss. University of Maryland (Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Micro- films, 1972, No. 72-28,908) Dissertation Abstracts International, 1972, Vol. 33 (S-A), 2199. Jenks, Letitia C., "Change and the Individual: The Relation- ship Between the Amount of Change in the Life of a Student and His Self-concept," Diss. Oklahoma State University, 1973. Johnson, Darwin A., "The Role of Developmental Status in Counseling Effectiveness with Incarcerated Delin- quents," Diss. Southern Illinois University (Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms, 1973, No. 73-6219) Dissertation Abstracts International, 1973, Vol. 33 (9:A); 4837. 164 Joplin, Glenn H., Hamner, William T., Fitts, William H., and Wrightman, Shirley, "A Self-concept Study of Juvenile Offenders in Minnesota," DWC Papers, No.8 (Nashville: Dede Wallace Center, 1973). Junior High School Summer Program, Unpublished Report, Title 1, 1971—72, Department of Research and Development, Unified School District No. I, Racine, Wisconsin, July 1972. Karlson, Shirley M., "Health Care Problems and Coping Strategies of Epileptic Adults: Implications for Nursing Education" Diss. Indiana University (Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms, 1973, No. 73-10,775) Dissertation Abstracts International 1973, Vol. 33 (II-A), 6127. Katzman, Lawanda C., "Differential Effects of Leader versus Leaderless Groups," Diss. University of Southern California (Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Micro- films, 1973, No. 73010,775) Dissertation Abstracts International, 1973, Vol. 33 (IIAA), 6127. Kavka, Marian C., "An Analysis of Change in Self-concept As a Function of Confinement in Highland Rim Schools for Girls," Master's Thesis, Middle Tennessee State University, 1972. Keith, Charles A., "The Effect of Swimming Upon Self-concept and Selected Mator Fitness Components in Educable Mentally Retarded Children," Diss. University of Southern Mississippi (Ann Arbor, Michigan: Universi- ty Microfilms, 1973, No. 73-5569) Dissertation Abstracts International, 1973, Vol. 33 (9-A), 4917. Kelly, Brian J., "The Effects of Audiotape Suggestions on Study Habits, Self-concept, and Level of Anxiety Among College Freshmen," Diss. North Texas State University (Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Micro- films, 1973, No. 73-2912) Dissertation Abstracts International, 1973, Vol. 33 (8-A), 4090. Kelton, Dale L., "The Self-concept of Juvenile Delinquents: A Study of Maladaptives, Lasers and Integrators," Diss. University of Oklahoma, 1969. Korth, William L., ”Training in Creative Thinking: The Effect on the Individual of Training in the 'Synectics' Method of Group Problem Solving," Diss. University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (Ann Arbor, Michi- gan: University Microfilms, 1973, No. 73-4849) Dissertation Abstracts International, 1973, Vol.33 (8-B), 3947. 165 Kuntz, Albert, "An Experimental Evaluation of Short-term Group Counseling With Non-conforming Adolescents," Diss. University of North Dakota (Ann Arbor, Michi- gan: University Microfilms, 1966, No. 67-4464). Kurtz, Robert R., and Grumman, Donald L., "Different Approaches to the Measurement of Therapist Empathy and Their Relationship to Therapy Outcomes," Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 39, (1972), I, pp. 106-115. Lathrop, Robert C., "A Study of Various Characteristics of Vocational—technical Students and Community College Students," Diss. Washington State University (Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms, 1970, No. 70-5664) Dissertation Abstracts International, 1970, Vol. 30A, 4225. Lawrence, Elizabeth A., and Winschel, James F., "Self-concept and the Retarded: Research and Issues," Exceptional Children, 39 (January 1973) 4, pp. 310—19. Lee, Hee K., "New Focus Project Evaluation: Progress Report" Department of Corrections (7th and Roberts, St. Paul, Minnesota 55101) August 1973. Lee, Jackson F., "Prediction of Student Success at the North Carolina Advancement School," Diss. Duke University (Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms, 1973, No. 73-6582) Dissertation Abstracts International, 1973, Vol. 33 (9:A), 4947. Lee, Myung J., "Self-concept and Juvenile Delinquent Girls," Master's Thesis, Florida State University, 1970. Lefeber, James A., "The Delinquent's Self-concept," Diss. University of Southern California (Ann Arbor, Michi- gan: University Microfilms, 1965, No. 65—10,094). Letner, Rodney C., "The Effect of Group Counseling on the Self-concept as Measured by the Tennessee Self-concept Scale," Diss. Ball State University (Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms, 1969, No. 69-19,442). Long, Robert W., "A Study of the Relationship Between Academ- ic Achievement and Change in Self-concept in a Population of Adult High School Students," Diss. Florida State University (Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms, 1972, No. 72-3l,250) Disserta- tion Abstracts International, 1973, Vol. 34 I4-BS I728 166 Looby, Ann D., "The Relationship Between Self-concept and Sociometric Status of Institutionalized Delinquent Girls," Master's Thesis, Sacramento State College,l972. Looper, Roberta M., "Modification of Self-concept," Master's Thesis, University of Tennessee, 1970. Lossner, A. B., "The Relation of the Self-concept to Mal- adjustment in High School Students," Master's Thesis, Murray State University. Lunceford, Rondald D., "Self-concept Change of Black College. Females as a Result of a Weekend Black Experience Encounter Workshop," Diss. United States International University (Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Micro- films, 1973, No. 73-22,678) Dissertation Abstracts International, 1973, Vol. 34 (4-B), 1728. MacDoniels, Joseph W., "Factors Related to the Level of Open Expression in Small Group Laboratory Learning Exper- iences," Diss. University of Kansas (Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms, 1973, Vol. 33 (ll-A) 6488-6489. Magnussen, Christian E., "The Relationship Between Self- concept Change and Group Participation," Diss. University of North Colorado (Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms, 1973, No. 73-293) Dissertation Abstracts International, 1973, Vol. 33 (7-A), 3390. Malone, William J., "A Study of Self-concept Change in Student Teachers as Affected by Microteaching," Diss. Mississippi State University (Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms, 1973, No. 73-169) Dissertation Abstracts International, 1973, Vol. 33 (7-A5, 3390. McCahan, George R., "The relationship Between Self-concept and Marital Satisfaction," Diss. Columbia University (Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms, 1973, No. 73-15,024) Dissertation Abstracts International 1973, Vol. 34 (l-A), 173. McFern, A. R., "A Self-concept Study of Adolescents in Four Areas of Exceptionality," Diss. University of Georgia, 1973. McFern, A. R., "The Self-concept: A Cross Validation Study of Institutionalized Emotionally Disturbed Adolescents," Master's Thesis, Butler University, 1968. Mennings, Arnold J., "Selected Social Stratification Factors and the Self-concept as Contingencies in College Per- sistence and Persistence in College Program Choice," Diss. South Dakota State University. Minars, 167 Edward J., "The Effects of Individually Prescribed Instruction on Achievement, Self-concept and Study Orientation Among Engineering Students Enrolled in English Composition at Oklahoma State University," , Diss. Oklahoma State University (Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms, 1973, No. 73-15,192) Disserta- tion Abstracts International, 1973, Vol.33(l2-A5 6693. Minkevich, George, "Differences in Self-concept and Other Norton, Selected Variables Between Transfer and Occupational Students in a Comprehensive Community College," Diss. St. Louis University (Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms, 1972, No. 72-3l,473) Dissertation Abstracts International, 1973, Vol. 33 (7-A), 3300. Byron E., "Effects of Human Relations Training Upon Teachers Trainee's Level of Facilitative Communica- tion, Self-concept and Creativity," Diss. Northern Illinois University (Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms, 1973, No. 73-4173) Dissertation Abstracts International, 1973, Vol. 33 (8-A), 4094. Oaklander, Harvey, "Self-esteem; Diversity of Backgrounds, and Clarity of Communication in Engaged Couples," Diss. Michigan State University (Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms, 1973, No. 73-5460) Dissertation Abstracts International, 1973, Vol. 33 (9-B), 4523 Ostlund, L. A., "Effects of Videotape Playback of Group Guidance Sessions on the Self-concept of Adolescents," Paper presented at the meeting of American Personnel and Guidance Association Convention, New Orleans, March 1970. Page, Ronald D., "Prognosis of the Alcoholic as Indicated by Parker, the Tennessee Self-concept Scale," Master's Thesis, Purdue University, 1971. Luther A., "A Study of the Effect of Peer Counseling on the Concept of Self and Others of Ninth Grade Students at Christian Brothers High School," Diss. Memphis State University (Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms, 1973, No. 73-22,637) Dissertation Abstracts International, 1973, Vol. 34 (4-A), 1626. Passons, William R., "The Relationship of Counselor Charac- teristics and Empathic Sensitivity," Diss. Washington State University (Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms, 1969, No. 69-3762) Dissertation Abstracts International, 1969, Vol. 29A, 2968} 168 Pekarek, Robert C., "Differential perceptions held by selected publics of the fraternity system of the Florida State University," Diss. Purdue University, (Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms, 1970, No. 70-3,959) Dissertation Abstracts International 1970, Vol. 30A, 3735. Piercy, Fred and Lee, Robert, "The Effect of project CREST on 'Hard-core' Juvenile Delinquency: An Initial Study," Unpublished manuscript, University of Florida, October 1973. Porteus, James H., "A Self-concept Analysis of Heroin Addicts, Drug-free Ex-addicts, and Methadone Maintenance Patients," Diss. University of Northern Colorado (Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms, 1973, No. 73-305) Dissertation Abstracts International, Vol.33 (7-A), 3165. Purinton, Dawn E., "The Effect of Item.Familiarity on Self- concept Sorts," Diss. University of Nebraska (Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms, 1965, No. 65-8431) Dissertation Abstracts International, Vol. 26(4), 2325. Reiter, Mary J., "Effects of Postural Training on Self- concept of Selected College Women, Diss. University of Utah (Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms, 1973, No. 73-1604) Dissertation Abstracts Interna- tional, 1973, Vol. 33 (7eA), 33587 Renbarger, R. N., "An Experimental Investigation of the Relationship Between Self-esteen and Academic Achieve- ment in a Population of Disadvantaged Adults,” Diss. Michigan State University, 1969. Rentz, Robert R., and White, William.F., "Factors of Self- perception in the Tennessee Self-concept Scale," Perceptual and Mator Skills, 24 (1967) l, p. 118. Richmond, Bert 0., Mason, Robert L., and Padgett, Harry C., "Self-concept and Perception of Others," Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 12 (1972 2, pp. 103-11. Ridley, Susan D., "A Photographic Approach to Total Self- concept and Physical Self-concept Modification in Juvenile Delinquents," Master's Thesis, Middle Tennessee State University, 1972. Roark, Mandy W., "Body Image Themes in Human Figure Drawings by Female Juvenile Delinquents," Master's Thesis, Middle Tennessee State University, 1972. 169 Roberts, Donald R., "Measured Self~concept and Attitudes Toward Language Study Among Secondary English Educa- tion Undergraduates and English Teachers," Diss. University of Missouri (Ann Arbor, Michigan: Univer- sity Microfilms, 1973, No. 73-7078) Dissertation Abstracts International, 1973, Vol. 33(9-A), 4807. Robinson, Janice S., "Self-concept, Motivational Stances, and Interpersonal Relationship Styles of Heroin Addicts and Users of Other Drugs," Paper presented at meeting of the Fifty National Conference on Methadone Treatment, Washington, D.C., March 1973(a). Robinson, Janice S., "The Self-concept of Drug Abusers," DWC Papers, No. 11 (Nashville: Dede Wallace Center, Rodriguez, Alice, "The Relationship of Self-concept and Motor Ability in Certain Selected Negro and Caucasian Tenth Grade Girls," Diss. University of Alabama (Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms, 1973, No. 73-8011) Dissertation Abstracts International 1973, Vol. 33(9FA), 4923. Rohr, Michael E., "An Exploratory Study of Two Measures and Two Correlates of Accurate Empathy," Diss.University of Tennessee (Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Micro- films, 1970, No. 70-7600) Dissertation Abstracts International, 1970, Vol. 30A, 4783. Safran, John S., "A Comparison of the Personal Preferences and Self-concept of Empathetic and Non-empathetic Counselor Education Students," Diss. Wayne State University (Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms, 1973, No. 73-12,589) Dissertation Abstracts Interna- tional, 1973, Vol. 33(ll-A), 6099. Sagers, Paul S., "A Comparison of Personality Traits of Siblings of Mentally Retarded Institutionalized Person, Siblings of Mentally Retarded Persons, and Persons With a Retarded Sibling," Diss. Brigham Young University, 1973. Schalon, Charles L., "Performance Following Failure, Stress As a Function of Level of Self-esteem," Diss. Univer- sity of Iowa (Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Micro- films, 1967, No. 67-2673) Dissertation Abstracts International, 1967, Vol. 27B, 3296. Self, Patricia A., "Self-concept, Attitudes, and Values of WOmen Honor Students," Diss. University of Texas at El Paso, 1973. 170 Sherin, Carolyn R., ”Some Relationships Among Popularity, Friendship Choice and Personality Variables,” Diss. University of Miami (Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms, 1966, No. 66-12,868) Dissertatibn Abstracts International, 1966, Vol. 27(A), 1931. Shirley, Howard R. "A Comparison of the Effects of Short Term Secular and Religious Oriented Counseling on" the Self- -concepts and Values of College Students, Diss. University of South Dakota (Ann Arbor, Michi- gan: University Microfilms, 1972, No. 72-32,721) Dissertation Abstracts International, 1972, Vol. 33 (6-A), 27237 Shofer, Lois'M., "The Relationship Between College Course work in Sex Education, Students' Reasons for Enroll- ing in the Course, Students' Reaction to Course Components and Changes in Their Self-concept," Diss. University of Maryland (Ann Arbor, Michigan: univer- sity Microfilms, 1973, No. 73- 17, 051) Dissertation Abstracts International, 1973, Vol. 34 , Shreve, Elbert E., "A Critical Analysis and Evaluation of Evidence Regarding the Reliability and Validity of Four Selected Measures of Self-concept," Diss. University of Southern California (Ann Arbor, Michi- gan: University Microfilms, 1973, No. 73-18,84l) Dgssgrtgggon Abstracts International, 1973, Vol. 34 -A , . Soffen, F., "Teaching for Improvement of Self-concept," Diss. Temple University (Ann Arbor, Michigan: Uni- versity Microfilms, 1968, No. 68-14). Spinks, Nellie J., "The Effects of Male and Female Models in Vicarious Therapy Pretraining on the Chance in Self- concept of Institutionalized Female Juvenile Delin- quents in Group Counseling," Diss. Florida State University (Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms 1969, No. 70-11). Spurlock, T., Lindauer, L., and Ritzel, G., "A Correlational Study Between Self-concept and Driver Performance in Post Driven Education Male and Female Students in Selected Southern Illinois High Schools," Research Project No. 02-01-24, Safety Center, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, Illinois, 1972. Stein, Rita F., Family Problems and Disturbed Youth (Albany: State University of New Yofk Press, 1971). 171 Strassberg, Donald S., and Robinson, Janice S., "The Rela- tionship Between Locus of Control and Other Personality Measures in Drug Users," Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 1974. Suinn, Richard M., "Review of TSCS," The Seventh Mental Measurements Yearbook,ed. Oscar K. Buros (Highland Park, New Jersey: Gryphon Press, 1972) I, pp. 367-69. Swanson, Doris D., "The Effects of Behavioral Group Counsel- ing on the Self-concept of Pregnant Negro Teenagers Using Male and Female Co-counselors," Diss. State University of New York at Buffalo (Ann Arbor, Michi- gan: University Microfilms, 1972, No. 72-27,273) Dissertation Abstracts International, 1973, Vol. 37 (7-A), 3312. Swihart, P. J., Deleon, P. H., and Swensen, C. H., "Life History and Personality Correlates of Dominant Submissive Behavior," Perceptual and Motor Skills, 28 (l969)2, pp. 491-98. Taub, Marvin J., "An Investigation of the Relationship Between Parent and Child Self-concept Measures," Diss. University of Maryland (Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms, 1973, No. 73-13,639) Disserta- tion Abstracts International, 1973, Vol.33(12-A),6742. Thompson, Warren, "Correlates of the Self-concept," Dede wallace Center Manograph No. VI (Nashville: Counselor Recordings and Tests, 1972). Tillerson, Charles W., "Effects of a Learning Center Method Versus Lecture Method of Teaching as Related to Achievement, Self-concept and Attitude of College Freshmen," Diss. North Texas State University (Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms, 1973, No.73-12 930) Dissertation Abstracts International, 1973, Vol.33(1l-A), 6142. Toew, Wilma F., "Self-esteem, Perception of Parental Control and Hostility of Adolescents," Diss. Brigham Young University (Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Micro- films, 1966, No. 66-10,519). Travis, Vivian K., "The Effect of Irrelevant Response Deter- ‘miners on Delinquent Male Responses to the Tennessee Self-concept Scale," Diss. Oklahoma State University (Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms, 1973, No. 73-15, 264) Dissertation Abstracts International, 1973, Vol. 33(12-B), 6068. 172 Vanderpool, James A., "Alcoholism.and the Self-concept" Quarterly Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 30 (1969) 1, pp. 59-77. Varelas, James T., "Effects of the Human Potential Seminar wagner, on the Self-concept Academic Achievement and Social Adjustment of Community College Freshmen," Diss. State University of New York at Albany (Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms, 1973, No. 73-24,38l) Dissertation Abstracts International, 1973, Vol. 34 (4-A), 1631. Mervyn K., and Fitts, William H., "Success-Failure Motivation and the Self-concept," DWC Pa ers, No. 5 (Nashville: Dede Wallace Center, 19735). Wallston, Barbara S., Blanton, Richard L., Robinson, Janice, waters, Wearne, and Pollchik, Linda L., "Community Human Resources Development in the Rehabilitation of the Handicapped" Final Report, September 1972, Outlook Nashville, Inc. David B., "Differential Self-concept of Incarcerated Delinquents, Incipient Delinquents, and Non-delin- quent Males," Master's Thesis, Emory University, 1969. Thomas D., "Outcome in Individual and Group Counsel- ing with Ninth Grade Girls," Diss. Wayne State University, 1972. West, Adele A., "Relationships Between Change in Self-concept in Marital Dyads, and Change in Sexual Behavior,” Diss. American University, 1973. Wetmore, Reagh C., "The Influence of Outward Bound School Experience on the Self-concept of Adolescent Boys," Diss. Boston University (Ann Arbor, Michigan: Univer- sity Microfilms, 1972, No. 72-25, 475). Wetzel, Rob L., "Psychological Characteristics of Sensitivity Training Volunteers, Individual Counseling Client Volunteers, and Non-volunteers," Diss. University of Washington, 1973. White, Kinnard, and Howard, James L., ”Failure to Be Promoted and Self-concept Among Elementary School Children," Elementary School Guidance and Counseling, 7 (1973) 3. PP. 182-7. Whiteside, Marilyn, "Age and Sex Differences in Self-percep- tion as Related to an Ideal Other," Diss. University of Oregon, 1973. 173 Wildblood, Robert W., "The Relationship Between Structured Encounter Group Experience and Reported Self-concept in Female College Students," Diss. Purdue University (Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms, 1973, No. 73-15, 890) Dissertation Abstracts International 1973, Vol. 34(1-A), 143. Williams, Eugene, "Job Satisfaction and Self-concept as Perceived by Black Female Paraprofessional Trainees," Diss. University of Miami, Florida (Ann Arbor, Michi- gan: University Microfilms, 1973, No. 73-31, 920) Dissertation Abstracts International, 1973, Vol. 33 (lO-A),54SST Williams, Jerry Kn, "Multivariate Analysis of Personological and Psychological Variables Associated With Cognitive Performance Among Counseling Trainees," Diss. Univer- sity of New Mexico (Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms, 1972, No. 72-30, 766) Dissertation Abstracts International, 1972, Vol. 33(6-A), 2726. Williams, Robert L., and Cole, Spurgeon, "Self-concept and School Adjustment," Personnel and Guidance Journal January 1968, pp. 478-81. Willingham; Mary E., "The Relationship Between Self-concept, Self-disclosure, and Peer Selection," Diss. George washington University (Ann Arbor, Michigan: Universi- ty Microfilms, 1972, No. 72-7604). Wilson, John A., "Self-concept and Performance in Student Teaching," Research in Education, 8 (1973) 9, ED 076 591, SP 006 542. Wilson, John A., Liles, Sara Jo, and Fitts, William H., "Self-concept Change During Four Years of College," DWC Papers, No. 9 (Nashville: Dede Wallace Center, 1973). Wintner, Y., and Zilberwaser, C., "The Self-image Test for Assessment of the Influence of Physiological Reha- bilitation in Heart Patients," Harefuah (Israeli Medical Journal), 84 (1973) PP. 431-33. Wrightsman, L. 8., Richard, W. C., and Nobel, F., C., "Attitude Changes of Guidance Institute Participants" Counselor Education and Supervision, 5 (l966)4, pp. 212:20. Youth Tutoring Youth Evaluation, Unpublished Report, Title I Department of ResearCh and Development, Unified School District No. 1, Racine, Wisconcin, July 1972. 174 Zakrajsek, Dorothy, "The Relationships Between Self-concept, Mator Ability and Peer Evaluation for Junior High School Girls," Master's Thesis, Michigan State University, 1966. Zipper, Barry 0., "The Personality and Self-concept Charac- teristics of Negro and White Delinquent and Non- delinquent Boys," Diss. University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms, 1973, No. 73-16, 537) Dissertation Abstracts International, 1973, Vol. 34(1-B), 431. Zongker, Calvin E., "The Effect of Selected Group Counseling Approaches on the Self-concept of Student Teachers,” Diss. Texas Tech University (Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms, 1973, No. 73-23, 782) Disser- tation Abstracts International, 1973, Vol. 34(4-A) 1763. APPENDIX D SELF-REPORT DELINQUENCY SCALE Seriousness Weight 1 1 NNNI—‘H APPENDIX D Self-report Delinquency Scale Item Skipped class when you were in school. Stayed out later than your parents said you should. Gone into someone's land when he didn't want you there, or you didn't have permission. Gone into a house or building when you were not supposed to be there. Taken something that doesn't belong to you. Threatened to hurt someone. Gotten something by telling a person something bad would happen to him or her if you did not get what you wanted. Done something your parents told you not to do Done something in a class so that other kids couldn't do their work. Been told to bring your parent to school for something you did wrong. Damaged or messed up something not belonging to you. Hurt someone badly enough for him to need bandages or a doctor. Argued or fought with your mother. Told your parents a lie. Taken some part of a car or some gasoline. Hit your father. Taken something not belonging to you worth between $2 and $50. 175 Seriousness Weight 1 t-‘t-‘t-‘t—‘UJH N 176 Item Not been allowed to go to school until the superintendent or principal or someone like that told you you could go again. Gotten something by lying about who you were. Gotten something by lying to a person about what you would do for him or her. Taken something not belonging to you worth less than $2. Smoked marijuana or taken pills. Gotten something by lying about your age. Drunk beer or liquor. Run away from home. Skipped a day of school without a real excuse. Been sent to the school principal's office for bad behavior in class. Bought or sold drugs. Carried a gun or knife. Taken something not belonging to you worth over $50. Taken part in a fight in which a bunch of your friends was against another bunch of kids. Not done something your parents said you were supposed to do. Argued or had a fight with the teacher. Set fire to someone else's property. Used or threatened to use a weapon to get something from a person Broken windows of a school. Seriousness Weight 2 177 Item Taken something from a store without paying for it. Argued or fought with your father. Smoked without your parents' knowing it or without their permission. Made so much noise that people were angry. Hit your mother. Taken a car without permission of the owner (even if you returned it). Carved or marked up school desks or woodwork, etc . Gone all the way with a boy. Gone all the way with a girl. was elected to the Honor Society at school. Helped a friend with school work. Helped the teacher run errands. Got special praise for a school project. was nominated for student council. Got straight A's last year. was captain of a sports team. APPENDIX E J ESNESS INVENTORY APPENDEX E THE JESNESS INVENTORY by Carl F. Jesness. PILD. This booklet contains 155 statements. Read each one. If you agree with the statement, mark True (T). If not, mark False (F). Make all the marks on the separate answer sheet: do not make marks on this booklet. There are no right or wrong answers. It is only how you feel about the statement that is important. Mark either the T or the F for each number, even though you may not al- ways feel perfectly sure about the statement. CONSULTING PSYCHOLOGIS‘I’S PRESS 577 COLLEGE AVENUE, PALO ALTO, CALIFORNIA ©Copyrig/zt, 1962, by Carl lunar. All rigbt: reserved. Tbi: booklet may not be reproduced by any proten wit/tout written authorization of the Publixber. 178 10. ll. 12. 130 14. 15. l6; 17. 18. 19. 20. 2 1. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. . When you’re in trouble, it's best to keep quiet about it. . It makes me nervous to sit still very long. . I get into a lot of fights. . I worry too much about doing the right things. . I always like to hang around with the same bunch of friends. . IamsmarterthanmosthoysIknow. . It makes me mad that some crooks get ofl free. My feelings get hurt easily when I am scolded or criticized. . Most police will try to help you. Sometimes I feel like I want to beat up on somebody. When somebody orders me to do something I usually feel like doing just the opposite. Most people will cheat a little in order to make some money. A person never knows when he will get mad, or have trouble. If the police don’t like you, they will try to get you for anything. A person is better 08 if he doesn’t trust people. Sometimes I wish I could quit school. Sometimes I feel like I don’t really have a home. People always seem to favor a certain boy or girl ahead of the others. I never lie. Most police are pretty dumb. I worry about what other people think of me. A person like me fights first and asks questions later. I have very strange and funny thoughts in my mind. It’s hard to have fun unless you’re with your buddies. I get nervous when I ask someone to do me a favor. If I could, I'd just as scan quit school right now. Sometimes it’s fun to steal something. I notice my heart beats very fast when people keep asking me questions. When I get really mad, I’ll do just about anything. Women seem more friendly and happy than men. 1 79 31. 32. 33. 37. 38. U 41. 42. 43. 45. . My father is too busy to worry much about me, or 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57. It is easy for me to talk to strangers. Police stick their noses into a lot of things that are none of their business. A lot of fathers don't seem to care if they hurt your feelings. . I am secretly afraid of a lot of things. 35. . Others seem to do things easier than I can. I hardly ever get a fair break. I seem to "blow up" a lot over little things that really don’t matter very much. Only a baby cries when he is hurt. . Most adults are really very nice. . Winning a fight is about the best fun there is. A lot of strange things happen to me. I have all the friends I need. I get a kick out of getting some people angry and all shook up. . Nowadays they make it a big crime to get into a little mischief. It would be fun to work in a carnival or playland. spend much time with me. Sometimes I feel dizzy for no reason. Sometimes people treat grown boys and girls like they were babies. It makes me feel bad to be bawled out or criticized. When things go wrong, there isn’t much you can do about it. If someone in your family gets into trouble it’s better for you to stick together than to tell the police. I can’t seem to keep my mind on anything. It always seems like something bad happens when I try to be good. Most men are bossy and mean. I don't care if people like me or not. It seems like wherever I am I’d rather be somewhere else. Once in a while I get angry. 58. 59. 61. 62. 63. 71. 72. 73. 74. 75. 76. 77. 78. 79. . When I’m alone I hear strange things. 81. 82. 83. 85. I think that someone who is fourteen years old is old enough to smoke. Most parents seem to be too strict. . If somebody does something mean to me, I try to get back at them. You can hardly ever believe what parents tell you. I have a real mean streak in me. I don’t think I will ever be a success or amount to much. . Police usually treat you dirty. . Most of the time I can’t seem to find anything to do. It’s hard for me to show people how I feel about them. . I often feel lonesome and sad. . I don’t mind it when I’m teased and made fun of. . Nothing much ever happens. . A lot of times I do things that my folks tell me I shouldn’t do. It’s fun to get the police to chase you. A lot of people say bad things about me behind my back. I wish I wasn’t so shy and bashful. It seems like people keep expecting me to get into some kind of trouble. I like everyone I know. Other people are happier than I am. If I could only have a car at home, things would be all right. I really don't have very many problems to worry about. Being called a sissy is about the worst thing I know. If a bunch of you are in trouble, you should stick together on a story. I have a lot of headaches. Teachers always have favorites who can get away with anything. . Every day is full of things that keep me interested. I would rather be alone than with others. 180 87. 8 91. 92. 93. 97. 100. 101. 102. 103. 104. 105. 106. 107. 108. 109. 110. 111. 112. 113. . I can't seem to take much kidding or teasing. I don’t seem to care enough about what happens to me. . I never get mad at anybody. . I keep wishing something exciting would happen. . Policemen and judges will tell you one thing and do another. It is hard for me to talk to my parents about my troubles. I am liked by everybody who knows me. It seems easier for me to act bad than to show my good feelings. . Too many people like to act big and tough. 95. . It takes someone pretty smart to get ahead of me. I am always nice to everyone. Talking over your troubles with an older person seems like “kid stufi.” . It doesn’t seem wrong to steal from crooked store OWI'ICI'S. . I would never back down from a fight. I have a lot of bad things on my mind that people don't know about. I will do a lot of crazy things if somebody dares me. Having to talk in front of the class makes me afraid. Parents are always nagging and picking on young people. Some day I would like to drive a race car. I sit and daydream more than I should. I feel sick to my stomach every once in a while. At home I am punished too much for things I don't do. My life at home is always happy. At night when I have nothing to do I like to go out and find a little excitement. A lot of women seem bossy and mean. Nobody seems to understand me or how I feel. Most people get into trouble because of bad luck. I am always kind. 114. 115. 116. 117. 118. 119. 120. 121. 122. 123. 124. 125. 126. 127. 128. 129. 130. 131. 132. 133. Talking with my parents is just as easy as talking with others my own age. Sometimes I don't like school. If you want to get ahead, you can’t worry too much about the other guy. At times I feel like blowing up over little things. I don’t mind lying if I’m in trouble. A boy who won’t fight is just no good. To get along all right nowadays, a person has to be pretty tough. I worry most of the time. If you’re not in with the gang, you may be in for some real trouble. I really think I’m better looking than most others my age. My mind is full of bad thoughts. When you’re in trouble, nobody much cares to help you. Sometimes when my folks tell me not to do something, I go ahead and do it anyway. It’s best not to think about your problems. I hardly ever feel excited or thrilled. When something bad happens, I almost always blame myself instead of the other person. The people who run things are usually against me. I have too much trouble making up my mind. Most people who act so perfect are just putting on a big front. When luck is against you, there isn’t much you can do about it. 181 134. 135. l 36. 137. 1 38. 1 39. 140. 141. 142. 143. 144. 145. 146. 147. 148. 149. 150. 151. 152. 153. 154. 155. I get tired easily. I think my mother should be striCter than she is about a lot of things. I like to read and study. I feel alone even when there are other people around me. I'm good at out-smarting others. I always hate it when I have to ask someone for a favor. I often have trouble getting my breath. I worry about how well I’m doing in school. For my size, I’m really pretty tough. People hardly ever give me a fair chance. I like to daydream more than anything else. The only way to really settle anything is to fight it out. I am nervous. ' Stealing isn’t so bad if it’s from a rich person. My parents seem to think I might end up being a bum. Things don't seem real to me. I am afraid of the dark. Families argue too much. Sometimes it seems like I'd rather get into trouble, instead of trying to stay away from it. I think there is something wrong with my mind. I get angry very quickly. When I get into trouble, it’s usually my own fault. APPENDIX F STEPS INVOLVED IN PROCESSING CLIENTS TO THE BERRIEN COUNTY YOUTH SERVICE BUREAU APPENDIX F Steps Involved in Processing Clients to the Berrien County Youth Service Bureau Delinquent act occurs in Berrien County. Investigation made by local police or school administra- tor. Investigator decides to refer youth to Youth Service and Assistance Bureau. Proper referral forms are completed by investigator for schools or police. Referral forms together with related records on youth are filed with the Youth Service and Assistance Bureau. NOTE: Steps 1-5 take an indeterminate length of time, depending on referral source (Usually within 1-2 weeks time) Referral form (in triplicate) reaches the desk of the intake secretary, who stamps the data received on each of the copies of the referral. Intake secretary will first check whether or not the youth is previously known to the Bureau or to the Juvenile Court. The matter is then given to the intake counselor for review. Upon reviewing available information the intake counselor reviews referral forms, and if necessary, additional information will be obtained from the investigator or other sources. 182 183 10. The intake counselor then makes an initial decision: 11. 12. a. to reject referral because it is out of territorial jurisdiction, or over seventeen years of age (this decision may be reviewed by the Director), b. to return referral to original referral source (with the exception of Juvenile Court) because of a refusal of the client to cooperate with the Youth Service and Assistance Bureau, where there is no action necessary at the present time, or the referral is inappropriate for the Youth Services and Assistance Bureau, c. to accept referral for service. Two copies of the referral form together with intake counselor's initial decision goes back to intake secre- tary. The third copy will be filed in the Youth Service and Assistance Bureau's data bank so that the information ‘will be available in the event that a subsequent referral is received involving that youth. Intake secretary completes juvenile information exchange service cards, set up file folders with one c0py of the referral form, and returns the final copy of the re- ferral form to referral agency (with intake counselor's decision and comments). 13. If the decision is made to accept a referral: a. the intake counselor assigns the file to a youth counselor (or keeps it himself) for further screening, 184 b. the counselor makes an attempt to directly contact the youth or his or her parents and asks for an appointment with them at their home or in the office if the client prefers. 14. A letter is sent to the youth and his parents indicating 15. that a referral has been received and that an appoint- ment time has been reserved. A brief description of the Bureau's function is included in the letter and the parents are urged to call if they have any questions whatsoever about what is happening. NOTE: Steps 6-14 should be accomplished the same day if the referral is received by Youth Service and Assistance Bureau in the a.m. The youth counselor, or intake counselor, conduct the initial screening interview with the youth and his or her parents. 16. During this interview: a. the family is told that their participation is voluntary and that they have a right to decline Bureau's service, b. they are further advised that if they do not wish to cooperate with the Bureau, the matter will be returned to the police or school for whatever other action the referring agency may wish to take. 185 17. At the conclusion of this interview: a. the counselor may decide to dismiss the matter without further action if he is satisfied that the parents have or will be able to handle the situation without further Youth Service and Assistance Bureau assistance (this decision must be reviewed by the Director), b. if the decision is made to proceed further with the case, the parents are asked to sign information releases so that information may be secured from the school or any other agency with whom they may have had contact. The counselor then continues with a more or less standard social investigation. 18. A 'written summary of the interview and investigation is 19. then prepared by the youth counselor for the matter to be reviewed by him or her with a Director during their scheduled conference. NOTE: Steps 15-18 should take no longer than one hour and thirty minutes in duration, and should occur no later than four days after receipt of the referral. If decision is made for direct counseling by the youth counselor, weekly or bi-weekly counseling sessions will be conducted. Target goals and target dates will be set. The worker may involve various psychological, counseling and social work theories and techniques, and 20. 21. 22. 23. 186 may involve parents, family, and teachers in addition to the youth. Mbnthly evaluations and progress reviews will be conduc- ted by the counselor and Director. The Director will determine to terminate the services: a. ‘when target goals are attained, b. when maximum.benefits have accrued, c. when continuation of services will serve no further useful purpose, d. when it appears in the best interest of the youth to refer to a more appropriate agency, case-study committee, or match with a volunteer. NOTE: Steps 6-21 should take no longer than sixty to seventy-five days of direct counseling service. Upon termination of active service, a follow-up progress report is submitted to the Director by the counselor. This report should be done thirty days after termination date. Cases filed on all Youth Service and Assistance Bureau youth will be destroyed upon the youth reaching his or her seventeenth birth date. 187 MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF SOCIAL SCIENCE - SCHOOL OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE EAST LANSING ' MICHIGAN ' 48824 CRIMINAL JUSTICE SYSTEMS CENTER BAKER HALL - (517) 353.8603 Re: Youth’Service Bureau Case File No. This letter is to inform you that the Berrien County Youth Service and Assistance Bureau has received the referr- al of the above named youth. I would also like to take this time to announce that the Michigan Office of Criminal Justice Programs (OCJP) has contracted with the School of Criminal Justice, Michigan State University, to evaluate Youth Service Bureau projects throughout the State of Michigan. The Berrien County Youth Service and Assistance Bureau has been included in this federally supported research evaluation. The purpose of this evaluation is to assist OCJP and Youth Service Bureau staff to improve services to youth. In order to effectively carry out this project, we need to collect information on the experiences young people have during their relationships with the Michigan Juvenile Justice System, the Youth Service Bureau, and allied public and private social agencies. We request your cooperation and acknowledgement that the aforenamed youth will be temporarily delayed Youth Service Bureau service activities. This delay will greatly assist our efforts to explore the cross sectional differ- ences between youth of varied ages, previous juvenile justice system involvement and the seriousness of any family, school, and peer interrelationships, problems, etc. Only a small number of youth will have services delayed. The temp- orary delay will range from one week to perhaps two months, however, cases of extreme emergency will be given appropriate attentibn. All youth who participate with this aspect of the evaluation do so completely on a voluntary basis with parent- al or guardian endorsement. Youth will be selected for participation by a lottery system as they are referred to the Bureau. Each youth will receive two interviews from the MSU Research Staff. The in- terviews will last approximately 4-6 hours combined and will provide an overall needs assessment of the youth's family, school and interpersonal relationships. 188 The information generated through this study will be kept completely confidential. Only the Michigan State University Research Staff will see records on individuals. No Juvenile Justice System official will see our individual interview results. Enclosed is a brief description of other Youth Service Bureau related research activities being conducted under contract with OCJP. Again, your cooperation is highly appreciated by the State of Michigan, Office of Criminal Justice Programs, and Michigan State University. If you require more details or have any questions pertaining to the Youth Service Bureau evaluation, please contact Mr. Ronald Quincy, Project Field Director at (517) 353-8603. Sincerely, Ralph G. Lewis, Ed.d Research Director Criminal Justice Systems Center RGL/jb Enclosure 189 Youth Participant Consent FOrm I have completely read the attached letter and agree to participate in the State Office of Criminal Justice Programs, Michigan State University, School of Criminal Justice research study. I also agree to grant the MSU Research Team permission to review my court, police and school records. (signature ofparticipant) (Date) I have completely read the attached letter and am will- ing to permit my son/daughter/ward to be included in the State Office of Criminal Justice Programs, Michigan State University, School of Criminal Justice research study. I also agree to grant the MSU Research Team permission to review the court, police and school records of my son/daughter/ward. (signature ofparent) (Date) (witnessed by) (Date) 190 MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF SOCIAL SCIENCE - SCHOOL OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE EAST LANSING ' MICHIGAN ' 48824 CRIMINAL JUSTICE SYSTEMS CENTER BAKER HALL ' (517) 353-8603 Dear Youth and Parent: The Michigan Office of Criminal Justice Program (OCJP) has contracted with the School of Criminal Justice, Michigan State University to evaluate Youth Service Bureau projects throughout the State. The County Youth Service Bureau project has been includedfin this federally supported re- search evaluation. The purpose of this evaluation is to assist OCJP and Youth Service Bureau staff to improve services to youth. In order to effectively carry out this project, we need to collect information on the experiences young people have during their relationships with the Michigan Juvenile Justice System, the Youth Service Bureau, and allied public and pri- vate social agencies. We request you and your parent to permit us to include you in this study. In most cases, this means permitting out research staff to look at court, police, school and other records about you, or to interview you concerning your in- volvement with the Juvenile Justice System.and your experiences with the Youth Service Bureau. If you are selected for interviewing, your participation in the study will require only two two-hour interview sessions. The information generated through this study will be kept completely confidential. Only the Michigan State University research staff will see records on individuals. No Juvenile Justice System official will see our individual interview results. 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